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Wei Chuxuan: /* The General Situation of Translation in the Contemporary Age */

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=Western Translation History in the Modern and Contemporary Ages=
'''现当代西方翻译史'''

魏楚璇，Wei Chuxuan, Hunan Normal University, China

==Abstract==
Under different historical backgrounds, western translation presents different characteristics. In the 20th century before the end of the Second World War, the two world wars inevitably brought obstacles and disturbances to the development of translation. Therefore, though translation in this period still continued to develop, it did not get breakthrough. Translation was still dominated by literary works in content, totally relying on manual labor. In translation theory, it emphasized the creativity of translation and laid a foundation for the linguistic turn of translation studies. After the end of World War II, the world entered an era of relative peace, the world economy recovered, and the translation industry was greatly revitalized. During this period, the scale of translation covered all aspects of social life, machine translation developed fast, translation training flourished, translation organizations were established in various countries and many translation theories and schools emerged. That is to say, this period can be called the golden age of translation.

==Keywords==
Western translation; translation history; modern; contemporary

==摘要==
在不同的历史背景下，西方翻译呈现出不同的特点。在二战结束之前的二十世纪，两次世界大战不可避免地为翻译事业的发展带来了阻碍和干扰，因而这一时期的翻译虽然仍在发展但并未取得突破性的成就，在翻译的内容上仍然以文学作品为主，技术上完全依赖人工，理论方面注重翻译的创造性且为翻译研究的语言学转向奠定了基础。二战结束后，世界进入到相对和平的年代，世界经济复苏，翻译事业也大为振兴。在这一时期，翻译的内容覆盖社会生活的方方面面，机器翻译发展迅速，翻译培训兴起，翻译组织在各国成立，各种翻译理论和翻译流派涌现，可谓是翻译的黄金年代。

==关键词==
西方翻译；翻译史；现代；当代

==Introduction==
In this paper, western translation history in modern and contemporary ages will be introduced. Here the modern age refers to the nearly half century before the Second World War. And the contemporary age refers to the half century after the Second World War. That is to say, the modern and contemporary translation in this paper refers to the translation in the 20th century. Under the influence of different historical backgrounds, translation in these two ages showed different characteristics and traits which will be concluded and discussed in detail in the following.

==The General Situation of Western Translation in the Modern Age==
Into the 20th century, the capitalism in the developed countries developed into imperialism. On the one hand, the imperialist countries intensified their foreign expansion to oppress and exploit the weak countries and people in colony. On the other hand, they were engaged in a fierce battle among themselves for international markets and spheres of influence. Thus, in less than half a century, two world wars broke out. Under this historical background, translation in western countries will inevitably be seriously disturbed and destroyed. However, translation in western countries continued to develop and excellent translations still appeared from time to time. The translation of this period also has its own traits. The general situation of translation in this period can be summarized from the following two aspects.

===The emphasis of translation was on Russian and Nordic works and more Chinese works were translated.===
From the end of the 19th century to the beginning of the 20th century, the literature of Russia and the Nordic countries developed greatly with the emergence of Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoyevsky, Leo Tolstoy, Chekhov, Andersen, Ibsen, Strindberg and other world-renowned great writers and dramatists. Their works had attracted the attention of the people in Western Europe and North America so they were competing to learn Russian, Danish and Swedish and had these works translated into English, German and French. In the process of translation, many excellent translators emerged in various countries.
====Translation of Russian literature====
According to the research of Tan Zaixi, Constance Garnet is the most famous female translator in Britain in this century. She translated almost all classic Russian novels and is widely regarded as the most important Translator of translating Russian literature into English. She published her first translation of Turgenev's novel Ru-Din in 1894. In the following decades, she devoted almost all her energy and time to the translation of Russian literature. She was the first person to translate Turgenev, Dostoyevsky and Chekhov into English, successively translating all the major works of Turgenev, Goncharov, Dostoyevsky, Tolstoy, Gogol and Chekhov including 12 volumes of Dostoyevsky's Selected Works translated from 1912 to 1920, 15 volumes of Turgenev's Selected Works translated from 1894 to 1899, 15 volumes of Chekhov's Novels and Plays translated from 1916 to 1922, and 6 volumes of Gogol’s Selected Works translated from 1922 to 1928. In particular, her translations of Turgenev, Chekhov, Dostoyevsky and other works were widely welcomed by the English reading community, and thus gave rise to the Russian literature craze in English literature before the First World War. She translated 70 Russian works in her lifetime, making her the most prolific translator of Russian works.
Two other translators who did not translate as much from Russian to English as Garnett, but who had no less influence, were the couple——Louise and Aylmer Maude. They are famous in western modern literary circles for their research and translation of Tolstoy's works. From 1928 to 1937, they spent nearly ten years translating and publishing 21 volumes of The Complete Works of Tolstoy. Later, from 1940s to 1950s, they supplemented or retranslated some of Tolstoy's works, such as What I Believe and Resurrection. In 1952, their work of War and Peace was accepted as a standard English translation and was selected for the prestigious Great Books of the Western World, thus establishing them as the authoritative English translators of Tolstoy. In addition, R. S. Townsend, R. Edmonds, Samuel Koteliansky, Ethel C. Mayne, Boris Brasol, Richard Renfield and so on were famous for translating the works of Tolstoy, Dostoevsky, Turgenev, Chekhov, Goncharov into English.（Tan，2004:148-150）

====Translation of Nordic literature and drama====
In the first half of the 20th century, in addition to Russian literature, western European translators showed great interest in Nordic literature and drama, including the works of Andersen, Ibsen and Strindberg.

According to the study of Tan Zaixi, when Hans Christian Andersen was alive, one of his works was published simultaneously in 15 languages, including English, German, French, Italian, Spanish and almost all the major languages of Western Europe. Later, all of his works were translated into different languages, and there were many re-translations in English, French, German and other countries. The first English translator was Mary Howitt, who began translating Andersen’s fairy tales in 1846. Later translators include Charles Boner, Caroline Peachey, Lady Duff Gordon, Paul Leyssac, R. R. Keigwin and R. Spink. Some of the best translations are Leyssac’s translation in 1937, Keigwin’s translation from 1950 to 1960 and Spink’s translation.(Tan，2004:151)

The main English translators of Ibsen’s plays are William Archer and James MacFarlane. Archer translated 12 volumes of The Collected Works of H. I. from 1906 to 1912, including almost all of Ibsen’s plays and some of his previously unpublished papers. Macfarlane compiled translated eight volumes of The Oxford Ibsen from 1960 to 1977. In addition, F. E. Garrett translated Lyrics and Poems from Ibsen in 1912. Mary Morison translated The Correspondence of H.I. in 1905. Evert Sprinchorn translated H. I. Letters and Speeches in 1964. (Tan，2004:151)

In Germany, the standard German translation is the 10-volume The Collected Plays of Ibsen edited and published by G. Brandes, J. Elias, and P. Schlenther from 1898 to 1902. The standard French translation is The Complete Works of Ibsen in 16 volumes translated and published by P. G. La Chesnais from 1914 to 1945.(Tan，2004:151)

Strindberg’s work was translated into English as early as 1912. For the next fifty or sixty years, many people worked on Strindberg’s studies and translations. Major English translators included E. Schleussner, Walter Johnson, M. Sandbach, Elizabeth Sprigge and Michael Meyer. Some good works are Sprigge’s translations of Strinberg’s Plays in 1963 and Meyer’s translations of The Father, Miss Julie, Storm and so on in 1964. In other major western European countries such as Germany and France, Strindberg’s plays were also translated into German and French, and repeatedly staged in Berlin and Paris. (Tan，2004:152)

There is no doubt that the translation of modern and contemporary Russian and Nordic literature and drama was a mainstream of western translation in the first half of the century. However, at the same time, it must be pointed out that the mutual translation of modern and contemporary literary works in western European countries still enjoys considerable momentum.

====More and more Chinese works were translated.====
In the 20th century, more and more people in the West became interested in Chinese culture. Since the 1950s, with the improvement of new China’s international prestige, the fever of translating Chinese works had been constantly appearing in the West. Not only the Four Books, Five Classics, Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Water Margin, Journey to the West, A Dream of Red Mansions and the poems of Li Bai, Du Fu and Bai Juyi were translated into English, German and French, but modern writers such as Luxun, Maodun and Bajin were also introduced to western countries. In the process of translating and introducing Chinese works, excellent translators have emerged from every country.

According to the study of Tan Zaixi, Arthur Waley, the most eminent Sinologist in Britain in the 20th century, was a translator, writer and poet. In 1916, his first translation of Chinese Poems was published. In 1918, he published his second translated work One Hundred Seventy Chinese Poems. These two translations are both from Tang poems. In addition, he also translated part of Journey to the West in 1942, published four other Chinese-English translations, and wrote three books about China or Chinese writers. Another outstanding Sinologist and translator in the 20th century was Franz Kuhn of Germany. From 1919, when his first translation was published, to his death in 1961, he translated and published more than 40 classical and modern Chinese literary works, including 12 novels and 34 short stories. In particular, his translation of The Fortunate Union in 1926, Second Bloom in 1927, The Golden Lotus in 1930, A Dream of Red Mansions in 1932, Water Margin in 1934, Jade Dragonfly in 1936, Romance of the Three Kingdoms in 1940, Midnight and other works from 1940 to 1955, were well received by German readers.（Tan,2004:153-156）

===The creativity of translation and the language in translation were paid more attention.===
In the aspect of translation theory, scholars had deeply reflected on the traditional translation theory, especially questioned the universality of language, and proposed that when the meaning of the original text becomes obscure and difficult to understand, translators must fill in the gaps of the text according to their own experience. Therefore, translation theories of this period paid more attention to the creativity of translation and the language problems in translation. Although they did not separate themselves from the discussion of translation techniques such as word selection and sentence construction, they laid a foundation for the linguistic turn of translation studies and provided theoretical thinking for the translation literature as an independent existence. And about the specific translation theories in different countries in this period, Xie Tianzhen made a brief summary.

J. P. Postgate is a famous Translation theorist in Britain, and he put forward prospective translation and retrospective translation. Prospective translation means that the translator always keeps the reader in mind and adopts free methods and common expressions to ensure that the original ideas of the reader are not affected and their prediction is not interfered with. The purpose of translation is to show the translator’s mastery of the target language, focusing on the target language rather than the original one. Retrospective translation means that the translator always looks at the original author, because the purpose of translation is to impart knowledge of the original text, rather than to look ahead and consider the reader of the translation.（Xie，2011:29）

French scholar J. Marouzeau’s "On Translation of Latin" is an important translation literature in French. He believed that translation is a skill in which the translator should reveal to the reader the content of the original work, rather than its shell, using a living language.（Xie，2011:29）

German thinker Walter Benjamin pointed out that although the translation is based on the original, it is the afterlife of the original work and the translation need not pursue the same meaning as the original work. Mediocre translators pay more attention to the meaning of the original work than to its literariness and language style and they only know that the translation exists to serve the original work and can only translate the non-essential content of the original work. (Xie，2008:319-332) The translator’s task is to use his own language to release the pure language trapped by another language, that is, to liberate the imprisoned language in the re-creation of the original text. Edwin Gentzler, a contemporary American translation theorist, believed that the discussion of translation issues among Anglo-American deconstructionists mainly revolves around comments on Benjamin’s Translator’s Task. (Gentzler, 2004:173-174.) Therefore, Translator’s Task is regarded as the “Bible” of translation theory and the classic of deconstructive translation theory.（Xie，2011:30）

The Russian scholar Mikhail Vasilievich Lemonosov transformed the loanwords that entered the Russian language, russified them, and regarded translation as a creative activity. And this view of free translation lasted until the 19th century. Aleksandr Pushkin, the greatest Russian poet in the 19th century, based on his literary translation practice, proposed that translators should have their own opinions on the selection of materials and should have full freedom in dealing with the original work, but the uniqueness of the original work should be preserved as much as possible.（Xie，2011:30）

==The General Situation of Western Translation in the Contemporary Age==
After the Second World War, the world entered a period of relative peace. After the trauma of the war, the Western countries regrouped and began to restore and develop production and economy in an all-round way. Translation cause also entered a new period of development at extremely rapid pace, taking on a new look. During this period, not only in the Soviet Union, Britain, Germany, France and other major European countries, but also in the United States, Canada, the cause of translation showed a prosperous scene. In terms of the whole western translation career, the translation after the Second World War was unmatched in scope, form, scale and achievement. Therefore, the 20th century could be called as "the age of translation" , which in fact mainly referred to the decades since the end of the war. Though great achievement was also made in literary translation in this period, the 20th century is known as the "age of translation" mainly because western translation expanded into various fields during this period, which has five characteristics.

===The scale of translation extended to the field of business, diplomacy, science and many other professional affairs.===
Since the end of the Second World War, due to practical needs, commercial, diplomatic, scientific and technological translation had flourished, and its momentum even exceeded literary translation, thus forming a major content of the development of modern western translation.Here is the research of Tan Zaixi about the scale of translation.

In 1945, the United Nations was established with English, French, Russian, Chinese and Spanish as the five official and working languages. In 1957, the European Community was founded, consisting of six countries at that time. In 1993, the European Community developed into the European Union. By 2004, it had 25 member states, using nine languages including English, French, German, Italy, Denmark, Ireland, Greece, Spain and Portugal. That is to say, translation had become an indispensable part of daily work, both for communicating with countries in other regions and among western countries. According to UNESCO, the number of translations in the world increased four-and-a-half times from 1948 to 1970. The institutions of the European Common Market employed more than 1,300 employees to deal with translation, of whom 450 were full-time interpreters, 550 translators and others were freelance employees on short-term contracts. (Tan,2004:160-161)

===Translation teaching was widespread.===
In the past, translation was mainly the work of a few literary magnates. With the establishment of the United Nations and its specialized agencies, as well as the establishment of international institutions such as the European Common Market (EC, EU) and the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, the need for translators was increasing. To meet this need, a number of schools specializing in training translators had been set up.

According to the study of Tan Zaixi, the most prominent schools are the High School of Translation at the Third University of Paris and the School of Translation at the University of Ottawa. What’s more, many universities in Europe and the United States also offer translation classes or courses in senior grades.（Tan, 2004:161-162）

===Translators’associations were established and publications on translation studies were launched.===
Translators in different countries set up various translation associations and publications. These associations played an important role in the development of translation through their activities and publications.

According to Tan Zaixi, translation associations or federations in European and American capitalist countries, in particular, generally emphasize the following principles: to clarify the legal status of translators through legislative means; to take effective measures to protect the legal rights of translators (especially the copyright that translators should enjoy); to improve their social status and increase their economic income; to improve the learning and working conditions of translators to provide them with opportunities to constantly improve their translation skills and a good working environment.（Tan，2004:162）

There were more translators’ organizations in the United States than in other western countries, with a total of 30, among which the most influential were the American Society of Translators, the American Federation of Linguists and the Literary Society of America. The journal of the American Society of Translators was ATA Chronicle. The journal of the Literary Society of America was Translation Review.（Tan，2004:162-163）

In Canada, major translation associations included the Canadian Council of Translators and Interpreters, the Ontario Association of Translators and Interpreters, the Business Language Centre, and the Quebec Translation Association. The Ontario Association of Translators and Interpreters founded the journal of Inform ATIO. The most influential professional translation magazine in Canada was Meta: Journal des Traducteurs.（Tan，2004:164）

In Britain, major translation associations included the Association of Translation Companies of Great Britain, the Association of Translators and the Guild of Translators, of which the Guild of Translators was the most famous. The official publication of the guild is The Incorporated Linguist, which was published in 1962 and enjoyed high reputation in Britain.（Tan，2004:164)

There were two major translation associations in France: the Association of French Translators and the Association of French Literary Translators. There were also two major translation associations in West Germany, one was the Association of Federation Translators and Interpreters and the other was the German-speaking World Federation of Literary and Technical Translators. In addition, Austria, Italy, Spain, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, Finland, Belgium and other Western European countries also had local or national translation organizations and a variety of translation publications.（Tan，2004:164-165）

===Machine translation developed.===
In the process of more than two thousand years of development, the traditional translation method had not undergone substantial changes in technology, and the translation between the two languages still had to be carried out by hand. However, due to the increasingly frequent international scientific and cultural exchanges, manual translation could no longer timely meet the needs. Therefore, when the traditional manual translation was facing the challenge of the times, machine translation should be born. In 1946, under the auspices of the United States Army headquarters, J.P. Eckert and J.W. Mauchly who were both from the University of Pennsylvania developed the world’s first electronic computer named: Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator, or ENIAC for short. Computer’s astonishing speed inspired people to consider the innovation of translation technology. Therefore, in the same year, Andrew Booth and Warren Weaver first proposed the use of computers in the machine translation system. Since then, machine translation and machine translation research, driven by modern electronic computing technology officially began.American science, especially the development of computer science, to a large extent affected the development of computer science in the whole West and even the world. Therefore, especially in the pioneering period, the development history and model of Machine translation in America can almost be regarded as those in the whole West. In this sense, the development of machine translation in the west (and even the world) can be roughly divided into the following five major periods, just like the development of Machine translation in the United States: initial stage; high stage; low stage; recovery stage; vigorous stage. The following is a further overview of the five development periods of machine translation in the West (mainly in the United States) made by Tan Zaixi who referred to the books of Yang Muyun, Li Zhisheng，Yu Hao, Zhao Tiejun and so on.

====Initial stage (1946—1954)====
The pioneering period begins with Booth and Weaver’s idea of translating natural language by computer in 1954, and ends with the birth of the first machine translation system. After the idea of using computers to translate was put forward, although there was great resistance in the United States at first, the voice supporting it was mainstream. In particular, Weaver published a memorandum on machine translation in 1949, which not only opened up a series of research topics on machine translation in the United States, but also had a wide influence in western countries. The memo makes four basic points: the problem of polysemy can be solved by context; there is a logical basis in language; there are basic probabilities in language application; there are common elements in different languages. These are still the fundamental of the development of machine translation. In the following years, machine translation research had been actively carried out in some universities and organizations in the United States and Britain. In Massachusetts Institute of Technology, the first full-time machine translation researcher Bar-Hillel arrived, he made a great contribution to the early development of machine translation and put forward the main problems and basic strategies needed to be solved in machine translation research. The first machine translation conference was held at MIT in June 1952, after which machine translation research in the United States began to accelerate. In 1954, a machine translation system for computer was developed and demonstrated. Although the machine translation system was small, consisting of only 250 Russian words, six grammar rules, and a few translation examples, it first showed the public and the scientific community the feasibility of machine translation, inspiring substantial funding from U.S. government for machine translation research over the next decade.（Tan，2004:167-168）

====High-tide stage(1954—1966)====
The successful demonstration of the world’s first machine translation system, the Georgetown-IBM system of United States, marked the first development climax of machine translation. The upsurge began in 1954 and lasted for 12 years. In the mid-1950s, inspired by successful demonstration of machine translation system, dozens of universities, companies, and government agencies in the United States began machine translation research programs. On the one hand, due to the competition between the United States and the Soviet Union at that time, the United States military, the National Science Foundation, the Central Intelligence Agency and so on needed to acquire a large amount of scientific and technological information of the Soviet Union, so that they invested a lot in machine translation, especially Russian-English translation. On the other hand, advanced computers in the United States provided good equipment for the development of the first generation of machine translation system. At the same time, many universities and institutions in most European countries had also carried out machine translation research.（Tan，2004:168-170）

====Low-tide stage (1966—1975)====
The advent of machine translation had opened up a new way for traditional translation research and practice. However, the complexity of machine translation was underestimated at that time and the design of machine translation system was often too rough and simple. In this case, the first generation of machine translation systems in the initial stage could not achieve ideal results, the quality of translation is often poor, so that some people gradually lost confidence in machine translation research, and some scholars also became pessimistic and disappointed. （Tan，2004:170）

In the mid-1960s, machine translation in the United States had suffered a severe blow. In 1966, the Automatic Language Processing Advisory Committee, part of the National Academy of Sciences, was asked to investigate machine translation research funded by government. The committee published its report, Language and Machines, after analyzing the speed, quality, cost and demand of machine translation at that time. The report pointed out that the quality of machine translation is significantly lower than that of human translation and asserted that there was no likelihood of any commercially useful machine translation system in the foreseeable future. On the committee’s recommendation, the U.S. government withdrew the funding for machine translation research. Thus, machine translation research in the United States plummeted from a high point to a low point of development. It should be noted, however, that machine translation research and development was not in a complete demise, following the official denials in the United States. Scholars and research institutions in many countries including the United States continued to carry out researches and experiments on machine translation under relatively difficult circumstances.（Tan，2004:171）

====Recovery stage(1975—1989)====
In the middle of 1970s, with the emergence of new theories and ideas in the field of linguistics and the further development of computational linguistics, the research of machine translation was aroused in the world again. After ten years of silence, machine translation research stepped on the road of recovery. The recovery period of machine translation research and development is generally considered to date from the installation of the SYSTRAN system by EURATOM and the completion of the TAUM-METEO system by the University of Montreal in Canada.（Tan，2004:171-174）

====Vigorous stage（1989—）====
Since the late 1980s, some new developments had changed the field of machine translation, marking machine translation research enter a new period. This is the emergence of the third generation of machine translation method that is corpus-based. Corpus-based machine translation systems include statistic-based translation and example-based translation, both of which are based on large-scale real text. （Tan，2004:167-175）

Practice has proved that machine translation has great vitality. It is a new science, and its research and translation have entered a new stage of development. No matter whether it can replace the human brain and hands eventually and completely liberate human from the heavy artificial translation, it will develop and exist for a long time. Both in theory and practice, machine translation and its research will exert more and more influence on traditional translation and its research.

===Translation theories of different schools were emerging one after another.===
The most important feature of modern western translation is the rapid development of translation theory. After the Second World War, with the vigorous development of science and technology, modern linguistics, translation activities and the rise of machine translation, people gradually changed the traditional view of translation studies, believing that translation is not only an art or skill, but also a science with rules to follow.

On the whole, the development of contemporary translation theory has two characteristics: first, theoretical research has been brought into the scope of linguistics, under the influence of modern linguistics and information theory; second, the traditional situation of non-communication between theorists has been broken. Translation theorists fully express their views through various channels, such as published works.(Xie, 2011:32)

After the Second World War, with the modernization and integration of western social and economic development, western translation theories also began to enter a new period that transcends national boundaries. Therefore, it is difficult to classify some translation thoughts and some translation theorists in a narrow sense as belonging to a certain country or a certain place. It is acceptable to divide contemporary western translation theories into different schools according to their basic approaches and methods of translation studies or the basic characteristics of thought. Here is a brief introduction to some influential schools classified by Zhao Jiajin.

====American Translation Training School====
First established in 1964 at the University of Iowa, this school focused on translation practice, emphasized the literary taste and value of works, and adopted the methods of L. A. Richards and Williard V. Quine of Harvard University. Representative figures included poet and translator Ezra Pound, who translated Tang poetry and advocated the accurate restoration of details, words, fragments and the whole image description. Frederic Will of the University of Iowa, drawing on his training experience, regarded translation as a form of naming, fiction writing and cognition. Yale’s Jonas Zdnys argued that translation is an activity of subjective thought designed to explain literature. This school explores the role of the human mind in translation and raises the question of the nature of translation, but translation theory was limited to aesthetic experience and prescriptive translation rules.（Zhao,1996: 46）

====Translation Science School====
It was also known as “linguistic school”. According to this school, translation is the process of reproducing language as a whole, and it aims to correctly convey the original information to readers. The school was founded by Eugene Nida, whose masterpieces include Message and Mission (1960) and Toward Science of Translation (1946). Nida proposed functional equivalence theory according to Noam Chomsky’s transformational generative grammar and his experience in Bible translation, that is, to digest the original text and understand its basic structure and meaning; convey meaning based on basic structure; obtain semantic and stylistic equivalence with the original text. Thus the translation process can be summarized as: analyze—transfer—restructure, these three steps. The school of Translation science adopted linguistic theory and the more objective description method in translation theory. In the late 1970s, emphasis was placed on the cultural background of the information age, but the research was still limited to prescriptive research and translation criteria, ignoring the role of translators’thinking.（Zhao,1996: 46）

====Translation school====
It is the so-called “literary school”. This school held that the original work is the unity of sentence series and article structure, and the translator is influenced by the original view and the future model of translation in the process of translation. The founder of this school was James Holmes, an American poet, who taught translation at the University of Amsterdam in the Netherlands before his death. His representative work is The Name and Nature of Translation Studies(1972).（Zhao,1996: 46）

====Polysystem School====
Its founders are Itammar Even-Zohar and Gideon Toury of Tel Aviv University in Israel. Even coined the term Polysystem to explore the relationship between translated works and literary systems, and explained that the oriented culture of translation not only determines whether a work can be translated, but also regulates the wording. Toury held that translation belongs to the second system of multiple systems, and its role depends on the strength and development stage of the oriented culture of translation. He held that translation has no fixed identity and has multiple identities due to its social, literary and historical background. This school integrates translation studies with literary studies, social and economic factors, endows translation studies with historical significance, but it is still limited to the acceptability of translation and does not get rid of the fetters of cultural equivalence.（Zhao,1996: 46）

====Deconstruction School====
It is also known as “affirmative productivity school”. It originated in France in the mid-1960s and is represented by Michel Foucault, Martin Heidegger and Jacques Derrida. This school introduced deconstruction into translation, claiming that translators create the subject and the target language is a new language. As Foucault put it, the original work is constantly rewritten in the process of translation, and the translator rewrites the original work every time he reads and translates it. Deconstruction studies the nature and process of translation and language, and advocates that translators exist as entities. The school even goes so far as to believe that language does not involve any objective reality, and translators have their own status only when they create texts.（Zhao,1996:46-47）

==Conclusion==
Under the influence of historical backgrounds, different periods of translation show different traits. In the modern period, the content of translation still focused on literature which included works form Russian, Nordic countries, China and so on. The way of translation was artificial and traditional. With the progress of economy and science, translation in the contemporary period also got great development. The content of translation was not confined to the field of literature. Instead, translation of science and technology, commerce, entertainment and so on became a major part of the actual translation activities. In addition, machine translation as a novel technique developed quickly. And the most important feature of modern western translation is the rapid development of translation theory thanks to many translator associations and publications on translation studies. Nowadays, under the influence of globalization, translation shows more and more importance and gets better development environment.

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Delisle, Jean(1995). Translation: An Interpretive Approach[M]. Ottawa: University of Ottawa Press.

Feng Zhiwei 冯志伟(1994).自然语言机器翻译新论[M] New Theories of Machine Translation of Natural Language.北京:语文出版社Beijing: Chinese Press.

FitzMaurice-Kelly, J(1911). "Translation"[J]. Encyclopedia Britannica (11th edition, Cambridge),27:183-188.

Gentzler, Edwin(2004). Contemporary Translation Theories[M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

Hutchins，Robert(1952). Great Books of the Western World[M]. Chicago: Encyclopaedia .Britannica Ltd.

Mu Yunyang,Li Zhisheng,Yu Hao杨沐昀、李志升、于浩(2000).机器翻译系统[M]Machine Translation System.哈尔滨：哈尔滨工业大学出版社Harbin: Harbin University of Technology Press.

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Hist Trans EN 14

2022-01-02T09:33:16Z

Wei Chuxuan: /* The General Situation of Translation in the Modern Age */

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=Western Translation History in the Modern and Contemporary Ages=
'''现当代西方翻译史'''

魏楚璇，Wei Chuxuan, Hunan Normal University, China

==Abstract==
Under different historical backgrounds, western translation presents different characteristics. In the 20th century before the end of the Second World War, the two world wars inevitably brought obstacles and disturbances to the development of translation. Therefore, though translation in this period still continued to develop, it did not get breakthrough. Translation was still dominated by literary works in content, totally relying on manual labor. In translation theory, it emphasized the creativity of translation and laid a foundation for the linguistic turn of translation studies. After the end of World War II, the world entered an era of relative peace, the world economy recovered, and the translation industry was greatly revitalized. During this period, the scale of translation covered all aspects of social life, machine translation developed fast, translation training flourished, translation organizations were established in various countries and many translation theories and schools emerged. That is to say, this period can be called the golden age of translation.

==Keywords==
Western translation; translation history; modern; contemporary

==摘要==
在不同的历史背景下，西方翻译呈现出不同的特点。在二战结束之前的二十世纪，两次世界大战不可避免地为翻译事业的发展带来了阻碍和干扰，因而这一时期的翻译虽然仍在发展但并未取得突破性的成就，在翻译的内容上仍然以文学作品为主，技术上完全依赖人工，理论方面注重翻译的创造性且为翻译研究的语言学转向奠定了基础。二战结束后，世界进入到相对和平的年代，世界经济复苏，翻译事业也大为振兴。在这一时期，翻译的内容覆盖社会生活的方方面面，机器翻译发展迅速，翻译培训兴起，翻译组织在各国成立，各种翻译理论和翻译流派涌现，可谓是翻译的黄金年代。

==关键词==
西方翻译；翻译史；现代；当代

==Introduction==
In this paper, western translation history in modern and contemporary ages will be introduced. Here the modern age refers to the nearly half century before the Second World War. And the contemporary age refers to the half century after the Second World War. That is to say, the modern and contemporary translation in this paper refers to the translation in the 20th century. Under the influence of different historical backgrounds, translation in these two ages showed different characteristics and traits which will be concluded and discussed in detail in the following.

==The General Situation of Western Translation in the Modern Age==
Into the 20th century, the capitalism in the developed countries developed into imperialism. On the one hand, the imperialist countries intensified their foreign expansion to oppress and exploit the weak countries and people in colony. On the other hand, they were engaged in a fierce battle among themselves for international markets and spheres of influence. Thus, in less than half a century, two world wars broke out. Under this historical background, translation in western countries will inevitably be seriously disturbed and destroyed. However, translation in western countries continued to develop and excellent translations still appeared from time to time. The translation of this period also has its own traits. The general situation of translation in this period can be summarized from the following two aspects.

===The emphasis of translation was on Russian and Nordic works and more Chinese works were translated.===
From the end of the 19th century to the beginning of the 20th century, the literature of Russia and the Nordic countries developed greatly with the emergence of Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoyevsky, Leo Tolstoy, Chekhov, Andersen, Ibsen, Strindberg and other world-renowned great writers and dramatists. Their works had attracted the attention of the people in Western Europe and North America so they were competing to learn Russian, Danish and Swedish and had these works translated into English, German and French. In the process of translation, many excellent translators emerged in various countries.
====Translation of Russian literature====
According to the research of Tan Zaixi, Constance Garnet is the most famous female translator in Britain in this century. She translated almost all classic Russian novels and is widely regarded as the most important Translator of translating Russian literature into English. She published her first translation of Turgenev's novel Ru-Din in 1894. In the following decades, she devoted almost all her energy and time to the translation of Russian literature. She was the first person to translate Turgenev, Dostoyevsky and Chekhov into English, successively translating all the major works of Turgenev, Goncharov, Dostoyevsky, Tolstoy, Gogol and Chekhov including 12 volumes of Dostoyevsky's Selected Works translated from 1912 to 1920, 15 volumes of Turgenev's Selected Works translated from 1894 to 1899, 15 volumes of Chekhov's Novels and Plays translated from 1916 to 1922, and 6 volumes of Gogol’s Selected Works translated from 1922 to 1928. In particular, her translations of Turgenev, Chekhov, Dostoyevsky and other works were widely welcomed by the English reading community, and thus gave rise to the Russian literature craze in English literature before the First World War. She translated 70 Russian works in her lifetime, making her the most prolific translator of Russian works.
Two other translators who did not translate as much from Russian to English as Garnett, but who had no less influence, were the couple——Louise and Aylmer Maude. They are famous in western modern literary circles for their research and translation of Tolstoy's works. From 1928 to 1937, they spent nearly ten years translating and publishing 21 volumes of The Complete Works of Tolstoy. Later, from 1940s to 1950s, they supplemented or retranslated some of Tolstoy's works, such as What I Believe and Resurrection. In 1952, their work of War and Peace was accepted as a standard English translation and was selected for the prestigious Great Books of the Western World, thus establishing them as the authoritative English translators of Tolstoy. In addition, R. S. Townsend, R. Edmonds, Samuel Koteliansky, Ethel C. Mayne, Boris Brasol, Richard Renfield and so on were famous for translating the works of Tolstoy, Dostoevsky, Turgenev, Chekhov, Goncharov into English.（Tan，2004:148-150）

====Translation of Nordic literature and drama====
In the first half of the 20th century, in addition to Russian literature, western European translators showed great interest in Nordic literature and drama, including the works of Andersen, Ibsen and Strindberg.

According to the study of Tan Zaixi, when Hans Christian Andersen was alive, one of his works was published simultaneously in 15 languages, including English, German, French, Italian, Spanish and almost all the major languages of Western Europe. Later, all of his works were translated into different languages, and there were many re-translations in English, French, German and other countries. The first English translator was Mary Howitt, who began translating Andersen’s fairy tales in 1846. Later translators include Charles Boner, Caroline Peachey, Lady Duff Gordon, Paul Leyssac, R. R. Keigwin and R. Spink. Some of the best translations are Leyssac’s translation in 1937, Keigwin’s translation from 1950 to 1960 and Spink’s translation.(Tan，2004:151)

The main English translators of Ibsen’s plays are William Archer and James MacFarlane. Archer translated 12 volumes of The Collected Works of H. I. from 1906 to 1912, including almost all of Ibsen’s plays and some of his previously unpublished papers. Macfarlane compiled translated eight volumes of The Oxford Ibsen from 1960 to 1977. In addition, F. E. Garrett translated Lyrics and Poems from Ibsen in 1912. Mary Morison translated The Correspondence of H.I. in 1905. Evert Sprinchorn translated H. I. Letters and Speeches in 1964. (Tan，2004:151)

In Germany, the standard German translation is the 10-volume The Collected Plays of Ibsen edited and published by G. Brandes, J. Elias, and P. Schlenther from 1898 to 1902. The standard French translation is The Complete Works of Ibsen in 16 volumes translated and published by P. G. La Chesnais from 1914 to 1945.(Tan，2004:151)

Strindberg’s work was translated into English as early as 1912. For the next fifty or sixty years, many people worked on Strindberg’s studies and translations. Major English translators included E. Schleussner, Walter Johnson, M. Sandbach, Elizabeth Sprigge and Michael Meyer. Some good works are Sprigge’s translations of Strinberg’s Plays in 1963 and Meyer’s translations of The Father, Miss Julie, Storm and so on in 1964. In other major western European countries such as Germany and France, Strindberg’s plays were also translated into German and French, and repeatedly staged in Berlin and Paris. (Tan，2004:152)

There is no doubt that the translation of modern and contemporary Russian and Nordic literature and drama was a mainstream of western translation in the first half of the century. However, at the same time, it must be pointed out that the mutual translation of modern and contemporary literary works in western European countries still enjoys considerable momentum.

====More and more Chinese works were translated.====
In the 20th century, more and more people in the West became interested in Chinese culture. Since the 1950s, with the improvement of new China’s international prestige, the fever of translating Chinese works had been constantly appearing in the West. Not only the Four Books, Five Classics, Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Water Margin, Journey to the West, A Dream of Red Mansions and the poems of Li Bai, Du Fu and Bai Juyi were translated into English, German and French, but modern writers such as Luxun, Maodun and Bajin were also introduced to western countries. In the process of translating and introducing Chinese works, excellent translators have emerged from every country.

According to the study of Tan Zaixi, Arthur Waley, the most eminent Sinologist in Britain in the 20th century, was a translator, writer and poet. In 1916, his first translation of Chinese Poems was published. In 1918, he published his second translated work One Hundred Seventy Chinese Poems. These two translations are both from Tang poems. In addition, he also translated part of Journey to the West in 1942, published four other Chinese-English translations, and wrote three books about China or Chinese writers. Another outstanding Sinologist and translator in the 20th century was Franz Kuhn of Germany. From 1919, when his first translation was published, to his death in 1961, he translated and published more than 40 classical and modern Chinese literary works, including 12 novels and 34 short stories. In particular, his translation of The Fortunate Union in 1926, Second Bloom in 1927, The Golden Lotus in 1930, A Dream of Red Mansions in 1932, Water Margin in 1934, Jade Dragonfly in 1936, Romance of the Three Kingdoms in 1940, Midnight and other works from 1940 to 1955, were well received by German readers.（Tan,2004:153-156）

===The creativity of translation and the language in translation were paid more attention.===
In the aspect of translation theory, scholars had deeply reflected on the traditional translation theory, especially questioned the universality of language, and proposed that when the meaning of the original text becomes obscure and difficult to understand, translators must fill in the gaps of the text according to their own experience. Therefore, translation theories of this period paid more attention to the creativity of translation and the language problems in translation. Although they did not separate themselves from the discussion of translation techniques such as word selection and sentence construction, they laid a foundation for the linguistic turn of translation studies and provided theoretical thinking for the translation literature as an independent existence. And about the specific translation theories in different countries in this period, Xie Tianzhen made a brief summary.

J. P. Postgate is a famous Translation theorist in Britain, and he put forward prospective translation and retrospective translation. Prospective translation means that the translator always keeps the reader in mind and adopts free methods and common expressions to ensure that the original ideas of the reader are not affected and their prediction is not interfered with. The purpose of translation is to show the translator’s mastery of the target language, focusing on the target language rather than the original one. Retrospective translation means that the translator always looks at the original author, because the purpose of translation is to impart knowledge of the original text, rather than to look ahead and consider the reader of the translation.（Xie，2011:29）

French scholar J. Marouzeau’s "On Translation of Latin" is an important translation literature in French. He believed that translation is a skill in which the translator should reveal to the reader the content of the original work, rather than its shell, using a living language.（Xie，2011:29）

German thinker Walter Benjamin pointed out that although the translation is based on the original, it is the afterlife of the original work and the translation need not pursue the same meaning as the original work. Mediocre translators pay more attention to the meaning of the original work than to its literariness and language style and they only know that the translation exists to serve the original work and can only translate the non-essential content of the original work. (Xie，2008:319-332) The translator’s task is to use his own language to release the pure language trapped by another language, that is, to liberate the imprisoned language in the re-creation of the original text. Edwin Gentzler, a contemporary American translation theorist, believed that the discussion of translation issues among Anglo-American deconstructionists mainly revolves around comments on Benjamin’s Translator’s Task. (Gentzler, 2004:173-174.) Therefore, Translator’s Task is regarded as the “Bible” of translation theory and the classic of deconstructive translation theory.（Xie，2011:30）

The Russian scholar Mikhail Vasilievich Lemonosov transformed the loanwords that entered the Russian language, russified them, and regarded translation as a creative activity. And this view of free translation lasted until the 19th century. Aleksandr Pushkin, the greatest Russian poet in the 19th century, based on his literary translation practice, proposed that translators should have their own opinions on the selection of materials and should have full freedom in dealing with the original work, but the uniqueness of the original work should be preserved as much as possible.（Xie，2011:30）

==The General Situation of Translation in the Contemporary Age==
After the Second World War, the world entered a period of relative peace. After the trauma of the war, the Western countries regrouped and began to restore and develop production and economy in an all-round way. Translation cause also entered a new period of development at extremely rapid pace, taking on a new look. During this period, not only in the Soviet Union, Britain, Germany, France and other major European countries, but also in the United States, Canada, the cause of translation showed a prosperous scene. In terms of the whole western translation career, the translation after the Second World War was unmatched in scope, form, scale and achievement. Therefore, the 20th century could be called as "the age of translation" , which in fact mainly referred to the decades since the end of the war. Though great achievement was also made in literary translation in this period, the 20th century is known as the "age of translation" mainly because western translation expanded into various fields during this period, which has five characteristics.

===The scale of translation extended to the field of business, diplomacy, science and many other professional affairs.===
Since the end of the Second World War, due to practical needs, commercial, diplomatic, scientific and technological translation had flourished, and its momentum even exceeded literary translation, thus forming a major content of the development of modern western translation.Here is the research of Tan Zaixi about the scale of translation.

In 1945, the United Nations was established with English, French, Russian, Chinese and Spanish as the five official and working languages. In 1957, the European Community was founded, consisting of six countries at that time. In 1993, the European Community developed into the European Union. By 2004, it had 25 member states, using nine languages including English, French, German, Italy, Denmark, Ireland, Greece, Spain and Portugal. That is to say, translation had become an indispensable part of daily work, both for communicating with countries in other regions and among western countries. According to UNESCO, the number of translations in the world increased four-and-a-half times from 1948 to 1970. The institutions of the European Common Market employed more than 1,300 employees to deal with translation, of whom 450 were full-time interpreters, 550 translators and others were freelance employees on short-term contracts. (Tan,2004:160-161)

===Translation teaching was widespread.===
In the past, translation was mainly the work of a few literary magnates. With the establishment of the United Nations and its specialized agencies, as well as the establishment of international institutions such as the European Common Market (EC, EU) and the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, the need for translators was increasing. To meet this need, a number of schools specializing in training translators had been set up.

According to the study of Tan Zaixi, the most prominent schools are the High School of Translation at the Third University of Paris and the School of Translation at the University of Ottawa. What’s more, many universities in Europe and the United States also offer translation classes or courses in senior grades.（Tan, 2004:161-162）

===Translators’associations were established and publications on translation studies were launched.===
Translators in different countries set up various translation associations and publications. These associations played an important role in the development of translation through their activities and publications.

According to Tan Zaixi, translation associations or federations in European and American capitalist countries, in particular, generally emphasize the following principles: to clarify the legal status of translators through legislative means; to take effective measures to protect the legal rights of translators (especially the copyright that translators should enjoy); to improve their social status and increase their economic income; to improve the learning and working conditions of translators to provide them with opportunities to constantly improve their translation skills and a good working environment.（Tan，2004:162）

There were more translators’ organizations in the United States than in other western countries, with a total of 30, among which the most influential were the American Society of Translators, the American Federation of Linguists and the Literary Society of America. The journal of the American Society of Translators was ATA Chronicle. The journal of the Literary Society of America was Translation Review.（Tan，2004:162-163）

In Canada, major translation associations included the Canadian Council of Translators and Interpreters, the Ontario Association of Translators and Interpreters, the Business Language Centre, and the Quebec Translation Association. The Ontario Association of Translators and Interpreters founded the journal of Inform ATIO. The most influential professional translation magazine in Canada was Meta: Journal des Traducteurs.（Tan，2004:164）

In Britain, major translation associations included the Association of Translation Companies of Great Britain, the Association of Translators and the Guild of Translators, of which the Guild of Translators was the most famous. The official publication of the guild is The Incorporated Linguist, which was published in 1962 and enjoyed high reputation in Britain.（Tan，2004:164)

There were two major translation associations in France: the Association of French Translators and the Association of French Literary Translators. There were also two major translation associations in West Germany, one was the Association of Federation Translators and Interpreters and the other was the German-speaking World Federation of Literary and Technical Translators. In addition, Austria, Italy, Spain, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, Finland, Belgium and other Western European countries also had local or national translation organizations and a variety of translation publications.（Tan，2004:164-165）

===Machine translation developed.===
In the process of more than two thousand years of development, the traditional translation method had not undergone substantial changes in technology, and the translation between the two languages still had to be carried out by hand. However, due to the increasingly frequent international scientific and cultural exchanges, manual translation could no longer timely meet the needs. Therefore, when the traditional manual translation was facing the challenge of the times, machine translation should be born. In 1946, under the auspices of the United States Army headquarters, J.P. Eckert and J.W. Mauchly who were both from the University of Pennsylvania developed the world’s first electronic computer named: Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator, or ENIAC for short. Computer’s astonishing speed inspired people to consider the innovation of translation technology. Therefore, in the same year, Andrew Booth and Warren Weaver first proposed the use of computers in the machine translation system. Since then, machine translation and machine translation research, driven by modern electronic computing technology officially began.American science, especially the development of computer science, to a large extent affected the development of computer science in the whole West and even the world. Therefore, especially in the pioneering period, the development history and model of Machine translation in America can almost be regarded as those in the whole West. In this sense, the development of machine translation in the west (and even the world) can be roughly divided into the following five major periods, just like the development of Machine translation in the United States: initial stage; high stage; low stage; recovery stage; vigorous stage. The following is a further overview of the five development periods of machine translation in the West (mainly in the United States) made by Tan Zaixi who referred to the books of Yang Muyun, Li Zhisheng，Yu Hao, Zhao Tiejun and so on.

====Initial stage (1946—1954)====
The pioneering period begins with Booth and Weaver’s idea of translating natural language by computer in 1954, and ends with the birth of the first machine translation system. After the idea of using computers to translate was put forward, although there was great resistance in the United States at first, the voice supporting it was mainstream. In particular, Weaver published a memorandum on machine translation in 1949, which not only opened up a series of research topics on machine translation in the United States, but also had a wide influence in western countries. The memo makes four basic points: the problem of polysemy can be solved by context; there is a logical basis in language; there are basic probabilities in language application; there are common elements in different languages. These are still the fundamental of the development of machine translation. In the following years, machine translation research had been actively carried out in some universities and organizations in the United States and Britain. In Massachusetts Institute of Technology, the first full-time machine translation researcher Bar-Hillel arrived, he made a great contribution to the early development of machine translation and put forward the main problems and basic strategies needed to be solved in machine translation research. The first machine translation conference was held at MIT in June 1952, after which machine translation research in the United States began to accelerate. In 1954, a machine translation system for computer was developed and demonstrated. Although the machine translation system was small, consisting of only 250 Russian words, six grammar rules, and a few translation examples, it first showed the public and the scientific community the feasibility of machine translation, inspiring substantial funding from U.S. government for machine translation research over the next decade.（Tan，2004:167-168）

====High-tide stage(1954—1966)====
The successful demonstration of the world’s first machine translation system, the Georgetown-IBM system of United States, marked the first development climax of machine translation. The upsurge began in 1954 and lasted for 12 years. In the mid-1950s, inspired by successful demonstration of machine translation system, dozens of universities, companies, and government agencies in the United States began machine translation research programs. On the one hand, due to the competition between the United States and the Soviet Union at that time, the United States military, the National Science Foundation, the Central Intelligence Agency and so on needed to acquire a large amount of scientific and technological information of the Soviet Union, so that they invested a lot in machine translation, especially Russian-English translation. On the other hand, advanced computers in the United States provided good equipment for the development of the first generation of machine translation system. At the same time, many universities and institutions in most European countries had also carried out machine translation research.（Tan，2004:168-170）

====Low-tide stage (1966—1975)====
The advent of machine translation had opened up a new way for traditional translation research and practice. However, the complexity of machine translation was underestimated at that time and the design of machine translation system was often too rough and simple. In this case, the first generation of machine translation systems in the initial stage could not achieve ideal results, the quality of translation is often poor, so that some people gradually lost confidence in machine translation research, and some scholars also became pessimistic and disappointed. （Tan，2004:170）

In the mid-1960s, machine translation in the United States had suffered a severe blow. In 1966, the Automatic Language Processing Advisory Committee, part of the National Academy of Sciences, was asked to investigate machine translation research funded by government. The committee published its report, Language and Machines, after analyzing the speed, quality, cost and demand of machine translation at that time. The report pointed out that the quality of machine translation is significantly lower than that of human translation and asserted that there was no likelihood of any commercially useful machine translation system in the foreseeable future. On the committee’s recommendation, the U.S. government withdrew the funding for machine translation research. Thus, machine translation research in the United States plummeted from a high point to a low point of development. It should be noted, however, that machine translation research and development was not in a complete demise, following the official denials in the United States. Scholars and research institutions in many countries including the United States continued to carry out researches and experiments on machine translation under relatively difficult circumstances.（Tan，2004:171）

====Recovery stage(1975—1989)====
In the middle of 1970s, with the emergence of new theories and ideas in the field of linguistics and the further development of computational linguistics, the research of machine translation was aroused in the world again. After ten years of silence, machine translation research stepped on the road of recovery. The recovery period of machine translation research and development is generally considered to date from the installation of the SYSTRAN system by EURATOM and the completion of the TAUM-METEO system by the University of Montreal in Canada.（Tan，2004:171-174）

====Vigorous stage（1989—）====
Since the late 1980s, some new developments had changed the field of machine translation, marking machine translation research enter a new period. This is the emergence of the third generation of machine translation method that is corpus-based. Corpus-based machine translation systems include statistic-based translation and example-based translation, both of which are based on large-scale real text. （Tan，2004:167-175）

Practice has proved that machine translation has great vitality. It is a new science, and its research and translation have entered a new stage of development. No matter whether it can replace the human brain and hands eventually and completely liberate human from the heavy artificial translation, it will develop and exist for a long time. Both in theory and practice, machine translation and its research will exert more and more influence on traditional translation and its research.

===Translation theories of different schools were emerging one after another.===
The most important feature of modern western translation is the rapid development of translation theory. After the Second World War, with the vigorous development of science and technology, modern linguistics, translation activities and the rise of machine translation, people gradually changed the traditional view of translation studies, believing that translation is not only an art or skill, but also a science with rules to follow.

On the whole, the development of contemporary translation theory has two characteristics: first, theoretical research has been brought into the scope of linguistics, under the influence of modern linguistics and information theory; second, the traditional situation of non-communication between theorists has been broken. Translation theorists fully express their views through various channels, such as published works.(Xie, 2011:32)

After the Second World War, with the modernization and integration of western social and economic development, western translation theories also began to enter a new period that transcends national boundaries. Therefore, it is difficult to classify some translation thoughts and some translation theorists in a narrow sense as belonging to a certain country or a certain place. It is acceptable to divide contemporary western translation theories into different schools according to their basic approaches and methods of translation studies or the basic characteristics of thought. Here is a brief introduction to some influential schools classified by Zhao Jiajin.

====American Translation Training School====
First established in 1964 at the University of Iowa, this school focused on translation practice, emphasized the literary taste and value of works, and adopted the methods of L. A. Richards and Williard V. Quine of Harvard University. Representative figures included poet and translator Ezra Pound, who translated Tang poetry and advocated the accurate restoration of details, words, fragments and the whole image description. Frederic Will of the University of Iowa, drawing on his training experience, regarded translation as a form of naming, fiction writing and cognition. Yale’s Jonas Zdnys argued that translation is an activity of subjective thought designed to explain literature. This school explores the role of the human mind in translation and raises the question of the nature of translation, but translation theory was limited to aesthetic experience and prescriptive translation rules.（Zhao,1996: 46）

====Translation Science School====
It was also known as “linguistic school”. According to this school, translation is the process of reproducing language as a whole, and it aims to correctly convey the original information to readers. The school was founded by Eugene Nida, whose masterpieces include Message and Mission (1960) and Toward Science of Translation (1946). Nida proposed functional equivalence theory according to Noam Chomsky’s transformational generative grammar and his experience in Bible translation, that is, to digest the original text and understand its basic structure and meaning; convey meaning based on basic structure; obtain semantic and stylistic equivalence with the original text. Thus the translation process can be summarized as: analyze—transfer—restructure, these three steps. The school of Translation science adopted linguistic theory and the more objective description method in translation theory. In the late 1970s, emphasis was placed on the cultural background of the information age, but the research was still limited to prescriptive research and translation criteria, ignoring the role of translators’thinking.（Zhao,1996: 46）

====Translation school====
It is the so-called “literary school”. This school held that the original work is the unity of sentence series and article structure, and the translator is influenced by the original view and the future model of translation in the process of translation. The founder of this school was James Holmes, an American poet, who taught translation at the University of Amsterdam in the Netherlands before his death. His representative work is The Name and Nature of Translation Studies(1972).（Zhao,1996: 46）

====Polysystem School====
Its founders are Itammar Even-Zohar and Gideon Toury of Tel Aviv University in Israel. Even coined the term Polysystem to explore the relationship between translated works and literary systems, and explained that the oriented culture of translation not only determines whether a work can be translated, but also regulates the wording. Toury held that translation belongs to the second system of multiple systems, and its role depends on the strength and development stage of the oriented culture of translation. He held that translation has no fixed identity and has multiple identities due to its social, literary and historical background. This school integrates translation studies with literary studies, social and economic factors, endows translation studies with historical significance, but it is still limited to the acceptability of translation and does not get rid of the fetters of cultural equivalence.（Zhao,1996: 46）

====Deconstruction School====
It is also known as “affirmative productivity school”. It originated in France in the mid-1960s and is represented by Michel Foucault, Martin Heidegger and Jacques Derrida. This school introduced deconstruction into translation, claiming that translators create the subject and the target language is a new language. As Foucault put it, the original work is constantly rewritten in the process of translation, and the translator rewrites the original work every time he reads and translates it. Deconstruction studies the nature and process of translation and language, and advocates that translators exist as entities. The school even goes so far as to believe that language does not involve any objective reality, and translators have their own status only when they create texts.（Zhao,1996:46-47）

==Conclusion==
Under the influence of historical backgrounds, different periods of translation show different traits. In the modern period, the content of translation still focused on literature which included works form Russian, Nordic countries, China and so on. The way of translation was artificial and traditional. With the progress of economy and science, translation in the contemporary period also got great development. The content of translation was not confined to the field of literature. Instead, translation of science and technology, commerce, entertainment and so on became a major part of the actual translation activities. In addition, machine translation as a novel technique developed quickly. And the most important feature of modern western translation is the rapid development of translation theory thanks to many translator associations and publications on translation studies. Nowadays, under the influence of globalization, translation shows more and more importance and gets better development environment.

==References==

Barnstone，Willis(1993). The Poetics of Trunslation: History, Theory, Practice[M]. New Haven:Yale University Press.

Bates, Ernest Stuart(1936). Modern Translation[M]. London: Oxford University Press.

Catford, John(1965). A Linguistic Theory of Translation: An Essay in Applied Linguistics[M].Oxford and London: Oxford University Press.

Delisle, Jean(1995). Translation: An Interpretive Approach[M]. Ottawa: University of Ottawa Press.

Feng Zhiwei 冯志伟(1994).自然语言机器翻译新论[M] New Theories of Machine Translation of Natural Language.北京:语文出版社Beijing: Chinese Press.

FitzMaurice-Kelly, J(1911). "Translation"[J]. Encyclopedia Britannica (11th edition, Cambridge),27:183-188.

Gentzler, Edwin(2004). Contemporary Translation Theories[M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

Hutchins，Robert(1952). Great Books of the Western World[M]. Chicago: Encyclopaedia .Britannica Ltd.

Mu Yunyang,Li Zhisheng,Yu Hao杨沐昀、李志升、于浩(2000).机器翻译系统[M]Machine Translation System.哈尔滨：哈尔滨工业大学出版社Harbin: Harbin University of Technology Press.

Tan Zaixi谭载喜(2004).西方翻译简史[M]A Brief History of Western Translation.北京：商务印书馆Beijing:The Commercial Press.

Tan Zaixi谭载喜(1985).西方翻译史浅谈[J]On the History of Western Translation.中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal,7:36-39.

Xie Tianzhen谢天振(2008).当代国外翻译理论导读[M]Introduction to Contemporary Foreign Translation Theories.天津：南开大学出版社Tianjin：Nankai University Press.

Xie Tianzhen谢天振(2011).中西翻译简史[M]A Brief History of Chinese and Western Translation.北京:外语教学与研究出版社Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.

Zhao Jiajin赵家琎(1996).当代翻译学派简介[J]A Brief Introduction to Contemporary Translation Schools.中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal,5：46—47.

Zhao Tiejun赵铁军等(2001).机器翻译原理[M]Principles of Machine Translation.哈尔滨：哈尔滨工业大学出版社Harbin: Harbin University of Technology Press.

Hist Trans EN 14

2022-01-02T09:31:50Z

Wei Chuxuan: /* Western Translation History in the Modern and Contemperary Ages */

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=Western Translation History in the Modern and Contemporary Ages=
'''现当代西方翻译史'''

魏楚璇，Wei Chuxuan, Hunan Normal University, China

==Abstract==
Under different historical backgrounds, western translation presents different characteristics. In the 20th century before the end of the Second World War, the two world wars inevitably brought obstacles and disturbances to the development of translation. Therefore, though translation in this period still continued to develop, it did not get breakthrough. Translation was still dominated by literary works in content, totally relying on manual labor. In translation theory, it emphasized the creativity of translation and laid a foundation for the linguistic turn of translation studies. After the end of World War II, the world entered an era of relative peace, the world economy recovered, and the translation industry was greatly revitalized. During this period, the scale of translation covered all aspects of social life, machine translation developed fast, translation training flourished, translation organizations were established in various countries and many translation theories and schools emerged. That is to say, this period can be called the golden age of translation.

==Keywords==
Western translation; translation history; modern; contemporary

==摘要==
在不同的历史背景下，西方翻译呈现出不同的特点。在二战结束之前的二十世纪，两次世界大战不可避免地为翻译事业的发展带来了阻碍和干扰，因而这一时期的翻译虽然仍在发展但并未取得突破性的成就，在翻译的内容上仍然以文学作品为主，技术上完全依赖人工，理论方面注重翻译的创造性且为翻译研究的语言学转向奠定了基础。二战结束后，世界进入到相对和平的年代，世界经济复苏，翻译事业也大为振兴。在这一时期，翻译的内容覆盖社会生活的方方面面，机器翻译发展迅速，翻译培训兴起，翻译组织在各国成立，各种翻译理论和翻译流派涌现，可谓是翻译的黄金年代。

==关键词==
西方翻译；翻译史；现代；当代

==Introduction==
In this paper, western translation history in modern and contemporary ages will be introduced. Here the modern age refers to the nearly half century before the Second World War. And the contemporary age refers to the half century after the Second World War. That is to say, the modern and contemporary translation in this paper refers to the translation in the 20th century. Under the influence of different historical backgrounds, translation in these two ages showed different characteristics and traits which will be concluded and discussed in detail in the following.

==The General Situation of Translation in the Modern Age==
Into the 20th century, the capitalism in the developed countries developed into imperialism. On the one hand, the imperialist countries intensified their foreign expansion to oppress and exploit the weak countries and people in colony. On the other hand, they were engaged in a fierce battle among themselves for international markets and spheres of influence. Thus, in less than half a century, two world wars broke out. Under this historical background, translation in western countries will inevitably be seriously disturbed and destroyed. However, translation in western countries continued to develop and excellent translations still appeared from time to time. The translation of this period also has its own traits. The general situation of translation in this period can be summarized from the following two aspects.

===The emphasis of translation was on Russian and Nordic works and more Chinese works were translated.===
From the end of the 19th century to the beginning of the 20th century, the literature of Russia and the Nordic countries developed greatly with the emergence of Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoyevsky, Leo Tolstoy, Chekhov, Andersen, Ibsen, Strindberg and other world-renowned great writers and dramatists. Their works had attracted the attention of the people in Western Europe and North America so they were competing to learn Russian, Danish and Swedish and had these works translated into English, German and French. In the process of translation, many excellent translators emerged in various countries.
====Translation of Russian literature====
According to the research of Tan Zaixi, Constance Garnet is the most famous female translator in Britain in this century. She translated almost all classic Russian novels and is widely regarded as the most important Translator of translating Russian literature into English. She published her first translation of Turgenev's novel Ru-Din in 1894. In the following decades, she devoted almost all her energy and time to the translation of Russian literature. She was the first person to translate Turgenev, Dostoyevsky and Chekhov into English, successively translating all the major works of Turgenev, Goncharov, Dostoyevsky, Tolstoy, Gogol and Chekhov including 12 volumes of Dostoyevsky's Selected Works translated from 1912 to 1920, 15 volumes of Turgenev's Selected Works translated from 1894 to 1899, 15 volumes of Chekhov's Novels and Plays translated from 1916 to 1922, and 6 volumes of Gogol’s Selected Works translated from 1922 to 1928. In particular, her translations of Turgenev, Chekhov, Dostoyevsky and other works were widely welcomed by the English reading community, and thus gave rise to the Russian literature craze in English literature before the First World War. She translated 70 Russian works in her lifetime, making her the most prolific translator of Russian works.
Two other translators who did not translate as much from Russian to English as Garnett, but who had no less influence, were the couple——Louise and Aylmer Maude. They are famous in western modern literary circles for their research and translation of Tolstoy's works. From 1928 to 1937, they spent nearly ten years translating and publishing 21 volumes of The Complete Works of Tolstoy. Later, from 1940s to 1950s, they supplemented or retranslated some of Tolstoy's works, such as What I Believe and Resurrection. In 1952, their work of War and Peace was accepted as a standard English translation and was selected for the prestigious Great Books of the Western World, thus establishing them as the authoritative English translators of Tolstoy. In addition, R. S. Townsend, R. Edmonds, Samuel Koteliansky, Ethel C. Mayne, Boris Brasol, Richard Renfield and so on were famous for translating the works of Tolstoy, Dostoevsky, Turgenev, Chekhov, Goncharov into English.（Tan，2004:148-150）

====Translation of Nordic literature and drama====
In the first half of the 20th century, in addition to Russian literature, western European translators showed great interest in Nordic literature and drama, including the works of Andersen, Ibsen and Strindberg.

According to the study of Tan Zaixi, when Hans Christian Andersen was alive, one of his works was published simultaneously in 15 languages, including English, German, French, Italian, Spanish and almost all the major languages of Western Europe. Later, all of his works were translated into different languages, and there were many re-translations in English, French, German and other countries. The first English translator was Mary Howitt, who began translating Andersen’s fairy tales in 1846. Later translators include Charles Boner, Caroline Peachey, Lady Duff Gordon, Paul Leyssac, R. R. Keigwin and R. Spink. Some of the best translations are Leyssac’s translation in 1937, Keigwin’s translation from 1950 to 1960 and Spink’s translation.(Tan，2004:151)

The main English translators of Ibsen’s plays are William Archer and James MacFarlane. Archer translated 12 volumes of The Collected Works of H. I. from 1906 to 1912, including almost all of Ibsen’s plays and some of his previously unpublished papers. Macfarlane compiled translated eight volumes of The Oxford Ibsen from 1960 to 1977. In addition, F. E. Garrett translated Lyrics and Poems from Ibsen in 1912. Mary Morison translated The Correspondence of H.I. in 1905. Evert Sprinchorn translated H. I. Letters and Speeches in 1964. (Tan，2004:151)

In Germany, the standard German translation is the 10-volume The Collected Plays of Ibsen edited and published by G. Brandes, J. Elias, and P. Schlenther from 1898 to 1902. The standard French translation is The Complete Works of Ibsen in 16 volumes translated and published by P. G. La Chesnais from 1914 to 1945.(Tan，2004:151)

Strindberg’s work was translated into English as early as 1912. For the next fifty or sixty years, many people worked on Strindberg’s studies and translations. Major English translators included E. Schleussner, Walter Johnson, M. Sandbach, Elizabeth Sprigge and Michael Meyer. Some good works are Sprigge’s translations of Strinberg’s Plays in 1963 and Meyer’s translations of The Father, Miss Julie, Storm and so on in 1964. In other major western European countries such as Germany and France, Strindberg’s plays were also translated into German and French, and repeatedly staged in Berlin and Paris. (Tan，2004:152)

There is no doubt that the translation of modern and contemporary Russian and Nordic literature and drama was a mainstream of western translation in the first half of the century. However, at the same time, it must be pointed out that the mutual translation of modern and contemporary literary works in western European countries still enjoys considerable momentum.

====More and more Chinese works were translated.====
In the 20th century, more and more people in the West became interested in Chinese culture. Since the 1950s, with the improvement of new China’s international prestige, the fever of translating Chinese works had been constantly appearing in the West. Not only the Four Books, Five Classics, Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Water Margin, Journey to the West, A Dream of Red Mansions and the poems of Li Bai, Du Fu and Bai Juyi were translated into English, German and French, but modern writers such as Luxun, Maodun and Bajin were also introduced to western countries. In the process of translating and introducing Chinese works, excellent translators have emerged from every country.

According to the study of Tan Zaixi, Arthur Waley, the most eminent Sinologist in Britain in the 20th century, was a translator, writer and poet. In 1916, his first translation of Chinese Poems was published. In 1918, he published his second translated work One Hundred Seventy Chinese Poems. These two translations are both from Tang poems. In addition, he also translated part of Journey to the West in 1942, published four other Chinese-English translations, and wrote three books about China or Chinese writers. Another outstanding Sinologist and translator in the 20th century was Franz Kuhn of Germany. From 1919, when his first translation was published, to his death in 1961, he translated and published more than 40 classical and modern Chinese literary works, including 12 novels and 34 short stories. In particular, his translation of The Fortunate Union in 1926, Second Bloom in 1927, The Golden Lotus in 1930, A Dream of Red Mansions in 1932, Water Margin in 1934, Jade Dragonfly in 1936, Romance of the Three Kingdoms in 1940, Midnight and other works from 1940 to 1955, were well received by German readers.（Tan,2004:153-156）

===The creativity of translation and the language in translation were paid more attention.===
In the aspect of translation theory, scholars had deeply reflected on the traditional translation theory, especially questioned the universality of language, and proposed that when the meaning of the original text becomes obscure and difficult to understand, translators must fill in the gaps of the text according to their own experience. Therefore, translation theories of this period paid more attention to the creativity of translation and the language problems in translation. Although they did not separate themselves from the discussion of translation techniques such as word selection and sentence construction, they laid a foundation for the linguistic turn of translation studies and provided theoretical thinking for the translation literature as an independent existence. And about the specific translation theories in different countries in this period, Xie Tianzhen made a brief summary.

J. P. Postgate is a famous Translation theorist in Britain, and he put forward prospective translation and retrospective translation. Prospective translation means that the translator always keeps the reader in mind and adopts free methods and common expressions to ensure that the original ideas of the reader are not affected and their prediction is not interfered with. The purpose of translation is to show the translator’s mastery of the target language, focusing on the target language rather than the original one. Retrospective translation means that the translator always looks at the original author, because the purpose of translation is to impart knowledge of the original text, rather than to look ahead and consider the reader of the translation.（Xie，2011:29）

French scholar J. Marouzeau’s "On Translation of Latin" is an important translation literature in French. He believed that translation is a skill in which the translator should reveal to the reader the content of the original work, rather than its shell, using a living language.（Xie，2011:29）

German thinker Walter Benjamin pointed out that although the translation is based on the original, it is the afterlife of the original work and the translation need not pursue the same meaning as the original work. Mediocre translators pay more attention to the meaning of the original work than to its literariness and language style and they only know that the translation exists to serve the original work and can only translate the non-essential content of the original work. (Xie，2008:319-332) The translator’s task is to use his own language to release the pure language trapped by another language, that is, to liberate the imprisoned language in the re-creation of the original text. Edwin Gentzler, a contemporary American translation theorist, believed that the discussion of translation issues among Anglo-American deconstructionists mainly revolves around comments on Benjamin’s Translator’s Task. (Gentzler, 2004:173-174.) Therefore, Translator’s Task is regarded as the “Bible” of translation theory and the classic of deconstructive translation theory.（Xie，2011:30）

The Russian scholar Mikhail Vasilievich Lemonosov transformed the loanwords that entered the Russian language, russified them, and regarded translation as a creative activity. And this view of free translation lasted until the 19th century. Aleksandr Pushkin, the greatest Russian poet in the 19th century, based on his literary translation practice, proposed that translators should have their own opinions on the selection of materials and should have full freedom in dealing with the original work, but the uniqueness of the original work should be preserved as much as possible.（Xie，2011:30）

==The General Situation of Translation in the Contemporary Age==
After the Second World War, the world entered a period of relative peace. After the trauma of the war, the Western countries regrouped and began to restore and develop production and economy in an all-round way. Translation cause also entered a new period of development at extremely rapid pace, taking on a new look. During this period, not only in the Soviet Union, Britain, Germany, France and other major European countries, but also in the United States, Canada, the cause of translation showed a prosperous scene. In terms of the whole western translation career, the translation after the Second World War was unmatched in scope, form, scale and achievement. Therefore, the 20th century could be called as "the age of translation" , which in fact mainly referred to the decades since the end of the war. Though great achievement was also made in literary translation in this period, the 20th century is known as the "age of translation" mainly because western translation expanded into various fields during this period, which has five characteristics.

===The scale of translation extended to the field of business, diplomacy, science and many other professional affairs.===
Since the end of the Second World War, due to practical needs, commercial, diplomatic, scientific and technological translation had flourished, and its momentum even exceeded literary translation, thus forming a major content of the development of modern western translation.Here is the research of Tan Zaixi about the scale of translation.

In 1945, the United Nations was established with English, French, Russian, Chinese and Spanish as the five official and working languages. In 1957, the European Community was founded, consisting of six countries at that time. In 1993, the European Community developed into the European Union. By 2004, it had 25 member states, using nine languages including English, French, German, Italy, Denmark, Ireland, Greece, Spain and Portugal. That is to say, translation had become an indispensable part of daily work, both for communicating with countries in other regions and among western countries. According to UNESCO, the number of translations in the world increased four-and-a-half times from 1948 to 1970. The institutions of the European Common Market employed more than 1,300 employees to deal with translation, of whom 450 were full-time interpreters, 550 translators and others were freelance employees on short-term contracts. (Tan,2004:160-161)

===Translation teaching was widespread.===
In the past, translation was mainly the work of a few literary magnates. With the establishment of the United Nations and its specialized agencies, as well as the establishment of international institutions such as the European Common Market (EC, EU) and the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, the need for translators was increasing. To meet this need, a number of schools specializing in training translators had been set up.

According to the study of Tan Zaixi, the most prominent schools are the High School of Translation at the Third University of Paris and the School of Translation at the University of Ottawa. What’s more, many universities in Europe and the United States also offer translation classes or courses in senior grades.（Tan, 2004:161-162）

===Translators’associations were established and publications on translation studies were launched.===
Translators in different countries set up various translation associations and publications. These associations played an important role in the development of translation through their activities and publications.

According to Tan Zaixi, translation associations or federations in European and American capitalist countries, in particular, generally emphasize the following principles: to clarify the legal status of translators through legislative means; to take effective measures to protect the legal rights of translators (especially the copyright that translators should enjoy); to improve their social status and increase their economic income; to improve the learning and working conditions of translators to provide them with opportunities to constantly improve their translation skills and a good working environment.（Tan，2004:162）

There were more translators’ organizations in the United States than in other western countries, with a total of 30, among which the most influential were the American Society of Translators, the American Federation of Linguists and the Literary Society of America. The journal of the American Society of Translators was ATA Chronicle. The journal of the Literary Society of America was Translation Review.（Tan，2004:162-163）

In Canada, major translation associations included the Canadian Council of Translators and Interpreters, the Ontario Association of Translators and Interpreters, the Business Language Centre, and the Quebec Translation Association. The Ontario Association of Translators and Interpreters founded the journal of Inform ATIO. The most influential professional translation magazine in Canada was Meta: Journal des Traducteurs.（Tan，2004:164）

In Britain, major translation associations included the Association of Translation Companies of Great Britain, the Association of Translators and the Guild of Translators, of which the Guild of Translators was the most famous. The official publication of the guild is The Incorporated Linguist, which was published in 1962 and enjoyed high reputation in Britain.（Tan，2004:164)

There were two major translation associations in France: the Association of French Translators and the Association of French Literary Translators. There were also two major translation associations in West Germany, one was the Association of Federation Translators and Interpreters and the other was the German-speaking World Federation of Literary and Technical Translators. In addition, Austria, Italy, Spain, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, Finland, Belgium and other Western European countries also had local or national translation organizations and a variety of translation publications.（Tan，2004:164-165）

===Machine translation developed.===
In the process of more than two thousand years of development, the traditional translation method had not undergone substantial changes in technology, and the translation between the two languages still had to be carried out by hand. However, due to the increasingly frequent international scientific and cultural exchanges, manual translation could no longer timely meet the needs. Therefore, when the traditional manual translation was facing the challenge of the times, machine translation should be born. In 1946, under the auspices of the United States Army headquarters, J.P. Eckert and J.W. Mauchly who were both from the University of Pennsylvania developed the world’s first electronic computer named: Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator, or ENIAC for short. Computer’s astonishing speed inspired people to consider the innovation of translation technology. Therefore, in the same year, Andrew Booth and Warren Weaver first proposed the use of computers in the machine translation system. Since then, machine translation and machine translation research, driven by modern electronic computing technology officially began.American science, especially the development of computer science, to a large extent affected the development of computer science in the whole West and even the world. Therefore, especially in the pioneering period, the development history and model of Machine translation in America can almost be regarded as those in the whole West. In this sense, the development of machine translation in the west (and even the world) can be roughly divided into the following five major periods, just like the development of Machine translation in the United States: initial stage; high stage; low stage; recovery stage; vigorous stage. The following is a further overview of the five development periods of machine translation in the West (mainly in the United States) made by Tan Zaixi who referred to the books of Yang Muyun, Li Zhisheng，Yu Hao, Zhao Tiejun and so on.

====Initial stage (1946—1954)====
The pioneering period begins with Booth and Weaver’s idea of translating natural language by computer in 1954, and ends with the birth of the first machine translation system. After the idea of using computers to translate was put forward, although there was great resistance in the United States at first, the voice supporting it was mainstream. In particular, Weaver published a memorandum on machine translation in 1949, which not only opened up a series of research topics on machine translation in the United States, but also had a wide influence in western countries. The memo makes four basic points: the problem of polysemy can be solved by context; there is a logical basis in language; there are basic probabilities in language application; there are common elements in different languages. These are still the fundamental of the development of machine translation. In the following years, machine translation research had been actively carried out in some universities and organizations in the United States and Britain. In Massachusetts Institute of Technology, the first full-time machine translation researcher Bar-Hillel arrived, he made a great contribution to the early development of machine translation and put forward the main problems and basic strategies needed to be solved in machine translation research. The first machine translation conference was held at MIT in June 1952, after which machine translation research in the United States began to accelerate. In 1954, a machine translation system for computer was developed and demonstrated. Although the machine translation system was small, consisting of only 250 Russian words, six grammar rules, and a few translation examples, it first showed the public and the scientific community the feasibility of machine translation, inspiring substantial funding from U.S. government for machine translation research over the next decade.（Tan，2004:167-168）

====High-tide stage(1954—1966)====
The successful demonstration of the world’s first machine translation system, the Georgetown-IBM system of United States, marked the first development climax of machine translation. The upsurge began in 1954 and lasted for 12 years. In the mid-1950s, inspired by successful demonstration of machine translation system, dozens of universities, companies, and government agencies in the United States began machine translation research programs. On the one hand, due to the competition between the United States and the Soviet Union at that time, the United States military, the National Science Foundation, the Central Intelligence Agency and so on needed to acquire a large amount of scientific and technological information of the Soviet Union, so that they invested a lot in machine translation, especially Russian-English translation. On the other hand, advanced computers in the United States provided good equipment for the development of the first generation of machine translation system. At the same time, many universities and institutions in most European countries had also carried out machine translation research.（Tan，2004:168-170）

====Low-tide stage (1966—1975)====
The advent of machine translation had opened up a new way for traditional translation research and practice. However, the complexity of machine translation was underestimated at that time and the design of machine translation system was often too rough and simple. In this case, the first generation of machine translation systems in the initial stage could not achieve ideal results, the quality of translation is often poor, so that some people gradually lost confidence in machine translation research, and some scholars also became pessimistic and disappointed. （Tan，2004:170）

In the mid-1960s, machine translation in the United States had suffered a severe blow. In 1966, the Automatic Language Processing Advisory Committee, part of the National Academy of Sciences, was asked to investigate machine translation research funded by government. The committee published its report, Language and Machines, after analyzing the speed, quality, cost and demand of machine translation at that time. The report pointed out that the quality of machine translation is significantly lower than that of human translation and asserted that there was no likelihood of any commercially useful machine translation system in the foreseeable future. On the committee’s recommendation, the U.S. government withdrew the funding for machine translation research. Thus, machine translation research in the United States plummeted from a high point to a low point of development. It should be noted, however, that machine translation research and development was not in a complete demise, following the official denials in the United States. Scholars and research institutions in many countries including the United States continued to carry out researches and experiments on machine translation under relatively difficult circumstances.（Tan，2004:171）

====Recovery stage(1975—1989)====
In the middle of 1970s, with the emergence of new theories and ideas in the field of linguistics and the further development of computational linguistics, the research of machine translation was aroused in the world again. After ten years of silence, machine translation research stepped on the road of recovery. The recovery period of machine translation research and development is generally considered to date from the installation of the SYSTRAN system by EURATOM and the completion of the TAUM-METEO system by the University of Montreal in Canada.（Tan，2004:171-174）

====Vigorous stage（1989—）====
Since the late 1980s, some new developments had changed the field of machine translation, marking machine translation research enter a new period. This is the emergence of the third generation of machine translation method that is corpus-based. Corpus-based machine translation systems include statistic-based translation and example-based translation, both of which are based on large-scale real text. （Tan，2004:167-175）

Practice has proved that machine translation has great vitality. It is a new science, and its research and translation have entered a new stage of development. No matter whether it can replace the human brain and hands eventually and completely liberate human from the heavy artificial translation, it will develop and exist for a long time. Both in theory and practice, machine translation and its research will exert more and more influence on traditional translation and its research.

===Translation theories of different schools were emerging one after another.===
The most important feature of modern western translation is the rapid development of translation theory. After the Second World War, with the vigorous development of science and technology, modern linguistics, translation activities and the rise of machine translation, people gradually changed the traditional view of translation studies, believing that translation is not only an art or skill, but also a science with rules to follow.

On the whole, the development of contemporary translation theory has two characteristics: first, theoretical research has been brought into the scope of linguistics, under the influence of modern linguistics and information theory; second, the traditional situation of non-communication between theorists has been broken. Translation theorists fully express their views through various channels, such as published works.(Xie, 2011:32)

After the Second World War, with the modernization and integration of western social and economic development, western translation theories also began to enter a new period that transcends national boundaries. Therefore, it is difficult to classify some translation thoughts and some translation theorists in a narrow sense as belonging to a certain country or a certain place. It is acceptable to divide contemporary western translation theories into different schools according to their basic approaches and methods of translation studies or the basic characteristics of thought. Here is a brief introduction to some influential schools classified by Zhao Jiajin.

====American Translation Training School====
First established in 1964 at the University of Iowa, this school focused on translation practice, emphasized the literary taste and value of works, and adopted the methods of L. A. Richards and Williard V. Quine of Harvard University. Representative figures included poet and translator Ezra Pound, who translated Tang poetry and advocated the accurate restoration of details, words, fragments and the whole image description. Frederic Will of the University of Iowa, drawing on his training experience, regarded translation as a form of naming, fiction writing and cognition. Yale’s Jonas Zdnys argued that translation is an activity of subjective thought designed to explain literature. This school explores the role of the human mind in translation and raises the question of the nature of translation, but translation theory was limited to aesthetic experience and prescriptive translation rules.（Zhao,1996: 46）

====Translation Science School====
It was also known as “linguistic school”. According to this school, translation is the process of reproducing language as a whole, and it aims to correctly convey the original information to readers. The school was founded by Eugene Nida, whose masterpieces include Message and Mission (1960) and Toward Science of Translation (1946). Nida proposed functional equivalence theory according to Noam Chomsky’s transformational generative grammar and his experience in Bible translation, that is, to digest the original text and understand its basic structure and meaning; convey meaning based on basic structure; obtain semantic and stylistic equivalence with the original text. Thus the translation process can be summarized as: analyze—transfer—restructure, these three steps. The school of Translation science adopted linguistic theory and the more objective description method in translation theory. In the late 1970s, emphasis was placed on the cultural background of the information age, but the research was still limited to prescriptive research and translation criteria, ignoring the role of translators’thinking.（Zhao,1996: 46）

====Translation school====
It is the so-called “literary school”. This school held that the original work is the unity of sentence series and article structure, and the translator is influenced by the original view and the future model of translation in the process of translation. The founder of this school was James Holmes, an American poet, who taught translation at the University of Amsterdam in the Netherlands before his death. His representative work is The Name and Nature of Translation Studies(1972).（Zhao,1996: 46）

====Polysystem School====
Its founders are Itammar Even-Zohar and Gideon Toury of Tel Aviv University in Israel. Even coined the term Polysystem to explore the relationship between translated works and literary systems, and explained that the oriented culture of translation not only determines whether a work can be translated, but also regulates the wording. Toury held that translation belongs to the second system of multiple systems, and its role depends on the strength and development stage of the oriented culture of translation. He held that translation has no fixed identity and has multiple identities due to its social, literary and historical background. This school integrates translation studies with literary studies, social and economic factors, endows translation studies with historical significance, but it is still limited to the acceptability of translation and does not get rid of the fetters of cultural equivalence.（Zhao,1996: 46）

====Deconstruction School====
It is also known as “affirmative productivity school”. It originated in France in the mid-1960s and is represented by Michel Foucault, Martin Heidegger and Jacques Derrida. This school introduced deconstruction into translation, claiming that translators create the subject and the target language is a new language. As Foucault put it, the original work is constantly rewritten in the process of translation, and the translator rewrites the original work every time he reads and translates it. Deconstruction studies the nature and process of translation and language, and advocates that translators exist as entities. The school even goes so far as to believe that language does not involve any objective reality, and translators have their own status only when they create texts.（Zhao,1996:46-47）

==Conclusion==
Under the influence of historical backgrounds, different periods of translation show different traits. In the modern period, the content of translation still focused on literature which included works form Russian, Nordic countries, China and so on. The way of translation was artificial and traditional. With the progress of economy and science, translation in the contemporary period also got great development. The content of translation was not confined to the field of literature. Instead, translation of science and technology, commerce, entertainment and so on became a major part of the actual translation activities. In addition, machine translation as a novel technique developed quickly. And the most important feature of modern western translation is the rapid development of translation theory thanks to many translator associations and publications on translation studies. Nowadays, under the influence of globalization, translation shows more and more importance and gets better development environment.

==References==

Barnstone，Willis(1993). The Poetics of Trunslation: History, Theory, Practice[M]. New Haven:Yale University Press.

Bates, Ernest Stuart(1936). Modern Translation[M]. London: Oxford University Press.

Catford, John(1965). A Linguistic Theory of Translation: An Essay in Applied Linguistics[M].Oxford and London: Oxford University Press.

Delisle, Jean(1995). Translation: An Interpretive Approach[M]. Ottawa: University of Ottawa Press.

Feng Zhiwei 冯志伟(1994).自然语言机器翻译新论[M] New Theories of Machine Translation of Natural Language.北京:语文出版社Beijing: Chinese Press.

FitzMaurice-Kelly, J(1911). "Translation"[J]. Encyclopedia Britannica (11th edition, Cambridge),27:183-188.

Gentzler, Edwin(2004). Contemporary Translation Theories[M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

Hutchins，Robert(1952). Great Books of the Western World[M]. Chicago: Encyclopaedia .Britannica Ltd.

Mu Yunyang,Li Zhisheng,Yu Hao杨沐昀、李志升、于浩(2000).机器翻译系统[M]Machine Translation System.哈尔滨：哈尔滨工业大学出版社Harbin: Harbin University of Technology Press.

Tan Zaixi谭载喜(2004).西方翻译简史[M]A Brief History of Western Translation.北京：商务印书馆Beijing:The Commercial Press.

Tan Zaixi谭载喜(1985).西方翻译史浅谈[J]On the History of Western Translation.中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal,7:36-39.

Xie Tianzhen谢天振(2008).当代国外翻译理论导读[M]Introduction to Contemporary Foreign Translation Theories.天津：南开大学出版社Tianjin：Nankai University Press.

Xie Tianzhen谢天振(2011).中西翻译简史[M]A Brief History of Chinese and Western Translation.北京:外语教学与研究出版社Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.

Zhao Jiajin赵家琎(1996).当代翻译学派简介[J]A Brief Introduction to Contemporary Translation Schools.中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal,5：46—47.

Zhao Tiejun赵铁军等(2001).机器翻译原理[M]Principles of Machine Translation.哈尔滨：哈尔滨工业大学出版社Harbin: Harbin University of Technology Press.

Hist Trans EN 14

2021-12-31T03:51:25Z

Wei Chuxuan: /* Western Translation History In the Modern and Contemperary Ages */

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=Western Translation History in the Modern and Contemperary Ages=
'''现当代西方翻译史'''

魏楚璇，Wei Chuxuan, Hunan Normal University, China

==Abstract==
Under different historical backgrounds, western translation presents different characteristics. In the 20th century before the end of the Second World War, the two world wars inevitably brought obstacles and disturbances to the development of translation. Therefore, though translation in this period still continued to develop, it did not get breakthrough. Translation was still dominated by literary works in content, totally relying on manual labor. In translation theory, it emphasized the creativity of translation and laid a foundation for the linguistic turn of translation studies. After the end of World War II, the world entered an era of relative peace, the world economy recovered, and the translation industry was greatly revitalized. During this period, the scale of translation covered all aspects of social life, machine translation developed fast, translation training flourished, translation organizations were established in various countries and many translation theories and schools emerged. That is to say, this period can be called the golden age of translation.

==摘要==
在不同的历史背景下，西方翻译呈现出不同的特点。在二战结束之前的二十世纪，两次世界大战不可避免地为翻译事业的发展带来了阻碍和干扰，因而这一时期的翻译虽然仍在发展但并未取得突破性的成就，在翻译的内容上仍然以文学作品为主，技术上完全依赖人工，理论方面注重翻译的创造性且为翻译研究的语言学转向奠定了基础。二战结束后，世界进入到相对和平的年代，世界经济复苏，翻译事业也大为振兴。在这一时期，翻译的内容覆盖社会生活的方方面面，机器翻译发展迅速，翻译培训兴起，翻译组织在各国成立，各种翻译理论和翻译流派涌现，可谓是翻译的黄金年代。

==Keywords==
Western translation; translation history; modern; contemperary

==Introduction==
In this paper, western translation history in modern and contemporary ages will be introduced. Here the modern age refers to the nearly half century before the Second World War. And the contemporary age refers to the half century after the Second World War. That is to say, the modern and contemporary translation in this paper refers to the translation in the 20th century. Under the influence of different historical backgrounds, translation in these two ages showed different characteristics and traits which will be concluded and discussed in detail in the following.

==The General Situation of Translation in the Modern Age==
Into the 20th century, the capitalism in the developed countries developed into imperialism. On the one hand, the imperialist countries intensified their foreign expansion to oppress and exploit the weak countries and people in colony. On the other hand, they were engaged in a fierce battle among themselves for international markets and spheres of influence. Thus, in less than half a century, two world wars broke out. Under this historical background, translation in western countries will inevitably be seriously disturbed and destroyed. However, translation in western countries continued to develop and excellent translations still appeared from time to time. The translation of this period also has its own traits. The general situation of translation in this period can be summarized from the following two aspects.

===The emphasis of translation was on Russian and Nordic works and more Chinese works were translated.===
From the end of the 19th century to the beginning of the 20th century, the literature of Russia and the Nordic countries developed greatly with the emergence of Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoyevsky, Leo Tolstoy, Chekhov, Andersen, Ibsen, Strindberg and other world-renowned great writers and dramatists. Their works had attracted the attention of the people in Western Europe and North America so they were competing to learn Russian, Danish and Swedish and had these works translated into English, German and French. In the process of translation, many excellent translators emerged in various countries.
====Translation of Russian literature====
According to the research of Tan Zaixi, Constance Garnet is the most famous female translator in Britain in this century. She translated almost all classic Russian novels and is widely regarded as the most important Translator of translating Russian literature into English. She published her first translation of Turgenev's novel Ru-Din in 1894. In the following decades, she devoted almost all her energy and time to the translation of Russian literature. She was the first person to translate Turgenev, Dostoyevsky and Chekhov into English, successively translating all the major works of Turgenev, Goncharov, Dostoyevsky, Tolstoy, Gogol and Chekhov including 12 volumes of Dostoyevsky's Selected Works translated from 1912 to 1920, 15 volumes of Turgenev's Selected Works translated from 1894 to 1899, 15 volumes of Chekhov's Novels and Plays translated from 1916 to 1922, and 6 volumes of Gogol’s Selected Works translated from 1922 to 1928. In particular, her translations of Turgenev, Chekhov, Dostoyevsky and other works were widely welcomed by the English reading community, and thus gave rise to the Russian literature craze in English literature before the First World War. She translated 70 Russian works in her lifetime, making her the most prolific translator of Russian works.
Two other translators who did not translate as much from Russian to English as Garnett, but who had no less influence, were the couple——Louise and Aylmer Maude. They are famous in western modern literary circles for their research and translation of Tolstoy's works. From 1928 to 1937, they spent nearly ten years translating and publishing 21 volumes of The Complete Works of Tolstoy. Later, from 1940s to 1950s, they supplemented or retranslated some of Tolstoy's works, such as What I Believe and Resurrection. In 1952, their work of War and Peace was accepted as a standard English translation and was selected for the prestigious Great Books of the Western World, thus establishing them as the authoritative English translators of Tolstoy. In addition, R. S. Townsend, R. Edmonds, Samuel Koteliansky, Ethel C. Mayne, Boris Brasol, Richard Renfield and so on were famous for translating the works of Tolstoy, Dostoevsky, Turgenev, Chekhov, Goncharov into English.（Tan，2004:148-150）

====Translation of Nordic literature and drama====
In the first half of the 20th century, in addition to Russian literature, western European translators showed great interest in Nordic literature and drama, including the works of Andersen, Ibsen and Strindberg.

According to the study of Tan Zaixi, when Hans Christian Andersen was alive, one of his works was published simultaneously in 15 languages, including English, German, French, Italian, Spanish and almost all the major languages of Western Europe. Later, all of his works were translated into different languages, and there were many re-translations in English, French, German and other countries. The first English translator was Mary Howitt, who began translating Andersen’s fairy tales in 1846. Later translators include Charles Boner, Caroline Peachey, Lady Duff Gordon, Paul Leyssac, R. R. Keigwin and R. Spink. Some of the best translations are Leyssac’s translation in 1937, Keigwin’s translation from 1950 to 1960 and Spink’s translation.(Tan，2004:151)

The main English translators of Ibsen’s plays are William Archer and James MacFarlane. Archer translated 12 volumes of The Collected Works of H. I. from 1906 to 1912, including almost all of Ibsen’s plays and some of his previously unpublished papers. Macfarlane compiled translated eight volumes of The Oxford Ibsen from 1960 to 1977. In addition, F. E. Garrett translated Lyrics and Poems from Ibsen in 1912. Mary Morison translated The Correspondence of H.I. in 1905. Evert Sprinchorn translated H. I. Letters and Speeches in 1964. (Tan，2004:151)

In Germany, the standard German translation is the 10-volume The Collected Plays of Ibsen edited and published by G. Brandes, J. Elias, and P. Schlenther from 1898 to 1902. The standard French translation is The Complete Works of Ibsen in 16 volumes translated and published by P. G. La Chesnais from 1914 to 1945.(Tan，2004:151)

Strindberg’s work was translated into English as early as 1912. For the next fifty or sixty years, many people worked on Strindberg’s studies and translations. Major English translators included E. Schleussner, Walter Johnson, M. Sandbach, Elizabeth Sprigge and Michael Meyer. Some good works are Sprigge’s translations of Strinberg’s Plays in 1963 and Meyer’s translations of The Father, Miss Julie, Storm and so on in 1964. In other major western European countries such as Germany and France, Strindberg’s plays were also translated into German and French, and repeatedly staged in Berlin and Paris. (Tan，2004:152)

There is no doubt that the translation of modern and contemporary Russian and Nordic literature and drama was a mainstream of western translation in the first half of the century. However, at the same time, it must be pointed out that the mutual translation of modern and contemporary literary works in western European countries still enjoys considerable momentum.

====More and more Chinese works were translated.====
In the 20th century, more and more people in the West became interested in Chinese culture. Since the 1950s, with the improvement of new China’s international prestige, the fever of translating Chinese works had been constantly appearing in the West. Not only the Four Books, Five Classics, Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Water Margin, Journey to the West, A Dream of Red Mansions and the poems of Li Bai, Du Fu and Bai Juyi were translated into English, German and French, but modern writers such as Luxun, Maodun and Bajin were also introduced to western countries. In the process of translating and introducing Chinese works, excellent translators have emerged from every country.

According to the study of Tan Zaixi, Arthur Waley, the most eminent Sinologist in Britain in the 20th century, was a translator, writer and poet. In 1916, his first translation of Chinese Poems was published. In 1918, he published his second translated work One Hundred Seventy Chinese Poems. These two translations are both from Tang poems. In addition, he also translated part of Journey to the West in 1942, published four other Chinese-English translations, and wrote three books about China or Chinese writers. Another outstanding Sinologist and translator in the 20th century was Franz Kuhn of Germany. From 1919, when his first translation was published, to his death in 1961, he translated and published more than 40 classical and modern Chinese literary works, including 12 novels and 34 short stories. In particular, his translation of The Fortunate Union in 1926, Second Bloom in 1927, The Golden Lotus in 1930, A Dream of Red Mansions in 1932, Water Margin in 1934, Jade Dragonfly in 1936, Romance of the Three Kingdoms in 1940, Midnight and other works from 1940 to 1955, were well received by German readers.（Tan,2004:153-156）

===The creativity of translation and the language in translation were paid more attention.===
In the aspect of translation theory, scholars had deeply reflected on the traditional translation theory, especially questioned the universality of language, and proposed that when the meaning of the original text becomes obscure and difficult to understand, translators must fill in the gaps of the text according to their own experience. Therefore, translation theories of this period paid more attention to the creativity of translation and the language problems in translation. Although they did not separate themselves from the discussion of translation techniques such as word selection and sentence construction, they laid a foundation for the linguistic turn of translation studies and provided theoretical thinking for the translation literature as an independent existence. And about the specific translation theories in different countries in this period, Xie Tianzhen made a brief summary.

J. P. Postgate is a famous Translation theorist in Britain, and he put forward prospective translation and retrospective translation. Prospective translation means that the translator always keeps the reader in mind and adopts free methods and common expressions to ensure that the original ideas of the reader are not affected and their prediction is not interfered with. The purpose of translation is to show the translator’s mastery of the target language, focusing on the target language rather than the original one. Retrospective translation means that the translator always looks at the original author, because the purpose of translation is to impart knowledge of the original text, rather than to look ahead and consider the reader of the translation.（Xie，2011:29）

French scholar J. Marouzeau’s "On Translation of Latin" is an important translation literature in French. He believed that translation is a skill in which the translator should reveal to the reader the content of the original work, rather than its shell, using a living language.（Xie，2011:29）

German thinker Walter Benjamin pointed out that although the translation is based on the original, it is the afterlife of the original work and the translation need not pursue the same meaning as the original work. Mediocre translators pay more attention to the meaning of the original work than to its literariness and language style and they only know that the translation exists to serve the original work and can only translate the non-essential content of the original work. (Xie，2008:319-332) The translator’s task is to use his own language to release the pure language trapped by another language, that is, to liberate the imprisoned language in the re-creation of the original text. Edwin Gentzler, a contemporary American translation theorist, believed that the discussion of translation issues among Anglo-American deconstructionists mainly revolves around comments on Benjamin’s Translator’s Task. (Gentzler, 2004:173-174.) Therefore, Translator’s Task is regarded as the “Bible” of translation theory and the classic of deconstructive translation theory.（Xie，2011:30）

The Russian scholar Mikhail Vasilievich Lemonosov transformed the loanwords that entered the Russian language, russified them, and regarded translation as a creative activity. And this view of free translation lasted until the 19th century. Aleksandr Pushkin, the greatest Russian poet in the 19th century, based on his literary translation practice, proposed that translators should have their own opinions on the selection of materials and should have full freedom in dealing with the original work, but the uniqueness of the original work should be preserved as much as possible.（Xie，2011:30）

==The General Situation of Translation in the Contemporary Age==
After the Second World War, the world entered a period of relative peace. After the trauma of the war, the Western countries regrouped and began to restore and develop production and economy in an all-round way. Translation cause also entered a new period of development at extremely rapid pace, taking on a new look. During this period, not only in the Soviet Union, Britain, Germany, France and other major European countries, but also in the United States, Canada, the cause of translation showed a prosperous scene. In terms of the whole western translation career, the translation after the Second World War was unmatched in scope, form, scale and achievement. Therefore, the 20th century could be called as "the age of translation" , which in fact mainly referred to the decades since the end of the war. Though great achievement was also made in literary translation in this period, the 20th century is known as the "age of translation" mainly because western translation expanded into various fields during this period, which has five characteristics.

===The scale of translation extended to the field of business, diplomacy, science and many other professional affairs.===
Since the end of the Second World War, due to practical needs, commercial, diplomatic, scientific and technological translation had flourished, and its momentum even exceeded literary translation, thus forming a major content of the development of modern western translation.Here is the research of Tan Zaixi about the scale of translation.

In 1945, the United Nations was established with English, French, Russian, Chinese and Spanish as the five official and working languages. In 1957, the European Community was founded, consisting of six countries at that time. In 1993, the European Community developed into the European Union. By 2004, it had 25 member states, using nine languages including English, French, German, Italy, Denmark, Ireland, Greece, Spain and Portugal. That is to say, translation had become an indispensable part of daily work, both for communicating with countries in other regions and among western countries. According to UNESCO, the number of translations in the world increased four-and-a-half times from 1948 to 1970. The institutions of the European Common Market employed more than 1,300 employees to deal with translation, of whom 450 were full-time interpreters, 550 translators and others were freelance employees on short-term contracts. (Tan,2004:160-161)

===Translation teaching was widespread.===
In the past, translation was mainly the work of a few literary magnates. With the establishment of the United Nations and its specialized agencies, as well as the establishment of international institutions such as the European Common Market (EC, EU) and the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, the need for translators was increasing. To meet this need, a number of schools specializing in training translators had been set up.

According to the study of Tan Zaixi, the most prominent schools are the High School of Translation at the Third University of Paris and the School of Translation at the University of Ottawa. What’s more, many universities in Europe and the United States also offer translation classes or courses in senior grades.（Tan, 2004:161-162）

===Translators’associations were established and publications on translation studies were launched.===
Translators in different countries set up various translation associations and publications. These associations played an important role in the development of translation through their activities and publications.

According to Tan Zaixi, translation associations or federations in European and American capitalist countries, in particular, generally emphasize the following principles: to clarify the legal status of translators through legislative means; to take effective measures to protect the legal rights of translators (especially the copyright that translators should enjoy); to improve their social status and increase their economic income; to improve the learning and working conditions of translators to provide them with opportunities to constantly improve their translation skills and a good working environment.（Tan，2004:162）

There were more translators’ organizations in the United States than in other western countries, with a total of 30, among which the most influential were the American Society of Translators, the American Federation of Linguists and the Literary Society of America. The journal of the American Society of Translators was ATA Chronicle. The journal of the Literary Society of America was Translation Review.（Tan，2004:162-163）

In Canada, major translation associations included the Canadian Council of Translators and Interpreters, the Ontario Association of Translators and Interpreters, the Business Language Centre, and the Quebec Translation Association. The Ontario Association of Translators and Interpreters founded the journal of Inform ATIO. The most influential professional translation magazine in Canada was Meta: Journal des Traducteurs.（Tan，2004:164）

In Britain, major translation associations included the Association of Translation Companies of Great Britain, the Association of Translators and the Guild of Translators, of which the Guild of Translators was the most famous. The official publication of the guild is The Incorporated Linguist, which was published in 1962 and enjoyed high reputation in Britain.（Tan，2004:164)

There were two major translation associations in France: the Association of French Translators and the Association of French Literary Translators. There were also two major translation associations in West Germany, one was the Association of Federation Translators and Interpreters and the other was the German-speaking World Federation of Literary and Technical Translators. In addition, Austria, Italy, Spain, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, Finland, Belgium and other Western European countries also had local or national translation organizations and a variety of translation publications.（Tan，2004:164-165）

===Machine translation developed.===
In the process of more than two thousand years of development, the traditional translation method had not undergone substantial changes in technology, and the translation between the two languages still had to be carried out by hand. However, due to the increasingly frequent international scientific and cultural exchanges, manual translation could no longer timely meet the needs. Therefore, when the traditional manual translation was facing the challenge of the times, machine translation should be born. In 1946, under the auspices of the United States Army headquarters, J.P. Eckert and J.W. Mauchly who were both from the University of Pennsylvania developed the world’s first electronic computer named: Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator, or ENIAC for short. Computer’s astonishing speed inspired people to consider the innovation of translation technology. Therefore, in the same year, Andrew Booth and Warren Weaver first proposed the use of computers in the machine translation system. Since then, machine translation and machine translation research, driven by modern electronic computing technology officially began.American science, especially the development of computer science, to a large extent affected the development of computer science in the whole West and even the world. Therefore, especially in the pioneering period, the development history and model of Machine translation in America can almost be regarded as those in the whole West. In this sense, the development of machine translation in the west (and even the world) can be roughly divided into the following five major periods, just like the development of Machine translation in the United States: initial stage; high stage; low stage; recovery stage; vigorous stage. The following is a further overview of the five development periods of machine translation in the West (mainly in the United States) made by Tan Zaixi who referred to the books of Yang Muyun, Li Zhisheng，Yu Hao, Zhao Tiejun and so on.

====Initial stage (1946—1954)====
The pioneering period begins with Booth and Weaver’s idea of translating natural language by computer in 1954, and ends with the birth of the first machine translation system. After the idea of using computers to translate was put forward, although there was great resistance in the United States at first, the voice supporting it was mainstream. In particular, Weaver published a memorandum on machine translation in 1949, which not only opened up a series of research topics on machine translation in the United States, but also had a wide influence in western countries. The memo makes four basic points: the problem of polysemy can be solved by context; there is a logical basis in language; there are basic probabilities in language application; there are common elements in different languages. These are still the fundamental of the development of machine translation. In the following years, machine translation research had been actively carried out in some universities and organizations in the United States and Britain. In Massachusetts Institute of Technology, the first full-time machine translation researcher Bar-Hillel arrived, he made a great contribution to the early development of machine translation and put forward the main problems and basic strategies needed to be solved in machine translation research. The first machine translation conference was held at MIT in June 1952, after which machine translation research in the United States began to accelerate. In 1954, a machine translation system for computer was developed and demonstrated. Although the machine translation system was small, consisting of only 250 Russian words, six grammar rules, and a few translation examples, it first showed the public and the scientific community the feasibility of machine translation, inspiring substantial funding from U.S. government for machine translation research over the next decade.（Tan，2004:167-168）

====High-tide stage(1954—1966)====
The successful demonstration of the world’s first machine translation system, the Georgetown-IBM system of United States, marked the first development climax of machine translation. The upsurge began in 1954 and lasted for 12 years. In the mid-1950s, inspired by successful demonstration of machine translation system, dozens of universities, companies, and government agencies in the United States began machine translation research programs. On the one hand, due to the competition between the United States and the Soviet Union at that time, the United States military, the National Science Foundation, the Central Intelligence Agency and so on needed to acquire a large amount of scientific and technological information of the Soviet Union, so that they invested a lot in machine translation, especially Russian-English translation. On the other hand, advanced computers in the United States provided good equipment for the development of the first generation of machine translation system. At the same time, many universities and institutions in most European countries had also carried out machine translation research.（Tan，2004:168-170）

====Low-tide stage (1966—1975)====
The advent of machine translation had opened up a new way for traditional translation research and practice. However, the complexity of machine translation was underestimated at that time and the design of machine translation system was often too rough and simple. In this case, the first generation of machine translation systems in the initial stage could not achieve ideal results, the quality of translation is often poor, so that some people gradually lost confidence in machine translation research, and some scholars also became pessimistic and disappointed. （Tan，2004:170）

In the mid-1960s, machine translation in the United States had suffered a severe blow. In 1966, the Automatic Language Processing Advisory Committee, part of the National Academy of Sciences, was asked to investigate machine translation research funded by government. The committee published its report, Language and Machines, after analyzing the speed, quality, cost and demand of machine translation at that time. The report pointed out that the quality of machine translation is significantly lower than that of human translation and asserted that there was no likelihood of any commercially useful machine translation system in the foreseeable future. On the committee’s recommendation, the U.S. government withdrew the funding for machine translation research. Thus, machine translation research in the United States plummeted from a high point to a low point of development. It should be noted, however, that machine translation research and development was not in a complete demise, following the official denials in the United States. Scholars and research institutions in many countries including the United States continued to carry out researches and experiments on machine translation under relatively difficult circumstances.（Tan，2004:171）

====Recovery stage(1975—1989)====
In the middle of 1970s, with the emergence of new theories and ideas in the field of linguistics and the further development of computational linguistics, the research of machine translation was aroused in the world again. After ten years of silence, machine translation research stepped on the road of recovery. The recovery period of machine translation research and development is generally considered to date from the installation of the SYSTRAN system by EURATOM and the completion of the TAUM-METEO system by the University of Montreal in Canada.（Tan，2004:171-174）

====Vigorous stage（1989—）====
Since the late 1980s, some new developments had changed the field of machine translation, marking machine translation research enter a new period. This is the emergence of the third generation of machine translation method that is corpus-based. Corpus-based machine translation systems include statistic-based translation and example-based translation, both of which are based on large-scale real text. （Tan，2004:167-175）

Practice has proved that machine translation has great vitality. It is a new science, and its research and translation have entered a new stage of development. No matter whether it can replace the human brain and hands eventually and completely liberate human from the heavy artificial translation, it will develop and exist for a long time. Both in theory and practice, machine translation and its research will exert more and more influence on traditional translation and its research.

===Translation theories of different schools were emerging one after another.===
The most important feature of modern western translation is the rapid development of translation theory. After the Second World War, with the vigorous development of science and technology, modern linguistics, translation activities and the rise of machine translation, people gradually changed the traditional view of translation studies, believing that translation is not only an art or skill, but also a science with rules to follow.

On the whole, the development of contemporary translation theory has two characteristics: first, theoretical research has been brought into the scope of linguistics, under the influence of modern linguistics and information theory; second, the traditional situation of non-communication between theorists has been broken. Translation theorists fully express their views through various channels, such as published works.(Xie, 2011:32)

After the Second World War, with the modernization and integration of western social and economic development, western translation theories also began to enter a new period that transcends national boundaries. Therefore, it is difficult to classify some translation thoughts and some translation theorists in a narrow sense as belonging to a certain country or a certain place. It is acceptable to divide contemporary western translation theories into different schools according to their basic approaches and methods of translation studies or the basic characteristics of thought. Here is a brief introduction to some influential schools classified by Zhao Jiajin.

====American Translation Training School====
First established in 1964 at the University of Iowa, this school focused on translation practice, emphasized the literary taste and value of works, and adopted the methods of L. A. Richards and Williard V. Quine of Harvard University. Representative figures included poet and translator Ezra Pound, who translated Tang poetry and advocated the accurate restoration of details, words, fragments and the whole image description. Frederic Will of the University of Iowa, drawing on his training experience, regarded translation as a form of naming, fiction writing and cognition. Yale’s Jonas Zdnys argued that translation is an activity of subjective thought designed to explain literature. This school explores the role of the human mind in translation and raises the question of the nature of translation, but translation theory was limited to aesthetic experience and prescriptive translation rules.（Zhao,1996: 46）

====Translation Science School====
It was also known as “linguistic school”. According to this school, translation is the process of reproducing language as a whole, and it aims to correctly convey the original information to readers. The school was founded by Eugene Nida, whose masterpieces include Message and Mission (1960) and Toward Science of Translation (1946). Nida proposed functional equivalence theory according to Noam Chomsky’s transformational generative grammar and his experience in Bible translation, that is, to digest the original text and understand its basic structure and meaning; convey meaning based on basic structure; obtain semantic and stylistic equivalence with the original text. Thus the translation process can be summarized as: analyze—transfer—restructure, these three steps. The school of Translation science adopted linguistic theory and the more objective description method in translation theory. In the late 1970s, emphasis was placed on the cultural background of the information age, but the research was still limited to prescriptive research and translation criteria, ignoring the role of translators’thinking.（Zhao,1996: 46）

====Translation school====
It is the so-called “literary school”. This school held that the original work is the unity of sentence series and article structure, and the translator is influenced by the original view and the future model of translation in the process of translation. The founder of this school was James Holmes, an American poet, who taught translation at the University of Amsterdam in the Netherlands before his death. His representative work is The Name and Nature of Translation Studies(1972).（Zhao,1996: 46）

====Polysystem School====
Its founders are Itammar Even-Zohar and Gideon Toury of Tel Aviv University in Israel. Even coined the term Polysystem to explore the relationship between translated works and literary systems, and explained that the oriented culture of translation not only determines whether a work can be translated, but also regulates the wording. Toury held that translation belongs to the second system of multiple systems, and its role depends on the strength and development stage of the oriented culture of translation. He held that translation has no fixed identity and has multiple identities due to its social, literary and historical background. This school integrates translation studies with literary studies, social and economic factors, endows translation studies with historical significance, but it is still limited to the acceptability of translation and does not get rid of the fetters of cultural equivalence.（Zhao,1996: 46）

====Deconstruction School====
It is also known as “affirmative productivity school”. It originated in France in the mid-1960s and is represented by Michel Foucault, Martin Heidegger and Jacques Derrida. This school introduced deconstruction into translation, claiming that translators create the subject and the target language is a new language. As Foucault put it, the original work is constantly rewritten in the process of translation, and the translator rewrites the original work every time he reads and translates it. Deconstruction studies the nature and process of translation and language, and advocates that translators exist as entities. The school even goes so far as to believe that language does not involve any objective reality, and translators have their own status only when they create texts.（Zhao,1996:46-47）

==Conclusion==
Under the influence of historical backgrounds, different periods of translation show different traits. In the modern period, the content of translation still focused on literature which included works form Russian, Nordic countries, China and so on. The way of translation was artificial and traditional. With the progress of economy and science, translation in the contemporary period also got great development. The content of translation was not confined to the field of literature. Instead, translation of science and technology, commerce, entertainment and so on became a major part of the actual translation activities. In addition, machine translation as a novel technique developed quickly. And the most important feature of modern western translation is the rapid development of translation theory thanks to many translator associations and publications on translation studies. Nowadays, under the influence of globalization, translation shows more and more importance and gets better development environment.

==References==

Barnstone，Willis(1993). The Poetics of Trunslation: History, Theory, Practice[M]. New Haven:Yale University Press.

Bates, Ernest Stuart(1936). Modern Translation[M]. London: Oxford University Press.

Catford, John(1965). A Linguistic Theory of Translation: An Essay in Applied Linguistics[M].Oxford and London: Oxford University Press.

Delisle, Jean(1995). Translation: An Interpretive Approach[M]. Ottawa: University of Ottawa Press.

Feng Zhiwei 冯志伟(1994).《自然语言机器翻译新论》[M] New Theories of Machine Translation of Natural Language.北京:语文出版社Beijing: Chinese Press.

FitzMaurice-Kelly, J(1911). "Translation"[J]. Encyclopedia Britannica (11th edition, Cambridge),27:183-188.

Gentzler, Edwin(2004). Contemporary Translation Theories[M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

Hutchins，Robert(1952). Great Books of the Western World[M]. Chicago: Encyclopaedia .Britannica Ltd.

Mu Yunyang,Li Zhisheng,Yu Hao杨沐昀、李志升、于浩(2000).《机器翻译系统》[M]Machine Translation System.哈尔滨：哈尔滨工业大学出版社Harbin: Harbin University of Technology Press.

Tan Zaixi谭载喜(2004).西方翻译简史[M]A Brief History of Western Translation.北京：商务印书馆Beijing:The Commercial Press.

Tan Zaixi谭载喜(1985).西方翻译史浅谈[J]On the History of Western Translation.中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal,7:36-39.

Xie Tianzhen谢天振(2008).《当代国外翻译理论导读》[M]Introduction to Contemporary Foreign Translation Theories.天津：南开大学出版社Tianjin：Nankai University Press.

Xie Tianzhen谢天振(2011).中西翻译简史[M]A Brief History of Chinese and Western Translation.北京:外语教学与研究出版社Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.

Zhao Jiajin赵家琎(1996).当代翻译学派简介[J]A Brief Introduction to Contemporary Translation Schools.中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal,5：46—47.

Zhao Tiejun赵铁军等(2001).《机器翻译原理》[M]Principles of Machine Translation.哈尔滨：哈尔滨工业大学出版社Harbin: Harbin University of Technology Press.

20211110 homework

2021-12-30T15:28:29Z

Wei Chuxuan: /* 魏楚璇 Wèi Chǔxuán 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081527 */

Quicklinks: [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021|Back to course homepage]] [https://bou.de/u/wiki/uvu:Community_Portal#Frequently_asked_questions_FAQ FAQ] [https://bou.de/u/wiki/uvu:Community_Portal Manual] [[20210926_homework|Back to all homework webpages overview]] [[20220112_final_exam|final exam page]]

PLEASE READ [[Joint_translation_terms|Joint translation terms]]

PLEASE ALSO READ THE PREVIOUS PARTS, AT LEAST THE SENTENCES BEFORE YOUR OWN PART IN CHAPTER 19 [[20210303_culture|1, Mar 3 Chapters 1-4]], [[20210310_culture|2, Mar 10 Chapters 6-7]], [[20210317_culture|3, Mar 17 Chapters 11-13]], [[20210324_culture|4, Mar 24 Chapters 15-17]], [[20210331_culture|5, Mar 31 Chapters 4-7]], [[20210407_culture|6, Apr 7 Chapters 8-10]], [[20210414_culture|7, Apr 14 Chapters 13-15]] , [[20210519_culture|12, May 19 Chapters 17-19]], [[20210929_homework#Hongloumeng|for Sep 29 - rest of HLM Chapter 19]] [[20211110_homework|for Nov 10 - HLM Chapters 20-21]] etc.

==陈静 Chén Jìng 国别女 202020080595==
按语：拙著《红楼梦全解本》出版后，受到了不少专家与读者的好评，甚为欣慰。但也有读者认为，如果能删掉部分注文，既不影响读者阅读，也可节省书的成本，使更多读者买得起。

Note : After the publication of ''The Dream of Red Mansions(The Anotation Version)'', it was highly appreciated by many experts and readers. However, some readers believe that if some notes can be deleted, it will not affect readers ' reading and save the cost of the publication, so that more readers can afford it.--[[User:Chen Jing|Chen Jing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jing|talk]]) 10:02, 9 November 2021 (UTC)

Note: after my book the complete interpretation of Drdam Of Red Chamber was published, it was highly praised by many experts and readers. However, some readers believe that if some annotations can be deleted, it will not affect readers' reading, but also save the cost of the book and make it affordable for more readers.
--[[User:Cai Zhufeng|Cai Zhufeng]] ([[User talk:Cai Zhufeng|talk]]) 11:53, 9 November 2021 (UTC)

==蔡珠凤 Cài Zhūfèng 日语语言文学女 202120081477==
恰好中央编译出版社准备出版四大古典小说套书，为了平衡四部小说的注文，《红楼梦》的注文也嫌太长。因此接受读者的建议，将《红楼梦全解本》的注文删掉了差不多一半，其他一概未动；换言之，此版《红楼梦》校注本，实即《红楼梦全解本》的删节本（仅删注文）。因此《校注前言》仍用《红楼梦全解本》的《校注前言》，不再另写。

It happened that the Central Compilation and Translation Publishing House was preparing to publish four sets of classical novels. In order to balance the annotations of the four novels, the annotations of Dream Of the Red Chamber were too long. Therefore, we accepted the readers' suggestions and deleted almost half of the annotations in the complete interpretation of Dream Of Red Chamber, and the rest remained unchanged; In other words, the revised annotation version of Dream Of Red Chamber is actually an abridged version of the complete interpretation of Dream Of Red Chamber (only the annotation is deleted). Therefore, the preface to proofreading still uses the preface to proofreading of the complete interpretation of Dream Of Red Chamber, and needn’t be written again.
--[[User:Cai Zhufeng|Cai Zhufeng]] ([[User talk:Cai Zhufeng|talk]]) 06:36, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

It happened that the Central Compilation and Translation Publishing House was preparing to publish four sets of classical novels. In order to balance the annotations of the four novels, the annotations of ''The Dream of the Red Chamber'' were too long. Therefore, we accepted the readers' suggestions and deleted almost half of the annotations in the complete interpretation of ''The Dream of Red Chamber'', and the rest remained unchanged; In other words, the revised annotation version of ''The Dream of Red Chamber'' is actually an abridged version of the complete interpretation of ''The Dream of Red Chamber'' (only the annotation is deleted). Therefore, ''The Preface to Proofreading'' still uses ''The Preface to Proofreading'' of the complete interpretation of ''Dream Of Red Chamber'', and needn’t be written again.--[[User:Chen Huini|Chen Huini]] ([[User talk:Chen Huini|talk]]) 14:32, 8 November 2021 (UTC)Chen Huini

==陈惠妮 Chén Huìnī 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081479==
《红楼梦》以其包罗万象的内容，博大精深的思想，精湛完美的艺术，丰富生动的语言，尤其是众多栩栩如生的人物形象，不仅在中国小说史上奇峰独秀，而且在世界文学之林独树一帜。它是我国文化遗产中的珍品，值得每一个中国人所珍视。《红楼梦》在其尚未完稿的时候，已经被人竞相传抄，辗转传阅，不胫而走，蜚声神州。

''A Dream of Red Mansions'' is unique not only in the history of Chinese novels, but also in the world literature with its comprehensive contents, extensive and profound thoughts, exquisite and perfect art, rich and vivid language, and especially its numerous vivid characters. It is a treasure of our country's cultural heritage and is worth cherishing by every Chinese. ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' has been copied, circulated and spread like wildfire even when it's unfinished. It is really well-known in China.--[[User:Chen Huini|Chen Huini]] ([[User talk:Chen Huini|talk]]) 14:23, 8 November 2021 (UTC)Chen Huini

''A Dream of Red Mansions'' is outstanding not only in the history of Chinese novels, but also in the world literature for its comprehensive contents, extensive and profound thoughts, exquisite and perfect art, rich and vivid language, and especially its numerous vivid characters. It is a treasure of our country's cultural heritage and is worth being cherished by every Chinese.Before it is finished， ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' has been copied, circulated and spread like wildfire and it is really well-known in China.--[[User:Chen Xiangqiong|Chen Xiangqiong]] ([[User talk:Chen Xiangqiong|talk]]) 00:25, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

==陈湘琼 Chén Xiāngqióng 外国语言学及应用语言学女 202120081480 ==
不仅“士大夫几乎家有《红楼梦》一书”（清·潘炤《从心录》卷首），而且“家弦户诵，妇孺皆知”（清·缪艮《文章游戏初编》卷六）。上层社会更出现了“开谈不说《红楼梦》，读尽诗书也枉然”（清·得舆《京都竹枝词·时尚门》）的时尚。《红楼梦》的魅力也使其商业价值大增，“好事者每传抄一部，置庙市中，昂其值，得数十金，可谓不胫而走者矣”（清·程伟元《〈红楼梦〉序》）。

''A Dream of Red Mansions'' was so popular that not only scholar officals（people obtain knowledge and wealth in feudal China） read it （the first volum of ''Essay'' by Pan Zhao, Qing），but also families，even women and children ， loved it（the sixth volum of ''Preliminary Article Games'' by Miu Liang, Qing）. Moreover ,there was a climate of ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' that the upper class believed " it is useless to read great books without ''A Dream of Red Mansions''.（''Bamboo Pole Poem in the Capital'' by De Yu, Qing）. The charm of ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' also rose its business value as in record： “Someone who is willing to copy ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' and sell it can raise 10 gold ingots everytime ，and everyone know it.（ the introduction of ''A Dream of Red Mansions'', Qing）.--[[User:Chen Xiangqiong|Chen Xiangqiong]] ([[User talk:Chen Xiangqiong|talk]]) 09:44, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

Not only did "almost every scholar had a copy of ''A Dream of Red Mansions''" (the first volum of Essay by Pan Zhao, Qing Dynasty), but "Every household recited it, and all women and children knew it" (the sixth volum of ''Preliminary Article Games'' by Miu Liang, Qing Dynasty). In the upper class, the fashion of "If you don't talk about ''A Dream of Red Mansions'', you can read all the poems and books in vain" (''Bamboo Pole Poem in the Capital'' by De Yu, Qing Dynasty) emerged. The charm of A Dream of Red Mansions also made its commercial value increased greatly, "Those who are interested in it can get a lot of money by copying one of the books and selling it in the market. The information spread quickly." (the introduction of ''A Dream of Red Mansions'', Qing Dynasty)--[[User:Chen Xinyi|Chen Xinyi]] ([[User talk:Chen Xinyi|talk]]) 07:07, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

==陈心怡 Chén Xīnyí 翻译学女 202120081481==
至高鹗续写后四十回、由程伟元以活字正式出版完整的一百二十回本后，更出现了风行全国的盛况。时至今日，即使读不懂《红楼梦》的人，也都看过《红楼梦》电影或电视剧，对《红楼梦》的故事和人物无不耳熟能详。因此《红楼梦》已经不是普通的小说，而成为全民珍视的国宝了。

After Gao E continued to write the second forty chapters and Cheng Weiyuan officially published the complete one hundred and twenty chapters in movable type, the book became popular nationwide. To this day, even those who do not understand ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' have seen the movie or TV series versions, and are familiar with the story and characters of ''A Dream of Red Mansions''. Therefore, ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' is no longer an ordinary novel, but a national treasure cherished by all.--[[User:Chen Xinyi|Chen Xinyi]] ([[User talk:Chen Xinyi|talk]]) 06:39, 8 November 2021 (UTC)
After Gao E continued to write the following forty chapters and Cheng Weiyuan officially published the complete one hundred and twenty chapters in movable type, the book became popular nationwide increasingly. To this day, even those who do not understand ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' have already seen the movie or TV series versions, and are familiar with the story and characters of it. Therefore, ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' is no longer an ordinary novel, but a national treasure cherished by all.--[[User:Cheng Yang|Cheng Yang]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yang|talk]]) 08:37, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

==程杨 Chéng Yáng 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081482==
中国古代的文人墨客、传统学者、官僚士夫，无不鄙薄小说，最多被视为茶余饭后的谈资。唯独对《红楼梦》情有独钟，爱不释手。不仅百读不厌，而且像拜读经书般寻章摘句，眉批夹评，乐此不疲。
The ancient Chinese literats, traditional scholars, bureaucrats, all despised novels, and regarded them as after-dinner talk at most. But they only showed special preference to ''The Dream of Red Mansions'', and fondled admiringly. They not only tired of reading it, but also liked reading the Confucian classics as seeking remarkable passages and culling model sentences, making notes and commentaries, and always enjoying it.--[[User:Cheng Yang|Cheng Yang]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yang|talk]]) 08:33, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

The ancient Chinese literats, traditional scholars, bureaucrats, all despised novels, and regarded them as after-dinner talks at most. However, they only showed special preference to ''The Dream of Red Mansions'', and fondled admiringly. They not only weren't tired of reading it, but also liked reading the Confucian classics as seeking remarkable passages and culling model sentences, making notes and commentaries, and always enjoying it.--[[User:Ding Xuan|Ding Xuan]] ([[User talk:Ding Xuan|talk]]) 14:07, 12 November 2021 (UTC)

==丁旋 Dīng Xuán 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081483==
久而久之，居然形成了“红学”。“红学”由起初对《红楼梦》的单纯评点，逐步发展成为对《红楼梦》及其作者的全面考证与研究，最后更成立了红学会，出版研究刊物，势头似乎越来越盛。这不仅是中国小说史上绝无仅有的，也是中国文学史上极其罕见的现象。

As time passes, redology is actually formed. Redology was about pure comments to ''A Dream in Red Mansion'' in the beginning and it gradually developed as the comprehensive textual research and study in ''A Dream in Red Mansion'' and its author. Finally, we even established redologist institution and published research periodicals, the momentum of redology more and more flourishing. This phenomenon is not only unique in the history of Chinese novels, but extremely rare in the history of Chinese literature. --[[User:Ding Xuan|Ding Xuan]] ([[User talk:Ding Xuan|talk]]) 05:29, 9 November 2021 (UTC)

As time passes, redology is unexpectedly formed. Redology came into mere comments to ''A Dream in Red Mansion'' in the beginning and it gradually developed as the comprehensive textual research and study of this work and its author. Finally, redologist institution was established to publish research periodicals with more flourishing tendency than ever. This phenomenon is not only unique in the history of Chinese novels, but extremely rare in the history of Chinese literature.--[[User:Du Lina|Du Lina]] ([[User talk:Du Lina|talk]]) 11:49, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

==杜莉娜 Dù Lìnà 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081484==
遗憾的是，“红学家”们对《红楼梦》的作者及其版本似乎偏爱有加，而对《红楼梦》的思想和艺术价值却缺乏足够的兴趣，因此考证作者和版本的文章和著作连篇累牍，而研究《红楼梦》思想和艺术价值的成果却寥若晨星。我认为这是本末倒置。一个作家的价值不在于其生平如何，而在于其作品的思想和艺术水平的高低；是作品决定作家的价值，而不是作家决定作品的价值。

Unfortunately, redologists ( who are specialists in A Dream of the Red Chamber) seemingly are partial to research on the writer and verison of this book, but are short of interest for it's thought and artistic value. And therefore there are a lot of articles and books about the former while very few about the latter. It seems to me that puts the cart before the horse. What a writer is worth lies in thoughts and artistic level in his/her works but not in his/her life story; and the value of a writer depends on his/her production, not vice versa.--[[User:Du Lina|Du Lina]] ([[User talk:Du Lina|talk]]) 13:31, 6 November 2021 (UTC)

Unfortunately, redologists ( who are specialists in A Dream of the Red Chamber) seem to prefer to research on the writer and versions of this book, but are short of interest in the thought and artistic value. And therefore there are a lot of articles and books about the former while very few about the latter. It seems to me that puts the cart before the horse. What a writer is worth lies in thoughts and artistic level in his/her works but not in his/her life story; and the value of a writer depends on his/her production, not vice versa.--[[User:Fu Hongyan|Fu Hongyan]] ([[User talk:Fu Hongyan|talk]]) 14:10, 9 November 2021 (UTC)

==付红岩 Fù Hóngyán 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081485==
读者对于作品的选择与评价，也只着眼于作品本身，而非作家本人。一部伟大的作品，即使作者佚名，也不影响其伟大，照样受到读者的追捧；相反，如果一个伟大作家偶然写了一部低劣的作品，读者也决不买账。因此“红学”的研究重点应该是《红楼梦》本身，而不是《红楼梦》作者。

Readers' choice and evaluation towards works is based on the works themselves, rather than the writers. As anonymous is the writer, the valued of a great work is definitely unlikely to be underestimated, which is still welcomed by the public. Likewise, readers cannot be attracted by the inferior work written by a great writer. Therefore, redology is supposed to focus on the context, instead of the writer Cao Xueqin--[[User:Fu Hongyan|Fu Hongyan]] ([[User talk:Fu Hongyan|talk]]) 14:01, 9 November 2021 (UTC)

Readers' choice and evaluation towards works is based on the works themselves, rather than the writers. As anonymous is the writer, the values of a great work are definitely unlikely to be underestimated, which is still popular with the public. Likewise, readers cannot be attracted by a low-quality work even written by a great writer occasionally. Therefore, redology is supposed to focus on the context, instead of the writer Cao Xueqin.--[[User:Fu Shiyu|Fu Shiyu]] ([[User talk:Fu Shiyu|talk]]) 09:02, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

==付诗雨 Fù Shīyǔ 日语语言文学女 202120081486==
当然也应该了解作者，但目的只是为了有助于深入了解《红楼梦》，仅此而已。我认为要想深入研究《红楼梦》，首先必须完全读懂《红楼梦》。如果对《红楼梦》的文本只是一知半解，那么所谓研究，势必如医生不明病人的病情而乱开药方，不仅治不好病，倒可能致人于死命。

Certainly, we should also know the author, but the purpose is nothing more than to help us understand ''A Dream of Red Chamber'' in depth. I think that in order to make a further research on ''A Dream of the Red Chamber'', we must first have a thorough understanding of it. If we have only a sketchy knowledge of the text of ''A Dream of Red Chamber'', then the so-called research would definitely be like the prescriptions prescribed indiscriminately without knowing the patient's condition. Not only can it not cure the disease, but it may lead to death.--[[User:Fu Shiyu|Fu Shiyu]] ([[User talk:Fu Shiyu|talk]]) 13:53, 6 November 2021 (UTC)

Certainly, we should also know about the author, but only with the purpose of deepening our understanding of the work. I think that further researches on ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' necessitate a thorough understanding of it. If we have only a sketchy knowledge of the text of ''A Dream of Red Mansions'', then the so-called research would definitely be like the prescriptions written indiscriminately by a doctor unaware of the patient's condition. Not only can it not cure the disease, but it may lead to death. --[[User:Gao Mi|Gao Mi]] ([[User talk:Gao Mi|talk]]) 03:04, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

==高蜜 Gāo Mì 翻译学女 202120081487==
《红楼梦》研究中的许多无谓争论，正是研究者没有读懂《红楼梦》或对《红楼梦》文本的不同理解所致。因此对《红楼梦》文本的注释，显然是《红楼梦》研究的基础工作。其次，当今的读者和观众虽然热衷于《红楼梦》，但真正能够全面深入理解《红楼梦》的人恐怕并不很多。

A great many arguments regarding the study of ''A Dream of Red Mansions'', caused either by an incomplete understanding or different understandings of the text, are pointless. Therefore, it's apparent that annotating ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' is a foundation work for its further study. Besides, though today's readers and audience are crazy about the book, I'm afraid that not many of them get to know it thoroughly. --[[User:Gao Mi|Gao Mi]] ([[User talk:Gao Mi|talk]]) 03:09, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

Many unnecessary arguments in the study of ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' are caused by the researchers' failure to understand ''A dream of Red Mansions'' or their different understandings of the text.Therefore, it's apparent that annotating ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' is a foundation work for its further study. Besides, though today's readers and audience are crazy about the book, I'm afraid that not many of them get to know it thoroughly.--[[User:Gong Boya|Gong Boya]] ([[User talk:Gong Boya|talk]]) 11:14, 13 November 2021 (UTC)

==宫博雅 Gōng Bóyǎ 俄语语言文学女 202120081488==
这是因为，《红楼梦》不是普通的白话小说，不是简单地为读者讲故事，不是为读者提供茶馀饭后的谈资，更不是为了赚稿费餬口（那时根本不存在稿费制度）。它不仅是一部反映封建社会的“百科全书”，而且作者还对人类共同关心的一些问题，如人生的目的、人性的善恶、爱情的真谛、宗教的精义等进行了探索。作品涉及的内容几乎无所不包，从至高无上的皇帝，到“芥豆之微”的细民，从国家的政治、军事、经济到百姓的日常生活，举凡天文、地理、动物、植物、建筑、服饰、医卜星相、琴棋书画等等，无不尽收笔底。

This is because ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' is not an ordinary vernacular novel. It is not simply a story for readers to read, not a topic for after-dinner conversation, or a way to earn a living (there was no contribution fee system at that time). It is not only an "encyclopedia" reflecting the feudal society, but also explores some common issues of human concern, such as the purpose of life, the good and evil of human nature, the true meaning of love, the essence of religion and so on. The works cover almost everything, from the supreme emperor to the ordinary people, from national politics, military affairs, economy to the daily life of the people, including astronomy, geography, animals, plants, architecture, clothing, medicine, astrology and practise divination, poetry and painting and so on, they're all in the book.--[[User:Gong Boya|Gong Boya]] ([[User talk:Gong Boya|talk]]) 13:47, 6 November 2021 (UTC)

It is because ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' is neither an ordinary novel in vernacular Chinese, nor a simple narrative or gossip for readers. The author wrote it not for remuneration for the system of remuneration for writters did not exist at that time. It is not only an "encyclopedia" reflecting the feudal society, but also an exploration of some issues of common concern to mankind, such as the purpose of life, the good and evil of human nature, the true meaning of love, and the essence of religion. It covers almost everything, from the supreme emperor to the plebeian as tiny as reed, and from the politics, military and economy of the country to the daily life of the people. It includes astronomy, geography, animals, plants, architecture, costumes, medicine, astrology, zither, chess, calligraphy and painting, and so on. --[[User:He Qin|He Qin]] ([[User talk:He Qin|talk]]) 11:48, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

==何芩 Hé Qín 翻译学女 202120081489==
作者还调动了自己的全部才能和知识，汲取了前人的成果，撰写并引用了大量诗、词、曲、赋、歌、诔、谜语、酒令等，作为描写人物、叙述故事、揭示主题的艺术手段，从而成为作品的重要组成部分。这其中蕴藏着许多成语、典故和各种知识，现在的一般读者是很难读懂的。此外，由于曹雪芹以其家事为《红楼梦》的蓝本，且暴露了不少家丑，如秦可卿的淫荡乱伦等，因而大量采用了《春秋》笔法，即作者所谓将“真事隐去”，以“假语村言”的曲折方式进行暗示或隐寓，致使《红楼梦》扑朔迷离，迷雾重重。

The author also mobilized all his talents and knowledge and drew on the achievements of his predecessors, writing and quoting a large number of poems, lyrics, songs, eulogies, riddles and wine wager as artistic methods to describe characters, narrate stories and reveal themes, thus becoming an important part of the work. This contains many idioms, allusions and various kinds of knowledge that are difficult for the average readers to comprehend nowadays. In addition, Cao Xueqin used his family affairs as the blueprint for Dream of the Red Chamber and exposed many family scandals, such as Frivolity Grain's lewdness and incest. Cao, thus, adopted much of a writing style of ''Spring and Autumn Annals'', that is, the author's so-called "real things concealed", in the twisted way of "false words and village gossips", which has led to the ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' being puzzling and foggy.--[[User:He Qin|He Qin]] ([[User talk:He Qin|talk]]) 12:28, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

The author also mobilized all his talents and knowledge and took results from his predecessors, writing and quoting a large number of poems, lyrics, songs, eulogies, riddles and wine wager as artistic methods to describe characters, narrate stories and reveal themes, thus becoming an important part of the work. The novel contains many idioms, allusions and various kinds of knowledge that are difficult for the average readers to comprehend nowadays. In addition, Cao Xueqin used his family affairs as the blueprint for ''A Dream in Red Mansions'' and exposed many family scandals, such as Qin Keqing's lewdness and incest. Cao, thus, frequently adopted a writing style of Spring and Autumn Annals, that is, the author's so-called "real things concealed", using the twisted way of "false words and village gossips" to hint and make it metaphorical which has led to ''A Dream in Red Mansions'' being puzzling and foggy.--[[User:Hu Shuqing|Hu Shuqing]] ([[User talk:Hu Shuqing|talk]]) 08:35, 14 November 2021 (UTC)

==胡舒情 Hú Shūqíng 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081490==
因此帮助广大读者读懂《红楼梦》，也是《红楼梦》研究者义不容辞的责任。而要使读者读懂《红楼梦》，只作简单的文字注释不解决问题，必须加以详细注释，将隐藏于《红楼梦》字里行间的寓意一一揭示出来，才能完全展示《红楼梦》的本来面貌。我从学生时代起就期待这种《红楼梦》的详注本出现，一直等了半个世纪，可惜望眼欲穿而不见踪影。

Therefore, it is incumbent on researchers of ''A Dream in Red Mansions'' to help numerous readers understand the novel. For this, problem can’t be solved simply by text annotations. What should do is to add detailed explanatory notes to discover the meanings implied in characters, which can fully show the way the book originally is. I have expected the appearance of this version with detailed annotations since I was a student. I’ve waited for half a century, but it never comes out.--[[User:Hu Shuqing|Hu Shuqing]] ([[User talk:Hu Shuqing|talk]]) 02:46, 12 November 2021 (UTC)

Therefore, it is our researchers' duty to heip numerous readers understand A Dream in Red Mansions. To do that, simple text annotations are not enough. And detailed explanatory notes are needed to discover its implied meanings, which can fully show its characteristics. Waiting for half century, I have expected the apppearance of this version with detailed annotations since I was a student.--[[User:Huang Jinyun|Huang Jinyun]] ([[User talk:Huang Jinyun|talk]]) 01:49, 15 November 2021 (UTC)

==黄锦云 Huáng Jǐnyún 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081491==
很显然，“红学家”的队伍虽然不断壮大，看来他们对这种注释工作似乎不屑一顾。于是我这个“红学”的门外汉便斗胆一试，结果试出了这个《红楼梦》校注本。我这是“人弃我取”，希望不至于冒犯任何人。

Obviously, the amount of redologists who are sepcalists in A Dream of Red Mansion was increasing. They seemed to pay no attention to annotate that book, but I, as a layman, took a chance and tried to make the annotation of A Dream of Red Mansion. I thought it was an attitude of doing the things others gave up, which would not offend anyone.--[[User:Huang Jinyun|Huang Jinyun]] ([[User talk:Huang Jinyun|talk]]) 13:52, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

Obviously, the amount of redologists sepcalizing in A Dream of Red Mansion was increasing. They seemed to pay little attention to annotate that book, but I, as a layman, took a chance and tried to make the annotation of A Dream of Red Mansion. I thought it was an attitude of doing things others gave up, which I hope would not offend anyone.--[[User:Huang Yiyan1|Huang Yiyan1]] ([[User talk:Huang Yiyan1|talk]]) 14:20, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

==黄逸妍 Huáng Yìyán 外国语言学及应用语言学女 202120081492==
如果能成为“引玉”之“砖”，即使要做“众矢之的”，招来“万箭攒射”，我也决不后悔，因为这也算是我对《红楼梦》读者的小小奉献了。下面仅就与校注工作有关的几个具体问题略作说明。

一、作者问题

If I can serve as a modest spur to induce someone to come forward with his valuable contributions, I will never regret even if I could be the target of public criticism. It is because that the annotation work is also my dedication to the readers of A Dream of Red Mansions. And I will explain a little about the specific questions in proofreading below. 1. The Question of Author--[[User:Huang Yiyan1|Huang Yiyan1]] ([[User talk:Huang Yiyan1|talk]]) 12:40, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

If I can become a "brick" for "inviting jade", even if I want to be "a target of all targets" and attract "a thousand arrows", I will never regret it, because this is also a small dedication to the readers of "A Dream of Red Mansions". The following is only a brief description of a few specific issues related to the proofreading work.
1. Author's question--[[User:Zeng Junlin|Zeng Junlin]] ([[User talk:Zeng Junlin|talk]]) 11:06, 17 November 2021 (UTC)

==曾俊霖 Zēng Jùnlín 国别男 202120081478==
中国文学史中有两个突出现象：一是在封建时代得意并著名的文人不写小说；二是小说作品多不署名或只署化名。这完全是由封建统治者造成的。封建统治者的文学观是纯粹的政治功利主义，即所谓“文以载道”。

There are two outstanding phenomena in the history of Chinese literature: one is that famous and proud literati in the feudal era do not write novels; the other is that many novels do not sign or only sign pseudonyms. This is entirely caused by the feudal ruler. The feudal ruler’s literary view is pure political utilitarianism, that is, the so-called "writing is used to carry Tao".--[[User:Zeng Junlin|Zeng Junlin]] ([[User talk:Zeng Junlin|talk]]) 11:03, 17 November 2021 (UTC)

There are two prominent phenomena in the history of Chinese Literature: first, the proud and famous literati in the feudal era did not write novels; Second, most novels are not signed or only signed by pseudonyms. This was entirely caused by the feudal rulers. The literary view of feudal rulers was pure political utilitarianism, that is, the so-called "literature carries Tao".--[[User:Huang Zhuliang|Huang Zhuliang]] ([[User talk:Huang Zhuliang|talk]]) 12:42, 22 November 2021 (UTC)

==黄柱梁 Huáng Zhùliáng 国别男 202120081493==
他们认为小说不仅不能“载道”，而且往往“诲淫诲盗”，对封建统治构成威胁。因此不仅将小说排斥在正统文学之外，甚至常常以“禁毁”的方式加以扫荡。在文网森严及小说地位低贱的环境下，多数文人自然不敢或不屑从事小说的创作；而那些痴迷小说的作者也就不敢或不愿在小说作品上亮出自己的真名实姓。They faithfully believe that novels not only can not "educate citizens of Qing Dynasty", but also often be blessed with "obscenity and theft", which poses a threat to feudal rule.Therefore, novels are not only excluded from orthodox literature, but also often cleaned up in the way of "prohibition and destruction". In the social background of highly strict policy of Literary Network and low status of novels, most scholars naturally dare not or disdain to engage in novel creation; Those who are obsessed with novels are afraid or unwilling to show their real names in their novels.--[[User:Huang Zhuliang|Huang Zhuliang]] ([[User talk:Huang Zhuliang|talk]]) 02:46, 10 November 2021 (UTC)Huang Zhuliang

They believed that novels not only can not "educate citizens of Qing Dynasty", but also often be blessed with "obscenity and theft", which poses a threat to feudal rule.Therefore, novels are not only excluded from orthodox literature, but also often cleaned up in the way of "prohibition and destruction". In the social background of highly strict policy of Literary Network and of low status of novels, most scholars naturally dare not or disdain to engage in novel creation; Those who are obsessed with novels are afraid or unwilling to sign their real names in their novels.--[[User:Jin Xiaotong|Jin Xiaotong]] ([[User talk:Jin Xiaotong|talk]]) 13:18, 11 November 2021 (UTC)

==金晓童 Jīn Xiǎotóng 202120081494==
因此研究中国古代小说多了一项工作，即不得不对小说作者加以考证。《红楼梦》也不例外，它的作者连化名都未署一个。“红学家”们为了考证它的作者，不知耗费了多少精力和时间，然而由于史料不足，至今仍然众说纷纭,难以形成共识。

Therefore, there is one more task to study ancient Chinese novels, that is, we have to do textual research on the authors of the novels. ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' is no exception. Its author does not even have a pseudonym. In order to do textual research on its author, the "redologists" spent a lot of energy and time. However, due to the lack of historical data, opinions are still varied and it is difficult to reach a consensus.--[[User:Jin Xiaotong|Jin Xiaotong]] ([[User talk:Jin Xiaotong|talk]]) 01:57, 6 November 2021 (UTC)
Therefore, there is one more task to study ancient Chinese novels, that is, we have to do textual research on the authors of the novels. ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' is no exception, whose author does not even have a pseudonym. In order to do textual research on its author, the "redologists" spent a lot of energy and time. However, due to the lack of historical data, opinions are still varied and it is difficult to reach a consensus.--[[User:Kuang Yanli|Kuang Yanli]] ([[User talk:Kuang Yanli|talk]]) 06:39, 15 November 2021 (UTC)

==邝艳丽 Kuàng Yànl 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081495==
据我个人所知，至少就有七种说法：其一为“曹作高续”说。即认为曹雪芹写到八十回而去世，并可能留下了后四十回的某些提纲以及部分书稿；高鹗根据曹雪芹的这些提纲、书稿以及前八十回中的许多暗示，还可能参考了其他人的续作，完成了后四十回的创作，并对前八十回加以修订，从而使《红楼梦》成为完璧。
As far as I am concerned, there are at least seven sayings: one of which is that ''Dream of Red Mansions'' was written by Cao Xueqin and then finished by Gao. The saying means that Cao passed away and left some outline and manuscripts of the latter fourth chapters when the former eighty chapters was finished. Then, Gao finished the latter forty chapters and reviewed the former eighty chapters, according to some outlines, manuscripts and clues made by Cao, referring to other sequels. Finally, ''Dream of Red Mansion'' was finished. --[[User:Kuang Yanli|Kuang Yanli]] ([[User talk:Kuang Yanli|talk]]) 06:27, 15 November 2021 (UTC)

As far as I am concerned, there are at least seven sayings: one of which is that ''Dream of Red Mansions'' was written by Cao Xueqin and then finished by Gao. The saying means that Cao had passed away and left some outline and manuscripts of the latter fourth chapters while the former eighty chapters was finished. Then, Gao finished the latter forty chapters and reviewed the former eighty chapters, according to some outlines, manuscripts and clues made by Cao, referring to other sequels. Finally, ''Dream of Red Mansion'' was finished.--[[User:Li Aixuan|Li Aixuan]] ([[User talk:Li Aixuan|talk]]) 13:04, 15 November 2021 (UTC)

==李爱璇 Lǐ Àixuán 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081496==
其二为“曹作程续高订”说。即认为前八十回的作者是曹雪芹，后四十回的作者是程伟元，高鹗只是参加了全书的修订工作。其三为“曹作高续程订”说。即认为前八十回的作者是曹雪芹，后四十回的作者是高鹗，程伟元则对曹雪芹的前八十回加以修订。

The second is the theory of "Cao came to write, Cheng continued to write, Gao to revise". That is, the author of the first 80 chapters is Cao Xueqin, the author of the last 40 chapters is Cheng Weiyuan, and Gao E only participated in the revision of the whole book. The third is the theory of "Cao came to write, Gao continued to write, Cheng to revise". That is, the author of the first 80 chapters is Cao Xueqin, the author of the last 40 chapters is Gao E, and Cheng Weiyuan revised Cao Xueqin's first 80 chapters.--[[User:Li Aixuan|Li Aixuan]] ([[User talk:Li Aixuan|talk]]) 12:47, 6 November 2021 (UTC)

The second statement said that "Started by Cao, completed by Chen, and revised by Gao". That’s to say, the first 80 chapters were written by Cao Xueqin, the last 40 chapters were written by Cheng Weiyuan, and Gao E only revised the whole book. The third statement said that "Started by Cao, completed by Gao, and revised by Chen". That’s to say, the first 80 chapters were written by Cao Xueqin, the last 40 chapters were written by Gao E, and Cheng Weiyaun made revisions to the first 80 chapters of Cao Xueqin.--[[User:Li Ruiyang|Li Ruiyang]] ([[User talk:Li Ruiyang|talk]]) 11:56, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

==李瑞洋 Lǐ Ruìyáng 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081497==
其四为“曹作某续高订”说。即认为在程伟元和高鹗之前，已有人为曹雪芹的未完稿续写完全，程伟元将搜集到的抄本交由高鹗修订，然后刊行。其五为“曹作程高修订”说。

The fourth statement said that “Started by Cao, completed by someone, and revised by Gao”. That's to say, before Cheng Weiyuan and Gao E, there was someone who completed Cao Xueqin's unfinished writing. Then, Cheng Weiyuan collected this hand-copied version and provided it for Gao E to revise, and afterwards ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' was published . The fifth statement said that “Started by Cao, and revised by both Cheng and Gao ”.--[[User:Li Ruiyang|Li Ruiyang]] ([[User talk:Li Ruiyang|talk]]) 08:08, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

The fourth statement said that "This masterpiece is started by Cao, completed by someone, and revised by Gao". That's to say, before Cheng Weiyuan and Gao E, there was someone who completed Cao Xueqin's unfinished work. Then, Cheng Weiyuan collected these hand-copied drafts and offered them to Gao E to revise, and afterwards ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' was published. The fifth statement noted that "It was started by Cao, and revised by both Cheng and Gao".--[[User:Li Shan|Li Shan]] ([[User talk:Li Shan|talk]]) 13:52, 14 November 2021 (UTC)

==李姗 Lǐ Shān 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081498==
即认为曹雪芹已经完成了《红楼梦》全书，只是未遑修饰而去世，后由程伟元和高鹗共同修订并刊行。其六为“叔作侄订”说。即认为《红楼梦》的原作者是曹雪芹的叔父曹頫，也就是给《红楼梦》加批的“脂砚斋”；曹雪芹只是对它“披阅十载，增删五次”。

It was commonly believed that Cao Xueqin had finished the draft of ''A Dream in Red Mansions'', while as a result of his death it was not polished by himself, but co-revised and published by Cheng Weiyuan an Gao 'E later on. Sixly, rumar had it that this classic was the common product of the uncle and the nephew. That was to say, the original author of that masterpiece was Cao Fu, Cao Xueqin's uncle, who was at the same time the very one that added notes in that masterpiece, and Cao Xueqin just played the role of repeatedly revising it.--[[User:Li Shan|Li Shan]] ([[User talk:Li Shan|talk]]) 13:55, 14 November 2021 (UTC)

It was commonly believed that Cao Xueqin had finished the draft of ''A Dream in Red Mansions''. As a result of his death it was not published by himself. However, co-revised and published by Cheng Weiyuan an Gao 'E later on. Rumar had it that this classic was the common product of the uncle and the nephew. Which shows, the original author of that masterpiece was Cao Fu, Cao Xueqin's uncle, who was at the same time the only one who added notes in that masterpiece, and Cao Xueqin just repeatedly revised it.--[[User:Li Shan|Li Shan]] ([[User talk:Li Shan|talk]]) 13:35, 6 November 2021 (UTC)
--[[User:Mahzad Heydarian|Mahzad Heydarian]] ([[User talk:Mahzad Heydarian|talk]]) 22:31, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

It was commonly believed that Cao Xueqin had finished the draft of ''A Dream in Red Mansions'', but died before he could polish it. As a result, the draft was co-revised and published by Cheng Weiyuan an Gao 'E later on. The sixth opinion is that this classic is the common product of the uncle and the nephew. That's to say, the original author of that masterpiece was Cao Fu, Cao Xueqin's uncle, who was at the same time the very one that added notes in that masterpiece, and Cao Xueqin just played the role of repeatedly revising it.--[[User:Li Shuang|Li Shuang]] ([[User talk:Li Shuang|talk]]) 15:35, 14 November 2021 (UTC)

==李双 Lǐ Shuāng 翻译学女 202120081499==
其七为“某作曹订”说。即认为《红楼梦》的原作者是个与曹家毫不相干的无名氏，曹雪芹只是个修订者。“红学家”对《红楼梦》作者的意见分歧，使出版者无所适从，因而造成了新版《红楼梦》署名的混乱：或只署曹雪芹，或并署曹雪芹、高鹗，或干脆不署名。

The seventh opinion is that “a certain author, Cao revised”. That is to say, the original author of ''A Dream in Red Mansions'' is an anonymous person who has no relation with Cao’s family, and Cao Xueqin is only the reviser. The different opinions among the “redologists” about the author of ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' caused the publishers not to know what to do. The new versions are therefore in confusion: some signed Cao Xueqin alone, some signed Cao Xueqin and Gao E together, and some signed nothing at all.--[[User:Li Shuang|Li Shuang]] ([[User talk:Li Shuang|talk]]) 09:40, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

The seventh opinion is that “a certain author, Cao revised”. That is to say, the original author of ''The Dream of the Red Chamber'' was an anonymous person who had no relation with the Cao’s, and Cao Xueqin was only a reviser. The different opinions among the “redologists” about the author of ''The Dream of the Red Chamber'' caused the publishers not to know what to do. The new versions are therefore in confusion: some signed Cao Xueqin alone, some signed Cao Xueqin and Gao E together, and some signed nothing at all. --[[User:Li Wenxuan|Li Wenxuan]] ([[User talk:Li Wenxuan|talk]]) 11:33, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

==李文璇 Lǐ Wénxuán 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081500==
由于我对这个问题缺乏专门研究，只能在以上七种说法中加以选择。我认为这七种说法都有一定的根据，均非空穴来风。但相比之下，第一种说法的证据更为充分，也得到了学界的普遍认可，因此仍将曹雪芹和高鹗作为《红楼梦》的共同作者。

Because of a lack of specialized research to this question, I had to select from the seven statements above. I thought that the seven statements were of certain basis. However, with comparison, the evidence of first statement was more sufficient, and was largely approved by the academic circles. So, Cao Xueqin Autor and Gao E were still regarded as the co-author of ''the Dream of the Red Chamber''. --[[User:Li Wenxuan|Li Wenxuan]] ([[User talk:Li Wenxuan|talk]]) 01:47, 6 November 2021 (UTC)
Being lacking in specialized research to this question, I had to select from the above seven versions . I thought that they were of certain basis. However, with comparison, the first statement was more credible, and was largely approved by the academic circles. So, Cao Xueqin and Gao E were still regarded as the co-author of ''the Dream of the Red Chamber''.--[[User:Li Wen|Li Wen]] ([[User talk:Li Wen|talk]]) 06:57, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

==李雯 Lǐ Wén 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081501==
至于这种说法的具体根据，以及两作者的生平，已见于不少专文，这里不再赘述。

二、版本问题

由于《红楼梦》创作过程和流传过程的特殊性，造成了《红楼梦》版本的复杂性。
We will not describe more about the specific reason of this opinion and lives of the two authors because a lot of scholars have discussed it.
二、Version problem
The unique process of creating and circulating A Dream in Red Mansions leads to such complicated versions of it.--[[User:Li Wen|Li Wen]] ([[User talk:Li Wen|talk]]) 06:52, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

As well as the life of the two authors, has been seen in a number of articles, here will not be repeated.
Second, the version of the problem because of the "Dream of Red Mansions" creative process and the special nature of the process of circulation, resulting in the "Dream of Red Mansions" version of the complexity.--[[User:Li Xinxing|Li Xinxing]] ([[User talk:Li Xinxing|talk]]) 04:36, 24 November 2021 (UTC)

==李新星 Lǐ Xīnxīng 亚非语言文学女 202120081503==

而《红楼梦》版本的复杂性，又迫使我们不得不有所选择。《红楼梦》的创作和流传过程可以分为四个阶段：其一是曹雪芹的创作阶段。虽然曹雪芹自称“披阅十载，增删五次”，其实由于他溘然而逝，只留下了一部《红楼梦》的未完稿和未定稿。

The complexity of the version of a Dream of Red Mansions forces us to make choices. The creation and spread of a Dream of Red Mansions can be divided into four stages: one is Cao Xueqin Autor's creation stage. Although Cao Xueqin Autor, claimed that "reading for ten years, adding and deleting five times", in fact, because of his death, leaving only a dream of red Mansions unfinished and unfinished.--[[User:Li Xinxing|Li Xinxing]] ([[User talk:Li Xinxing|talk]]) 08:59, 9 November 2021 (UTC)
--[[User:Li Xinxing|Li Xinxing]] ([[User talk:Li Xinxing|talk]]) 13:16, 29 December 2021 (UTC)
The complexity of the version of a ''dream of Red Mansions'' forces us to choose. The creation and spread of the ''dream of Red Mansions'' can be divided into four stages: one is the creation stage of Cao Xueqin Autor. Although Cao Xueqin Autor claimed to "read for ten years, add and delete five times", in fact, due to his death, only one unfinished and undecided version of a dream of Red Mansions was left.--[[User:Li Yi|Li Yi]] ([[User talk:Li Yi|talk]]) 14:16, 9 November 2021 (UTC)

==李怡 Lǐ Yí 法语语言文学女 202120081504==
他只完成了八十回，约相当于全书的三分之二。他不仅未对这八十回的书稿进行修订润色，而且还有不少待补的缺文。以“红学家”认为最好的版本“庚辰本”为例：第十七、十八两回合用一套回目，第十九回没有回目；第二十二回写荣国府作灯谜游戏，“此回未成而芹逝矣”(脂砚斋批语)，以至不仅缺了主要人物贾宝玉、林黛玉和史湘云的灯谜，而且本回还有不少其他缺文；如此等等。
He completed only eighty times, about two-thirds of the book. Not only did he leave the eighty drafts unrevised, but there was still much to be done. To the researcher of a dream of Red Mansions that the best version of the "gengchen Ben" as an example: the 17th, 18th round with a set of return, the 19th back no return; The twenty-second time to write rongguo Mansion for lantern riddle game, the chapter is unfinished but Cao Xueqin is dead (the ink stone lent comments), so that not only the lack of lantern riddles of the main characters Precious Jade Merchant , Mascara Jade Forest and Fragrant-cloud History, and this time there are many other lack of text; And so on.--[[User:Li Yi|Li Yi]] ([[User talk:Li Yi|talk]]) 05:26, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

He completed only eighty chapters, about two-thirds of the whole book. Not only did he leave the eighty drafts unrevised and unpolished, but there was still much missing pages to be filled. Take the “Gengchen Version” as an example, which was considered the best version by Redology scholars, the 17th, 18th chapters kept the same content and the 19th had no content; The chapter 22, which was about Rongguo Mansion' lantern riddle game, was unfinished before Cao Xueqin passed away. (comments from the Ink Stone Lent), so that there was not only a lack of lantern riddles of the main characters Precious Jade Merchant, Mascara Jade Forest and Fragrant-cloud History, but also many other contents, and so on.--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 06:53, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

==刘沛婷 Liú Pèitíng 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081505==
其二是曹雪芹《红楼梦》八十回本的传抄阶段，其间大约近三十年。由于抄书速度很慢，《红楼梦》的篇幅又很长，要想在短时间内抄完一部，需集多人之手。故多为达官显宦之家雇佣抄手，集体完成。

The second lay in the transmission and copying stage of 80 chapters of Cao Xueqin's ''A Dream of Red Mansions'', which lasted about 30 years. Due to the slow speed of copying and the long length of the novel, it required cooperation in order to scribe it done in a short time. Therefore it was the noble officials anddignitaries who often hired scribes to do the task together.--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 06:39, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

The second stage is the transmission and copying of 80 chapters of ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' written by Cao Xueqin, which lasted about 30 years. Due to the slow speed of copying and the long length of the novel, it required cooperation in order to finish it in a short time. Therefore it was the noble officials and dignitaries who often hired scribes to do the task together.--[[User:Liu Shengnan|Liu Shengnan]] ([[User talk:Liu Shengnan|talk]]) 05:33, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

==刘胜楠 Liú Shèngnán 翻译学女 202120081506==
又因它是一部未完稿和未定稿，抄手便自觉或不自觉地加以增删修改；而抄手大多水平不高，且良莠不齐，鲁鱼亥豕，在所难免。从而导致大量异文乃至讹误的产生。其三是高鹗和程伟元续写后四十回并对全书进行修订和刊行的阶段。

And because it was an unfinished and undecided manuscript, the scribes consciously or unconsciously added, deleted and modified it. Most scribes lacked skills and the level of copying varied in quality. Accordingly, it was inevitable that clerical errors occurred, which led to a large number of variant versions of the book and even misinterpretations in the text. The third was the stage when Gao E and Cheng Weiyuan wrote a continuation of 40 chapters for ''A Dream in Red Mansions'', revised and published the whole book.--[[User:Liu Shengnan|Liu Shengnan]] ([[User talk:Liu Shengnan|talk]]) 13:29, 6 November 2021 (UTC)

And because it was an unfinished and undecided manuscript, the copywriters consciously or unconsciously added, deleted or modified it; Because most copywriters lacked skills and their level of copying varied in quality.so it was inevitable that led to a large number of different texts and even errors in the text. The third was the stage when E Gao and Weiyuan Cheng continued to write the last 40 chapters of ''A Dream in Red Mansions'',revised and published the whole book. --[[User:Liu Wei|Liu Wei]] ([[User talk:Liu Wei|talk]]) 03:47, 7 November 2021 (UTC)Liu Wei

==刘薇 Liú Wēi 国别女 202120081507==
其间又可分为四段：首先由程伟元对各种《红楼梦》抄本加以搜集(其中可能包括无名氏续写的书稿)；其次由高鹗续写后四十回，并对前八十回进行大量修订(程伟元也可能参与了修订工作)；又次由程伟元于乾隆五十六年（公元1791年）用活字排印出版一百二十回本，后来被胡适先生命名为“程甲本”；次年由高鹗和程伟元对“程甲本”加以修订再版，后来又被胡适先生命名为“程乙本”。据说还有“程丙本”，如今已经不知下落，据个别看过的人说，较之“程乙本”改动甚少，因而可以置之不论。

It can be divided into four periods: firstly,Weiyuan Cheng collected various transcripts of ''A Dream of Red Mansions ''(including the manuscripts of a sequel written by anonymous authors); Secondly,E Gao continued to write the last 40 chapters and made a lot of revisions to the first 80 chapters (Weiyuan Cheng may also had participated in the revision work); thirdly, another 120 copies were printed and published by Weiyuan Cheng in movable type in the 56th year of the Emperor of Qianlong (AD 1791), which was later named "Cheng Jia Edition" by Mr.Shi Hu;Lastly, in the following year, E Gao and Weiyuan Cheng revised and republished the "Cheng Jia Edition", which was later named "Cheng Yi Ben" by Mr.Shi Hu. It is said that there is also "Cheng bing Edition", which is unknown now. According to someone who have seen it, there are few changes compared with "Cheng Yi Edition", so it can be set aside. --[[User:Liu Wei|Liu Wei]] ([[User talk:Liu Wei|talk]]) 03:22, 7 November 2021 (UTC)Liu Wei

It can be divided into four stages: in the first stage, Cheng Weiyuan collected all kinds of transcripts of ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' (including the manuscripts of a sequel written by unknown authors); Secondly, Gao E continued the last 40 chapters and made a lot of revisions to the first 80 ones (Cheng Weiyuan may also had participated in the revision work); thirdly, another 120 copies were printed and published by Cheng Weiyuan in movable type in the 56th year under the reign of the emperor Qianlong (AD 1791), which were later named "Cheng Jia (the first) Editions" by Hu Shi; Lastly, in the following year, Gao E and Cheng Weiyuan revised and republished the "Cheng Jia Edition", which was later named "Cheng Yi (the second) Edition" by Hu Shi. It is said that there was also "Cheng Bing (the third) Edition", which now has no whereabouts. According to someone who had once read it, compared with "Cheng Yi Edition", there were so few changes that it could be set aside.--[[User:Liu Xiao|Liu Xiao]] ([[User talk:Liu Xiao|talk]]) 15:11, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

==刘晓 Liú Xiǎo 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081508==
其四是《红楼梦》刊本的流传阶段。此段从程伟元的活字本问世开始，直到现在。在刊本出现后，虽然由于某些人的爱好或习惯，仍有抄本流传，但已是强弩之末，不成气候，而刊本的流传却如燎原之势，席卷全国。

The fourth period is the circulation of the printed versions of ''a Dream of Red Mansions''. This stage has been going on since Cheng Weiyuan's movable printed editions were published. After these versions appeared, though transcripts were still spreading due to some people's hobbies or habits, it was like a spent arrow and no longer had great influence, while the printed versions spread and swept like fire through the country.--[[User:Liu Xiao|Liu Xiao]] ([[User talk:Liu Xiao|talk]]) 14:22, 6 November 2021 (UTC)

The fourth period is the circulation of the printed versions of ''a Dream of Red Mansions''. This stage start from cheng Weiyuan's movable type book came out and until now. After the publication appeared, although due to some people's hobbies or habits, it was like a spent arrow and no longer had great influence, while the printed versions spread and swept like fire through the country.--[[User:Liu Yue|Liu Yue]] ([[User talk:Liu Yue|talk]]) 07:00, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

==刘越 Liú Yuè 亚非语言文学女 202120081509==
《红楼梦》如此特殊的创作和流传过程，导致了《红楼梦》的“三多”现象：版本多，异文多，讹误多。幸运的是，近几十年来，这些版本不仅不断被发现，而且陆续被影印出版，从而使我们得以大饱眼福。仅就我个人视野所及，即有十二种版本，而且五花八门：或名《石头记》(5种)，或名《红楼梦》(7种)；或为抄本(10种)，或为刊本(2种)；或为八十回系统(8种，其中6种为残本)，或为一百二十回系统(4种)。

The special creation and dissemination process of A Dream of Red Mansions leads to the phenomenon of "three many" : many versions, many different texts and many errors. Fortunately, in recent decades, these editions have not only been discovered, but photocopied and published, so that we can feast our eyes on them. As far as I can see, there are twelve versions, and they are diverse，named as "The Story of the Stone" (five versions) or "A Dream of Red Mansions" (seven versions). Some are codex (10 kinds) and some are periodical (2 kinds); Some are 80 chapter system (8 types, 6 of which are incomplete) and some are 120 chapter system (4 types).--[[User:Liu Yue|Liu Yue]] ([[User talk:Liu Yue|talk]]) 06:53, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

The special creation and dissemination process of ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' led to a phenomenon called "three many": many editions, many variants and many errors. Fortunately, in recent decades, these editions have not only been discovered, but successively photocopied and published, which greatly regale us. As far as I know, there are twelve editions in great diversity. Some are titled ''The Story of the Stone'' (five editions), or ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' (seven editions); some are hand-copied (10 editions), while some printed (8 including 6 incomplete editions); some are composed of 80 chapters, while some others 120 chapters.--[[User:Liu Yunxin|Liu Yunxin]] ([[User talk:Liu Yunxin|talk]]) 13:17, 13 November 2021 (UTC)

==刘运心 Liú Yùnxīn 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081510==
《红楼梦》的众多版本，对于研究者是极有价值的，它们可以帮助研究者分析《红楼梦》的创作过程和流传过程，并进行比较研究。但对于普通读者来说，如此眼花缭乱的版本，犹如坠入五里雾中，使他们无从选择。因此《红楼梦》的研究者有义务为他们提供一个最好的版本。

The various versions of ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' have enormous value to researchers. They can be helpful to researchers in analyzing the processes of creation and dissemination, and facilitating comparative studies. However, for common readers, such a dazzling array of versions might leave them with a foggy head and unable to decide. Therefore, researchers are obliged to offer the best version. --[[User:Liu Yunxin|Liu Yunxin]] ([[User talk:Liu Yunxin|talk]]) 06:09, 10 November 2021 (UTC)
The various versions of ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' are valuable to researchers, which can helpful to them in analyzing the processes of creation and dissemination of the book, as well as working on comparative studies. However, it would be confusing and indeterminable for the general readers when facing with such a dazzling array of versions. It’ s therefore incumbent upon researchers to offer the best version.
--[[User:Luo Anyi|Luo Anyi]] ([[User talk:Luo Anyi|talk]]) 14:32, 14 November 2021 (UTC)

==罗安怡 Luó Ānyí 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081511==
况且为了很好地保存这笔珍贵的文化遗产，也必须确立一种《红楼梦》的最好版本。那么哪一种版本是《红楼梦》的最好版本呢？答案就是“程乙本”。鉴于至今仍有“红学家”对高鹗续写的《红楼梦》后四十回既持否定态度，又在出版《红楼梦》时不得不用它与曹雪芹的前八十回相配为完整的一百二十回本，我在这里必须首先对高续后四十回的价值略作说明。

Moreover, in order to preserve this precious cultural heritage, it is also necessary to establish the best version of ''Dream of the Red Chamber''. So which is the best version? The answer is "Cheng Yi Ben". Since, when publishing ''Dream of the Red Chamber'', there are still "Redologists" who have a negative attitude towards Gao E 's subsequent writing of the later forty chapters of ''Dream of the Red Chamber'', and who had to use Gao‘ s creation in conjunction with Cao Xueqin's first eighty chapters as the complete one—hundred and twenty chapters, I must first give a brief explanation of the value of Gao's continuation of the later forty chapters.--[[User:Luo Anyi|Luo Anyi]] ([[User talk:Luo Anyi|talk]]) 07:18, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

Moreover，it is also necessary to establish the best version of ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' to preserve this precious cultural heritage.So which one is the best version of it？The answer is "Cheng Yi Ben".Since there is still opposition against the forty chapters wrote by Gao E，the “master of the Dream of the Red Chamber，while it is a must to combine them and the eighty chapters wrote by Cao Xueqin to form an integral book which has one hundred and twenty chapters，I must briefly introduce the value of the forty chapters wrote by Gao E--[[User:Luo Xi|Luo Xi]] ([[User talk:Luo Xi|talk]]) 08:46, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

==罗曦 Luó Xī 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081512==
率先冲破评点派和索隐派而从中国小说发展史的角度客观评价高鹗续书的是胡适先生。他在1921年11月12日定稿的《〈红楼梦〉考证》（见1923年亚东图书馆版《胡适文存》）中说：我们平心而论，高鹗补的四十回，虽然比不上前八十回，也确然有不可埋没的好处。他写司棋之死，写鸳鸯之死，写妙玉的遭遇，写凤姐的死，写袭人的嫁，都是很有精采的小品文字。
The man who first transcend the groups of criticizing and objectively comment the continuation of Gao E from the perspective of the history of the development of Chinese novels is Hu Shi.He said in his 《Test of the Dream of the red mansions》finalised in 1921，12th November that：“To be honest，Gao E’s supplementary forty chapters，though not comparable to the original eighty chapters，still boast their own outstanding merits.For instance，he wrote the death of Si Qi，of Yuan Yang，of Feng Jie，the encounter of Miao Yu and the marriage of Xi Ren，are all excellent facetious words.--[[User:Luo Xi|Luo Xi]] ([[User talk:Luo Xi|talk]]) 12:08, 9 November 2021 (UTC)

It was Mr. Hu Shi who firstly made a breakthrough between “Pingdian Group” and “Suoying Group” and objectively evaluated Gao E’s continuation from the perspective of Chinese novel’s history. In ''A Textual Research on A Dream of Red Mansions'' finalized on November 12, 1921 (''Hu Shi’s Article Archive'', Yadong Library Edition, 1923), he said, “To be fair, the following forty episodes written by Gao E certainly have undeniable charm although not as good as the previous eighty. He ended Siqi’s life with death, wrote about the death of Yuanyang, the suffering of Miaoyu, Sister Feng’s demise and the marriage of Xiren, all of which are really brilliant sketches. --[[User:Ma Xin|Ma Xin]] ([[User talk:Ma Xin|talk]]) 06:31, 12 November 2021 (UTC)

==马新 Mǎ Xīn 外国语言学及应用语言学女 202120081513==
最可注意的是这些人都写作悲剧的下场。还有那最重要的“木石前盟”一件公案，高鹗居然忍心害理的教黛玉病死，教宝玉出家，作一个大悲剧的结束，打破了中国小说的团圆迷信。这一点悲剧的眼光，不能不令人佩服。

It is noteworthy that all these people wrote about tragic endings, expecially th most important case of " Wood and Stone's Previous Oath". In the novel, Gao E auturally had the heart to leave Daiyu to die of illness and Baoyu to become a monk. He made it ended up as a great tragedy and broke the routine of "reunion superstition" in traditional Chinese novels, which could not be more admirable from the tragic perspective.--[[User:Ma Xin|Ma Xin]] ([[User talk:Ma Xin|talk]]) 05:00, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

It is most noteworthy that all these characters are created with tragic endings. And as regards the most important case --- "The Pledge in front of Wood and Stone", in the novel, the author Gao E actually ended Mascara Jade Forest's (Lin Daiyu's) life with death resulting from illness and left Precious Jade Merchant (Jia Baoyu) to become a monk. Gao E finished ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' with a tragical epilogue so as to break the superstition that Chinese novels routinely end in happy reunion. In this sense, Gao E's tragic perspective deserves admiration and praise.--[[User:Mao Yawen|Mao Yawen]] ([[User talk:Mao Yawen|talk]]) 08:09, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

==毛雅文 Máo Yǎwén 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081514==
我们试看高鹗以后，那许多续《红楼梦》和补《红楼梦》的人，那一个不是想把黛玉、晴雯都从棺材里扶出来，重新配给宝玉？那一个不是想做一部“团圆”的《红楼梦》的？我们这里退一步想，就不能不佩服高鹗的补本了。我们不但佩服，还应该感谢他，因为他这部悲剧的补本……居然打倒了后来无数的团圆《红楼梦》，居然替中国保存了一部有悲剧下场的小说！

As we can see, after Gao E finished ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' (which was left unfinished by the previous author Cao Xueqin), many of those who wrote this work continually or supplementarily were all eager to save Mascars Jade Forest (Lin Daiyu) and Sunny Cloud Formation (Qing Wen), who died and lay in coffin, and then to betroth them to Precious Jade Merchant (Jia Baoyu). And these writers all had the desire to end the story in a warm reunion. On second thought, we cannot but have a high opinion of Gao E's supplementary version ''A Dream of Red Mansions''. Arguably, not only should we admire but show gratitude for him, on the grounds that, his edition packed with tragic color is unexpectedly more laudatory than those with happy endings, actually preserving a novel with the tragical epilogue in China.--[[User:Mao Yawen|Mao Yawen]] ([[User talk:Mao Yawen|talk]]) 07:35, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

As we can see, after Gao E finished ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' (which was left unfinished by the previous author Cao Xueqin), many of those who wrote this work continually or supplementarily were all eager to save Lin Daiyu and Qing Wen (or Sunny Cloud Formation), who died and lay in coffin, and then to betroth them to Jia Baoyu (or Precious Jade Merchant). Which writer did not want to create "A Dream of the Red mansion" with a reunion ending? On second thought, we cannot but have a high opinion of Gao E's supplementary version ''A Dream of Red Mansions''. Arguably, not only should we admire but show gratitude for him, on the grounds that, his edition packed with tragic color is unexpectedly more laudatory than those with happy endings, actually preserving a novel with the tragical epilogue in China.--[[User:Mao You|Mao You]] ([[User talk:Mao You|talk]]) 12:33, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

==毛优 Máo Yōu 俄语语言文学女 202120081515==
几乎与胡适同时，俞平伯先生也对高鹗的续书予以专章论述。他在1923年亚东图书馆出版的《红楼梦辨·论续书底不可能》中说：从高鹗以下，百馀年来，续《红楼梦》的人如此之多，但都是失败的……我以为凡书都不能续，不但《红楼梦》不能续；凡续书的人都失败，不但高鹗诸人失败而已。
Almost at the same time as Hu Shi, Mr. Yu Pingbo also devoted a chapter to the continuation of Gao E's book. He said in the "A Dream of the Red Mansion - the impossibility of the continuation of the book" published by the Yadong Library in 1923: From Gao E down, more than a hundred years, so many people have renewed the "A Dream of the Red Mansion", but they all failed ...... I think all books can not be renewed, not only the "A Dream of the Red Mansion" can not be renewed; all the people who renewed the book failed, not only Gao E and others failed.--[[User:Mao You|Mao You]] ([[User talk:Mao You|talk]]) 12:27, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

Almost at the same time as Hu Shi, Mr. Yu Pingbo also devoted a comment chapter to the continuation of Gao E. He said in the "A Dream of the Red Mansion - the impossibility of the continuation of the book" published by the Yadong Library in 1923: Since Gao E, more than a hundred years, so many people have renewed the "A Dream of the Red Mansion", but they all failed ... I think all books can not be renewed, not only the "A Dream of the Red Mansion" is in the case; all the people who renewed books failed, not only Gao E and others did.--[[User:Mou Yixin|Mou Yixin]] ([[User talk:Mou Yixin|talk]]) 01:43, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

==牟一心 Móu Yīxīn 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081516==
因此他的结论是：高鹗诸人续写的《红楼梦》都是“狗尾续貂”。俞先生“凡书都不能续”、“凡续书的人都失败”的说法未免武断，至少措辞不够严谨。事实上，成功的续书并非没有，只是不多。

Therefore, his conclusion is: The continuations of "The Dream of Red Mansions" written by the Gao E and others are all "wretched sequels to a masterpiece." Mr. Yu’s statement that “every book cannot be continued” and “everyone who renews a book fails” is a bit too arbitrary, at least the wording is not rigorous enough. In fact, successful continuations do exist, but are not substantial.--[[User:Mou Yixin|Mou Yixin]] ([[User talk:Mou Yixin|talk]]) 01:29, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

He therefore concludes that the sequels to Dream of the Red Chamber written by the Gao Ospreys are all "dog tails on a marten", which means a wretched sequels to a masterpiece. Mr. Yu's statement that "all books cannot be renewed" and "all those who renew books will fail" is arbitrary, or at least not carefully worded. In fact, successful continuations do exist, but are not substantial.--[[User:Peng Ruixue|Peng Ruixue]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruixue|talk]]) 23:35, 9 November 2021 (UTC)

==彭瑞雪 Péng Ruìxuě 法语语言文学女 202120081517==
且不说成功的学术著作不乏范例，就是小说作品的续书也有成功的。譬如清代陈忱的《水浒后传》、近代吴趼人的《新石头记》，就都是别开生面之作。不过俞先生毕竟是严肃的学者，尽管他对高鹗的续书很不满意，却对高鹗的功绩予以肯定。

Not to mention that there is no shortage of examples of successful scholarly works, there are also successful sequels to works of fiction. For example, Chen Chen's ''The Afterlife of Water Margin'' in the Qing dynasty and Wu Jianren's ''The New Story of the Stone'' in the modern era are both original works. But Mr. Yu, after all, was a serious scholar, and although he was dissatisfied with Gao E's sequel, he acknowledged Gao's merits.--[[User:Peng Ruixue|Peng Ruixue]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruixue|talk]]) 23:25, 9 November 2021 (UTC)

Not to mention that there is no shortage of successful examples of scholarly works, there are also successes in sequels to works of fiction. For example, Chen Chen's ''The Afterlife of Water Margin'' in the Qing dynasty and Wu Jianren's ''The New Story of the Stone'' in the modern era are both original works in new forms. But Mr. Yu, after all, was a serious scholar, and although he was dissatisfied with Gao E's sequel, he acknowledged Gao's merits.--[[User:Qing Jianan|Qing Jianan]] ([[User talk:Qing Jianan|talk]]) 09:06, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

==秦建安 Qín Jiànān 外国语言学及应用语言学女 202120081518==
他在《红楼梦辨·后四十回底批评》中说：高鹗以审慎的心思，正当的态度来续《红楼梦》；他宁可失之于拘泥，不敢失之于杜撰。其所以失败：一则因《红楼梦》本非可以续补的书，二则因高鹗与曹雪芹个性相差太远，便不自觉地相违远了。处处去追寻作者，而始终赶他不上，以致迷途；这是他失败时底光景。

He said in the ''Defense of The Dream of Red Mansion: the criticism of the last forty chapters'': “GaoE continued writing The Dream of Red Mansion with his prudent intention and serious attitude; He would rather make it up than adhere to it. There are two reasons for the failure of his version. The first is that the book itself is not a book that can be continued writing. The other is GaoE’ s character is different far from Cao Xueqin’sw which naturally lead to his misconception about this book. He tried his best to catch the main points of Cao Xueqin whereas he even couldn’t see the back of Cao Xueqin resulting in the wrong path. This is his background of failure.--[[User:Qing Jianan|Qing Jianan]] ([[User talk:Qing Jianan|talk]]) 08:11, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

He said in the '' Defense of A Dream of Red Mansions: the criticism of the last forty chapters '': “Gao E continued writing '' A Dream of Red Mansions '' with his prudent intention and serious attitude; He would rather rigidly adhere to the content than fabricate some details. There are two reasons for the failure of his version. The first is that this novel itself is not the one that can be continued writing. The other is that Gao E’ s character is different far from Cao Xueqin’s which naturally lead to very distinct characteristics in this novel. He tried his best to catch the main points of Cao Xueqin whereas he even couldn’t see the back of Cao Xueqin resulting in the wrong path. This is the reason of his failure.--[[User:Qiu Tingting|Qiu Tingting]] ([[User talk:Qiu Tingting|talk]]) 13:28, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

==邱婷婷 Qiū Tíngtíng 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081519==
至于混四十回于八十回中，就事论事，是一种过失；就效用影响而论，是一种功德；混合而论是功多罪少。“失败了，光荣地失败了！”是我对于高鹗底赞扬和指斥。俞先生在晚年对高鹗的续书给予更多的肯定，认为高鹗的续书使残缺的《红楼梦》成为完璧，是一大功劳。

As for adding forty chapters to the original eighty chapters, sticking to the facts, it is actually a demerit. However, it can be a kind of merits and virtues in terms of utility effect. With regarding to several aspects, and his merits can more than wipe out his faults. “Failed, gloriously failed!”It's my praise and rebuke to Gao E. In the later years of Mr. Yu, he gave more recognition to Gao E’sequel, believing that Gao E’ sequel made the fragmentary ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' a complete story which was a great credit.--[[User:Qiu Tingting|Qiu Tingting]] ([[User talk:Qiu Tingting|talk]]) 13:25, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

As for mixing the forty chapters to the original eighty chapters, actually it is a kind of negligence in terms of facts; in terms of effectiveness and influence, it is a kind of merit; in terms of mixing, it is more meritorious and less sinful. "Failed, failed gloriously!" I praised and reprimanded Gao E. In his later years, Mr. Yu gave more affirmation to Gao E’s sequel, and believed that Gao E’ s sequel made the incomplete ''Dream of Red Mansions'' a great achievement.--[[User:Rao Jinying|Rao Jinying]] ([[User talk:Rao Jinying|talk]]) 05:16, 12 November 2021 (UTC)

==饶金盈 Ráo Jīnyíng 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081520==
鲁迅先生也对高鹗的续书予以肯定，只是对书末贾府的“复振”表示遗憾。他在《中国小说史略》（1923、1924年由北京大学新潮社分上下册出版，1925年由北京北新书局合为一册出版）第二十四篇中说：后四十回虽数量止初本之半，而大故迭起，破败死亡相继，与所谓“食尽鸟飞独存白地”者颇符，惟结束又复振。

Lu Xun also gave a approval to the sequel of the book by Gao E, but regretted the “revitalization” part of Merchant’s mansion at the end of the book. He claimed in Chapter 24 of ''Chinese Novel Outline History''(In 1923 and 1924, published in two volumes by the New Trend Union of Peking University, and in 1925, published in one volume by Beixin Publishing House in Beijing) that although the latter forty chapters is only half of the original version in quantity, there are great changes, ups and downs, and dilapidated deaths one after another, which is very consistent with the so-called “eating all birds and flying alone in the white land”, but it ends and vibrates again.
--[[User:Rao Jinying|Rao Jinying]] ([[User talk:Rao Jinying|talk]]) 09:14, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

Lu Xun also affirmed Gao E’s sequel, and just expressed regret for the “revitalization” of Merchant Mansion at the end of the book. He claimed in chapter 24 of Chinese Novel Outline History(In 1923 and 1924, published in two volumes by the New Trend Union of Peking University, and in 1925, published in one volume by Beixin Publishing House in Beijing) that although the last forty chapters are only half of the original version in quantity, events occurred constantly and loss and death were in succession, which was quite consistent with the statement “birds ate and flew, then left the bleak place”. But it was a pity that the sequel ended in revitalization. --[[User:Shi Liqing|Shi Liqing]] ([[User talk:Shi Liqing|talk]]) 00:58, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

==石丽青 Shí Lìqīng 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081521==
以上三位权威学者对高鹗续书的评价不尽相同，但有两点共识：高鹗的后四十回逊于曹雪芹的前八十回，但他完成了曹雪芹的未竟之业，使残缺的《红楼梦》成为完璧；尤其打破了中国传统小说的“团圆迷信”，使《红楼梦》成为中国小说史上首部悲剧小说，这在中国小说发展史上是一个伟大创举。我认为三位先生的这两点共识是客观公正的，是高见卓识。

The above three authoritative scholars hold various comments on Gao E’s sequel, sharing two points of consensus. One the one hand, Gao E’s last forty chapters are inferior to Cao Xueqin’s first eighty counterparts, but he has completed Cao’s unfinished work, rendering A Dream in Red Mansions perfect. On the other hand, in particular, Gao E breaks the routine of “reunion superstition”in traditional Chinese novels and makes A Dream in Red Mansions the first tragic writing in the past records of Chinese novels, which is a great pioneering work in the history of Chinese novel development. As far as I am concerned, these two points proposed by the three respected scholars are objective, fair and insightful. --[[User:Shi Liqing|Shi Liqing]] ([[User talk:Shi Liqing|talk]]) 14:23, 6 November 2021 (UTC)

The above three authoritative scholars hold various comments on Gao E’s sequel, but sharing two points of consensus. One the one hand, Gao E’s last forty chapters are inferior to Cao Xueqin’s first eighty counterparts, but he has completed Cao’s unfinished work, rendering the incomplete ''A Dream in Red Mansions'' complete. On the other hand, in particular, Gao E breaks the routine of “reunion superstition”in traditional Chinese novels and makes ''A Dream in Red Mansions'' become the first tragic writing in the past records of Chinese novels, which is a great pioneering work in the history of Chinese novel development. As far as I am concerned, these two points proposed by the three respected scholars are objective, fair and insightful.--[[User:Sun Yashi|Sun Yashi]] ([[User talk:Sun Yashi|talk]]) 06:49, 9 November 2021 (UTC)

==孙雅诗 Sūn Yǎshī 外国语言学及应用语言学女 202120081522==
晚近的某些“新红学家”尽管对高鹗大加挞伐，却无法推翻三位先生的这两点共识；最多只能进一步证明高鹗的续书比不上曹雪芹的原作，而不能抹煞高鹗续书的这两大功绩。我们可以设想，如果没有高鹗的续书，只能有两种结果：一是我们只能看到一部残缺不全的《红楼梦》，犹如只能欣赏一只断尾巴的孔雀；二是我们只能看到《红楼复梦》、《红楼圆梦》之类下三流续作，使《红楼梦》跳不出“团圆”小说的窠臼。

Although some recent "new Redologists" criticized Gao E drastically, they could not overturn the consensus of the three gentlemen; at most, they could only further prove that Gao E's sequel is not comparable to Cao Xueqin's original, rather than erase the two achievements of Gao E's renewal. We can imagine that if we have no Gao E's sequel, there can only be two results: one is that we can only see an incomplete ''A Dream of Red Mansions'', like only enjoying a peacock with a broken tail, the other is that we can only see ''A Dream of Red Mansions Again'', ''A Dream of Red Mansions Reunion'' and other renewals that are third-classs, which makes ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' cannot jump out of the mold of "reunion" novel.--[[User:Sun Yashi|Sun Yashi]] ([[User talk:Sun Yashi|talk]]) 06:45, 9 November 2021 (UTC)
--[[User:Mahzad Heydarian|Mahzad Heydarian]] ([[User talk:Mahzad Heydarian|talk]]) 16:25, 9 November 2021 (UTC)

Although some recent “new Redologists” criticized Gao E drastically, they could not overturn the two consensuses of the three gentlemen; they could only further prove that Gao E's sequel is not comparable to Cao Xueqin's original, rather than obliterate the two achievements of Gao E's continuation. We can imagine that, without Gao E's sequel, there would be only two results: one is that we could only see an incomplete ''A Dream of Red Mansions'', as if we could only appreciate a peacock with a broken tail, the other is that we can only see such third-rate sequels like ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' Again, ''A Dream of Red Mansions Reunion'', making ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' cannot jump out of the set pattern of "reunion" novel. --[[User:Wang Lifei|Wang Lifei]] ([[User talk:Wang Lifei|talk]]) 06:17, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

==王李菲 Wáng Lǐfēi 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081523==
因此，不仅我们应该感谢高鹗，如果曹雪芹地下有知，也会视高鹗为知己。胡适等三位先生论证了高鹗的两大功绩，就等于完全肯定了完整的一百二十回的《红楼梦》。但完整的《红楼梦》有两种版本，即“程甲本”和“程乙本”，两者的出版时间仅隔一年左右。

Therefore, not only should we be grateful to Gao E, if Cao Xueqin was alive and knew about it, he would also regard Gao E as a confidant. Hu Shi and other three gentlemen demonstrated Gao E’s three achievements, which was equivalent to confirming the complete 120 chapters of a Dream of Red Mansions. However, there are two versions of the complete work, namely the “Cheng A edition” and “Cheng B edition”, whose publishing interval was only about one year. --[[User:Wang Lifei|Wang Lifei]] ([[User talk:Wang Lifei|talk]]) 15:35, 6 November 2021 (UTC)

Hu Shi and other three gentlemen demonstrated gao e's two great achievements, which is equivalent to confirming the complete 120 chapters of a Dream of Red Mansions. However, there are two versions of the complete work, namely the "Cheng Jiabo edition" and "Cheng Yibo edition", which were published only about a year apart.--[[User:Wang Yifan21|Wang Yifan21]] ([[User talk:Wang Yifan21|talk]]) 05:17, 12 November 2021 (UTC)

==王逸凡 Wáng Yìfán 亚非语言文学女 202120081524==
这两种版本究竟哪一种更好呢？当然是“程乙本”，因为它是高鹗对“程甲本”精心修订的定稿本。程伟元和高鹗在“程乙本”《〈红楼梦〉引言》中说：因急欲公诸同好，故初印时不及细校，间有纰缪。今复聚集各原本，详加校阅，改订无讹。

Which of these two versions is better? Of course, it is "Cheng Yi", because it is gao e to "Cheng Jia" carefully revised final version. Cheng Weiyuan and Gao E said in "Cheng Yi" "DREAM of Red Mansions" introduction: Due to the urgent desire for public relations, the initial printing was not corrected in detail, and there were mistakes. This complex gathered the original, detailed review, change without error.--[[User:Wang Yifan21|Wang Yifan21]] ([[User talk:Wang Yifan21|talk]]) 05:12, 12 November 2021 (UTC)

Which version is better? Of course, it is "Cheng Yi", because it is gao e to "Cheng Jia" carefully revised final version. Cheng Weiyuan and Gao E said in "Cheng Yi" "DREAM of Red Mansions" introduction: Due to the urgent desire for public relations, the initial printing was not corrected in detail, and there were mistakes. This complex gathered the original, detailed review, change without error.--[[User:Wang Zhenlong|Wang Zhenlong]] ([[User talk:Wang Zhenlong|talk]]) 12:36, 22 November 2021 (UTC)

==王镇隆 Wáng Zhènlóng 英语语言文学（英美文学）男 202120081525==
惟阅者谅之。这就是说，高鹗续写后四十回并修订曹雪芹的前八十回时，“因急欲公诸同好”，未能像曹雪芹那样“批阅十载，增删五次”，而是匆促而成，在排印过程中又没有仔细校对，以致“纰缪”难免，因而立即加以修订再版，从而产生了“程乙本”。可见“程乙本”是对“程甲本”的“纰缪”加以修订的本子，自然胜于“程甲本”了。

Only those who read it will forgive it. That is to say, when Gao E continued to write the last 40 chapters and revised Cao Xueqin's first 80 chapters, "because he was anxious to be good to the public", he failed to "review for ten years, add and delete five times" as Cao Xueqin did.Hurriedly,he did not proofread carefully in the process of typesetting, so that "mistakes" were inevitable.Therefore, he immediately revised and reprinted it, resulting in "the version of Cheng Yi". It can be seen that "the version of Cheng Yi" is a book to revise the "mistakes" of "the version of Cheng Jia", which is naturally better than "the version of Cheng Jia".--[[User:Wang Zhenlong|Wang Zhenlong]] ([[User talk:Wang Zhenlong|talk]]) 02:57, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

Only readers will forgive it. That is to say, when Gao E continued to write the last 40 chapters and revised Cao Xueqin's first 80 chapters, he was anxious to share it with the public, so he failed to review for ten years, add and delete five times as Cao Xueqin did.He hurried to finish it, not proofreading carefully in the process of typesetting, so mistakes were inevitable. Therefore, \ he immediately revised and reprinted another verison, resulting in appearing "Cheng Yi (the second) Edition". It can be seen that " Cheng Yi" is a book to revise the "mistakes" of "Cheng Jia (the first) Edition", which is naturally better than "Cheng Jia".--[[User:Wei Yiwen|Wei Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Wei Yiwen|talk]]) 07:43, 13 November 2021 (UTC)

==卫怡雯 Wèi Yíwén 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081526==
然而由于出版商不加细较，以为初刊本更为可靠，以致在相当一段时间内，翻印的“程甲本”曾大行其道。直到1927年，胡适先生因亚东图书馆老板汪元放先生点校并出版过“程甲本”，便将自己珍藏的“程乙本”推荐给汪先生。汪先生便将“程乙本”与“程甲本”加以仔细对勘，并加上新式标点，予以出版。

However, the publisher did not go into details, and believed that the first edition was more reliable. So in a fairly long period, the translated and printed “Cheng Jia (the first) Edition” became popular. Until 1927, Mr. Hushi recommended his treasured collection of “Cheng Yi (the second) Edition” to the owner of Yadong Library, Mr. Wang Yuanfang after he heard that Mr. Wang had punctuated, proofead and published“Cheng Jia (the first) Edition”. Then Mr. Wang checked against another between “Cheng Jia” and “Cheng Yi” , added the new punctuation and published it.--[[User:Wei Yiwen|Wei Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Wei Yiwen|talk]]) 03:17, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

However, the publisher did not proofread carefully and believed that the first edition was more reliable. So in a fairly long period, the printed “Chengjia Edition” became popular. Until 1927, Mr. Hushi recommended his treasured collection of “Chengyi Edition” to Mr. Wang Yuanfang who was the owner of Yadong Library because Mr. Wang once proofread and published “Chengjia Edition”. Then Mr. Wang contrasted “Chengjia Edition” with “Chengyi Edition” in detail and decided to add the new-style punctuations to the latter and publish it.--[[User:Wei Chuxuan|Wei Chuxuan]] ([[User talk:Wei Chuxuan|talk]]) 11:00, 12 November 2021 (UTC)

==魏楚璇 Wèi Chǔxuán 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081527==
胡适先生并为该书写了《重印乾隆壬子本〈红楼梦〉序》。他在《序》文中说：现在印出的程乙本，就是那“聚集各原本，详加校阅，改订无讹”的本子，可说是高鹗、程伟元合刻的定本。这个改本有许多改订修正之处，胜于程甲本。

Mr.Hushi wrote "A Preface for the Re-printed Qianlong Renzi Edition of ''A Dream in Red Mansions'' for this book. In the preface, he said that the newly-printed Chengyi edition which was revised carefully by referring to all kinds of original editions to make sure no incorrect information in it, was the final edition made by Gao E and Cheng Weiyuan. This edition had many corrections so it was better than the Chengjia edition. --[[User:Wei Chuxuan|Wei Chuxuan]] ([[User talk:Wei Chuxuan|talk]]) 08:47, 11 November 2021 (UTC)

Mr.Hushi has written ''A Preface for the Re-printed Qianlong Renzi Version of "''A Dream in Red Mansions''"'' for this book. In this preface, he said that the current printed Chengyi edition was the final edition made by Gao E and Cheng Weiyuan which was revised carefully by gathering all kinds of original editions to make sure no incorrect information was in it. This edition had many corrections so it was much better than the Chengjia edition.--[[User:Wei Zhaoyan|Wei Zhaoyan]] ([[User talk:Wei Zhaoyan|talk]]) 06:58, 23 November 2021 (UTC)

==魏兆妍 Wèi Zhàoyán 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081528==
但这个本子发行在后，程甲本已有人翻刻了；初本的一些矛盾错误仍旧留在现行各本里，虽经各家批注里指出，终没有人敢改正。胡适先生并举了三个例子，以证明“程乙本”胜于“程甲本”。由此可知，胡适先生不仅是第一个发现并公开指出“程乙本”胜于“程甲本”的人，而且推荐并贡献出了自己珍藏的“程乙本”初刊本，为“程乙本”后来的广泛流行起了决定性的作用。

But after the release of this edition, Cheng Jia edition has already been reprinted. Some contradictions and errors from the original edition still remained in the current edition. Although many literary masters has pointed out these mistakes in their annotations, no one eventually dared to correct them. And Mr. Hu Shi gave three examples to prove that Cheng Yi edition was better than Cheng Jia edition. So it can be seen that he was not only the first to discover and publicly pointed out this, but also recommended and contributed the original Cheng Yi edition of his own treasure, which played a decisive role in the wide popularity of this edition.--[[User:Wei Zhaoyan|Wei Zhaoyan]] ([[User talk:Wei Zhaoyan|talk]]) 00:55, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

But after the release of this edition, Cheng Jia edition has already been reprinted. Some contradictions and errors of the original edition still remained in the current edition. Although many literary masters had pointed out these mistakes in their annotations, but no one eventually dared to correct them. And Mr. Hu Shi gave three examples to prove that Cheng Yi edition was better than Cheng Jia edition. So it can be seen that he was not only the first to discover and publicly pointed out this, but also recommended and contributed the original Cheng Yi edition of his own treasure, and that played a decisive role in the wide popularity of its edition.--[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 06:19, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

==吴婧悦 Wú Jìngyuè 俄语语言文学女 202120081529==
汪原放先生也没有辜负胡适先生的重托，不仅出版了“程乙本”，而且对两个“程本”加以仔细对勘，并用增删改动文字的统计数字与具体例子（详见下文），进一步证明了“程乙本”优于“程甲本”。由于胡适先生的学术威望和汪原放先生点校的“程乙本”面世，尤其是“程乙本”确实胜于“程甲本”，故此后书商大多舍弃了“程甲本”，竞相刊印“程乙本”，“程乙本”几乎一统天下。这种局面一直持续到上世纪五六十年代。

Mr.Wang Yuanfang also lived up to the great trust of Mr.Hu Shi. He not only published "Cheng Yiben", but also carefully surveyed the two "Cheng Yiben", and changed the statistics and specific examples (see below for details), further proving that "Cheng Yiben" was better than "Cheng Jiaben". Because Mr.Hu Shi's academic prestige and Mr.Wang Yuanfang's "Cheng Yiben" were published, especially "Cheng Yiben" was indeed better than "Cheng Jiaben", so most booksellers abandoned "Cheng Jiaben" and competed to print "Cheng Yiben", " Cheng Yiben " almost unified the whole world. The situation has been continuing until the 1950s and 1960s.--[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 14:48, 6 November 2021 (UTC)
Mr. Wang Yuanfang also lived up to Mr. Hu Shi's great trust. He not only published "Cheng Yi Ben", but also carefully surveyed the two "Cheng Ben", and further proved that "Cheng Yi Ben" was better than "Cheng Jia Ben" with statistics and specific examples of adding, deleting and changing words (see below for details). Due to the academic prestige of Mr. Hu Shi and the appearance of "Cheng Yi Ben" ordered by Mr. Wang Yuanfang, especially "Cheng Yi Ben" is indeed better than "Cheng Jia Ben", most booksellers abandoned "Cheng Jia Ben" and competed to publish "Cheng Yi Ben" and "Cheng Yi Ben" almost dominates the world. This situation lasted until the 1950s and 1960s.--[[User:Wu Yinghong|Wu Yinghong]] ([[User talk:Wu Yinghong|talk]]) 13:31, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

==吴映红 Wú Yìnghóng 日语语言文学女 202120081530==
然而到了八十年代以后，“程乙本”一统天下的局面却被打破了，各种版本的《红楼梦》纷纷涌现，其中多为拼凑本，即前八十回采用抄本，后四十回则多采用高鹗作废了的“程甲本”，从而造成了《红楼梦》版本的混乱现象。这种混乱现象使本来已经解决了的《红楼梦》版本问题又重新出现纷争，也使普通读者陷入了不知如何选择《红楼梦》的境地。
However, after the 1980s, the situation of "Cheng Yi Ben" dominating the world was broken, and various versions of a dream of Red Mansions emerged one after another, most of which were piecemeal copies, that is, the transcripts of the first 80 chapters were used, and the "Cheng Jia Ben" cancelled by Gao e was used in the last 40 chapters, resulting in the confusion of the version of a dream of Red Mansions. This chaotic phenomenon makes the original version of a dream of Red Mansions once again controversial, and makes ordinary readers fall into the situation of not knowing how to choose a dream of Red Mansions.

However, after the 1980s, the dominating situation of "Cheng Yi version"was broken, and various versions of The Dream of Red Mansions emerged one after another, most of which were cobbled together, where the first eighty editions used the codified version, while the last forty editions mostly used Gao E's cancelled Cheng Jia version, thus causing confusion in the version of a Dream of Red Mansions.This kind of confusion makes the issue of the edition of a Dream of Red Mansions reappear, and also makes ordinary readers have no idea how to choose a Dream of Red Mansions.--[[User:Xiao Yiyao|Xiao Yiyao]] ([[User talk:Xiao Yiyao|talk]]) 06:27, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

==肖毅瑶 Xiāo Yìyáo 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081531==
钱锺书先生虽然不研究《红楼梦》，但对《红楼梦》版本的混乱现象却很不以为然。他在上世纪九十年代说过（大意）：《红楼梦》研究中的许多纠葛与纷争，大多源于版本问题。在同一问题上，张三根据这个版本，李四根据那个版本，公说公有理，婆说婆有理，一万年也说不清，实在无谓得很。

Although Qian zhongshu never study ''The Dream of Red Mansions'', he considers that the phenomenon of mess versions does not really matter.In the 1990s, he said that (roughly meaning)most of the disputes in the study of ''The Dream of Red Mansions'' resulted from the issue of versions. On the same issue, different people refer to different versions for their so-called reasonable purpose.Thus, the disputes can never be settled. And such a phenomenon is really meaningless.--[[User:Xiao Yiyao|Xiao Yiyao]] ([[User talk:Xiao Yiyao|talk]]) 06:23, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

Although Qian zhongshu never study ''The Dream of Red Mansions'', he considered disapprovingly that the phenomenon of chaos versions does not really matter.In the 1990s, he said that (a rough meaning)most of the disputes in the study of ''The Dream of Red Mansions'' resulted from the issue of versions. On the same issue, different people refer to different versions for their so-called reasonable purpose.Thus, the disputes can never be settled. And such a phenomenon is really meaningless.--[[User:Xie Jiafen|Xie Jiafen]] ([[User talk:Xie Jiafen|talk]]) 06:47, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

==谢佳芬 Xiè Jiāfēn 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081532==
这是《红楼梦》的悲剧，也是中国学界的悲剧。为了永久保存《红楼梦》这笔珍贵遗产，也为了给广大读者提供一个《红楼梦》的范本，必须从众多版本中确定一个最好的版本，而这个版本就是胡适先生推荐的“程乙本”。至于其他版本，则只供研究之用。

This is not only the tragedy of The Dream of the Red Chamber , but also the tragedy of Chinese academic circles. In order to permanently preserve the precious heritage of The Dream of the Red Chamber and provide readers with a model of The Dream of the Red Chamber, we must determine the best version from many versions, and this version is the "Cheng Yi version" recommended by Mr. Hu Shi. Other versions are only for research purposes only.--[[User:Xie Jiafen|Xie Jiafen]] ([[User talk:Xie Jiafen|talk]]) 14:00, 6 November 2021 (UTC)

This is not only a tragedy of Dream of the Red Chamber , but also a tragedy of Chinese academic circles. In order to permanently preserve the precious heritage of Dream of the Red Chamber and provide readers with a model of Dream of the Red Chamber, we must determine the best version from many versions, and this version is the "Cheng Yi version" recommended by Mr. Hu Shi. Other versions are only for research purposes only.--[[User:Xie Qinglin|Xie Qinglin]] ([[User talk:Xie Qinglin|talk]]) 11:15, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

==谢庆琳 Xiè Qìnglín 俄语语言文学女 202120081533==
我完全赞成以上诸位先生的看法，毋须我再费笔墨，所以我在这里只是为他们的看法提供一些实例。首先，“程乙本”的前八十回由于经过了高鹗(也许还有程伟元)的大量修订，较之诸抄本大有改观，使之更加完善。具体来说，就是对众多异文加以筛选，去除讹误，择善而从，并加以必要的补阙、修改、删节和增饰。

I totally agree with the views of the above teachers, so I don't need to say more, so I will just provide some examples for their views here. First of all, the first eighty books of "Cheng Yi version" have been revised extensively by Gao Osprey (and perhaps Cheng Wei Yuan), which is a great improvement over the codices and makes it more perfect. Specifically, it is the screening of many different texts, the removal of errors, the selection of good, and the necessary additions, modifications, abridgments and additions.--[[User:Xie Qinglin|Xie Qinglin]] ([[User talk:Xie Qinglin|talk]]) 10:56, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

I totally agree with the opinions of you all, so I don't bother to say more. So I will just provide some examples for their views here. First of all, the first eightith chapters of "Cheng Yi's version" have been revised for many times by Gao Osprey (and perhaps Cheng Wei Yuan), which is an improvement over the codices and makes it more perfect. Specifically, it made a selection from many different texts, corrected errors, selected the good, and offered the necessary additions, modifications, removal and polishment.--[[User:Xiong Min|Xiong Min]] ([[User talk:Xiong Min|talk]]) 07:28, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

==熊敏 Xióng Mǐn 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081534==
试举六例如下：例一：原作第十七、十八两回合用一套回目，第十九回没有回目。高鹗将那套合用的回目归第十七回，而为第十八、十九两回补拟了回目。例二：原作第十八回写元妃省亲回府，“只见园中香烟缭绕，花彩缤纷，处处灯光相映，时时细乐声喧，说不尽太平景象，富贵风流”，下面却接着有这样一段：此时自己回想当初在大荒山中青埂峰下，那等凄凉寂寞。

Here are six examples. Firstly, the chapter 17 and 18 of the original work shared the same title and the 19th one didn't have have any. Gao-E merged the shared one into chapter 17 and rethought a title for chapter 18 and 19. Secondly, chapter 18 in the original one showed that Yuan concubine visited relatives, as "See nothing but scent lingering, flowers blossoming, lights glistening and bustle hustleing.WHat a stable and flourish society!" Here goes another saying: at that time I recalled the time when I in the foot of Dahuangshan Mountain, and I felt so lonely.

Here are six examples. Firstly, the chapter 17 and 18 of the original work shared the same title and the 19th one didn't have any. Gao'E merged the shared one into chapter 17 and rethought a title for chapter 18 and 19. Secondly, chapter 18 in the original one showed that Yuan concubine visited relatives, as "See nothing but scent lingering, flowers blossoming, lights glistening and bustle hustleing.WHat a stable and flourish society!" Here goes another saying: at that time I recalled the time when I in the foot of Dahuangshan Mountain, and I felt so lonely.--[[User:Xu Minyun|Xu Minyun]] ([[User talk:Xu Minyun|talk]]) 09:55, 14 November 2021 (UTC)

==徐敏赟 Xú Mǐnyūn 语言智能与跨文化传播研究男 202120081535==
若不亏癞僧、跛道二人携来到此，又安能得见这般世面？本欲作一篇《灯月赋》、《省亲颂》，以志今日之事，但又恐入了别书的俗套。按此时之景，即作一赋一赞，也不能得尽其妙；即不作赋、赞，其豪华富丽，观者诸公亦可想而知矣。

If the Monk and the Taoist don't bring me here, how could I can see such elephant. I wanted to write an ''Ode to Lantern Moon'' or ''Ode to Visiting Relatives'' to commemorate today's event, but I was afraid to falling into the conventions of other books. The scene of this period, we can't get its wonderful in length even we write a praise. And if we don't write, the viewer also can imagine its luxurious richly.--[[User:Xu Minyun|Xu Minyun]] ([[User talk:Xu Minyun|talk]]) 11:26, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

If not the monk with scappy head and the lame Taoist priest bring me here, how could I can see such the world like this. I wanted to write an ''Ode to Lantern Moon'' or ''Ode to Visiting Relatives'' to commemorate today's event, but I was afraid to falling into the conventions of other books. In the scene of this period, we can't get the wonderfulness in length even we write a praise. And if we don't write, the viewer also can imagine its luxury and richness.--[[User:Yan Jing|Yan Jing]] ([[User talk:Yan Jing|talk]]) 02:18, 12 November 2021 (UTC)

==颜静 Yán Jìng 语言智能与跨文化传播研究女 202120081536==
所以倒是省了这工夫纸墨，且说正经的为是。本书前面已经交代得明明白白，大荒山青埂峰下的那块石头被一僧一道携入红尘后已幻化为口衔通灵宝玉的贾宝玉，而从这段话看，那块石头的化身却是贾元春，难道姐弟二人都是那块石头所化吗？如果说这段话的前大半截是写贾宝玉的心理活动，误安在了贾元春的头上，也还是说不通，因为不可能在描写贾元春省亲观感的文字当中无缘无故插入一段对贾宝玉的心理描写。

Therefore the time to write them is saved, and it is time to talk something serious. It has been clearly explained in the front of this book that the stone under the Loveroot Peak of the Great Wilderness Mountain has been transformed into Precious Jade Merchant with psychic jade in his mouth after being brought into the world by a monk and a Taoist priest. From this paragraph, however, the incarnation of that stone is First Spring Merchant. Are both the sister and brother transformed by that stone? If the first half of this paragraph is about Precious Jade Merchant's psychological activities, and is mistakenly thought as First Spring Merchant's, it still doesn't make sense. Because it is impossible to insert a psychological description of Precious Jade Merchant into the words describing First Spring Merchant's feelings about relatives for no reason.--[[User:Yan Jing|Yan Jing]] ([[User talk:Yan Jing|talk]]) 10:16, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

If the first half of this paragraph is about Precious Jade Merchant's psychological activities, which is mistakenly thought as First Spring Merchant's, it still doesn't make sense.
--[[User:Yan Lili|Yan Lili]] ([[User talk:Yan Lili|talk]]) 10:13, 13 November 2021 (UTC)

==颜莉莉 Yán Lìlì 国别女 202120081537==
尤为荒唐的是，从“观者诸公”以下文字，又突然变为作者的第三人称口气，更令人丈二金刚，摸不着头脑。如此语无伦次的拙劣文字，决非曹雪芹的原文，而是抄书者的误抄或窜文。“程乙本”将其全部删除，犹如割除了一个赘瘤，使行文变得合理而又通畅。

What is particularly absurd is that, from the following words "all the audience", and suddenly into the third person tone of the author,which is even more puzzling. Such incoherent poor text, not Cao Xueqin's original text, but the copy of the wrong copy or channelized text. "Cheng Yi version" deleted all of them, just like cutting out a superfluous tumor, so that the writing becomes reasonable and unobstructed.--[[User:Yan Lili|Yan Lili]] ([[User talk:Yan Lili|talk]]) 12:58, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

Such incoherent poor text, not Cao Xueqin Autor's original text, but the copy of the wrong copy or channelized text. "Cheng Yi version" deleted all of them, just like cutting out a superfluous tumor, so that the writing becomes reasonable and unobstructed.--[[User:Yan Zihan|Yan Zihan]] ([[User talk:Yan Zihan|talk]]) 14:50, 29 December 2021 (UTC)

==颜子涵 Yán Zǐhán 国别女 202120081538==
例三：原作第二十二回写荣国府作灯谜游戏，目的在于通过各人制作的灯谜，以暗示各自的性情、志向及将来结局，是全书的重要段落。大约因曹雪芹当时没有完全想好，故只写了贾母、贾政、元春、迎春、探春、惜春、宝钗的灯谜，而将宝玉、黛玉、湘云的灯谜暂缺，留待以后补写，不料曹雪芹突然去世，未及补写，致使原稿残缺。高鹗大胆地将原作宝钗的灯谜移作黛玉的灯谜，又增写了宝钗和宝玉的灯谜，我以为移得合理，增作也很精彩。

Example 3: the 22nd episode of the original work is that everyone plays lantern riddles in the Jung-guo-Anwesen ，The purpose is to hint their temperament, aspirations and future outcome through the lantern riddles made by each person，It is an important paragraph of the whole book. It may be that Cao Xueqin Autor didn't think well at that time, so he only wrote the riddles of Grandma Merchant, Master Merchant, First Spring Merchant, Spring Pleasure Merchant, Seeking-Spring Merchant, Cherishing Spring Merchant and Precious Hairpin Marshgrass, but didn't write the riddles of Precious Jade Merchant, Mascara Jade Forest and Fragrant-cloud History for the time being，and planned to fill them up later. Unexpectedly, Cao Xueqin Autor died suddenly and didn't have time to make up, resulting in the mutilation of the original. Gao E boldly changed the lantern riddle of Precious Hairpin Marshgrass into that of Mascara Jade Forest, and added the lantern riddles of Precious Hairpin Marshgrass and Precious Jade Merchant. I think this change is very reasonable and the added part is also very wonderful.--[[User:Yan Zihan|Yan Zihan]] ([[User talk:Yan Zihan|talk]]) 01:31, 12 November 2021 (UTC)

Example 3: the 22nd chapter of the original work is that everyone plays lantern riddles in the Rong Mansion, The purpose is to hint their temperament, aspirations and future respectively through the lantern riddles made by each person，It is an important plot of the whole work.
Possibly because Cao Xueqin did not think well at that time, he only wrote the riddles of Grandma Merchant, Master Merchant, First Spring Merchant, Spring Pleasure Merchant, Seeking-Spring Merchant, Cherishing Spring Merchant and Precious Hairpin Marshgrass, but didn’t write the riddles of Precious Jade Merchant, Mascara Jade Forest and Fragrant-cloud History for the time being，and planned to fill them up later. Unexpectedly, Cao Xueqin died suddenly and didn’t have time to make up, resulting in the mutilation of the original. Gao E boldly changed the lantern riddle of Precious Hairpin Marshgrass into that of Mascara Jade Forest, and added the lantern riddles of Precious Hairpin Marshgrass and Precious Jade Merchant. I think this change is very reasonable and the added part is also very wonderful.--[[User:Yang Jiaying|Yang Jiaying]] ([[User talk:Yang Jiaying|talk]]) 07:58, 13 November 2021 (UTC)

==阳佳颖 Yáng Jiāyǐng 国别女 202120081540==
但高鹗也有失误和疏漏：失误在于删掉或漏掉了原作惜春的灯谜，疏漏在于未给湘云补写灯谜。惜春的灯谜我已补入第二十二回（参见该回原文及其注释），以弥补高鹗的失误；而湘云的灯谜却只好仍阙，成为永远的遗憾。例四：原作第二十五回在写王熙凤被魇魔法弄得精神错乱时，插入一段对薛蟠的描写：别人慌张自不必讲，独有薛蟠更比诸人忙到十分：又恐薛姨妈被人挤倒，又恐薛宝钗被人瞧见，又恐香菱被人臊皮──知道贾珍等是在女人身上做功夫的，因此忙的不堪。

However, Gao E also made some mistakes and omissions: the mistake lies in deleting or missing the original lantern riddles made by Cherishing Spring Merchant, and the omission lies in not rewriting the lantern riddles for Fragrant-cloud History. I have added the riddle of Spring-cherish Merchant in Chapter 22 to make up for Gao E’s mistake; But the lantern riddles of Fragrant-cloud History have yet to be unfilled, which becomes a permanent regret. Example 4: In chapter 25 of the original,When writing about Splendid Phoenix King being deranged by magic, a description of Dragon Marshgrass is inserted: The others, it goes without saying,were still more distraught. But of them all Dragon Marshgrass was the most frantic, being afraid that in the crush his mother might be knocked over, Precious Hairpin Marshgrass stared at, or Wiselotus Potterymaker exposed to indignities -- for he knew what libertines Treasure Merchant and the rest were.--[[User:Yang Jiaying|Yang Jiaying]] ([[User talk:Yang Jiaying|talk]]) 07:43, 13 November 2021 (UTC)

However, Gao E also made a mistake and had an oversight: the mistake lies in deleting or missing the original lantern riddles made by Cherishing Spring Merchant, and the omission lies in not rewriting the lantern riddles for Fragrant-cloud History. I already added the riddle of Spring-cherish Merchant in Chapter 22 to make up for Gao E’s mistake; But Fragrant-cloud History’s lantern riddles have yet to be unfilled, which becomes an eternal regret. Example 4: In chapter 25 of the original,When writing about Splendid Phoenix King being deranged by magic, a description of Dragon Marshgrass is inserted: The others, it goes without saying,were still more distraught. But of them all Dragon Marshgrass was the most frantic, being afraid that in the crush his mother might be knocked over, Precious Hairpin Marshgrass stared at, or Wiselotus Potterymaker exposed to indignities -- for he knew what libertines Treasure Merchant and the rest were.--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 14:51, 13 November 2021 (UTC)

==杨爱江 Yáng Àijiāng 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081541==
忽一眼瞥见了林黛玉风流婉转，已酥倒在那里。这段话十分荒谬：其一，贾、薛两家为近亲，贾珍与薛宝钗是表兄妹，贾珍怎么敢对表妹起歹心呢？薛蟠岂非杞人忧天？其二，薛蟠虽然混账，与林黛玉也是表兄妹，况且见面的机会很多，薛蟠怎么会“一眼瞥见了林黛玉”就“酥倒在那里”呢？

Dragon Marshgrass's eye suddenly falling on Mascara Jade Forest, he was so enchanted by her charms that he almost melted on the spot. This paragraph is very absurd: First, Family Merchant and Family Marshgrass are close relatives, and Treasure Merchant and Precious Hairpin Marshgrass are cousins. How dare Treasure Merchant want to have a love affair with his cousin? Isn't Dragon Marshgrass entertained imaginary and groundless fear? Second, although Dragon Marshgrass is a jerk, Mascara Jade Forest is his cousin. Besides, there are many opportunities to meet Mascara Jade. How could Dragon Marshgrass“almost melted on the spot when his eye suddenly fell on Mascara Jade Forest”? --[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 09:44, 12 November 2021 (UTC)

Dragon Marshgrass suddenly caught a glimpse of Mascara Jade Forest, who was pretty and gentle, and collapsed there. This paragraph is very absurd: Firstly, Family Merchant and Family Marshgrass are close relatives, and Treasure Merchant and Precious Hairpin Marshgrass are cousins. How dare Treasure Merchant want to have a love affair with his cousin? Isn't Dragon Marshgrass alarmist? Secondly, although Dragon Marshgrass is a jerk, Mascara Jade Forest is his cousin. Besides, there are many opportunities to meet Mascara Jade. How could Dragon Marshgrass “collapsed there because of a glimpse of Mascara Jade Forest”?--[[User:Yang Kun|Yang Kun]] ([[User talk:Yang Kun|talk]]) 14:15, 14 November 2021 (UTC)

==杨堃 Yáng Kūn 法语语言文学女 202120081542==
而脂批竟称赞道：“忙中写闲，真大手眼、大手笔。”这如果不是偶然失误，便只能说是不识好歹了。“程乙本”将其删除，倒可当得起“大手眼、大手笔”的评语。例五：原作第六十三回中用了一千多字的篇幅，大写贾宝玉、史湘云等人只是为了好玩，如何将芳官、葵官打扮成“小土番儿”，如何改称“犬戎名姓”。

However, the Zhi Yanzhai's critiques unexpectedly praised: "Snatch a little leisure from a busy writing , which is really big eyes and a big deal." If this is not an accidental mistake, it can only be said to be ungrateful. If "Cheng Yi version" deletes it, it can be regarded as a comment of "big eyes and a big deal". Example 5: in the sixty-third chapter of the original work, more than 1,000 words were used to capitalize the name of Precious Jade Merchant, Fragrant-cloud History and others, which is just for fun, and to describe how to dress Fragrant Official and Sunflower as "Xiao Tu Fan er" and how to change "the surname and name of Quan Rong".--[[User:Yang Kun|Yang Kun]] ([[User talk:Yang Kun|talk]]) 14:21, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

However, critiques of Zhi Yanzhai(one of the earliest critics of "A Dream in Red Mansions" ) unexpectedly praised: "Snatch a little leisure from a busy writing , which is really weighty." If it is not an accidental mistake, it can only be said to be ungrateful. "Cheng Yi version" deletes it, thus it can be regarded as the comment of "weighty writings". Example 5: in the sixty-third chapter of the original work, more than 1,000 words were used to describe that how Precious Jade Merchant, Fragrant-cloud History and others dress Fang Guan and Kui Guan as "Xiao Tu Fan er" and how they change "the name of Quan Rong" just for fun.--[[User:Yang Liuqing|Yang Liuqing]] ([[User talk:Yang Liuqing|talk]]) 06:43, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

==杨柳青 Yáng Liǔqīng 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081543==
而且竟然让贾宝玉说出这样的话来：如今四海宾服，八方宁静，千载百载，不用武备。咱们虽一戏一笑，也该称颂，方不负坐享升平了。这种描写既十分无聊，又与贾宝玉的性格背道而驰，尤其侮辱了包括满族在内的少数民族，真可谓拙劣的文字，因此“程乙本”完全予以删除是绝对必要的。

What's more, in Zhi Yangzhai's version, Precious Jade Merchant said that"Nowadays, people within Four Seas were all submitted and social stability was achieved in all directions. Weapons were not needed in nearly thousands of years. Therefore, our laughs and teases also deserved extolling thus we lived up to the prosperity." This kind of descriptions were very boring and ran counter to the characteristics of Jia Baoyu, and they particularly insulted national minorities including Manchu, which were really bad writings. Thus, it's quite necessary for "Cheng Yi's version" to delete these words.--[[User:Yang Liuqing|Yang Liuqing]] ([[User talk:Yang Liuqing|talk]]) 07:05, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

What's more, in Zhi Yangzhai's version, Baoyu even said things like this:"Nowadays, people from all over the world bow to our emperor, and social stability's greatly achieved. No military preparation's needed in the days ahead. Therefore, our laughs and teases also deserved extolling thus we lived up to the prosperity." Such descriptions are boring and against Baoyu's characteristic, and also insulted national minorities including Manchu, which are truly awful writings. Thus, it's quite necessary for Cheng&Gao's second version to delete these words.--[[User:Ye Weijie|Ye Weijie]] ([[User talk:Ye Weijie|talk]]) 06:07, 12 November 2021 (UTC)

==叶维杰 Yè Wéijié 国别男 202120081544==
例六：原作第六十一回开头有一段写柳家的与小厮斗嘴的文字，既毫无意义，又有“几根×毛”、“×声浪嗓”的粗话，故“程乙本”删掉了百馀字也完全正确。像这样的例子不胜枚举，它们足可以证明，高鹗对前八十回的修订是完全必要和合理的，“程乙本”前八十回优于原作的事实是任何人也难以抹煞的。其次，再就两种“程本”而言，由于“程乙本”是“程甲本”的修订本，自然也就更加完善。

Example six: The descriptive words about the argument between Liu's and his servant in the chapter sixty one of the original version are quite meaningless, and vulgarism like "some x hairs","some nasty voices" are also included at the same time，that's why the Cheng&Gao's second version had correctly deleted hundreds of words of the original one. Such examples are numerous and are solid proofs to the necessity and justifiability of Gao E's revision of original former eighty chapters, and it's also undeniable that former eighty chapters in the Cheng&Gao's second version are better than ones in the original. Moreover, in terms of the two versions of Cheng&Gao's, the second version is obviously more perfect for it's revised on the base of the first one.--[[User:Ye Weijie|Ye Weijie]] ([[User talk:Ye Weijie|talk]]) 05:33, 12 November 2021 (UTC)

Example six: the original 61st back at the beginning of a paragraph to write the fighting words by Liu and his following boy, not only meaningless, but also "a few pubic hair", "obscene voice" of foul language, so "Cheng B book "deleted a few hundred words is also completely correct. Such examples are numerous, and they are sufficient to prove that the revision of the first eighty chapters by Gao Hu is completely necessary and reasonable, and the fact that the first eighty chapters of "Cheng B book" is better than the original is hard to be denied by anyone. Secondly, in terms of the two "Cheng books", since the "Cheng B book" is a revised version of the "Cheng A book", it is naturally more perfect.--[[User:Yi Yangfan|Yi Yangfan]] ([[User talk:Yi Yangfan|talk]]) 02:37, 12 November 2021 (UTC)Yi Yangfan

==易扬帆 Yì Yángfān 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081545==
关于这一点，最有力的证据是一组现成的统计数字。前面说过，汪原放先生于1927年曾将“程乙本”与“程甲本”加以对勘，并将两者的异文作了统计，其结果是：“程乙本”较之“程甲本”改动(包括增与改)了总共21506字，其中前八十回改动15537字，后四十回改动5969字。(见汪原放《重印乾隆壬子本〈红楼梦〉校读后记》)这些改动主要有三个方面：其一，是对“程甲本”中的“纰缪”文字加以改正。

About this point, the strongest evidence is a set of readily available statistics. As mentioned earlier, Mr. Wang Yuanfang in 1927 compared the "Cheng B book" with the "Cheng A book" and made statistics on the differences between the two texts, and the result was: "Cheng B book" compared with "Cheng A book" changes (including increase and change) a total of 21506 words, including the first eighty chapters changed 15537 words, the last forty chapters changed 5969 words. (See Wang Yuanfang "reprinted Qianlong nonzi book" after reading "Dream of the Red Chamber") These changes are mainly in three aspects: one, is the "Cheng A book" in the "error" text to correct.--[[User:Yi Yangfan|Yi Yangfan]] ([[User talk:Yi Yangfan|talk]]) 02:38, 12 November 2021 (UTC)Yi Yangfan

The strongest evidence for this is a set of available statistics. As mentioned earlier, Mr. Wang Yuanfang in 1927 compared the "Cheng B book" with the "Cheng A book" and made statistics on the differences between the two texts, and the result was: a total of 21506 words (including complements and modifications) were changed in "Cheng B book" compared with "Cheng A book", including 15537 words changed in the first eighty chapters, and 5969 words changed in the last forty chapters. (Refer to Wang Yuanfang "reprinted Qianlong nonzi book" after reading "Dream of the Red Chamber") These changes are mainly in three aspects: one, is the modification of the "error" text in Cheng A book.--[[User:Yin Huizhen|Yin Huizhen]] ([[User talk:Yin Huizhen|talk]]) 13:03, 12 November 2021 (UTC)

==殷慧珍 Yīn Huìzhēn 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081546==
如第二回“冷子兴演说荣国府”中，“程甲本”对原作的如下一段文字未作改动：这政老爷的夫人王氏……第二胎生了一位小姐，生在大年初一，就奇了。不想次年又生了一位公子，说来更奇：一落胞胎，嘴里便衔下一块五彩晶莹的玉来，还有许多字迹。这位“小姐”就是贾元春(元妃)，这位“公子”就是贾宝玉。

For example, the "Leng Zixing's speech in Rong Mansion" in chapter 2, "Cheng Jia's translation version" did not change the following text of the original work: The wife of Lord Zheng Mrs Wang…… gave birth to a girl on the first day of the lunar year,which was magical enough. It was even more magical that she gave birth to a boy in the next year: he was born with a colorful and crystal jade in his mouth, and the jade was written by some scripts. The "girl" is First Spring Merchant (Yuan Concubine), while the "boy" is Precious Jade Merchant.--[[User:Yin Huizhen|Yin Huizhen]] ([[User talk:Yin Huizhen|talk]]) 09:23, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

For example, in the "Son Happy Cold's speech in Glory Mansion" from chapter 2, the following text of the original work remained intact in "Cheng Jia(the first)edition": Lady King, the wife of Master Merchant …… gave birth to her second child, a girl, on the first day of the lunar year, which was magical enough. It was even more magical that she gave birth to a boy in the following year: when he was born, a colorful and crystal jade with many scripts on it was in his mouth. The "girl" is First Spring Merchant (Yuan Concubine), while the "boy" is Precious Jade Merchant.--[[User:Yin Meida|Yin Meida]] ([[User talk:Yin Meida|talk]]) 10:39, 11 November 2021 (UTC)

==殷美达 Yīn Měidá 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081547==
而这段文字显然与第十八回中的一段文字相矛盾：那宝玉未入学之先，三四岁时，已得元妃口传，教授了几本书，识了数千字在腹中：虽为姊弟，有如母子。
“有如母子”的贾元春和贾宝玉，不可能只差一岁，可见第二回那段文字有明显的“纰缪”。“程乙本”将“次年”改为“隔了十几年”，便合情合理了。

This paragraph obviously contradicts with the description in the eighteenth chapter: before Precious Jade,at the age of three or four, entered the school, he had been taught several books by Yuan Concubine(First Spring Merchant) by word of mouth and thus had known thousands of words in his mind. They are sister and brother in blood relation, but more like mother and son. Precious Jade Merchant and First Spring Merchant, "like mother and son",could not be only one year apart,so there is an obvious "mistake"in the paragraph from the second chapter. Therefore, it is reasonable to change "the following year" into "more than a decade after" in "Cheng Yi(the second) Edition".--[[User:Yin Meida|Yin Meida]] ([[User talk:Yin Meida|talk]]) 09:28, 11 November 2021 (UTC)

While this paragraph obviously contradicts with one in the eighteenth chapter: before Precious Jade, at the age of three or four, entered the school, he had been taught several books by Yuan Concubine(First Spring Merchant) by word of mouth and thus had learned thousands of words in his mind. They are elder sister and younger brother, but more like mother and son. Precious Jade Merchant and First Spring Merchant could not be only one year apart,so there is an obvious "mistake" in the paragraph of the second chapter. Therefore, it is reasonable to change "the following year" into "more than a decade after" in "Cheng Yi(the second) Edition".--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 01:53, 12 November 2021 (UTC)

==尹媛 Yǐn Yuán 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081548==
其二，是将文言词语尽量改为白话或俗语，从而使《红楼梦》的语言更为通俗易懂。譬如：“若”改为“要”，“与”改为“给”，“亦”改为“也”，“此”改为“这”，“口”改为“嘴”，“何”改为“为什么”，“如何”改为“怎么”，“如此”改为“这么着”，“葳蕤”改为“委琐”，等等。其三，是增加了许多“儿”字，将词语加以“儿”化，从而使《红楼梦》语言的京味特点更加突出。

Secondly, classical words were changed into vernacular or colloquial language as far as possible so as to make the language of A Dream of Red Mansions more understandable. For instance: "ruo" was translated into "yao"(if), "yu" into "yao"(to), "yi" into "ye"(also), "ci" into "zhe"(this), "kou" into "zui"(mouth),"he" into "wei shen me"(why), "ru he" into "zen me"(how), "ru ci" into "zhe me zhao"(in this way), "weisui" into "weisuo"(obscene) and so on. Thirdly, lots of "er" were added into A Dream of Red Mansions, so that the Beijing flavor of the language in A Dream of Red Mansions is more distinct.--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 12:08, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

==詹若萱 Zhān Ruòxuān 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081549==
关于这一点，几乎随处可见，因而不再举例。《红楼梦》是一部近百万字的巨著，要想完全揭示“程乙本”的版本优点，只能将它与其他版本一一对勘，并将异文一一列出。单凭以上的简单说明，只能是挂一漏万。

This point can be seen almost everywhere, so I will not give examples. “Dream of the Red Chamber” is a masterpiece of nearly one million words. If we want to fully reveal the merits of "Cheng Yi's translation version", we can only investigate it with other translation versions and list the differences one by one. The above simple explanation is still incomplete and full of omissions.--[[User:Zhan Ruoxuan|Zhan Ruoxuan]] ([[User talk:Zhan Ruoxuan|talk]]) 07:24, 10 November 2021 (UTC)
This point can be seen almost everywhere, so I don't want to give an example.--[[User:Zhang Qiuyi|Zhang Qiuyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Qiuyi|talk]]) 05:25, 12 November 2021 (UTC)

==张秋怡 Zhāng Qiūyí 亚非语言文学女 202120081550==
不过我可以向读者负责地保证：如果你是出于欣赏的目的阅读《红楼梦》，那么选择“程乙本”将是最明智的。三、校勘问题我们说“程乙本”为《红楼梦》的最佳版本，并不是说它完美无缺，也不是说其他版本一概不如“程乙本”，只是说它在总体上更胜一筹而已。
But I can responsibly assure readers that if you are reading a Dream of Red Mansions for enjoyment, cheng Yiben is the wisest choice. To say that Cheng Yiben is the best version of a Dream of Red Mansions does not mean that it is perfect, nor that all other versions are inferior to Cheng Yiben, but that it is superior in general.--[[User:Zhang Qiuyi|Zhang Qiuyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Qiuyi|talk]]) 05:23, 12 November 2021 (UTC)

But I can responsibly assure readers that if you are reading ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' for enjoyment, Cheng Yi version is the wisest choice. Three: Revision. To say that Cheng Yi version is the best version of ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' does not mean that it is perfect, nor that all other versions are inferior to Cheng Yi version, but that it is superior in general.--[[User:Zhang Yang|Zhang Yang]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yang|talk]]) 13:42, 16 November 2021 (UTC)

==张扬 Zhāng Yáng 国别男 202120081551==
事实上，或因高鹗和程伟元的疏忽，或因排字工人的失误，致使“程乙本”仍存在不少“纰缪”。譬如：第八十六回说贾元春生于“甲申年正月丙寅”；至第九十五回则说：“是年甲寅年十二月十八日立春，元妃薨日是十二月十九日，已交卯年寅月，存年四十三岁。”“程甲本”和“程乙本”都是如此。

In fact, due to the negligence of Gao'e and Cheng Weiyuan, or the mistakes made by typesetters, there are still many "mistakes" in "Chengyi version". For example, the eighty-sixth chapter expounds that Jia Yuanchun was born in "Bingyin, the first month of the year Jiashen". To the 95th chapter it expounds that "In that year, the spring began on December 18th of the lunar calendar, Jiayin year, and the day consort Yuan died was on December 19, which was in the month of Yin and year of Mao. Hence consort Yuan died at the age of 43.", which are the same both in "Chengjia version" and "Chengyi version".--[[User:Zhang Yang|Zhang Yang]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yang|talk]]) 14:17, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

In fact, due to the negligence of Gao'e and Cheng Weiyuan, or the mistakes made by typesetters, there are still many "mistakes" in "Chengyi version". For example, the eighty-sixth chapter expounds that First Spring Merchant was born in "Bingyin, the first month of the year Jiashen". To the 95th chapter it expounds that "In that year, the spring began on December 18th of the lunar calendar, Jiayin year, and the day Princess Merchant died was on December 19, which was in the month of Yin and year of Mao. Hence consort Yuan died at the age of 43.", which are the same both in "Chengjia version" and "Chengyi version".

==张怡然 Zhāng Yírán 俄语语言文学女 202120081552==
而实际上前后存在明显矛盾：甲申年至甲寅年是三十年，按照当时以虚岁计算年龄的习惯，元妃享年应是三十一岁；即使因元妃薨于立春次日，算作乙卯年，也只有三十二岁。无论如何也不会是四十三岁。可见“程甲本”已错，而“程乙本”也没有订正。

In fact,there is clear contradiction:the years from JiaShen to JiaYin are thirty years, and according to the custom of calculating age in terms of nominal age at the time, Princess Merchant would have been thirty-one years old; even if the death of Princess Merchant took place on the day after the first day of spring, which is counted as the year yi Mao, she would have been only thirty-two years old. In any case, it would not have been forty-three years old. It is clear that the "Cheng Jia version" is wrong, and the "Cheng Yi version" has not been revised.

In fact,there is an obvious contradiction:the years from JiaShen to JiaYin are thirty years, and according to the custom of calculating age in terms of nominal age at the time, Princess Yuan would have been thirty-one years old; even if the death of Princess Yuan took place on the day after the first day of spring, which is counted as the year YiMao, she would have been only thirty-two years old. In any case, it would not have been forty-three years old. It is clear that the "Cheng Jia version" is wrong, and the "Cheng Yi version" has not been revised either.--[[User:Zhong Yifei|Zhong Yifei]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yifei|talk]]) 06:37, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

==钟义菲 Zhōng Yìfēi 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081553==
这个明显的失误，早在1927年由汪原放校点、亚东图书馆出版的“程乙本”《红楼梦》已经改正，而上世纪八十年代以后出版的诸多号称经过了“精校”的“程甲本”和“程乙本”《红楼梦》，包括那些拼凑本，却依旧保留了这个失误，这不能不说是一种讽刺。其实“程乙本”的其他文字失误还有不少，并非像高鹗、程伟元所说“改订无讹”。“程乙本”既非十全十美，而我们要供献于读者的是一部普及本的《红楼梦》，因此有必要汲取其他版本的长处，使其尽量完美。

This obvious mistake was corrected in “Cheng Yi Version" （a version of "A Dream of Red Mansions"） checked by Wang Yuanfang and published by Yadong library as early as 1927. It is ironic that many "Cheng Jia Version" and "Cheng Yi Version" published after the 1980s, including those patchwork books, still retain this mistake. In fact, there are many other word mistakes in "Cheng Yi Version", which is not “absolutely right after revision” as Gao E and Cheng Weiyuan said. "Cheng Yi Version" is not perfect, and what we want to offer to readers is a popular version of “A Dream of Red Mansions.” Therefore, it is necessary to learn from the advantages of other versions to make it as perfect as possible.--[[User:Zhong Yifei|Zhong Yifei]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yifei|talk]]) 14:22, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

This obvious mistake was corrected in “Cheng Yiben" （a version of "a dream of Red Mansions"） checked by Wang Yuanfang and published by Yadong Library as early as 1927. It is ironic that many "Cheng Jiaben" and "Cheng Yiben", which claimed carefully checked and published after the 1980s , including those patchwork books, still retain this mistake. In fact, there are many other word mistakes in "Cheng Yiben", which is not “absolutely right after revision” as Gao E and Cheng Weiyuan said. "Cheng Yiben" is not perfect, and what we want to offer to readers is a widespread version of “a dream of Red Mansions.” Therefore, it is necessary to learn from the advantages of other versions to make it as perfect as possible.--[[User:Zhong Yulu|Zhong Yulu]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yulu|talk]]) 02:05, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

==钟雨露 Zhōng Yǔlù 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081554==
为此，本书以“程乙本”(北京图书馆出版社影印本)为底本，以“程甲本”(北京图书馆出版社影印本)为主校本，并以下列版本为参校本：汪原放校勘“程乙本”(上海亚东图书馆刊本)、王希廉(雪香)评“程甲本”(清道光十二年刊本)、“梦稿本”“庚辰本”“己卯本”“甲戌本”(后四种均为上海古籍出版社影印本)。在以上八种版本中，前五种均为一百二十回全本，后三种均为前八十回的残存本。

For this purpose, this book uses “Cheng Yiben”(photocopy of Beijing Library Publishing House) as master copy, “Cheng Jiaben” as main collated edition, and the followings as references—Wang Yuanfang’s collation “Cheng Yiben”(Shanghai Yadong Library edition)、Wang Xilian’s “Cheng Jiaben” commentary(edition in the twelfth year of Qing Daoguang)、“Meng Gaoben”、“Geng Chenben”、“Ji Maoben”、and “Jia Xuben”(the last four all are photocopies of Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House). In the above eight editions, the first five are all complete editions of 120 chapters, and the last three are all incomplete editions of 80 chapters.--[[User:Zhong Yulu|Zhong Yulu]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yulu|talk]]) 01:43, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

For this purpose, this book uses “Cheng Yiben”(photocopy of Beijing Library Publishing House) as the master copy, “Cheng Jiaben” as the main collated edition, and the followings as references—Wang Yuanfang’s collation of “Cheng Yiben”(Shanghai Yadong Library edition)、Wang Xilian’s comments on “Cheng Jiaben” (edition in the twelfth year of Qing Daoguang)、“Meng Gaoben”、“Geng Chenben”、“Ji Maoben”、and “Jia Xuben”(the last four all are photocopies of Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House). In the above eight editions, the first five are all complete editions of 120 chapters, and the last three are all incomplete editions of 80 chapters.--[[User:Zhou Jiu|Zhou Jiu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Jiu|talk]]) 05:57, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

==周玖 Zhōu Jiǔ 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081555==
我的校勘总原则是：既要尽量保持底本的原貌，又要保证全书的质量。具体来说则遵循以下几条：（一）底本与校本之间虽有异文，但底本基本可通者，即使校本文字更好，也不作改动。（二）底本中的各种错误(包括内容与文字的错误)、文字倒置、文理不通等，尽量用校本改正，若校本同样错误则径改。

My primary principle of collation is that: maintain the original meaning of master copy, and garantee the quality through the book. Specifically, abiding by the following advice: One, although there are differences between the master copy and the checked copy, the former whose meaning is basically faithful and smooth remains untouched, even though the checked copy is better. Two: various mistakes in master copy（including errors in contents and text），the inversion of words, unsmooth words and contents and so forth should be corrected based on master copy. But if mistakes are also existed in the master copy, then it should be corrected directly.--[[User:Zhou Jiu|Zhou Jiu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Jiu|talk]]) 12:43, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

My primary principle of collation is that: maintain the original meaning of master copy, and guarantee the book’s quality. To be more specific, following these advices: First, although there are differences between the master copy and the checked copy, the former whose meaning is basically faithful and smooth should be untouched, even though the checked copy is better. Second: various mistakes in master copy（including errors in contents and text), like the inversion of words, unsmooth words and contents and so forth should be corrected based on master copy. But if mistakes are also existed in the master copy, it should be corrected directly.--[[User:Zhou Junhui|Zhou Junhui]] ([[User talk:Zhou Junhui|talk]]) 06:46, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

==周俊辉 Zhōu Jùnhuī 法语语言文学女 202120081556==
（三）底本和校本中的僻字、怪字、俗字，本来并无特别意义，毫无保留价值，只能为读者增加阅读障碍，因此径改为通用字。如“揌”和“”改为“塞”，“嘴”改为“努嘴”，“椅子”改为“拿椅子”，等等。（四）古人对别字多不在乎，故底本和校本中屡见不鲜，但在当今的读者看来却十分别扭，甚至可能被误解，因而酌情径改。

Three, the rare words, strange words, common words in the master copy and in the checked copy had no special meaning, and no reservation value, can only increase the reading barrier for readers. So they need to be changed to universal words. Such as "揌" changed to “塞", "嘴" changed to "努嘴", "椅子" changed to "拿椅子", etc. Four, the ancients didn’t care about the wrongly written characters, so it is common in the master copy and the checked copy. They seem very awkward for today's readers and may even be misunderstood. Therefore they should be appropriately modified.--[[User:Zhou Junhui|Zhou Junhui]] ([[User talk:Zhou Junhui|talk]]) 14:12, 6 November 2021 (UTC)

（3）Some characters in a copy for the record or for reproduction and in checked copy, which are not commonly used, or look strange, or are popular but irregular, have no special significance and no reserved value, only increasing the reading barrier for readers. Therefore, these characters are changed to universal characters. For example, "揌" are changed to "塞", "嘴" is changed to "努嘴", "椅子" is changed to "拿椅子" and so on.（4） The ancients didn't care much about the wrongly written characters, so they can be commonly seen in a copy for the record or for reproduction and in checked copy. However, when seeing these characters, today’s readers may feel awkward, and may even misunderstand their meanings. Thus they are supposed to be changed for appropriateness.--[[User:Zhou Qiao1|Zhou Qiao1]] ([[User talk:Zhou Qiao1|talk]]) 12:37, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

==周巧 Zhōu Qiǎo 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081557==
如“必真”改为“逼真”，“奈烦”改为“耐烦”，“悔气”改为“晦气”，“渥”改为“焐”，“握”改为“捂”，等等。（五）有些字在古代汉语中可以通用（借用），在现代汉语中却严加区分。《红楼梦》也存在大量借用字，如果一一加以改动，不一定合适。

For example, "必真" is changed to "逼真", "奈烦" is changed to "耐烦", "悔气" is changed to "晦气", "渥" is changed to "握 ", "焐" is changed to "捂" and so on. Some words can be commonly used (borrowed) in ancient Chinese, While in modern Chinese they are strictly distinguished. There are also a large number of loanwords in the A Dream of Red Mansions, which may not be appropriate if changed one by one.--[[User:Zhou Qiao1|Zhou Qiao1]] ([[User talk:Zhou Qiao1|talk]]) 13:06, 6 November 2021 (UTC)

For instance, "必真" is changed to "逼真", "奈烦" is changed to "耐烦", "悔气" is changed to "晦气","渥" is changed to "握 ", "焐" is changed to "捂", etc. Wait. Some characters can be used (borrowed) in ancient Chinese, but they are strictly distinguished in modern Chinese. There are also a lot of borrowed words in "A Dream of Red Mansions". If you change them one by one, it may not be appropriate.--[[User:Zhou Qing|Zhou Qing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Qing|talk]]) 11:44, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

==周清 Zhōu Qīng 法语语言文学女 202120081558==
因此只有在以下两种情况之下才作改动：一是可能引起误解；二是同一词语而用字不同。如等同于数字“一”的“么”，极易与“什么”、“怎么”的“么”相混，故改为“幺”。又如表示时间的“一会”和“一回”混用，“一会儿”和“一回儿”混用，统一为“一会”和“一会儿”；表示位置的“旁”和“傍”混用，“旁边”和“傍边”混用，统一为“旁”和“旁边”；“赔礼”和“陪礼”混用，“赔罪”和“陪罪”混用，统一为“赔礼”和“赔罪”；等等。

Therefore, changes should only be made in the following two situations: one is that it may cause misunderstanding; the other is the same phrase but different words. For example, the "么" equivalent to the number "一" is easily confused with the "么" of "什么" and "怎么", so it is changed to "幺". Another example is the mixed use of "一会" and "一回" for time, and "一会儿" and "一回儿" are mixed together, unified into "一会" and "一会儿";"旁" and "傍" to indicate position are mixed together, "旁边" and "傍边" are mixed together, unified into "旁" and "旁边"; "赔礼" and "陪礼" are mixed together, and "赔罪" and "陪罪" are mixed together , Unified into "赔礼" and "赔罪"; and so on.

Therefore, changes should only be made in the following two situations: one is that it may cause misunderstanding; the other is the same phrase formed by different words. For example, the "么" equivalent to the number "一" is easily confused with the "么" of "什么" and "怎么", so it is changed to "幺". Another example is the mixed use of "一会" and "一回" for time, and in case that "一会儿" and "一回儿" are mixed together, they are unified into "一会" and "一会儿"respectively ;"旁" and "傍" to indicating position are mixed together,and "旁边" and "傍边" are mixed together, so they are unified into "旁" and "旁边"; "赔礼" and "陪礼" are mixed together, and "赔罪" and "陪罪" are mixed together , so they are unified into "赔礼" and "赔罪"etc.--[[User:Zhou Xiaoxue|Zhou Xiaoxue]] ([[User talk:Zhou Xiaoxue|talk]]) 09:49, 13 November 2021 (UTC)

==周小雪 Zhōu Xiǎoxuě 日语语言文学女 202120081559==
（六）本书采用简化汉字，为异体字的处理提供了方便，故一律按照简化汉字的规定处理。任何语言都在不断发展变化，故古今汉语有很大不同，以至于定字工作成为古籍整理中最为复杂的问题之一，很难做到尽善尽美。仅根据以上几条，只能是有助于减少读者的阅读障碍罢了。

(Six) Simplified Chinese characters are used in this book to provide convenience for the processing of variant characters. Therefore, they are processed in accordance with the provisions of simplified Chinese characters . Any language is constantly changing, so ancient and modern Chinese is very different. Therefore, deciding which word to use has become one of the most complex problems in the collection of ancient books, which is difficult to be perfect. Just according to the above, it can only help reduce the difficulties in their reading.--[[User:Zhou Xiaoxue|Zhou Xiaoxue]] ([[User talk:Zhou Xiaoxue|talk]]) 13:59, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

Simplified Chinese characters are used in this book to provide convenience for the processing of the variant characters. Therefore, they are processed in accordance with the provisions of simplified Chinese characters . Any language is constantly changing, so great differences exist between ancient and modern Chinese. Therefore, deciding which word to use has become one of the most complex issues in the collection of ancient books, which is difficult to be perfect.According to the above, it can only help reduce the difficulties in readers' reading.--[[User:Zhu Suzhen|Zhu Suzhen]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suzhen|talk]]) 15:23, 30 December 2021 (UTC)

==朱素珍 Zhū Sùzhēn 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081561==
为了节省篇幅，一律不出校文。四、注释问题 “注释”亦称“注解”，最初是由于经书文字艰涩难懂，故对经书的字句加以解释；如果注文仍旧难懂或未尽其义，再对注文加以解释，则称“疏”。注文和疏文合称则谓之“注疏”。

In order to save space, no proofread article will be published. Fourth,issues "explanatory note" is also called "annotation". At first, it explained the words and sentences of the Scriptures because the texts of the scriptures were difficult to understand; if the annotations were still difficult to understand or did not fully understand the meaning, then the annotations will be explained, it was called " sparse". The combination of Zhuwen and Shuwen is called "Notes and Shu".

In order to save space, no proofreading will be published. 4、 Annotation question "Annotation" is also called "Annotation".At first, the words in the Scriptures were difficult to understand,therefore, explain the words and sentences in the scriptures; If the annotation is still difficult to understand or does not fulfill its meaning, and then explain the annotation, it is called "sparse"--[[User:Zou Yueli|Zou Yueli]] ([[User talk:Zou Yueli|talk]]) 09:11, 30 December 2021 (UTC)

==邹岳丽 Zōu Yuèlì 日语语言文学女 202120081562==
后来逐步扩大范围，对一切文献中的疑难字句加以解释，均称之为“注释”。由于中国历史悠久，古今汉语及名物变化巨大，致使后人读古籍的困难越来越大，因此对古籍的注释也就显得越来越有必要。《红楼梦》虽是一部旧白话小说，但它汲取了诗、词、曲、赋、歌、诔等各种精华，又涉及谜语、酒令、建筑、服饰、珍禽异兽、奇花异卉、神话传说、名人秀女、琴棋书画、医卜星相、风俗礼仪等多种知识，白话文言间用，成语典故成堆。

Later, the scope was gradually expanded to explain the difficult words and sentences in all documents, which were called "notes". Due to China's long history and great changes in ancient and modern Chinese ,which makes it more and more difficult for future generations to read ancient books. Therefore, it is more and more necessary to annotate ancient books. Although 《The Dream of Red Mansion》 is an old vernacular novel,but it has absorbed all kinds of essences such as poetry, CI, Qu, Fu, song, and so on.It also involves riddles, wine orders, architecture, clothing, rare birds and animals, exotic flowers
Myths and Myths and legends, celebrities and beauties, Qin, chess, calligraphy and painting, medical divination of stars, customs and etiquette and other knowledge are used between vernacular and Idioms and allusions pile up.

==Nadia 202011080004==
对于一般读者来说，所有这些都可能是阅读中的绊脚石。

==Mahzad Heydarian 玛莎 202021080004==
本注释的使命就是为读者清除这些绊脚石，使阅读畅通无阻。

This annotation is meant to remove the barriers in reading and make it easier to read.

==Mariam toure 2020GBJ002301==
因此凡是我认为可能影响读者阅读的地方，便予以注释，决不假装视而不见，决不避难就易。

==Rouabah Soumaya 202121080001==
为了节省篇幅，我仅举一例。第五十六回“敏探春兴利除宿弊，贤宝钗小惠全大体”中，有贾探春与薛宝钗谈论经济的一段话：
In order to save space, I will give just one example. In the fifty-sixth chapter, "Min Tanchun prospering the benefits and eliminating the disadvantages, Xian Baochai and Xiaohui are all in general", there is a passage between Jia Tanchun and Xue Baochai discussing the economy:

==Muhammad Numan 202121080002==
宝钗笑道：“真真膏粱纨袴之谈。你们虽是千金，原不知道这些事。
Baochai smiled and said: "It's really tempting to talk about it. Although you--[[User:Atta Ur Rahman|Atta Ur Rahman]] ([[User talk:Atta Ur Rahman|talk]]) 14:09, 6 November 2021 (UTC) are a daughter, you don't know these things.

==Muhammad Saqib Mehran 202121080004==
但只你们也都念过书，识过字的，竟没看见过朱夫子有一篇《不自弃文》么？”
But if you have all studied and read, haven't you seen Master Zhu's article "Don't Abandon Oneself"?

==Jawad Ahmad 202121080006==
探春笑道：“虽也看过，不过是勉人自励，虚比浮词，那里真是有的？”
Tanchun said and smile, "Although I have seen it, it's just a matter of encouraging others to encourage themselves. It's a meaningless word. Is there really something happen?"

==Nizam Uddin 202121080007==
宝钗道：“朱子都行了虚比浮词了？那句句都是有的。

==Öncü 202121080008==
你才办了两天事，就利欲熏心，把朱子都看虚浮了。
You have been working on it for two days only, and blinded by greed, you have made ZhuZi look vain.--[[User:HIKMET ONCU KADIOGLU|HIKMET ONCU KADIOGLU]] ([[User talk:HIKMET ONCU KADIOGLU|talk]]) 16:52, 6 November 2021 (UTC)

You have only been doing things for two days, then you desire for money and profit fascinated the heart, and you think Zhu Zi is Unrealistic. --[[User:AkiraJantarat|AkiraJantarat]] ([[User talk:AkiraJantarat|talk]]) 09:29, 8 November 2021 (UTC)Akira Jantarat

==Akira Jantarat 202121080009==
你再出去，见了那些利弊大事，越发连孔子也都看虚了呢！”

If you go to a larger world and see greater benefits or disadvantages, I am afraid you will be a little bit down on what Kongzi said.--[[User:AkiraJantarat|AkiraJantarat]] ([[User talk:AkiraJantarat|talk]]) 14:19, 6 November 2021 (UTC)Akira

If you go out again and see the pros and cons of major events, you will be even more deceptive!--[[User:Asep Budiman|Asep Budiman]] ([[User talk:Asep Budiman|talk]]) 07:50, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

==Asep Budiman 202111080020==
探春笑道：“你这样一个通人，竟没看见《姬子》书？

Tan-tschun Smiled and said "you are such a familiar person, but have you read the "Ji Zi" book?--[[User:Asep Budiman|Asep Budiman]] ([[User talk:Asep Budiman|talk]]) 07:41, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

Tan-tschun smiled and said: "You are such a familiar person, but haven't you read the book "Ji Zi"? --[[User:EIMONKYAW|EIMONKYAW]] ([[User talk:EIMONKYAW|talk]]) 10:57, 7 November 2021 (UTC)Ei Mon Kyaw -Ei Mon Kyaw-[[User:EIMONKYAW|EIMONKYAW]] ([[User talk:EIMONKYAW|talk]]) 10:57, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

==Ei Mon Kyaw 202111080021==
当日《姬子》有云：‘登利禄之场，处运筹之界者，穷尧舜之词，背孔孟之道。’”

On that day, "Jizi" said: ‘The field of Deng Lilu, those who are in the realm of management, are poor in the words of Yao and Shun, and recite the way of Confucius and Mencius. ’"
--[[User:EIMONKYAW|EIMONKYAW]] ([[User talk:EIMONKYAW|talk]]) 13:52, 6 November 2021 (UTC)EI MON KYAW
-EI MON KYAW-[[User:EIMONKYAW|EIMONKYAW]] ([[User talk:EIMONKYAW|talk]]) 13:52, 6 November 2021 (UTC)

There was a saying in ''Himeko'' that day: "Deng LiLu, and those who operate in this realm, steal the words of Yao and Shun, and memorize Confucianism."--[[User:Benjamin Wellsand|Benjamin Wellsand]] ([[User talk:Benjamin Wellsand|talk]]) 13:38, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

==Benjamin Wellsand 202111080118==
宝钗笑道：“底下三句呢？”探春笑道：“如今断章取义，念出底下一句，我自己骂我自己不成？”

Bau-tschai smiled: "What about the next three sentences?" Tan-tschun smiled: "Now that I have read the next sentence out of context, can I blame myself for failing?"--[[User:Benjamin Wellsand|Benjamin Wellsand]] ([[User talk:Benjamin Wellsand|talk]]) 13:39, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

Translation: Bau-tschai smiled: "What about the next three sentences?" Tan-tschun smiled: "Now I take the next sentence out of context, and if I read the next sentence out of context, I can't blame myself?"--[[User:Atta Ur Rahman|Atta Ur Rahman]] ([[User talk:Atta Ur Rahman|talk]]) 11:20, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

==Atta Ur Rahman 202121080003==
在这段话中，提到了朱熹的《不自弃文》，还有《姬子》一书。

Translation: In this passage, Zhu Xi's "don't abandoned the text--[[User:Muhammad Numan|Muhammad Numan]] ([[User talk:Muhammad Numan|talk]]) 14:13, 6 November 2021 (UTC)--[[User:Muhammad Numan|Muhammad Numan]] ([[User talk:Muhammad Numan|talk]]) 14:13, 6 November 2021 (UTC)" and the book "Ji Zi" are mentioned.

==Zohaib Chand 202121080005==
我所看到的几个《红楼梦》注本，对《不自弃文》有所注释，而对《姬子》却避而不注。

I have read different annotations of ''A Dream in Red Mansions'', in which there are some explaination to ''No Self-surrender'' while no notes to ''Jizi''.--[[User:Chen Jing|Chen Jing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jing|talk]]) 08:21, 30 December 2021 (UTC)

20211229 homework

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Hist Trans EN 13

2021-12-15T11:40:52Z

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'''History of Translations'''

[[History_of_Translations|Overview Page of History of Translation]]

30 Chapters（0/30)

[[Hist_Trans_EN_1]] [[Hist_Trans_EN_2]] [[Hist_Trans_EN_3]] [[Hist_Trans_EN_4]] [[Hist_Trans_EN_5]] [[Hist_Trans_EN_6]] [[Hist_Trans_EN_7]] [[Hist_Trans_EN_8]] [[Hist_Trans_EN_9]] [[Hist_Trans_EN_10]] [[Hist_Trans_EN_11]] [[Hist_Trans_EN_12]] [[Hist_Trans_EN_13]] [[Hist_Trans_EN_14]] [[Hist_Trans_EN_15]] [[Hist_Trans_EN_16]] [[Hist_Trans_EN_17]] [[Hist_Trans_EN_18]] [[Hist_Trans_EN_19]] [[Hist_Trans_EN_20]] [[Hist_Trans_EN_21]] [[Hist_Trans_EN_22]] [[Hist_Trans_EN_23]] [[Hist_Trans_EN_24]] [[Hist_Trans_EN_25]] [[Hist_Trans_EN_26]] [[Hist_Trans_EN_27]] [[Hist_Trans_EN_28]] [[Hist_Trans_EN_29]] [[Hist_Trans_EN_30]] ...

[[Book_projects|Back to translation project overview]] [[DCG-To-Do|Zur To-Do-Liste]]

=Chapter 13: The Chinese Translation History In Modern Age=
钟义菲 Zhong Yifei，Hunan Normal University, China
==Abstract==
Since the middle of the 19th century, translation has gradually become a tool for people resolved to save the country from extinction. The spread of the large number of translation works has broadened the ways for the public, especially the intellectuals, to learn the west. In the meantime, it has also changed the social climate. The invasion of western civilization, translators' spontaneous development of translation activities and the passivity of national politics made Chinese society enter an important period of western learning translation, especially around the period of Opium War. The cause of translation in modern China coincided with the Chinese people's struggle against aggression. After the Opium War, China had to open the door. China had to end its isolation and began to face the outside world directly. However, the prolonged blockade made China lag behind the western world. Modern politics, economy, diplomacy and cultural activities are closely related to translation, which plays an indispensable role in history. The theme and source of the original translation often reflect the development trend of modern Chinese ideology and the direction of government policy. As for the nature and quantity of translation books in different periods, we can also see the motivation of translation books, the general trend of intellectual interests, and the impact of the dissemination in society. The time clue of this article is from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement, briefly introducing the translation and the translator, emphasizing its emergence background and several important period of development, research and analysis of western culture reflected in translation works in modem Chinese history, the change of Chinese people’s thoughts in translation and the influence of modern translation on Chinese society. This paper is divided into three chapters. The first chapter introduces the emergence, importance and main characteristics of modern translation works, then reviews the emergence of modem translation works, emphasizes their importance, and briefly introduces representative translation works. The second chapter introduces the background of translation works and translation climax stages of western books, studies the main characteristics and development trend of translation in each period. The third chapter studies the influence and performance of modern translation on people's ideology and social life through the description in translation works. This paper focuses on the development of modern translation, the important role of translation in Chinese history, and the specific impact of translation on modern society.

==摘要==
自19世纪中叶以来，翻译逐渐成为人们决心拯救国家免遭灭绝的工具。大量翻译作品的传播拓宽了公众，尤其是知识分子学习西方的途径。与此同时，它也改变了社会气候。西方文明的入侵、译者翻译活动的自发发展以及国家政治的被动，使中国社会进入了西学翻译的重要时期，尤其是鸦片战争前后。近代中国的翻译事业与中国人民反抗侵略的斗争不谋而合。鸦片战争后，中国不得不打开大门。中国不得不结束孤立，开始直接面对外部世界。然而，长期封锁使中国落后于西方世界。现代政治、经济、外交和文化活动都与翻译密切相关，翻译在历史上起着不可或缺的作用。原文的主题和来源往往反映了中国现代意识形态的发展趋势和政府政策的方向。至于不同时期翻译书籍的性质和数量，我们还可以看到翻译书籍的动机、知识兴趣的总体趋势以及在社会上传播的影响。本文的时间线索是从鸦片战争到五四运动，简要介绍了翻译和译者，强调了其产生背景和几个重要的发展时期，研究和分析了中国近代翻译作品中反映的西方文化，中国人翻译思想的变化以及现代翻译对中国社会的影响。本文共分为三章。第一章介绍了现代翻译作品的产生、重要性和主要特征，然后回顾了现代翻译作品的产生，强调了现代翻译作品的重要性，并简要介绍了具有代表性的翻译作品。第二章介绍了翻译作品的背景和西方书籍翻译的高潮阶段，研究了各个时期翻译的主要特点和发展趋势。第三章通过对翻译作品的描写，研究现代翻译对人们思想和社会生活的影响和表现。本文着重论述了现代翻译的发展，翻译在中国历史上的重要作用，以及翻译对现代社会的具体影响。

==Key words==
Modern Translation，Translation，Social Life，Ideology

==Introduction==
Around the middle of the 19th century, The Western invasion brought new knowledge. The Westernization Movement sent a large number of international students to study abroad and translated a large number of books for military purpose.The Qing government decayed, and was tired of the invasion of foreign enemies, the war repeatedly failed. After the Sino-Japanese War in 1894, faced with internal and external troubles, far-sighted people knew that they could not rely on the Qing government, so they devoted themselves to writing novels. Many people accepted and spread Western culture through translating books. The importance of translation was recognized by the development of journalism, media, and provident men influenced by the Western culture at that time. In this social context, people have criticized the corruption of government through literature and translation.

Modern China began in the Opium War in 1840. It was a special period in Chinese history. During this period, the Chinese were attacked by foreign guns, as well as by foreign culture and foreign education. Especially after the Sino-Japanese War, the Chinese people were greatly shocked psychologically, and people began to realize that the West was more advanced than China in political, economic, cultural and other aspects, which was providing a great opportunity for the introduction of translation literature. Translators at that time also hoped to translate the western advanced scientific knowledge to the Chinese people so that they could broaden their horizons and innovate their ideas. During the Reform Movement of 1898, Liang Qichao advocated publicizing political ideas by translating foreign political novels to transform the society. He believed that the incredible power of novels was "enough to dominate people's psychology and could change the society of one generation." Based on the translation of the novel, Liang Qichao gave the novel new significance and mission. He put forward the idea of improving the novel, with the famous ones such as ''The Beauty Adventures'' and ''The Fifteen Little Heroes'', which promoted the process of novel revolution and the prosperity and development of the translating novels. Yan Fu translated works such as ''Heaven'' and Yuan Fu. His translation had a great influence at that time and was the most important enlightenment translation in China in the 20th century. In the translation of ''Heaven'', Yan Fu proposed three difficulties: Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance. It was advocated by many literary writers at that time and used as the theoretical basis for their translation. The concept of "natural selection: the fittest to survive" conveyed in Yan Fu's Heaven woke people up from the dream of the heavenly world. There are more famous translation works such as Lin Shu’s ''The Lady of the Camellias'', Black slaves call for heaven record and so on. It had an important influence on the change of people's concept. People are not limited to the traditional concept of marriage and love, and the concept of freedom and equality gradually spread. Under the prevalence of translation works, traditional values, such as emphasizing agriculture and suppressing business, men being superior to women, gradually lost their status and were gradually replaced by new ideas. （A 1981:741）

The paper mainly includes three chapters: First, modern translation works and the overview of translators. Second, the background and climax of modern translation works. Third, the impact of modern translation on social life. In the modern Chinese literary circle, there was a wave of translation in western books, and the translation activities of foreign works were unprecedentedly prosperous. The emergence of a large number of translation works has also caused a large influx of foreign cultural ideas. Under the translation of domestic scholars, the translators not only conveyed the literary nature of foreign works, but also expressed their translation purpose through translation language and techniques, and had a huge impact on Chinese social life at that time. Academia research is more aimed at the overview of modern translation works and its prosperity, but little research on its impact on national social life. This paper analyzes the wide variety of materials and works to detail the influence of modern translation on social life. （Lian 2009:93）

==1. Modern Translation Work and Its Main Characteristics ==
===1.1 The Emergence of Translation Works and Their Importance===
The premise of the emergence of translation works is the introduction of western civilization. The spread of western culture in modern China can be traced back to the eve of the Opium War. The main translators are missionaries, who mainly introduce religious doctrine, and also bring western history and geography to China. They established schools, translated western books (such as the Bible), compiled magazines, wrote books and so on. It can be said that missionaries are the first wave of intermediaries communicating between Chinese and Western culture. Early missionaries in China, although for the purpose of conquest, tended to teach by words and deeds than coercion. However, considering China's closure at that time, the Chinese were not allowed to learn foreign languages. The missionaries have also made great efforts in communicating the Chinese and Western cultures. This also led to the introduction of western civilization at this stage and laid the foundation for the development of the modern translation and cultivated talents. The Opium War was an important period of western translation. The rise and fall of China is always closely related to the rise and fall of translation culture. As a special component of Chinese literature, the development of translation literature has always affected the process of Chinese literature and historical changes, especially the occurrence of modern Chinese translation literature, which has effectively promoted the transformation and development of Chinese literature and modern society. Modern translation, from its emergence to the development, is inseparable with China's social changes. Translation has promoted the change of people's ideas, enriched people's knowledge in many fields, and not only promoted the development of Chinese literature, but also played a certain positive role in the development of politics and Chinese society. （Guo 1979:126）

===1.2 Representative Works of Modern Translations and Their Main Categories===
The introduction of modern western literature made Lin Shu a famous literary translator. Many people will misunderstand ''The Lady of the Camellias'' as the first translation novel in modern China. But ''The Declaration'' has already begun to publish translation novels earlier. The first translation novel should be ''Xinxi Talk''. According to Zou Zhenhuan, the most expensive translation of the Bible was the first version to enter the palace, the "royal version" of the late Qing Dynasty. The first modern Japanese novel translated into Chinese was ''The Beauty Adventure'', translated by Liang Qichao, which opened the translation of the political novel in the late Qing Dynasty. At the same time, the Chinese translation books related to Japan was ''Ryukyu Geography''. Tan Ruqian thought it as “the first Chinese translation of Japanese documents”. After translation into Chinese, the most influential translation is Yan Fu’s ''Heaven'', Lin Shu’s ''The Lady of the Camellias'', and ''Black Slaves Call for Heaven'' record translated by Wei Yi and Lin Shu. The three works had a great influence on Chinese society in different aspects. Thai new history can represent part of the translation works since modern times. It is widely spread into China though it doesn’t achieve any effect in the West. The book is considered by western scholars as the most boring residual history and a third-rate world history. In China, it sold more than one million copies, which is the most popular reading book in the Restoration period. It can be said that the social influence in different historical stages and social backgrounds can be different. ''The Law of the Duke of Nations'' theoretically defeated the ignorant idea of the Qing government. In addition, there are translations about life which popularized scientific knowledge in China and played a good role in the abolition of feudal superstition. ''Foreign Cookery'' in Chinese was the earliest Chinese translation of a relatively systematic introduction of western cooking methods in the process of introducing western food culture in China. In the aspects of medicine, there were books such as ''Tessi’s Personal Theory'', ''Optical Disclosure and Cardiotherapy''. The first sociological monograph of full-text translation in modern China was translated by Zhang Taiyan, which had an important influence on the progress of social cognition.（Feng 2012: 234-235）

===1.3 Main Characteristics of Modern Translation Works===
One is catering to the taste and ethics of the Chinese readers in order to obtain a wider popularity. Influenced by the social background of the late Qing Dynasty, most people who learned from the West were limited to intellectuals and politicians. In order to make the translation get more attention, the translator chose more accepted literary works for translation. This to some extent leads to the lack of extensive translation categories. In Introduction to Translation, the second chapter "Translation of Catholic Scholars between the Ming and Qing Dynasties" discussed the Catholic doctrine translation and scientific translation between the Ming and Qing Dynasties, and pointed out that " at that time, translation sought more elegance, integrity and the willingness of Chinese officials and scholars to read. However, there are also some translators who try to keep the original meaning rather than deliberately satisfying the readers’ interests." On the other hand, it also confirms that the characteristics of translation was catering to readers at that time. （Zhang 2003:158）

The second is to use foreign novel translation as a tool for reform politics. After the failure of the Opium War, people with insight were eager to find good ways to save the country. The most direct and effective way is to learn western culture. In the process of learning western culture, the most convenient thing is to translate western works. However, hindered by language factors, the translation of monographs is far more difficult than the novels. Therefore, except for the few people who are proficient in foreign languages, most translators basically choose to take novels as the entry point to give personal political opinions and ideas to achieve the purpose of political improvement. Third, readers often take the translation of novels as a pastime, resulting in the flood of boring detective novels and romantic novels. Popular novels translations are enough while famous novels translations are rare. To cater to the market and earn publication costs, many translators translate foreign works for the purpose of making a profit. And after a few celebrities do not classify foreign translations, many translators will have a herd mentality. At the same time, due to the influence of domestic readers' literary taste, popular novels and simple literary works are more acceptable to them, so resulting in the flood of some novel categories. Fourth, the translation is not faithful. Influenced by traditional ideas, some phenomena in western works were not accepted by the Chinese at that time, and to avoid unnecessary trouble, the translator chose to omit part of the plot in the original, and could not completely express the original idea. In order to express his political position and views, the translator will fabricate the plot and comments not included in the original. For example, when Su Manshu translated ''Hugo's Bad World'', he invented a character called Lauder, using him to satirize the corrupt stupidity of the Qing government. Secondly, the translator will change the narrative perspective and structure of the original, which is largely influenced by the traditional Chinese narrative style. For example, Liang Qichao used the serial structure when translating ''The Beauty Adventure''.（Zhang 1934:42）

It is summarized as follows: excessive catering to readers and lack of independence; the monotonous type of translation with limitations; lack of translation proficiency and transmission of the idea; separation from the original work.

==2. The Rise Background and Climax of Modern Translation Works ==
===2.1 The Background of the Rise of Modern Translation===
After the Opium War, the Qing government successively signed the Nanjing Treaty and the Humen Treaty, which made insightful people attempt to save modern China from abyss of suffering. In the face of an unprecedented crisis, a group of people began to search for the way to save the country, and every individual has put all his strength into the efforts to save the nation in danger. Modern China is faced with a more powerful opponent in all aspects. People with insight realize that they must break through the current situation of self-isolation and learn from the outside world. Learning from the West and imitating the West became an important strategy of saving the nation at that time. Chinese society has constantly updated the old mechanism, trying to get rid of the original closed and rigid political dilemma, starting to find a new development direction, from the learning of western skills to the study of western political and economic system, ideology and culture. To learn from the West and seek self-improvement, translation is first serve as a bridge of communication. Domestic people with insight can bring western works to China by translating them. After the failure of the Second Opium War, China was forced to sign the Treaty of Beijing. The national crisis became more and more serious, the national crisis further strengthened the Chinese people's thought of self-improvement, and the understanding of the outside world became more and more urgent. At the same time, due to the current situation, foreign language communication and diplomatic intercourse have become very urgent. In this environment, translation became indispensable in this era.

===2.2 The Purpose of the Rise of Modern Translation===
The 19th century was a period of complex economic situation and chaotic political situation. At this time, the demand for formal translators increased. However, in this period, translation was very sophisticated and had a great influence on the control authority of the government and exchanges between Chinese and foreign countries. In the Treaty of Beijing, Britain and France sent documents that are written in English and French to China. But considering that there was almost no translation talent in China at that time, the two sides agreed to attach Chinese version. But if there was any dispute, both English and French characters should be the authority. Then the Qing government had to start training translation talents, and the first batch of foreign language schools were established accordingly. The original motivation of The School of Combined Learning was quite related to the signing of the Sino-British Treaty, and the British authorities attached a Chinese translation within three years, aiming to allow the Chinese government to cultivate a number of qualified translators during this period, so the establishment of The School of Combined Learning was established in 1861. It was the first official foreign language school in the late Qing Dynasty with the purpose of cultivating foreign language translation talents. Foreigners were the teachers, training specialized foreign language translators. In order to become rich and train soldiers, China must learn from advanced western science and technology. To learn from advanced western technology, it is bound to remove the language barriers in the process of learning. Zeng Guofan once mentioned that translation must occupy the fundamental strategic position of westernization cause. It is easy to see that the purpose of translation is to learn the advanced western technology more efficiently and to achieve the purpose of saving the nation. The process of modernizing Chinese literature is, in a sense, the process of Chinese literature learning from the West and seeking innovation and change under the impact of western culture. （Shi 1983:216）

===2.3 The Climax of Translation in the Western Book===
====2.3.1 From the Opium War to the Sino-Japanese War====
From the Opium War to the Sino-Japanese War, especially after the 1860s, with the rise of the westernization movement aimed at self-improvement and wealth, there was an upsurge in the translation of Western science and technology books. In the late Qing Dynasty, under the influence of opium smuggling, China and the UK exchanges are getting closer and closer. Until the Opium War broke out, the door of China was completely opened, and the Qing government had to face the outside world. Lin Zexu fought in the front line of the anti-smoking movement and the anti-British struggle from 1839 to 1840. He organized personnel to translate many books. In the monthly Macao, there are five volumes: on China, on tea, on smoking prohibition, on the use of military forces and on the feelings of foreigners in various countries. These materials are mainly translated from Guangzhou weekly, Guangzhou chronicle and etc. Lin Zexu never neglected to give up the work of organizing translation. Among Lin Zexu's translations, ''The Chronicles of Four Continents'' has the most far-reaching impact on Modern Chinese history. It is the first book in modern China to systematically introducing world geography and history. The translation of these books opened the eyes of the Chinese people and began to import Western learning in modern times, which is of great significance to the history of modern thought and culture. One of the most direct effects is that it has led to the emergence of a number of masters who compile and study foreign profiles. It indirectly led to the development of the style of study for practical use, and also had an important impact on the literary reform in history. Wei Yuan revised and supplemented ''The Records of the Four Continents''. This book not only retained the characteristics of the west, but also sublimated in combination with the domestic reality, added many notes and political comments, and put forward many political propositions represented by "learning from the foreigners and mastering their skills to control the foreigners", which gathered huge ripples in the ideological circles at that time, and even spread to Japan, It also had an impact on Japan's Meiji Restoration. However, at this time, the work of Lin Zexu and Wei Yuan only played the role of foresight and did not form a huge social situation. The development of translation still needs new forces to promote. At this time, the Westernization school played such a role. （Zou 2008:57-58）

The Westernization Movement took place after the second Opium War and before the Sino-Japanese war. During this period, the Qing government experienced the impact of two Opium Wars. Facing the strong ships and guns of Western powers, it was in a difficult situation at home and abroad, and felt a profound crisis never seen in history. The Westernization school, divided from the feudal landlord class, had a certain understanding of the world situation. They advocate learning from western capitalist countries. The main figures of the Westernization school were Zeng Guofan, Li Hongzhang and others. They held high positions in the Qing government. Compared with other ordinary officials, they were more deeply aware of the need to learn and introduce advanced military weapons and manufacturing technology from Western powers in order to maintain the ruling order of the feudal society and realize the stability of the regime of the Qing Dynasty. However, at that time, the Westernization school could only recognize the progress of Western skills and the strength of military strength. Their change Geng Chang's method was only limited to "learning from foreigners". Among them, the translation of foreign books became an important means to achieve the goal of learning from foreigners. （Wang 1987:23-24）

In 1862, due to the needs of diplomacy and Westernization Movement, Tongwen museum was established in Beijing to train translators. The Tongwen Library in Beijing regards translation and washing as an important activity. The Jiangnan manufacturing Bureau, founded in 1865, had a greater impact during this period. The two primary problems faced by Jiangnan manufacturing Bureau after its completion are technology and talents, and the key to solving these two problems is the translation of technical books. Therefore, it decided to "set up another school to learn translation", "it is planned to select intelligent disciples to study with the school when it is completed", "You don't have to fake a foreigner, you can also extend it and make it into a book." The books translated by the translators were mainly about natural science and applied technology, which played a positive role in introducing modern science and technology and promoting the development of productive forces, and became important teaching materials for people of insight at that time to understand the external world and update their knowledge structure. These books can be said to have cultivated the next batch of cultural newcomers, such as Kang Youwei, Liang Qichao, Zhang Taiyan and Cai Yuanpei and so on. （Zeng 1987:83）

During this period, the importance of translation has been paid some attention, and the government has begun to operate translation in an organized and planned way. At the same time, the translation activities of the church have also been strengthened. Missionaries played the role of cultural invaders in the process of foreign military aggression. At first, missionaries wanted to carry out cultural aggression in the sense of Christianity, but they were influenced by Chinese tradition The influence of culture was resisted by the Chinese people. So they turned to spread new western knowledge and Western civilization, set up institutions, run newspapers and translate books, and tried to open the gap of the Chinese people's thought, so as to achieve the purpose of cultural aggression control. But objectively speaking, they also played a role in spreading Western learning to a certain extent. The translation by foreign missionaries had a great impact on Chinese society. The Chinese people's own pure literary translation also began at this stage. However, the literary translation at this stage still lacks systematic theoretical guidance and positive social atmosphere.

====2.3.2 After the Sino-Japanese War====
After the Sino-Japanese War was defeated, the Westernization Movement was declared bankrupt, and China's current situation was at stake. People with lofty ideals learned from the failure of the Westernization Movement that reform is far from solving the problem. To make China embark on the road of independence, prosperity and strength, we must fundamentally learn from the West and change the feudal autocratic system. In order to comprehensively learn western learning, translation is the first thing at this time. Therefore, this is the moment The translation career of this period is very prosperous, which is very different from the translation characteristics of the previous era. First, the expansion of the field of translation. At this time, the focus of importing western learning turned to various fields of social science, and paid particular attention to the import of political and academic ideas. The eight famous works translated by Yan Fu were outstanding representatives of this period, which had a significant impact on the society of the Qing Dynasty. During this period, translation methods were widely used, that is, abridged translation and free translation of foreign works, which were understood by the translator At this time, a large number of social sciences have been introduced, which has greatly improved the ideological level of Chinese people and brought the political and cultural activities to a new stage. Secondly, the translation field has also been expanded. The previous translation work was limited to government-run institutions. After the Sino-Japanese War, the reformers stepped onto the historical stage, and the translation work has been included in the overall plan of the reform. The reformers created schools, ran newspapers and opened publishing houses, with the import of Western learning and the translation and introduction of Western books as the main activities. After the failure of the reform movement, the establishment of newspapers and publishing houses did not stop. At this time, China's translation industry began to gradually break away from the limited government-run and turn to the private sector, resulting in an unprecedented prosperity in the translation industry. In addition, the translation team has gradually expanded. The establishment of foreign language teaching has gradually increased the number of foreign students and personnel abroad. The emergence of more and more translation talents meets the development of the publishing industry and social needs at this time. More and more people who know foreign languages are engaged in translation. This period is also an era of a large number of translators. Not only Lin Shu and Yan Fu, but also Liang Qichao, Su Manshu, Zhou Guisheng, Wu Guangjian are all well-known. During this period, the level of translation was also greatly improved. In the early days, most of the translations were spoken by foreigners who knew a little Chinese, and then recorded and polished by Chinese. The level of translation was uneven. During this period, most translators were proficient in foreign languages, their Chinese level was also high, and the quality of translation improved greatly Great improvement.（Xiao 1984:23）

This stage is also a period of vigorous rise and unprecedented prosperity of novel translation. In the early modern times, novel translation was not paid much attention. The first foreign novel translated into China was translated by foreign missionaries and published by the church. It was ''The Pilgrim’s Progress'' by British writer John Buyan, and the translation was published in Xiamen in 1853. During this period, translation activities also had some defects. Due to the popularity of translation, although abridged translation and free translation made the translator more free to express his political ideas, it also caused the disadvantages of breaking away from the original works. The purpose of translation was not to introduce western literature, but to express the translator's own ideas as a political means. At the same time, translation theory was strongly advocated in this period and political utilitarianism have also been greatly strengthened.

====2.3.3 Marked by the Rise of the New Culture Movement====
After the revolution of 1911, people's political enthusiasm was obviously low. In terms of translation, few people paid attention to social, political and economic works, and the number of translated novels was significantly lower than that of creative novels. However, people's literary concept was gradually strengthened. During this period, many translators introduced foreign literature from a literary perspective, bringing a new atmosphere to the translation circle and the history of Chinese literature In the period of the new culture movement, the translator's political and literary ideas were significantly improved, which laid a good foundation for the third wave of Western Chinese book translation starting from the new culture movement.

During this period, first of all, the number of short stories was greatly increased. During this period, new translators preferred to translate short stories. For example, Hu Shi translated ''The Last Lesson'' and Zhou Zuoren also published several short translation novels in the magazine New youth. The short translation novels published during this period also included ''The Leisure Review of Customs'' translated by Lin Shu and Chen Jialin. At this stage, the translator chooses the original work carefully after fully understanding and studying the original author, and describes his own opinions and ideas in the preface and postscript. Unlike in the past, he arbitrarily cuts the original work to express his political ideas, most of them are serious and loyal to the original. During this period, script translation gradually prevailed, and poetry translation appeared a new atmosphere. German poetry began to receive attention, and vernacular poetry began to appear. A new generation of translation practitioners consciously linked the translation of foreign literature with the transformation of Chinese literature and the purpose of the new culture movement. Chinese literary translation and Chinese society have entered a new era. （Wang 1992:321-322）

==3. The Influence of Modern Translation on Social Ideas==
===3.1 Appearance of the Concept of Marriage===
The translation that made an important change in the concept of scholars in the late Qing Dynasty was ''The Legacy of the Camellia'' in Paris translated by Lin Shu. This book describes the ups and downs of the protagonist Mark fate and complex psychological feelings. After the Sino-Japanese War, Lin Shu joined the ranks of reformers. He took a more open attitude towards love, which made Lin's translated novels reflect some changes of the times to a certain extent, implying that modern marriage and love pay attention to color. In Lin Shu's concept, if women want to benefit from freedom of marriage, they must first receive good education, such as Qiu Zhilan as a chivalrous woman, the heroine Qiu Zhilan sneaked into the capital to avenge her father's murder. She met scholar LV Qiushi and fell in love at first sight. She took the initiative to give a keepsake while LV Qiushi was reading at night. Finally, with the help of the blind nun of Shuiyue nunnery, they got married. Qiu Zhilan pursued love independently and persevered, suggesting that women's sense of marriage and love had begun to change under the circumstances at that time, or the wind of free marriage and love has gradually risen. In Lin Shu's translated novels, Lin Shu points out the rigidity of the orders of parents and the words of matchmakers. He also advocates that women should maintain the beauty of temperament. In Lin Shu, women generally can consciously control their emotions, maintain a certain degree of reserve and gentleness in their behavior, and never do things carelessly. To a certain extent, this reflects the love aesthetics and love trend of the society at that time.（Hu 1916:474）

In the past, the novels of talented women and beauties in ancient China were a special kind of art to express the love concept of the citizen class. In Chinese novels of talented women and beauties, most of the talented people in the books were portrayed as the images of handsome, talented, elegant and noble, and not in line with the times. Second, the highest ideal commonly pursued by scholars at that time was "wedding night, golden list." The happy ending of joys and sorrows can satisfy people's aesthetic taste in the past. In ''The Legacy of the Camellia Woman'' in Paris, It depicts the heroine, who is loyal to her feelings and has a sense of morality, left because of Yameng's career future and family happiness. This self-sacrifice combined with tragic color made the people who have seen the story of talented people and beautiful women for a long time with an unprecedented freshness, which provided a new type of love aesthetics for the people at that time. （Chen 1990:213）

There are also relevant translation works such as ''Better Return'' published during the Meiji period, which is called "the milestone of the theme novel describing women's consciousness in the Meiji period", which describes the content of women's resistance to the oppression of old morality and ethics, and the dramatic work ''Doll's House'', the heroine Nala breaks away from her originally happy family and realizes that she is a neglected individual value. Her home is just a doll's home. It can be inferred that Nora is not the only one. The concepts of marriage and love freedom and women's individual values conveyed in her works since modern times have gradually penetrated into the society, and people have begun to gradually recognize the importance of women’s rights. （Yuan 1989:178-181）

During the May 4th movement, The Troubles of Young Witt was strongly favored by young Chinese readers at that time for its crazy love passion, very dreamy action, rebellious and independent thought of the society and the protagonist's individualistic thinking method. This book was once regarded as the "Bible" by young men and women at that time As a general cultural phenomenon, the love between Witt and Lvdi made the young people talk about the freedom of marriage and love at that time and take the sacred love between men and women as the ideal. Witt easily reminded people of the talents in the love story at that time. Witt's lovelorn was expressed through strong sadness, which was the best comfort and inspiration for the young people who were eager to escape from the feudal cage at that time. It was a landmark translation that influenced modern Chinese society at that time.（Shi 1989:245）

===3.2 The Emergence of the Concept of Freedom and Equality and the Changes and Manifestations of Social Values===
Feminism is also one of the concepts of freedom and equality. Among the reformers after the failure of the Sino Japanese War of 1894-1895, Lin Shu was one of the first to advocate feminism. This was also mentioned in the previous section when describing the concept of marriage and love. The rise of women's concept of freedom of marriage and love has gradually spread, which implies that women pay attention to their own rights. From the novels translated by Lin Shu, Lin Shu's admiration for women's courage to pursue their love or rights shows that Lin supports and advocates women's rights. Xinxi Gossip deals with the values of money and the concept of social class. The novel expounds the role of money in Europe, which is unheard of by Chinese scholars. For example, the third volume of the novel describes that the British set up marriage halls, that is, intermediaries such as today's marriage agencies, many people who come to the museum are losers, hoping to cheat into marrying rich families, it describes that many people go to parties, but are driven by money worship in an attempt to cheat them into marrying rich people. At the same time, it also describes that money can make an old woman get a young husband, and the young husband aims at the old woman's rich family wealth. In the eyes of the Chinese people at that time, this was not in line with the code of ethics and could not be accepted.（Lu 1981:56）

==Conclusion==
In the transition period of modern China, the social function of translation played an important role, and the subversion was the most prominent in the social function of translation. At that time, China had experienced a long period of inaction towards western culture and regardless of the political and economic state of locking the country, resulting in China's ignorance of the West. However, at this time, the western world has not stopped the translation and introduction of Chinese culture through various channels Understanding. Asymmetric information exchange and translation make China in a passive position when communicating with the West. With the continuous entry of western new ideas and translation into China, values are constantly challenged, and even some extreme culturists try to subvert traditional Chinese culture and social values. The current situation requires China to make progress, and the current situation also forces China to make progress. In this period of mixed internal and external relations and political chaos, translation, as a communication tool, has always led Chinese people of insight in the exploration of saving the nation from subjugation and strengthening the country. （Zhang 1966:5-7）

The changes of modern history and the prominence of modern cultural view are greatly influenced by the input of Western learning. In modern Chinese society under the shock of Western learning civilization, translation makes western learning smoothly enter the Chinese people's political world, cultural undertakings and social life, but the overall westernization is absolutely impossible. In modern times, although Chinese traditional Confucianism has been criticized, even as a cultural pioneer The activists threw the target of political opinions, but middle school can't be reduced. Middle school is also the spiritual belief of Chinese unity since modern times. Lin Shu has always stressed that the traditional ethics revealed by Confucian culture has some eternal value and universal significance. The real Western civilization does not let us abandon middle school and completely replace it with Western learning, but let middle school be a traditional culture The social atmosphere under the coverage is more civilized.

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Wang Lixing 王立兴.中国近代文学考论［M］.A Research on Modern Chinese Literature南京：南京大学出版社,Nanjing：Nanjing University Press1992:321-322.

Xiaotian Qiejin 小田切近著，山人译.日本的名作［M］.Japanese Masterpieces 福建人民出版社,Fujian People’s Press1984:23.

Yuan Jian 袁健，郑荣.晚清小说研究概说［M］.An Overview of Novels in Late Qing Dynasty 天津：天津教育出版社,Tianjin：Tianjin Education Press1989:178-181.

Zou Zhenhuan 邹振环.影响中国近代社会的一百种译作 One Hundred Translations Influential on Modern Chinese Society [M].江苏教育出版社，Jiangsu Education Press 2008: 57-58.

Zhang Hailin 张海林.近代中外文化交流史[M].History of Modern Sino-foreign Cultural Exchanges 南京：南京大学出版社, Nanjing University Press 2003:158.

Zhang Xingniang 张星娘.欧化东渐史［M］.History of Europeanization Spreading to the East 商务印书馆,Commercial Press1934:42.

Zhang Zhenyu 张振玉.译学概论［M］.Introduction to Translation 中台印刷厂,Zhongtai Press1966:5-7.

Zeng Guofan 曾国藩.轮船工竣并陈机器局情形疏.郑振铎编.晚清文选［M］.The Steamship Engineer and Machinery Bureau 上海书店, Shanghai Bookstore 1987影印本：83.

Written by--[[User:Zhong Yifei|Zhong Yifei]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yifei|talk]]) 13:50, 8 December 2021 (UTC)

Hist Trans EN 13

2021-12-15T11:38:14Z

Wei Chuxuan: /* Conclusion */

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=Chapter 13: The Chinese Translation History In Modern Age=
钟义菲 Zhong Yifei，Hunan Normal University, China
==Abstract==
Since the middle of the 19th century, translation has gradually become a tool for people resolved to save the country from extinction. The spread of the large number of translation works has broadened the ways for the public, especially the intellectuals, to learn the west. In the meantime, it has also changed the social climate. The invasion of western civilization, translators' spontaneous development of translation activities and the passivity of national politics made Chinese society enter an important period of western learning translation, especially around the period of Opium War. The cause of translation in modern China coincided with the Chinese people's struggle against aggression. After the Opium War, China had to open the door. China had to end its isolation and began to face the outside world directly. However, the prolonged blockade made China lag behind the western world. Modern politics, economy, diplomacy and cultural activities are closely related to translation, which plays an indispensable role in history. The theme and source of the original translation often reflect the development trend of modern Chinese ideology and the direction of government policy. As for the nature and quantity of translation books in different periods, we can also see the motivation of translation books, the general trend of intellectual interests, and the impact of the dissemination in society. The time clue of this article is from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement, briefly introducing the translation and the translator, emphasizing its emergence background and several important period of development, research and analysis of western culture reflected in translation works in modem Chinese history, the change of Chinese people’s thoughts in translation and the influence of modern translation on Chinese society. This paper is divided into three chapters. The first chapter introduces the emergence, importance and main characteristics of modern translation works, then reviews the emergence of modem translation works, emphasizes their importance, and briefly introduces representative translation works. The second chapter introduces the background of translation works and translation climax stages of western books, studies the main characteristics and development trend of translation in each period. The third chapter studies the influence and performance of modern translation on people's ideology and social life through the description in translation works. This paper focuses on the development of modern translation, the important role of translation in Chinese history, and the specific impact of translation on modern society.

==摘要==
自19世纪中叶以来，翻译逐渐成为人们决心拯救国家免遭灭绝的工具。大量翻译作品的传播拓宽了公众，尤其是知识分子学习西方的途径。与此同时，它也改变了社会气候。西方文明的入侵、译者翻译活动的自发发展以及国家政治的被动，使中国社会进入了西学翻译的重要时期，尤其是鸦片战争前后。近代中国的翻译事业与中国人民反抗侵略的斗争不谋而合。鸦片战争后，中国不得不打开大门。中国不得不结束孤立，开始直接面对外部世界。然而，长期封锁使中国落后于西方世界。现代政治、经济、外交和文化活动都与翻译密切相关，翻译在历史上起着不可或缺的作用。原文的主题和来源往往反映了中国现代意识形态的发展趋势和政府政策的方向。至于不同时期翻译书籍的性质和数量，我们还可以看到翻译书籍的动机、知识兴趣的总体趋势以及在社会上传播的影响。本文的时间线索是从鸦片战争到五四运动，简要介绍了翻译和译者，强调了其产生背景和几个重要的发展时期，研究和分析了中国近代翻译作品中反映的西方文化，中国人翻译思想的变化以及现代翻译对中国社会的影响。本文共分为三章。第一章介绍了现代翻译作品的产生、重要性和主要特征，然后回顾了现代翻译作品的产生，强调了现代翻译作品的重要性，并简要介绍了具有代表性的翻译作品。第二章介绍了翻译作品的背景和西方书籍翻译的高潮阶段，研究了各个时期翻译的主要特点和发展趋势。第三章通过对翻译作品的描写，研究现代翻译对人们思想和社会生活的影响和表现。本文着重论述了现代翻译的发展，翻译在中国历史上的重要作用，以及翻译对现代社会的具体影响。

==Key words==
Modern Translation，Translation，Social Life，Ideology

==Introduction==
Around the middle of the 19th century, The Western invasion brought new knowledge. The Westernization Movement sent a large number of international students to study abroad and translated a large number of books for military purpose.The Qing government decayed, and was tired of the invasion of foreign enemies, the war repeatedly failed. After the Sino-Japanese War in 1894, faced with internal and external troubles, far-sighted people knew that they could not rely on the Qing government, so they devoted themselves to writing novels. Many people accepted and spread Western culture through translating books. The importance of translation was recognized by the development of journalism, media, and provident men influenced by the Western culture at that time. In this social context, people have criticized the corruption of government through literature and translation.

Modern China began in the Opium War in 1840. It was a special period in Chinese history. During this period, the Chinese were attacked by foreign guns, as well as by foreign culture and foreign education. Especially after the Sino-Japanese War, the Chinese people were greatly shocked psychologically, and people began to realize that the West was more advanced than China in political, economic, cultural and other aspects, which was providing a great opportunity for the introduction of translation literature. Translators at that time also hoped to translate the western advanced scientific knowledge to the Chinese people so that they could broaden their horizons and innovate their ideas. During the Reform Movement of 1898, Liang Qichao advocated publicizing political ideas by translating foreign political novels to transform the society. He believed that the incredible power of novels was "enough to dominate people's psychology and could change the society of one generation." Based on the translation of the novel, Liang Qichao gave the novel new significance and mission. He put forward the idea of improving the novel, with the famous ones such as ''The Beauty Adventures'' and ''The Fifteen Little Heroes'', which promoted the process of novel revolution and the prosperity and development of the translating novels. Yan Fu translated works such as ''Heaven'' and Yuan Fu. His translation had a great influence at that time and was the most important enlightenment translation in China in the 20th century. In the translation of ''Heaven'', Yan Fu proposed three difficulties: Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance. It was advocated by many literary writers at that time and used as the theoretical basis for their translation. The concept of "natural selection: the fittest to survive" conveyed in Yan Fu's Heaven woke people up from the dream of the heavenly world. There are more famous translation works such as Lin Shu’s ''The Lady of the Camellias'', Black slaves call for heaven record and so on. It had an important influence on the change of people's concept. People are not limited to the traditional concept of marriage and love, and the concept of freedom and equality gradually spread. Under the prevalence of translation works, traditional values, such as emphasizing agriculture and suppressing business, men being superior to women, gradually lost their status and were gradually replaced by new ideas. （A 1981:741）

The paper mainly includes three chapters: First, modern translation works and the overview of translators. Second, the background and climax of modern translation works. Third, the impact of modern translation on social life. In the modern Chinese literary circle, there was a wave of translation in western books, and the translation activities of foreign works were unprecedentedly prosperous. The emergence of a large number of translation works has also caused a large influx of foreign cultural ideas. Under the translation of domestic scholars, the translators not only conveyed the literary nature of foreign works, but also expressed their translation purpose through translation language and techniques, and had a huge impact on Chinese social life at that time. Academia research is more aimed at the overview of modern translation works and its prosperity, but little research on its impact on national social life. This paper analyzes the wide variety of materials and works to detail the influence of modern translation on social life. （Lian 2009:93）

==1. Modern Translation Work and Its Main Characteristics ==
===1.1 The Emergence of Translation Works and Their Importance===
The premise of the emergence of translation works is the introduction of western civilization. The spread of western culture in modern China can be traced back to the eve of the Opium War. The main translators are missionaries, who mainly introduce religious doctrine, and also bring western history and geography to China. They established schools, translated western books (such as the Bible), compiled magazines, wrote books and so on. It can be said that missionaries are the first wave of intermediaries communicating between Chinese and Western culture. Early missionaries in China, although for the purpose of conquest, tended to teach by words and deeds than coercion. However, considering China's closure at that time, the Chinese were not allowed to learn foreign languages. The missionaries have also made great efforts in communicating the Chinese and Western cultures. This also led to the introduction of western civilization at this stage and laid the foundation for the development of the modern translation and cultivated talents. The Opium War was an important period of western translation. The rise and fall of China is always closely related to the rise and fall of translation culture. As a special component of Chinese literature, the development of translation literature has always affected the process of Chinese literature and historical changes, especially the occurrence of modern Chinese translation literature, which has effectively promoted the transformation and development of Chinese literature and modern society. Modern translation, from its emergence to the development, is inseparable with China's social changes. Translation has promoted the change of people's ideas, enriched people's knowledge in many fields, and not only promoted the development of Chinese literature, but also played a certain positive role in the development of politics and Chinese society. （Guo 1979:126）

===1.2 Representative Works of Modern Translations and Their Main Categories===
The introduction of modern western literature made Lin Shu a famous literary translator. Many people will misunderstand ''The Lady of the Camellias'' as the first translation novel in modern China. But ''The Declaration'' has already begun to publish translation novels earlier. The first translation novel should be ''Xinxi Talk''. According to Zou Zhenhuan, the most expensive translation of the Bible was the first version to enter the palace, the "royal version" of the late Qing Dynasty. The first modern Japanese novel translated into Chinese was ''The Beauty Adventure'', translated by Liang Qichao, which opened the translation of the political novel in the late Qing Dynasty. At the same time, the Chinese translation books related to Japan was ''Ryukyu Geography''. Tan Ruqian thought it as “the first Chinese translation of Japanese documents”. After translation into Chinese, the most influential translation is Yan Fu’s ''Heaven'', Lin Shu’s ''The Lady of the Camellias'', and ''Black Slaves Call for Heaven'' record translated by Wei Yi and Lin Shu. The three works had a great influence on Chinese society in different aspects. Thai new history can represent part of the translation works since modern times. It is widely spread into China though it doesn’t achieve any effect in the West. The book is considered by western scholars as the most boring residual history and a third-rate world history. In China, it sold more than one million copies, which is the most popular reading book in the Restoration period. It can be said that the social influence in different historical stages and social backgrounds can be different. ''The Law of the Duke of Nations'' theoretically defeated the ignorant idea of the Qing government. In addition, there are translations about life which popularized scientific knowledge in China and played a good role in the abolition of feudal superstition. ''Foreign Cookery'' in Chinese was the earliest Chinese translation of a relatively systematic introduction of western cooking methods in the process of introducing western food culture in China. In the aspects of medicine, there were books such as ''Tessi’s Personal Theory'', ''Optical Disclosure and Cardiotherapy''. The first sociological monograph of full-text translation in modern China was translated by Zhang Taiyan, which had an important influence on the progress of social cognition.（Feng 2012: 234-235）

===1.3 Main Characteristics of Modern Translation Works===
One is catering to the taste and ethics of the Chinese readers in order to obtain a wider popularity. Influenced by the social background of the late Qing Dynasty, most people who learned from the West were limited to intellectuals and politicians. In order to make the translation get more attention, the translator chose more accepted literary works for translation. This to some extent leads to the lack of extensive translation categories. In Introduction to Translation, the second chapter "Translation of Catholic Scholars between the Ming and Qing Dynasties" discussed the Catholic doctrine translation and scientific translation between the Ming and Qing Dynasties, and pointed out that " at that time, translation sought more elegance, integrity and the willingness of Chinese officials and scholars to read. However, there are also some translators who try to keep the original meaning rather than deliberately satisfying the readers’ interests." On the other hand, it also confirms that the characteristics of translation was catering to readers at that time. （Zhang 2003:158）

The second is to use foreign novel translation as a tool for reform politics. After the failure of the Opium War, people with insight were eager to find good ways to save the country. The most direct and effective way is to learn western culture. In the process of learning western culture, the most convenient thing is to translate western works. However, hindered by language factors, the translation of monographs is far more difficult than the novels. Therefore, except for the few people who are proficient in foreign languages, most translators basically choose to take novels as the entry point to give personal political opinions and ideas to achieve the purpose of political improvement. Third, readers often take the translation of novels as a pastime, resulting in the flood of boring detective novels and romantic novels. Popular novels translations are enough while famous novels translations are rare. To cater to the market and earn publication costs, many translators translate foreign works for the purpose of making a profit. And after a few celebrities do not classify foreign translations, many translators will have a herd mentality. At the same time, due to the influence of domestic readers' literary taste, popular novels and simple literary works are more acceptable to them, so resulting in the flood of some novel categories. Fourth, the translation is not faithful. Influenced by traditional ideas, some phenomena in western works were not accepted by the Chinese at that time, and to avoid unnecessary trouble, the translator chose to omit part of the plot in the original, and could not completely express the original idea. In order to express his political position and views, the translator will fabricate the plot and comments not included in the original. For example, when Su Manshu translated ''Hugo's Bad World'', he invented a character called Lauder, using him to satirize the corrupt stupidity of the Qing government. Secondly, the translator will change the narrative perspective and structure of the original, which is largely influenced by the traditional Chinese narrative style. For example, Liang Qichao used the serial structure when translating ''The Beauty Adventure''.（Zhang 1934:42）

It is summarized as follows: excessive catering to readers and lack of independence; the monotonous type of translation with limitations; lack of translation proficiency and transmission of the idea; separation from the original work.

==2. The Rise Background and Climax of Modern Translation Works ==
===2.1 The Background of the Rise of Modern Translation===
After the Opium War, the Qing government successively signed the Nanjing Treaty and the Humen Treaty, which made insightful people attempt to save modern China from abyss of suffering. In the face of an unprecedented crisis, a group of people began to search for the way to save the country, and every individual has put all his strength into the efforts to save the nation in danger. Modern China is faced with a more powerful opponent in all aspects. People with insight realize that they must break through the current situation of self-isolation and learn from the outside world. Learning from the West and imitating the West became an important strategy of saving the nation at that time. Chinese society has constantly updated the old mechanism, trying to get rid of the original closed and rigid political dilemma, starting to find a new development direction, from the learning of western skills to the study of western political and economic system, ideology and culture. To learn from the West and seek self-improvement, translation is first serve as a bridge of communication. Domestic people with insight can bring western works to China by translating them. After the failure of the Second Opium War, China was forced to sign the Treaty of Beijing. The national crisis became more and more serious, the national crisis further strengthened the Chinese people's thought of self-improvement, and the understanding of the outside world became more and more urgent. At the same time, due to the current situation, foreign language communication and diplomatic intercourse have become very urgent. In this environment, translation became indispensable in this era.

===2.2 The Purpose of the Rise of Modern Translation===
The 19th century was a period of complex economic situation and chaotic political situation. At this time, the demand for formal translators increased. However, in this period, translation was very sophisticated and had a great influence on the control authority of the government and exchanges between Chinese and foreign countries. In the Treaty of Beijing, Britain and France sent documents that are written in English and French to China. But considering that there was almost no translation talent in China at that time, the two sides agreed to attach Chinese version. But if there was any dispute, both English and French characters should be the authority. Then the Qing government had to start training translation talents, and the first batch of foreign language schools were established accordingly. The original motivation of The School of Combined Learning was quite related to the signing of the Sino-British Treaty, and the British authorities attached a Chinese translation within three years, aiming to allow the Chinese government to cultivate a number of qualified translators during this period, so the establishment of The School of Combined Learning was established in 1861. It was the first official foreign language school in the late Qing Dynasty with the purpose of cultivating foreign language translation talents. Foreigners were the teachers, training specialized foreign language translators. In order to become rich and train soldiers, China must learn from advanced western science and technology. To learn from advanced western technology, it is bound to remove the language barriers in the process of learning. Zeng Guofan once mentioned that translation must occupy the fundamental strategic position of westernization cause. It is easy to see that the purpose of translation is to learn the advanced western technology more efficiently and to achieve the purpose of saving the nation. The process of modernizing Chinese literature is, in a sense, the process of Chinese literature learning from the West and seeking innovation and change under the impact of western culture. （Shi 1983:216）

===2.3 The Climax of Translation in the Western Book===
====2.3.1 From the Opium War to the Sino-Japanese War====
From the Opium War to the Sino-Japanese War, especially after the 1860s, with the rise of the westernization movement aimed at self-improvement and wealth, there was an upsurge in the translation of Western science and technology books. In the late Qing Dynasty, under the influence of opium smuggling, China and the UK exchanges are getting closer and closer. Until the Opium War broke out, the door of China was completely opened, and the Qing government had to face the outside world. Lin Zexu fought in the front line of the anti-smoking movement and the anti-British struggle from 1839 to 1840. He organized personnel to translate many books. In the monthly Macao, there are five volumes: on China, on tea, on smoking prohibition, on the use of military forces and on the feelings of foreigners in various countries. These materials are mainly translated from Guangzhou weekly, Guangzhou chronicle and etc. Lin Zexu never neglected to give up the work of organizing translation. Among Lin Zexu's translations, ''The Chronicles of Four Continents'' has the most far-reaching impact on Modern Chinese history. It is the first book in modern China to systematically introducing world geography and history. The translation of these books opened the eyes of the Chinese people and began to import Western learning in modern times, which is of great significance to the history of modern thought and culture. One of the most direct effects is that it has led to the emergence of a number of masters who compile and study foreign profiles. It indirectly led to the development of the style of study for practical use, and also had an important impact on the literary reform in history. Wei Yuan revised and supplemented ''The Records of the Four Continents''. This book not only retained the characteristics of the west, but also sublimated in combination with the domestic reality, added many notes and political comments, and put forward many political propositions represented by "learning from the foreigners and mastering their skills to control the foreigners", which gathered huge ripples in the ideological circles at that time, and even spread to Japan, It also had an impact on Japan's Meiji Restoration. However, at this time, the work of Lin Zexu and Wei Yuan only played the role of foresight and did not form a huge social situation. The development of translation still needs new forces to promote. At this time, the Westernization school played such a role. （Zou 2008:57-58）

The Westernization Movement took place after the second Opium War and before the Sino-Japanese war. During this period, the Qing government experienced the impact of two Opium Wars. Facing the strong ships and guns of Western powers, it was in a difficult situation at home and abroad, and felt a profound crisis never seen in history. The Westernization school, divided from the feudal landlord class, had a certain understanding of the world situation. They advocate learning from western capitalist countries. The main figures of the Westernization school were Zeng Guofan, Li Hongzhang and others. They held high positions in the Qing government. Compared with other ordinary officials, they were more deeply aware of the need to learn and introduce advanced military weapons and manufacturing technology from Western powers in order to maintain the ruling order of the feudal society and realize the stability of the regime of the Qing Dynasty. However, at that time, the Westernization school could only recognize the progress of Western skills and the strength of military strength. Their change Geng Chang's method was only limited to "learning from foreigners". Among them, the translation of foreign books became an important means to achieve the goal of learning from foreigners. （Wang 1987:23-24）

In 1862, due to the needs of diplomacy and Westernization Movement, Tongwen museum was established in Beijing to train translators. The Tongwen Library in Beijing regards translation and washing as an important activity. The Jiangnan manufacturing Bureau, founded in 1865, had a greater impact during this period. The two primary problems faced by Jiangnan manufacturing Bureau after its completion are technology and talents, and the key to solving these two problems is the translation of technical books. Therefore, it decided to "set up another school to learn translation", "it is planned to select intelligent disciples to study with the school when it is completed", "You don't have to fake a foreigner, you can also extend it and make it into a book." The books translated by the translators were mainly about natural science and applied technology, which played a positive role in introducing modern science and technology and promoting the development of productive forces, and became important teaching materials for people of insight at that time to understand the external world and update their knowledge structure. These books can be said to have cultivated the next batch of cultural newcomers, such as Kang Youwei, Liang Qichao, Zhang Taiyan and Cai Yuanpei and so on. （Zeng 1987:83）

During this period, the importance of translation has been paid some attention, and the government has begun to operate translation in an organized and planned way. At the same time, the translation activities of the church have also been strengthened. Missionaries played the role of cultural invaders in the process of foreign military aggression. At first, missionaries wanted to carry out cultural aggression in the sense of Christianity, but they were influenced by Chinese tradition The influence of culture was resisted by the Chinese people. So they turned to spread new western knowledge and Western civilization, set up institutions, run newspapers and translate books, and tried to open the gap of the Chinese people's thought, so as to achieve the purpose of cultural aggression control. But objectively speaking, they also played a role in spreading Western learning to a certain extent. The translation by foreign missionaries had a great impact on Chinese society. The Chinese people's own pure literary translation also began at this stage. However, the literary translation at this stage still lacks systematic theoretical guidance and positive social atmosphere.

====2.3.2 After the Sino-Japanese War====
After the Sino-Japanese War was defeated, the Westernization Movement was declared bankrupt, and China's current situation was at stake. People with lofty ideals learned from the failure of the Westernization Movement that reform is far from solving the problem. To make China embark on the road of independence, prosperity and strength, we must fundamentally learn from the West and change the feudal autocratic system. In order to comprehensively learn western learning, translation is the first thing at this time. Therefore, this is the moment The translation career of this period is very prosperous, which is very different from the translation characteristics of the previous era. First, the expansion of the field of translation. At this time, the focus of importing western learning turned to various fields of social science, and paid particular attention to the import of political and academic ideas. The eight famous works translated by Yan Fu were outstanding representatives of this period, which had a significant impact on the society of the Qing Dynasty. During this period, translation methods were widely used, that is, abridged translation and free translation of foreign works, which were understood by the translator At this time, a large number of social sciences have been introduced, which has greatly improved the ideological level of Chinese people and brought the political and cultural activities to a new stage. Secondly, the translation field has also been expanded. The previous translation work was limited to government-run institutions. After the Sino-Japanese War, the reformers stepped onto the historical stage, and the translation work has been included in the overall plan of the reform. The reformers created schools, ran newspapers and opened publishing houses, with the import of Western learning and the translation and introduction of Western books as the main activities. After the failure of the reform movement, the establishment of newspapers and publishing houses did not stop. At this time, China's translation industry began to gradually break away from the limited government-run and turn to the private sector, resulting in an unprecedented prosperity in the translation industry. In addition, the translation team has gradually expanded. The establishment of foreign language teaching has gradually increased the number of foreign students and personnel abroad. The emergence of more and more translation talents meets the development of the publishing industry and social needs at this time. More and more people who know foreign languages are engaged in translation. This period is also an era of a large number of translators. Not only Lin Shu and Yan Fu, but also Liang Qichao, Su Manshu, Zhou Guisheng, Wu Guangjian are all well-known. During this period, the level of translation was also greatly improved. In the early days, most of the translations were spoken by foreigners who knew a little Chinese, and then recorded and polished by Chinese. The level of translation was uneven. During this period, most translators were proficient in foreign languages, their Chinese level was also high, and the quality of translation improved greatly Great improvement.（Xiao 1984:23）

This stage is also a period of vigorous rise and unprecedented prosperity of novel translation. In the early modern times, novel translation was not paid much attention. The first foreign novel translated into China was translated by foreign missionaries and published by the church. It was ''The Pilgrim’s Progress'' by British writer John Buyan, and the translation was published in Xiamen in 1853. During this period, translation activities also had some defects. Due to the popularity of translation, although abridged translation and free translation made the translator more free to express his political ideas, it also caused the disadvantages of breaking away from the original works. The purpose of translation was not to introduce western literature, but to express the translator's own ideas as a political means. At the same time, translation theory was strongly advocated in this period and political utilitarianism have also been greatly strengthened.

====2.3.3 Marked by the Rise of the New Culture Movement====
After the revolution of 1911, people's political enthusiasm was obviously low. In terms of translation, few people paid attention to social, political and economic works, and the number of translated novels was significantly lower than that of creative novels. However, people's literary concept was gradually strengthened. During this period, many translators introduced foreign literature from a literary perspective, bringing a new atmosphere to the translation circle and the history of Chinese literature In the period of the new culture movement, the translator's political and literary ideas were significantly improved, which laid a good foundation for the third wave of Western Chinese book translation starting from the new culture movement.

During this period, first of all, the number of short stories was greatly increased. During this period, new translators preferred to translate short stories. For example, Hu Shi translated ''The Last Lesson'' and Zhou Zuoren also published several short translation novels in the magazine New youth. The short translation novels published during this period also included ''The Leisure Review of Customs'' translated by Lin Shu and Chen Jialin. At this stage, the translator chooses the original work carefully after fully understanding and studying the original author, and describes his own opinions and ideas in the preface and postscript. Unlike in the past, he arbitrarily cuts the original work to express his political ideas, most of them are serious and loyal to the original. During this period, script translation gradually prevailed, and poetry translation appeared a new atmosphere. German poetry began to receive attention, and vernacular poetry began to appear. A new generation of translation practitioners consciously linked the translation of foreign literature with the transformation of Chinese literature and the purpose of the new culture movement. Chinese literary translation and Chinese society have entered a new era. （Wang 1992:321-322）

==3. The Influence of Modern Translation on Social Ideas==
===3.1 Appearance of the Concept of Marriage===
The translation that made an important change in the concept of scholars in the late Qing Dynasty was ''The Legacy of the Camellia'' in Paris translated by Lin Shu. This book describes the ups and downs of the protagonist Mark fate and complex psychological feelings. After the Sino-Japanese War, Lin Shu joined the ranks of reformers. He took a more open attitude towards love, which made Lin's translated novels reflect some changes of the times to a certain extent, implying that modern marriage and love pay attention to color. In Lin Shu's concept, if women want to benefit from freedom of marriage, they must first receive good education, such as Qiu Zhilan as a chivalrous woman, the heroine Qiu Zhilan sneaked into the capital to avenge her father's murder. She met scholar LV Qiushi and fell in love at first sight. She took the initiative to give a keepsake while LV Qiushi was reading at night. Finally, with the help of the blind nun of Shuiyue nunnery, they got married. Qiu Zhilan pursued love independently and persevered, suggesting that women's sense of marriage and love had begun to change under the circumstances at that time, or the wind of free marriage and love has gradually risen. In Lin Shu's translated novels, Lin Shu points out the rigidity of the orders of parents and the words of matchmakers. He also advocates that women should maintain the beauty of temperament. In Lin Shu, women generally can consciously control their emotions, maintain a certain degree of reserve and gentleness in their behavior, and never do things carelessly. To a certain extent, this reflects the love aesthetics and love trend of the society at that time.（Hu 1916:474）

In the past, the novels of talented women and beauties in ancient China were a special kind of art to express the love concept of the citizen class. In Chinese novels of talented women and beauties, most of the talented people in the books were portrayed as the images of handsome, talented, elegant and noble, and not in line with the times. Second, the highest ideal commonly pursued by scholars at that time was "wedding night, golden list." The happy ending of joys and sorrows can satisfy people's aesthetic taste in the past. In ''The Legacy of the Camellia Woman'' in Paris, It depicts the heroine, who is loyal to her feelings and has a sense of morality, left because of Yameng's career future and family happiness. This self-sacrifice combined with tragic color made the people who have seen the story of talented people and beautiful women for a long time with an unprecedented freshness, which provided a new type of love aesthetics for the people at that time. （Chen 1990:213）

There are also relevant translation works such as ''Better Return'' published during the Meiji period, which is called "the milestone of the theme novel describing women's consciousness in the Meiji period", which describes the content of women's resistance to the oppression of old morality and ethics, and the dramatic work ''Doll's House'', the heroine Nala breaks away from her originally happy family and realizes that she is a neglected individual value. Her home is just a doll's home. It can be inferred that Nora is not the only one. The concepts of marriage and love freedom and women's individual values conveyed in her works since modern times have gradually penetrated into the society, and people have begun to gradually recognize the importance of women’s rights. （Yuan 1989:178-181）

During the May 4th movement, The Troubles of Young Witt was strongly favored by young Chinese readers at that time for its crazy love passion, very dreamy action, rebellious and independent thought of the society and the protagonist's individualistic thinking method. This book was once regarded as the "Bible" by young men and women at that time As a general cultural phenomenon, the love between Witt and Lvdi made the young people talk about the freedom of marriage and love at that time and take the sacred love between men and women as the ideal. Witt easily reminded people of the talents in the love story at that time. Witt's lovelorn was expressed through strong sadness, which was the best comfort and inspiration for the young people who were eager to escape from the feudal cage at that time. It was a landmark translation that influenced modern Chinese society at that time.（Shi 1989:245）

===3.2 The Emergence of the Concept of Freedom and Equality and the Changes and Manifestations of Social Values===
Feminism is also one of the concepts of freedom and equality. Among the reformers after the failure of the Sino Japanese War of 1894-1895, Lin Shu was one of the first to advocate feminism. This was also mentioned in the previous section when describing the concept of marriage and love. The rise of women's concept of freedom of marriage and love has gradually spread, which implies that women pay attention to their own rights. From the novels translated by Lin Shu, Lin Shu's admiration for women's courage to pursue their love or rights shows that Lin supports and advocates women's rights. Xinxi Gossip deals with the values of money and the concept of social class. The novel expounds the role of money in Europe, which is unheard of by Chinese scholars. For example, the third volume of the novel describes that the British set up marriage halls, that is, intermediaries such as today's marriage agencies, many people who come to the museum are losers, hoping to cheat into marrying rich families, it describes that many people go to parties, but are driven by money worship in an attempt to cheat them into marrying rich people. At the same time, it also describes that money can make an old woman get a young husband, and the young husband aims at the old woman's rich family wealth. In the eyes of the Chinese people at that time, this was not in line with the code of ethics and could not be accepted.（Lu 1981:56）

==Conclusion==
In the transition period of modern China, the social function of translation played an important role, and the subversion was the most prominent in the social function of translation. At that time, China had experienced a long period of inaction towards western culture and regardless of the political and economic state of locking the country, resulting in China's ignorance of the West. However, at this time, the western world has not stopped the translation and introduction of Chinese culture through various channels Understanding. Asymmetric information exchange and translation make China in a passive position when communicating with the West. With the continuous entry of western new ideas and translation into China, values are constantly challenged, and even some extreme culturists try to subvert traditional Chinese culture and social values. The current situation requires China to make progress, and the current situation also forces China to make progress. In this period of mixed internal and external relations and political chaos, translation, as a communication tool, has always led Chinese people of insight in the exploration of saving the nation from subjugation and strengthening the country. （Zhang 1966:5-7）

The changes of modern history and the prominence of modern cultural view are greatly influenced by the input of Western learning. In modern Chinese society under the shock of Western learning civilization, translation makes western learning smoothly enter the Chinese people's political world, cultural undertakings and social life, but the overall westernization is absolutely impossible. In modern times, although Chinese traditional Confucianism has been criticized, even as a cultural pioneer The activists threw the target of political opinions, but middle school can't be reduced. Middle school is also the spiritual belief of Chinese unity since modern times. Lin Shu has always stressed that the traditional ethics revealed by Confucian culture has some eternal value and universal significance. The real Western civilization does not let us abandon middle school and completely replace it with Western learning, but let middle school be a traditional culture The social atmosphere under the coverage is more civilized.

==Reference==
Amos, Flora Ross. (1920). Early Theories of Translation. New York: Columbia University Press.

Benjamin, Andrew. (1989). Translation and the Nature of Philosophy: A New Theory of Words. London and New York: Routledge.

Catford,J.C.(1965) A Linguistic Theory of Translation.New York: Oxford University Press.

Dolet, Etienne. (1540). How to Translate Well from One Language to Another. Robinson.

A Yin 阿英.阿英文集［M］.Collection of A Ying’s Books三联书店, Sanlian Bookstore 1981:741.

Chen Xulu 陈旭麓.陈旭麓学术文存［M］.Chen Xulu Academic Archives上海：上海人民出版社, Shanghai：Shanghai People’s Press 1990:213.

Feng Zhijie 冯志杰.中国近代翻译史 History of Modern Chinese Translation（late Qing dynasty）（晚清卷）[M].北京：九州出版社, Bejing：Kyushu Press 2012:234-235.

Guo Moruo郭沫若.少年时代［M］,The Youth Age 人民文学出版社,People’s Literature Press1979:126.

Hu Shi 胡适.论译书寄陈独秀.胡适学术文集新文学运动［M］.Hu Shi’s Academic anthology New Literature Movement 1916:474.

Lian Yantang 连燕堂.二十世纪翻译文学史[M].History of Translated Literature in the 20th Century 百花文化出版社, Baihua Culture Press 2009:93.

Lu Xun 鲁迅.中国小说史略［M］.A Brief History of Chinese Novels 北京：人民文学出版社,Beijing:People’s Literature Publishing House 1973:125-126.

Lu Xun 鲁迅.文化偏至论［M］On Cultural Deviation （《鲁迅全集》第一卷）.人民文学出版社，People’s Literature Press 1981:56.

Shi Meng 时萌.晚清小说［M］.Novels of the Late Qing Dynasty 上海：上海古籍出版社,Shanghai: Shanghai Ancient Books Press 1989:245.

Shiteng Huixiu 实藤惠秀著，谭汝谦等译.《中国人留学日本史》History of Chinese People Studying in Japan［M］.三联书店, Sanlian Bookstore 1983:216.

Tan Sitong 谭嗣同.谭嗣同全集［M］.Complete Works of Tan Sitong北京：中华书局5 Beijing Zhonghua Book Company 1981.

Wang Xiangrong 汪向荣.中国的近代化与日本［M］.China’s Modernization and Japan湖南人民出版社,Hunan People’s Press1987:23-24.

Wang Lixing 王立兴.中国近代文学考论［M］.A Research on Modern Chinese Literature南京：南京大学出版社,Nanjing：Nanjing University Press1992:321-322.

Xiaotian Qiejin 小田切近著，山人译.日本的名作［M］.Japanese Masterpieces 福建人民出版社,Fujian People’s Press1984:23.

Yuan Jian 袁健，郑荣.晚清小说研究概说［M］.An Overview of Novels in Late Qing Dynasty 天津：天津教育出版社,Tianjin：Tianjin Education Press1989:178-181.

Zou Zhenhuan 邹振环.影响中国近代社会的一百种译作 One Hundred Translations Influential on Modern Chinese Society [M].江苏教育出版社，Jiangsu Education Press 2008: 57-58.

Zhang Hailin 张海林.近代中外文化交流史[M].History of Modern Sino-foreign Cultural Exchanges 南京：南京大学出版社, Nanjing University Press 2003:158.

Zhang Xingniang 张星娘.欧化东渐史［M］.History of Europeanization Spreading to the East 商务印书馆,Commercial Press1934:42.

Zhang Zhenyu 张振玉.译学概论［M］.Introduction to Translation 中台印刷厂,Zhongtai Press1966:5-7.

Zeng Guofan 曾国藩.轮船工竣并陈机器局情形疏.郑振铎编.晚清文选［M］,The Steamship Engineer and Machinery Bureau 上海书店, Shanghai Bookstore 1987影印本：83.

Written by--[[User:Zhong Yifei|Zhong Yifei]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yifei|talk]]) 13:50, 8 December 2021 (UTC)

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=Chapter 13: The Chinese Translation History In Modern Age=
钟义菲 Zhong Yifei，Hunan Normal University, China
==Abstract==
Since the middle of the 19th century, translation has gradually become a tool for people resolved to save the country from extinction. The spread of the large number of translation works has broadened the ways for the public, especially the intellectuals, to learn the west. In the meantime, it has also changed the social climate. The invasion of western civilization, translators' spontaneous development of translation activities and the passivity of national politics made Chinese society enter an important period of western learning translation, especially around the period of Opium War. The cause of translation in modern China coincided with the Chinese people's struggle against aggression. After the Opium War, China had to open the door. China had to end its isolation and began to face the outside world directly. However, the prolonged blockade made China lag behind the western world. Modern politics, economy, diplomacy and cultural activities are closely related to translation, which plays an indispensable role in history. The theme and source of the original translation often reflect the development trend of modern Chinese ideology and the direction of government policy. As for the nature and quantity of translation books in different periods, we can also see the motivation of translation books, the general trend of intellectual interests, and the impact of the dissemination in society. The time clue of this article is from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement, briefly introducing the translation and the translator, emphasizing its emergence background and several important period of development, research and analysis of western culture reflected in translation works in modem Chinese history, the change of Chinese people’s thoughts in translation and the influence of modern translation on Chinese society. This paper is divided into three chapters. The first chapter introduces the emergence, importance and main characteristics of modern translation works, then reviews the emergence of modem translation works, emphasizes their importance, and briefly introduces representative translation works. The second chapter introduces the background of translation works and translation climax stages of western books, studies the main characteristics and development trend of translation in each period. The third chapter studies the influence and performance of modern translation on people's ideology and social life through the description in translation works. This paper focuses on the development of modern translation, the important role of translation in Chinese history, and the specific impact of translation on modern society.

==摘要==
自19世纪中叶以来，翻译逐渐成为人们决心拯救国家免遭灭绝的工具。大量翻译作品的传播拓宽了公众，尤其是知识分子学习西方的途径。与此同时，它也改变了社会气候。西方文明的入侵、译者翻译活动的自发发展以及国家政治的被动，使中国社会进入了西学翻译的重要时期，尤其是鸦片战争前后。近代中国的翻译事业与中国人民反抗侵略的斗争不谋而合。鸦片战争后，中国不得不打开大门。中国不得不结束孤立，开始直接面对外部世界。然而，长期封锁使中国落后于西方世界。现代政治、经济、外交和文化活动都与翻译密切相关，翻译在历史上起着不可或缺的作用。原文的主题和来源往往反映了中国现代意识形态的发展趋势和政府政策的方向。至于不同时期翻译书籍的性质和数量，我们还可以看到翻译书籍的动机、知识兴趣的总体趋势以及在社会上传播的影响。本文的时间线索是从鸦片战争到五四运动，简要介绍了翻译和译者，强调了其产生背景和几个重要的发展时期，研究和分析了中国近代翻译作品中反映的西方文化，中国人翻译思想的变化以及现代翻译对中国社会的影响。本文共分为三章。第一章介绍了现代翻译作品的产生、重要性和主要特征，然后回顾了现代翻译作品的产生，强调了现代翻译作品的重要性，并简要介绍了具有代表性的翻译作品。第二章介绍了翻译作品的背景和西方书籍翻译的高潮阶段，研究了各个时期翻译的主要特点和发展趋势。第三章通过对翻译作品的描写，研究现代翻译对人们思想和社会生活的影响和表现。本文着重论述了现代翻译的发展，翻译在中国历史上的重要作用，以及翻译对现代社会的具体影响。

==Key words==
Modern Translation，Translation，Social Life，Ideology

==Introduction==
Around the middle of the 19th century, The Western invasion brought new knowledge. The Westernization Movement sent a large number of international students to study abroad and translated a large number of books for military purpose.The Qing government decayed, and was tired of the invasion of foreign enemies, the war repeatedly failed. After the Sino-Japanese War in 1894, faced with internal and external troubles, far-sighted people knew that they could not rely on the Qing government, so they devoted themselves to writing novels. Many people accepted and spread Western culture through translating books. The importance of translation was recognized by the development of journalism, media, and provident men influenced by the Western culture at that time. In this social context, people have criticized the corruption of government through literature and translation.

Modern China began in the Opium War in 1840. It was a special period in Chinese history. During this period, the Chinese were attacked by foreign guns, as well as by foreign culture and foreign education. Especially after the Sino-Japanese War, the Chinese people were greatly shocked psychologically, and people began to realize that the West was more advanced than China in political, economic, cultural and other aspects, which was providing a great opportunity for the introduction of translation literature. Translators at that time also hoped to translate the western advanced scientific knowledge to the Chinese people so that they could broaden their horizons and innovate their ideas. During the Reform Movement of 1898, Liang Qichao advocated publicizing political ideas by translating foreign political novels to transform the society. He believed that the incredible power of novels was "enough to dominate people's psychology and could change the society of one generation." Based on the translation of the novel, Liang Qichao gave the novel new significance and mission. He put forward the idea of improving the novel, with the famous ones such as ''The Beauty Adventures'' and ''The Fifteen Little Heroes'', which promoted the process of novel revolution and the prosperity and development of the translating novels. Yan Fu translated works such as ''Heaven'' and Yuan Fu. His translation had a great influence at that time and was the most important enlightenment translation in China in the 20th century. In the translation of ''Heaven'', Yan Fu proposed three difficulties: Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance. It was advocated by many literary writers at that time and used as the theoretical basis for their translation. The concept of "natural selection: the fittest to survive" conveyed in Yan Fu's Heaven woke people up from the dream of the heavenly world. There are more famous translation works such as Lin Shu’s ''The Lady of the Camellias'', Black slaves call for heaven record and so on. It had an important influence on the change of people's concept. People are not limited to the traditional concept of marriage and love, and the concept of freedom and equality gradually spread. Under the prevalence of translation works, traditional values, such as emphasizing agriculture and suppressing business, men being superior to women, gradually lost their status and were gradually replaced by new ideas. （A 1981:741）

The paper mainly includes three chapters: First, modern translation works and the overview of translators. Second, the background and climax of modern translation works. Third, the impact of modern translation on social life. In the modern Chinese literary circle, there was a wave of translation in western books, and the translation activities of foreign works were unprecedentedly prosperous. The emergence of a large number of translation works has also caused a large influx of foreign cultural ideas. Under the translation of domestic scholars, the translators not only conveyed the literary nature of foreign works, but also expressed their translation purpose through translation language and techniques, and had a huge impact on Chinese social life at that time. Academia research is more aimed at the overview of modern translation works and its prosperity, but little research on its impact on national social life. This paper analyzes the wide variety of materials and works to detail the influence of modern translation on social life. （Lian 2009:93）

==1. Modern Translation Work and Its Main Characteristics ==
===1.1 The Emergence of Translation Works and Their Importance===
The premise of the emergence of translation works is the introduction of western civilization. The spread of western culture in modern China can be traced back to the eve of the Opium War. The main translators are missionaries, who mainly introduce religious doctrine, and also bring western history and geography to China. They established schools, translated western books (such as the Bible), compiled magazines, wrote books and so on. It can be said that missionaries are the first wave of intermediaries communicating between Chinese and Western culture. Early missionaries in China, although for the purpose of conquest, tended to teach by words and deeds than coercion. However, considering China's closure at that time, the Chinese were not allowed to learn foreign languages. The missionaries have also made great efforts in communicating the Chinese and Western cultures. This also led to the introduction of western civilization at this stage and laid the foundation for the development of the modern translation and cultivated talents. The Opium War was an important period of western translation. The rise and fall of China is always closely related to the rise and fall of translation culture. As a special component of Chinese literature, the development of translation literature has always affected the process of Chinese literature and historical changes, especially the occurrence of modern Chinese translation literature, which has effectively promoted the transformation and development of Chinese literature and modern society. Modern translation, from its emergence to the development, is inseparable with China's social changes. Translation has promoted the change of people's ideas, enriched people's knowledge in many fields, and not only promoted the development of Chinese literature, but also played a certain positive role in the development of politics and Chinese society. （Guo 1979:126）

===1.2 Representative Works of Modern Translations and Their Main Categories===
The introduction of modern western literature made Lin Shu a famous literary translator. Many people will misunderstand ''The Lady of the Camellias'' as the first translation novel in modern China. But ''The Declaration'' has already begun to publish translation novels earlier. The first translation novel should be ''Xinxi Talk''. According to Zou Zhenhuan, the most expensive translation of the Bible was the first version to enter the palace, the "royal version" of the late Qing Dynasty. The first modern Japanese novel translated into Chinese was ''The Beauty Adventure'', translated by Liang Qichao, which opened the translation of the political novel in the late Qing Dynasty. At the same time, the Chinese translation books related to Japan was ''Ryukyu Geography''. Tan Ruqian thought it as “the first Chinese translation of Japanese documents”. After translation into Chinese, the most influential translation is Yan Fu’s ''Heaven'', Lin Shu’s ''The Lady of the Camellias'', and ''Black Slaves Call for Heaven'' record translated by Wei Yi and Lin Shu. The three works had a great influence on Chinese society in different aspects. Thai new history can represent part of the translation works since modern times. It is widely spread into China though it doesn’t achieve any effect in the West. The book is considered by western scholars as the most boring residual history and a third-rate world history. In China, it sold more than one million copies, which is the most popular reading book in the Restoration period. It can be said that the social influence in different historical stages and social backgrounds can be different. ''The Law of the Duke of Nations'' theoretically defeated the ignorant idea of the Qing government. In addition, there are translations about life which popularized scientific knowledge in China and played a good role in the abolition of feudal superstition. ''Foreign Cookery'' in Chinese was the earliest Chinese translation of a relatively systematic introduction of western cooking methods in the process of introducing western food culture in China. In the aspects of medicine, there were books such as ''Tessi’s Personal Theory'', ''Optical Disclosure and Cardiotherapy''. The first sociological monograph of full-text translation in modern China was translated by Zhang Taiyan, which had an important influence on the progress of social cognition.（Feng 2012: 234-235）

===1.3 Main Characteristics of Modern Translation Works===
One is catering to the taste and ethics of the Chinese readers in order to obtain a wider popularity. Influenced by the social background of the late Qing Dynasty, most people who learned from the West were limited to intellectuals and politicians. In order to make the translation get more attention, the translator chose more accepted literary works for translation. This to some extent leads to the lack of extensive translation categories. In Introduction to Translation, the second chapter "Translation of Catholic Scholars between the Ming and Qing Dynasties" discussed the Catholic doctrine translation and scientific translation between the Ming and Qing Dynasties, and pointed out that " at that time, translation sought more elegance, integrity and the willingness of Chinese officials and scholars to read. However, there are also some translators who try to keep the original meaning rather than deliberately satisfying the readers’ interests." On the other hand, it also confirms that the characteristics of translation was catering to readers at that time. （Zhang 2003:158）

The second is to use foreign novel translation as a tool for reform politics. After the failure of the Opium War, people with insight were eager to find good ways to save the country. The most direct and effective way is to learn western culture. In the process of learning western culture, the most convenient thing is to translate western works. However, hindered by language factors, the translation of monographs is far more difficult than the novels. Therefore, except for the few people who are proficient in foreign languages, most translators basically choose to take novels as the entry point to give personal political opinions and ideas to achieve the purpose of political improvement. Third, readers often take the translation of novels as a pastime, resulting in the flood of boring detective novels and romantic novels. Popular novels translations are enough while famous novels translations are rare. To cater to the market and earn publication costs, many translators translate foreign works for the purpose of making a profit. And after a few celebrities do not classify foreign translations, many translators will have a herd mentality. At the same time, due to the influence of domestic readers' literary taste, popular novels and simple literary works are more acceptable to them, so resulting in the flood of some novel categories. Fourth, the translation is not faithful. Influenced by traditional ideas, some phenomena in western works were not accepted by the Chinese at that time, and to avoid unnecessary trouble, the translator chose to omit part of the plot in the original, and could not completely express the original idea. In order to express his political position and views, the translator will fabricate the plot and comments not included in the original. For example, when Su Manshu translated ''Hugo's Bad World'', he invented a character called Lauder, using him to satirize the corrupt stupidity of the Qing government. Secondly, the translator will change the narrative perspective and structure of the original, which is largely influenced by the traditional Chinese narrative style. For example, Liang Qichao used the serial structure when translating ''The Beauty Adventure''.（Zhang 1934:42）

It is summarized as follows: excessive catering to readers and lack of independence; the monotonous type of translation with limitations; lack of translation proficiency and transmission of the idea; separation from the original work.

==2. The Rise Background and Climax of Modern Translation Works ==
===2.1 The Background of the Rise of Modern Translation===
After the Opium War, the Qing government successively signed the Nanjing Treaty and the Humen Treaty, which made insightful people attempt to save modern China from abyss of suffering. In the face of an unprecedented crisis, a group of people began to search for the way to save the country, and every individual has put all his strength into the efforts to save the nation in danger. Modern China is faced with a more powerful opponent in all aspects. People with insight realize that they must break through the current situation of self-isolation and learn from the outside world. Learning from the West and imitating the West became an important strategy of saving the nation at that time. Chinese society has constantly updated the old mechanism, trying to get rid of the original closed and rigid political dilemma, starting to find a new development direction, from the learning of western skills to the study of western political and economic system, ideology and culture. To learn from the West and seek self-improvement, translation is first serve as a bridge of communication. Domestic people with insight can bring western works to China by translating them. After the failure of the Second Opium War, China was forced to sign the Treaty of Beijing. The national crisis became more and more serious, the national crisis further strengthened the Chinese people's thought of self-improvement, and the understanding of the outside world became more and more urgent. At the same time, due to the current situation, foreign language communication and diplomatic intercourse have become very urgent. In this environment, translation became indispensable in this era.

===2.2 The Purpose of the Rise of Modern Translation===
The 19th century was a period of complex economic situation and chaotic political situation. At this time, the demand for formal translators increased. However, in this period, translation was very sophisticated and had a great influence on the control authority of the government and exchanges between Chinese and foreign countries. In the Treaty of Beijing, Britain and France sent documents that are written in English and French to China. But considering that there was almost no translation talent in China at that time, the two sides agreed to attach Chinese version. But if there was any dispute, both English and French characters should be the authority. Then the Qing government had to start training translation talents, and the first batch of foreign language schools were established accordingly. The original motivation of The School of Combined Learning was quite related to the signing of the Sino-British Treaty, and the British authorities attached a Chinese translation within three years, aiming to allow the Chinese government to cultivate a number of qualified translators during this period, so the establishment of The School of Combined Learning was established in 1861. It was the first official foreign language school in the late Qing Dynasty with the purpose of cultivating foreign language translation talents. Foreigners were the teachers, training specialized foreign language translators. In order to become rich and train soldiers, China must learn from advanced western science and technology. To learn from advanced western technology, it is bound to remove the language barriers in the process of learning. Zeng Guofan once mentioned that translation must occupy the fundamental strategic position of westernization cause. It is easy to see that the purpose of translation is to learn the advanced western technology more efficiently and to achieve the purpose of saving the nation. The process of modernizing Chinese literature is, in a sense, the process of Chinese literature learning from the West and seeking innovation and change under the impact of western culture. （Shi 1983:216）

===2.3 The Climax of Translation in the Western Book===
====2.3.1 From the Opium War to the Sino-Japanese War====
From the Opium War to the Sino-Japanese War, especially after the 1860s, with the rise of the westernization movement aimed at self-improvement and wealth, there was an upsurge in the translation of Western science and technology books. In the late Qing Dynasty, under the influence of opium smuggling, China and the UK exchanges are getting closer and closer. Until the Opium War broke out, the door of China was completely opened, and the Qing government had to face the outside world. Lin Zexu fought in the front line of the anti-smoking movement and the anti-British struggle from 1839 to 1840. He organized personnel to translate many books. In the monthly Macao, there are five volumes: on China, on tea, on smoking prohibition, on the use of military forces and on the feelings of foreigners in various countries. These materials are mainly translated from Guangzhou weekly, Guangzhou chronicle and etc. Lin Zexu never neglected to give up the work of organizing translation. Among Lin Zexu's translations, ''The Chronicles of Four Continents'' has the most far-reaching impact on Modern Chinese history. It is the first book in modern China to systematically introducing world geography and history. The translation of these books opened the eyes of the Chinese people and began to import Western learning in modern times, which is of great significance to the history of modern thought and culture. One of the most direct effects is that it has led to the emergence of a number of masters who compile and study foreign profiles. It indirectly led to the development of the style of study for practical use, and also had an important impact on the literary reform in history. Wei Yuan revised and supplemented ''The Records of the Four Continents''. This book not only retained the characteristics of the west, but also sublimated in combination with the domestic reality, added many notes and political comments, and put forward many political propositions represented by "learning from the foreigners and mastering their skills to control the foreigners", which gathered huge ripples in the ideological circles at that time, and even spread to Japan, It also had an impact on Japan's Meiji Restoration. However, at this time, the work of Lin Zexu and Wei Yuan only played the role of foresight and did not form a huge social situation. The development of translation still needs new forces to promote. At this time, the Westernization school played such a role. （Zou 2008:57-58）

The Westernization Movement took place after the second Opium War and before the Sino-Japanese war. During this period, the Qing government experienced the impact of two Opium Wars. Facing the strong ships and guns of Western powers, it was in a difficult situation at home and abroad, and felt a profound crisis never seen in history. The Westernization school, divided from the feudal landlord class, had a certain understanding of the world situation. They advocate learning from western capitalist countries. The main figures of the Westernization school were Zeng Guofan, Li Hongzhang and others. They held high positions in the Qing government. Compared with other ordinary officials, they were more deeply aware of the need to learn and introduce advanced military weapons and manufacturing technology from Western powers in order to maintain the ruling order of the feudal society and realize the stability of the regime of the Qing Dynasty. However, at that time, the Westernization school could only recognize the progress of Western skills and the strength of military strength. Their change Geng Chang's method was only limited to "learning from foreigners". Among them, the translation of foreign books became an important means to achieve the goal of learning from foreigners. （Wang 1987:23-24）

In 1862, due to the needs of diplomacy and Westernization Movement, Tongwen museum was established in Beijing to train translators. The Tongwen Library in Beijing regards translation and washing as an important activity. The Jiangnan manufacturing Bureau, founded in 1865, had a greater impact during this period. The two primary problems faced by Jiangnan manufacturing Bureau after its completion are technology and talents, and the key to solving these two problems is the translation of technical books. Therefore, it decided to "set up another school to learn translation", "it is planned to select intelligent disciples to study with the school when it is completed", "You don't have to fake a foreigner, you can also extend it and make it into a book." The books translated by the translators were mainly about natural science and applied technology, which played a positive role in introducing modern science and technology and promoting the development of productive forces, and became important teaching materials for people of insight at that time to understand the external world and update their knowledge structure. These books can be said to have cultivated the next batch of cultural newcomers, such as Kang Youwei, Liang Qichao, Zhang Taiyan and Cai Yuanpei and so on. （Zeng 1987:83）

During this period, the importance of translation has been paid some attention, and the government has begun to operate translation in an organized and planned way. At the same time, the translation activities of the church have also been strengthened. Missionaries played the role of cultural invaders in the process of foreign military aggression. At first, missionaries wanted to carry out cultural aggression in the sense of Christianity, but they were influenced by Chinese tradition The influence of culture was resisted by the Chinese people. So they turned to spread new western knowledge and Western civilization, set up institutions, run newspapers and translate books, and tried to open the gap of the Chinese people's thought, so as to achieve the purpose of cultural aggression control. But objectively speaking, they also played a role in spreading Western learning to a certain extent. The translation by foreign missionaries had a great impact on Chinese society. The Chinese people's own pure literary translation also began at this stage. However, the literary translation at this stage still lacks systematic theoretical guidance and positive social atmosphere.

====2.3.2 After the Sino-Japanese War====
After the Sino-Japanese War was defeated, the Westernization Movement was declared bankrupt, and China's current situation was at stake. People with lofty ideals learned from the failure of the Westernization Movement that reform is far from solving the problem. To make China embark on the road of independence, prosperity and strength, we must fundamentally learn from the West and change the feudal autocratic system. In order to comprehensively learn western learning, translation is the first thing at this time. Therefore, this is the moment The translation career of this period is very prosperous, which is very different from the translation characteristics of the previous era. First, the expansion of the field of translation. At this time, the focus of importing western learning turned to various fields of social science, and paid particular attention to the import of political and academic ideas. The eight famous works translated by Yan Fu were outstanding representatives of this period, which had a significant impact on the society of the Qing Dynasty. During this period, translation methods were widely used, that is, abridged translation and free translation of foreign works, which were understood by the translator At this time, a large number of social sciences have been introduced, which has greatly improved the ideological level of Chinese people and brought the political and cultural activities to a new stage. Secondly, the translation field has also been expanded. The previous translation work was limited to government-run institutions. After the Sino-Japanese War, the reformers stepped onto the historical stage, and the translation work has been included in the overall plan of the reform. The reformers created schools, ran newspapers and opened publishing houses, with the import of Western learning and the translation and introduction of Western books as the main activities. After the failure of the reform movement, the establishment of newspapers and publishing houses did not stop. At this time, China's translation industry began to gradually break away from the limited government-run and turn to the private sector, resulting in an unprecedented prosperity in the translation industry. In addition, the translation team has gradually expanded. The establishment of foreign language teaching has gradually increased the number of foreign students and personnel abroad. The emergence of more and more translation talents meets the development of the publishing industry and social needs at this time. More and more people who know foreign languages are engaged in translation. This period is also an era of a large number of translators. Not only Lin Shu and Yan Fu, but also Liang Qichao, Su Manshu, Zhou Guisheng, Wu Guangjian are all well-known. During this period, the level of translation was also greatly improved. In the early days, most of the translations were spoken by foreigners who knew a little Chinese, and then recorded and polished by Chinese. The level of translation was uneven. During this period, most translators were proficient in foreign languages, their Chinese level was also high, and the quality of translation improved greatly Great improvement.（Xiao 1984:23）

This stage is also a period of vigorous rise and unprecedented prosperity of novel translation. In the early modern times, novel translation was not paid much attention. The first foreign novel translated into China was translated by foreign missionaries and published by the church. It was ''The Pilgrim’s Progress'' by British writer John Buyan, and the translation was published in Xiamen in 1853. During this period, translation activities also had some defects. Due to the popularity of translation, although abridged translation and free translation made the translator more free to express his political ideas, it also caused the disadvantages of breaking away from the original works. The purpose of translation was not to introduce western literature, but to express the translator's own ideas as a political means. At the same time, translation theory was strongly advocated in this period and political utilitarianism have also been greatly strengthened.

====2.3.3 Marked by the Rise of the New Culture Movement====
After the revolution of 1911, people's political enthusiasm was obviously low. In terms of translation, few people paid attention to social, political and economic works, and the number of translated novels was significantly lower than that of creative novels. However, people's literary concept was gradually strengthened. During this period, many translators introduced foreign literature from a literary perspective, bringing a new atmosphere to the translation circle and the history of Chinese literature In the period of the new culture movement, the translator's political and literary ideas were significantly improved, which laid a good foundation for the third wave of Western Chinese book translation starting from the new culture movement.

During this period, first of all, the number of short stories was greatly increased. During this period, new translators preferred to translate short stories. For example, Hu Shi translated ''The Last Lesson'' and Zhou Zuoren also published several short translation novels in the magazine New youth. The short translation novels published during this period also included ''The Leisure Review of Customs'' translated by Lin Shu and Chen Jialin. At this stage, the translator chooses the original work carefully after fully understanding and studying the original author, and describes his own opinions and ideas in the preface and postscript. Unlike in the past, he arbitrarily cuts the original work to express his political ideas, most of them are serious and loyal to the original. During this period, script translation gradually prevailed, and poetry translation appeared a new atmosphere. German poetry began to receive attention, and vernacular poetry began to appear. A new generation of translation practitioners consciously linked the translation of foreign literature with the transformation of Chinese literature and the purpose of the new culture movement. Chinese literary translation and Chinese society have entered a new era. （Wang 1992:321-322）

==3. The Influence of Modern Translation on Social Ideas==
===3.1 Appearance of the Concept of Marriage===
The translation that made an important change in the concept of scholars in the late Qing Dynasty was ''The Legacy of the Camellia'' in Paris translated by Lin Shu. This book describes the ups and downs of the protagonist Mark fate and complex psychological feelings. After the Sino-Japanese War, Lin Shu joined the ranks of reformers. He took a more open attitude towards love, which made Lin's translated novels reflect some changes of the times to a certain extent, implying that modern marriage and love pay attention to color. In Lin Shu's concept, if women want to benefit from freedom of marriage, they must first receive good education, such as Qiu Zhilan as a chivalrous woman, the heroine Qiu Zhilan sneaked into the capital to avenge her father's murder. She met scholar LV Qiushi and fell in love at first sight. She took the initiative to give a keepsake while LV Qiushi was reading at night. Finally, with the help of the blind nun of Shuiyue nunnery, they got married. Qiu Zhilan pursued love independently and persevered, suggesting that women's sense of marriage and love had begun to change under the circumstances at that time, or the wind of free marriage and love has gradually risen. In Lin Shu's translated novels, Lin Shu points out the rigidity of the orders of parents and the words of matchmakers. He also advocates that women should maintain the beauty of temperament. In Lin Shu, women generally can consciously control their emotions, maintain a certain degree of reserve and gentleness in their behavior, and never do things carelessly. To a certain extent, this reflects the love aesthetics and love trend of the society at that time.（Hu 1916:474）

In the past, the novels of talented women and beauties in ancient China were a special kind of art to express the love concept of the citizen class. In Chinese novels of talented women and beauties, most of the talented people in the books were portrayed as the images of handsome, talented, elegant and noble, and not in line with the times. Second, the highest ideal commonly pursued by scholars at that time was "wedding night, golden list." The happy ending of joys and sorrows can satisfy people's aesthetic taste in the past. In ''The Legacy of the Camellia Woman'' in Paris, It depicts the heroine, who is loyal to her feelings and has a sense of morality, left because of Yameng's career future and family happiness. This self-sacrifice combined with tragic color made the people who have seen the story of talented people and beautiful women for a long time with an unprecedented freshness, which provided a new type of love aesthetics for the people at that time. （Chen 1990:213）

There are also relevant translation works such as ''Better Return'' published during the Meiji period, which is called "the milestone of the theme novel describing women's consciousness in the Meiji period", which describes the content of women's resistance to the oppression of old morality and ethics, and the dramatic work ''Doll's House'', the heroine Nala breaks away from her originally happy family and realizes that she is a neglected individual value. Her home is just a doll's home. It can be inferred that Nora is not the only one. The concepts of marriage and love freedom and women's individual values conveyed in her works since modern times have gradually penetrated into the society, and people have begun to gradually recognize the importance of women’s rights. （Yuan 1989:178-181）

During the May 4th movement, The Troubles of Young Witt was strongly favored by young Chinese readers at that time for its crazy love passion, very dreamy action, rebellious and independent thought of the society and the protagonist's individualistic thinking method. This book was once regarded as the "Bible" by young men and women at that time As a general cultural phenomenon, the love between Witt and Lvdi made the young people talk about the freedom of marriage and love at that time and take the sacred love between men and women as the ideal. Witt easily reminded people of the talents in the love story at that time. Witt's lovelorn was expressed through strong sadness, which was the best comfort and inspiration for the young people who were eager to escape from the feudal cage at that time. It was a landmark translation that influenced modern Chinese society at that time.（Shi 1989:245）

===3.2 The Emergence of the Concept of Freedom and Equality and the Changes and Manifestations of Social Values===
Feminism is also one of the concepts of freedom and equality. Among the reformers after the failure of the Sino Japanese War of 1894-1895, Lin Shu was one of the first to advocate feminism. This was also mentioned in the previous section when describing the concept of marriage and love. The rise of women's concept of freedom of marriage and love has gradually spread, which implies that women pay attention to their own rights. From the novels translated by Lin Shu, Lin Shu's admiration for women's courage to pursue their love or rights shows that Lin supports and advocates women's rights. Xinxi Gossip deals with the values of money and the concept of social class. The novel expounds the role of money in Europe, which is unheard of by Chinese scholars. For example, the third volume of the novel describes that the British set up marriage halls, that is, intermediaries such as today's marriage agencies, many people who come to the museum are losers, hoping to cheat into marrying rich families, it describes that many people go to parties, but are driven by money worship in an attempt to cheat them into marrying rich people. At the same time, it also describes that money can make an old woman get a young husband, and the young husband aims at the old woman's rich family wealth. In the eyes of the Chinese people at that time, this was not in line with the code of ethics and could not be accepted.（Lu 1981:56）

==Conclusion==
In the transition period of modern China, the social function of translation played an important role, and the subversion was the most prominent in the social function of translation. At that time, China had experienced a long period of inaction towards western culture and regardless of the political and economic state of locking the country, resulting in China's ignorance of the West. However, at this time, the western world has not stopped the translation and introduction of Chinese culture through various channels Understanding. Asymmetric information exchange and translation make China in a passive position when communicating with the West. With the continuous entry of western new ideas and translation into China, values are constantly challenged, and even some extreme culturists try to subvert traditional Chinese culture and social values. The current situation requires China to make progress, and the current situation also forces China to make progress. In this period of mixed internal and external relations and political chaos, translation, as a communication tool, has always led Chinese people of insight in the exploration of saving the nation from subjugation and strengthening the country. （Zhang 1966:5-7）

The changes of modern history and the prominence of modern cultural view are greatly influenced by the input of Western learning. In modern Chinese society under the shock of Western learning civilization, translation makes western learning smoothly enter the Chinese people's political world, cultural undertakings and social life, but the overall westernization is absolutely impossible. In modern times, although Chinese traditional Confucianism has been criticized, even as a cultural pioneer The activists threw the target of political opinions, but middle school can not be reduced. Middle school is also the spiritual belief of Chinese unity since modern times. Lin Shu has always stressed that the traditional ethics revealed by Confucian culture has some eternal value and universal significance. The real Western civilization does not let us abandon middle school and completely replace it with Western learning, but let middle school be a traditional culture The social atmosphere under the coverage is more civilized.

==Reference==
Amos, Flora Ross. (1920). Early Theories of Translation. New York: Columbia University Press.

Benjamin, Andrew. (1989). Translation and the Nature of Philosophy: A New Theory of Words. London and New York: Routledge.

Catford,J.C.(1965) A Linguistic Theory of Translation.New York: Oxford University Press.

Dolet, Etienne. (1540). How to Translate Well from One Language to Another. Robinson.

A Yin 阿英.阿英文集［M］.Collection of A Ying’s Books三联书店, Sanlian Bookstore 1981:741.

Chen Xulu 陈旭麓.陈旭麓学术文存［M］.Chen Xulu Academic Archives上海：上海人民出版社, Shanghai：Shanghai People’s Press 1990:213.

Feng Zhijie 冯志杰.中国近代翻译史 History of Modern Chinese Translation（late Qing dynasty）（晚清卷）[M].北京：九州出版社, Bejing：Kyushu Press 2012:234-235.

Guo Moruo郭沫若.少年时代［M］,The Youth Age 人民文学出版社,People’s Literature Press1979:126.

Hu Shi 胡适.论译书寄陈独秀.胡适学术文集新文学运动［M］.Hu Shi’s Academic anthology New Literature Movement 1916:474.

Lian Yantang 连燕堂.二十世纪翻译文学史[M].History of Translated Literature in the 20th Century 百花文化出版社, Baihua Culture Press 2009:93.

Lu Xun 鲁迅.中国小说史略［M］.A Brief History of Chinese Novels 北京：人民文学出版社,Beijing:People’s Literature Publishing House 1973:125-126.

Lu Xun 鲁迅.文化偏至论［M］On Cultural Deviation （《鲁迅全集》第一卷）.人民文学出版社，People’s Literature Press 1981:56.

Shi Meng 时萌.晚清小说［M］.Novels of the Late Qing Dynasty 上海：上海古籍出版社,Shanghai: Shanghai Ancient Books Press 1989:245.

Shiteng Huixiu 实藤惠秀著，谭汝谦等译.《中国人留学日本史》History of Chinese People Studying in Japan［M］.三联书店, Sanlian Bookstore 1983:216.

Tan Sitong 谭嗣同.谭嗣同全集［M］.Complete Works of Tan Sitong北京：中华书局5 Beijing Zhonghua Book Company 1981.

Wang Xiangrong 汪向荣.中国的近代化与日本［M］.China’s Modernization and Japan湖南人民出版社,Hunan People’s Press1987:23-24.

Wang Lixing 王立兴.中国近代文学考论［M］.A Research on Modern Chinese Literature南京：南京大学出版社,Nanjing：Nanjing University Press1992:321-322.

Xiaotian Qiejin 小田切近著，山人译.日本的名作［M］.Japanese Masterpieces 福建人民出版社,Fujian People’s Press1984:23.

Yuan Jian 袁健，郑荣.晚清小说研究概说［M］.An Overview of Novels in Late Qing Dynasty 天津：天津教育出版社,Tianjin：Tianjin Education Press1989:178-181.

Zou Zhenhuan 邹振环.影响中国近代社会的一百种译作 One Hundred Translations Influential on Modern Chinese Society [M].江苏教育出版社，Jiangsu Education Press 2008: 57-58.

Zhang Hailin 张海林.近代中外文化交流史[M].History of Modern Sino-foreign Cultural Exchanges 南京：南京大学出版社, Nanjing University Press 2003:158.

Zhang Xingniang 张星娘.欧化东渐史［M］.History of Europeanization Spreading to the East 商务印书馆,Commercial Press1934:42.

Zhang Zhenyu 张振玉.译学概论［M］.Introduction to Translation 中台印刷厂,Zhongtai Press1966:5-7.

Zeng Guofan 曾国藩.轮船工竣并陈机器局情形疏.郑振铎编.晚清文选［M］,The Steamship Engineer and Machinery Bureau 上海书店, Shanghai Bookstore 1987影印本：83.

Written by--[[User:Zhong Yifei|Zhong Yifei]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yifei|talk]]) 13:50, 8 December 2021 (UTC)

Hist Trans EN 13

2021-12-15T11:33:37Z

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=Chapter 13: The Chinese Translation History In Modern Age=
钟义菲 Zhong Yifei，Hunan Normal University, China
==Abstract==
Since the middle of the 19th century, translation has gradually become a tool for people resolved to save the country from extinction. The spread of the large number of translation works has broadened the ways for the public, especially the intellectuals, to learn the west. In the meantime, it has also changed the social climate. The invasion of western civilization, translators' spontaneous development of translation activities and the passivity of national politics made Chinese society enter an important period of western learning translation, especially around the period of Opium War. The cause of translation in modern China coincided with the Chinese people's struggle against aggression. After the Opium War, China had to open the door. China had to end its isolation and began to face the outside world directly. However, the prolonged blockade made China lag behind the western world. Modern politics, economy, diplomacy and cultural activities are closely related to translation, which plays an indispensable role in history. The theme and source of the original translation often reflect the development trend of modern Chinese ideology and the direction of government policy. As for the nature and quantity of translation books in different periods, we can also see the motivation of translation books, the general trend of intellectual interests, and the impact of the dissemination in society. The time clue of this article is from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement, briefly introducing the translation and the translator, emphasizing its emergence background and several important period of development, research and analysis of western culture reflected in translation works in modem Chinese history, the change of Chinese people’s thoughts in translation and the influence of modern translation on Chinese society. This paper is divided into three chapters. The first chapter introduces the emergence, importance and main characteristics of modern translation works, then reviews the emergence of modem translation works, emphasizes their importance, and briefly introduces representative translation works. The second chapter introduces the background of translation works and translation climax stages of western books, studies the main characteristics and development trend of translation in each period. The third chapter studies the influence and performance of modern translation on people's ideology and social life through the description in translation works. This paper focuses on the development of modern translation, the important role of translation in Chinese history, and the specific impact of translation on modern society.

==摘要==
自19世纪中叶以来，翻译逐渐成为人们决心拯救国家免遭灭绝的工具。大量翻译作品的传播拓宽了公众，尤其是知识分子学习西方的途径。与此同时，它也改变了社会气候。西方文明的入侵、译者翻译活动的自发发展以及国家政治的被动，使中国社会进入了西学翻译的重要时期，尤其是鸦片战争前后。近代中国的翻译事业与中国人民反抗侵略的斗争不谋而合。鸦片战争后，中国不得不打开大门。中国不得不结束孤立，开始直接面对外部世界。然而，长期封锁使中国落后于西方世界。现代政治、经济、外交和文化活动都与翻译密切相关，翻译在历史上起着不可或缺的作用。原文的主题和来源往往反映了中国现代意识形态的发展趋势和政府政策的方向。至于不同时期翻译书籍的性质和数量，我们还可以看到翻译书籍的动机、知识兴趣的总体趋势以及在社会上传播的影响。本文的时间线索是从鸦片战争到五四运动，简要介绍了翻译和译者，强调了其产生背景和几个重要的发展时期，研究和分析了中国近代翻译作品中反映的西方文化，中国人翻译思想的变化以及现代翻译对中国社会的影响。本文共分为三章。第一章介绍了现代翻译作品的产生、重要性和主要特征，然后回顾了现代翻译作品的产生，强调了现代翻译作品的重要性，并简要介绍了具有代表性的翻译作品。第二章介绍了翻译作品的背景和西方书籍翻译的高潮阶段，研究了各个时期翻译的主要特点和发展趋势。第三章通过对翻译作品的描写，研究现代翻译对人们思想和社会生活的影响和表现。本文着重论述了现代翻译的发展，翻译在中国历史上的重要作用，以及翻译对现代社会的具体影响。

==Key words==
Modern Translation，Translation，Social Life，Ideology

==Introduction==
Around the middle of the 19th century, The Western invasion brought new knowledge. The Westernization Movement sent a large number of international students to study abroad and translated a large number of books for military purpose.The Qing government decayed, and was tired of the invasion of foreign enemies, the war repeatedly failed. After the Sino-Japanese War in 1894, faced with internal and external troubles, far-sighted people knew that they could not rely on the Qing government, so they devoted themselves to writing novels. Many people accepted and spread Western culture through translating books. The importance of translation was recognized by the development of journalism, media, and provident men influenced by the Western culture at that time. In this social context, people have criticized the corruption of government through literature and translation.

Modern China began in the Opium War in 1840. It was a special period in Chinese history. During this period, the Chinese were attacked by foreign guns, as well as by foreign culture and foreign education. Especially after the Sino-Japanese War, the Chinese people were greatly shocked psychologically, and people began to realize that the West was more advanced than China in political, economic, cultural and other aspects, which was providing a great opportunity for the introduction of translation literature. Translators at that time also hoped to translate the western advanced scientific knowledge to the Chinese people so that they could broaden their horizons and innovate their ideas. During the Reform Movement of 1898, Liang Qichao advocated publicizing political ideas by translating foreign political novels to transform the society. He believed that the incredible power of novels was "enough to dominate people's psychology and could change the society of one generation." Based on the translation of the novel, Liang Qichao gave the novel new significance and mission. He put forward the idea of improving the novel, with the famous ones such as ''The Beauty Adventures'' and ''The Fifteen Little Heroes'', which promoted the process of novel revolution and the prosperity and development of the translating novels. Yan Fu translated works such as ''Heaven'' and Yuan Fu. His translation had a great influence at that time and was the most important enlightenment translation in China in the 20th century. In the translation of ''Heaven'', Yan Fu proposed three difficulties: Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance. It was advocated by many literary writers at that time and used as the theoretical basis for their translation. The concept of "natural selection: the fittest to survive" conveyed in Yan Fu's Heaven woke people up from the dream of the heavenly world. There are more famous translation works such as Lin Shu’s ''The Lady of the Camellias'', Black slaves call for heaven record and so on. It had an important influence on the change of people's concept. People are not limited to the traditional concept of marriage and love, and the concept of freedom and equality gradually spread. Under the prevalence of translation works, traditional values, such as emphasizing agriculture and suppressing business, men being superior to women, gradually lost their status and were gradually replaced by new ideas. （A 1981:741）

The paper mainly includes three chapters: First, modern translation works and the overview of translators. Second, the background and climax of modern translation works. Third, the impact of modern translation on social life. In the modern Chinese literary circle, there was a wave of translation in western books, and the translation activities of foreign works were unprecedentedly prosperous. The emergence of a large number of translation works has also caused a large influx of foreign cultural ideas. Under the translation of domestic scholars, the translators not only conveyed the literary nature of foreign works, but also expressed their translation purpose through translation language and techniques, and had a huge impact on Chinese social life at that time. Academia research is more aimed at the overview of modern translation works and its prosperity, but little research on its impact on national social life. This paper analyzes the wide variety of materials and works to detail the influence of modern translation on social life. （Lian 2009:93）

==1. Modern Translation Work and Its Main Characteristics ==
===1.1 The Emergence of Translation Works and Their Importance===
The premise of the emergence of translation works is the introduction of western civilization. The spread of western culture in modern China can be traced back to the eve of the Opium War. The main translators are missionaries, who mainly introduce religious doctrine, and also bring western history and geography to China. They established schools, translated western books (such as the Bible), compiled magazines, wrote books and so on. It can be said that missionaries are the first wave of intermediaries communicating between Chinese and Western culture. Early missionaries in China, although for the purpose of conquest, tended to teach by words and deeds than coercion. However, considering China's closure at that time, the Chinese were not allowed to learn foreign languages. The missionaries have also made great efforts in communicating the Chinese and Western cultures. This also led to the introduction of western civilization at this stage and laid the foundation for the development of the modern translation and cultivated talents. The Opium War was an important period of western translation. The rise and fall of China is always closely related to the rise and fall of translation culture. As a special component of Chinese literature, the development of translation literature has always affected the process of Chinese literature and historical changes, especially the occurrence of modern Chinese translation literature, which has effectively promoted the transformation and development of Chinese literature and modern society. Modern translation, from its emergence to the development, is inseparable with China's social changes. Translation has promoted the change of people's ideas, enriched people's knowledge in many fields, and not only promoted the development of Chinese literature, but also played a certain positive role in the development of politics and Chinese society. （Guo 1979:126）

===1.2 Representative Works of Modern Translations and Their Main Categories===
The introduction of modern western literature made Lin Shu a famous literary translator. Many people will misunderstand ''The Lady of the Camellias'' as the first translation novel in modern China. But ''The Declaration'' has already begun to publish translation novels earlier. The first translation novel should be ''Xinxi Talk''. According to Zou Zhenhuan, the most expensive translation of the Bible was the first version to enter the palace, the "royal version" of the late Qing Dynasty. The first modern Japanese novel translated into Chinese was ''The Beauty Adventure'', translated by Liang Qichao, which opened the translation of the political novel in the late Qing Dynasty. At the same time, the Chinese translation books related to Japan was ''Ryukyu Geography''. Tan Ruqian thought it as “the first Chinese translation of Japanese documents”. After translation into Chinese, the most influential translation is Yan Fu’s ''Heaven'', Lin Shu’s ''The Lady of the Camellias'', and ''Black Slaves Call for Heaven'' record translated by Wei Yi and Lin Shu. The three works had a great influence on Chinese society in different aspects. Thai new history can represent part of the translation works since modern times. It is widely spread into China though it doesn’t achieve any effect in the West. The book is considered by western scholars as the most boring residual history and a third-rate world history. In China, it sold more than one million copies, which is the most popular reading book in the Restoration period. It can be said that the social influence in different historical stages and social backgrounds can be different. ''The Law of the Duke of Nations'' theoretically defeated the ignorant idea of the Qing government. In addition, there are translations about life which popularized scientific knowledge in China and played a good role in the abolition of feudal superstition. ''Foreign Cookery'' in Chinese was the earliest Chinese translation of a relatively systematic introduction of western cooking methods in the process of introducing western food culture in China. In the aspects of medicine, there were books such as ''Tessi’s Personal Theory'', ''Optical Disclosure and Cardiotherapy''. The first sociological monograph of full-text translation in modern China was translated by Zhang Taiyan, which had an important influence on the progress of social cognition.（Feng 2012: 234-235）

===1.3 Main Characteristics of Modern Translation Works===
One is catering to the taste and ethics of the Chinese readers in order to obtain a wider popularity. Influenced by the social background of the late Qing Dynasty, most people who learned from the West were limited to intellectuals and politicians. In order to make the translation get more attention, the translator chose more accepted literary works for translation. This to some extent leads to the lack of extensive translation categories. In Introduction to Translation, the second chapter "Translation of Catholic Scholars between the Ming and Qing Dynasties" discussed the Catholic doctrine translation and scientific translation between the Ming and Qing Dynasties, and pointed out that " at that time, translation sought more elegance, integrity and the willingness of Chinese officials and scholars to read. However, there are also some translators who try to keep the original meaning rather than deliberately satisfying the readers’ interests." On the other hand, it also confirms that the characteristics of translation was catering to readers at that time. （Zhang 2003:158）

The second is to use foreign novel translation as a tool for reform politics. After the failure of the Opium War, people with insight were eager to find good ways to save the country. The most direct and effective way is to learn western culture. In the process of learning western culture, the most convenient thing is to translate western works. However, hindered by language factors, the translation of monographs is far more difficult than the novels. Therefore, except for the few people who are proficient in foreign languages, most translators basically choose to take novels as the entry point to give personal political opinions and ideas to achieve the purpose of political improvement. Third, readers often take the translation of novels as a pastime, resulting in the flood of boring detective novels and romantic novels. Popular novels translations are enough while famous novels translations are rare. To cater to the market and earn publication costs, many translators translate foreign works for the purpose of making a profit. And after a few celebrities do not classify foreign translations, many translators will have a herd mentality. At the same time, due to the influence of domestic readers' literary taste, popular novels and simple literary works are more acceptable to them, so resulting in the flood of some novel categories. Fourth, the translation is not faithful. Influenced by traditional ideas, some phenomena in western works were not accepted by the Chinese at that time, and to avoid unnecessary trouble, the translator chose to omit part of the plot in the original, and could not completely express the original idea. In order to express his political position and views, the translator will fabricate the plot and comments not included in the original. For example, when Su Manshu translated ''Hugo's Bad World'', he invented a character called Lauder, using him to satirize the corrupt stupidity of the Qing government. Secondly, the translator will change the narrative perspective and structure of the original, which is largely influenced by the traditional Chinese narrative style. For example, Liang Qichao used the serial structure when translating ''The Beauty Adventure''.（Zhang 1934:42）

It is summarized as follows: excessive catering to readers and lack of independence; the monotonous type of translation with limitations; lack of translation proficiency and transmission of the idea; separation from the original work.

==2. The Rise Background and Climax of Modern Translation Works ==
===2.1 The Background of the Rise of Modern Translation===
After the Opium War, the Qing government successively signed the Nanjing Treaty and the Humen Treaty, which made insightful people attempt to save modern China from abyss of suffering. In the face of an unprecedented crisis, a group of people began to search for the way to save the country, and every individual has put all his strength into the efforts to save the nation in danger. Modern China is faced with a more powerful opponent in all aspects. People with insight realize that they must break through the current situation of self-isolation and learn from the outside world. Learning from the West and imitating the West became an important strategy of saving the nation at that time. Chinese society has constantly updated the old mechanism, trying to get rid of the original closed and rigid political dilemma, starting to find a new development direction, from the learning of western skills to the study of western political and economic system, ideology and culture. To learn from the West and seek self-improvement, translation is first serve as a bridge of communication. Domestic people with insight can bring western works to China by translating them. After the failure of the Second Opium War, China was forced to sign the Treaty of Beijing. The national crisis became more and more serious, the national crisis further strengthened the Chinese people's thought of self-improvement, and the understanding of the outside world became more and more urgent. At the same time, due to the current situation, foreign language communication and diplomatic intercourse have become very urgent. In this environment, translation became indispensable in this era.

===2.2 The Purpose of the Rise of Modern Translation===
The 19th century was a period of complex economic situation and chaotic political situation. At this time, the demand for formal translators increased. However, in this period, translation was very sophisticated and had a great influence on the control authority of the government and exchanges between Chinese and foreign countries. In the Treaty of Beijing, Britain and France sent documents that are written in English and French to China. But considering that there was almost no translation talent in China at that time, the two sides agreed to attach Chinese version. But if there was any dispute, both English and French characters should be the authority. Then the Qing government had to start training translation talents, and the first batch of foreign language schools were established accordingly. The original motivation of The School of Combined Learning was quite related to the signing of the Sino-British Treaty, and the British authorities attached a Chinese translation within three years, aiming to allow the Chinese government to cultivate a number of qualified translators during this period, so the establishment of The School of Combined Learning was established in 1861. It was the first official foreign language school in the late Qing Dynasty with the purpose of cultivating foreign language translation talents. Foreigners were the teachers, training specialized foreign language translators. In order to become rich and train soldiers, China must learn from advanced western science and technology. To learn from advanced western technology, it is bound to remove the language barriers in the process of learning. Zeng Guofan once mentioned that translation must occupy the fundamental strategic position of westernization cause. It is easy to see that the purpose of translation is to learn the advanced western technology more efficiently and to achieve the purpose of saving the nation. The process of modernizing Chinese literature is, in a sense, the process of Chinese literature learning from the West and seeking innovation and change under the impact of western culture. （Shi 1983:216）

===2.3 The Climax of Translation in the Western Book===
====2.3.1 From the Opium War to the Sino-Japanese War====
From the Opium War to the Sino-Japanese War, especially after the 1860s, with the rise of the westernization movement aimed at self-improvement and wealth, there was an upsurge in the translation of Western science and technology books. In the late Qing Dynasty, under the influence of opium smuggling, China and the UK exchanges are getting closer and closer. Until the Opium War broke out, the door of China was completely opened, and the Qing government had to face the outside world. Lin Zexu fought in the front line of the anti-smoking movement and the anti-British struggle from 1839 to 1840. He organized personnel to translate many books. In the monthly Macao, there are five volumes: on China, on tea, on smoking prohibition, on the use of military forces and on the feelings of foreigners in various countries. These materials are mainly translated from Guangzhou weekly, Guangzhou chronicle and etc. Lin Zexu never neglected to give up the work of organizing translation. Among Lin Zexu's translations, ''The Chronicles of Four Continents'' has the most far-reaching impact on Modern Chinese history. It is the first book in modern China to systematically introducing world geography and history. The translation of these books opened the eyes of the Chinese people and began to import Western learning in modern times, which is of great significance to the history of modern thought and culture. One of the most direct effects is that it has led to the emergence of a number of masters who compile and study foreign profiles. It indirectly led to the development of the style of study for practical use, and also had an important impact on the literary reform in history. Wei Yuan revised and supplemented ''The Records of the Four Continents''. This book not only retained the characteristics of the west, but also sublimated in combination with the domestic reality, added many notes and political comments, and put forward many political propositions represented by "learning from the foreigners and mastering their skills to control the foreigners", which gathered huge ripples in the ideological circles at that time, and even spread to Japan, It also had an impact on Japan's Meiji Restoration. However, at this time, the work of Lin Zexu and Wei Yuan only played the role of foresight and did not form a huge social situation. The development of translation still needs new forces to promote. At this time, the Westernization school played such a role. （Zou 2008:57-58）

The Westernization Movement took place after the second Opium War and before the Sino-Japanese war. During this period, the Qing government experienced the impact of two Opium Wars. Facing the strong ships and guns of Western powers, it was in a difficult situation at home and abroad, and felt a profound crisis never seen in history. The Westernization school, divided from the feudal landlord class, had a certain understanding of the world situation. They advocate learning from western capitalist countries. The main figures of the Westernization school were Zeng Guofan, Li Hongzhang and others. They held high positions in the Qing government. Compared with other ordinary officials, they were more deeply aware of the need to learn and introduce advanced military weapons and manufacturing technology from Western powers in order to maintain the ruling order of the feudal society and realize the stability of the regime of the Qing Dynasty. However, at that time, the Westernization school could only recognize the progress of Western skills and the strength of military strength. Their change Geng Chang's method was only limited to "learning from foreigners". Among them, the translation of foreign books became an important means to achieve the goal of learning from foreigners. （Wang 1987:23-24）

In 1862, due to the needs of diplomacy and Westernization Movement, Tongwen museum was established in Beijing to train translators. The Tongwen Library in Beijing regards translation and washing as an important activity. The Jiangnan manufacturing Bureau, founded in 1865, had a greater impact during this period. The two primary problems faced by Jiangnan manufacturing Bureau after its completion are technology and talents, and the key to solving these two problems is the translation of technical books. Therefore, it decided to "set up another school to learn translation", "it is planned to select intelligent disciples to study with the school when it is completed", "You don't have to fake a foreigner, you can also extend it and make it into a book." The books translated by the translators were mainly about natural science and applied technology, which played a positive role in introducing modern science and technology and promoting the development of productive forces, and became important teaching materials for people of insight at that time to understand the external world and update their knowledge structure. These books can be said to have cultivated the next batch of cultural newcomers, such as Kang Youwei, Liang Qichao, Zhang Taiyan and Cai Yuanpei and so on. （Zeng 1987:83）

During this period, the importance of translation has been paid some attention, and the government has begun to operate translation in an organized and planned way. At the same time, the translation activities of the church have also been strengthened. Missionaries played the role of cultural invaders in the process of foreign military aggression. At first, missionaries wanted to carry out cultural aggression in the sense of Christianity, but they were influenced by Chinese tradition The influence of culture was resisted by the Chinese people. So they turned to spread new western knowledge and Western civilization, set up institutions, run newspapers and translate books, and tried to open the gap of the Chinese people's thought, so as to achieve the purpose of cultural aggression control. But objectively speaking, they also played a role in spreading Western learning to a certain extent. The translation by foreign missionaries had a great impact on Chinese society. The Chinese people's own pure literary translation also began at this stage. However, the literary translation at this stage still lacks systematic theoretical guidance and positive social atmosphere.

====2.3.2 After the Sino-Japanese War====
After the Sino-Japanese War was defeated, the Westernization Movement was declared bankrupt, and China's current situation was at stake. People with lofty ideals learned from the failure of the Westernization Movement that reform is far from solving the problem. To make China embark on the road of independence, prosperity and strength, we must fundamentally learn from the West and change the feudal autocratic system. In order to comprehensively learn western learning, translation is the first thing at this time. Therefore, this is the moment The translation career of this period is very prosperous, which is very different from the translation characteristics of the previous era. First, the expansion of the field of translation. At this time, the focus of importing western learning turned to various fields of social science, and paid particular attention to the import of political and academic ideas. The eight famous works translated by Yan Fu were outstanding representatives of this period, which had a significant impact on the society of the Qing Dynasty. During this period, translation methods were widely used, that is, abridged translation and free translation of foreign works, which were understood by the translator At this time, a large number of social sciences have been introduced, which has greatly improved the ideological level of Chinese people and brought the political and cultural activities to a new stage. Secondly, the translation field has also been expanded. The previous translation work was limited to government-run institutions. After the Sino-Japanese War, the reformers stepped onto the historical stage, and the translation work has been included in the overall plan of the reform. The reformers created schools, ran newspapers and opened publishing houses, with the import of Western learning and the translation and introduction of Western books as the main activities. After the failure of the reform movement, the establishment of newspapers and publishing houses did not stop. At this time, China's translation industry began to gradually break away from the limited government-run and turn to the private sector, resulting in an unprecedented prosperity in the translation industry. In addition, the translation team has gradually expanded. The establishment of foreign language teaching has gradually increased the number of foreign students and personnel abroad. The emergence of more and more translation talents meets the development of the publishing industry and social needs at this time. More and more people who know foreign languages are engaged in translation. This period is also an era of a large number of translators. Not only Lin Shu and Yan Fu, but also Liang Qichao, Su Manshu, Zhou Guisheng, Wu Guangjian are all well-known. During this period, the level of translation was also greatly improved. In the early days, most of the translations were spoken by foreigners who knew a little Chinese, and then recorded and polished by Chinese. The level of translation was uneven. During this period, most translators were proficient in foreign languages, their Chinese level was also high, and the quality of translation improved greatly Great improvement.（Xiao 1984:23）

This stage is also a period of vigorous rise and unprecedented prosperity of novel translation. In the early modern times, novel translation was not paid much attention. The first foreign novel translated into China was translated by foreign missionaries and published by the church. It was ''The Pilgrim’s Progress'' by British writer John Buyan, and the translation was published in Xiamen in 1853. During this period, translation activities also had some defects. Due to the popularity of translation, although abridged translation and free translation made the translator more free to express his political ideas, it also caused the disadvantages of breaking away from the original works. The purpose of translation was not to introduce western literature, but to express the translator's own ideas as a political means. At the same time, translation theory was strongly advocated in this period and political utilitarianism have also been greatly strengthened.

====2.3.3 Marked by the Rise of the New Culture Movement====
After the revolution of 1911, people's political enthusiasm was obviously low. In terms of translation, few people paid attention to social, political and economic works, and the number of translated novels was significantly lower than that of creative novels. However, people's literary concept was gradually strengthened. During this period, many translators introduced foreign literature from a literary perspective, bringing a new atmosphere to the translation circle and the history of Chinese literature In the period of the new culture movement, the translator's political and literary ideas were significantly improved, which laid a good foundation for the third wave of Western Chinese book translation starting from the new culture movement.

During this period, first of all, the number of short stories was greatly increased. During this period, new translators preferred to translate short stories. For example, Hu Shi translated ''The Last Lesson'' and Zhou Zuoren also published several short translation novels in the magazine New youth. The short translation novels published during this period also included ''The Leisure Review of Customs'' translated by Lin Shu and Chen Jialin. At this stage, the translator chooses the original work carefully after fully understanding and studying the original author, and describes his own opinions and ideas in the preface and postscript. Unlike in the past, he arbitrarily cuts the original work to express his political ideas, most of them are serious and loyal to the original. During this period, script translation gradually prevailed, and poetry translation appeared a new atmosphere. German poetry began to receive attention, and vernacular poetry began to appear. A new generation of translation practitioners consciously linked the translation of foreign literature with the transformation of Chinese literature and the purpose of the new culture movement. Chinese literary translation and Chinese society have entered a new era. （Wang 1992:321-322）

==3. The Influence of Modern Translation on Social Ideas==
===3.1 Appearance of the Concept of Marriage===
The translation that made an important change in the concept of scholars in the late Qing Dynasty was ''The Legacy of the Camellia'' in Paris translated by Lin Shu. This book describes the ups and downs of the protagonist Mark fate and complex psychological feelings. After the Sino-Japanese War, Lin Shu joined the ranks of reformers. He took a more open attitude towards love, which made Lin's translated novels reflect some changes of the times to a certain extent, implying that modern marriage and love pay attention to color. In Lin Shu's concept, if women want to benefit from freedom of marriage, they must first receive good education, such as Qiu Zhilan as a chivalrous woman, the heroine Qiu Zhilan sneaked into the capital to avenge her father's murder. She met scholar LV Qiushi and fell in love at first sight. She took the initiative to give a keepsake while LV Qiushi was reading at night. Finally, with the help of the blind nun of Shuiyue nunnery, they got married. Qiu Zhilan pursued love independently and persevered, suggesting that women's sense of marriage and love had begun to change under the circumstances at that time, Or the wind of free marriage and love has gradually risen. In Lin Shu's translated novels, Lin Shu points out the rigidity of the orders of parents and the words of matchmakers. He also advocates that women should maintain the beauty of temperament. In Lin Shu, women generally can consciously control their emotions, maintain a certain degree of reserve and gentleness in their behavior, and never do things carelessly. To a certain extent, this reflects the love aesthetics and love trend of the society at that time.（Hu 1916:474）

In the past, the novels of talented women and beauties in ancient China were a special kind of art to express the love concept of the citizen class. In Chinese novels of talented women and beauties, most of the talented people in the books were portrayed as the images of handsome, talented, elegant and noble, and not in line with the times. Second, the highest ideal commonly pursued by scholars at that time was "wedding night, golden list." The happy ending of joys and sorrows can satisfy people's aesthetic taste in the past. In ''The Legacy of the Camellia Woman'' in Paris, It depicts the heroine, who is loyal to her feelings and has a sense of morality, left because of Yameng's career future and family happiness. This self-sacrifice combined with tragic color made the people who have seen the story of talented people and beautiful women for a long time with an unprecedented freshness, which provided a new type of love aesthetics for the people at that time. （Chen 1990:213）

There are also relevant translation works such as ''Better Return'' published during the Meiji period, which is called "the milestone of the theme novel describing women's consciousness in the Meiji period", which describes the content of women's resistance to the oppression of old morality and ethics, and the dramatic work ''Doll's House'', the heroine Nala breaks away from her originally happy family and realizes that she is a neglected individual value. Her home is just a doll's home. It can be inferred that Nora is not the only one. The concepts of marriage and love freedom and women's individual values conveyed in her works since modern times have gradually penetrated into the society, and people have begun to gradually recognize the importance of women’ s rights. （Yuan 1989:178-181）

During the May 4th movement, The Troubles of Young Witt was strongly favored by young Chinese readers at that time for its crazy love passion, very dreamy action, rebellious and independent thought of the society and the protagonist's individualistic thinking method. This book was once regarded as the "Bible" by young men and women at that time As a general cultural phenomenon, the love between Witt and Lvdi made the young people talk about the freedom of marriage and love at that time and take the sacred love between men and women as the ideal. Witt easily reminded people of the talents in the love story at that time. Witt's lovelorn was expressed through strong sadness, which was the best comfort and inspiration for the young people who were eager to escape from the feudal cage at that time. It was a landmark translation that influenced modern Chinese society at that time.（Shi 1989:245）

===3.2 The Emergence of the Concept of Freedom and Equality and the Changes and Manifestations of Social Values===
Feminism is also one of the concepts of freedom and equality. Among the reformers after the failure of the Sino Japanese War of 1894-1895, Lin Shu was one of the first to advocate feminism. This was also mentioned in the previous section when describing the concept of marriage and love. The rise of women's concept of freedom of marriage and love has gradually spread, which implies that women pay attention to their own rights. From the novels translated by Lin Shu, Lin Shu's admiration for women's courage to pursue their love or rights shows that Lin supports and advocates women's rights. Xinxi Gossip deals with the values of money and the concept of social class. The novel expounds the role of money in Europe, which is unheard of by Chinese scholars. For example, the third volume of the novel describes that the British set up marriage halls, that is, intermediaries such as today's marriage agencies, many people who come to the museum are losers, hoping to cheat into marrying rich families, it describes that many people go to parties, but are driven by money worship in an attempt to cheat them into marrying rich people. At the same time, it also describes that money can make an old woman get a young husband, and the young husband aims at the old woman's rich family wealth. In the eyes of the Chinese people at that time, this was not in line with the code of ethics and could not be accepted.（Lu 1981:56）

==Conclusion==
In the transition period of modern China, the social function of translation played an important role, and the subversion was the most prominent in the social function of translation. At that time, China had experienced a long period of inaction towards western culture and regardless of the political and economic state of locking the country, resulting in China's ignorance of the West. However, at this time, the western world has not stopped the translation and introduction of Chinese culture through various channels Understanding. Asymmetric information exchange and translation make China in a passive position when communicating with the West. With the continuous entry of western new ideas and translation into China, values are constantly challenged, and even some extreme culturists try to subvert traditional Chinese culture and social values. The current situation requires China to make progress, and the current situation also forces China to make progress. In this period of mixed internal and external relations and political chaos, translation, as a communication tool, has always led Chinese people of insight in the exploration of saving the nation from subjugation and strengthening the country. （Zhang 1966:5-7）

The changes of modern history and the prominence of modern cultural view are greatly influenced by the input of Western learning. In modern Chinese society under the shock of Western learning civilization, translation makes western learning smoothly enter the Chinese people's political world, cultural undertakings and social life, but the overall westernization is absolutely impossible. In modern times, although Chinese traditional Confucianism has been criticized, even as a cultural pioneer The activists threw the target of political opinions, but middle school can not be reduced. Middle school is also the spiritual belief of Chinese unity since modern times. Lin Shu has always stressed that the traditional ethics revealed by Confucian culture has some eternal value and universal significance. The real Western civilization does not let us abandon middle school and completely replace it with Western learning, but let middle school be a traditional culture The social atmosphere under the coverage is more civilized.

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Wang Lixing 王立兴.中国近代文学考论［M］.A Research on Modern Chinese Literature南京：南京大学出版社,Nanjing：Nanjing University Press1992:321-322.

Xiaotian Qiejin 小田切近著，山人译.日本的名作［M］.Japanese Masterpieces 福建人民出版社,Fujian People’s Press1984:23.

Yuan Jian 袁健，郑荣.晚清小说研究概说［M］.An Overview of Novels in Late Qing Dynasty 天津：天津教育出版社,Tianjin：Tianjin Education Press1989:178-181.

Zou Zhenhuan 邹振环.影响中国近代社会的一百种译作 One Hundred Translations Influential on Modern Chinese Society [M].江苏教育出版社，Jiangsu Education Press 2008: 57-58.

Zhang Hailin 张海林.近代中外文化交流史[M].History of Modern Sino-foreign Cultural Exchanges 南京：南京大学出版社, Nanjing University Press 2003:158.

Zhang Xingniang 张星娘.欧化东渐史［M］.History of Europeanization Spreading to the East 商务印书馆,Commercial Press1934:42.

Zhang Zhenyu 张振玉.译学概论［M］.Introduction to Translation 中台印刷厂,Zhongtai Press1966:5-7.

Zeng Guofan 曾国藩.轮船工竣并陈机器局情形疏.郑振铎编.晚清文选［M］,The Steamship Engineer and Machinery Bureau 上海书店, Shanghai Bookstore 1987影印本：83.

Written by--[[User:Zhong Yifei|Zhong Yifei]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yifei|talk]]) 13:50, 8 December 2021 (UTC)

Hist Trans EN 13

2021-12-15T11:29:17Z

Wei Chuxuan: /* 1. Modern Translation Work and Its Main Characteristics */

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=Chapter 13: The Chinese Translation History In Modern Age=
钟义菲 Zhong Yifei，Hunan Normal University, China
==Abstract==
Since the middle of the 19th century, translation has gradually become a tool for people resolved to save the country from extinction. The spread of the large number of translation works has broadened the ways for the public, especially the intellectuals, to learn the west. In the meantime, it has also changed the social climate. The invasion of western civilization, translators' spontaneous development of translation activities and the passivity of national politics made Chinese society enter an important period of western learning translation, especially around the period of Opium War. The cause of translation in modern China coincided with the Chinese people's struggle against aggression. After the Opium War, China had to open the door. China had to end its isolation and began to face the outside world directly. However, the prolonged blockade made China lag behind the western world. Modern politics, economy, diplomacy and cultural activities are closely related to translation, which plays an indispensable role in history. The theme and source of the original translation often reflect the development trend of modern Chinese ideology and the direction of government policy. As for the nature and quantity of translation books in different periods, we can also see the motivation of translation books, the general trend of intellectual interests, and the impact of the dissemination in society. The time clue of this article is from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement, briefly introducing the translation and the translator, emphasizing its emergence background and several important period of development, research and analysis of western culture reflected in translation works in modem Chinese history, the change of Chinese people’s thoughts in translation and the influence of modern translation on Chinese society. This paper is divided into three chapters. The first chapter introduces the emergence, importance and main characteristics of modern translation works, then reviews the emergence of modem translation works, emphasizes their importance, and briefly introduces representative translation works. The second chapter introduces the background of translation works and translation climax stages of western books, studies the main characteristics and development trend of translation in each period. The third chapter studies the influence and performance of modern translation on people's ideology and social life through the description in translation works. This paper focuses on the development of modern translation, the important role of translation in Chinese history, and the specific impact of translation on modern society.

==摘要==
自19世纪中叶以来，翻译逐渐成为人们决心拯救国家免遭灭绝的工具。大量翻译作品的传播拓宽了公众，尤其是知识分子学习西方的途径。与此同时，它也改变了社会气候。西方文明的入侵、译者翻译活动的自发发展以及国家政治的被动，使中国社会进入了西学翻译的重要时期，尤其是鸦片战争前后。近代中国的翻译事业与中国人民反抗侵略的斗争不谋而合。鸦片战争后，中国不得不打开大门。中国不得不结束孤立，开始直接面对外部世界。然而，长期封锁使中国落后于西方世界。现代政治、经济、外交和文化活动都与翻译密切相关，翻译在历史上起着不可或缺的作用。原文的主题和来源往往反映了中国现代意识形态的发展趋势和政府政策的方向。至于不同时期翻译书籍的性质和数量，我们还可以看到翻译书籍的动机、知识兴趣的总体趋势以及在社会上传播的影响。本文的时间线索是从鸦片战争到五四运动，简要介绍了翻译和译者，强调了其产生背景和几个重要的发展时期，研究和分析了中国近代翻译作品中反映的西方文化，中国人翻译思想的变化以及现代翻译对中国社会的影响。本文共分为三章。第一章介绍了现代翻译作品的产生、重要性和主要特征，然后回顾了现代翻译作品的产生，强调了现代翻译作品的重要性，并简要介绍了具有代表性的翻译作品。第二章介绍了翻译作品的背景和西方书籍翻译的高潮阶段，研究了各个时期翻译的主要特点和发展趋势。第三章通过对翻译作品的描写，研究现代翻译对人们思想和社会生活的影响和表现。本文着重论述了现代翻译的发展，翻译在中国历史上的重要作用，以及翻译对现代社会的具体影响。

==Key words==
Modern Translation，Translation，Social Life，Ideology

==Introduction==
Around the middle of the 19th century, The Western invasion brought new knowledge. The Westernization Movement sent a large number of international students to study abroad and translated a large number of books for military purpose.The Qing government decayed, and was tired of the invasion of foreign enemies, the war repeatedly failed. After the Sino-Japanese War in 1894, faced with internal and external troubles, far-sighted people knew that they could not rely on the Qing government, so they devoted themselves to writing novels. Many people accepted and spread Western culture through translating books. The importance of translation was recognized by the development of journalism, media, and provident men influenced by the Western culture at that time. In this social context, people have criticized the corruption of government through literature and translation.

Modern China began in the Opium War in 1840. It was a special period in Chinese history. During this period, the Chinese were attacked by foreign guns, as well as by foreign culture and foreign education. Especially after the Sino-Japanese War, the Chinese people were greatly shocked psychologically, and people began to realize that the West was more advanced than China in political, economic, cultural and other aspects, which was providing a great opportunity for the introduction of translation literature. Translators at that time also hoped to translate the western advanced scientific knowledge to the Chinese people so that they could broaden their horizons and innovate their ideas. During the Reform Movement of 1898, Liang Qichao advocated publicizing political ideas by translating foreign political novels to transform the society. He believed that the incredible power of novels was "enough to dominate people's psychology and could change the society of one generation." Based on the translation of the novel, Liang Qichao gave the novel new significance and mission. He put forward the idea of improving the novel, with the famous ones such as ''The Beauty Adventures'' and ''The Fifteen Little Heroes'', which promoted the process of novel revolution and the prosperity and development of the translating novels. Yan Fu translated works such as ''Heaven'' and Yuan Fu. His translation had a great influence at that time and was the most important enlightenment translation in China in the 20th century. In the translation of ''Heaven'', Yan Fu proposed three difficulties: Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance. It was advocated by many literary writers at that time and used as the theoretical basis for their translation. The concept of "natural selection: the fittest to survive" conveyed in Yan Fu's Heaven woke people up from the dream of the heavenly world. There are more famous translation works such as Lin Shu’s ''The Lady of the Camellias'', Black slaves call for heaven record and so on. It had an important influence on the change of people's concept. People are not limited to the traditional concept of marriage and love, and the concept of freedom and equality gradually spread. Under the prevalence of translation works, traditional values, such as emphasizing agriculture and suppressing business, men being superior to women, gradually lost their status and were gradually replaced by new ideas. （A 1981:741）

The paper mainly includes three chapters: First, modern translation works and the overview of translators. Second, the background and climax of modern translation works. Third, the impact of modern translation on social life. In the modern Chinese literary circle, there was a wave of translation in western books, and the translation activities of foreign works were unprecedentedly prosperous. The emergence of a large number of translation works has also caused a large influx of foreign cultural ideas. Under the translation of domestic scholars, the translators not only conveyed the literary nature of foreign works, but also expressed their translation purpose through translation language and techniques, and had a huge impact on Chinese social life at that time. Academia research is more aimed at the overview of modern translation works and its prosperity, but little research on its impact on national social life. This paper analyzes the wide variety of materials and works to detail the influence of modern translation on social life. （Lian 2009:93）

==1. Modern Translation Work and Its Main Characteristics ==
===1.1 The Emergence of Translation Works and Their Importance===
The premise of the emergence of translation works is the introduction of western civilization. The spread of western culture in modern China can be traced back to the eve of the Opium War. The main translators are missionaries, who mainly introduce religious doctrine, and also bring western history and geography to China. They established schools, translated western books (such as the Bible), compiled magazines, wrote books and so on. It can be said that missionaries are the first wave of intermediaries communicating between Chinese and Western culture. Early missionaries in China, although for the purpose of conquest, tended to teach by words and deeds than coercion. However, considering China's closure at that time, the Chinese were not allowed to learn foreign languages. The missionaries have also made great efforts in communicating the Chinese and Western cultures. This also led to the introduction of western civilization at this stage and laid the foundation for the development of the modern translation and cultivated talents. The Opium War was an important period of western translation. The rise and fall of China is always closely related to the rise and fall of translation culture. As a special component of Chinese literature, the development of translation literature has always affected the process of Chinese literature and historical changes, especially the occurrence of modern Chinese translation literature, which has effectively promoted the transformation and development of Chinese literature and modern society. Modern translation, from its emergence to the development, is inseparable with China's social changes. Translation has promoted the change of people's ideas, enriched people's knowledge in many fields, and not only promoted the development of Chinese literature, but also played a certain positive role in the development of politics and Chinese society. （Guo 1979:126）

===1.2 Representative Works of Modern Translations and Their Main Categories===
The introduction of modern western literature made Lin Shu a famous literary translator. Many people will misunderstand ''The Lady of the Camellias'' as the first translation novel in modern China. But ''The Declaration'' has already begun to publish translation novels earlier. The first translation novel should be ''Xinxi Talk''. According to Zou Zhenhuan, the most expensive translation of the Bible was the first version to enter the palace, the "royal version" of the late Qing Dynasty. The first modern Japanese novel translated into Chinese was ''The Beauty Adventure'', translated by Liang Qichao, which opened the translation of the political novel in the late Qing Dynasty. At the same time, the Chinese translation books related to Japan was ''Ryukyu Geography''. Tan Ruqian thought it as “the first Chinese translation of Japanese documents”. After translation into Chinese, the most influential translation is Yan Fu’s ''Heaven'', Lin Shu’s ''The Lady of the Camellias'', and ''Black Slaves Call for Heaven'' record translated by Wei Yi and Lin Shu. The three works had a great influence on Chinese society in different aspects. Thai new history can represent part of the translation works since modern times. It is widely spread into China though it doesn’t achieve any effect in the West. The book is considered by western scholars as the most boring residual history and a third-rate world history. In China, it sold more than one million copies, which is the most popular reading book in the Restoration period. It can be said that the social influence in different historical stages and social backgrounds can be different. ''The Law of the Duke of Nations'' theoretically defeated the ignorant idea of the Qing government. In addition, there are translations about life which popularized scientific knowledge in China and played a good role in the abolition of feudal superstition. ''Foreign Cookery'' in Chinese was the earliest Chinese translation of a relatively systematic introduction of western cooking methods in the process of introducing western food culture in China. In the aspects of medicine, there were books such as ''Tessi’s Personal Theory'', ''Optical Disclosure and Cardiotherapy''. The first sociological monograph of full-text translation in modern China was translated by Zhang Taiyan, which had an important influence on the progress of social cognition.（Feng 2012: 234-235）

===1.3 Main Characteristics of Modern Translation Works===
One is catering to the taste and ethics of the Chinese readers in order to obtain a wider popularity. Influenced by the social background of the late Qing Dynasty, most people who learned from the West were limited to intellectuals and politicians. In order to make the translation get more attention, the translator chose more accepted literary works for translation. This to some extent leads to the lack of extensive translation categories. In Introduction to Translation, the second chapter "Translation of Catholic Scholars between the Ming and Qing Dynasties" discussed the Catholic doctrine translation and scientific translation between the Ming and Qing Dynasties, and pointed out that " at that time, translation sought more elegance, integrity and the willingness of Chinese officials and scholars to read. However, there are also some translators who try to keep the original meaning rather than deliberately satisfying the readers’ interests." On the other hand, it also confirms that the characteristics of translation was catering to readers at that time. （Zhang 2003:158）

The second is to use foreign novel translation as a tool for reform politics. After the failure of the Opium War, people with insight were eager to find good ways to save the country. The most direct and effective way is to learn western culture. In the process of learning western culture, the most convenient thing is to translate western works. However, hindered by language factors, the translation of monographs is far more difficult than the novels. Therefore, except for the few people who are proficient in foreign languages, most translators basically choose to take novels as the entry point to give personal political opinions and ideas to achieve the purpose of political improvement. Third, readers often take the translation of novels as a pastime, resulting in the flood of boring detective novels and romantic novels. Popular novels translations are enough while famous novels translations are rare. To cater to the market and earn publication costs, many translators translate foreign works for the purpose of making a profit. And after a few celebrities do not classify foreign translations, many translators will have a herd mentality. At the same time, due to the influence of domestic readers' literary taste, popular novels and simple literary works are more acceptable to them, so resulting in the flood of some novel categories. Fourth, the translation is not faithful. Influenced by traditional ideas, some phenomena in western works were not accepted by the Chinese at that time, and to avoid unnecessary trouble, the translator chose to omit part of the plot in the original, and could not completely express the original idea. In order to express his political position and views, the translator will fabricate the plot and comments not included in the original. For example, when Su Manshu translated ''Hugo's Bad World'', he invented a character called Lauder, using him to satirize the corrupt stupidity of the Qing government. Secondly, the translator will change the narrative perspective and structure of the original, which is largely influenced by the traditional Chinese narrative style. For example, Liang Qichao used the serial structure when translating ''The Beauty Adventure''.（Zhang 1934:42）

It is summarized as follows: excessive catering to readers and lack of independence; the monotonous type of translation with limitations; lack of translation proficiency and transmission of the idea; separation from the original work.

==2. The Rise Background and Climax of Modern Translation Works ==
===2.1 The Background of the Rise of Modern Translation===
After the Opium War, the Qing government successively signed the Nanjing Treaty and the Humen Treaty, which made insightful people attempt to save modern China from abyss of suffering. In the face of an unprecedented crisis, a group of people began to search for the way to save the country, and every individual has put all his strength into the efforts to save the nation in danger. Modern China is faced with a more powerful opponent in all aspects. People with insight realize that they must break through the current situation of self-isolation and learn from the outside world. Learning from the West and imitating the West became an important strategy of saving the nation at that time. Chinese society has constantly updated the old mechanism, trying to get rid of the original closed and rigid political dilemma, starting to find a new development direction, from the learning of western skills to the study of western political and economic system, ideology and culture. To learn from the West and seek self-improvement, translation is first serve as a bridge of communication. Domestic people with insight can bring western works to China by translating them. After the failure of the Second Opium War, China was forced to sign the Treaty of Beijing. The national crisis became more and more serious, the national crisis further strengthened the Chinese people's thought of self-improvement, and the understanding of the outside world became more and more urgent. At the same time, due to the current situation, foreign language communication and diplomatic intercourse have become very urgent. In this environment, translation became indispensable in this era.

===2.2 The Purpose of the Rise of Modern Translation===
The 19th century was a period of complex economic situation and chaotic political situation. At this time, the demand for formal translators increased. However, in this period, translation was very sophisticated and had a great influence on the control authority of the government and exchanges between Chinese and foreign countries. In the Treaty of Beijing, Britain and France sent documents that are written in English and French to China. But considering that there was almost no translation talent in China at that time, the two sides agreed to attach Chinese version. But if there was any dispute, both English and French characters should be the authority. Then the Qing government had to start training translation talents, and the first batch of foreign language schools were established accordingly. The original motivation of The School of Combined Learning was quite related to the signing of the Sino-British Treaty, and the British authorities attached a Chinese translation within three years, aiming to allow the Chinese government to cultivate a number of qualified translators during this period, so the establishment of The School of Combined Learning was established in 1861. It was the first official foreign language school in the late Qing Dynasty with the purpose of cultivating foreign language translation talents. Foreigners were the teachers, training specialized foreign language translators. In order to become rich and train soldiers, China must learn from advanced western science and technology. To learn from advanced western technology, it is bound to remove the language barriers in the process of learning. Zeng Guofan once mentioned that translation must occupy the fundamental strategic position of westernization cause. It is easy to see that the purpose of translation is to learn the advanced western technology more efficiently and to achieve the purpose of saving the nation. The process of modernizing Chinese literature is, in a sense, the process of Chinese literature learning from the West and seeking innovation and change under the impact of western culture. （Shi 1983:216）

===2.3 The Climax of Translation in the Western Book===
====2.3.1 From the Opium War to the Sino-Japanese War====
From the Opium War to the Sino-Japanese War, especially after the 1860s, with the rise of the westernization movement aimed at self-improvement and wealth, there was an upsurge in the translation of Western science and technology books. In the late Qing Dynasty, under the influence of opium smuggling, China and the UK exchanges are getting closer and closer. Until the Opium War broke out, the door of China was completely opened, and the Qing government had to face the outside world. Lin Zexu fought in the front line of the anti-smoking movement and the anti-British struggle from 1839 to 1840. He organized personnel to translate many books. In the monthly Macao, there are five volumes: on China, on tea, on smoking prohibition, on the use of military forces and on the feelings of foreigners in various countries. These materials are mainly translated from Guangzhou weekly, Guangzhou chronicle and etc. Lin Zexu never neglected to give up the work of organizing translation. Among Lin Zexu's translations, ''The Chronicles of Four Continents'' has the most far-reaching impact on Modern Chinese history. It is the first book in modern China to systematically introducing world geography and history. The translation of these books opened the eyes of the Chinese people and began to import Western learning in modern times, which is of great significance to the history of modern thought and culture. One of the most direct effects is that it has led to the emergence of a number of masters who compile and study foreign profiles. It indirectly led to the development of the style of study for practical use, and also had an important impact on the literary reform in history. Wei Yuan revised and supplemented ''The Records of the Four Continents''. This book not only retained the characteristics of the west, but also sublimated in combination with the domestic reality, added many notes and political comments, and put forward many political propositions represented by "learning from the foreigners and mastering their skills to control the foreigners", which gathered huge ripples in the ideological circles at that time, and even spread to Japan, It also had an impact on Japan's Meiji Restoration.However, at this time, the work of Lin Zexu and Wei Yuan only played the role of foresight and did not form a huge social situation. The development of translation still needs new forces to promote. At this time, the Westernization school played such a role. （Zou 2008:57-58）

The Westernization Movement took place after the second Opium War and before the Sino-Japanese war. During this period, the Qing government experienced the impact of two Opium Wars. Facing the strong ships and guns of Western powers, it was in a difficult situation at home and abroad, and felt a profound crisis never seen in history. The Westernization school, divided from the feudal landlord class, had a certain understanding of the world situation. They advocate learning from western capitalist countries. The main figures of the Westernization school were Zeng Guofan, Li Hongzhang and others. They held high positions in the Qing government. Compared with other ordinary officials, they were more deeply aware of the need to learn and introduce advanced military weapons and manufacturing technology from Western powers in order to maintain the ruling order of the feudal society and realize the stability of the regime of the Qing Dynasty. However, at that time, the Westernization school could only recognize the progress of Western skills and the strength of military strength. Their change Geng Chang's method was only limited to "learning from foreigners". Among them, the translation of foreign books became an important means to achieve the goal of learning from foreigners. （Wang 1987:23-24）

In 1862, due to the needs of diplomacy and Westernization Movement, Tongwen museum was established in Beijing to train translators. The Tongwen Library in Beijing regards translation and washing as an important activity. The Jiangnan manufacturing Bureau, founded in 1865, had a greater impact during this period. The two primary problems faced by Jiangnan manufacturing Bureau after its completion are technology and talents, and the key to solving these two problems is the translation of technical books. Therefore, it decided to "set up another school to learn translation", "it is planned to select intelligent disciples to study with the school when it is completed", "You don't have to fake a foreigner, you can also extend it and make it into a book." The books translated by the translators were mainly about natural science and applied technology, which played a positive role in introducing modern science and technology and promoting the development of productive forces, and became important teaching materials for people of insight at that time to understand the external world and update their knowledge structure. These books can be said to have cultivated the next batch of cultural newcomers, such as Kang Youwei, Liang Qichao, Zhang Taiyan and Cai Yuanpei and so on. （Zeng 1987:83）

During this period, the importance of translation has been paid some attention, and the government has begun to operate translation in an organized and planned way. At the same time, the translation activities of the church have also been strengthened. Missionaries played the role of cultural invaders in the process of foreign military aggression. At first, missionaries wanted to carry out cultural aggression in the sense of Christianity, but they were influenced by Chinese tradition The influence of culture was resisted by the Chinese people. So they turned to spread new western knowledge and Western civilization, set up institutions, run newspapers and translate books, and tried to open the gap of the Chinese people's thought, so as to achieve the purpose of cultural aggression control. But objectively speaking, they also played a role in spreading Western learning to a certain extent. The translation by foreign missionaries had a great impact on Chinese society. The Chinese people's own pure literary translation also began at this stage. However, the literary translation at this stage still lacks systematic theoretical guidance and positive social atmosphere.

====2.3.2 After the Sino-Japanese War====
After the Sino-Japanese War was defeated, the Westernization Movement was declared bankrupt, and China's current situation was at stake. People with lofty ideals learned from the failure of the Westernization Movement that reform is far from solving the problem. To make China embark on the road of independence, prosperity and strength, we must fundamentally learn from the West and change the feudal autocratic system. In order to comprehensively learn western learning, translation is the first thing at this time. Therefore, this is the moment The translation career of this period is very prosperous, which is very different from the translation characteristics of the previous era. First, the expansion of the field of translation. At this time, the focus of importing western learning turned to various fields of social science, and paid particular attention to the import of political and academic ideas. The eight famous works translated by Yan Fu were outstanding representatives of this period, which had a significant impact on the society of the Qing Dynasty. During this period, translation methods were widely used, that is, abridged translation and free translation of foreign works, which were understood by the translator At this time, a large number of social sciences have been introduced, which has greatly improved the ideological level of Chinese people and brought the political and cultural activities to a new stage. Secondly, the translation field has also been expanded. The previous translation work was limited to government-run institutions. After the Sino-Japanese War, the reformers stepped onto the historical stage, and the translation work has been included in the overall plan of the reform. The reformers created schools, ran newspapers and opened publishing houses, with the import of Western learning and the translation and introduction of Western books as the main activities. After the failure of the reform movement, the establishment of newspapers and publishing houses did not stop. At this time, China's translation industry began to gradually break away from the limited government-run and turn to the private sector, resulting in an unprecedented prosperity in the translation industry. In addition, the translation team has gradually expanded. The establishment of foreign language teaching has gradually increased the number of foreign students and personnel abroad. The emergence of more and more translation talents meets the development of the publishing industry and social needs at this time. More and more people who know foreign languages are engaged in translation. This period is also an era of a large number of translators. Not only Lin Shu and Yan Fu, but also Liang Qichao, Su Manshu, Zhou Guisheng, Wu Guangjian are all well-known. During this period, the level of translation was also greatly improved. In the early days, most of the translations were spoken by foreigners who knew a little Chinese, and then recorded and polished by Chinese. The level of translation was uneven. During this period, most translators were proficient in foreign languages, their Chinese level was also high, and the quality of translation improved greatly Great improvement.（Xiao 1984:23）

This stage is also a period of vigorous rise and unprecedented prosperity of novel translation. In the early modern times, novel translation was not paid much attention. The first foreign novel translated into China was translated by foreign missionaries and published by the church. It was ''The Pilgrim’s Progress'' by British writer John Buyan, and the translation was published in Xiamen in 1853. During this period, translation activities also had some defects. Due to the popularity of translation, although abridged translation and free translation made the translator more free to express his political ideas, it also caused the disadvantages of breaking away from the original works. The purpose of translation was not to introduce western literature, but to express the translator's own ideas as a political means. At the same time, translation theory was strongly advocated in this period and political utilitarianism have also been greatly strengthened.

====2.3.3 Marked by the Rise of the New Culture Movement====
After the revolution of 1911, people's political enthusiasm was obviously low. In terms of translation, few people paid attention to social, political and economic works, and the number of translated novels was significantly lower than that of creative novels. However, people's literary concept was gradually strengthened. During this period, many translators introduced foreign literature from a literary perspective, bringing a new atmosphere to the translation circle and the history of Chinese literature In the period of the new culture movement, the translator's political and literary ideas were significantly improved, which laid a good foundation for the third wave of Western Chinese book translation starting from the new culture movement.

During this period, first of all, the number of short stories was greatly increased. During this period, new translators preferred to translate short stories. For example, Hu Shi translated ''The Last Lesson'' and Zhou Zuoren also published several short translation novels in the magazine New youth. The short translation novels published during this period also included ''The Leisure Review of Customs'' translated by Lin Shu and Chen Jialin. At this stage, the translator chooses the original work carefully after fully understanding and studying the original author, and describes his own opinions and ideas in the preface and postscript. Unlike in the past, he arbitrarily cuts the original work to express his political ideas, most of them are serious and loyal to the original. During this period, script translation gradually prevailed, and poetry translation appeared a new atmosphere. German poetry began to receive attention, and vernacular poetry began to appear. A new generation of translation practitioners consciously linked the translation of foreign literature with the transformation of Chinese literature and the purpose of the new culture movement. Chinese literary translation and Chinese society have entered a new era. （Wang 1992:321-322）

==3. The Influence of Modern Translation on Social Ideas==
===3.1 Appearance of the Concept of Marriage===
The translation that made an important change in the concept of scholars in the late Qing Dynasty was ''The Legacy of the Camellia'' in Paris translated by Lin Shu. This book describes the ups and downs of the protagonist Mark fate and complex psychological feelings. After the Sino-Japanese War, Lin Shu joined the ranks of reformers. He took a more open attitude towards love, which made Lin's translated novels reflect some changes of the times to a certain extent, implying that modern marriage and love pay attention to color. In Lin Shu's concept, if women want to benefit from freedom of marriage, they must first receive good education, such as Qiu Zhilan as a chivalrous woman, the heroine Qiu Zhilan sneaked into the capital to avenge her father's murder. She met scholar LV Qiushi and fell in love at first sight. She took the initiative to give a keepsake while LV Qiushi was reading at night. Finally, with the help of the blind nun of Shuiyue nunnery, they got married. Qiu Zhilan pursued love independently and persevered, suggesting that women's sense of marriage and love had begun to change under the circumstances at that time, Or the wind of free marriage and love has gradually risen. In Lin Shu's translated novels, Lin Shu points out the rigidity of the orders of parents and the words of matchmakers. He also advocates that women should maintain the beauty of temperament. In Lin Shu, women generally can consciously control their emotions, maintain a certain degree of reserve and gentleness in their behavior, and never do things carelessly. To a certain extent, this reflects the love aesthetics and love trend of the society at that time.（Hu 1916:474）

In the past, the novels of talented women and beauties in ancient China were a special kind of art to express the love concept of the citizen class. In Chinese novels of talented women and beauties, most of the talented people in the books were portrayed as the images of handsome, talented, elegant and noble, and not in line with the times. Second, the highest ideal commonly pursued by scholars at that time was "wedding night, golden list." The happy ending of joys and sorrows can satisfy people's aesthetic taste in the past. In ''The Legacy of the Camellia Woman'' in Paris, It depicts the heroine, who is loyal to her feelings and has a sense of morality, left because of Yameng's career future and family happiness. This self-sacrifice combined with tragic color made the people who have seen the story of talented people and beautiful women for a long time with an unprecedented freshness, which provided a new type of love aesthetics for the people at that time. （Chen 1990:213）

There are also relevant translation works such as ''Better Return'' published during the Meiji period, which is called "the milestone of the theme novel describing women's consciousness in the Meiji period", which describes the content of women's resistance to the oppression of old morality and ethics, and the dramatic work ''Doll's House'', the heroine Nala breaks away from her originally happy family and realizes that she is a neglected individual value. Her home is just a doll's home. It can be inferred that Nora is not the only one. The concepts of marriage and love freedom and women's individual values conveyed in her works since modern times have gradually penetrated into the society, and people have begun to gradually recognize the importance of women’ s rights. （Yuan 1989:178-181）

During the May 4th movement, The Troubles of Young Witt was strongly favored by young Chinese readers at that time for its crazy love passion, very dreamy action, rebellious and independent thought of the society and the protagonist's individualistic thinking method. This book was once regarded as the "Bible" by young men and women at that time As a general cultural phenomenon, the love between Witt and Lvdi made the young people talk about the freedom of marriage and love at that time and take the sacred love between men and women as the ideal. Witt easily reminded people of the talents in the love story at that time. Witt's lovelorn was expressed through strong sadness, which was the best comfort and inspiration for the young people who were eager to escape from the feudal cage at that time. It was a landmark translation that influenced modern Chinese society at that time.（Shi 1989:245）

===3.2 The Emergence of the Concept of Freedom and Equality and the Changes and Manifestations of Social Values===
Feminism is also one of the concepts of freedom and equality. Among the reformers after the failure of the Sino Japanese War of 1894-1895, Lin Shu was one of the first to advocate feminism. This was also mentioned in the previous section when describing the concept of marriage and love. The rise of women's concept of freedom of marriage and love has gradually spread, which implies that women pay attention to their own rights. From the novels translated by Lin Shu, Lin Shu's admiration for women's courage to pursue their love or rights shows that Lin supports and advocates women's rights. Xinxi Gossip deals with the values of money and the concept of social class. The novel expounds the role of money in Europe, which is unheard of by Chinese scholars. For example, the third volume of the novel describes that the British set up marriage halls, that is, intermediaries such as today's marriage agencies, many people who come to the museum are losers, hoping to cheat into marrying rich families, it describes that many people go to parties, but are driven by money worship in an attempt to cheat them into marrying rich people. At the same time, it also describes that money can make an old woman get a young husband, and the young husband aims at the old woman's rich family wealth. In the eyes of the Chinese people at that time, this was not in line with the code of ethics and could not be accepted.（Lu 1981:56）

==Conclusion==
In the transition period of modern China, the social function of translation played an important role, and the subversion was the most prominent in the social function of translation. At that time, China had experienced a long period of inaction towards western culture and regardless of the political and economic state of locking the country, resulting in China's ignorance of the West. However, at this time, the western world has not stopped the translation and introduction of Chinese culture through various channels Understanding. Asymmetric information exchange and translation make China in a passive position when communicating with the West. With the continuous entry of western new ideas and translation into China, values are constantly challenged, and even some extreme culturists try to subvert traditional Chinese culture and social values. The current situation requires China to make progress, and the current situation also forces China to make progress. In this period of mixed internal and external relations and political chaos, translation, as a communication tool, has always led Chinese people of insight in the exploration of saving the nation from subjugation and strengthening the country. （Zhang 1966:5-7）

The changes of modern history and the prominence of modern cultural view are greatly influenced by the input of Western learning. In modern Chinese society under the shock of Western learning civilization, translation makes western learning smoothly enter the Chinese people's political world, cultural undertakings and social life, but the overall westernization is absolutely impossible. In modern times, although Chinese traditional Confucianism has been criticized, even as a cultural pioneer The activists threw the target of political opinions, but middle school can not be reduced. Middle school is also the spiritual belief of Chinese unity since modern times. Lin Shu has always stressed that the traditional ethics revealed by Confucian culture has some eternal value and universal significance. The real Western civilization does not let us abandon middle school and completely replace it with Western learning, but let middle school be a traditional culture The social atmosphere under the coverage is more civilized.

==Reference==
Amos, Flora Ross. (1920). Early Theories of Translation. New York: Columbia University Press.

Benjamin, Andrew. (1989). Translation and the Nature of Philosophy: A New Theory of Words. London and New York: Routledge.

Catford,J.C.(1965) A Linguistic Theory of Translation.New York: Oxford University Press.

Dolet, Etienne. (1540). How to Translate Well from One Language to Another. Robinson.

A Yin 阿英.阿英文集［M］.Collection of A Ying’s Books三联书店, Sanlian Bookstore 1981:741.

Chen Xulu 陈旭麓.陈旭麓学术文存［M］.Chen Xulu Academic Archives上海：上海人民出版社, Shanghai：Shanghai People’s Press 1990:213.

Feng Zhijie 冯志杰.中国近代翻译史 History of Modern Chinese Translation（late Qing dynasty）（晚清卷）[M].北京：九州出版社, Bejing：Kyushu Press 2012:234-235.

Guo Moruo郭沫若.少年时代［M］,The Youth Age 人民文学出版社,People’s Literature Press1979:126.

Hu Shi 胡适.论译书寄陈独秀.胡适学术文集新文学运动［M］.Hu Shi’s Academic anthology New Literature Movement 1916:474.

Lian Yantang 连燕堂.二十世纪翻译文学史[M].History of Translated Literature in the 20th Century 百花文化出版社, Baihua Culture Press 2009:93.

Lu Xun 鲁迅.中国小说史略［M］.A Brief History of Chinese Novels 北京：人民文学出版社,Beijing:People’s Literature Publishing House 1973:125-126.

Lu Xun 鲁迅.文化偏至论［M］On Cultural Deviation （《鲁迅全集》第一卷）.人民文学出版社，People’s Literature Press 1981:56.

Shi Meng 时萌.晚清小说［M］.Novels of the Late Qing Dynasty 上海：上海古籍出版社,Shanghai: Shanghai Ancient Books Press 1989:245.

Shiteng Huixiu 实藤惠秀著，谭汝谦等译.《中国人留学日本史》History of Chinese People Studying in Japan［M］.三联书店, Sanlian Bookstore 1983:216.

Tan Sitong 谭嗣同.谭嗣同全集［M］.Complete Works of Tan Sitong北京：中华书局5 Beijing Zhonghua Book Company 1981.

Wang Xiangrong 汪向荣.中国的近代化与日本［M］.China’s Modernization and Japan湖南人民出版社,Hunan People’s Press1987:23-24.

Wang Lixing 王立兴.中国近代文学考论［M］.A Research on Modern Chinese Literature南京：南京大学出版社,Nanjing：Nanjing University Press1992:321-322.

Xiaotian Qiejin 小田切近著，山人译.日本的名作［M］.Japanese Masterpieces 福建人民出版社,Fujian People’s Press1984:23.

Yuan Jian 袁健，郑荣.晚清小说研究概说［M］.An Overview of Novels in Late Qing Dynasty 天津：天津教育出版社,Tianjin：Tianjin Education Press1989:178-181.

Zou Zhenhuan 邹振环.影响中国近代社会的一百种译作 One Hundred Translations Influential on Modern Chinese Society [M].江苏教育出版社，Jiangsu Education Press 2008: 57-58.

Zhang Hailin 张海林.近代中外文化交流史[M].History of Modern Sino-foreign Cultural Exchanges 南京：南京大学出版社, Nanjing University Press 2003:158.

Zhang Xingniang 张星娘.欧化东渐史［M］.History of Europeanization Spreading to the East 商务印书馆,Commercial Press1934:42.

Zhang Zhenyu 张振玉.译学概论［M］.Introduction to Translation 中台印刷厂,Zhongtai Press1966:5-7.

Zeng Guofan 曾国藩.轮船工竣并陈机器局情形疏.郑振铎编.晚清文选［M］,The Steamship Engineer and Machinery Bureau 上海书店, Shanghai Bookstore 1987影印本：83.

Written by--[[User:Zhong Yifei|Zhong Yifei]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yifei|talk]]) 13:50, 8 December 2021 (UTC)

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=Chapter 13: The Chinese Translation History In Modern Age=
钟义菲 Zhong Yifei，Hunan Normal University, China
==Abstract==
Since the middle of the 19th century, translation has gradually become a tool for people resolved to save the country from extinction. The spread of the large number of translation works has broadened the ways for the public, especially the intellectuals, to learn the west. In the meantime, it has also changed the social climate. The invasion of western civilization, translators' spontaneous development of translation activities and the passivity of national politics made Chinese society enter an important period of western learning translation, especially around the period of Opium War. The cause of translation in modern China coincided with the Chinese people's struggle against aggression. After the Opium War, China had to open the door. China had to end its isolation and began to face the outside world directly. However, the prolonged blockade made China lag behind the western world. Modern politics, economy, diplomacy and cultural activities are closely related to translation, which plays an indispensable role in history. The theme and source of the original translation often reflect the development trend of modern Chinese ideology and the direction of government policy. As for the nature and quantity of translation books in different periods, we can also see the motivation of translation books, the general trend of intellectual interests, and the impact of the dissemination in society. The time clue of this article is from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement, briefly introducing the translation and the translator, emphasizing its emergence background and several important period of development, research and analysis of western culture reflected in translation works in modem Chinese history, the change of Chinese people’s thoughts in translation and the influence of modern translation on Chinese society. This paper is divided into three chapters. The first chapter introduces the emergence, importance and main characteristics of modern translation works, then reviews the emergence of modem translation works, emphasizes their importance, and briefly introduces representative translation works. The second chapter introduces the background of translation works and translation climax stages of western books, studies the main characteristics and development trend of translation in each period. The third chapter studies the influence and performance of modern translation on people's ideology and social life through the description in translation works. This paper focuses on the development of modern translation, the important role of translation in Chinese history, and the specific impact of translation on modern society.

==摘要==
自19世纪中叶以来，翻译逐渐成为人们决心拯救国家免遭灭绝的工具。大量翻译作品的传播拓宽了公众，尤其是知识分子学习西方的途径。与此同时，它也改变了社会气候。西方文明的入侵、译者翻译活动的自发发展以及国家政治的被动，使中国社会进入了西学翻译的重要时期，尤其是鸦片战争前后。近代中国的翻译事业与中国人民反抗侵略的斗争不谋而合。鸦片战争后，中国不得不打开大门。中国不得不结束孤立，开始直接面对外部世界。然而，长期封锁使中国落后于西方世界。现代政治、经济、外交和文化活动都与翻译密切相关，翻译在历史上起着不可或缺的作用。原文的主题和来源往往反映了中国现代意识形态的发展趋势和政府政策的方向。至于不同时期翻译书籍的性质和数量，我们还可以看到翻译书籍的动机、知识兴趣的总体趋势以及在社会上传播的影响。本文的时间线索是从鸦片战争到五四运动，简要介绍了翻译和译者，强调了其产生背景和几个重要的发展时期，研究和分析了中国近代翻译作品中反映的西方文化，中国人翻译思想的变化以及现代翻译对中国社会的影响。本文共分为三章。第一章介绍了现代翻译作品的产生、重要性和主要特征，然后回顾了现代翻译作品的产生，强调了现代翻译作品的重要性，并简要介绍了具有代表性的翻译作品。第二章介绍了翻译作品的背景和西方书籍翻译的高潮阶段，研究了各个时期翻译的主要特点和发展趋势。第三章通过对翻译作品的描写，研究现代翻译对人们思想和社会生活的影响和表现。本文着重论述了现代翻译的发展，翻译在中国历史上的重要作用，以及翻译对现代社会的具体影响。

==Key words==
Modern Translation，Translation，Social Life，Ideology

==Introduction==
Around the middle of the 19th century, The Western invasion brought new knowledge. The Westernization Movement sent a large number of international students to study abroad and translated a large number of books for military purpose.The Qing government decayed, and was tired of the invasion of foreign enemies, the war repeatedly failed. After the Sino-Japanese War in 1894, faced with internal and external troubles, far-sighted people knew that they could not rely on the Qing government, so they devoted themselves to writing novels. Many people accepted and spread Western culture through translating books. The importance of translation was recognized by the development of journalism, media, and provident men influenced by the Western culture at that time. In this social context, people have criticized the corruption of government through literature and translation.

Modern China began in the Opium War in 1840. It was a special period in Chinese history. During this period, the Chinese were attacked by foreign guns, as well as by foreign culture and foreign education. Especially after the Sino-Japanese War, the Chinese people were greatly shocked psychologically, and people began to realize that the West was more advanced than China in political, economic, cultural and other aspects, which was providing a great opportunity for the introduction of translation literature. Translators at that time also hoped to translate the western advanced scientific knowledge to the Chinese people so that they could broaden their horizons and innovate their ideas. During the Reform Movement of 1898, Liang Qichao advocated publicizing political ideas by translating foreign political novels to transform the society. He believed that the incredible power of novels was "enough to dominate people's psychology and could change the society of one generation." Based on the translation of the novel, Liang Qichao gave the novel new significance and mission. He put forward the idea of improving the novel, with the famous ones such as ''The Beauty Adventures'' and ''The Fifteen Little Heroes'', which promoted the process of novel revolution and the prosperity and development of the translating novels. Yan Fu translated works such as ''Heaven'' and Yuan Fu. His translation had a great influence at that time and was the most important enlightenment translation in China in the 20th century. In the translation of ''Heaven'', Yan Fu proposed three difficulties: Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance. It was advocated by many literary writers at that time and used as the theoretical basis for their translation. The concept of "natural selection: the fittest to survive" conveyed in Yan Fu's Heaven woke people up from the dream of the heavenly world. There are more famous translation works such as Lin Shu’s ''The Lady of the Camellias'', Black slaves call for heaven record and so on. It had an important influence on the change of people's concept. People are not limited to the traditional concept of marriage and love, and the concept of freedom and equality gradually spread. Under the prevalence of translation works, traditional values, such as emphasizing agriculture and suppressing business, men being superior to women, gradually lost their status and were gradually replaced by new ideas. （A 1981:741）

The paper mainly includes three chapters: First, modern translation works and the overview of translators. Second, the background and climax of modern translation works. Third, the impact of modern translation on social life. In the modern Chinese literary circle, there was a wave of translation in western books, and the translation activities of foreign works were unprecedentedly prosperous. The emergence of a large number of translation works has also caused a large influx of foreign cultural ideas. Under the translation of domestic scholars, the translators not only conveyed the literary nature of foreign works, but also expressed their translation purpose through translation language and techniques, and had a huge impact on Chinese social life at that time. Academia research is more aimed at the overview of modern translation works and its prosperity, but little research on its impact on national social life. This paper analyzes the wide variety of materials and works to detail the influence of modern translation on social life. （Lian 2009:93）

==1. Modern Translation Work and Its Main Characteristics ==
===1.1 The Emergence of Translation Works and Their Importance===
The premise of the emergence of translation works is the introduction of western civilization. The spread of western culture in modern China can be traced back to the eve of the Opium War. The main translators are missionaries, who mainly introduce religious doctrine, and also bring western history and geography to China. They established schools, translated western books (such as the Bible), compiled magazines, wrote books and so on. It can be said that missionaries are the first wave of intermediaries communicating between Chinese and Western culture. Early missionaries in China, although for the purpose of conquest, tended to teach by words and deeds than coercion. However, considering China's closure at that time, the Chinese were not allowed to learn foreign languages. The missionaries have also made great efforts in communicating the Chinese and Western cultures. This also led to the introduction of western civilization at this stage and laid the foundation for the development of the modern translation and cultivated talents. The Opium War was an important period of western translation. The rise and fall of China is always closely related to the rise and fall of translation culture. As a special component of Chinese literature, the development of translation literature has always affected the process of Chinese literature and historical changes, especially the occurrence of modern Chinese translation literature, which has effectively promoted the transformation and development of Chinese literature and modern society. Modern translation, from its emergence to the development, is inseparable with China's social changes. Translation has promoted the change of people's ideas, enriched people's knowledge in many fields, and not only promoted the development of Chinese literature, but also played a certain positive role in the development of politics and Chinese society. （Guo 1979:126）

===1.2 Representative Works of Modern Translations and Their Main Categories===
The introduction of modern western literature made Lin Shu a famous literary translator. Many people will misunderstand ''The Lady of the Camellias'' as the first translation novel in modern China. But ''The Declaration'' has already begun to publish translation novels earlier. The first translation novel should be ''Xinxi Talk''. According to Zou Zhenhuan, the most expensive translation of the Bible was the first version to enter the palace, the "royal version" of the late Qing Dynasty. The first modern Japanese novel translated into Chinese was ''The Beauty Adventure'', translated by Liang Qichao, which opened the translation of the political novel in the late Qing Dynasty. At the same time, the Chinese translation books related to Japan was ''Ryukyu Geography''. Tan Ruqian thought it as “the first Chinese translation of Japanese documents”. After translation into Chinese, the most influential translation is Yan Fu’s ''Heaven'', Lin Shu’s ''The Lady of the Camellias'', and ''Black Slaves Call for Heaven'' record translated by Wei Yi and Lin Shu. The three works had a great influence on Chinese society in different aspects. Thai new history can represent part of the translation works since modern times. It is widely spread into China though it doesn’t achieve any effect in the West. The book is considered by western scholars as the most boring residual history and a third-rate world history. In China, it sold more than one million copies, which is the most popular reading book in the Restoration period. It can be said that the social influence in different historical stages and social backgrounds can be different. ''The Law of the Duke of Nations'' theoretically defeated the ignorant idea of the Qing government. In addition, there are translations about life which popularized scientific knowledge in China and played a good role in the abolition of feudal superstition. ''Foreign Cookery'' in Chinese was the earliest Chinese translation of a relatively systematic introduction of western cooking methods in the process of introducing western food culture in China. In the aspects of medicine, there were books such as ''Tessi’s Personal Theory'', ''Optical Disclosure and Cardiotherapy''. The first sociological monograph of full-text translation in modern China was translated by Zhang Taiyan, which had an important influence on the progress of social cognition.（Feng 2012: 234-235）

===1.3 Main Characteristics of Modern Translation Works===
One is catering to the taste and ethics of the Chinese readers in order to obtain a wider popularity. Influenced by the social background of the late Qing Dynasty, most people who learned from the West were limited to intellectuals and politicians. In order to make the translation get more attention, the translator chose more accepted literary works for translation. This to some extent leads to the lack of extensive translation categories. In Introduction to Translation, the second chapter "Translation of Catholic Scholars between the Ming and Qing Dynasties" discussed the Catholic doctrine translation and scientific translation between the Ming and Qing Dynasties, and pointed out that " at that time, translation sought more elegance, integrity and the willingness of Chinese officials and scholars to read. However, there are also some translators who try to keep the original meaning rather than deliberately satisfying the readers’ interests." On the other hand, it also confirms that the characteristics of translation was catering to readers at that time. （Zhang 2003:158）

The second is to use foreign novel translation as a tool for reform politics. After the failure of the Opium War, people with insight were eager to find good ways to save the country. The most direct and effective way is to learn western culture. In the process of learning western culture, the most convenient thing is to translate western works. However, hindered by language factors, the translation of monographs is far more difficult than the novels. Therefore, except for the few people who are proficient in foreign languages, most translators basically choose to take novels as the entry point to give personal political opinions and ideas to achieve the purpose of political improvement. Third, readers often take the translation of novels as a pastime, resulting in the flood of boring detective novels and romantic novels. Popular novels translations are enough while famous novels translations are rare. To cater to the market and earn publication costs, many translators translate foreign works for the purpose of making a profit. And after a few celebrities do not classify foreign translations, many translators will have a herd mentality. At the same time, due to the influence of domestic readers' literary taste, popular novels and simple literary works are more acceptable to them, so resulting in the flood of some novel categories. Fourth, the translation is not faithful. Influenced by traditional ideas, some phenomena in western works were not accepted by the Chinese at that time, and to avoid unnecessary trouble, the translator chose to omit part of the plot in the original, and could not completely express the original idea. In order to express his political position and views, the translator will fabricate the plot and comments not included in the original. For example, when Su Manshu translated ''Hugo's Bad World'', he invented a character called Lauder, using him to satirize the corrupt stupidity of the Qing government. Secondly, the translator will change the narrative perspective and structure of the original, which is largely influenced by the traditional Chinese narrative style. For example, Liang Qichao used the serial structure when translating ''The Beauty Adventure''.（Zhang 1934:42）

It is summarized as follows: excessive catering to readers and lack of independence; the monotonous type of translation with limitations; lack of translation proficiency and transmission of the idea; separation from the original work.

==2. The Rise Background and Climax of Modern Translation Works ==
===2.1 The Background of the Rise of Modern Translation===
After the Opium War, the Qing government successively signed the Nanjing Treaty and the Humen Treaty, which made insightful people attempt to save modern China from abyss of suffering. In the face of an unprecedented crisis, a group of people began to search for the way to save the country, and every individual has put all his strength into the efforts to save the nation in danger. Modern China is faced with a more powerful opponent in all aspects. People with insight realize that they must break through the current situation of self-isolation and learn from the outside world. Learning from the West and imitating the West became an important strategy of saving the nation at that time. Chinese society has constantly updated the old mechanism, trying to get rid of the original closed and rigid political dilemma, starting to find a new development direction, from the learning of western skills to the study of western political and economic system, ideology and culture. To learn from the West and seek self-improvement, translation is first serve as a bridge of communication. Domestic people with insight can bring western works to China by translating them. After the failure of the Second Opium War, China was forced to sign the Treaty of Beijing. The national crisis became more and more serious, the national crisis further strengthened the Chinese people's thought of self-improvement, and the understanding of the outside world became more and more urgent. At the same time, due to the current situation, foreign language communication and diplomatic intercourse have become very urgent. In this environment, translation became indispensable in this era.

===2.2 The Purpose of the Rise of Modern Translation===
The 19th century was a period of complex economic situation and chaotic political situation. At this time, the demand for formal translators increased. However, in this period, translation was very sophisticated and had a great influence on the control authority of the government and exchanges between Chinese and foreign countries. In the Treaty of Beijing, Britain and France sent documents that are written in English and French to China. But considering that there was almost no translation talent in China at that time, the two sides agreed to attach Chinese version. But if there was any dispute, both English and French characters should be the authority. Then the Qing government had to start training translation talents, and the first batch of foreign language schools were established accordingly. The original motivation of The School of Combined Learning was quite related to the signing of the Sino-British Treaty, and the British authorities attached a Chinese translation within three years, aiming to allow the Chinese government to cultivate a number of qualified translators during this period, so the establishment of The School of Combined Learning was established in 1861. It was the first official foreign language school in the late Qing Dynasty with the purpose of cultivating foreign language translation talents. Foreigners were the teachers, training specialized foreign language translators. In order to become rich and train soldiers, China must learn from advanced western science and technology. To learn from advanced western technology, it is bound to remove the language barriers in the process of learning. Zeng Guofan once mentioned that translation must occupy the fundamental strategic position of westernization cause. It is easy to see that the purpose of translation is to learn the advanced western technology more efficiently and to achieve the purpose of saving the nation. The process of modernizing Chinese literature is, in a sense, the process of Chinese literature learning from the West and seeking innovation and change under the impact of western culture. （Shi 1983:216）

===2.3 The Climax of Translation in the Western Book===
====2.3.1 From the Opium War to the Sino-Japanese War====
From the Opium War to the Sino-Japanese War, especially after the 1860s, with the rise of the westernization movement aimed at self-improvement and wealth, there was an upsurge in the translation of Western science and technology books. In the late Qing Dynasty, under the influence of opium smuggling, China and the UK exchanges are getting closer and closer. Until the Opium War broke out, the door of China was completely opened, and the Qing government had to face the outside world. Lin Zexu fought in the front line of the anti-smoking movement and the anti-British struggle from 1839 to 1840. He organized personnel to translate many books. In the monthly Macao, there are five volumes: on China, on tea, on smoking prohibition, on the use of military forces and on the feelings of foreigners in various countries. These materials are mainly translated from Guangzhou weekly, Guangzhou chronicle and etc. Lin Zexu never neglected to give up the work of organizing translation. Among Lin Zexu's translations, ''The Chronicles of Four Continents'' has the most far-reaching impact on Modern Chinese history. It is the first book in modern China to systematically introducing world geography and history. The translation of these books opened the eyes of the Chinese people and began to import Western learning in modern times, which is of great significance to the history of modern thought and culture. One of the most direct effects is that it has led to the emergence of a number of masters who compile and study foreign profiles. It indirectly led to the development of the style of study for practical use, and also had an important impact on the literary reform in history. Wei Yuan revised and supplemented ''The Records of the Four Continents''. This book not only retained the characteristics of the west, but also sublimated in combination with the domestic reality, added many notes and political comments, and put forward many political propositions represented by "learning from the foreigners and mastering their skills to control the foreigners", which gathered huge ripples in the ideological circles at that time, and even spread to Japan, It also had an impact on Japan's Meiji Restoration.However, at this time, the work of Lin Zexu and Wei Yuan only played the role of foresight and did not form a huge social situation. The development of translation still needs new forces to promote. At this time, the Westernization school played such a role. （Zou 2008:57-58）

The Westernization Movement took place after the second Opium War and before the Sino-Japanese war. During this period, the Qing government experienced the impact of two Opium Wars. Facing the strong ships and guns of Western powers, it was in a difficult situation at home and abroad, and felt a profound crisis never seen in history. The Westernization school, divided from the feudal landlord class, had a certain understanding of the world situation. They advocate learning from western capitalist countries. The main figures of the Westernization school were Zeng Guofan, Li Hongzhang and others. They held high positions in the Qing government. Compared with other ordinary officials, they were more deeply aware of the need to learn and introduce advanced military weapons and manufacturing technology from Western powers in order to maintain the ruling order of the feudal society and realize the stability of the regime of the Qing Dynasty. However, at that time, the Westernization school could only recognize the progress of Western skills and the strength of military strength. Their change Geng Chang's method was only limited to "learning from foreigners". Among them, the translation of foreign books became an important means to achieve the goal of learning from foreigners. （Wang 1987:23-24）

In 1862, due to the needs of diplomacy and Westernization Movement, Tongwen museum was established in Beijing to train translators. The Tongwen Library in Beijing regards translation and washing as an important activity. The Jiangnan manufacturing Bureau, founded in 1865, had a greater impact during this period. The two primary problems faced by Jiangnan manufacturing Bureau after its completion are technology and talents, and the key to solving these two problems is the translation of technical books. Therefore, it decided to "set up another school to learn translation", "it is planned to select intelligent disciples to study with the school when it is completed", "You don't have to fake a foreigner, you can also extend it and make it into a book." The books translated by the translators were mainly about natural science and applied technology, which played a positive role in introducing modern science and technology and promoting the development of productive forces, and became important teaching materials for people of insight at that time to understand the external world and update their knowledge structure. These books can be said to have cultivated the next batch of cultural newcomers, such as Kang Youwei, Liang Qichao, Zhang Taiyan and Cai Yuanpei and so on. （Zeng 1987:83）

During this period, the importance of translation has been paid some attention, and the government has begun to operate translation in an organized and planned way. At the same time, the translation activities of the church have also been strengthened. Missionaries played the role of cultural invaders in the process of foreign military aggression. At first, missionaries wanted to carry out cultural aggression in the sense of Christianity, but they were influenced by Chinese tradition The influence of culture was resisted by the Chinese people. So they turned to spread new western knowledge and Western civilization, set up institutions, run newspapers and translate books, and tried to open the gap of the Chinese people's thought, so as to achieve the purpose of cultural aggression control. But objectively speaking, they also played a role in spreading Western learning to a certain extent. The translation by foreign missionaries had a great impact on Chinese society. The Chinese people's own pure literary translation also began at this stage. However, the literary translation at this stage still lacks systematic theoretical guidance and positive social atmosphere.

====2.3.2 After the Sino-Japanese War====
After the Sino-Japanese War was defeated, the Westernization Movement was declared bankrupt, and China's current situation was at stake. People with lofty ideals learned from the failure of the Westernization Movement that reform is far from solving the problem. To make China embark on the road of independence, prosperity and strength, we must fundamentally learn from the West and change the feudal autocratic system. In order to comprehensively learn western learning, translation is the first thing at this time. Therefore, this is the moment The translation career of this period is very prosperous, which is very different from the translation characteristics of the previous era. First, the expansion of the field of translation. At this time, the focus of importing western learning turned to various fields of social science, and paid particular attention to the import of political and academic ideas. The eight famous works translated by Yan Fu were outstanding representatives of this period, which had a significant impact on the society of the Qing Dynasty. During this period, translation methods were widely used, that is, abridged translation and free translation of foreign works, which were understood by the translator At this time, a large number of social sciences have been introduced, which has greatly improved the ideological level of Chinese people and brought the political and cultural activities to a new stage. Secondly, the translation field has also been expanded. The previous translation work was limited to government-run institutions. After the Sino-Japanese War, the reformers stepped onto the historical stage, and the translation work has been included in the overall plan of the reform. The reformers created schools, ran newspapers and opened publishing houses, with the import of Western learning and the translation and introduction of Western books as the main activities. After the failure of the reform movement, the establishment of newspapers and publishing houses did not stop. At this time, China's translation industry began to gradually break away from the limited government-run and turn to the private sector, resulting in an unprecedented prosperity in the translation industry. In addition, the translation team has gradually expanded. The establishment of foreign language teaching has gradually increased the number of foreign students and personnel abroad. The emergence of more and more translation talents meets the development of the publishing industry and social needs at this time. More and more people who know foreign languages are engaged in translation. This period is also an era of a large number of translators. Not only Lin Shu and Yan Fu, but also Liang Qichao, Su Manshu, Zhou Guisheng, Wu Guangjian are all well-known. During this period, the level of translation was also greatly improved. In the early days, most of the translations were spoken by foreigners who knew a little Chinese, and then recorded and polished by Chinese. The level of translation was uneven. During this period, most translators were proficient in foreign languages, their Chinese level was also high, and the quality of translation improved greatly Great improvement.（Xiao 1984:23）

This stage is also a period of vigorous rise and unprecedented prosperity of novel translation. In the early modern times, novel translation was not paid much attention. The first foreign novel translated into China was translated by foreign missionaries and published by the church. It was ''The Pilgrim’s Progress'' by British writer John Buyan, and the translation was published in Xiamen in 1853. During this period, translation activities also had some defects. Due to the popularity of translation, although abridged translation and free translation made the translator more free to express his political ideas, it also caused the disadvantages of breaking away from the original works. The purpose of translation was not to introduce western literature, but to express the translator's own ideas as a political means. At the same time, translation theory was strongly advocated in this period and political utilitarianism have also been greatly strengthened.

====2.3.3 Marked by the Rise of the New Culture Movement====
After the revolution of 1911, people's political enthusiasm was obviously low. In terms of translation, few people paid attention to social, political and economic works, and the number of translated novels was significantly lower than that of creative novels. However, people's literary concept was gradually strengthened. During this period, many translators introduced foreign literature from a literary perspective, bringing a new atmosphere to the translation circle and the history of Chinese literature In the period of the new culture movement, the translator's political and literary ideas were significantly improved, which laid a good foundation for the third wave of Western Chinese book translation starting from the new culture movement.

During this period, first of all, the number of short stories was greatly increased. During this period, new translators preferred to translate short stories. For example, Hu Shi translated ''The Last Lesson'' and Zhou Zuoren also published several short translation novels in the magazine New youth. The short translation novels published during this period also included ''The Leisure Review of Customs'' translated by Lin Shu and Chen Jialin. At this stage, the translator chooses the original work carefully after fully understanding and studying the original author, and describes his own opinions and ideas in the preface and postscript. Unlike in the past, he arbitrarily cuts the original work to express his political ideas, most of them are serious and loyal to the original. During this period, script translation gradually prevailed, and poetry translation appeared a new atmosphere. German poetry began to receive attention, and vernacular poetry began to appear. A new generation of translation practitioners consciously linked the translation of foreign literature with the transformation of Chinese literature and the purpose of the new culture movement. Chinese literary translation and Chinese society have entered a new era. （Wang 1992:321-322）

==3. The Influence of Modern Translation on Social Ideas==
===3.1 Appearance of the Concept of Marriage===
The translation that made an important change in the concept of scholars in the late Qing Dynasty was ''The Legacy of the Camellia'' in Paris translated by Lin Shu. This book describes the ups and downs of the protagonist Mark fate and complex psychological feelings. After the Sino-Japanese War, Lin Shu joined the ranks of reformers. He took a more open attitude towards love, which made Lin's translated novels reflect some changes of the times to a certain extent, implying that modern marriage and love pay attention to color. In Lin Shu's concept, if women want to benefit from freedom of marriage, they must first receive good education, such as Qiu Zhilan as a chivalrous woman, the heroine Qiu Zhilan sneaked into the capital to avenge her father's murder. She met scholar LV Qiushi and fell in love at first sight. She took the initiative to give a keepsake while LV Qiushi was reading at night. Finally, with the help of the blind nun of Shuiyue nunnery, they got married. Qiu Zhilan pursued love independently and persevered, suggesting that women's sense of marriage and love had begun to change under the circumstances at that time, Or the wind of free marriage and love has gradually risen. In Lin Shu's translated novels, Lin Shu points out the rigidity of the orders of parents and the words of matchmakers. He also advocates that women should maintain the beauty of temperament. In Lin Shu, women generally can consciously control their emotions, maintain a certain degree of reserve and gentleness in their behavior, and never do things carelessly. To a certain extent, this reflects the love aesthetics and love trend of the society at that time.（Hu 1916:474）

In the past, the novels of talented women and beauties in ancient China were a special kind of art to express the love concept of the citizen class. In Chinese novels of talented women and beauties, most of the talented people in the books were portrayed as the images of handsome, talented, elegant and noble, and not in line with the times. Second, the highest ideal commonly pursued by scholars at that time was "wedding night, golden list." The happy ending of joys and sorrows can satisfy people's aesthetic taste in the past. In ''The Legacy of the Camellia Woman'' in Paris, It depicts the heroine, who is loyal to her feelings and has a sense of morality, left because of Yameng's career future and family happiness. This self-sacrifice combined with tragic color made the people who have seen the story of talented people and beautiful women for a long time with an unprecedented freshness, which provided a new type of love aesthetics for the people at that time. （Chen 1990:213）

There are also relevant translation works such as ''Better Return'' published during the Meiji period, which is called "the milestone of the theme novel describing women's consciousness in the Meiji period", which describes the content of women's resistance to the oppression of old morality and ethics, and the dramatic work ''Doll's House'', the heroine Nala breaks away from her originally happy family and realizes that she is a neglected individual value. Her home is just a doll's home. It can be inferred that Nora is not the only one. The concepts of marriage and love freedom and women's individual values conveyed in her works since modern times have gradually penetrated into the society, and people have begun to gradually recognize the importance of women’ s rights. （Yuan 1989:178-181）

During the May 4th movement, The Troubles of Young Witt was strongly favored by young Chinese readers at that time for its crazy love passion, very dreamy action, rebellious and independent thought of the society and the protagonist's individualistic thinking method. This book was once regarded as the "Bible" by young men and women at that time As a general cultural phenomenon, the love between Witt and Lvdi made the young people talk about the freedom of marriage and love at that time and take the sacred love between men and women as the ideal. Witt easily reminded people of the talents in the love story at that time. Witt's lovelorn was expressed through strong sadness, which was the best comfort and inspiration for the young people who were eager to escape from the feudal cage at that time. It was a landmark translation that influenced modern Chinese society at that time.（Shi 1989:245）

===3.2 The Emergence of the Concept of Freedom and Equality and the Changes and Manifestations of Social Values===
Feminism is also one of the concepts of freedom and equality. Among the reformers after the failure of the Sino Japanese War of 1894-1895, Lin Shu was one of the first to advocate feminism. This was also mentioned in the previous section when describing the concept of marriage and love. The rise of women's concept of freedom of marriage and love has gradually spread, which implies that women pay attention to their own rights. From the novels translated by Lin Shu, Lin Shu's admiration for women's courage to pursue their love or rights shows that Lin supports and advocates women's rights. Xinxi Gossip deals with the values of money and the concept of social class. The novel expounds the role of money in Europe, which is unheard of by Chinese scholars. For example, the third volume of the novel describes that the British set up marriage halls, that is, intermediaries such as today's marriage agencies, many people who come to the museum are losers, hoping to cheat into marrying rich families, it describes that many people go to parties, but are driven by money worship in an attempt to cheat them into marrying rich people. At the same time, it also describes that money can make an old woman get a young husband, and the young husband aims at the old woman's rich family wealth. In the eyes of the Chinese people at that time, this was not in line with the code of ethics and could not be accepted.（Lu 1981:56）

==Conclusion==
In the transition period of modern China, the social function of translation played an important role, and the subversion was the most prominent in the social function of translation. At that time, China had experienced a long period of inaction towards western culture and regardless of the political and economic state of locking the country, resulting in China's ignorance of the West. However, at this time, the western world has not stopped the translation and introduction of Chinese culture through various channels Understanding. Asymmetric information exchange and translation make China in a passive position when communicating with the West. With the continuous entry of western new ideas and translation into China, values are constantly challenged, and even some extreme culturists try to subvert traditional Chinese culture and social values. The current situation requires China to make progress, and the current situation also forces China to make progress. In this period of mixed internal and external relations and political chaos, translation, as a communication tool, has always led Chinese people of insight in the exploration of saving the nation from subjugation and strengthening the country. （Zhang 1966:5-7）

The changes of modern history and the prominence of modern cultural view are greatly influenced by the input of Western learning. In modern Chinese society under the shock of Western learning civilization, translation makes western learning smoothly enter the Chinese people's political world, cultural undertakings and social life, but the overall westernization is absolutely impossible. In modern times, although Chinese traditional Confucianism has been criticized, even as a cultural pioneer The activists threw the target of political opinions, but middle school can not be reduced. Middle school is also the spiritual belief of Chinese unity since modern times. Lin Shu has always stressed that the traditional ethics revealed by Confucian culture has some eternal value and universal significance. The real Western civilization does not let us abandon middle school and completely replace it with Western learning, but let middle school be a traditional culture The social atmosphere under the coverage is more civilized.

==Reference==
Amos, Flora Ross. (1920). Early Theories of Translation. New York: Columbia University Press.

Benjamin, Andrew. (1989). Translation and the Nature of Philosophy: A New Theory of Words. London and New York: Routledge.

Catford,J.C.(1965) A Linguistic Theory of Translation.New York: Oxford University Press.

Dolet, Etienne. (1540). How to Translate Well from One Language to Another. Robinson.

A Yin 阿英.阿英文集［M］.Collection of A Ying’s Books三联书店, Sanlian Bookstore 1981:741.

Chen Xulu 陈旭麓.陈旭麓学术文存［M］.Chen Xulu Academic Archives上海：上海人民出版社, Shanghai：Shanghai People’s Press 1990:213.

Feng Zhijie 冯志杰.中国近代翻译史 History of Modern Chinese Translation（late Qing dynasty）（晚清卷）[M].北京：九州出版社, Bejing：Kyushu Press 2012:234-235.

Guo Moruo郭沫若.少年时代［M］,The Youth Age 人民文学出版社,People’s Literature Press1979:126.

Hu Shi 胡适.论译书寄陈独秀.胡适学术文集新文学运动［M］.Hu Shi’s Academic anthology New Literature Movement 1916:474.

Lian Yantang 连燕堂.二十世纪翻译文学史[M].History of Translated Literature in the 20th Century 百花文化出版社, Baihua Culture Press 2009:93.

Lu Xun 鲁迅.中国小说史略［M］.A Brief History of Chinese Novels 北京：人民文学出版社,Beijing:People’s Literature Publishing House 1973:125-126.

Lu Xun 鲁迅.文化偏至论［M］On Cultural Deviation （《鲁迅全集》第一卷）.人民文学出版社，People’s Literature Press 1981:56.

Shi Meng 时萌.晚清小说［M］.Novels of the Late Qing Dynasty 上海：上海古籍出版社,Shanghai: Shanghai Ancient Books Press 1989:245.

Shiteng Huixiu 实藤惠秀著，谭汝谦等译.《中国人留学日本史》History of Chinese People Studying in Japan［M］.三联书店, Sanlian Bookstore 1983:216.

Tan Sitong 谭嗣同.谭嗣同全集［M］.Complete Works of Tan Sitong北京：中华书局5 Beijing Zhonghua Book Company 1981.

Wang Xiangrong 汪向荣.中国的近代化与日本［M］.China’s Modernization and Japan湖南人民出版社,Hunan People’s Press1987:23-24.

Wang Lixing 王立兴.中国近代文学考论［M］.A Research on Modern Chinese Literature南京：南京大学出版社,Nanjing：Nanjing University Press1992:321-322.

Xiaotian Qiejin 小田切近著，山人译.日本的名作［M］.Japanese Masterpieces 福建人民出版社,Fujian People’s Press1984:23.

Yuan Jian 袁健，郑荣.晚清小说研究概说［M］.An Overview of Novels in Late Qing Dynasty 天津：天津教育出版社,Tianjin：Tianjin Education Press1989:178-181.

Zou Zhenhuan 邹振环.影响中国近代社会的一百种译作 One Hundred Translations Influential on Modern Chinese Society [M].江苏教育出版社，Jiangsu Education Press 2008: 57-58.

Zhang Hailin 张海林.近代中外文化交流史[M].History of Modern Sino-foreign Cultural Exchanges 南京：南京大学出版社, Nanjing University Press 2003:158.

Zhang Xingniang 张星娘.欧化东渐史［M］.History of Europeanization Spreading to the East 商务印书馆,Commercial Press1934:42.

Zhang Zhenyu 张振玉.译学概论［M］.Introduction to Translation 中台印刷厂,Zhongtai Press1966:5-7.

Zeng Guofan 曾国藩.轮船工竣并陈机器局情形疏.郑振铎编.晚清文选［M］,The Steamship Engineer and Machinery Bureau 上海书店, Shanghai Bookstore 1987影印本：83.

Written by--[[User:Zhong Yifei|Zhong Yifei]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yifei|talk]]) 13:50, 8 December 2021 (UTC)

Hist Trans EN 14

2021-12-14T06:56:03Z

Wei Chuxuan: /* The creativity of translation and the language in translation were paid more attention. */

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=Western Translation History In the Modern and Contemperary Ages=
'''现当代西方翻译史'''

魏楚璇，Wei Chuxuan, Hunan Normal University, China

==Abstract==
Under different historical backgrounds, western translation presents different characteristics. In the 20th century before the end of the Second World War, the two world wars inevitably brought obstacles and disturbances to the development of translation. Therefore, though translation in this period still continued to develop, it did not get breakthrough. Translation was still dominated by literary works in content, totally relying on manual labor. In translation theory, it emphasized the creativity of translation and laid a foundation for the linguistic turn of translation studies. After the end of World War II, the world entered an era of relative peace, the world economy recovered, and the translation industry was greatly revitalized. During this period, the scale of translation covered all aspects of social life, machine translation developed fast, translation training flourished, translation organizations were established in various countries and many translation theories and schools emerged. That is to say, this period can be called the golden age of translation.

==摘要==
在不同的历史背景下，西方翻译呈现出不同的特点。在二战结束之前的二十世纪，两次世界大战不可避免地为翻译事业的发展带来了阻碍和干扰，因而这一时期的翻译虽然仍在发展但并未取得突破性的成就，在翻译的内容上仍然以文学作品为主，技术上完全依赖人工，理论方面注重翻译的创造性且为翻译研究的语言学转向奠定了基础。二战结束后，世界进入到相对和平的年代，世界经济复苏，翻译事业也大为振兴。在这一时期，翻译的内容覆盖社会生活的方方面面，机器翻译发展迅速，翻译培训兴起，翻译组织在各国成立，各种翻译理论和翻译流派涌现，可谓是翻译的黄金年代。

==Keywords==
Western translation; translation history; modern; contemperary

==Introduction==
In this paper, western translation history in modern and contemporary ages will be introduced. Here the modern age refers to the nearly half century before the Second World War. And the contemporary age refers to the half century after the Second World War. That is to say, the modern and contemporary translation in this paper refers to the translation in the 20th century. Under the influence of different historical backgrounds, translation in these two ages showed different characteristics and traits which will be concluded and discussed in detail in the following.

==The General Situation of Translation in the Modern Age==
Into the 20th century, the capitalism in the developed countries developed into imperialism. On the one hand, the imperialist countries intensified their foreign expansion to oppress and exploit the weak countries and people in colony. On the other hand, they were engaged in a fierce battle among themselves for international markets and spheres of influence. Thus, in less than half a century, two world wars broke out. Under this historical background, translation in western countries will inevitably be seriously disturbed and destroyed. However, translation in western countries continued to develop and excellent translations still appeared from time to time. The translation of this period also has its own traits. The general situation of translation in this period can be summarized from the following two aspects.

===The emphasis of translation was on Russian and Nordic works and more Chinese works were translated.===
From the end of the 19th century to the beginning of the 20th century, the literature of Russia and the Nordic countries developed greatly with the emergence of Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoyevsky, Leo Tolstoy, Chekhov, Andersen, Ibsen, Strindberg and other world-renowned great writers and dramatists. Their works had attracted the attention of the people in Western Europe and North America so they were competing to learn Russian, Danish and Swedish and had these works translated into English, German and French. In the process of translation, many excellent translators emerged in various countries.
====Translation of Russian literature====
According to the research of Tan Zaixi, Constance Garnet is the most famous female translator in Britain in this century. She translated almost all classic Russian novels and is widely regarded as the most important Translator of translating Russian literature into English. She published her first translation of Turgenev's novel Ru-Din in 1894. In the following decades, she devoted almost all her energy and time to the translation of Russian literature. She was the first person to translate Turgenev, Dostoyevsky and Chekhov into English, successively translating all the major works of Turgenev, Goncharov, Dostoyevsky, Tolstoy, Gogol and Chekhov including 12 volumes of Dostoyevsky's Selected Works translated from 1912 to 1920, 15 volumes of Turgenev's Selected Works translated from 1894 to 1899, 15 volumes of Chekhov's Novels and Plays translated from 1916 to 1922, and 6 volumes of Gogol’s Selected Works translated from 1922 to 1928. In particular, her translations of Turgenev, Chekhov, Dostoyevsky and other works were widely welcomed by the English reading community, and thus gave rise to the Russian literature craze in English literature before the First World War. She translated 70 Russian works in her lifetime, making her the most prolific translator of Russian works.
Two other translators who did not translate as much from Russian to English as Garnett, but who had no less influence, were the couple——Louise and Aylmer Maude. They are famous in western modern literary circles for their research and translation of Tolstoy's works. From 1928 to 1937, they spent nearly ten years translating and publishing 21 volumes of The Complete Works of Tolstoy. Later, from 1940s to 1950s, they supplemented or retranslated some of Tolstoy's works, such as What I Believe and Resurrection. In 1952, their work of War and Peace was accepted as a standard English translation and was selected for the prestigious Great Books of the Western World, thus establishing them as the authoritative English translators of Tolstoy. In addition, R. S. Townsend, R. Edmonds, Samuel Koteliansky, Ethel C. Mayne, Boris Brasol, Richard Renfield and so on were famous for translating the works of Tolstoy, Dostoevsky, Turgenev, Chekhov, Goncharov into English.（Tan，2004:148-150）

====Translation of Nordic literature and drama====
In the first half of the 20th century, in addition to Russian literature, western European translators showed great interest in Nordic literature and drama, including the works of Andersen, Ibsen and Strindberg.

According to the study of Tan Zaixi, when Hans Christian Andersen was alive, one of his works was published simultaneously in 15 languages, including English, German, French, Italian, Spanish and almost all the major languages of Western Europe. Later, all of his works were translated into different languages, and there were many re-translations in English, French, German and other countries. The first English translator was Mary Howitt, who began translating Andersen’s fairy tales in 1846. Later translators include Charles Boner, Caroline Peachey, Lady Duff Gordon, Paul Leyssac, R. R. Keigwin and R. Spink. Some of the best translations are Leyssac’s translation in 1937, Keigwin’s translation from 1950 to 1960 and Spink’s translation.(Tan，2004:151)

The main English translators of Ibsen’s plays are William Archer and James MacFarlane. Archer translated 12 volumes of The Collected Works of H. I. from 1906 to 1912, including almost all of Ibsen’s plays and some of his previously unpublished papers. Macfarlane compiled translated eight volumes of The Oxford Ibsen from 1960 to 1977. In addition, F. E. Garrett translated Lyrics and Poems from Ibsen in 1912. Mary Morison translated The Correspondence of H.I. in 1905. Evert Sprinchorn translated H. I. Letters and Speeches in 1964. (Tan，2004:151)

In Germany, the standard German translation is the 10-volume The Collected Plays of Ibsen edited and published by G. Brandes, J. Elias, and P. Schlenther from 1898 to 1902. The standard French translation is The Complete Works of Ibsen in 16 volumes translated and published by P. G. La Chesnais from 1914 to 1945.(Tan，2004:151)

Strindberg’s work was translated into English as early as 1912. For the next fifty or sixty years, many people worked on Strindberg’s studies and translations. Major English translators included E. Schleussner, Walter Johnson, M. Sandbach, Elizabeth Sprigge and Michael Meyer. Some good works are Sprigge’s translations of Strinberg’s Plays in 1963 and Meyer’s translations of The Father, Miss Julie, Storm and so on in 1964. In other major western European countries such as Germany and France, Strindberg’s plays were also translated into German and French, and repeatedly staged in Berlin and Paris. (Tan，2004:152)

There is no doubt that the translation of modern and contemporary Russian and Nordic literature and drama was a mainstream of western translation in the first half of the century. However, at the same time, it must be pointed out that the mutual translation of modern and contemporary literary works in western European countries still enjoys considerable momentum.

====More and more Chinese works were translated.====
In the 20th century, more and more people in the West became interested in Chinese culture. Since the 1950s, with the improvement of new China’s international prestige, the fever of translating Chinese works had been constantly appearing in the West. Not only the Four Books, Five Classics, Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Water Margin, Journey to the West, A Dream of Red Mansions and the poems of Li Bai, Du Fu and Bai Juyi were translated into English, German and French, but modern writers such as Luxun, Maodun and Bajin were also introduced to western countries. In the process of translating and introducing Chinese works, excellent translators have emerged from every country.

According to the study of Tan Zaixi, Arthur Waley, the most eminent Sinologist in Britain in the 20th century, was a translator, writer and poet. In 1916, his first translation of Chinese Poems was published. In 1918, he published his second translated work One Hundred Seventy Chinese Poems. These two translations are both from Tang poems. In addition, he also translated part of Journey to the West in 1942, published four other Chinese-English translations, and wrote three books about China or Chinese writers. Another outstanding Sinologist and translator in the 20th century was Franz Kuhn of Germany. From 1919, when his first translation was published, to his death in 1961, he translated and published more than 40 classical and modern Chinese literary works, including 12 novels and 34 short stories. In particular, his translation of The Fortunate Union in 1926, Second Bloom in 1927, The Golden Lotus in 1930, A Dream of Red Mansions in 1932, Water Margin in 1934, Jade Dragonfly in 1936, Romance of the Three Kingdoms in 1940, Midnight and other works from 1940 to 1955, were well received by German readers.（Tan,2004:153-156）

===The creativity of translation and the language in translation were paid more attention.===
In the aspect of translation theory, scholars had deeply reflected on the traditional translation theory, especially questioned the universality of language, and proposed that when the meaning of the original text becomes obscure and difficult to understand, translators must fill in the gaps of the text according to their own experience. Therefore, translation theories of this period paid more attention to the creativity of translation and the language problems in translation. Although they did not separate themselves from the discussion of translation techniques such as word selection and sentence construction, they laid a foundation for the linguistic turn of translation studies and provided theoretical thinking for the translation literature as an independent existence. And about the specific translation theories in different countries in this period, Xie Tianzhen made a brief summary.

J. P. Postgate is a famous Translation theorist in Britain, and he put forward prospective translation and retrospective translation. Prospective translation means that the translator always keeps the reader in mind and adopts free methods and common expressions to ensure that the original ideas of the reader are not affected and their prediction is not interfered with. The purpose of translation is to show the translator’s mastery of the target language, focusing on the target language rather than the original one. Retrospective translation means that the translator always looks at the original author, because the purpose of translation is to impart knowledge of the original text, rather than to look ahead and consider the reader of the translation.（Xie，2011:29）

French scholar J. Marouzeau’s "On Translation of Latin" is an important translation literature in French. He believed that translation is a skill in which the translator should reveal to the reader the content of the original work, rather than its shell, using a living language.（Xie，2011:29）

German thinker Walter Benjamin pointed out that although the translation is based on the original, it is the afterlife of the original work and the translation need not pursue the same meaning as the original work. Mediocre translators pay more attention to the meaning of the original work than to its literariness and language style and they only know that the translation exists to serve the original work and can only translate the non-essential content of the original work. (Xie，2008:319-332) The translator’s task is to use his own language to release the pure language trapped by another language, that is, to liberate the imprisoned language in the re-creation of the original text. Edwin Gentzler, a contemporary American translation theorist, believed that the discussion of translation issues among Anglo-American deconstructionists mainly revolves around comments on Benjamin’s Translator’s Task. (Gentzler, 2004:173-174.) Therefore, Translator’s Task is regarded as the “Bible” of translation theory and the classic of deconstructive translation theory.（Xie，2011:30）

The Russian scholar Mikhail Vasilievich Lemonosov transformed the loanwords that entered the Russian language, russified them, and regarded translation as a creative activity. And this view of free translation lasted until the 19th century. Aleksandr Pushkin, the greatest Russian poet in the 19th century, based on his literary translation practice, proposed that translators should have their own opinions on the selection of materials and should have full freedom in dealing with the original work, but the uniqueness of the original work should be preserved as much as possible.（Xie，2011:30）

==The General Situation of Translation in the Contemporary Age==
After the Second World War, the world entered a period of relative peace. After the trauma of the war, the Western countries regrouped and began to restore and develop production and economy in an all-round way. Translation cause also entered a new period of development at extremely rapid pace, taking on a new look. During this period, not only in the Soviet Union, Britain, Germany, France and other major European countries, but also in the United States, Canada, the cause of translation showed a prosperous scene. In terms of the whole western translation career, the translation after the Second World War was unmatched in scope, form, scale and achievement. Therefore, the 20th century could be called as "the age of translation" , which in fact mainly referred to the decades since the end of the war. Though great achievement was also made in literary translation in this period, the 20th century is known as the "age of translation" mainly because western translation expanded into various fields during this period, which has five characteristics.

===The scale of translation extended to the field of business, diplomacy, science and many other professional affairs.===
Since the end of the Second World War, due to practical needs, commercial, diplomatic, scientific and technological translation had flourished, and its momentum even exceeded literary translation, thus forming a major content of the development of modern western translation.Here is the research of Tan Zaixi about the scale of translation.

In 1945, the United Nations was established with English, French, Russian, Chinese and Spanish as the five official and working languages. In 1957, the European Community was founded, consisting of six countries at that time. In 1993, the European Community developed into the European Union. By 2004, it had 25 member states, using nine languages including English, French, German, Italy, Denmark, Ireland, Greece, Spain and Portugal. That is to say, translation had become an indispensable part of daily work, both for communicating with countries in other regions and among western countries. According to UNESCO, the number of translations in the world increased four-and-a-half times from 1948 to 1970. The institutions of the European Common Market employed more than 1,300 employees to deal with translation, of whom 450 were full-time interpreters, 550 translators and others were freelance employees on short-term contracts. (Tan,2004:160-161)

===Translation teaching was widespread.===
In the past, translation was mainly the work of a few literary magnates. With the establishment of the United Nations and its specialized agencies, as well as the establishment of international institutions such as the European Common Market (EC, EU) and the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, the need for translators was increasing. To meet this need, a number of schools specializing in training translators had been set up.

According to the study of Tan Zaixi, the most prominent schools are the High School of Translation at the Third University of Paris and the School of Translation at the University of Ottawa. What’s more, many universities in Europe and the United States also offer translation classes or courses in senior grades.（Tan, 2004:161-162）

===Translators’associations were established and publications on translation studies were launched.===
Translators in different countries set up various translation associations and publications. These associations played an important role in the development of translation through their activities and publications.

According to Tan Zaixi, translation associations or federations in European and American capitalist countries, in particular, generally emphasize the following principles: to clarify the legal status of translators through legislative means; to take effective measures to protect the legal rights of translators (especially the copyright that translators should enjoy); to improve their social status and increase their economic income; to improve the learning and working conditions of translators to provide them with opportunities to constantly improve their translation skills and a good working environment.（Tan，2004:162）

There were more translators’ organizations in the United States than in other western countries, with a total of 30, among which the most influential were the American Society of Translators, the American Federation of Linguists and the Literary Society of America. The journal of the American Society of Translators was ATA Chronicle. The journal of the Literary Society of America was Translation Review.（Tan，2004:162-163）

In Canada, major translation associations included the Canadian Council of Translators and Interpreters, the Ontario Association of Translators and Interpreters, the Business Language Centre, and the Quebec Translation Association. The Ontario Association of Translators and Interpreters founded the journal of Inform ATIO. The most influential professional translation magazine in Canada was Meta: Journal des Traducteurs.（Tan，2004:164）

In Britain, major translation associations included the Association of Translation Companies of Great Britain, the Association of Translators and the Guild of Translators, of which the Guild of Translators was the most famous. The official publication of the guild is The Incorporated Linguist, which was published in 1962 and enjoyed high reputation in Britain.（Tan，2004:164)

There were two major translation associations in France: the Association of French Translators and the Association of French Literary Translators. There were also two major translation associations in West Germany, one was the Association of Federation Translators and Interpreters and the other was the German-speaking World Federation of Literary and Technical Translators. In addition, Austria, Italy, Spain, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, Finland, Belgium and other Western European countries also had local or national translation organizations and a variety of translation publications.（Tan，2004:164-165）

===Machine translation developed.===
In the process of more than two thousand years of development, the traditional translation method had not undergone substantial changes in technology, and the translation between the two languages still had to be carried out by hand. However, due to the increasingly frequent international scientific and cultural exchanges, manual translation could no longer timely meet the needs. Therefore, when the traditional manual translation was facing the challenge of the times, machine translation should be born. In 1946, under the auspices of the United States Army headquarters, J.P. Eckert and J.W. Mauchly who were both from the University of Pennsylvania developed the world’s first electronic computer named: Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator, or ENIAC for short. Computer’s astonishing speed inspired people to consider the innovation of translation technology. Therefore, in the same year, Andrew Booth and Warren Weaver first proposed the use of computers in the machine translation system. Since then, machine translation and machine translation research, driven by modern electronic computing technology officially began.American science, especially the development of computer science, to a large extent affected the development of computer science in the whole West and even the world. Therefore, especially in the pioneering period, the development history and model of Machine translation in America can almost be regarded as those in the whole West. In this sense, the development of machine translation in the west (and even the world) can be roughly divided into the following five major periods, just like the development of Machine translation in the United States: initial stage; high stage; low stage; recovery stage; vigorous stage. The following is a further overview of the five development periods of machine translation in the West (mainly in the United States) made by Tan Zaixi who referred to the books of Yang Muyun, Li Zhisheng，Yu Hao, Zhao Tiejun and so on.

====Initial stage (1946—1954)====
The pioneering period begins with Booth and Weaver’s idea of translating natural language by computer in 1954, and ends with the birth of the first machine translation system. After the idea of using computers to translate was put forward, although there was great resistance in the United States at first, the voice supporting it was mainstream. In particular, Weaver published a memorandum on machine translation in 1949, which not only opened up a series of research topics on machine translation in the United States, but also had a wide influence in western countries. The memo makes four basic points: the problem of polysemy can be solved by context; there is a logical basis in language; there are basic probabilities in language application; there are common elements in different languages. These are still the fundamental of the development of machine translation. In the following years, machine translation research had been actively carried out in some universities and organizations in the United States and Britain. In Massachusetts Institute of Technology, the first full-time machine translation researcher Bar-Hillel arrived, he made a great contribution to the early development of machine translation and put forward the main problems and basic strategies needed to be solved in machine translation research. The first machine translation conference was held at MIT in June 1952, after which machine translation research in the United States began to accelerate. In 1954, a machine translation system for computer was developed and demonstrated. Although the machine translation system was small, consisting of only 250 Russian words, six grammar rules, and a few translation examples, it first showed the public and the scientific community the feasibility of machine translation, inspiring substantial funding from U.S. government for machine translation research over the next decade.（Tan，2004:167-168）

====High-tide stage(1954—1966)====
The successful demonstration of the world’s first machine translation system, the Georgetown-IBM system of United States, marked the first development climax of machine translation. The upsurge began in 1954 and lasted for 12 years. In the mid-1950s, inspired by successful demonstration of machine translation system, dozens of universities, companies, and government agencies in the United States began machine translation research programs. On the one hand, due to the competition between the United States and the Soviet Union at that time, the United States military, the National Science Foundation, the Central Intelligence Agency and so on needed to acquire a large amount of scientific and technological information of the Soviet Union, so that they invested a lot in machine translation, especially Russian-English translation. On the other hand, advanced computers in the United States provided good equipment for the development of the first generation of machine translation system. At the same time, many universities and institutions in most European countries had also carried out machine translation research.（Tan，2004:168-170）

====Low-tide stage (1966—1975)====
The advent of machine translation had opened up a new way for traditional translation research and practice. However, the complexity of machine translation was underestimated at that time and the design of machine translation system was often too rough and simple. In this case, the first generation of machine translation systems in the initial stage could not achieve ideal results, the quality of translation is often poor, so that some people gradually lost confidence in machine translation research, and some scholars also became pessimistic and disappointed. （Tan，2004:170）

In the mid-1960s, machine translation in the United States had suffered a severe blow. In 1966, the Automatic Language Processing Advisory Committee, part of the National Academy of Sciences, was asked to investigate machine translation research funded by government. The committee published its report, Language and Machines, after analyzing the speed, quality, cost and demand of machine translation at that time. The report pointed out that the quality of machine translation is significantly lower than that of human translation and asserted that there was no likelihood of any commercially useful machine translation system in the foreseeable future. On the committee’s recommendation, the U.S. government withdrew the funding for machine translation research. Thus, machine translation research in the United States plummeted from a high point to a low point of development. It should be noted, however, that machine translation research and development was not in a complete demise, following the official denials in the United States. Scholars and research institutions in many countries including the United States continued to carry out researches and experiments on machine translation under relatively difficult circumstances.（Tan，2004:171）

====Recovery stage(1975—1989)====
In the middle of 1970s, with the emergence of new theories and ideas in the field of linguistics and the further development of computational linguistics, the research of machine translation was aroused in the world again. After ten years of silence, machine translation research stepped on the road of recovery. The recovery period of machine translation research and development is generally considered to date from the installation of the SYSTRAN system by EURATOM and the completion of the TAUM-METEO system by the University of Montreal in Canada.（Tan，2004:171-174）

====Vigorous stage（1989—）====
Since the late 1980s, some new developments had changed the field of machine translation, marking machine translation research enter a new period. This is the emergence of the third generation of machine translation method that is corpus-based. Corpus-based machine translation systems include statistic-based translation and example-based translation, both of which are based on large-scale real text. （Tan，2004:167-175）

Practice has proved that machine translation has great vitality. It is a new science, and its research and translation have entered a new stage of development. No matter whether it can replace the human brain and hands eventually and completely liberate human from the heavy artificial translation, it will develop and exist for a long time. Both in theory and practice, machine translation and its research will exert more and more influence on traditional translation and its research.

===Translation theories of different schools were emerging one after another.===
The most important feature of modern western translation is the rapid development of translation theory. After the Second World War, with the vigorous development of science and technology, modern linguistics, translation activities and the rise of machine translation, people gradually changed the traditional view of translation studies, believing that translation is not only an art or skill, but also a science with rules to follow.

On the whole, the development of contemporary translation theory has two characteristics :(1) theoretical research has been brought into the scope of linguistics, under the influence of modern linguistics and information theory; (2) the traditional situation of non-communication between theorists has been broken. Translation theorists fully express their views through various channels, such as published works.(Xie, 2011:32)

After the Second World War, with the modernization and integration of western social and economic development, western translation theories also began to enter a new period that transcends national boundaries. Therefore, it is difficult to classify some translation thoughts and some translation theorists in a narrow sense as belonging to a certain country or a certain place. It is acceptable to divide contemporary western translation theories into different schools according to their basic approaches and methods of translation studies or the basic characteristics of thought. Here is a brief introduction to some influential schools classified by Zhao Jiajin.

====American Translation Training School====
First established in 1964 at the University of Iowa, this school focused on translation practice, emphasized the literary taste and value of works, and adopted the methods of L. A. Richards and Williard V. Quine of Harvard University. Representative figures included poet and translator Ezra Pound, who translated Tang poetry and advocated the accurate restoration of details, words, fragments and the whole image description. Frederic Will of the University of Iowa, drawing on his training experience, regarded translation as a form of naming, fiction writing and cognition. Yale’s Jonas Zdnys argued that translation is an activity of subjective thought designed to explain literature. This school explores the role of the human mind in translation and raises the question of the nature of translation, but translation theory was limited to aesthetic experience and prescriptive translation rules.

====Translation Science School====
It was also known as “linguistic school”. According to this school, translation is the process of reproducing language as a whole, and it aims to correctly convey the original information to readers. The school was founded by Eugene Nida, whose masterpieces include Message and Mission (1960) and Toward Science of Translation (1946). Nida proposed functional equivalence theory according to Noam Chomsky’s transformational generative grammar and his experience in Bible translation, that is, to digest the original text and understand its basic structure and meaning; convey meaning based on basic structure; obtain semantic and stylistic equivalence with the original text. Thus the translation process can be summarized as: analyze—transfer—restructure, these three steps. The school of Translation science adopted linguistic theory and the more objective description method in translation theory. In the late 1970s, emphasis was placed on the cultural background of the information age, but the research was still limited to prescriptive research and translation criteria, ignoring the role of translators’thinking.（Zhao,1996: 46）

====Translation school====
It is the so-called “literary school”. This school held that the original work is the unity of sentence series and article structure, and the translator is influenced by the original view and the future model of translation in the process of translation. The founder of this school was James Holmes, an American poet, who taught translation at the University of Amsterdam in the Netherlands before his death. His representative work is The Name and Nature of Translation Studies(1972).（Zhao,1996: 46）

====Polysystem School====
Its founders are Itammar Even-Zohar and Gideon Toury of Tel Aviv University in Israel. Even coined the term Polysystem to explore the relationship between translated works and literary systems, and explained that the oriented culture of translation not only determines whether a work can be translated, but also regulates the wording. Toury held that translation belongs to the second system of multiple systems, and its role depends on the strength and development stage of the oriented culture of translation. He held that translation has no fixed identity and has multiple identities due to its social, literary and historical background. This school integrates translation studies with literary studies, social and economic factors, endows translation studies with historical significance, but it is still limited to the acceptability of translation and does not get rid of the fetters of cultural equivalence.（Zhao,1996: 46）

====Deconstruction School====
It is also known as “affirmative productivity school”. It originated in France in the mid-1960s and is represented by Michel Foucault, Martin Heidegger and Jacques Derrida. This school introduced deconstruction into translation, claiming that translators create the subject and the target language is a new language. As Foucault put it, the original work is constantly rewritten in the process of translation, and the translator rewrites the original work every time he reads and translates it. Deconstruction studies the nature and process of translation and language, and advocates that translators exist as entities. The school even goes so far as to believe that language does not involve any objective reality, and translators have their own status only when they create texts.（Zhao,1996:46-47）

==Conclusion==
Under the influence of historical backgrounds, different periods of translation show different traits. In the modern period, the content of translation still focused on literature which included works form Russian, Nordic countries, China and so on. The way of translation was artificial and traditional. With the progress of economy and science, translation in the contemporary period also got great development. The content of translation was not confined to the field of literature. Instead, translation of science and technology, commerce, entertainment and so on became a major part of the actual translation activities. In addition, machine translation as a novel technique developed quickly. And the most important feature of modern western translation is the rapid development of translation theory thanks to many translator associations and publications on translation studies. Nowadays, under the influence of globalization, translation shows more and more importance and get better development environment.

==References==

Barnstone，Willis(1993). The Poetics of Trunslation: History, Theory, Practice[M]. New Haven:Yale University Press.

Bates, Ernest Stuart(1936). Modern Translation[M]. London: Oxford University Press.

Catford, John(1965). A Linguistic Theory of Translation: An Essay in Applied Linguistics[M].Oxford and London: Oxford University Press.

Delisle, Jean(1995). Translation: An Interpretive Approach[M]. Ottawa: University of Ottawa Press.

Feng Zhiwei 冯志伟(1994).《自然语言机器翻译新论》[M] New Theories of Machine Translation of Natural Language.北京:语文出版社Beijing: Chinese Press.

FitzMaurice-Kelly, J(1911). "Translation"[J]. Encyclopedia Britannica (11th edition, Cambridge),27:183-188.

Gentzler, Edwin(2004). Contemporary Translation Theories[M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

Hutchins，Robert(1952). Great Books of the Western World[M]. Chicago: Encyclopaedia .Britannica Ltd.

Mu Yunyang,Li Zhisheng,Yu Hao杨沐昀、李志升、于浩(2000).《机器翻译系统》[M]Machine Translation System.哈尔滨：哈尔滨工业大学出版社Harbin: Harbin University of Technology Press.

Tan Zaixi谭载喜(2004).西方翻译简史[M]A Brief History of Western Translation.北京：商务印书馆Beijing:The Commercial Press.

Tan Zaixi谭载喜(1985).西方翻译史浅谈[J]On the History of Western Translation.中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal,7:36-39.

Xie Tianzhen谢天振(2008).《当代国外翻译理论导读》[M]Introduction to Contemporary Foreign Translation Theories.天津：南开大学出版社Tianjin：Nankai University Press.

Xie Tianzhen谢天振(2011).中西翻译简史[M]A Brief History of Chinese and Western Translation.北京:外语教学与研究出版社Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.

Zhao Jiajin赵家琎(1996).当代翻译学派简介[J]A Brief Introduction to Contemporary Translation Schools.中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal,5：46—47.

Zhao Tiejun赵铁军等(2001).《机器翻译原理》[M]Principles of Machine Translation.哈尔滨：哈尔滨工业大学出版社Harbin: Harbin University of Technology Press.

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Wei Chuxuan: /* Translation theories of different schools were emerging one after another. */

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=Western Translation History In the Modern and Contemperary Ages=
'''现当代西方翻译史'''

魏楚璇，Wei Chuxuan, Hunan Normal University, China

==Abstract==
Under different historical backgrounds, western translation presents different characteristics. In the 20th century before the end of the Second World War, the two world wars inevitably brought obstacles and disturbances to the development of translation. Therefore, though translation in this period still continued to develop, it did not get breakthrough. Translation was still dominated by literary works in content, totally relying on manual labor. In translation theory, it emphasized the creativity of translation and laid a foundation for the linguistic turn of translation studies. After the end of World War II, the world entered an era of relative peace, the world economy recovered, and the translation industry was greatly revitalized. During this period, the scale of translation covered all aspects of social life, machine translation developed fast, translation training flourished, translation organizations were established in various countries and many translation theories and schools emerged. That is to say, this period can be called the golden age of translation.

==摘要==
在不同的历史背景下，西方翻译呈现出不同的特点。在二战结束之前的二十世纪，两次世界大战不可避免地为翻译事业的发展带来了阻碍和干扰，因而这一时期的翻译虽然仍在发展但并未取得突破性的成就，在翻译的内容上仍然以文学作品为主，技术上完全依赖人工，理论方面注重翻译的创造性且为翻译研究的语言学转向奠定了基础。二战结束后，世界进入到相对和平的年代，世界经济复苏，翻译事业也大为振兴。在这一时期，翻译的内容覆盖社会生活的方方面面，机器翻译发展迅速，翻译培训兴起，翻译组织在各国成立，各种翻译理论和翻译流派涌现，可谓是翻译的黄金年代。

==Keywords==
Western translation; translation history; modern; contemperary

==Introduction==
In this paper, western translation history in modern and contemporary ages will be introduced. Here the modern age refers to the nearly half century before the Second World War. And the contemporary age refers to the half century after the Second World War. That is to say, the modern and contemporary translation in this paper refers to the translation in the 20th century. Under the influence of different historical backgrounds, translation in these two ages showed different characteristics and traits which will be concluded and discussed in detail in the following.

==The General Situation of Translation in the Modern Age==
Into the 20th century, the capitalism in the developed countries developed into imperialism. On the one hand, the imperialist countries intensified their foreign expansion to oppress and exploit the weak countries and people in colony. On the other hand, they were engaged in a fierce battle among themselves for international markets and spheres of influence. Thus, in less than half a century, two world wars broke out. Under this historical background, translation in western countries will inevitably be seriously disturbed and destroyed. However, translation in western countries continued to develop and excellent translations still appeared from time to time. The translation of this period also has its own traits. The general situation of translation in this period can be summarized from the following two aspects.

===The emphasis of translation was on Russian and Nordic works and more Chinese works were translated.===
From the end of the 19th century to the beginning of the 20th century, the literature of Russia and the Nordic countries developed greatly with the emergence of Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoyevsky, Leo Tolstoy, Chekhov, Andersen, Ibsen, Strindberg and other world-renowned great writers and dramatists. Their works had attracted the attention of the people in Western Europe and North America so they were competing to learn Russian, Danish and Swedish and had these works translated into English, German and French. In the process of translation, many excellent translators emerged in various countries.
====Translation of Russian literature====
According to the research of Tan Zaixi, Constance Garnet is the most famous female translator in Britain in this century. She translated almost all classic Russian novels and is widely regarded as the most important Translator of translating Russian literature into English. She published her first translation of Turgenev's novel Ru-Din in 1894. In the following decades, she devoted almost all her energy and time to the translation of Russian literature. She was the first person to translate Turgenev, Dostoyevsky and Chekhov into English, successively translating all the major works of Turgenev, Goncharov, Dostoyevsky, Tolstoy, Gogol and Chekhov including 12 volumes of Dostoyevsky's Selected Works translated from 1912 to 1920, 15 volumes of Turgenev's Selected Works translated from 1894 to 1899, 15 volumes of Chekhov's Novels and Plays translated from 1916 to 1922, and 6 volumes of Gogol’s Selected Works translated from 1922 to 1928. In particular, her translations of Turgenev, Chekhov, Dostoyevsky and other works were widely welcomed by the English reading community, and thus gave rise to the Russian literature craze in English literature before the First World War. She translated 70 Russian works in her lifetime, making her the most prolific translator of Russian works.
Two other translators who did not translate as much from Russian to English as Garnett, but who had no less influence, were the couple——Louise and Aylmer Maude. They are famous in western modern literary circles for their research and translation of Tolstoy's works. From 1928 to 1937, they spent nearly ten years translating and publishing 21 volumes of The Complete Works of Tolstoy. Later, from 1940s to 1950s, they supplemented or retranslated some of Tolstoy's works, such as What I Believe and Resurrection. In 1952, their work of War and Peace was accepted as a standard English translation and was selected for the prestigious Great Books of the Western World, thus establishing them as the authoritative English translators of Tolstoy. In addition, R. S. Townsend, R. Edmonds, Samuel Koteliansky, Ethel C. Mayne, Boris Brasol, Richard Renfield and so on were famous for translating the works of Tolstoy, Dostoevsky, Turgenev, Chekhov, Goncharov into English.（Tan，2004:148-150）

====Translation of Nordic literature and drama====
In the first half of the 20th century, in addition to Russian literature, western European translators showed great interest in Nordic literature and drama, including the works of Andersen, Ibsen and Strindberg.

According to the study of Tan Zaixi, when Hans Christian Andersen was alive, one of his works was published simultaneously in 15 languages, including English, German, French, Italian, Spanish and almost all the major languages of Western Europe. Later, all of his works were translated into different languages, and there were many re-translations in English, French, German and other countries. The first English translator was Mary Howitt, who began translating Andersen’s fairy tales in 1846. Later translators include Charles Boner, Caroline Peachey, Lady Duff Gordon, Paul Leyssac, R. R. Keigwin and R. Spink. Some of the best translations are Leyssac’s translation in 1937, Keigwin’s translation from 1950 to 1960 and Spink’s translation.(Tan，2004:151)

The main English translators of Ibsen’s plays are William Archer and James MacFarlane. Archer translated 12 volumes of The Collected Works of H. I. from 1906 to 1912, including almost all of Ibsen’s plays and some of his previously unpublished papers. Macfarlane compiled translated eight volumes of The Oxford Ibsen from 1960 to 1977. In addition, F. E. Garrett translated Lyrics and Poems from Ibsen in 1912. Mary Morison translated The Correspondence of H.I. in 1905. Evert Sprinchorn translated H. I. Letters and Speeches in 1964. (Tan，2004:151)

In Germany, the standard German translation is the 10-volume The Collected Plays of Ibsen edited and published by G. Brandes, J. Elias, and P. Schlenther from 1898 to 1902. The standard French translation is The Complete Works of Ibsen in 16 volumes translated and published by P. G. La Chesnais from 1914 to 1945.(Tan，2004:151)

Strindberg’s work was translated into English as early as 1912. For the next fifty or sixty years, many people worked on Strindberg’s studies and translations. Major English translators included E. Schleussner, Walter Johnson, M. Sandbach, Elizabeth Sprigge and Michael Meyer. Some good works are Sprigge’s translations of Strinberg’s Plays in 1963 and Meyer’s translations of The Father, Miss Julie, Storm and so on in 1964. In other major western European countries such as Germany and France, Strindberg’s plays were also translated into German and French, and repeatedly staged in Berlin and Paris. (Tan，2004:152)

There is no doubt that the translation of modern and contemporary Russian and Nordic literature and drama was a mainstream of western translation in the first half of the century. However, at the same time, it must be pointed out that the mutual translation of modern and contemporary literary works in western European countries still enjoys considerable momentum.

====More and more Chinese works were translated.====
In the 20th century, more and more people in the West became interested in Chinese culture. Since the 1950s, with the improvement of new China’s international prestige, the fever of translating Chinese works had been constantly appearing in the West. Not only the Four Books, Five Classics, Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Water Margin, Journey to the West, A Dream of Red Mansions and the poems of Li Bai, Du Fu and Bai Juyi were translated into English, German and French, but modern writers such as Luxun, Maodun and Bajin were also introduced to western countries. In the process of translating and introducing Chinese works, excellent translators have emerged from every country.

According to the study of Tan Zaixi, Arthur Waley, the most eminent Sinologist in Britain in the 20th century, was a translator, writer and poet. In 1916, his first translation of Chinese Poems was published. In 1918, he published his second translated work One Hundred Seventy Chinese Poems. These two translations are both from Tang poems. In addition, he also translated part of Journey to the West in 1942, published four other Chinese-English translations, and wrote three books about China or Chinese writers. Another outstanding Sinologist and translator in the 20th century was Franz Kuhn of Germany. From 1919, when his first translation was published, to his death in 1961, he translated and published more than 40 classical and modern Chinese literary works, including 12 novels and 34 short stories. In particular, his translation of The Fortunate Union in 1926, Second Bloom in 1927, The Golden Lotus in 1930, A Dream of Red Mansions in 1932, Water Margin in 1934, Jade Dragonfly in 1936, Romance of the Three Kingdoms in 1940, Midnight and other works from 1940 to 1955, were well received by German readers.（Tan,2004:153-156）

===The creativity of translation and the language in translation were paid more attention.===
In the aspect of translation theory, scholars had deeply reflected on the traditional translation theory, especially questioned the universality of language, and proposed that when the meaning of the original text becomes obscure and difficult to understand, translators must fill in the gaps of the text according to their own experience. Therefore, translation theories of this period paid more attention to the creativity of translation and the language problems in translation. Although they did not separate themselves from the discussion of translation techniques such as word selection and sentence construction, they laid a foundation for the linguistic turn of translation studies and provided theoretical thinking for the translation literature as an independent existence. And about the specific translation theories in different countries in this period, Xie Tianzhen made a brief summary.

J. P. Postgate is a famous Translation theorist in Britain, and he put forward prospective translation and retrospective translation. Prospective translation means that the translator always keeps the reader in mind and adopts free methods and common expressions to ensure that the original ideas of the reader are not affected and their prediction is not interfered with. The purpose of translation is to show the translator’s mastery of the target language, focusing on the target language rather than the original one. Retrospective translation means that the translator always looks at the original author, because the purpose of translation is to impart knowledge of the original text, rather than to look ahead and consider the reader of the translation.（Xie，2011:29）

French scholar J. Marouzeau’s "On Translation of Latin" is an important translation literature in French. He believed that translation is a skill in which the translator should reveal to the reader the content of the original work, rather than its shell, using a living language.（Xie，2011:29）

German thinker Walter Benjamin pointed out that although the translation is based on the original, it is the afterlife of the original work and the translation need not pursue the same meaning as the original work. Mediocre translators pay more attention to the meaning of the original work than to its literariness and language style and they only know that the translation exists to serve the original work and can only translate the non-essential content of the original work. (Xie Tianzhen，2008:319-332) The translator’s task is to use his own language to release the pure language trapped by another language, that is, to liberate the imprisoned language in the re-creation of the original text. Edwin Gentzler, a contemporary American translation theorist, believed that the discussion of translation issues among Anglo-American deconstructionists mainly revolves around comments on Benjamin’s Translator’s Task. (Edwin Gentzler, 2004:173-174.) Therefore, Translator’s Task is regarded as the “Bible” of translation theory and the classic of deconstructive translation theory.（Xie，2011:30）

The Russian scholar Mikhail Vasilievich Lemonosov transformed the loanwords that entered the Russian language, russified them, and regarded translation as a creative activity. And this view of free translation lasted until the 19th century. Aleksandr Pushkin, the greatest Russian poet in the 19th century, based on his literary translation practice, proposed that translators should have their own opinions on the selection of materials and should have full freedom in dealing with the original work, but the uniqueness of the original work should be preserved as much as possible.（Xie，2011:30）

==The General Situation of Translation in the Contemporary Age==
After the Second World War, the world entered a period of relative peace. After the trauma of the war, the Western countries regrouped and began to restore and develop production and economy in an all-round way. Translation cause also entered a new period of development at extremely rapid pace, taking on a new look. During this period, not only in the Soviet Union, Britain, Germany, France and other major European countries, but also in the United States, Canada, the cause of translation showed a prosperous scene. In terms of the whole western translation career, the translation after the Second World War was unmatched in scope, form, scale and achievement. Therefore, the 20th century could be called as "the age of translation" , which in fact mainly referred to the decades since the end of the war. Though great achievement was also made in literary translation in this period, the 20th century is known as the "age of translation" mainly because western translation expanded into various fields during this period, which has five characteristics.

===The scale of translation extended to the field of business, diplomacy, science and many other professional affairs.===
Since the end of the Second World War, due to practical needs, commercial, diplomatic, scientific and technological translation had flourished, and its momentum even exceeded literary translation, thus forming a major content of the development of modern western translation.Here is the research of Tan Zaixi about the scale of translation.

In 1945, the United Nations was established with English, French, Russian, Chinese and Spanish as the five official and working languages. In 1957, the European Community was founded, consisting of six countries at that time. In 1993, the European Community developed into the European Union. By 2004, it had 25 member states, using nine languages including English, French, German, Italy, Denmark, Ireland, Greece, Spain and Portugal. That is to say, translation had become an indispensable part of daily work, both for communicating with countries in other regions and among western countries. According to UNESCO, the number of translations in the world increased four-and-a-half times from 1948 to 1970. The institutions of the European Common Market employed more than 1,300 employees to deal with translation, of whom 450 were full-time interpreters, 550 translators and others were freelance employees on short-term contracts. (Tan,2004:160-161)

===Translation teaching was widespread.===
In the past, translation was mainly the work of a few literary magnates. With the establishment of the United Nations and its specialized agencies, as well as the establishment of international institutions such as the European Common Market (EC, EU) and the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, the need for translators was increasing. To meet this need, a number of schools specializing in training translators had been set up.

According to the study of Tan Zaixi, the most prominent schools are the High School of Translation at the Third University of Paris and the School of Translation at the University of Ottawa. What’s more, many universities in Europe and the United States also offer translation classes or courses in senior grades.（Tan, 2004:161-162）

===Translators’associations were established and publications on translation studies were launched.===
Translators in different countries set up various translation associations and publications. These associations played an important role in the development of translation through their activities and publications.

According to Tan Zaixi, translation associations or federations in European and American capitalist countries, in particular, generally emphasize the following principles: to clarify the legal status of translators through legislative means; to take effective measures to protect the legal rights of translators (especially the copyright that translators should enjoy); to improve their social status and increase their economic income; to improve the learning and working conditions of translators to provide them with opportunities to constantly improve their translation skills and a good working environment.（Tan，2004:162）

There were more translators’ organizations in the United States than in other western countries, with a total of 30, among which the most influential were the American Society of Translators, the American Federation of Linguists and the Literary Society of America. The journal of the American Society of Translators was ATA Chronicle. The journal of the Literary Society of America was Translation Review.（Tan，2004:162-163）

In Canada, major translation associations included the Canadian Council of Translators and Interpreters, the Ontario Association of Translators and Interpreters, the Business Language Centre, and the Quebec Translation Association. The Ontario Association of Translators and Interpreters founded the journal of Inform ATIO. The most influential professional translation magazine in Canada was Meta: Journal des Traducteurs.（Tan，2004:164）

In Britain, major translation associations included the Association of Translation Companies of Great Britain, the Association of Translators and the Guild of Translators, of which the Guild of Translators was the most famous. The official publication of the guild is The Incorporated Linguist, which was published in 1962 and enjoyed high reputation in Britain.（Tan，2004:164)

There were two major translation associations in France: the Association of French Translators and the Association of French Literary Translators. There were also two major translation associations in West Germany, one was the Association of Federation Translators and Interpreters and the other was the German-speaking World Federation of Literary and Technical Translators. In addition, Austria, Italy, Spain, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, Finland, Belgium and other Western European countries also had local or national translation organizations and a variety of translation publications.（Tan，2004:164-165）

===Machine translation developed.===
In the process of more than two thousand years of development, the traditional translation method had not undergone substantial changes in technology, and the translation between the two languages still had to be carried out by hand. However, due to the increasingly frequent international scientific and cultural exchanges, manual translation could no longer timely meet the needs. Therefore, when the traditional manual translation was facing the challenge of the times, machine translation should be born. In 1946, under the auspices of the United States Army headquarters, J.P. Eckert and J.W. Mauchly who were both from the University of Pennsylvania developed the world’s first electronic computer named: Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator, or ENIAC for short. Computer’s astonishing speed inspired people to consider the innovation of translation technology. Therefore, in the same year, Andrew Booth and Warren Weaver first proposed the use of computers in the machine translation system. Since then, machine translation and machine translation research, driven by modern electronic computing technology officially began.American science, especially the development of computer science, to a large extent affected the development of computer science in the whole West and even the world. Therefore, especially in the pioneering period, the development history and model of Machine translation in America can almost be regarded as those in the whole West. In this sense, the development of machine translation in the west (and even the world) can be roughly divided into the following five major periods, just like the development of Machine translation in the United States: initial stage; high stage; low stage; recovery stage; vigorous stage. The following is a further overview of the five development periods of machine translation in the West (mainly in the United States) made by Tan Zaixi who referred to the books of Yang Muyun, Li Zhisheng，Yu Hao, Zhao Tiejun and so on.

====Initial stage (1946—1954)====
The pioneering period begins with Booth and Weaver’s idea of translating natural language by computer in 1954, and ends with the birth of the first machine translation system. After the idea of using computers to translate was put forward, although there was great resistance in the United States at first, the voice supporting it was mainstream. In particular, Weaver published a memorandum on machine translation in 1949, which not only opened up a series of research topics on machine translation in the United States, but also had a wide influence in western countries. The memo makes four basic points: the problem of polysemy can be solved by context; there is a logical basis in language; there are basic probabilities in language application; there are common elements in different languages. These are still the fundamental of the development of machine translation. In the following years, machine translation research had been actively carried out in some universities and organizations in the United States and Britain. In Massachusetts Institute of Technology, the first full-time machine translation researcher Bar-Hillel arrived, he made a great contribution to the early development of machine translation and put forward the main problems and basic strategies needed to be solved in machine translation research. The first machine translation conference was held at MIT in June 1952, after which machine translation research in the United States began to accelerate. In 1954, a machine translation system for computer was developed and demonstrated. Although the machine translation system was small, consisting of only 250 Russian words, six grammar rules, and a few translation examples, it first showed the public and the scientific community the feasibility of machine translation, inspiring substantial funding from U.S. government for machine translation research over the next decade.（Tan，2004:167-168）

====High-tide stage(1954—1966)====
The successful demonstration of the world’s first machine translation system, the Georgetown-IBM system of United States, marked the first development climax of machine translation. The upsurge began in 1954 and lasted for 12 years. In the mid-1950s, inspired by successful demonstration of machine translation system, dozens of universities, companies, and government agencies in the United States began machine translation research programs. On the one hand, due to the competition between the United States and the Soviet Union at that time, the United States military, the National Science Foundation, the Central Intelligence Agency and so on needed to acquire a large amount of scientific and technological information of the Soviet Union, so that they invested a lot in machine translation, especially Russian-English translation. On the other hand, advanced computers in the United States provided good equipment for the development of the first generation of machine translation system. At the same time, many universities and institutions in most European countries had also carried out machine translation research.（Tan，2004:168-170）

====Low-tide stage (1966—1975)====
The advent of machine translation had opened up a new way for traditional translation research and practice. However, the complexity of machine translation was underestimated at that time and the design of machine translation system was often too rough and simple. In this case, the first generation of machine translation systems in the initial stage could not achieve ideal results, the quality of translation is often poor, so that some people gradually lost confidence in machine translation research, and some scholars also became pessimistic and disappointed. （Tan，2004:170）

In the mid-1960s, machine translation in the United States had suffered a severe blow. In 1966, the Automatic Language Processing Advisory Committee, part of the National Academy of Sciences, was asked to investigate machine translation research funded by government. The committee published its report, Language and Machines, after analyzing the speed, quality, cost and demand of machine translation at that time. The report pointed out that the quality of machine translation is significantly lower than that of human translation and asserted that there was no likelihood of any commercially useful machine translation system in the foreseeable future. On the committee’s recommendation, the U.S. government withdrew the funding for machine translation research. Thus, machine translation research in the United States plummeted from a high point to a low point of development. It should be noted, however, that machine translation research and development was not in a complete demise, following the official denials in the United States. Scholars and research institutions in many countries including the United States continued to carry out researches and experiments on machine translation under relatively difficult circumstances.（Tan，2004:171）

====Recovery stage(1975—1989)====
In the middle of 1970s, with the emergence of new theories and ideas in the field of linguistics and the further development of computational linguistics, the research of machine translation was aroused in the world again. After ten years of silence, machine translation research stepped on the road of recovery. The recovery period of machine translation research and development is generally considered to date from the installation of the SYSTRAN system by EURATOM and the completion of the TAUM-METEO system by the University of Montreal in Canada.（Tan，2004:171-174）

====Vigorous stage（1989—）====
Since the late 1980s, some new developments had changed the field of machine translation, marking machine translation research enter a new period. This is the emergence of the third generation of machine translation method that is corpus-based. Corpus-based machine translation systems include statistic-based translation and example-based translation, both of which are based on large-scale real text. （Tan，2004:167-175）

Practice has proved that machine translation has great vitality. It is a new science, and its research and translation have entered a new stage of development. No matter whether it can replace the human brain and hands eventually and completely liberate human from the heavy artificial translation, it will develop and exist for a long time. Both in theory and practice, machine translation and its research will exert more and more influence on traditional translation and its research.

===Translation theories of different schools were emerging one after another.===
The most important feature of modern western translation is the rapid development of translation theory. After the Second World War, with the vigorous development of science and technology, modern linguistics, translation activities and the rise of machine translation, people gradually changed the traditional view of translation studies, believing that translation is not only an art or skill, but also a science with rules to follow.

On the whole, the development of contemporary translation theory has two characteristics :(1) theoretical research has been brought into the scope of linguistics, under the influence of modern linguistics and information theory; (2) the traditional situation of non-communication between theorists has been broken. Translation theorists fully express their views through various channels, such as published works.(Xie, 2011:32)

After the Second World War, with the modernization and integration of western social and economic development, western translation theories also began to enter a new period that transcends national boundaries. Therefore, it is difficult to classify some translation thoughts and some translation theorists in a narrow sense as belonging to a certain country or a certain place. It is acceptable to divide contemporary western translation theories into different schools according to their basic approaches and methods of translation studies or the basic characteristics of thought. Here is a brief introduction to some influential schools classified by Zhao Jiajin.

====American Translation Training School====
First established in 1964 at the University of Iowa, this school focused on translation practice, emphasized the literary taste and value of works, and adopted the methods of L. A. Richards and Williard V. Quine of Harvard University. Representative figures included poet and translator Ezra Pound, who translated Tang poetry and advocated the accurate restoration of details, words, fragments and the whole image description. Frederic Will of the University of Iowa, drawing on his training experience, regarded translation as a form of naming, fiction writing and cognition. Yale’s Jonas Zdnys argued that translation is an activity of subjective thought designed to explain literature. This school explores the role of the human mind in translation and raises the question of the nature of translation, but translation theory was limited to aesthetic experience and prescriptive translation rules.

====Translation Science School====
It was also known as “linguistic school”. According to this school, translation is the process of reproducing language as a whole, and it aims to correctly convey the original information to readers. The school was founded by Eugene Nida, whose masterpieces include Message and Mission (1960) and Toward Science of Translation (1946). Nida proposed functional equivalence theory according to Noam Chomsky’s transformational generative grammar and his experience in Bible translation, that is, to digest the original text and understand its basic structure and meaning; convey meaning based on basic structure; obtain semantic and stylistic equivalence with the original text. Thus the translation process can be summarized as: analyze—transfer—restructure, these three steps. The school of Translation science adopted linguistic theory and the more objective description method in translation theory. In the late 1970s, emphasis was placed on the cultural background of the information age, but the research was still limited to prescriptive research and translation criteria, ignoring the role of translators’thinking.（Zhao,1996: 46）

====Translation school====
It is the so-called “literary school”. This school held that the original work is the unity of sentence series and article structure, and the translator is influenced by the original view and the future model of translation in the process of translation. The founder of this school was James Holmes, an American poet, who taught translation at the University of Amsterdam in the Netherlands before his death. His representative work is The Name and Nature of Translation Studies(1972).（Zhao,1996: 46）

====Polysystem School====
Its founders are Itammar Even-Zohar and Gideon Toury of Tel Aviv University in Israel. Even coined the term Polysystem to explore the relationship between translated works and literary systems, and explained that the oriented culture of translation not only determines whether a work can be translated, but also regulates the wording. Toury held that translation belongs to the second system of multiple systems, and its role depends on the strength and development stage of the oriented culture of translation. He held that translation has no fixed identity and has multiple identities due to its social, literary and historical background. This school integrates translation studies with literary studies, social and economic factors, endows translation studies with historical significance, but it is still limited to the acceptability of translation and does not get rid of the fetters of cultural equivalence.（Zhao,1996: 46）

====Deconstruction School====
It is also known as “affirmative productivity school”. It originated in France in the mid-1960s and is represented by Michel Foucault, Martin Heidegger and Jacques Derrida. This school introduced deconstruction into translation, claiming that translators create the subject and the target language is a new language. As Foucault put it, the original work is constantly rewritten in the process of translation, and the translator rewrites the original work every time he reads and translates it. Deconstruction studies the nature and process of translation and language, and advocates that translators exist as entities. The school even goes so far as to believe that language does not involve any objective reality, and translators have their own status only when they create texts.（Zhao,1996:46-47）

==Conclusion==
Under the influence of historical backgrounds, different periods of translation show different traits. In the modern period, the content of translation still focused on literature which included works form Russian, Nordic countries, China and so on. The way of translation was artificial and traditional. With the progress of economy and science, translation in the contemporary period also got great development. The content of translation was not confined to the field of literature. Instead, translation of science and technology, commerce, entertainment and so on became a major part of the actual translation activities. In addition, machine translation as a novel technique developed quickly. And the most important feature of modern western translation is the rapid development of translation theory thanks to many translator associations and publications on translation studies. Nowadays, under the influence of globalization, translation shows more and more importance and get better development environment.

==References==

Barnstone，Willis(1993). The Poetics of Trunslation: History, Theory, Practice[M]. New Haven:Yale University Press.

Bates, Ernest Stuart(1936). Modern Translation[M]. London: Oxford University Press.

Catford, John(1965). A Linguistic Theory of Translation: An Essay in Applied Linguistics[M].Oxford and London: Oxford University Press.

Delisle, Jean(1995). Translation: An Interpretive Approach[M]. Ottawa: University of Ottawa Press.

Feng Zhiwei 冯志伟(1994).《自然语言机器翻译新论》[M] New Theories of Machine Translation of Natural Language.北京:语文出版社Beijing: Chinese Press.

FitzMaurice-Kelly, J(1911). "Translation"[J]. Encyclopedia Britannica (11th edition, Cambridge),27:183-188.

Gentzler, Edwin(2004). Contemporary Translation Theories[M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

Hutchins，Robert(1952). Great Books of the Western World[M]. Chicago: Encyclopaedia .Britannica Ltd.

Mu Yunyang,Li Zhisheng,Yu Hao杨沐昀、李志升、于浩(2000).《机器翻译系统》[M]Machine Translation System.哈尔滨：哈尔滨工业大学出版社Harbin: Harbin University of Technology Press.

Tan Zaixi谭载喜(2004).西方翻译简史[M]A Brief History of Western Translation.北京：商务印书馆Beijing:The Commercial Press.

Tan Zaixi谭载喜(1985).西方翻译史浅谈[J]On the History of Western Translation.中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal,7:36-39.

Xie Tianzhen谢天振(2008).《当代国外翻译理论导读》[M]Introduction to Contemporary Foreign Translation Theories.天津：南开大学出版社Tianjin：Nankai University Press.

Xie Tianzhen谢天振(2011).中西翻译简史[M]A Brief History of Chinese and Western Translation.北京:外语教学与研究出版社Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.

Zhao Jiajin赵家琎(1996).当代翻译学派简介[J]A Brief Introduction to Contemporary Translation Schools.中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal,5：46—47.

Zhao Tiejun赵铁军等(2001).《机器翻译原理》[M]Principles of Machine Translation.哈尔滨：哈尔滨工业大学出版社Harbin: Harbin University of Technology Press.

Hist Trans EN 14

2021-12-14T06:53:06Z

Wei Chuxuan: /* Translation theories of different schools were emerging one after another. */

'''History of Translations'''

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=Western Translation History In the Modern and Contemperary Ages=
'''现当代西方翻译史'''

魏楚璇，Wei Chuxuan, Hunan Normal University, China

==Abstract==
Under different historical backgrounds, western translation presents different characteristics. In the 20th century before the end of the Second World War, the two world wars inevitably brought obstacles and disturbances to the development of translation. Therefore, though translation in this period still continued to develop, it did not get breakthrough. Translation was still dominated by literary works in content, totally relying on manual labor. In translation theory, it emphasized the creativity of translation and laid a foundation for the linguistic turn of translation studies. After the end of World War II, the world entered an era of relative peace, the world economy recovered, and the translation industry was greatly revitalized. During this period, the scale of translation covered all aspects of social life, machine translation developed fast, translation training flourished, translation organizations were established in various countries and many translation theories and schools emerged. That is to say, this period can be called the golden age of translation.

==摘要==
在不同的历史背景下，西方翻译呈现出不同的特点。在二战结束之前的二十世纪，两次世界大战不可避免地为翻译事业的发展带来了阻碍和干扰，因而这一时期的翻译虽然仍在发展但并未取得突破性的成就，在翻译的内容上仍然以文学作品为主，技术上完全依赖人工，理论方面注重翻译的创造性且为翻译研究的语言学转向奠定了基础。二战结束后，世界进入到相对和平的年代，世界经济复苏，翻译事业也大为振兴。在这一时期，翻译的内容覆盖社会生活的方方面面，机器翻译发展迅速，翻译培训兴起，翻译组织在各国成立，各种翻译理论和翻译流派涌现，可谓是翻译的黄金年代。

==Keywords==
Western translation; translation history; modern; contemperary

==Introduction==
In this paper, western translation history in modern and contemporary ages will be introduced. Here the modern age refers to the nearly half century before the Second World War. And the contemporary age refers to the half century after the Second World War. That is to say, the modern and contemporary translation in this paper refers to the translation in the 20th century. Under the influence of different historical backgrounds, translation in these two ages showed different characteristics and traits which will be concluded and discussed in detail in the following.

==The General Situation of Translation in the Modern Age==
Into the 20th century, the capitalism in the developed countries developed into imperialism. On the one hand, the imperialist countries intensified their foreign expansion to oppress and exploit the weak countries and people in colony. On the other hand, they were engaged in a fierce battle among themselves for international markets and spheres of influence. Thus, in less than half a century, two world wars broke out. Under this historical background, translation in western countries will inevitably be seriously disturbed and destroyed. However, translation in western countries continued to develop and excellent translations still appeared from time to time. The translation of this period also has its own traits. The general situation of translation in this period can be summarized from the following two aspects.

===The emphasis of translation was on Russian and Nordic works and more Chinese works were translated.===
From the end of the 19th century to the beginning of the 20th century, the literature of Russia and the Nordic countries developed greatly with the emergence of Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoyevsky, Leo Tolstoy, Chekhov, Andersen, Ibsen, Strindberg and other world-renowned great writers and dramatists. Their works had attracted the attention of the people in Western Europe and North America so they were competing to learn Russian, Danish and Swedish and had these works translated into English, German and French. In the process of translation, many excellent translators emerged in various countries.
====Translation of Russian literature====
According to the research of Tan Zaixi, Constance Garnet is the most famous female translator in Britain in this century. She translated almost all classic Russian novels and is widely regarded as the most important Translator of translating Russian literature into English. She published her first translation of Turgenev's novel Ru-Din in 1894. In the following decades, she devoted almost all her energy and time to the translation of Russian literature. She was the first person to translate Turgenev, Dostoyevsky and Chekhov into English, successively translating all the major works of Turgenev, Goncharov, Dostoyevsky, Tolstoy, Gogol and Chekhov including 12 volumes of Dostoyevsky's Selected Works translated from 1912 to 1920, 15 volumes of Turgenev's Selected Works translated from 1894 to 1899, 15 volumes of Chekhov's Novels and Plays translated from 1916 to 1922, and 6 volumes of Gogol’s Selected Works translated from 1922 to 1928. In particular, her translations of Turgenev, Chekhov, Dostoyevsky and other works were widely welcomed by the English reading community, and thus gave rise to the Russian literature craze in English literature before the First World War. She translated 70 Russian works in her lifetime, making her the most prolific translator of Russian works.
Two other translators who did not translate as much from Russian to English as Garnett, but who had no less influence, were the couple——Louise and Aylmer Maude. They are famous in western modern literary circles for their research and translation of Tolstoy's works. From 1928 to 1937, they spent nearly ten years translating and publishing 21 volumes of The Complete Works of Tolstoy. Later, from 1940s to 1950s, they supplemented or retranslated some of Tolstoy's works, such as What I Believe and Resurrection. In 1952, their work of War and Peace was accepted as a standard English translation and was selected for the prestigious Great Books of the Western World, thus establishing them as the authoritative English translators of Tolstoy. In addition, R. S. Townsend, R. Edmonds, Samuel Koteliansky, Ethel C. Mayne, Boris Brasol, Richard Renfield and so on were famous for translating the works of Tolstoy, Dostoevsky, Turgenev, Chekhov, Goncharov into English.（Tan，2004:148-150）

====Translation of Nordic literature and drama====
In the first half of the 20th century, in addition to Russian literature, western European translators showed great interest in Nordic literature and drama, including the works of Andersen, Ibsen and Strindberg.

According to the study of Tan Zaixi, when Hans Christian Andersen was alive, one of his works was published simultaneously in 15 languages, including English, German, French, Italian, Spanish and almost all the major languages of Western Europe. Later, all of his works were translated into different languages, and there were many re-translations in English, French, German and other countries. The first English translator was Mary Howitt, who began translating Andersen’s fairy tales in 1846. Later translators include Charles Boner, Caroline Peachey, Lady Duff Gordon, Paul Leyssac, R. R. Keigwin and R. Spink. Some of the best translations are Leyssac’s translation in 1937, Keigwin’s translation from 1950 to 1960 and Spink’s translation.(Tan，2004:151)

The main English translators of Ibsen’s plays are William Archer and James MacFarlane. Archer translated 12 volumes of The Collected Works of H. I. from 1906 to 1912, including almost all of Ibsen’s plays and some of his previously unpublished papers. Macfarlane compiled translated eight volumes of The Oxford Ibsen from 1960 to 1977. In addition, F. E. Garrett translated Lyrics and Poems from Ibsen in 1912. Mary Morison translated The Correspondence of H.I. in 1905. Evert Sprinchorn translated H. I. Letters and Speeches in 1964. (Tan，2004:151)

In Germany, the standard German translation is the 10-volume The Collected Plays of Ibsen edited and published by G. Brandes, J. Elias, and P. Schlenther from 1898 to 1902. The standard French translation is The Complete Works of Ibsen in 16 volumes translated and published by P. G. La Chesnais from 1914 to 1945.(Tan，2004:151)

Strindberg’s work was translated into English as early as 1912. For the next fifty or sixty years, many people worked on Strindberg’s studies and translations. Major English translators included E. Schleussner, Walter Johnson, M. Sandbach, Elizabeth Sprigge and Michael Meyer. Some good works are Sprigge’s translations of Strinberg’s Plays in 1963 and Meyer’s translations of The Father, Miss Julie, Storm and so on in 1964. In other major western European countries such as Germany and France, Strindberg’s plays were also translated into German and French, and repeatedly staged in Berlin and Paris. (Tan，2004:152)

There is no doubt that the translation of modern and contemporary Russian and Nordic literature and drama was a mainstream of western translation in the first half of the century. However, at the same time, it must be pointed out that the mutual translation of modern and contemporary literary works in western European countries still enjoys considerable momentum.

====More and more Chinese works were translated.====
In the 20th century, more and more people in the West became interested in Chinese culture. Since the 1950s, with the improvement of new China’s international prestige, the fever of translating Chinese works had been constantly appearing in the West. Not only the Four Books, Five Classics, Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Water Margin, Journey to the West, A Dream of Red Mansions and the poems of Li Bai, Du Fu and Bai Juyi were translated into English, German and French, but modern writers such as Luxun, Maodun and Bajin were also introduced to western countries. In the process of translating and introducing Chinese works, excellent translators have emerged from every country.

According to the study of Tan Zaixi, Arthur Waley, the most eminent Sinologist in Britain in the 20th century, was a translator, writer and poet. In 1916, his first translation of Chinese Poems was published. In 1918, he published his second translated work One Hundred Seventy Chinese Poems. These two translations are both from Tang poems. In addition, he also translated part of Journey to the West in 1942, published four other Chinese-English translations, and wrote three books about China or Chinese writers. Another outstanding Sinologist and translator in the 20th century was Franz Kuhn of Germany. From 1919, when his first translation was published, to his death in 1961, he translated and published more than 40 classical and modern Chinese literary works, including 12 novels and 34 short stories. In particular, his translation of The Fortunate Union in 1926, Second Bloom in 1927, The Golden Lotus in 1930, A Dream of Red Mansions in 1932, Water Margin in 1934, Jade Dragonfly in 1936, Romance of the Three Kingdoms in 1940, Midnight and other works from 1940 to 1955, were well received by German readers.（Tan,2004:153-156）

===The creativity of translation and the language in translation were paid more attention.===
In the aspect of translation theory, scholars had deeply reflected on the traditional translation theory, especially questioned the universality of language, and proposed that when the meaning of the original text becomes obscure and difficult to understand, translators must fill in the gaps of the text according to their own experience. Therefore, translation theories of this period paid more attention to the creativity of translation and the language problems in translation. Although they did not separate themselves from the discussion of translation techniques such as word selection and sentence construction, they laid a foundation for the linguistic turn of translation studies and provided theoretical thinking for the translation literature as an independent existence. And about the specific translation theories in different countries in this period, Xie Tianzhen made a brief summary.

J. P. Postgate is a famous Translation theorist in Britain, and he put forward prospective translation and retrospective translation. Prospective translation means that the translator always keeps the reader in mind and adopts free methods and common expressions to ensure that the original ideas of the reader are not affected and their prediction is not interfered with. The purpose of translation is to show the translator’s mastery of the target language, focusing on the target language rather than the original one. Retrospective translation means that the translator always looks at the original author, because the purpose of translation is to impart knowledge of the original text, rather than to look ahead and consider the reader of the translation.（Xie，2011:29）

French scholar J. Marouzeau’s "On Translation of Latin" is an important translation literature in French. He believed that translation is a skill in which the translator should reveal to the reader the content of the original work, rather than its shell, using a living language.（Xie，2011:29）

German thinker Walter Benjamin pointed out that although the translation is based on the original, it is the afterlife of the original work and the translation need not pursue the same meaning as the original work. Mediocre translators pay more attention to the meaning of the original work than to its literariness and language style and they only know that the translation exists to serve the original work and can only translate the non-essential content of the original work. (Xie Tianzhen，2008:319-332) The translator’s task is to use his own language to release the pure language trapped by another language, that is, to liberate the imprisoned language in the re-creation of the original text. Edwin Gentzler, a contemporary American translation theorist, believed that the discussion of translation issues among Anglo-American deconstructionists mainly revolves around comments on Benjamin’s Translator’s Task. (Edwin Gentzler, 2004:173-174.) Therefore, Translator’s Task is regarded as the “Bible” of translation theory and the classic of deconstructive translation theory.（Xie，2011:30）

The Russian scholar Mikhail Vasilievich Lemonosov transformed the loanwords that entered the Russian language, russified them, and regarded translation as a creative activity. And this view of free translation lasted until the 19th century. Aleksandr Pushkin, the greatest Russian poet in the 19th century, based on his literary translation practice, proposed that translators should have their own opinions on the selection of materials and should have full freedom in dealing with the original work, but the uniqueness of the original work should be preserved as much as possible.（Xie，2011:30）

==The General Situation of Translation in the Contemporary Age==
After the Second World War, the world entered a period of relative peace. After the trauma of the war, the Western countries regrouped and began to restore and develop production and economy in an all-round way. Translation cause also entered a new period of development at extremely rapid pace, taking on a new look. During this period, not only in the Soviet Union, Britain, Germany, France and other major European countries, but also in the United States, Canada, the cause of translation showed a prosperous scene. In terms of the whole western translation career, the translation after the Second World War was unmatched in scope, form, scale and achievement. Therefore, the 20th century could be called as "the age of translation" , which in fact mainly referred to the decades since the end of the war. Though great achievement was also made in literary translation in this period, the 20th century is known as the "age of translation" mainly because western translation expanded into various fields during this period, which has five characteristics.

===The scale of translation extended to the field of business, diplomacy, science and many other professional affairs.===
Since the end of the Second World War, due to practical needs, commercial, diplomatic, scientific and technological translation had flourished, and its momentum even exceeded literary translation, thus forming a major content of the development of modern western translation.Here is the research of Tan Zaixi about the scale of translation.

In 1945, the United Nations was established with English, French, Russian, Chinese and Spanish as the five official and working languages. In 1957, the European Community was founded, consisting of six countries at that time. In 1993, the European Community developed into the European Union. By 2004, it had 25 member states, using nine languages including English, French, German, Italy, Denmark, Ireland, Greece, Spain and Portugal. That is to say, translation had become an indispensable part of daily work, both for communicating with countries in other regions and among western countries. According to UNESCO, the number of translations in the world increased four-and-a-half times from 1948 to 1970. The institutions of the European Common Market employed more than 1,300 employees to deal with translation, of whom 450 were full-time interpreters, 550 translators and others were freelance employees on short-term contracts. (Tan,2004:160-161)

===Translation teaching was widespread.===
In the past, translation was mainly the work of a few literary magnates. With the establishment of the United Nations and its specialized agencies, as well as the establishment of international institutions such as the European Common Market (EC, EU) and the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, the need for translators was increasing. To meet this need, a number of schools specializing in training translators had been set up.

According to the study of Tan Zaixi, the most prominent schools are the High School of Translation at the Third University of Paris and the School of Translation at the University of Ottawa. What’s more, many universities in Europe and the United States also offer translation classes or courses in senior grades.（Tan, 2004:161-162）

===Translators’associations were established and publications on translation studies were launched.===
Translators in different countries set up various translation associations and publications. These associations played an important role in the development of translation through their activities and publications.

According to Tan Zaixi, translation associations or federations in European and American capitalist countries, in particular, generally emphasize the following principles: to clarify the legal status of translators through legislative means; to take effective measures to protect the legal rights of translators (especially the copyright that translators should enjoy); to improve their social status and increase their economic income; to improve the learning and working conditions of translators to provide them with opportunities to constantly improve their translation skills and a good working environment.（Tan，2004:162）

There were more translators’ organizations in the United States than in other western countries, with a total of 30, among which the most influential were the American Society of Translators, the American Federation of Linguists and the Literary Society of America. The journal of the American Society of Translators was ATA Chronicle. The journal of the Literary Society of America was Translation Review.（Tan，2004:162-163）

In Canada, major translation associations included the Canadian Council of Translators and Interpreters, the Ontario Association of Translators and Interpreters, the Business Language Centre, and the Quebec Translation Association. The Ontario Association of Translators and Interpreters founded the journal of Inform ATIO. The most influential professional translation magazine in Canada was Meta: Journal des Traducteurs.（Tan，2004:164）

In Britain, major translation associations included the Association of Translation Companies of Great Britain, the Association of Translators and the Guild of Translators, of which the Guild of Translators was the most famous. The official publication of the guild is The Incorporated Linguist, which was published in 1962 and enjoyed high reputation in Britain.（Tan，2004:164)

There were two major translation associations in France: the Association of French Translators and the Association of French Literary Translators. There were also two major translation associations in West Germany, one was the Association of Federation Translators and Interpreters and the other was the German-speaking World Federation of Literary and Technical Translators. In addition, Austria, Italy, Spain, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, Finland, Belgium and other Western European countries also had local or national translation organizations and a variety of translation publications.（Tan，2004:164-165）

===Machine translation developed.===
In the process of more than two thousand years of development, the traditional translation method had not undergone substantial changes in technology, and the translation between the two languages still had to be carried out by hand. However, due to the increasingly frequent international scientific and cultural exchanges, manual translation could no longer timely meet the needs. Therefore, when the traditional manual translation was facing the challenge of the times, machine translation should be born. In 1946, under the auspices of the United States Army headquarters, J.P. Eckert and J.W. Mauchly who were both from the University of Pennsylvania developed the world’s first electronic computer named: Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator, or ENIAC for short. Computer’s astonishing speed inspired people to consider the innovation of translation technology. Therefore, in the same year, Andrew Booth and Warren Weaver first proposed the use of computers in the machine translation system. Since then, machine translation and machine translation research, driven by modern electronic computing technology officially began.American science, especially the development of computer science, to a large extent affected the development of computer science in the whole West and even the world. Therefore, especially in the pioneering period, the development history and model of Machine translation in America can almost be regarded as those in the whole West. In this sense, the development of machine translation in the west (and even the world) can be roughly divided into the following five major periods, just like the development of Machine translation in the United States: initial stage; high stage; low stage; recovery stage; vigorous stage. The following is a further overview of the five development periods of machine translation in the West (mainly in the United States) made by Tan Zaixi who referred to the books of Yang Muyun, Li Zhisheng，Yu Hao, Zhao Tiejun and so on.

====Initial stage (1946—1954)====
The pioneering period begins with Booth and Weaver’s idea of translating natural language by computer in 1954, and ends with the birth of the first machine translation system. After the idea of using computers to translate was put forward, although there was great resistance in the United States at first, the voice supporting it was mainstream. In particular, Weaver published a memorandum on machine translation in 1949, which not only opened up a series of research topics on machine translation in the United States, but also had a wide influence in western countries. The memo makes four basic points: the problem of polysemy can be solved by context; there is a logical basis in language; there are basic probabilities in language application; there are common elements in different languages. These are still the fundamental of the development of machine translation. In the following years, machine translation research had been actively carried out in some universities and organizations in the United States and Britain. In Massachusetts Institute of Technology, the first full-time machine translation researcher Bar-Hillel arrived, he made a great contribution to the early development of machine translation and put forward the main problems and basic strategies needed to be solved in machine translation research. The first machine translation conference was held at MIT in June 1952, after which machine translation research in the United States began to accelerate. In 1954, a machine translation system for computer was developed and demonstrated. Although the machine translation system was small, consisting of only 250 Russian words, six grammar rules, and a few translation examples, it first showed the public and the scientific community the feasibility of machine translation, inspiring substantial funding from U.S. government for machine translation research over the next decade.（Tan，2004:167-168）

====High-tide stage(1954—1966)====
The successful demonstration of the world’s first machine translation system, the Georgetown-IBM system of United States, marked the first development climax of machine translation. The upsurge began in 1954 and lasted for 12 years. In the mid-1950s, inspired by successful demonstration of machine translation system, dozens of universities, companies, and government agencies in the United States began machine translation research programs. On the one hand, due to the competition between the United States and the Soviet Union at that time, the United States military, the National Science Foundation, the Central Intelligence Agency and so on needed to acquire a large amount of scientific and technological information of the Soviet Union, so that they invested a lot in machine translation, especially Russian-English translation. On the other hand, advanced computers in the United States provided good equipment for the development of the first generation of machine translation system. At the same time, many universities and institutions in most European countries had also carried out machine translation research.（Tan，2004:168-170）

====Low-tide stage (1966—1975)====
The advent of machine translation had opened up a new way for traditional translation research and practice. However, the complexity of machine translation was underestimated at that time and the design of machine translation system was often too rough and simple. In this case, the first generation of machine translation systems in the initial stage could not achieve ideal results, the quality of translation is often poor, so that some people gradually lost confidence in machine translation research, and some scholars also became pessimistic and disappointed. （Tan，2004:170）

In the mid-1960s, machine translation in the United States had suffered a severe blow. In 1966, the Automatic Language Processing Advisory Committee, part of the National Academy of Sciences, was asked to investigate machine translation research funded by government. The committee published its report, Language and Machines, after analyzing the speed, quality, cost and demand of machine translation at that time. The report pointed out that the quality of machine translation is significantly lower than that of human translation and asserted that there was no likelihood of any commercially useful machine translation system in the foreseeable future. On the committee’s recommendation, the U.S. government withdrew the funding for machine translation research. Thus, machine translation research in the United States plummeted from a high point to a low point of development. It should be noted, however, that machine translation research and development was not in a complete demise, following the official denials in the United States. Scholars and research institutions in many countries including the United States continued to carry out researches and experiments on machine translation under relatively difficult circumstances.（Tan，2004:171）

====Recovery stage(1975—1989)====
In the middle of 1970s, with the emergence of new theories and ideas in the field of linguistics and the further development of computational linguistics, the research of machine translation was aroused in the world again. After ten years of silence, machine translation research stepped on the road of recovery. The recovery period of machine translation research and development is generally considered to date from the installation of the SYSTRAN system by EURATOM and the completion of the TAUM-METEO system by the University of Montreal in Canada.（Tan，2004:171-174）

====Vigorous stage（1989—）====
Since the late 1980s, some new developments had changed the field of machine translation, marking machine translation research enter a new period. This is the emergence of the third generation of machine translation method that is corpus-based. Corpus-based machine translation systems include statistic-based translation and example-based translation, both of which are based on large-scale real text. （Tan，2004:167-175）

Practice has proved that machine translation has great vitality. It is a new science, and its research and translation have entered a new stage of development. No matter whether it can replace the human brain and hands eventually and completely liberate human from the heavy artificial translation, it will develop and exist for a long time. Both in theory and practice, machine translation and its research will exert more and more influence on traditional translation and its research.

===Translation theories of different schools were emerging one after another.===
The most important feature of modern western translation is the rapid development of translation theory. After the Second World War, with the vigorous development of science and technology, modern linguistics, translation activities and the rise of machine translation, people gradually changed the traditional view of translation studies, believing that translation is not only an art or skill, but also a science with rules to follow.

On the whole, the development of contemporary translation theory has two characteristics :(1) theoretical research has been brought into the scope of linguistics, under the influence of modern linguistics and information theory; (2) the traditional situation of non-communication between theorists has been broken. Translation theorists fully express their views through various channels, such as published works.(Xie Tianzhen, 2011:32)

After the Second World War, with the modernization and integration of western social and economic development, western translation theories also began to enter a new period that transcends national boundaries. Therefore, it is difficult to classify some translation thoughts and some translation theorists in a narrow sense as belonging to a certain country or a certain place. It is acceptable to divide contemporary western translation theories into different schools according to their basic approaches and methods of translation studies or the basic characteristics of thought. Here is a brief introduction to some influential schools classified by Zhao Jiajin.

====American Translation Training School====
First established in 1964 at the University of Iowa, this school focused on translation practice, emphasized the literary taste and value of works, and adopted the methods of L. A. Richards and Williard V. Quine of Harvard University. Representative figures included poet and translator Ezra Pound, who translated Tang poetry and advocated the accurate restoration of details, words, fragments and the whole image description. Frederic Will of the University of Iowa, drawing on his training experience, regarded translation as a form of naming, fiction writing and cognition. Yale’s Jonas Zdnys argued that translation is an activity of subjective thought designed to explain literature. This school explores the role of the human mind in translation and raises the question of the nature of translation, but translation theory was limited to aesthetic experience and prescriptive translation rules.

====Translation Science School====
It was also known as “linguistic school”. According to this school, translation is the process of reproducing language as a whole, and it aims to correctly convey the original information to readers. The school was founded by Eugene Nida, whose masterpieces include Message and Mission (1960) and Toward Science of Translation (1946). Nida proposed functional equivalence theory according to Noam Chomsky’s transformational generative grammar and his experience in Bible translation, that is, to digest the original text and understand its basic structure and meaning; convey meaning based on basic structure; obtain semantic and stylistic equivalence with the original text. Thus the translation process can be summarized as: analyze—transfer—restructure, these three steps. The school of Translation science adopted linguistic theory and the more objective description method in translation theory. In the late 1970s, emphasis was placed on the cultural background of the information age, but the research was still limited to prescriptive research and translation criteria, ignoring the role of translators’thinking.（Zhao,1996: 46）

====Translation school====
It is the so-called “literary school”. This school held that the original work is the unity of sentence series and article structure, and the translator is influenced by the original view and the future model of translation in the process of translation. The founder of this school was James Holmes, an American poet, who taught translation at the University of Amsterdam in the Netherlands before his death. His representative work is The Name and Nature of Translation Studies(1972).（Zhao,1996: 46）

====Polysystem School====
Its founders are Itammar Even-Zohar and Gideon Toury of Tel Aviv University in Israel. Even coined the term Polysystem to explore the relationship between translated works and literary systems, and explained that the oriented culture of translation not only determines whether a work can be translated, but also regulates the wording. Toury held that translation belongs to the second system of multiple systems, and its role depends on the strength and development stage of the oriented culture of translation. He held that translation has no fixed identity and has multiple identities due to its social, literary and historical background. This school integrates translation studies with literary studies, social and economic factors, endows translation studies with historical significance, but it is still limited to the acceptability of translation and does not get rid of the fetters of cultural equivalence.（Zhao,1996: 46）

====Deconstruction School====
It is also known as “affirmative productivity school”. It originated in France in the mid-1960s and is represented by Michel Foucault, Martin Heidegger and Jacques Derrida. This school introduced deconstruction into translation, claiming that translators create the subject and the target language is a new language. As Foucault put it, the original work is constantly rewritten in the process of translation, and the translator rewrites the original work every time he reads and translates it. Deconstruction studies the nature and process of translation and language, and advocates that translators exist as entities. The school even goes so far as to believe that language does not involve any objective reality, and translators have their own status only when they create texts.（Zhao,1996:46-47）

==Conclusion==
Under the influence of historical backgrounds, different periods of translation show different traits. In the modern period, the content of translation still focused on literature which included works form Russian, Nordic countries, China and so on. The way of translation was artificial and traditional. With the progress of economy and science, translation in the contemporary period also got great development. The content of translation was not confined to the field of literature. Instead, translation of science and technology, commerce, entertainment and so on became a major part of the actual translation activities. In addition, machine translation as a novel technique developed quickly. And the most important feature of modern western translation is the rapid development of translation theory thanks to many translator associations and publications on translation studies. Nowadays, under the influence of globalization, translation shows more and more importance and get better development environment.

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Zhao Tiejun赵铁军等(2001).《机器翻译原理》[M]Principles of Machine Translation.哈尔滨：哈尔滨工业大学出版社Harbin: Harbin University of Technology Press.

Hist Trans EN 14

2021-12-14T06:50:34Z

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=Western Translation History In the Modern and Contemperary Ages=
'''现当代西方翻译史'''

魏楚璇，Wei Chuxuan, Hunan Normal University, China

==Abstract==
Under different historical backgrounds, western translation presents different characteristics. In the 20th century before the end of the Second World War, the two world wars inevitably brought obstacles and disturbances to the development of translation. Therefore, though translation in this period still continued to develop, it did not get breakthrough. Translation was still dominated by literary works in content, totally relying on manual labor. In translation theory, it emphasized the creativity of translation and laid a foundation for the linguistic turn of translation studies. After the end of World War II, the world entered an era of relative peace, the world economy recovered, and the translation industry was greatly revitalized. During this period, the scale of translation covered all aspects of social life, machine translation developed fast, translation training flourished, translation organizations were established in various countries and many translation theories and schools emerged. That is to say, this period can be called the golden age of translation.

==摘要==
在不同的历史背景下，西方翻译呈现出不同的特点。在二战结束之前的二十世纪，两次世界大战不可避免地为翻译事业的发展带来了阻碍和干扰，因而这一时期的翻译虽然仍在发展但并未取得突破性的成就，在翻译的内容上仍然以文学作品为主，技术上完全依赖人工，理论方面注重翻译的创造性且为翻译研究的语言学转向奠定了基础。二战结束后，世界进入到相对和平的年代，世界经济复苏，翻译事业也大为振兴。在这一时期，翻译的内容覆盖社会生活的方方面面，机器翻译发展迅速，翻译培训兴起，翻译组织在各国成立，各种翻译理论和翻译流派涌现，可谓是翻译的黄金年代。

==Keywords==
Western translation; translation history; modern; contemperary

==Introduction==
In this paper, western translation history in modern and contemporary ages will be introduced. Here the modern age refers to the nearly half century before the Second World War. And the contemporary age refers to the half century after the Second World War. That is to say, the modern and contemporary translation in this paper refers to the translation in the 20th century. Under the influence of different historical backgrounds, translation in these two ages showed different characteristics and traits which will be concluded and discussed in detail in the following.

==The General Situation of Translation in the Modern Age==
Into the 20th century, the capitalism in the developed countries developed into imperialism. On the one hand, the imperialist countries intensified their foreign expansion to oppress and exploit the weak countries and people in colony. On the other hand, they were engaged in a fierce battle among themselves for international markets and spheres of influence. Thus, in less than half a century, two world wars broke out. Under this historical background, translation in western countries will inevitably be seriously disturbed and destroyed. However, translation in western countries continued to develop and excellent translations still appeared from time to time. The translation of this period also has its own traits. The general situation of translation in this period can be summarized from the following two aspects.

===The emphasis of translation was on Russian and Nordic works and more Chinese works were translated.===
From the end of the 19th century to the beginning of the 20th century, the literature of Russia and the Nordic countries developed greatly with the emergence of Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoyevsky, Leo Tolstoy, Chekhov, Andersen, Ibsen, Strindberg and other world-renowned great writers and dramatists. Their works had attracted the attention of the people in Western Europe and North America so they were competing to learn Russian, Danish and Swedish and had these works translated into English, German and French. In the process of translation, many excellent translators emerged in various countries.
====Translation of Russian literature====
According to the research of Tan Zaixi, Constance Garnet is the most famous female translator in Britain in this century. She translated almost all classic Russian novels and is widely regarded as the most important Translator of translating Russian literature into English. She published her first translation of Turgenev's novel Ru-Din in 1894. In the following decades, she devoted almost all her energy and time to the translation of Russian literature. She was the first person to translate Turgenev, Dostoyevsky and Chekhov into English, successively translating all the major works of Turgenev, Goncharov, Dostoyevsky, Tolstoy, Gogol and Chekhov including 12 volumes of Dostoyevsky's Selected Works translated from 1912 to 1920, 15 volumes of Turgenev's Selected Works translated from 1894 to 1899, 15 volumes of Chekhov's Novels and Plays translated from 1916 to 1922, and 6 volumes of Gogol’s Selected Works translated from 1922 to 1928. In particular, her translations of Turgenev, Chekhov, Dostoyevsky and other works were widely welcomed by the English reading community, and thus gave rise to the Russian literature craze in English literature before the First World War. She translated 70 Russian works in her lifetime, making her the most prolific translator of Russian works.
Two other translators who did not translate as much from Russian to English as Garnett, but who had no less influence, were the couple——Louise and Aylmer Maude. They are famous in western modern literary circles for their research and translation of Tolstoy's works. From 1928 to 1937, they spent nearly ten years translating and publishing 21 volumes of The Complete Works of Tolstoy. Later, from 1940s to 1950s, they supplemented or retranslated some of Tolstoy's works, such as What I Believe and Resurrection. In 1952, their work of War and Peace was accepted as a standard English translation and was selected for the prestigious Great Books of the Western World, thus establishing them as the authoritative English translators of Tolstoy. In addition, R. S. Townsend, R. Edmonds, Samuel Koteliansky, Ethel C. Mayne, Boris Brasol, Richard Renfield and so on were famous for translating the works of Tolstoy, Dostoevsky, Turgenev, Chekhov, Goncharov into English.（Tan，2004:148-150）

====Translation of Nordic literature and drama====
In the first half of the 20th century, in addition to Russian literature, western European translators showed great interest in Nordic literature and drama, including the works of Andersen, Ibsen and Strindberg.

According to the study of Tan Zaixi, when Hans Christian Andersen was alive, one of his works was published simultaneously in 15 languages, including English, German, French, Italian, Spanish and almost all the major languages of Western Europe. Later, all of his works were translated into different languages, and there were many re-translations in English, French, German and other countries. The first English translator was Mary Howitt, who began translating Andersen’s fairy tales in 1846. Later translators include Charles Boner, Caroline Peachey, Lady Duff Gordon, Paul Leyssac, R. R. Keigwin and R. Spink. Some of the best translations are Leyssac’s translation in 1937, Keigwin’s translation from 1950 to 1960 and Spink’s translation.(Tan，2004:151)

The main English translators of Ibsen’s plays are William Archer and James MacFarlane. Archer translated 12 volumes of The Collected Works of H. I. from 1906 to 1912, including almost all of Ibsen’s plays and some of his previously unpublished papers. Macfarlane compiled translated eight volumes of The Oxford Ibsen from 1960 to 1977. In addition, F. E. Garrett translated Lyrics and Poems from Ibsen in 1912. Mary Morison translated The Correspondence of H.I. in 1905. Evert Sprinchorn translated H. I. Letters and Speeches in 1964. (Tan，2004:151)

In Germany, the standard German translation is the 10-volume The Collected Plays of Ibsen edited and published by G. Brandes, J. Elias, and P. Schlenther from 1898 to 1902. The standard French translation is The Complete Works of Ibsen in 16 volumes translated and published by P. G. La Chesnais from 1914 to 1945.(Tan，2004:151)

Strindberg’s work was translated into English as early as 1912. For the next fifty or sixty years, many people worked on Strindberg’s studies and translations. Major English translators included E. Schleussner, Walter Johnson, M. Sandbach, Elizabeth Sprigge and Michael Meyer. Some good works are Sprigge’s translations of Strinberg’s Plays in 1963 and Meyer’s translations of The Father, Miss Julie, Storm and so on in 1964. In other major western European countries such as Germany and France, Strindberg’s plays were also translated into German and French, and repeatedly staged in Berlin and Paris. (Tan，2004:152)

There is no doubt that the translation of modern and contemporary Russian and Nordic literature and drama was a mainstream of western translation in the first half of the century. However, at the same time, it must be pointed out that the mutual translation of modern and contemporary literary works in western European countries still enjoys considerable momentum.

====More and more Chinese works were translated.====
In the 20th century, more and more people in the West became interested in Chinese culture. Since the 1950s, with the improvement of new China’s international prestige, the fever of translating Chinese works had been constantly appearing in the West. Not only the Four Books, Five Classics, Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Water Margin, Journey to the West, A Dream of Red Mansions and the poems of Li Bai, Du Fu and Bai Juyi were translated into English, German and French, but modern writers such as Luxun, Maodun and Bajin were also introduced to western countries. In the process of translating and introducing Chinese works, excellent translators have emerged from every country.

According to the study of Tan Zaixi, Arthur Waley, the most eminent Sinologist in Britain in the 20th century, was a translator, writer and poet. In 1916, his first translation of Chinese Poems was published. In 1918, he published his second translated work One Hundred Seventy Chinese Poems. These two translations are both from Tang poems. In addition, he also translated part of Journey to the West in 1942, published four other Chinese-English translations, and wrote three books about China or Chinese writers. Another outstanding Sinologist and translator in the 20th century was Franz Kuhn of Germany. From 1919, when his first translation was published, to his death in 1961, he translated and published more than 40 classical and modern Chinese literary works, including 12 novels and 34 short stories. In particular, his translation of The Fortunate Union in 1926, Second Bloom in 1927, The Golden Lotus in 1930, A Dream of Red Mansions in 1932, Water Margin in 1934, Jade Dragonfly in 1936, Romance of the Three Kingdoms in 1940, Midnight and other works from 1940 to 1955, were well received by German readers.（Tan,2004:153-156）

===The creativity of translation and the language in translation were paid more attention.===
In the aspect of translation theory, scholars had deeply reflected on the traditional translation theory, especially questioned the universality of language, and proposed that when the meaning of the original text becomes obscure and difficult to understand, translators must fill in the gaps of the text according to their own experience. Therefore, translation theories of this period paid more attention to the creativity of translation and the language problems in translation. Although they did not separate themselves from the discussion of translation techniques such as word selection and sentence construction, they laid a foundation for the linguistic turn of translation studies and provided theoretical thinking for the translation literature as an independent existence. And about the specific translation theories in different countries in this period, Xie Tianzhen made a brief summary.

J. P. Postgate is a famous Translation theorist in Britain, and he put forward prospective translation and retrospective translation. Prospective translation means that the translator always keeps the reader in mind and adopts free methods and common expressions to ensure that the original ideas of the reader are not affected and their prediction is not interfered with. The purpose of translation is to show the translator’s mastery of the target language, focusing on the target language rather than the original one. Retrospective translation means that the translator always looks at the original author, because the purpose of translation is to impart knowledge of the original text, rather than to look ahead and consider the reader of the translation.（Xie，2011:29）

French scholar J. Marouzeau’s "On Translation of Latin" is an important translation literature in French. He believed that translation is a skill in which the translator should reveal to the reader the content of the original work, rather than its shell, using a living language.（Xie，2011:29）

German thinker Walter Benjamin pointed out that although the translation is based on the original, it is the afterlife of the original work and the translation need not pursue the same meaning as the original work. Mediocre translators pay more attention to the meaning of the original work than to its literariness and language style and they only know that the translation exists to serve the original work and can only translate the non-essential content of the original work. (Xie Tianzhen，2008:319-332) The translator’s task is to use his own language to release the pure language trapped by another language, that is, to liberate the imprisoned language in the re-creation of the original text. Edwin Gentzler, a contemporary American translation theorist, believed that the discussion of translation issues among Anglo-American deconstructionists mainly revolves around comments on Benjamin’s Translator’s Task. (Edwin Gentzler, 2004:173-174.) Therefore, Translator’s Task is regarded as the “Bible” of translation theory and the classic of deconstructive translation theory.（Xie，2011:30）

The Russian scholar Mikhail Vasilievich Lemonosov transformed the loanwords that entered the Russian language, russified them, and regarded translation as a creative activity. And this view of free translation lasted until the 19th century. Aleksandr Pushkin, the greatest Russian poet in the 19th century, based on his literary translation practice, proposed that translators should have their own opinions on the selection of materials and should have full freedom in dealing with the original work, but the uniqueness of the original work should be preserved as much as possible.（Xie，2011:30）

==The General Situation of Translation in the Contemporary Age==
After the Second World War, the world entered a period of relative peace. After the trauma of the war, the Western countries regrouped and began to restore and develop production and economy in an all-round way. Translation cause also entered a new period of development at extremely rapid pace, taking on a new look. During this period, not only in the Soviet Union, Britain, Germany, France and other major European countries, but also in the United States, Canada, the cause of translation showed a prosperous scene. In terms of the whole western translation career, the translation after the Second World War was unmatched in scope, form, scale and achievement. Therefore, the 20th century could be called as "the age of translation" , which in fact mainly referred to the decades since the end of the war. Though great achievement was also made in literary translation in this period, the 20th century is known as the "age of translation" mainly because western translation expanded into various fields during this period, which has five characteristics.

===The scale of translation extended to the field of business, diplomacy, science and many other professional affairs.===
Since the end of the Second World War, due to practical needs, commercial, diplomatic, scientific and technological translation had flourished, and its momentum even exceeded literary translation, thus forming a major content of the development of modern western translation.Here is the research of Tan Zaixi about the scale of translation.

In 1945, the United Nations was established with English, French, Russian, Chinese and Spanish as the five official and working languages. In 1957, the European Community was founded, consisting of six countries at that time. In 1993, the European Community developed into the European Union. By 2004, it had 25 member states, using nine languages including English, French, German, Italy, Denmark, Ireland, Greece, Spain and Portugal. That is to say, translation had become an indispensable part of daily work, both for communicating with countries in other regions and among western countries. According to UNESCO, the number of translations in the world increased four-and-a-half times from 1948 to 1970. The institutions of the European Common Market employed more than 1,300 employees to deal with translation, of whom 450 were full-time interpreters, 550 translators and others were freelance employees on short-term contracts. (Tan,2004:160-161)

===Translation teaching was widespread.===
In the past, translation was mainly the work of a few literary magnates. With the establishment of the United Nations and its specialized agencies, as well as the establishment of international institutions such as the European Common Market (EC, EU) and the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, the need for translators was increasing. To meet this need, a number of schools specializing in training translators had been set up.

According to the study of Tan Zaixi, the most prominent schools are the High School of Translation at the Third University of Paris and the School of Translation at the University of Ottawa. What’s more, many universities in Europe and the United States also offer translation classes or courses in senior grades.（Tan, 2004:161-162）

===Translators’associations were established and publications on translation studies were launched.===
Translators in different countries set up various translation associations and publications. These associations played an important role in the development of translation through their activities and publications.

According to Tan Zaixi, translation associations or federations in European and American capitalist countries, in particular, generally emphasize the following principles: to clarify the legal status of translators through legislative means; to take effective measures to protect the legal rights of translators (especially the copyright that translators should enjoy); to improve their social status and increase their economic income; to improve the learning and working conditions of translators to provide them with opportunities to constantly improve their translation skills and a good working environment.（Tan，2004:162）

There were more translators’ organizations in the United States than in other western countries, with a total of 30, among which the most influential were the American Society of Translators, the American Federation of Linguists and the Literary Society of America. The journal of the American Society of Translators was ATA Chronicle. The journal of the Literary Society of America was Translation Review.（Tan，2004:162-163）

In Canada, major translation associations included the Canadian Council of Translators and Interpreters, the Ontario Association of Translators and Interpreters, the Business Language Centre, and the Quebec Translation Association. The Ontario Association of Translators and Interpreters founded the journal of Inform ATIO. The most influential professional translation magazine in Canada was Meta: Journal des Traducteurs.（Tan，2004:164）

In Britain, major translation associations included the Association of Translation Companies of Great Britain, the Association of Translators and the Guild of Translators, of which the Guild of Translators was the most famous. The official publication of the guild is The Incorporated Linguist, which was published in 1962 and enjoyed high reputation in Britain.（Tan，2004:164)

There were two major translation associations in France: the Association of French Translators and the Association of French Literary Translators. There were also two major translation associations in West Germany, one was the Association of Federation Translators and Interpreters and the other was the German-speaking World Federation of Literary and Technical Translators. In addition, Austria, Italy, Spain, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, Finland, Belgium and other Western European countries also had local or national translation organizations and a variety of translation publications.（Tan，2004:164-165）

===Machine translation developed.===
In the process of more than two thousand years of development, the traditional translation method had not undergone substantial changes in technology, and the translation between the two languages still had to be carried out by hand. However, due to the increasingly frequent international scientific and cultural exchanges, manual translation could no longer timely meet the needs. Therefore, when the traditional manual translation was facing the challenge of the times, machine translation should be born. In 1946, under the auspices of the United States Army headquarters, J.P. Eckert and J.W. Mauchly who were both from the University of Pennsylvania developed the world’s first electronic computer named: Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator, or ENIAC for short. Computer’s astonishing speed inspired people to consider the innovation of translation technology. Therefore, in the same year, Andrew Booth and Warren Weaver first proposed the use of computers in the machine translation system. Since then, machine translation and machine translation research, driven by modern electronic computing technology officially began.American science, especially the development of computer science, to a large extent affected the development of computer science in the whole West and even the world. Therefore, especially in the pioneering period, the development history and model of Machine translation in America can almost be regarded as those in the whole West. In this sense, the development of machine translation in the west (and even the world) can be roughly divided into the following five major periods, just like the development of Machine translation in the United States: initial stage; high stage; low stage; recovery stage; vigorous stage. The following is a further overview of the five development periods of machine translation in the West (mainly in the United States) made by Tan Zaixi who referred to the books of Yang Muyun, Li Zhisheng，Yu Hao, Zhao Tiejun and so on.

====Initial stage (1946—1954)====
The pioneering period begins with Booth and Weaver’s idea of translating natural language by computer in 1954, and ends with the birth of the first machine translation system. After the idea of using computers to translate was put forward, although there was great resistance in the United States at first, the voice supporting it was mainstream. In particular, Weaver published a memorandum on machine translation in 1949, which not only opened up a series of research topics on machine translation in the United States, but also had a wide influence in western countries. The memo makes four basic points: the problem of polysemy can be solved by context; there is a logical basis in language; there are basic probabilities in language application; there are common elements in different languages. These are still the fundamental of the development of machine translation. In the following years, machine translation research had been actively carried out in some universities and organizations in the United States and Britain. In Massachusetts Institute of Technology, the first full-time machine translation researcher Bar-Hillel arrived, he made a great contribution to the early development of machine translation and put forward the main problems and basic strategies needed to be solved in machine translation research. The first machine translation conference was held at MIT in June 1952, after which machine translation research in the United States began to accelerate. In 1954, a machine translation system for computer was developed and demonstrated. Although the machine translation system was small, consisting of only 250 Russian words, six grammar rules, and a few translation examples, it first showed the public and the scientific community the feasibility of machine translation, inspiring substantial funding from U.S. government for machine translation research over the next decade.（Tan，2004:167-168）

====High-tide stage(1954—1966)====
The successful demonstration of the world’s first machine translation system, the Georgetown-IBM system of United States, marked the first development climax of machine translation. The upsurge began in 1954 and lasted for 12 years. In the mid-1950s, inspired by successful demonstration of machine translation system, dozens of universities, companies, and government agencies in the United States began machine translation research programs. On the one hand, due to the competition between the United States and the Soviet Union at that time, the United States military, the National Science Foundation, the Central Intelligence Agency and so on needed to acquire a large amount of scientific and technological information of the Soviet Union, so that they invested a lot in machine translation, especially Russian-English translation. On the other hand, advanced computers in the United States provided good equipment for the development of the first generation of machine translation system. At the same time, many universities and institutions in most European countries had also carried out machine translation research.（Tan，2004:168-170）

====Low-tide stage (1966—1975)====
The advent of machine translation had opened up a new way for traditional translation research and practice. However, the complexity of machine translation was underestimated at that time and the design of machine translation system was often too rough and simple. In this case, the first generation of machine translation systems in the initial stage could not achieve ideal results, the quality of translation is often poor, so that some people gradually lost confidence in machine translation research, and some scholars also became pessimistic and disappointed. （Tan，2004:170）

In the mid-1960s, machine translation in the United States had suffered a severe blow. In 1966, the Automatic Language Processing Advisory Committee, part of the National Academy of Sciences, was asked to investigate machine translation research funded by government. The committee published its report, Language and Machines, after analyzing the speed, quality, cost and demand of machine translation at that time. The report pointed out that the quality of machine translation is significantly lower than that of human translation and asserted that there was no likelihood of any commercially useful machine translation system in the foreseeable future. On the committee’s recommendation, the U.S. government withdrew the funding for machine translation research. Thus, machine translation research in the United States plummeted from a high point to a low point of development. It should be noted, however, that machine translation research and development was not in a complete demise, following the official denials in the United States. Scholars and research institutions in many countries including the United States continued to carry out researches and experiments on machine translation under relatively difficult circumstances.（Tan，2004:171）

====Recovery stage(1975—1989)====
In the middle of 1970s, with the emergence of new theories and ideas in the field of linguistics and the further development of computational linguistics, the research of machine translation was aroused in the world again. After ten years of silence, machine translation research stepped on the road of recovery. The recovery period of machine translation research and development is generally considered to date from the installation of the SYSTRAN system by EURATOM and the completion of the TAUM-METEO system by the University of Montreal in Canada.（Tan，2004:171-174）

====Vigorous stage（1989—）====
Since the late 1980s, some new developments had changed the field of machine translation, marking machine translation research enter a new period. This is the emergence of the third generation of machine translation method that is corpus-based. Corpus-based machine translation systems include statistic-based translation and example-based translation, both of which are based on large-scale real text. （Tan，2004:167-175）

Practice has proved that machine translation has great vitality. It is a new science, and its research and translation have entered a new stage of development. No matter whether it can replace the human brain and hands eventually and completely liberate human from the heavy artificial translation, it will develop and exist for a long time. Both in theory and practice, machine translation and its research will exert more and more influence on traditional translation and its research.

===Translation theories of different schools were emerging one after another.===
The most important feature of modern western translation is the rapid development of translation theory. After the Second World War, with the vigorous development of science and technology, modern linguistics, translation activities and the rise of machine translation, people gradually changed the traditional view of translation studies, believing that translation is not only an art or skill, but also a science with rules to follow.

On the whole, the development of contemporary translation theory has two characteristics :(1) theoretical research has been brought into the scope of linguistics, under the influence of modern linguistics and information theory; (2) the traditional situation of non-communication between theorists has been broken. Translation theorists fully express their views through various channels, such as published works.(Xie Tianzhen, 2009:32)

After the Second World War, with the modernization and integration of western social and economic development, western translation theories also began to enter a new period that transcends national boundaries. Therefore, it is difficult to classify some translation thoughts and some translation theorists in a narrow sense as belonging to a certain country or a certain place. It is acceptable to divide contemporary western translation theories into different schools according to their basic approaches and methods of translation studies or the basic characteristics of thought. Here is a brief introduction to some influential schools classified by Zhao Jiajin.

====American Translation Training School====
First established in 1964 at the University of Iowa, this school focused on translation practice, emphasized the literary taste and value of works, and adopted the methods of L. A. Richards and Williard V. Quine of Harvard University. Representative figures included poet and translator Ezra Pound, who translated Tang poetry and advocated the accurate restoration of details, words, fragments and the whole image description. Frederic Will of the University of Iowa, drawing on his training experience, regarded translation as a form of naming, fiction writing and cognition. Yale’s Jonas Zdnys argued that translation is an activity of subjective thought designed to explain literature. This school explores the role of the human mind in translation and raises the question of the nature of translation, but translation theory was limited to aesthetic experience and prescriptive translation rules.

====Translation Science School====
It was also known as “linguistic school”. According to this school, translation is the process of reproducing language as a whole, and it aims to correctly convey the original information to readers. The school was founded by Eugene Nida, whose masterpieces include Message and Mission (1960) and Toward Science of Translation (1946). Nida proposed functional equivalence theory according to Noam Chomsky’s transformational generative grammar and his experience in Bible translation, that is, to digest the original text and understand its basic structure and meaning; convey meaning based on basic structure; obtain semantic and stylistic equivalence with the original text. Thus the translation process can be summarized as: analyze—transfer—restructure, these three steps. The school of Translation science adopted linguistic theory and the more objective description method in translation theory. In the late 1970s, emphasis was placed on the cultural background of the information age, but the research was still limited to prescriptive research and translation criteria, ignoring the role of translators’thinking.（Zhao Jiajin,1996: 46）

====Translation school====
It is the so-called “literary school”. This school held that the original work is the unity of sentence series and article structure, and the translator is influenced by the original view and the future model of translation in the process of translation. The founder of this school was James Holmes, an American poet, who taught translation at the University of Amsterdam in the Netherlands before his death. His representative work is ''The Name and Nature of Translation Studies'' (1972).（Zhao Jiajin,1996: 46）

====Polysystem School====
Its founders are Itammar Even-Zohar and Gideon Toury of Tel Aviv University in Israel. Even coined the term Polysystem to explore the relationship between translated works and literary systems, and explained that the oriented culture of translation not only determines whether a work can be translated, but also regulates the wording. Toury held that translation belongs to the second system of multiple systems, and its role depends on the strength and development stage of the oriented culture of translation. He held that translation has no fixed identity and has multiple identities due to its social, literary and historical background. This school integrates translation studies with literary studies, social and economic factors, endows translation studies with historical significance, but it is still limited to the acceptability of translation and does not get rid of the fetters of cultural equivalence.（Zhao Jiajin,1996: 46）

====Deconstruction School====
It is also known as “affirmative productivity school”. It originated in France in the mid-1960s and is represented by Michel Foucault, Martin Heidegger and Jacques Derrida. This school introduced deconstruction into translation, claiming that translators create the subject and the target language is a new language. As Foucault put it, the original work is constantly rewritten in the process of translation, and the translator rewrites the original work every time he reads and translates it. Deconstruction studies the nature and process of translation and language, and advocates that translators exist as entities. The school even goes so far as to believe that language does not involve any objective reality, and translators have their own status only when they create texts.（Zhao Jiajin,1996: 46-47）

==Conclusion==
Under the influence of historical backgrounds, different periods of translation show different traits. In the modern period, the content of translation still focused on literature which included works form Russian, Nordic countries, China and so on. The way of translation was artificial and traditional. With the progress of economy and science, translation in the contemporary period also got great development. The content of translation was not confined to the field of literature. Instead, translation of science and technology, commerce, entertainment and so on became a major part of the actual translation activities. In addition, machine translation as a novel technique developed quickly. And the most important feature of modern western translation is the rapid development of translation theory thanks to many translator associations and publications on translation studies. Nowadays, under the influence of globalization, translation shows more and more importance and get better development environment.

==References==

Barnstone，Willis(1993). The Poetics of Trunslation: History, Theory, Practice[M]. New Haven:Yale University Press.

Bates, Ernest Stuart(1936). Modern Translation[M]. London: Oxford University Press.

Catford, John(1965). A Linguistic Theory of Translation: An Essay in Applied Linguistics[M].Oxford and London: Oxford University Press.

Delisle, Jean(1995). Translation: An Interpretive Approach[M]. Ottawa: University of Ottawa Press.

Feng Zhiwei 冯志伟(1994).《自然语言机器翻译新论》[M] New Theories of Machine Translation of Natural Language.北京:语文出版社Beijing: Chinese Press.

FitzMaurice-Kelly, J(1911). "Translation"[J]. Encyclopedia Britannica (11th edition, Cambridge),27:183-188.

Gentzler, Edwin(2004). Contemporary Translation Theories[M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

Hutchins，Robert(1952). Great Books of the Western World[M]. Chicago: Encyclopaedia .Britannica Ltd.

Mu Yunyang,Li Zhisheng,Yu Hao杨沐昀、李志升、于浩(2000).《机器翻译系统》[M]Machine Translation System.哈尔滨：哈尔滨工业大学出版社Harbin: Harbin University of Technology Press.

Tan Zaixi谭载喜(2004).西方翻译简史[M]A Brief History of Western Translation.北京：商务印书馆Beijing:The Commercial Press.

Tan Zaixi谭载喜(1985).西方翻译史浅谈[J]On the History of Western Translation.中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal,7:36-39.

Xie Tianzhen谢天振(2008).《当代国外翻译理论导读》[M]Introduction to Contemporary Foreign Translation Theories.天津：南开大学出版社Tianjin：Nankai University Press.

Xie Tianzhen谢天振(2011).中西翻译简史[M]A Brief History of Chinese and Western Translation.北京:外语教学与研究出版社Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.

Zhao Jiajin赵家琎(1996).当代翻译学派简介[J]A Brief Introduction to Contemporary Translation Schools.中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal,5：46—47.

Zhao Tiejun赵铁军等(2001).《机器翻译原理》[M]Principles of Machine Translation.哈尔滨：哈尔滨工业大学出版社Harbin: Harbin University of Technology Press.

Hist Trans EN 14

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Wei Chuxuan: /* Recovery stage(1975—1989) */

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=Western Translation History In the Modern and Contemperary Ages=
'''现当代西方翻译史'''

魏楚璇，Wei Chuxuan, Hunan Normal University, China

==Abstract==
Under different historical backgrounds, western translation presents different characteristics. In the 20th century before the end of the Second World War, the two world wars inevitably brought obstacles and disturbances to the development of translation. Therefore, though translation in this period still continued to develop, it did not get breakthrough. Translation was still dominated by literary works in content, totally relying on manual labor. In translation theory, it emphasized the creativity of translation and laid a foundation for the linguistic turn of translation studies. After the end of World War II, the world entered an era of relative peace, the world economy recovered, and the translation industry was greatly revitalized. During this period, the scale of translation covered all aspects of social life, machine translation developed fast, translation training flourished, translation organizations were established in various countries and many translation theories and schools emerged. That is to say, this period can be called the golden age of translation.

==摘要==
在不同的历史背景下，西方翻译呈现出不同的特点。在二战结束之前的二十世纪，两次世界大战不可避免地为翻译事业的发展带来了阻碍和干扰，因而这一时期的翻译虽然仍在发展但并未取得突破性的成就，在翻译的内容上仍然以文学作品为主，技术上完全依赖人工，理论方面注重翻译的创造性且为翻译研究的语言学转向奠定了基础。二战结束后，世界进入到相对和平的年代，世界经济复苏，翻译事业也大为振兴。在这一时期，翻译的内容覆盖社会生活的方方面面，机器翻译发展迅速，翻译培训兴起，翻译组织在各国成立，各种翻译理论和翻译流派涌现，可谓是翻译的黄金年代。

==Keywords==
Western translation; translation history; modern; contemperary

==Introduction==
In this paper, western translation history in modern and contemporary ages will be introduced. Here the modern age refers to the nearly half century before the Second World War. And the contemporary age refers to the half century after the Second World War. That is to say, the modern and contemporary translation in this paper refers to the translation in the 20th century. Under the influence of different historical backgrounds, translation in these two ages showed different characteristics and traits which will be concluded and discussed in detail in the following.

==The General Situation of Translation in the Modern Age==
Into the 20th century, the capitalism in the developed countries developed into imperialism. On the one hand, the imperialist countries intensified their foreign expansion to oppress and exploit the weak countries and people in colony. On the other hand, they were engaged in a fierce battle among themselves for international markets and spheres of influence. Thus, in less than half a century, two world wars broke out. Under this historical background, translation in western countries will inevitably be seriously disturbed and destroyed. However, translation in western countries continued to develop and excellent translations still appeared from time to time. The translation of this period also has its own traits. The general situation of translation in this period can be summarized from the following two aspects.

===The emphasis of translation was on Russian and Nordic works and more Chinese works were translated.===
From the end of the 19th century to the beginning of the 20th century, the literature of Russia and the Nordic countries developed greatly with the emergence of Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoyevsky, Leo Tolstoy, Chekhov, Andersen, Ibsen, Strindberg and other world-renowned great writers and dramatists. Their works had attracted the attention of the people in Western Europe and North America so they were competing to learn Russian, Danish and Swedish and had these works translated into English, German and French. In the process of translation, many excellent translators emerged in various countries.
====Translation of Russian literature====
According to the research of Tan Zaixi, Constance Garnet is the most famous female translator in Britain in this century. She translated almost all classic Russian novels and is widely regarded as the most important Translator of translating Russian literature into English. She published her first translation of Turgenev's novel Ru-Din in 1894. In the following decades, she devoted almost all her energy and time to the translation of Russian literature. She was the first person to translate Turgenev, Dostoyevsky and Chekhov into English, successively translating all the major works of Turgenev, Goncharov, Dostoyevsky, Tolstoy, Gogol and Chekhov including 12 volumes of Dostoyevsky's Selected Works translated from 1912 to 1920, 15 volumes of Turgenev's Selected Works translated from 1894 to 1899, 15 volumes of Chekhov's Novels and Plays translated from 1916 to 1922, and 6 volumes of Gogol’s Selected Works translated from 1922 to 1928. In particular, her translations of Turgenev, Chekhov, Dostoyevsky and other works were widely welcomed by the English reading community, and thus gave rise to the Russian literature craze in English literature before the First World War. She translated 70 Russian works in her lifetime, making her the most prolific translator of Russian works.
Two other translators who did not translate as much from Russian to English as Garnett, but who had no less influence, were the couple——Louise and Aylmer Maude. They are famous in western modern literary circles for their research and translation of Tolstoy's works. From 1928 to 1937, they spent nearly ten years translating and publishing 21 volumes of The Complete Works of Tolstoy. Later, from 1940s to 1950s, they supplemented or retranslated some of Tolstoy's works, such as What I Believe and Resurrection. In 1952, their work of War and Peace was accepted as a standard English translation and was selected for the prestigious Great Books of the Western World, thus establishing them as the authoritative English translators of Tolstoy. In addition, R. S. Townsend, R. Edmonds, Samuel Koteliansky, Ethel C. Mayne, Boris Brasol, Richard Renfield and so on were famous for translating the works of Tolstoy, Dostoevsky, Turgenev, Chekhov, Goncharov into English.（Tan，2004:148-150）

====Translation of Nordic literature and drama====
In the first half of the 20th century, in addition to Russian literature, western European translators showed great interest in Nordic literature and drama, including the works of Andersen, Ibsen and Strindberg.

According to the study of Tan Zaixi, when Hans Christian Andersen was alive, one of his works was published simultaneously in 15 languages, including English, German, French, Italian, Spanish and almost all the major languages of Western Europe. Later, all of his works were translated into different languages, and there were many re-translations in English, French, German and other countries. The first English translator was Mary Howitt, who began translating Andersen’s fairy tales in 1846. Later translators include Charles Boner, Caroline Peachey, Lady Duff Gordon, Paul Leyssac, R. R. Keigwin and R. Spink. Some of the best translations are Leyssac’s translation in 1937, Keigwin’s translation from 1950 to 1960 and Spink’s translation.(Tan，2004:151)

The main English translators of Ibsen’s plays are William Archer and James MacFarlane. Archer translated 12 volumes of The Collected Works of H. I. from 1906 to 1912, including almost all of Ibsen’s plays and some of his previously unpublished papers. Macfarlane compiled translated eight volumes of The Oxford Ibsen from 1960 to 1977. In addition, F. E. Garrett translated Lyrics and Poems from Ibsen in 1912. Mary Morison translated The Correspondence of H.I. in 1905. Evert Sprinchorn translated H. I. Letters and Speeches in 1964. (Tan，2004:151)

In Germany, the standard German translation is the 10-volume The Collected Plays of Ibsen edited and published by G. Brandes, J. Elias, and P. Schlenther from 1898 to 1902. The standard French translation is The Complete Works of Ibsen in 16 volumes translated and published by P. G. La Chesnais from 1914 to 1945.(Tan，2004:151)

Strindberg’s work was translated into English as early as 1912. For the next fifty or sixty years, many people worked on Strindberg’s studies and translations. Major English translators included E. Schleussner, Walter Johnson, M. Sandbach, Elizabeth Sprigge and Michael Meyer. Some good works are Sprigge’s translations of Strinberg’s Plays in 1963 and Meyer’s translations of The Father, Miss Julie, Storm and so on in 1964. In other major western European countries such as Germany and France, Strindberg’s plays were also translated into German and French, and repeatedly staged in Berlin and Paris. (Tan，2004:152)

There is no doubt that the translation of modern and contemporary Russian and Nordic literature and drama was a mainstream of western translation in the first half of the century. However, at the same time, it must be pointed out that the mutual translation of modern and contemporary literary works in western European countries still enjoys considerable momentum.

====More and more Chinese works were translated.====
In the 20th century, more and more people in the West became interested in Chinese culture. Since the 1950s, with the improvement of new China’s international prestige, the fever of translating Chinese works had been constantly appearing in the West. Not only the Four Books, Five Classics, Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Water Margin, Journey to the West, A Dream of Red Mansions and the poems of Li Bai, Du Fu and Bai Juyi were translated into English, German and French, but modern writers such as Luxun, Maodun and Bajin were also introduced to western countries. In the process of translating and introducing Chinese works, excellent translators have emerged from every country.

According to the study of Tan Zaixi, Arthur Waley, the most eminent Sinologist in Britain in the 20th century, was a translator, writer and poet. In 1916, his first translation of Chinese Poems was published. In 1918, he published his second translated work One Hundred Seventy Chinese Poems. These two translations are both from Tang poems. In addition, he also translated part of Journey to the West in 1942, published four other Chinese-English translations, and wrote three books about China or Chinese writers. Another outstanding Sinologist and translator in the 20th century was Franz Kuhn of Germany. From 1919, when his first translation was published, to his death in 1961, he translated and published more than 40 classical and modern Chinese literary works, including 12 novels and 34 short stories. In particular, his translation of The Fortunate Union in 1926, Second Bloom in 1927, The Golden Lotus in 1930, A Dream of Red Mansions in 1932, Water Margin in 1934, Jade Dragonfly in 1936, Romance of the Three Kingdoms in 1940, Midnight and other works from 1940 to 1955, were well received by German readers.（Tan,2004:153-156）

===The creativity of translation and the language in translation were paid more attention.===
In the aspect of translation theory, scholars had deeply reflected on the traditional translation theory, especially questioned the universality of language, and proposed that when the meaning of the original text becomes obscure and difficult to understand, translators must fill in the gaps of the text according to their own experience. Therefore, translation theories of this period paid more attention to the creativity of translation and the language problems in translation. Although they did not separate themselves from the discussion of translation techniques such as word selection and sentence construction, they laid a foundation for the linguistic turn of translation studies and provided theoretical thinking for the translation literature as an independent existence. And about the specific translation theories in different countries in this period, Xie Tianzhen made a brief summary.

J. P. Postgate is a famous Translation theorist in Britain, and he put forward prospective translation and retrospective translation. Prospective translation means that the translator always keeps the reader in mind and adopts free methods and common expressions to ensure that the original ideas of the reader are not affected and their prediction is not interfered with. The purpose of translation is to show the translator’s mastery of the target language, focusing on the target language rather than the original one. Retrospective translation means that the translator always looks at the original author, because the purpose of translation is to impart knowledge of the original text, rather than to look ahead and consider the reader of the translation.（Xie，2011:29）

French scholar J. Marouzeau’s "On Translation of Latin" is an important translation literature in French. He believed that translation is a skill in which the translator should reveal to the reader the content of the original work, rather than its shell, using a living language.（Xie，2011:29）

German thinker Walter Benjamin pointed out that although the translation is based on the original, it is the afterlife of the original work and the translation need not pursue the same meaning as the original work. Mediocre translators pay more attention to the meaning of the original work than to its literariness and language style and they only know that the translation exists to serve the original work and can only translate the non-essential content of the original work. (Xie Tianzhen，2008:319-332) The translator’s task is to use his own language to release the pure language trapped by another language, that is, to liberate the imprisoned language in the re-creation of the original text. Edwin Gentzler, a contemporary American translation theorist, believed that the discussion of translation issues among Anglo-American deconstructionists mainly revolves around comments on Benjamin’s Translator’s Task. (Edwin Gentzler, 2004:173-174.) Therefore, Translator’s Task is regarded as the “Bible” of translation theory and the classic of deconstructive translation theory.（Xie，2011:30）

The Russian scholar Mikhail Vasilievich Lemonosov transformed the loanwords that entered the Russian language, russified them, and regarded translation as a creative activity. And this view of free translation lasted until the 19th century. Aleksandr Pushkin, the greatest Russian poet in the 19th century, based on his literary translation practice, proposed that translators should have their own opinions on the selection of materials and should have full freedom in dealing with the original work, but the uniqueness of the original work should be preserved as much as possible.（Xie，2011:30）

==The General Situation of Translation in the Contemporary Age==
After the Second World War, the world entered a period of relative peace. After the trauma of the war, the Western countries regrouped and began to restore and develop production and economy in an all-round way. Translation cause also entered a new period of development at extremely rapid pace, taking on a new look. During this period, not only in the Soviet Union, Britain, Germany, France and other major European countries, but also in the United States, Canada, the cause of translation showed a prosperous scene. In terms of the whole western translation career, the translation after the Second World War was unmatched in scope, form, scale and achievement. Therefore, the 20th century could be called as "the age of translation" , which in fact mainly referred to the decades since the end of the war. Though great achievement was also made in literary translation in this period, the 20th century is known as the "age of translation" mainly because western translation expanded into various fields during this period, which has five characteristics.

===The scale of translation extended to the field of business, diplomacy, science and many other professional affairs.===
Since the end of the Second World War, due to practical needs, commercial, diplomatic, scientific and technological translation had flourished, and its momentum even exceeded literary translation, thus forming a major content of the development of modern western translation.Here is the research of Tan Zaixi about the scale of translation.

In 1945, the United Nations was established with English, French, Russian, Chinese and Spanish as the five official and working languages. In 1957, the European Community was founded, consisting of six countries at that time. In 1993, the European Community developed into the European Union. By 2004, it had 25 member states, using nine languages including English, French, German, Italy, Denmark, Ireland, Greece, Spain and Portugal. That is to say, translation had become an indispensable part of daily work, both for communicating with countries in other regions and among western countries. According to UNESCO, the number of translations in the world increased four-and-a-half times from 1948 to 1970. The institutions of the European Common Market employed more than 1,300 employees to deal with translation, of whom 450 were full-time interpreters, 550 translators and others were freelance employees on short-term contracts. (Tan,2004:160-161)

===Translation teaching was widespread.===
In the past, translation was mainly the work of a few literary magnates. With the establishment of the United Nations and its specialized agencies, as well as the establishment of international institutions such as the European Common Market (EC, EU) and the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, the need for translators was increasing. To meet this need, a number of schools specializing in training translators had been set up.

According to the study of Tan Zaixi, the most prominent schools are the High School of Translation at the Third University of Paris and the School of Translation at the University of Ottawa. What’s more, many universities in Europe and the United States also offer translation classes or courses in senior grades.（Tan, 2004:161-162）

===Translators’associations were established and publications on translation studies were launched.===
Translators in different countries set up various translation associations and publications. These associations played an important role in the development of translation through their activities and publications.

According to Tan Zaixi, translation associations or federations in European and American capitalist countries, in particular, generally emphasize the following principles: to clarify the legal status of translators through legislative means; to take effective measures to protect the legal rights of translators (especially the copyright that translators should enjoy); to improve their social status and increase their economic income; to improve the learning and working conditions of translators to provide them with opportunities to constantly improve their translation skills and a good working environment.（Tan，2004:162）

There were more translators’ organizations in the United States than in other western countries, with a total of 30, among which the most influential were the American Society of Translators, the American Federation of Linguists and the Literary Society of America. The journal of the American Society of Translators was ATA Chronicle. The journal of the Literary Society of America was Translation Review.（Tan，2004:162-163）

In Canada, major translation associations included the Canadian Council of Translators and Interpreters, the Ontario Association of Translators and Interpreters, the Business Language Centre, and the Quebec Translation Association. The Ontario Association of Translators and Interpreters founded the journal of Inform ATIO. The most influential professional translation magazine in Canada was Meta: Journal des Traducteurs.（Tan，2004:164）

In Britain, major translation associations included the Association of Translation Companies of Great Britain, the Association of Translators and the Guild of Translators, of which the Guild of Translators was the most famous. The official publication of the guild is The Incorporated Linguist, which was published in 1962 and enjoyed high reputation in Britain.（Tan，2004:164)

There were two major translation associations in France: the Association of French Translators and the Association of French Literary Translators. There were also two major translation associations in West Germany, one was the Association of Federation Translators and Interpreters and the other was the German-speaking World Federation of Literary and Technical Translators. In addition, Austria, Italy, Spain, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, Finland, Belgium and other Western European countries also had local or national translation organizations and a variety of translation publications.（Tan，2004:164-165）

===Machine translation developed.===
In the process of more than two thousand years of development, the traditional translation method had not undergone substantial changes in technology, and the translation between the two languages still had to be carried out by hand. However, due to the increasingly frequent international scientific and cultural exchanges, manual translation could no longer timely meet the needs. Therefore, when the traditional manual translation was facing the challenge of the times, machine translation should be born. In 1946, under the auspices of the United States Army headquarters, J.P. Eckert and J.W. Mauchly who were both from the University of Pennsylvania developed the world’s first electronic computer named: Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator, or ENIAC for short. Computer’s astonishing speed inspired people to consider the innovation of translation technology. Therefore, in the same year, Andrew Booth and Warren Weaver first proposed the use of computers in the machine translation system. Since then, machine translation and machine translation research, driven by modern electronic computing technology officially began.American science, especially the development of computer science, to a large extent affected the development of computer science in the whole West and even the world. Therefore, especially in the pioneering period, the development history and model of Machine translation in America can almost be regarded as those in the whole West. In this sense, the development of machine translation in the west (and even the world) can be roughly divided into the following five major periods, just like the development of Machine translation in the United States: initial stage; high stage; low stage; recovery stage; vigorous stage. The following is a further overview of the five development periods of machine translation in the West (mainly in the United States) made by Tan Zaixi who referred to the books of Yang Muyun, Li Zhisheng，Yu Hao, Zhao Tiejun and so on.

====Initial stage (1946—1954)====
The pioneering period begins with Booth and Weaver’s idea of translating natural language by computer in 1954, and ends with the birth of the first machine translation system. After the idea of using computers to translate was put forward, although there was great resistance in the United States at first, the voice supporting it was mainstream. In particular, Weaver published a memorandum on machine translation in 1949, which not only opened up a series of research topics on machine translation in the United States, but also had a wide influence in western countries. The memo makes four basic points: the problem of polysemy can be solved by context; there is a logical basis in language; there are basic probabilities in language application; there are common elements in different languages. These are still the fundamental of the development of machine translation. In the following years, machine translation research had been actively carried out in some universities and organizations in the United States and Britain. In Massachusetts Institute of Technology, the first full-time machine translation researcher Bar-Hillel arrived, he made a great contribution to the early development of machine translation and put forward the main problems and basic strategies needed to be solved in machine translation research. The first machine translation conference was held at MIT in June 1952, after which machine translation research in the United States began to accelerate. In 1954, a machine translation system for computer was developed and demonstrated. Although the machine translation system was small, consisting of only 250 Russian words, six grammar rules, and a few translation examples, it first showed the public and the scientific community the feasibility of machine translation, inspiring substantial funding from U.S. government for machine translation research over the next decade.（Tan，2004:167-168）

====High-tide stage(1954—1966)====
The successful demonstration of the world’s first machine translation system, the Georgetown-IBM system of United States, marked the first development climax of machine translation. The upsurge began in 1954 and lasted for 12 years. In the mid-1950s, inspired by successful demonstration of machine translation system, dozens of universities, companies, and government agencies in the United States began machine translation research programs. On the one hand, due to the competition between the United States and the Soviet Union at that time, the United States military, the National Science Foundation, the Central Intelligence Agency and so on needed to acquire a large amount of scientific and technological information of the Soviet Union, so that they invested a lot in machine translation, especially Russian-English translation. On the other hand, advanced computers in the United States provided good equipment for the development of the first generation of machine translation system. At the same time, many universities and institutions in most European countries had also carried out machine translation research.（Tan，2004:168-170）

====Low-tide stage (1966—1975)====
The advent of machine translation had opened up a new way for traditional translation research and practice. However, the complexity of machine translation was underestimated at that time and the design of machine translation system was often too rough and simple. In this case, the first generation of machine translation systems in the initial stage could not achieve ideal results, the quality of translation is often poor, so that some people gradually lost confidence in machine translation research, and some scholars also became pessimistic and disappointed. （Tan，2004:170）

In the mid-1960s, machine translation in the United States had suffered a severe blow. In 1966, the Automatic Language Processing Advisory Committee, part of the National Academy of Sciences, was asked to investigate machine translation research funded by government. The committee published its report, Language and Machines, after analyzing the speed, quality, cost and demand of machine translation at that time. The report pointed out that the quality of machine translation is significantly lower than that of human translation and asserted that there was no likelihood of any commercially useful machine translation system in the foreseeable future. On the committee’s recommendation, the U.S. government withdrew the funding for machine translation research. Thus, machine translation research in the United States plummeted from a high point to a low point of development. It should be noted, however, that machine translation research and development was not in a complete demise, following the official denials in the United States. Scholars and research institutions in many countries including the United States continued to carry out researches and experiments on machine translation under relatively difficult circumstances.（Tan，2004:171）

====Recovery stage(1975—1989)====
In the middle of 1970s, with the emergence of new theories and ideas in the field of linguistics and the further development of computational linguistics, the research of machine translation was aroused in the world again. After ten years of silence, machine translation research stepped on the road of recovery. The recovery period of machine translation research and development is generally considered to date from the installation of the SYSTRAN system by EURATOM and the completion of the TAUM-METEO system by the University of Montreal in Canada.（Tan，2004:171-174）

====Vigorous stage（1989—）====
Since the late 1980s, some new developments had changed the field of machine translation, marking machine translation research enter a new period. This is the emergence of the third generation of machine translation method that is corpus-based. Corpus-based machine translation systems include statistic-based translation and example-based translation, both of which are based on large-scale real text. （Tan Zaixi，2004:167-175）

Practice has proved that machine translation has great vitality. It is a new science, and its research and translation have entered a new stage of development. No matter whether it can replace the human brain and hands eventually and completely liberate human from the heavy artificial translation, it will develop and exist for a long time. Both in theory and practice, machine translation and its research will exert more and more influence on traditional translation and its research.

===Translation theories of different schools were emerging one after another.===
The most important feature of modern western translation is the rapid development of translation theory. After the Second World War, with the vigorous development of science and technology, modern linguistics, translation activities and the rise of machine translation, people gradually changed the traditional view of translation studies, believing that translation is not only an art or skill, but also a science with rules to follow.

On the whole, the development of contemporary translation theory has two characteristics :(1) theoretical research has been brought into the scope of linguistics, under the influence of modern linguistics and information theory; (2) the traditional situation of non-communication between theorists has been broken. Translation theorists fully express their views through various channels, such as published works.(Xie Tianzhen, 2009:32)

After the Second World War, with the modernization and integration of western social and economic development, western translation theories also began to enter a new period that transcends national boundaries. Therefore, it is difficult to classify some translation thoughts and some translation theorists in a narrow sense as belonging to a certain country or a certain place. It is acceptable to divide contemporary western translation theories into different schools according to their basic approaches and methods of translation studies or the basic characteristics of thought. Here is a brief introduction to some influential schools classified by Zhao Jiajin.

====American Translation Training School====
First established in 1964 at the University of Iowa, this school focused on translation practice, emphasized the literary taste and value of works, and adopted the methods of L. A. Richards and Williard V. Quine of Harvard University. Representative figures included poet and translator Ezra Pound, who translated Tang poetry and advocated the accurate restoration of details, words, fragments and the whole image description. Frederic Will of the University of Iowa, drawing on his training experience, regarded translation as a form of naming, fiction writing and cognition. Yale’s Jonas Zdnys argued that translation is an activity of subjective thought designed to explain literature. This school explores the role of the human mind in translation and raises the question of the nature of translation, but translation theory was limited to aesthetic experience and prescriptive translation rules.

====Translation Science School====
It was also known as “linguistic school”. According to this school, translation is the process of reproducing language as a whole, and it aims to correctly convey the original information to readers. The school was founded by Eugene Nida, whose masterpieces include Message and Mission (1960) and Toward Science of Translation (1946). Nida proposed functional equivalence theory according to Noam Chomsky’s transformational generative grammar and his experience in Bible translation, that is, to digest the original text and understand its basic structure and meaning; convey meaning based on basic structure; obtain semantic and stylistic equivalence with the original text. Thus the translation process can be summarized as: analyze—transfer—restructure, these three steps. The school of Translation science adopted linguistic theory and the more objective description method in translation theory. In the late 1970s, emphasis was placed on the cultural background of the information age, but the research was still limited to prescriptive research and translation criteria, ignoring the role of translators’thinking.（Zhao Jiajin,1996: 46）

====Translation school====
It is the so-called “literary school”. This school held that the original work is the unity of sentence series and article structure, and the translator is influenced by the original view and the future model of translation in the process of translation. The founder of this school was James Holmes, an American poet, who taught translation at the University of Amsterdam in the Netherlands before his death. His representative work is ''The Name and Nature of Translation Studies'' (1972).（Zhao Jiajin,1996: 46）

====Polysystem School====
Its founders are Itammar Even-Zohar and Gideon Toury of Tel Aviv University in Israel. Even coined the term Polysystem to explore the relationship between translated works and literary systems, and explained that the oriented culture of translation not only determines whether a work can be translated, but also regulates the wording. Toury held that translation belongs to the second system of multiple systems, and its role depends on the strength and development stage of the oriented culture of translation. He held that translation has no fixed identity and has multiple identities due to its social, literary and historical background. This school integrates translation studies with literary studies, social and economic factors, endows translation studies with historical significance, but it is still limited to the acceptability of translation and does not get rid of the fetters of cultural equivalence.（Zhao Jiajin,1996: 46）

====Deconstruction School====
It is also known as “affirmative productivity school”. It originated in France in the mid-1960s and is represented by Michel Foucault, Martin Heidegger and Jacques Derrida. This school introduced deconstruction into translation, claiming that translators create the subject and the target language is a new language. As Foucault put it, the original work is constantly rewritten in the process of translation, and the translator rewrites the original work every time he reads and translates it. Deconstruction studies the nature and process of translation and language, and advocates that translators exist as entities. The school even goes so far as to believe that language does not involve any objective reality, and translators have their own status only when they create texts.（Zhao Jiajin,1996: 46-47）

==Conclusion==
Under the influence of historical backgrounds, different periods of translation show different traits. In the modern period, the content of translation still focused on literature which included works form Russian, Nordic countries, China and so on. The way of translation was artificial and traditional. With the progress of economy and science, translation in the contemporary period also got great development. The content of translation was not confined to the field of literature. Instead, translation of science and technology, commerce, entertainment and so on became a major part of the actual translation activities. In addition, machine translation as a novel technique developed quickly. And the most important feature of modern western translation is the rapid development of translation theory thanks to many translator associations and publications on translation studies. Nowadays, under the influence of globalization, translation shows more and more importance and get better development environment.

==References==

Barnstone，Willis(1993). The Poetics of Trunslation: History, Theory, Practice[M]. New Haven:Yale University Press.

Bates, Ernest Stuart(1936). Modern Translation[M]. London: Oxford University Press.

Catford, John(1965). A Linguistic Theory of Translation: An Essay in Applied Linguistics[M].Oxford and London: Oxford University Press.

Delisle, Jean(1995). Translation: An Interpretive Approach[M]. Ottawa: University of Ottawa Press.

Feng Zhiwei 冯志伟(1994).《自然语言机器翻译新论》[M] New Theories of Machine Translation of Natural Language.北京:语文出版社Beijing: Chinese Press.

FitzMaurice-Kelly, J(1911). "Translation"[J]. Encyclopedia Britannica (11th edition, Cambridge),27:183-188.

Gentzler, Edwin(2004). Contemporary Translation Theories[M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

Hutchins，Robert(1952). Great Books of the Western World[M]. Chicago: Encyclopaedia .Britannica Ltd.

Mu Yunyang,Li Zhisheng,Yu Hao杨沐昀、李志升、于浩(2000).《机器翻译系统》[M]Machine Translation System.哈尔滨：哈尔滨工业大学出版社Harbin: Harbin University of Technology Press.

Tan Zaixi谭载喜(2004).西方翻译简史[M]A Brief History of Western Translation.北京：商务印书馆Beijing:The Commercial Press.

Tan Zaixi谭载喜(1985).西方翻译史浅谈[J]On the History of Western Translation.中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal,7:36-39.

Xie Tianzhen谢天振(2008).《当代国外翻译理论导读》[M]Introduction to Contemporary Foreign Translation Theories.天津：南开大学出版社Tianjin：Nankai University Press.

Xie Tianzhen谢天振(2011).中西翻译简史[M]A Brief History of Chinese and Western Translation.北京:外语教学与研究出版社Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.

Zhao Jiajin赵家琎(1996).当代翻译学派简介[J]A Brief Introduction to Contemporary Translation Schools.中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal,5：46—47.

Zhao Tiejun赵铁军等(2001).《机器翻译原理》[M]Principles of Machine Translation.哈尔滨：哈尔滨工业大学出版社Harbin: Harbin University of Technology Press.

Hist Trans EN 14

2021-12-14T06:49:47Z

Wei Chuxuan: /* Low-tide stage (1966—1975) */

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=Western Translation History In the Modern and Contemperary Ages=
'''现当代西方翻译史'''

魏楚璇，Wei Chuxuan, Hunan Normal University, China

==Abstract==
Under different historical backgrounds, western translation presents different characteristics. In the 20th century before the end of the Second World War, the two world wars inevitably brought obstacles and disturbances to the development of translation. Therefore, though translation in this period still continued to develop, it did not get breakthrough. Translation was still dominated by literary works in content, totally relying on manual labor. In translation theory, it emphasized the creativity of translation and laid a foundation for the linguistic turn of translation studies. After the end of World War II, the world entered an era of relative peace, the world economy recovered, and the translation industry was greatly revitalized. During this period, the scale of translation covered all aspects of social life, machine translation developed fast, translation training flourished, translation organizations were established in various countries and many translation theories and schools emerged. That is to say, this period can be called the golden age of translation.

==摘要==
在不同的历史背景下，西方翻译呈现出不同的特点。在二战结束之前的二十世纪，两次世界大战不可避免地为翻译事业的发展带来了阻碍和干扰，因而这一时期的翻译虽然仍在发展但并未取得突破性的成就，在翻译的内容上仍然以文学作品为主，技术上完全依赖人工，理论方面注重翻译的创造性且为翻译研究的语言学转向奠定了基础。二战结束后，世界进入到相对和平的年代，世界经济复苏，翻译事业也大为振兴。在这一时期，翻译的内容覆盖社会生活的方方面面，机器翻译发展迅速，翻译培训兴起，翻译组织在各国成立，各种翻译理论和翻译流派涌现，可谓是翻译的黄金年代。

==Keywords==
Western translation; translation history; modern; contemperary

==Introduction==
In this paper, western translation history in modern and contemporary ages will be introduced. Here the modern age refers to the nearly half century before the Second World War. And the contemporary age refers to the half century after the Second World War. That is to say, the modern and contemporary translation in this paper refers to the translation in the 20th century. Under the influence of different historical backgrounds, translation in these two ages showed different characteristics and traits which will be concluded and discussed in detail in the following.

==The General Situation of Translation in the Modern Age==
Into the 20th century, the capitalism in the developed countries developed into imperialism. On the one hand, the imperialist countries intensified their foreign expansion to oppress and exploit the weak countries and people in colony. On the other hand, they were engaged in a fierce battle among themselves for international markets and spheres of influence. Thus, in less than half a century, two world wars broke out. Under this historical background, translation in western countries will inevitably be seriously disturbed and destroyed. However, translation in western countries continued to develop and excellent translations still appeared from time to time. The translation of this period also has its own traits. The general situation of translation in this period can be summarized from the following two aspects.

===The emphasis of translation was on Russian and Nordic works and more Chinese works were translated.===
From the end of the 19th century to the beginning of the 20th century, the literature of Russia and the Nordic countries developed greatly with the emergence of Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoyevsky, Leo Tolstoy, Chekhov, Andersen, Ibsen, Strindberg and other world-renowned great writers and dramatists. Their works had attracted the attention of the people in Western Europe and North America so they were competing to learn Russian, Danish and Swedish and had these works translated into English, German and French. In the process of translation, many excellent translators emerged in various countries.
====Translation of Russian literature====
According to the research of Tan Zaixi, Constance Garnet is the most famous female translator in Britain in this century. She translated almost all classic Russian novels and is widely regarded as the most important Translator of translating Russian literature into English. She published her first translation of Turgenev's novel Ru-Din in 1894. In the following decades, she devoted almost all her energy and time to the translation of Russian literature. She was the first person to translate Turgenev, Dostoyevsky and Chekhov into English, successively translating all the major works of Turgenev, Goncharov, Dostoyevsky, Tolstoy, Gogol and Chekhov including 12 volumes of Dostoyevsky's Selected Works translated from 1912 to 1920, 15 volumes of Turgenev's Selected Works translated from 1894 to 1899, 15 volumes of Chekhov's Novels and Plays translated from 1916 to 1922, and 6 volumes of Gogol’s Selected Works translated from 1922 to 1928. In particular, her translations of Turgenev, Chekhov, Dostoyevsky and other works were widely welcomed by the English reading community, and thus gave rise to the Russian literature craze in English literature before the First World War. She translated 70 Russian works in her lifetime, making her the most prolific translator of Russian works.
Two other translators who did not translate as much from Russian to English as Garnett, but who had no less influence, were the couple——Louise and Aylmer Maude. They are famous in western modern literary circles for their research and translation of Tolstoy's works. From 1928 to 1937, they spent nearly ten years translating and publishing 21 volumes of The Complete Works of Tolstoy. Later, from 1940s to 1950s, they supplemented or retranslated some of Tolstoy's works, such as What I Believe and Resurrection. In 1952, their work of War and Peace was accepted as a standard English translation and was selected for the prestigious Great Books of the Western World, thus establishing them as the authoritative English translators of Tolstoy. In addition, R. S. Townsend, R. Edmonds, Samuel Koteliansky, Ethel C. Mayne, Boris Brasol, Richard Renfield and so on were famous for translating the works of Tolstoy, Dostoevsky, Turgenev, Chekhov, Goncharov into English.（Tan，2004:148-150）

====Translation of Nordic literature and drama====
In the first half of the 20th century, in addition to Russian literature, western European translators showed great interest in Nordic literature and drama, including the works of Andersen, Ibsen and Strindberg.

According to the study of Tan Zaixi, when Hans Christian Andersen was alive, one of his works was published simultaneously in 15 languages, including English, German, French, Italian, Spanish and almost all the major languages of Western Europe. Later, all of his works were translated into different languages, and there were many re-translations in English, French, German and other countries. The first English translator was Mary Howitt, who began translating Andersen’s fairy tales in 1846. Later translators include Charles Boner, Caroline Peachey, Lady Duff Gordon, Paul Leyssac, R. R. Keigwin and R. Spink. Some of the best translations are Leyssac’s translation in 1937, Keigwin’s translation from 1950 to 1960 and Spink’s translation.(Tan，2004:151)

The main English translators of Ibsen’s plays are William Archer and James MacFarlane. Archer translated 12 volumes of The Collected Works of H. I. from 1906 to 1912, including almost all of Ibsen’s plays and some of his previously unpublished papers. Macfarlane compiled translated eight volumes of The Oxford Ibsen from 1960 to 1977. In addition, F. E. Garrett translated Lyrics and Poems from Ibsen in 1912. Mary Morison translated The Correspondence of H.I. in 1905. Evert Sprinchorn translated H. I. Letters and Speeches in 1964. (Tan，2004:151)

In Germany, the standard German translation is the 10-volume The Collected Plays of Ibsen edited and published by G. Brandes, J. Elias, and P. Schlenther from 1898 to 1902. The standard French translation is The Complete Works of Ibsen in 16 volumes translated and published by P. G. La Chesnais from 1914 to 1945.(Tan，2004:151)

Strindberg’s work was translated into English as early as 1912. For the next fifty or sixty years, many people worked on Strindberg’s studies and translations. Major English translators included E. Schleussner, Walter Johnson, M. Sandbach, Elizabeth Sprigge and Michael Meyer. Some good works are Sprigge’s translations of Strinberg’s Plays in 1963 and Meyer’s translations of The Father, Miss Julie, Storm and so on in 1964. In other major western European countries such as Germany and France, Strindberg’s plays were also translated into German and French, and repeatedly staged in Berlin and Paris. (Tan，2004:152)

There is no doubt that the translation of modern and contemporary Russian and Nordic literature and drama was a mainstream of western translation in the first half of the century. However, at the same time, it must be pointed out that the mutual translation of modern and contemporary literary works in western European countries still enjoys considerable momentum.

====More and more Chinese works were translated.====
In the 20th century, more and more people in the West became interested in Chinese culture. Since the 1950s, with the improvement of new China’s international prestige, the fever of translating Chinese works had been constantly appearing in the West. Not only the Four Books, Five Classics, Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Water Margin, Journey to the West, A Dream of Red Mansions and the poems of Li Bai, Du Fu and Bai Juyi were translated into English, German and French, but modern writers such as Luxun, Maodun and Bajin were also introduced to western countries. In the process of translating and introducing Chinese works, excellent translators have emerged from every country.

According to the study of Tan Zaixi, Arthur Waley, the most eminent Sinologist in Britain in the 20th century, was a translator, writer and poet. In 1916, his first translation of Chinese Poems was published. In 1918, he published his second translated work One Hundred Seventy Chinese Poems. These two translations are both from Tang poems. In addition, he also translated part of Journey to the West in 1942, published four other Chinese-English translations, and wrote three books about China or Chinese writers. Another outstanding Sinologist and translator in the 20th century was Franz Kuhn of Germany. From 1919, when his first translation was published, to his death in 1961, he translated and published more than 40 classical and modern Chinese literary works, including 12 novels and 34 short stories. In particular, his translation of The Fortunate Union in 1926, Second Bloom in 1927, The Golden Lotus in 1930, A Dream of Red Mansions in 1932, Water Margin in 1934, Jade Dragonfly in 1936, Romance of the Three Kingdoms in 1940, Midnight and other works from 1940 to 1955, were well received by German readers.（Tan,2004:153-156）

===The creativity of translation and the language in translation were paid more attention.===
In the aspect of translation theory, scholars had deeply reflected on the traditional translation theory, especially questioned the universality of language, and proposed that when the meaning of the original text becomes obscure and difficult to understand, translators must fill in the gaps of the text according to their own experience. Therefore, translation theories of this period paid more attention to the creativity of translation and the language problems in translation. Although they did not separate themselves from the discussion of translation techniques such as word selection and sentence construction, they laid a foundation for the linguistic turn of translation studies and provided theoretical thinking for the translation literature as an independent existence. And about the specific translation theories in different countries in this period, Xie Tianzhen made a brief summary.

J. P. Postgate is a famous Translation theorist in Britain, and he put forward prospective translation and retrospective translation. Prospective translation means that the translator always keeps the reader in mind and adopts free methods and common expressions to ensure that the original ideas of the reader are not affected and their prediction is not interfered with. The purpose of translation is to show the translator’s mastery of the target language, focusing on the target language rather than the original one. Retrospective translation means that the translator always looks at the original author, because the purpose of translation is to impart knowledge of the original text, rather than to look ahead and consider the reader of the translation.（Xie，2011:29）

French scholar J. Marouzeau’s "On Translation of Latin" is an important translation literature in French. He believed that translation is a skill in which the translator should reveal to the reader the content of the original work, rather than its shell, using a living language.（Xie，2011:29）

German thinker Walter Benjamin pointed out that although the translation is based on the original, it is the afterlife of the original work and the translation need not pursue the same meaning as the original work. Mediocre translators pay more attention to the meaning of the original work than to its literariness and language style and they only know that the translation exists to serve the original work and can only translate the non-essential content of the original work. (Xie Tianzhen，2008:319-332) The translator’s task is to use his own language to release the pure language trapped by another language, that is, to liberate the imprisoned language in the re-creation of the original text. Edwin Gentzler, a contemporary American translation theorist, believed that the discussion of translation issues among Anglo-American deconstructionists mainly revolves around comments on Benjamin’s Translator’s Task. (Edwin Gentzler, 2004:173-174.) Therefore, Translator’s Task is regarded as the “Bible” of translation theory and the classic of deconstructive translation theory.（Xie，2011:30）

The Russian scholar Mikhail Vasilievich Lemonosov transformed the loanwords that entered the Russian language, russified them, and regarded translation as a creative activity. And this view of free translation lasted until the 19th century. Aleksandr Pushkin, the greatest Russian poet in the 19th century, based on his literary translation practice, proposed that translators should have their own opinions on the selection of materials and should have full freedom in dealing with the original work, but the uniqueness of the original work should be preserved as much as possible.（Xie，2011:30）

==The General Situation of Translation in the Contemporary Age==
After the Second World War, the world entered a period of relative peace. After the trauma of the war, the Western countries regrouped and began to restore and develop production and economy in an all-round way. Translation cause also entered a new period of development at extremely rapid pace, taking on a new look. During this period, not only in the Soviet Union, Britain, Germany, France and other major European countries, but also in the United States, Canada, the cause of translation showed a prosperous scene. In terms of the whole western translation career, the translation after the Second World War was unmatched in scope, form, scale and achievement. Therefore, the 20th century could be called as "the age of translation" , which in fact mainly referred to the decades since the end of the war. Though great achievement was also made in literary translation in this period, the 20th century is known as the "age of translation" mainly because western translation expanded into various fields during this period, which has five characteristics.

===The scale of translation extended to the field of business, diplomacy, science and many other professional affairs.===
Since the end of the Second World War, due to practical needs, commercial, diplomatic, scientific and technological translation had flourished, and its momentum even exceeded literary translation, thus forming a major content of the development of modern western translation.Here is the research of Tan Zaixi about the scale of translation.

In 1945, the United Nations was established with English, French, Russian, Chinese and Spanish as the five official and working languages. In 1957, the European Community was founded, consisting of six countries at that time. In 1993, the European Community developed into the European Union. By 2004, it had 25 member states, using nine languages including English, French, German, Italy, Denmark, Ireland, Greece, Spain and Portugal. That is to say, translation had become an indispensable part of daily work, both for communicating with countries in other regions and among western countries. According to UNESCO, the number of translations in the world increased four-and-a-half times from 1948 to 1970. The institutions of the European Common Market employed more than 1,300 employees to deal with translation, of whom 450 were full-time interpreters, 550 translators and others were freelance employees on short-term contracts. (Tan,2004:160-161)

===Translation teaching was widespread.===
In the past, translation was mainly the work of a few literary magnates. With the establishment of the United Nations and its specialized agencies, as well as the establishment of international institutions such as the European Common Market (EC, EU) and the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, the need for translators was increasing. To meet this need, a number of schools specializing in training translators had been set up.

According to the study of Tan Zaixi, the most prominent schools are the High School of Translation at the Third University of Paris and the School of Translation at the University of Ottawa. What’s more, many universities in Europe and the United States also offer translation classes or courses in senior grades.（Tan, 2004:161-162）

===Translators’associations were established and publications on translation studies were launched.===
Translators in different countries set up various translation associations and publications. These associations played an important role in the development of translation through their activities and publications.

According to Tan Zaixi, translation associations or federations in European and American capitalist countries, in particular, generally emphasize the following principles: to clarify the legal status of translators through legislative means; to take effective measures to protect the legal rights of translators (especially the copyright that translators should enjoy); to improve their social status and increase their economic income; to improve the learning and working conditions of translators to provide them with opportunities to constantly improve their translation skills and a good working environment.（Tan，2004:162）

There were more translators’ organizations in the United States than in other western countries, with a total of 30, among which the most influential were the American Society of Translators, the American Federation of Linguists and the Literary Society of America. The journal of the American Society of Translators was ATA Chronicle. The journal of the Literary Society of America was Translation Review.（Tan，2004:162-163）

In Canada, major translation associations included the Canadian Council of Translators and Interpreters, the Ontario Association of Translators and Interpreters, the Business Language Centre, and the Quebec Translation Association. The Ontario Association of Translators and Interpreters founded the journal of Inform ATIO. The most influential professional translation magazine in Canada was Meta: Journal des Traducteurs.（Tan，2004:164）

In Britain, major translation associations included the Association of Translation Companies of Great Britain, the Association of Translators and the Guild of Translators, of which the Guild of Translators was the most famous. The official publication of the guild is The Incorporated Linguist, which was published in 1962 and enjoyed high reputation in Britain.（Tan，2004:164)

There were two major translation associations in France: the Association of French Translators and the Association of French Literary Translators. There were also two major translation associations in West Germany, one was the Association of Federation Translators and Interpreters and the other was the German-speaking World Federation of Literary and Technical Translators. In addition, Austria, Italy, Spain, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, Finland, Belgium and other Western European countries also had local or national translation organizations and a variety of translation publications.（Tan，2004:164-165）

===Machine translation developed.===
In the process of more than two thousand years of development, the traditional translation method had not undergone substantial changes in technology, and the translation between the two languages still had to be carried out by hand. However, due to the increasingly frequent international scientific and cultural exchanges, manual translation could no longer timely meet the needs. Therefore, when the traditional manual translation was facing the challenge of the times, machine translation should be born. In 1946, under the auspices of the United States Army headquarters, J.P. Eckert and J.W. Mauchly who were both from the University of Pennsylvania developed the world’s first electronic computer named: Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator, or ENIAC for short. Computer’s astonishing speed inspired people to consider the innovation of translation technology. Therefore, in the same year, Andrew Booth and Warren Weaver first proposed the use of computers in the machine translation system. Since then, machine translation and machine translation research, driven by modern electronic computing technology officially began.American science, especially the development of computer science, to a large extent affected the development of computer science in the whole West and even the world. Therefore, especially in the pioneering period, the development history and model of Machine translation in America can almost be regarded as those in the whole West. In this sense, the development of machine translation in the west (and even the world) can be roughly divided into the following five major periods, just like the development of Machine translation in the United States: initial stage; high stage; low stage; recovery stage; vigorous stage. The following is a further overview of the five development periods of machine translation in the West (mainly in the United States) made by Tan Zaixi who referred to the books of Yang Muyun, Li Zhisheng，Yu Hao, Zhao Tiejun and so on.

====Initial stage (1946—1954)====
The pioneering period begins with Booth and Weaver’s idea of translating natural language by computer in 1954, and ends with the birth of the first machine translation system. After the idea of using computers to translate was put forward, although there was great resistance in the United States at first, the voice supporting it was mainstream. In particular, Weaver published a memorandum on machine translation in 1949, which not only opened up a series of research topics on machine translation in the United States, but also had a wide influence in western countries. The memo makes four basic points: the problem of polysemy can be solved by context; there is a logical basis in language; there are basic probabilities in language application; there are common elements in different languages. These are still the fundamental of the development of machine translation. In the following years, machine translation research had been actively carried out in some universities and organizations in the United States and Britain. In Massachusetts Institute of Technology, the first full-time machine translation researcher Bar-Hillel arrived, he made a great contribution to the early development of machine translation and put forward the main problems and basic strategies needed to be solved in machine translation research. The first machine translation conference was held at MIT in June 1952, after which machine translation research in the United States began to accelerate. In 1954, a machine translation system for computer was developed and demonstrated. Although the machine translation system was small, consisting of only 250 Russian words, six grammar rules, and a few translation examples, it first showed the public and the scientific community the feasibility of machine translation, inspiring substantial funding from U.S. government for machine translation research over the next decade.（Tan，2004:167-168）

====High-tide stage(1954—1966)====
The successful demonstration of the world’s first machine translation system, the Georgetown-IBM system of United States, marked the first development climax of machine translation. The upsurge began in 1954 and lasted for 12 years. In the mid-1950s, inspired by successful demonstration of machine translation system, dozens of universities, companies, and government agencies in the United States began machine translation research programs. On the one hand, due to the competition between the United States and the Soviet Union at that time, the United States military, the National Science Foundation, the Central Intelligence Agency and so on needed to acquire a large amount of scientific and technological information of the Soviet Union, so that they invested a lot in machine translation, especially Russian-English translation. On the other hand, advanced computers in the United States provided good equipment for the development of the first generation of machine translation system. At the same time, many universities and institutions in most European countries had also carried out machine translation research.（Tan，2004:168-170）

====Low-tide stage (1966—1975)====
The advent of machine translation had opened up a new way for traditional translation research and practice. However, the complexity of machine translation was underestimated at that time and the design of machine translation system was often too rough and simple. In this case, the first generation of machine translation systems in the initial stage could not achieve ideal results, the quality of translation is often poor, so that some people gradually lost confidence in machine translation research, and some scholars also became pessimistic and disappointed. （Tan，2004:170）

In the mid-1960s, machine translation in the United States had suffered a severe blow. In 1966, the Automatic Language Processing Advisory Committee, part of the National Academy of Sciences, was asked to investigate machine translation research funded by government. The committee published its report, Language and Machines, after analyzing the speed, quality, cost and demand of machine translation at that time. The report pointed out that the quality of machine translation is significantly lower than that of human translation and asserted that there was no likelihood of any commercially useful machine translation system in the foreseeable future. On the committee’s recommendation, the U.S. government withdrew the funding for machine translation research. Thus, machine translation research in the United States plummeted from a high point to a low point of development. It should be noted, however, that machine translation research and development was not in a complete demise, following the official denials in the United States. Scholars and research institutions in many countries including the United States continued to carry out researches and experiments on machine translation under relatively difficult circumstances.（Tan，2004:171）

====Recovery stage(1975—1989)====
In the middle of 1970s, with the emergence of new theories and ideas in the field of linguistics and the further development of computational linguistics, the research of machine translation was aroused in the world again. After ten years of silence, machine translation research stepped on the road of recovery. The recovery period of machine translation research and development is generally considered to date from the installation of the SYSTRAN system by EURATOM and the completion of the TAUM-METEO system by the University of Montreal in Canada.（Tan Zaixi，2004:171-174）

====Vigorous stage（1989—）====
Since the late 1980s, some new developments had changed the field of machine translation, marking machine translation research enter a new period. This is the emergence of the third generation of machine translation method that is corpus-based. Corpus-based machine translation systems include statistic-based translation and example-based translation, both of which are based on large-scale real text. （Tan Zaixi，2004:167-175）

Practice has proved that machine translation has great vitality. It is a new science, and its research and translation have entered a new stage of development. No matter whether it can replace the human brain and hands eventually and completely liberate human from the heavy artificial translation, it will develop and exist for a long time. Both in theory and practice, machine translation and its research will exert more and more influence on traditional translation and its research.

===Translation theories of different schools were emerging one after another.===
The most important feature of modern western translation is the rapid development of translation theory. After the Second World War, with the vigorous development of science and technology, modern linguistics, translation activities and the rise of machine translation, people gradually changed the traditional view of translation studies, believing that translation is not only an art or skill, but also a science with rules to follow.

On the whole, the development of contemporary translation theory has two characteristics :(1) theoretical research has been brought into the scope of linguistics, under the influence of modern linguistics and information theory; (2) the traditional situation of non-communication between theorists has been broken. Translation theorists fully express their views through various channels, such as published works.(Xie Tianzhen, 2009:32)

After the Second World War, with the modernization and integration of western social and economic development, western translation theories also began to enter a new period that transcends national boundaries. Therefore, it is difficult to classify some translation thoughts and some translation theorists in a narrow sense as belonging to a certain country or a certain place. It is acceptable to divide contemporary western translation theories into different schools according to their basic approaches and methods of translation studies or the basic characteristics of thought. Here is a brief introduction to some influential schools classified by Zhao Jiajin.

====American Translation Training School====
First established in 1964 at the University of Iowa, this school focused on translation practice, emphasized the literary taste and value of works, and adopted the methods of L. A. Richards and Williard V. Quine of Harvard University. Representative figures included poet and translator Ezra Pound, who translated Tang poetry and advocated the accurate restoration of details, words, fragments and the whole image description. Frederic Will of the University of Iowa, drawing on his training experience, regarded translation as a form of naming, fiction writing and cognition. Yale’s Jonas Zdnys argued that translation is an activity of subjective thought designed to explain literature. This school explores the role of the human mind in translation and raises the question of the nature of translation, but translation theory was limited to aesthetic experience and prescriptive translation rules.

====Translation Science School====
It was also known as “linguistic school”. According to this school, translation is the process of reproducing language as a whole, and it aims to correctly convey the original information to readers. The school was founded by Eugene Nida, whose masterpieces include Message and Mission (1960) and Toward Science of Translation (1946). Nida proposed functional equivalence theory according to Noam Chomsky’s transformational generative grammar and his experience in Bible translation, that is, to digest the original text and understand its basic structure and meaning; convey meaning based on basic structure; obtain semantic and stylistic equivalence with the original text. Thus the translation process can be summarized as: analyze—transfer—restructure, these three steps. The school of Translation science adopted linguistic theory and the more objective description method in translation theory. In the late 1970s, emphasis was placed on the cultural background of the information age, but the research was still limited to prescriptive research and translation criteria, ignoring the role of translators’thinking.（Zhao Jiajin,1996: 46）

====Translation school====
It is the so-called “literary school”. This school held that the original work is the unity of sentence series and article structure, and the translator is influenced by the original view and the future model of translation in the process of translation. The founder of this school was James Holmes, an American poet, who taught translation at the University of Amsterdam in the Netherlands before his death. His representative work is ''The Name and Nature of Translation Studies'' (1972).（Zhao Jiajin,1996: 46）

====Polysystem School====
Its founders are Itammar Even-Zohar and Gideon Toury of Tel Aviv University in Israel. Even coined the term Polysystem to explore the relationship between translated works and literary systems, and explained that the oriented culture of translation not only determines whether a work can be translated, but also regulates the wording. Toury held that translation belongs to the second system of multiple systems, and its role depends on the strength and development stage of the oriented culture of translation. He held that translation has no fixed identity and has multiple identities due to its social, literary and historical background. This school integrates translation studies with literary studies, social and economic factors, endows translation studies with historical significance, but it is still limited to the acceptability of translation and does not get rid of the fetters of cultural equivalence.（Zhao Jiajin,1996: 46）

====Deconstruction School====
It is also known as “affirmative productivity school”. It originated in France in the mid-1960s and is represented by Michel Foucault, Martin Heidegger and Jacques Derrida. This school introduced deconstruction into translation, claiming that translators create the subject and the target language is a new language. As Foucault put it, the original work is constantly rewritten in the process of translation, and the translator rewrites the original work every time he reads and translates it. Deconstruction studies the nature and process of translation and language, and advocates that translators exist as entities. The school even goes so far as to believe that language does not involve any objective reality, and translators have their own status only when they create texts.（Zhao Jiajin,1996: 46-47）

==Conclusion==
Under the influence of historical backgrounds, different periods of translation show different traits. In the modern period, the content of translation still focused on literature which included works form Russian, Nordic countries, China and so on. The way of translation was artificial and traditional. With the progress of economy and science, translation in the contemporary period also got great development. The content of translation was not confined to the field of literature. Instead, translation of science and technology, commerce, entertainment and so on became a major part of the actual translation activities. In addition, machine translation as a novel technique developed quickly. And the most important feature of modern western translation is the rapid development of translation theory thanks to many translator associations and publications on translation studies. Nowadays, under the influence of globalization, translation shows more and more importance and get better development environment.

==References==

Barnstone，Willis(1993). The Poetics of Trunslation: History, Theory, Practice[M]. New Haven:Yale University Press.

Bates, Ernest Stuart(1936). Modern Translation[M]. London: Oxford University Press.

Catford, John(1965). A Linguistic Theory of Translation: An Essay in Applied Linguistics[M].Oxford and London: Oxford University Press.

Delisle, Jean(1995). Translation: An Interpretive Approach[M]. Ottawa: University of Ottawa Press.

Feng Zhiwei 冯志伟(1994).《自然语言机器翻译新论》[M] New Theories of Machine Translation of Natural Language.北京:语文出版社Beijing: Chinese Press.

FitzMaurice-Kelly, J(1911). "Translation"[J]. Encyclopedia Britannica (11th edition, Cambridge),27:183-188.

Gentzler, Edwin(2004). Contemporary Translation Theories[M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

Hutchins，Robert(1952). Great Books of the Western World[M]. Chicago: Encyclopaedia .Britannica Ltd.

Mu Yunyang,Li Zhisheng,Yu Hao杨沐昀、李志升、于浩(2000).《机器翻译系统》[M]Machine Translation System.哈尔滨：哈尔滨工业大学出版社Harbin: Harbin University of Technology Press.

Tan Zaixi谭载喜(2004).西方翻译简史[M]A Brief History of Western Translation.北京：商务印书馆Beijing:The Commercial Press.

Tan Zaixi谭载喜(1985).西方翻译史浅谈[J]On the History of Western Translation.中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal,7:36-39.

Xie Tianzhen谢天振(2008).《当代国外翻译理论导读》[M]Introduction to Contemporary Foreign Translation Theories.天津：南开大学出版社Tianjin：Nankai University Press.

Xie Tianzhen谢天振(2011).中西翻译简史[M]A Brief History of Chinese and Western Translation.北京:外语教学与研究出版社Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.

Zhao Jiajin赵家琎(1996).当代翻译学派简介[J]A Brief Introduction to Contemporary Translation Schools.中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal,5：46—47.

Zhao Tiejun赵铁军等(2001).《机器翻译原理》[M]Principles of Machine Translation.哈尔滨：哈尔滨工业大学出版社Harbin: Harbin University of Technology Press.

Hist Trans EN 14

2021-12-14T06:49:25Z

Wei Chuxuan: /* High-tide stage(1954—1966) */

'''History of Translations'''

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=Western Translation History In the Modern and Contemperary Ages=
'''现当代西方翻译史'''

魏楚璇，Wei Chuxuan, Hunan Normal University, China

==Abstract==
Under different historical backgrounds, western translation presents different characteristics. In the 20th century before the end of the Second World War, the two world wars inevitably brought obstacles and disturbances to the development of translation. Therefore, though translation in this period still continued to develop, it did not get breakthrough. Translation was still dominated by literary works in content, totally relying on manual labor. In translation theory, it emphasized the creativity of translation and laid a foundation for the linguistic turn of translation studies. After the end of World War II, the world entered an era of relative peace, the world economy recovered, and the translation industry was greatly revitalized. During this period, the scale of translation covered all aspects of social life, machine translation developed fast, translation training flourished, translation organizations were established in various countries and many translation theories and schools emerged. That is to say, this period can be called the golden age of translation.

==摘要==
在不同的历史背景下，西方翻译呈现出不同的特点。在二战结束之前的二十世纪，两次世界大战不可避免地为翻译事业的发展带来了阻碍和干扰，因而这一时期的翻译虽然仍在发展但并未取得突破性的成就，在翻译的内容上仍然以文学作品为主，技术上完全依赖人工，理论方面注重翻译的创造性且为翻译研究的语言学转向奠定了基础。二战结束后，世界进入到相对和平的年代，世界经济复苏，翻译事业也大为振兴。在这一时期，翻译的内容覆盖社会生活的方方面面，机器翻译发展迅速，翻译培训兴起，翻译组织在各国成立，各种翻译理论和翻译流派涌现，可谓是翻译的黄金年代。

==Keywords==
Western translation; translation history; modern; contemperary

==Introduction==
In this paper, western translation history in modern and contemporary ages will be introduced. Here the modern age refers to the nearly half century before the Second World War. And the contemporary age refers to the half century after the Second World War. That is to say, the modern and contemporary translation in this paper refers to the translation in the 20th century. Under the influence of different historical backgrounds, translation in these two ages showed different characteristics and traits which will be concluded and discussed in detail in the following.

==The General Situation of Translation in the Modern Age==
Into the 20th century, the capitalism in the developed countries developed into imperialism. On the one hand, the imperialist countries intensified their foreign expansion to oppress and exploit the weak countries and people in colony. On the other hand, they were engaged in a fierce battle among themselves for international markets and spheres of influence. Thus, in less than half a century, two world wars broke out. Under this historical background, translation in western countries will inevitably be seriously disturbed and destroyed. However, translation in western countries continued to develop and excellent translations still appeared from time to time. The translation of this period also has its own traits. The general situation of translation in this period can be summarized from the following two aspects.

===The emphasis of translation was on Russian and Nordic works and more Chinese works were translated.===
From the end of the 19th century to the beginning of the 20th century, the literature of Russia and the Nordic countries developed greatly with the emergence of Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoyevsky, Leo Tolstoy, Chekhov, Andersen, Ibsen, Strindberg and other world-renowned great writers and dramatists. Their works had attracted the attention of the people in Western Europe and North America so they were competing to learn Russian, Danish and Swedish and had these works translated into English, German and French. In the process of translation, many excellent translators emerged in various countries.
====Translation of Russian literature====
According to the research of Tan Zaixi, Constance Garnet is the most famous female translator in Britain in this century. She translated almost all classic Russian novels and is widely regarded as the most important Translator of translating Russian literature into English. She published her first translation of Turgenev's novel Ru-Din in 1894. In the following decades, she devoted almost all her energy and time to the translation of Russian literature. She was the first person to translate Turgenev, Dostoyevsky and Chekhov into English, successively translating all the major works of Turgenev, Goncharov, Dostoyevsky, Tolstoy, Gogol and Chekhov including 12 volumes of Dostoyevsky's Selected Works translated from 1912 to 1920, 15 volumes of Turgenev's Selected Works translated from 1894 to 1899, 15 volumes of Chekhov's Novels and Plays translated from 1916 to 1922, and 6 volumes of Gogol’s Selected Works translated from 1922 to 1928. In particular, her translations of Turgenev, Chekhov, Dostoyevsky and other works were widely welcomed by the English reading community, and thus gave rise to the Russian literature craze in English literature before the First World War. She translated 70 Russian works in her lifetime, making her the most prolific translator of Russian works.
Two other translators who did not translate as much from Russian to English as Garnett, but who had no less influence, were the couple——Louise and Aylmer Maude. They are famous in western modern literary circles for their research and translation of Tolstoy's works. From 1928 to 1937, they spent nearly ten years translating and publishing 21 volumes of The Complete Works of Tolstoy. Later, from 1940s to 1950s, they supplemented or retranslated some of Tolstoy's works, such as What I Believe and Resurrection. In 1952, their work of War and Peace was accepted as a standard English translation and was selected for the prestigious Great Books of the Western World, thus establishing them as the authoritative English translators of Tolstoy. In addition, R. S. Townsend, R. Edmonds, Samuel Koteliansky, Ethel C. Mayne, Boris Brasol, Richard Renfield and so on were famous for translating the works of Tolstoy, Dostoevsky, Turgenev, Chekhov, Goncharov into English.（Tan，2004:148-150）

====Translation of Nordic literature and drama====
In the first half of the 20th century, in addition to Russian literature, western European translators showed great interest in Nordic literature and drama, including the works of Andersen, Ibsen and Strindberg.

According to the study of Tan Zaixi, when Hans Christian Andersen was alive, one of his works was published simultaneously in 15 languages, including English, German, French, Italian, Spanish and almost all the major languages of Western Europe. Later, all of his works were translated into different languages, and there were many re-translations in English, French, German and other countries. The first English translator was Mary Howitt, who began translating Andersen’s fairy tales in 1846. Later translators include Charles Boner, Caroline Peachey, Lady Duff Gordon, Paul Leyssac, R. R. Keigwin and R. Spink. Some of the best translations are Leyssac’s translation in 1937, Keigwin’s translation from 1950 to 1960 and Spink’s translation.(Tan，2004:151)

The main English translators of Ibsen’s plays are William Archer and James MacFarlane. Archer translated 12 volumes of The Collected Works of H. I. from 1906 to 1912, including almost all of Ibsen’s plays and some of his previously unpublished papers. Macfarlane compiled translated eight volumes of The Oxford Ibsen from 1960 to 1977. In addition, F. E. Garrett translated Lyrics and Poems from Ibsen in 1912. Mary Morison translated The Correspondence of H.I. in 1905. Evert Sprinchorn translated H. I. Letters and Speeches in 1964. (Tan，2004:151)

In Germany, the standard German translation is the 10-volume The Collected Plays of Ibsen edited and published by G. Brandes, J. Elias, and P. Schlenther from 1898 to 1902. The standard French translation is The Complete Works of Ibsen in 16 volumes translated and published by P. G. La Chesnais from 1914 to 1945.(Tan，2004:151)

Strindberg’s work was translated into English as early as 1912. For the next fifty or sixty years, many people worked on Strindberg’s studies and translations. Major English translators included E. Schleussner, Walter Johnson, M. Sandbach, Elizabeth Sprigge and Michael Meyer. Some good works are Sprigge’s translations of Strinberg’s Plays in 1963 and Meyer’s translations of The Father, Miss Julie, Storm and so on in 1964. In other major western European countries such as Germany and France, Strindberg’s plays were also translated into German and French, and repeatedly staged in Berlin and Paris. (Tan，2004:152)

There is no doubt that the translation of modern and contemporary Russian and Nordic literature and drama was a mainstream of western translation in the first half of the century. However, at the same time, it must be pointed out that the mutual translation of modern and contemporary literary works in western European countries still enjoys considerable momentum.

====More and more Chinese works were translated.====
In the 20th century, more and more people in the West became interested in Chinese culture. Since the 1950s, with the improvement of new China’s international prestige, the fever of translating Chinese works had been constantly appearing in the West. Not only the Four Books, Five Classics, Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Water Margin, Journey to the West, A Dream of Red Mansions and the poems of Li Bai, Du Fu and Bai Juyi were translated into English, German and French, but modern writers such as Luxun, Maodun and Bajin were also introduced to western countries. In the process of translating and introducing Chinese works, excellent translators have emerged from every country.

According to the study of Tan Zaixi, Arthur Waley, the most eminent Sinologist in Britain in the 20th century, was a translator, writer and poet. In 1916, his first translation of Chinese Poems was published. In 1918, he published his second translated work One Hundred Seventy Chinese Poems. These two translations are both from Tang poems. In addition, he also translated part of Journey to the West in 1942, published four other Chinese-English translations, and wrote three books about China or Chinese writers. Another outstanding Sinologist and translator in the 20th century was Franz Kuhn of Germany. From 1919, when his first translation was published, to his death in 1961, he translated and published more than 40 classical and modern Chinese literary works, including 12 novels and 34 short stories. In particular, his translation of The Fortunate Union in 1926, Second Bloom in 1927, The Golden Lotus in 1930, A Dream of Red Mansions in 1932, Water Margin in 1934, Jade Dragonfly in 1936, Romance of the Three Kingdoms in 1940, Midnight and other works from 1940 to 1955, were well received by German readers.（Tan,2004:153-156）

===The creativity of translation and the language in translation were paid more attention.===
In the aspect of translation theory, scholars had deeply reflected on the traditional translation theory, especially questioned the universality of language, and proposed that when the meaning of the original text becomes obscure and difficult to understand, translators must fill in the gaps of the text according to their own experience. Therefore, translation theories of this period paid more attention to the creativity of translation and the language problems in translation. Although they did not separate themselves from the discussion of translation techniques such as word selection and sentence construction, they laid a foundation for the linguistic turn of translation studies and provided theoretical thinking for the translation literature as an independent existence. And about the specific translation theories in different countries in this period, Xie Tianzhen made a brief summary.

J. P. Postgate is a famous Translation theorist in Britain, and he put forward prospective translation and retrospective translation. Prospective translation means that the translator always keeps the reader in mind and adopts free methods and common expressions to ensure that the original ideas of the reader are not affected and their prediction is not interfered with. The purpose of translation is to show the translator’s mastery of the target language, focusing on the target language rather than the original one. Retrospective translation means that the translator always looks at the original author, because the purpose of translation is to impart knowledge of the original text, rather than to look ahead and consider the reader of the translation.（Xie，2011:29）

French scholar J. Marouzeau’s "On Translation of Latin" is an important translation literature in French. He believed that translation is a skill in which the translator should reveal to the reader the content of the original work, rather than its shell, using a living language.（Xie，2011:29）

German thinker Walter Benjamin pointed out that although the translation is based on the original, it is the afterlife of the original work and the translation need not pursue the same meaning as the original work. Mediocre translators pay more attention to the meaning of the original work than to its literariness and language style and they only know that the translation exists to serve the original work and can only translate the non-essential content of the original work. (Xie Tianzhen，2008:319-332) The translator’s task is to use his own language to release the pure language trapped by another language, that is, to liberate the imprisoned language in the re-creation of the original text. Edwin Gentzler, a contemporary American translation theorist, believed that the discussion of translation issues among Anglo-American deconstructionists mainly revolves around comments on Benjamin’s Translator’s Task. (Edwin Gentzler, 2004:173-174.) Therefore, Translator’s Task is regarded as the “Bible” of translation theory and the classic of deconstructive translation theory.（Xie，2011:30）

The Russian scholar Mikhail Vasilievich Lemonosov transformed the loanwords that entered the Russian language, russified them, and regarded translation as a creative activity. And this view of free translation lasted until the 19th century. Aleksandr Pushkin, the greatest Russian poet in the 19th century, based on his literary translation practice, proposed that translators should have their own opinions on the selection of materials and should have full freedom in dealing with the original work, but the uniqueness of the original work should be preserved as much as possible.（Xie，2011:30）

==The General Situation of Translation in the Contemporary Age==
After the Second World War, the world entered a period of relative peace. After the trauma of the war, the Western countries regrouped and began to restore and develop production and economy in an all-round way. Translation cause also entered a new period of development at extremely rapid pace, taking on a new look. During this period, not only in the Soviet Union, Britain, Germany, France and other major European countries, but also in the United States, Canada, the cause of translation showed a prosperous scene. In terms of the whole western translation career, the translation after the Second World War was unmatched in scope, form, scale and achievement. Therefore, the 20th century could be called as "the age of translation" , which in fact mainly referred to the decades since the end of the war. Though great achievement was also made in literary translation in this period, the 20th century is known as the "age of translation" mainly because western translation expanded into various fields during this period, which has five characteristics.

===The scale of translation extended to the field of business, diplomacy, science and many other professional affairs.===
Since the end of the Second World War, due to practical needs, commercial, diplomatic, scientific and technological translation had flourished, and its momentum even exceeded literary translation, thus forming a major content of the development of modern western translation.Here is the research of Tan Zaixi about the scale of translation.

In 1945, the United Nations was established with English, French, Russian, Chinese and Spanish as the five official and working languages. In 1957, the European Community was founded, consisting of six countries at that time. In 1993, the European Community developed into the European Union. By 2004, it had 25 member states, using nine languages including English, French, German, Italy, Denmark, Ireland, Greece, Spain and Portugal. That is to say, translation had become an indispensable part of daily work, both for communicating with countries in other regions and among western countries. According to UNESCO, the number of translations in the world increased four-and-a-half times from 1948 to 1970. The institutions of the European Common Market employed more than 1,300 employees to deal with translation, of whom 450 were full-time interpreters, 550 translators and others were freelance employees on short-term contracts. (Tan,2004:160-161)

===Translation teaching was widespread.===
In the past, translation was mainly the work of a few literary magnates. With the establishment of the United Nations and its specialized agencies, as well as the establishment of international institutions such as the European Common Market (EC, EU) and the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, the need for translators was increasing. To meet this need, a number of schools specializing in training translators had been set up.

According to the study of Tan Zaixi, the most prominent schools are the High School of Translation at the Third University of Paris and the School of Translation at the University of Ottawa. What’s more, many universities in Europe and the United States also offer translation classes or courses in senior grades.（Tan, 2004:161-162）

===Translators’associations were established and publications on translation studies were launched.===
Translators in different countries set up various translation associations and publications. These associations played an important role in the development of translation through their activities and publications.

According to Tan Zaixi, translation associations or federations in European and American capitalist countries, in particular, generally emphasize the following principles: to clarify the legal status of translators through legislative means; to take effective measures to protect the legal rights of translators (especially the copyright that translators should enjoy); to improve their social status and increase their economic income; to improve the learning and working conditions of translators to provide them with opportunities to constantly improve their translation skills and a good working environment.（Tan，2004:162）

There were more translators’ organizations in the United States than in other western countries, with a total of 30, among which the most influential were the American Society of Translators, the American Federation of Linguists and the Literary Society of America. The journal of the American Society of Translators was ATA Chronicle. The journal of the Literary Society of America was Translation Review.（Tan，2004:162-163）

In Canada, major translation associations included the Canadian Council of Translators and Interpreters, the Ontario Association of Translators and Interpreters, the Business Language Centre, and the Quebec Translation Association. The Ontario Association of Translators and Interpreters founded the journal of Inform ATIO. The most influential professional translation magazine in Canada was Meta: Journal des Traducteurs.（Tan，2004:164）

In Britain, major translation associations included the Association of Translation Companies of Great Britain, the Association of Translators and the Guild of Translators, of which the Guild of Translators was the most famous. The official publication of the guild is The Incorporated Linguist, which was published in 1962 and enjoyed high reputation in Britain.（Tan，2004:164)

There were two major translation associations in France: the Association of French Translators and the Association of French Literary Translators. There were also two major translation associations in West Germany, one was the Association of Federation Translators and Interpreters and the other was the German-speaking World Federation of Literary and Technical Translators. In addition, Austria, Italy, Spain, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, Finland, Belgium and other Western European countries also had local or national translation organizations and a variety of translation publications.（Tan，2004:164-165）

===Machine translation developed.===
In the process of more than two thousand years of development, the traditional translation method had not undergone substantial changes in technology, and the translation between the two languages still had to be carried out by hand. However, due to the increasingly frequent international scientific and cultural exchanges, manual translation could no longer timely meet the needs. Therefore, when the traditional manual translation was facing the challenge of the times, machine translation should be born. In 1946, under the auspices of the United States Army headquarters, J.P. Eckert and J.W. Mauchly who were both from the University of Pennsylvania developed the world’s first electronic computer named: Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator, or ENIAC for short. Computer’s astonishing speed inspired people to consider the innovation of translation technology. Therefore, in the same year, Andrew Booth and Warren Weaver first proposed the use of computers in the machine translation system. Since then, machine translation and machine translation research, driven by modern electronic computing technology officially began.American science, especially the development of computer science, to a large extent affected the development of computer science in the whole West and even the world. Therefore, especially in the pioneering period, the development history and model of Machine translation in America can almost be regarded as those in the whole West. In this sense, the development of machine translation in the west (and even the world) can be roughly divided into the following five major periods, just like the development of Machine translation in the United States: initial stage; high stage; low stage; recovery stage; vigorous stage. The following is a further overview of the five development periods of machine translation in the West (mainly in the United States) made by Tan Zaixi who referred to the books of Yang Muyun, Li Zhisheng，Yu Hao, Zhao Tiejun and so on.

====Initial stage (1946—1954)====
The pioneering period begins with Booth and Weaver’s idea of translating natural language by computer in 1954, and ends with the birth of the first machine translation system. After the idea of using computers to translate was put forward, although there was great resistance in the United States at first, the voice supporting it was mainstream. In particular, Weaver published a memorandum on machine translation in 1949, which not only opened up a series of research topics on machine translation in the United States, but also had a wide influence in western countries. The memo makes four basic points: the problem of polysemy can be solved by context; there is a logical basis in language; there are basic probabilities in language application; there are common elements in different languages. These are still the fundamental of the development of machine translation. In the following years, machine translation research had been actively carried out in some universities and organizations in the United States and Britain. In Massachusetts Institute of Technology, the first full-time machine translation researcher Bar-Hillel arrived, he made a great contribution to the early development of machine translation and put forward the main problems and basic strategies needed to be solved in machine translation research. The first machine translation conference was held at MIT in June 1952, after which machine translation research in the United States began to accelerate. In 1954, a machine translation system for computer was developed and demonstrated. Although the machine translation system was small, consisting of only 250 Russian words, six grammar rules, and a few translation examples, it first showed the public and the scientific community the feasibility of machine translation, inspiring substantial funding from U.S. government for machine translation research over the next decade.（Tan，2004:167-168）

====High-tide stage(1954—1966)====
The successful demonstration of the world’s first machine translation system, the Georgetown-IBM system of United States, marked the first development climax of machine translation. The upsurge began in 1954 and lasted for 12 years. In the mid-1950s, inspired by successful demonstration of machine translation system, dozens of universities, companies, and government agencies in the United States began machine translation research programs. On the one hand, due to the competition between the United States and the Soviet Union at that time, the United States military, the National Science Foundation, the Central Intelligence Agency and so on needed to acquire a large amount of scientific and technological information of the Soviet Union, so that they invested a lot in machine translation, especially Russian-English translation. On the other hand, advanced computers in the United States provided good equipment for the development of the first generation of machine translation system. At the same time, many universities and institutions in most European countries had also carried out machine translation research.（Tan，2004:168-170）

====Low-tide stage (1966—1975)====
The advent of machine translation had opened up a new way for traditional translation research and practice. However, the complexity of machine translation was underestimated at that time and the design of machine translation system was often too rough and simple. In this case, the first generation of machine translation systems in the initial stage could not achieve ideal results, the quality of translation is often poor, so that some people gradually lost confidence in machine translation research, and some scholars also became pessimistic and disappointed. （Tan Zaixi，2004:170）

In the mid-1960s, machine translation in the United States had suffered a severe blow. In 1966, the Automatic Language Processing Advisory Committee, part of the National Academy of Sciences, was asked to investigate machine translation research funded by government. The committee published its report, Language and Machines, after analyzing the speed, quality, cost and demand of machine translation at that time. The report pointed out that the quality of machine translation is significantly lower than that of human translation and asserted that there was no likelihood of any commercially useful machine translation system in the foreseeable future. On the committee’s recommendation, the U.S. government withdrew the funding for machine translation research. Thus, machine translation research in the United States plummeted from a high point to a low point of development. It should be noted, however, that machine translation research and development was not in a complete demise, following the official denials in the United States. Scholars and research institutions in many countries including the United States continued to carry out researches and experiments on machine translation under relatively difficult circumstances.（Tan Zaixi，2004:171）

====Recovery stage(1975—1989)====
In the middle of 1970s, with the emergence of new theories and ideas in the field of linguistics and the further development of computational linguistics, the research of machine translation was aroused in the world again. After ten years of silence, machine translation research stepped on the road of recovery. The recovery period of machine translation research and development is generally considered to date from the installation of the SYSTRAN system by EURATOM and the completion of the TAUM-METEO system by the University of Montreal in Canada.（Tan Zaixi，2004:171-174）

====Vigorous stage（1989—）====
Since the late 1980s, some new developments had changed the field of machine translation, marking machine translation research enter a new period. This is the emergence of the third generation of machine translation method that is corpus-based. Corpus-based machine translation systems include statistic-based translation and example-based translation, both of which are based on large-scale real text. （Tan Zaixi，2004:167-175）

Practice has proved that machine translation has great vitality. It is a new science, and its research and translation have entered a new stage of development. No matter whether it can replace the human brain and hands eventually and completely liberate human from the heavy artificial translation, it will develop and exist for a long time. Both in theory and practice, machine translation and its research will exert more and more influence on traditional translation and its research.

===Translation theories of different schools were emerging one after another.===
The most important feature of modern western translation is the rapid development of translation theory. After the Second World War, with the vigorous development of science and technology, modern linguistics, translation activities and the rise of machine translation, people gradually changed the traditional view of translation studies, believing that translation is not only an art or skill, but also a science with rules to follow.

On the whole, the development of contemporary translation theory has two characteristics :(1) theoretical research has been brought into the scope of linguistics, under the influence of modern linguistics and information theory; (2) the traditional situation of non-communication between theorists has been broken. Translation theorists fully express their views through various channels, such as published works.(Xie Tianzhen, 2009:32)

After the Second World War, with the modernization and integration of western social and economic development, western translation theories also began to enter a new period that transcends national boundaries. Therefore, it is difficult to classify some translation thoughts and some translation theorists in a narrow sense as belonging to a certain country or a certain place. It is acceptable to divide contemporary western translation theories into different schools according to their basic approaches and methods of translation studies or the basic characteristics of thought. Here is a brief introduction to some influential schools classified by Zhao Jiajin.

====American Translation Training School====
First established in 1964 at the University of Iowa, this school focused on translation practice, emphasized the literary taste and value of works, and adopted the methods of L. A. Richards and Williard V. Quine of Harvard University. Representative figures included poet and translator Ezra Pound, who translated Tang poetry and advocated the accurate restoration of details, words, fragments and the whole image description. Frederic Will of the University of Iowa, drawing on his training experience, regarded translation as a form of naming, fiction writing and cognition. Yale’s Jonas Zdnys argued that translation is an activity of subjective thought designed to explain literature. This school explores the role of the human mind in translation and raises the question of the nature of translation, but translation theory was limited to aesthetic experience and prescriptive translation rules.

====Translation Science School====
It was also known as “linguistic school”. According to this school, translation is the process of reproducing language as a whole, and it aims to correctly convey the original information to readers. The school was founded by Eugene Nida, whose masterpieces include Message and Mission (1960) and Toward Science of Translation (1946). Nida proposed functional equivalence theory according to Noam Chomsky’s transformational generative grammar and his experience in Bible translation, that is, to digest the original text and understand its basic structure and meaning; convey meaning based on basic structure; obtain semantic and stylistic equivalence with the original text. Thus the translation process can be summarized as: analyze—transfer—restructure, these three steps. The school of Translation science adopted linguistic theory and the more objective description method in translation theory. In the late 1970s, emphasis was placed on the cultural background of the information age, but the research was still limited to prescriptive research and translation criteria, ignoring the role of translators’thinking.（Zhao Jiajin,1996: 46）

====Translation school====
It is the so-called “literary school”. This school held that the original work is the unity of sentence series and article structure, and the translator is influenced by the original view and the future model of translation in the process of translation. The founder of this school was James Holmes, an American poet, who taught translation at the University of Amsterdam in the Netherlands before his death. His representative work is ''The Name and Nature of Translation Studies'' (1972).（Zhao Jiajin,1996: 46）

====Polysystem School====
Its founders are Itammar Even-Zohar and Gideon Toury of Tel Aviv University in Israel. Even coined the term Polysystem to explore the relationship between translated works and literary systems, and explained that the oriented culture of translation not only determines whether a work can be translated, but also regulates the wording. Toury held that translation belongs to the second system of multiple systems, and its role depends on the strength and development stage of the oriented culture of translation. He held that translation has no fixed identity and has multiple identities due to its social, literary and historical background. This school integrates translation studies with literary studies, social and economic factors, endows translation studies with historical significance, but it is still limited to the acceptability of translation and does not get rid of the fetters of cultural equivalence.（Zhao Jiajin,1996: 46）

====Deconstruction School====
It is also known as “affirmative productivity school”. It originated in France in the mid-1960s and is represented by Michel Foucault, Martin Heidegger and Jacques Derrida. This school introduced deconstruction into translation, claiming that translators create the subject and the target language is a new language. As Foucault put it, the original work is constantly rewritten in the process of translation, and the translator rewrites the original work every time he reads and translates it. Deconstruction studies the nature and process of translation and language, and advocates that translators exist as entities. The school even goes so far as to believe that language does not involve any objective reality, and translators have their own status only when they create texts.（Zhao Jiajin,1996: 46-47）

==Conclusion==
Under the influence of historical backgrounds, different periods of translation show different traits. In the modern period, the content of translation still focused on literature which included works form Russian, Nordic countries, China and so on. The way of translation was artificial and traditional. With the progress of economy and science, translation in the contemporary period also got great development. The content of translation was not confined to the field of literature. Instead, translation of science and technology, commerce, entertainment and so on became a major part of the actual translation activities. In addition, machine translation as a novel technique developed quickly. And the most important feature of modern western translation is the rapid development of translation theory thanks to many translator associations and publications on translation studies. Nowadays, under the influence of globalization, translation shows more and more importance and get better development environment.

==References==

Barnstone，Willis(1993). The Poetics of Trunslation: History, Theory, Practice[M]. New Haven:Yale University Press.

Bates, Ernest Stuart(1936). Modern Translation[M]. London: Oxford University Press.

Catford, John(1965). A Linguistic Theory of Translation: An Essay in Applied Linguistics[M].Oxford and London: Oxford University Press.

Delisle, Jean(1995). Translation: An Interpretive Approach[M]. Ottawa: University of Ottawa Press.

Feng Zhiwei 冯志伟(1994).《自然语言机器翻译新论》[M] New Theories of Machine Translation of Natural Language.北京:语文出版社Beijing: Chinese Press.

FitzMaurice-Kelly, J(1911). "Translation"[J]. Encyclopedia Britannica (11th edition, Cambridge),27:183-188.

Gentzler, Edwin(2004). Contemporary Translation Theories[M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

Hutchins，Robert(1952). Great Books of the Western World[M]. Chicago: Encyclopaedia .Britannica Ltd.

Mu Yunyang,Li Zhisheng,Yu Hao杨沐昀、李志升、于浩(2000).《机器翻译系统》[M]Machine Translation System.哈尔滨：哈尔滨工业大学出版社Harbin: Harbin University of Technology Press.

Tan Zaixi谭载喜(2004).西方翻译简史[M]A Brief History of Western Translation.北京：商务印书馆Beijing:The Commercial Press.

Tan Zaixi谭载喜(1985).西方翻译史浅谈[J]On the History of Western Translation.中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal,7:36-39.

Xie Tianzhen谢天振(2008).《当代国外翻译理论导读》[M]Introduction to Contemporary Foreign Translation Theories.天津：南开大学出版社Tianjin：Nankai University Press.

Xie Tianzhen谢天振(2011).中西翻译简史[M]A Brief History of Chinese and Western Translation.北京:外语教学与研究出版社Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.

Zhao Jiajin赵家琎(1996).当代翻译学派简介[J]A Brief Introduction to Contemporary Translation Schools.中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal,5：46—47.

Zhao Tiejun赵铁军等(2001).《机器翻译原理》[M]Principles of Machine Translation.哈尔滨：哈尔滨工业大学出版社Harbin: Harbin University of Technology Press.

Hist Trans EN 14

2021-12-14T06:49:03Z

Wei Chuxuan: /* Initial stage (1946—1954) */

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=Western Translation History In the Modern and Contemperary Ages=
'''现当代西方翻译史'''

魏楚璇，Wei Chuxuan, Hunan Normal University, China

==Abstract==
Under different historical backgrounds, western translation presents different characteristics. In the 20th century before the end of the Second World War, the two world wars inevitably brought obstacles and disturbances to the development of translation. Therefore, though translation in this period still continued to develop, it did not get breakthrough. Translation was still dominated by literary works in content, totally relying on manual labor. In translation theory, it emphasized the creativity of translation and laid a foundation for the linguistic turn of translation studies. After the end of World War II, the world entered an era of relative peace, the world economy recovered, and the translation industry was greatly revitalized. During this period, the scale of translation covered all aspects of social life, machine translation developed fast, translation training flourished, translation organizations were established in various countries and many translation theories and schools emerged. That is to say, this period can be called the golden age of translation.

==摘要==
在不同的历史背景下，西方翻译呈现出不同的特点。在二战结束之前的二十世纪，两次世界大战不可避免地为翻译事业的发展带来了阻碍和干扰，因而这一时期的翻译虽然仍在发展但并未取得突破性的成就，在翻译的内容上仍然以文学作品为主，技术上完全依赖人工，理论方面注重翻译的创造性且为翻译研究的语言学转向奠定了基础。二战结束后，世界进入到相对和平的年代，世界经济复苏，翻译事业也大为振兴。在这一时期，翻译的内容覆盖社会生活的方方面面，机器翻译发展迅速，翻译培训兴起，翻译组织在各国成立，各种翻译理论和翻译流派涌现，可谓是翻译的黄金年代。

==Keywords==
Western translation; translation history; modern; contemperary

==Introduction==
In this paper, western translation history in modern and contemporary ages will be introduced. Here the modern age refers to the nearly half century before the Second World War. And the contemporary age refers to the half century after the Second World War. That is to say, the modern and contemporary translation in this paper refers to the translation in the 20th century. Under the influence of different historical backgrounds, translation in these two ages showed different characteristics and traits which will be concluded and discussed in detail in the following.

==The General Situation of Translation in the Modern Age==
Into the 20th century, the capitalism in the developed countries developed into imperialism. On the one hand, the imperialist countries intensified their foreign expansion to oppress and exploit the weak countries and people in colony. On the other hand, they were engaged in a fierce battle among themselves for international markets and spheres of influence. Thus, in less than half a century, two world wars broke out. Under this historical background, translation in western countries will inevitably be seriously disturbed and destroyed. However, translation in western countries continued to develop and excellent translations still appeared from time to time. The translation of this period also has its own traits. The general situation of translation in this period can be summarized from the following two aspects.

===The emphasis of translation was on Russian and Nordic works and more Chinese works were translated.===
From the end of the 19th century to the beginning of the 20th century, the literature of Russia and the Nordic countries developed greatly with the emergence of Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoyevsky, Leo Tolstoy, Chekhov, Andersen, Ibsen, Strindberg and other world-renowned great writers and dramatists. Their works had attracted the attention of the people in Western Europe and North America so they were competing to learn Russian, Danish and Swedish and had these works translated into English, German and French. In the process of translation, many excellent translators emerged in various countries.
====Translation of Russian literature====
According to the research of Tan Zaixi, Constance Garnet is the most famous female translator in Britain in this century. She translated almost all classic Russian novels and is widely regarded as the most important Translator of translating Russian literature into English. She published her first translation of Turgenev's novel Ru-Din in 1894. In the following decades, she devoted almost all her energy and time to the translation of Russian literature. She was the first person to translate Turgenev, Dostoyevsky and Chekhov into English, successively translating all the major works of Turgenev, Goncharov, Dostoyevsky, Tolstoy, Gogol and Chekhov including 12 volumes of Dostoyevsky's Selected Works translated from 1912 to 1920, 15 volumes of Turgenev's Selected Works translated from 1894 to 1899, 15 volumes of Chekhov's Novels and Plays translated from 1916 to 1922, and 6 volumes of Gogol’s Selected Works translated from 1922 to 1928. In particular, her translations of Turgenev, Chekhov, Dostoyevsky and other works were widely welcomed by the English reading community, and thus gave rise to the Russian literature craze in English literature before the First World War. She translated 70 Russian works in her lifetime, making her the most prolific translator of Russian works.
Two other translators who did not translate as much from Russian to English as Garnett, but who had no less influence, were the couple——Louise and Aylmer Maude. They are famous in western modern literary circles for their research and translation of Tolstoy's works. From 1928 to 1937, they spent nearly ten years translating and publishing 21 volumes of The Complete Works of Tolstoy. Later, from 1940s to 1950s, they supplemented or retranslated some of Tolstoy's works, such as What I Believe and Resurrection. In 1952, their work of War and Peace was accepted as a standard English translation and was selected for the prestigious Great Books of the Western World, thus establishing them as the authoritative English translators of Tolstoy. In addition, R. S. Townsend, R. Edmonds, Samuel Koteliansky, Ethel C. Mayne, Boris Brasol, Richard Renfield and so on were famous for translating the works of Tolstoy, Dostoevsky, Turgenev, Chekhov, Goncharov into English.（Tan，2004:148-150）

====Translation of Nordic literature and drama====
In the first half of the 20th century, in addition to Russian literature, western European translators showed great interest in Nordic literature and drama, including the works of Andersen, Ibsen and Strindberg.

According to the study of Tan Zaixi, when Hans Christian Andersen was alive, one of his works was published simultaneously in 15 languages, including English, German, French, Italian, Spanish and almost all the major languages of Western Europe. Later, all of his works were translated into different languages, and there were many re-translations in English, French, German and other countries. The first English translator was Mary Howitt, who began translating Andersen’s fairy tales in 1846. Later translators include Charles Boner, Caroline Peachey, Lady Duff Gordon, Paul Leyssac, R. R. Keigwin and R. Spink. Some of the best translations are Leyssac’s translation in 1937, Keigwin’s translation from 1950 to 1960 and Spink’s translation.(Tan，2004:151)

The main English translators of Ibsen’s plays are William Archer and James MacFarlane. Archer translated 12 volumes of The Collected Works of H. I. from 1906 to 1912, including almost all of Ibsen’s plays and some of his previously unpublished papers. Macfarlane compiled translated eight volumes of The Oxford Ibsen from 1960 to 1977. In addition, F. E. Garrett translated Lyrics and Poems from Ibsen in 1912. Mary Morison translated The Correspondence of H.I. in 1905. Evert Sprinchorn translated H. I. Letters and Speeches in 1964. (Tan，2004:151)

In Germany, the standard German translation is the 10-volume The Collected Plays of Ibsen edited and published by G. Brandes, J. Elias, and P. Schlenther from 1898 to 1902. The standard French translation is The Complete Works of Ibsen in 16 volumes translated and published by P. G. La Chesnais from 1914 to 1945.(Tan，2004:151)

Strindberg’s work was translated into English as early as 1912. For the next fifty or sixty years, many people worked on Strindberg’s studies and translations. Major English translators included E. Schleussner, Walter Johnson, M. Sandbach, Elizabeth Sprigge and Michael Meyer. Some good works are Sprigge’s translations of Strinberg’s Plays in 1963 and Meyer’s translations of The Father, Miss Julie, Storm and so on in 1964. In other major western European countries such as Germany and France, Strindberg’s plays were also translated into German and French, and repeatedly staged in Berlin and Paris. (Tan，2004:152)

There is no doubt that the translation of modern and contemporary Russian and Nordic literature and drama was a mainstream of western translation in the first half of the century. However, at the same time, it must be pointed out that the mutual translation of modern and contemporary literary works in western European countries still enjoys considerable momentum.

====More and more Chinese works were translated.====
In the 20th century, more and more people in the West became interested in Chinese culture. Since the 1950s, with the improvement of new China’s international prestige, the fever of translating Chinese works had been constantly appearing in the West. Not only the Four Books, Five Classics, Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Water Margin, Journey to the West, A Dream of Red Mansions and the poems of Li Bai, Du Fu and Bai Juyi were translated into English, German and French, but modern writers such as Luxun, Maodun and Bajin were also introduced to western countries. In the process of translating and introducing Chinese works, excellent translators have emerged from every country.

According to the study of Tan Zaixi, Arthur Waley, the most eminent Sinologist in Britain in the 20th century, was a translator, writer and poet. In 1916, his first translation of Chinese Poems was published. In 1918, he published his second translated work One Hundred Seventy Chinese Poems. These two translations are both from Tang poems. In addition, he also translated part of Journey to the West in 1942, published four other Chinese-English translations, and wrote three books about China or Chinese writers. Another outstanding Sinologist and translator in the 20th century was Franz Kuhn of Germany. From 1919, when his first translation was published, to his death in 1961, he translated and published more than 40 classical and modern Chinese literary works, including 12 novels and 34 short stories. In particular, his translation of The Fortunate Union in 1926, Second Bloom in 1927, The Golden Lotus in 1930, A Dream of Red Mansions in 1932, Water Margin in 1934, Jade Dragonfly in 1936, Romance of the Three Kingdoms in 1940, Midnight and other works from 1940 to 1955, were well received by German readers.（Tan,2004:153-156）

===The creativity of translation and the language in translation were paid more attention.===
In the aspect of translation theory, scholars had deeply reflected on the traditional translation theory, especially questioned the universality of language, and proposed that when the meaning of the original text becomes obscure and difficult to understand, translators must fill in the gaps of the text according to their own experience. Therefore, translation theories of this period paid more attention to the creativity of translation and the language problems in translation. Although they did not separate themselves from the discussion of translation techniques such as word selection and sentence construction, they laid a foundation for the linguistic turn of translation studies and provided theoretical thinking for the translation literature as an independent existence. And about the specific translation theories in different countries in this period, Xie Tianzhen made a brief summary.

J. P. Postgate is a famous Translation theorist in Britain, and he put forward prospective translation and retrospective translation. Prospective translation means that the translator always keeps the reader in mind and adopts free methods and common expressions to ensure that the original ideas of the reader are not affected and their prediction is not interfered with. The purpose of translation is to show the translator’s mastery of the target language, focusing on the target language rather than the original one. Retrospective translation means that the translator always looks at the original author, because the purpose of translation is to impart knowledge of the original text, rather than to look ahead and consider the reader of the translation.（Xie，2011:29）

French scholar J. Marouzeau’s "On Translation of Latin" is an important translation literature in French. He believed that translation is a skill in which the translator should reveal to the reader the content of the original work, rather than its shell, using a living language.（Xie，2011:29）

German thinker Walter Benjamin pointed out that although the translation is based on the original, it is the afterlife of the original work and the translation need not pursue the same meaning as the original work. Mediocre translators pay more attention to the meaning of the original work than to its literariness and language style and they only know that the translation exists to serve the original work and can only translate the non-essential content of the original work. (Xie Tianzhen，2008:319-332) The translator’s task is to use his own language to release the pure language trapped by another language, that is, to liberate the imprisoned language in the re-creation of the original text. Edwin Gentzler, a contemporary American translation theorist, believed that the discussion of translation issues among Anglo-American deconstructionists mainly revolves around comments on Benjamin’s Translator’s Task. (Edwin Gentzler, 2004:173-174.) Therefore, Translator’s Task is regarded as the “Bible” of translation theory and the classic of deconstructive translation theory.（Xie，2011:30）

The Russian scholar Mikhail Vasilievich Lemonosov transformed the loanwords that entered the Russian language, russified them, and regarded translation as a creative activity. And this view of free translation lasted until the 19th century. Aleksandr Pushkin, the greatest Russian poet in the 19th century, based on his literary translation practice, proposed that translators should have their own opinions on the selection of materials and should have full freedom in dealing with the original work, but the uniqueness of the original work should be preserved as much as possible.（Xie，2011:30）

==The General Situation of Translation in the Contemporary Age==
After the Second World War, the world entered a period of relative peace. After the trauma of the war, the Western countries regrouped and began to restore and develop production and economy in an all-round way. Translation cause also entered a new period of development at extremely rapid pace, taking on a new look. During this period, not only in the Soviet Union, Britain, Germany, France and other major European countries, but also in the United States, Canada, the cause of translation showed a prosperous scene. In terms of the whole western translation career, the translation after the Second World War was unmatched in scope, form, scale and achievement. Therefore, the 20th century could be called as "the age of translation" , which in fact mainly referred to the decades since the end of the war. Though great achievement was also made in literary translation in this period, the 20th century is known as the "age of translation" mainly because western translation expanded into various fields during this period, which has five characteristics.

===The scale of translation extended to the field of business, diplomacy, science and many other professional affairs.===
Since the end of the Second World War, due to practical needs, commercial, diplomatic, scientific and technological translation had flourished, and its momentum even exceeded literary translation, thus forming a major content of the development of modern western translation.Here is the research of Tan Zaixi about the scale of translation.

In 1945, the United Nations was established with English, French, Russian, Chinese and Spanish as the five official and working languages. In 1957, the European Community was founded, consisting of six countries at that time. In 1993, the European Community developed into the European Union. By 2004, it had 25 member states, using nine languages including English, French, German, Italy, Denmark, Ireland, Greece, Spain and Portugal. That is to say, translation had become an indispensable part of daily work, both for communicating with countries in other regions and among western countries. According to UNESCO, the number of translations in the world increased four-and-a-half times from 1948 to 1970. The institutions of the European Common Market employed more than 1,300 employees to deal with translation, of whom 450 were full-time interpreters, 550 translators and others were freelance employees on short-term contracts. (Tan,2004:160-161)

===Translation teaching was widespread.===
In the past, translation was mainly the work of a few literary magnates. With the establishment of the United Nations and its specialized agencies, as well as the establishment of international institutions such as the European Common Market (EC, EU) and the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, the need for translators was increasing. To meet this need, a number of schools specializing in training translators had been set up.

According to the study of Tan Zaixi, the most prominent schools are the High School of Translation at the Third University of Paris and the School of Translation at the University of Ottawa. What’s more, many universities in Europe and the United States also offer translation classes or courses in senior grades.（Tan, 2004:161-162）

===Translators’associations were established and publications on translation studies were launched.===
Translators in different countries set up various translation associations and publications. These associations played an important role in the development of translation through their activities and publications.

According to Tan Zaixi, translation associations or federations in European and American capitalist countries, in particular, generally emphasize the following principles: to clarify the legal status of translators through legislative means; to take effective measures to protect the legal rights of translators (especially the copyright that translators should enjoy); to improve their social status and increase their economic income; to improve the learning and working conditions of translators to provide them with opportunities to constantly improve their translation skills and a good working environment.（Tan，2004:162）

There were more translators’ organizations in the United States than in other western countries, with a total of 30, among which the most influential were the American Society of Translators, the American Federation of Linguists and the Literary Society of America. The journal of the American Society of Translators was ATA Chronicle. The journal of the Literary Society of America was Translation Review.（Tan，2004:162-163）

In Canada, major translation associations included the Canadian Council of Translators and Interpreters, the Ontario Association of Translators and Interpreters, the Business Language Centre, and the Quebec Translation Association. The Ontario Association of Translators and Interpreters founded the journal of Inform ATIO. The most influential professional translation magazine in Canada was Meta: Journal des Traducteurs.（Tan，2004:164）

In Britain, major translation associations included the Association of Translation Companies of Great Britain, the Association of Translators and the Guild of Translators, of which the Guild of Translators was the most famous. The official publication of the guild is The Incorporated Linguist, which was published in 1962 and enjoyed high reputation in Britain.（Tan，2004:164)

There were two major translation associations in France: the Association of French Translators and the Association of French Literary Translators. There were also two major translation associations in West Germany, one was the Association of Federation Translators and Interpreters and the other was the German-speaking World Federation of Literary and Technical Translators. In addition, Austria, Italy, Spain, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, Finland, Belgium and other Western European countries also had local or national translation organizations and a variety of translation publications.（Tan，2004:164-165）

===Machine translation developed.===
In the process of more than two thousand years of development, the traditional translation method had not undergone substantial changes in technology, and the translation between the two languages still had to be carried out by hand. However, due to the increasingly frequent international scientific and cultural exchanges, manual translation could no longer timely meet the needs. Therefore, when the traditional manual translation was facing the challenge of the times, machine translation should be born. In 1946, under the auspices of the United States Army headquarters, J.P. Eckert and J.W. Mauchly who were both from the University of Pennsylvania developed the world’s first electronic computer named: Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator, or ENIAC for short. Computer’s astonishing speed inspired people to consider the innovation of translation technology. Therefore, in the same year, Andrew Booth and Warren Weaver first proposed the use of computers in the machine translation system. Since then, machine translation and machine translation research, driven by modern electronic computing technology officially began.American science, especially the development of computer science, to a large extent affected the development of computer science in the whole West and even the world. Therefore, especially in the pioneering period, the development history and model of Machine translation in America can almost be regarded as those in the whole West. In this sense, the development of machine translation in the west (and even the world) can be roughly divided into the following five major periods, just like the development of Machine translation in the United States: initial stage; high stage; low stage; recovery stage; vigorous stage. The following is a further overview of the five development periods of machine translation in the West (mainly in the United States) made by Tan Zaixi who referred to the books of Yang Muyun, Li Zhisheng，Yu Hao, Zhao Tiejun and so on.

====Initial stage (1946—1954)====
The pioneering period begins with Booth and Weaver’s idea of translating natural language by computer in 1954, and ends with the birth of the first machine translation system. After the idea of using computers to translate was put forward, although there was great resistance in the United States at first, the voice supporting it was mainstream. In particular, Weaver published a memorandum on machine translation in 1949, which not only opened up a series of research topics on machine translation in the United States, but also had a wide influence in western countries. The memo makes four basic points: the problem of polysemy can be solved by context; there is a logical basis in language; there are basic probabilities in language application; there are common elements in different languages. These are still the fundamental of the development of machine translation. In the following years, machine translation research had been actively carried out in some universities and organizations in the United States and Britain. In Massachusetts Institute of Technology, the first full-time machine translation researcher Bar-Hillel arrived, he made a great contribution to the early development of machine translation and put forward the main problems and basic strategies needed to be solved in machine translation research. The first machine translation conference was held at MIT in June 1952, after which machine translation research in the United States began to accelerate. In 1954, a machine translation system for computer was developed and demonstrated. Although the machine translation system was small, consisting of only 250 Russian words, six grammar rules, and a few translation examples, it first showed the public and the scientific community the feasibility of machine translation, inspiring substantial funding from U.S. government for machine translation research over the next decade.（Tan，2004:167-168）

====High-tide stage(1954—1966)====
The successful demonstration of the world’s first machine translation system, the Georgetown-IBM system of United States, marked the first development climax of machine translation. The upsurge began in 1954 and lasted for 12 years. In the mid-1950s, inspired by successful demonstration of machine translation system, dozens of universities, companies, and government agencies in the United States began machine translation research programs. On the one hand, due to the competition between the United States and the Soviet Union at that time, the United States military, the National Science Foundation, the Central Intelligence Agency and so on needed to acquire a large amount of scientific and technological information of the Soviet Union, so that they invested a lot in machine translation, especially Russian-English translation. On the other hand, advanced computers in the United States provided good equipment for the development of the first generation of machine translation system. At the same time, many universities and institutions in most European countries had also carried out machine translation research.（Tan Zaixi，2004:168-170）

====Low-tide stage (1966—1975)====
The advent of machine translation had opened up a new way for traditional translation research and practice. However, the complexity of machine translation was underestimated at that time and the design of machine translation system was often too rough and simple. In this case, the first generation of machine translation systems in the initial stage could not achieve ideal results, the quality of translation is often poor, so that some people gradually lost confidence in machine translation research, and some scholars also became pessimistic and disappointed. （Tan Zaixi，2004:170）

In the mid-1960s, machine translation in the United States had suffered a severe blow. In 1966, the Automatic Language Processing Advisory Committee, part of the National Academy of Sciences, was asked to investigate machine translation research funded by government. The committee published its report, Language and Machines, after analyzing the speed, quality, cost and demand of machine translation at that time. The report pointed out that the quality of machine translation is significantly lower than that of human translation and asserted that there was no likelihood of any commercially useful machine translation system in the foreseeable future. On the committee’s recommendation, the U.S. government withdrew the funding for machine translation research. Thus, machine translation research in the United States plummeted from a high point to a low point of development. It should be noted, however, that machine translation research and development was not in a complete demise, following the official denials in the United States. Scholars and research institutions in many countries including the United States continued to carry out researches and experiments on machine translation under relatively difficult circumstances.（Tan Zaixi，2004:171）

====Recovery stage(1975—1989)====
In the middle of 1970s, with the emergence of new theories and ideas in the field of linguistics and the further development of computational linguistics, the research of machine translation was aroused in the world again. After ten years of silence, machine translation research stepped on the road of recovery. The recovery period of machine translation research and development is generally considered to date from the installation of the SYSTRAN system by EURATOM and the completion of the TAUM-METEO system by the University of Montreal in Canada.（Tan Zaixi，2004:171-174）

====Vigorous stage（1989—）====
Since the late 1980s, some new developments had changed the field of machine translation, marking machine translation research enter a new period. This is the emergence of the third generation of machine translation method that is corpus-based. Corpus-based machine translation systems include statistic-based translation and example-based translation, both of which are based on large-scale real text. （Tan Zaixi，2004:167-175）

Practice has proved that machine translation has great vitality. It is a new science, and its research and translation have entered a new stage of development. No matter whether it can replace the human brain and hands eventually and completely liberate human from the heavy artificial translation, it will develop and exist for a long time. Both in theory and practice, machine translation and its research will exert more and more influence on traditional translation and its research.

===Translation theories of different schools were emerging one after another.===
The most important feature of modern western translation is the rapid development of translation theory. After the Second World War, with the vigorous development of science and technology, modern linguistics, translation activities and the rise of machine translation, people gradually changed the traditional view of translation studies, believing that translation is not only an art or skill, but also a science with rules to follow.

On the whole, the development of contemporary translation theory has two characteristics :(1) theoretical research has been brought into the scope of linguistics, under the influence of modern linguistics and information theory; (2) the traditional situation of non-communication between theorists has been broken. Translation theorists fully express their views through various channels, such as published works.(Xie Tianzhen, 2009:32)

After the Second World War, with the modernization and integration of western social and economic development, western translation theories also began to enter a new period that transcends national boundaries. Therefore, it is difficult to classify some translation thoughts and some translation theorists in a narrow sense as belonging to a certain country or a certain place. It is acceptable to divide contemporary western translation theories into different schools according to their basic approaches and methods of translation studies or the basic characteristics of thought. Here is a brief introduction to some influential schools classified by Zhao Jiajin.

====American Translation Training School====
First established in 1964 at the University of Iowa, this school focused on translation practice, emphasized the literary taste and value of works, and adopted the methods of L. A. Richards and Williard V. Quine of Harvard University. Representative figures included poet and translator Ezra Pound, who translated Tang poetry and advocated the accurate restoration of details, words, fragments and the whole image description. Frederic Will of the University of Iowa, drawing on his training experience, regarded translation as a form of naming, fiction writing and cognition. Yale’s Jonas Zdnys argued that translation is an activity of subjective thought designed to explain literature. This school explores the role of the human mind in translation and raises the question of the nature of translation, but translation theory was limited to aesthetic experience and prescriptive translation rules.

====Translation Science School====
It was also known as “linguistic school”. According to this school, translation is the process of reproducing language as a whole, and it aims to correctly convey the original information to readers. The school was founded by Eugene Nida, whose masterpieces include Message and Mission (1960) and Toward Science of Translation (1946). Nida proposed functional equivalence theory according to Noam Chomsky’s transformational generative grammar and his experience in Bible translation, that is, to digest the original text and understand its basic structure and meaning; convey meaning based on basic structure; obtain semantic and stylistic equivalence with the original text. Thus the translation process can be summarized as: analyze—transfer—restructure, these three steps. The school of Translation science adopted linguistic theory and the more objective description method in translation theory. In the late 1970s, emphasis was placed on the cultural background of the information age, but the research was still limited to prescriptive research and translation criteria, ignoring the role of translators’thinking.（Zhao Jiajin,1996: 46）

====Translation school====
It is the so-called “literary school”. This school held that the original work is the unity of sentence series and article structure, and the translator is influenced by the original view and the future model of translation in the process of translation. The founder of this school was James Holmes, an American poet, who taught translation at the University of Amsterdam in the Netherlands before his death. His representative work is ''The Name and Nature of Translation Studies'' (1972).（Zhao Jiajin,1996: 46）

====Polysystem School====
Its founders are Itammar Even-Zohar and Gideon Toury of Tel Aviv University in Israel. Even coined the term Polysystem to explore the relationship between translated works and literary systems, and explained that the oriented culture of translation not only determines whether a work can be translated, but also regulates the wording. Toury held that translation belongs to the second system of multiple systems, and its role depends on the strength and development stage of the oriented culture of translation. He held that translation has no fixed identity and has multiple identities due to its social, literary and historical background. This school integrates translation studies with literary studies, social and economic factors, endows translation studies with historical significance, but it is still limited to the acceptability of translation and does not get rid of the fetters of cultural equivalence.（Zhao Jiajin,1996: 46）

====Deconstruction School====
It is also known as “affirmative productivity school”. It originated in France in the mid-1960s and is represented by Michel Foucault, Martin Heidegger and Jacques Derrida. This school introduced deconstruction into translation, claiming that translators create the subject and the target language is a new language. As Foucault put it, the original work is constantly rewritten in the process of translation, and the translator rewrites the original work every time he reads and translates it. Deconstruction studies the nature and process of translation and language, and advocates that translators exist as entities. The school even goes so far as to believe that language does not involve any objective reality, and translators have their own status only when they create texts.（Zhao Jiajin,1996: 46-47）

==Conclusion==
Under the influence of historical backgrounds, different periods of translation show different traits. In the modern period, the content of translation still focused on literature which included works form Russian, Nordic countries, China and so on. The way of translation was artificial and traditional. With the progress of economy and science, translation in the contemporary period also got great development. The content of translation was not confined to the field of literature. Instead, translation of science and technology, commerce, entertainment and so on became a major part of the actual translation activities. In addition, machine translation as a novel technique developed quickly. And the most important feature of modern western translation is the rapid development of translation theory thanks to many translator associations and publications on translation studies. Nowadays, under the influence of globalization, translation shows more and more importance and get better development environment.

==References==

Barnstone，Willis(1993). The Poetics of Trunslation: History, Theory, Practice[M]. New Haven:Yale University Press.

Bates, Ernest Stuart(1936). Modern Translation[M]. London: Oxford University Press.

Catford, John(1965). A Linguistic Theory of Translation: An Essay in Applied Linguistics[M].Oxford and London: Oxford University Press.

Delisle, Jean(1995). Translation: An Interpretive Approach[M]. Ottawa: University of Ottawa Press.

Feng Zhiwei 冯志伟(1994).《自然语言机器翻译新论》[M] New Theories of Machine Translation of Natural Language.北京:语文出版社Beijing: Chinese Press.

FitzMaurice-Kelly, J(1911). "Translation"[J]. Encyclopedia Britannica (11th edition, Cambridge),27:183-188.

Gentzler, Edwin(2004). Contemporary Translation Theories[M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

Hutchins，Robert(1952). Great Books of the Western World[M]. Chicago: Encyclopaedia .Britannica Ltd.

Mu Yunyang,Li Zhisheng,Yu Hao杨沐昀、李志升、于浩(2000).《机器翻译系统》[M]Machine Translation System.哈尔滨：哈尔滨工业大学出版社Harbin: Harbin University of Technology Press.

Tan Zaixi谭载喜(2004).西方翻译简史[M]A Brief History of Western Translation.北京：商务印书馆Beijing:The Commercial Press.

Tan Zaixi谭载喜(1985).西方翻译史浅谈[J]On the History of Western Translation.中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal,7:36-39.

Xie Tianzhen谢天振(2008).《当代国外翻译理论导读》[M]Introduction to Contemporary Foreign Translation Theories.天津：南开大学出版社Tianjin：Nankai University Press.

Xie Tianzhen谢天振(2011).中西翻译简史[M]A Brief History of Chinese and Western Translation.北京:外语教学与研究出版社Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.

Zhao Jiajin赵家琎(1996).当代翻译学派简介[J]A Brief Introduction to Contemporary Translation Schools.中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal,5：46—47.

Zhao Tiejun赵铁军等(2001).《机器翻译原理》[M]Principles of Machine Translation.哈尔滨：哈尔滨工业大学出版社Harbin: Harbin University of Technology Press.

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=Western Translation History In the Modern and Contemperary Ages=
'''现当代西方翻译史'''

魏楚璇，Wei Chuxuan, Hunan Normal University, China

==Abstract==
Under different historical backgrounds, western translation presents different characteristics. In the 20th century before the end of the Second World War, the two world wars inevitably brought obstacles and disturbances to the development of translation. Therefore, though translation in this period still continued to develop, it did not get breakthrough. Translation was still dominated by literary works in content, totally relying on manual labor. In translation theory, it emphasized the creativity of translation and laid a foundation for the linguistic turn of translation studies. After the end of World War II, the world entered an era of relative peace, the world economy recovered, and the translation industry was greatly revitalized. During this period, the scale of translation covered all aspects of social life, machine translation developed fast, translation training flourished, translation organizations were established in various countries and many translation theories and schools emerged. That is to say, this period can be called the golden age of translation.

==摘要==
在不同的历史背景下，西方翻译呈现出不同的特点。在二战结束之前的二十世纪，两次世界大战不可避免地为翻译事业的发展带来了阻碍和干扰，因而这一时期的翻译虽然仍在发展但并未取得突破性的成就，在翻译的内容上仍然以文学作品为主，技术上完全依赖人工，理论方面注重翻译的创造性且为翻译研究的语言学转向奠定了基础。二战结束后，世界进入到相对和平的年代，世界经济复苏，翻译事业也大为振兴。在这一时期，翻译的内容覆盖社会生活的方方面面，机器翻译发展迅速，翻译培训兴起，翻译组织在各国成立，各种翻译理论和翻译流派涌现，可谓是翻译的黄金年代。

==Keywords==
Western translation; translation history; modern; contemperary

==Introduction==
In this paper, western translation history in modern and contemporary ages will be introduced. Here the modern age refers to the nearly half century before the Second World War. And the contemporary age refers to the half century after the Second World War. That is to say, the modern and contemporary translation in this paper refers to the translation in the 20th century. Under the influence of different historical backgrounds, translation in these two ages showed different characteristics and traits which will be concluded and discussed in detail in the following.

==The General Situation of Translation in the Modern Age==
Into the 20th century, the capitalism in the developed countries developed into imperialism. On the one hand, the imperialist countries intensified their foreign expansion to oppress and exploit the weak countries and people in colony. On the other hand, they were engaged in a fierce battle among themselves for international markets and spheres of influence. Thus, in less than half a century, two world wars broke out. Under this historical background, translation in western countries will inevitably be seriously disturbed and destroyed. However, translation in western countries continued to develop and excellent translations still appeared from time to time. The translation of this period also has its own traits. The general situation of translation in this period can be summarized from the following two aspects.

===The emphasis of translation was on Russian and Nordic works and more Chinese works were translated.===
From the end of the 19th century to the beginning of the 20th century, the literature of Russia and the Nordic countries developed greatly with the emergence of Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoyevsky, Leo Tolstoy, Chekhov, Andersen, Ibsen, Strindberg and other world-renowned great writers and dramatists. Their works had attracted the attention of the people in Western Europe and North America so they were competing to learn Russian, Danish and Swedish and had these works translated into English, German and French. In the process of translation, many excellent translators emerged in various countries.
====Translation of Russian literature====
According to the research of Tan Zaixi, Constance Garnet is the most famous female translator in Britain in this century. She translated almost all classic Russian novels and is widely regarded as the most important Translator of translating Russian literature into English. She published her first translation of Turgenev's novel Ru-Din in 1894. In the following decades, she devoted almost all her energy and time to the translation of Russian literature. She was the first person to translate Turgenev, Dostoyevsky and Chekhov into English, successively translating all the major works of Turgenev, Goncharov, Dostoyevsky, Tolstoy, Gogol and Chekhov including 12 volumes of Dostoyevsky's Selected Works translated from 1912 to 1920, 15 volumes of Turgenev's Selected Works translated from 1894 to 1899, 15 volumes of Chekhov's Novels and Plays translated from 1916 to 1922, and 6 volumes of Gogol’s Selected Works translated from 1922 to 1928. In particular, her translations of Turgenev, Chekhov, Dostoyevsky and other works were widely welcomed by the English reading community, and thus gave rise to the Russian literature craze in English literature before the First World War. She translated 70 Russian works in her lifetime, making her the most prolific translator of Russian works.
Two other translators who did not translate as much from Russian to English as Garnett, but who had no less influence, were the couple——Louise and Aylmer Maude. They are famous in western modern literary circles for their research and translation of Tolstoy's works. From 1928 to 1937, they spent nearly ten years translating and publishing 21 volumes of The Complete Works of Tolstoy. Later, from 1940s to 1950s, they supplemented or retranslated some of Tolstoy's works, such as What I Believe and Resurrection. In 1952, their work of War and Peace was accepted as a standard English translation and was selected for the prestigious Great Books of the Western World, thus establishing them as the authoritative English translators of Tolstoy. In addition, R. S. Townsend, R. Edmonds, Samuel Koteliansky, Ethel C. Mayne, Boris Brasol, Richard Renfield and so on were famous for translating the works of Tolstoy, Dostoevsky, Turgenev, Chekhov, Goncharov into English.（Tan，2004:148-150）

====Translation of Nordic literature and drama====
In the first half of the 20th century, in addition to Russian literature, western European translators showed great interest in Nordic literature and drama, including the works of Andersen, Ibsen and Strindberg.

According to the study of Tan Zaixi, when Hans Christian Andersen was alive, one of his works was published simultaneously in 15 languages, including English, German, French, Italian, Spanish and almost all the major languages of Western Europe. Later, all of his works were translated into different languages, and there were many re-translations in English, French, German and other countries. The first English translator was Mary Howitt, who began translating Andersen’s fairy tales in 1846. Later translators include Charles Boner, Caroline Peachey, Lady Duff Gordon, Paul Leyssac, R. R. Keigwin and R. Spink. Some of the best translations are Leyssac’s translation in 1937, Keigwin’s translation from 1950 to 1960 and Spink’s translation.(Tan，2004:151)

The main English translators of Ibsen’s plays are William Archer and James MacFarlane. Archer translated 12 volumes of The Collected Works of H. I. from 1906 to 1912, including almost all of Ibsen’s plays and some of his previously unpublished papers. Macfarlane compiled translated eight volumes of The Oxford Ibsen from 1960 to 1977. In addition, F. E. Garrett translated Lyrics and Poems from Ibsen in 1912. Mary Morison translated The Correspondence of H.I. in 1905. Evert Sprinchorn translated H. I. Letters and Speeches in 1964. (Tan，2004:151)

In Germany, the standard German translation is the 10-volume The Collected Plays of Ibsen edited and published by G. Brandes, J. Elias, and P. Schlenther from 1898 to 1902. The standard French translation is The Complete Works of Ibsen in 16 volumes translated and published by P. G. La Chesnais from 1914 to 1945.(Tan，2004:151)

Strindberg’s work was translated into English as early as 1912. For the next fifty or sixty years, many people worked on Strindberg’s studies and translations. Major English translators included E. Schleussner, Walter Johnson, M. Sandbach, Elizabeth Sprigge and Michael Meyer. Some good works are Sprigge’s translations of Strinberg’s Plays in 1963 and Meyer’s translations of The Father, Miss Julie, Storm and so on in 1964. In other major western European countries such as Germany and France, Strindberg’s plays were also translated into German and French, and repeatedly staged in Berlin and Paris. (Tan，2004:152)

There is no doubt that the translation of modern and contemporary Russian and Nordic literature and drama was a mainstream of western translation in the first half of the century. However, at the same time, it must be pointed out that the mutual translation of modern and contemporary literary works in western European countries still enjoys considerable momentum.

====More and more Chinese works were translated.====
In the 20th century, more and more people in the West became interested in Chinese culture. Since the 1950s, with the improvement of new China’s international prestige, the fever of translating Chinese works had been constantly appearing in the West. Not only the Four Books, Five Classics, Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Water Margin, Journey to the West, A Dream of Red Mansions and the poems of Li Bai, Du Fu and Bai Juyi were translated into English, German and French, but modern writers such as Luxun, Maodun and Bajin were also introduced to western countries. In the process of translating and introducing Chinese works, excellent translators have emerged from every country.

According to the study of Tan Zaixi, Arthur Waley, the most eminent Sinologist in Britain in the 20th century, was a translator, writer and poet. In 1916, his first translation of Chinese Poems was published. In 1918, he published his second translated work One Hundred Seventy Chinese Poems. These two translations are both from Tang poems. In addition, he also translated part of Journey to the West in 1942, published four other Chinese-English translations, and wrote three books about China or Chinese writers. Another outstanding Sinologist and translator in the 20th century was Franz Kuhn of Germany. From 1919, when his first translation was published, to his death in 1961, he translated and published more than 40 classical and modern Chinese literary works, including 12 novels and 34 short stories. In particular, his translation of The Fortunate Union in 1926, Second Bloom in 1927, The Golden Lotus in 1930, A Dream of Red Mansions in 1932, Water Margin in 1934, Jade Dragonfly in 1936, Romance of the Three Kingdoms in 1940, Midnight and other works from 1940 to 1955, were well received by German readers.（Tan,2004:153-156）

===The creativity of translation and the language in translation were paid more attention.===
In the aspect of translation theory, scholars had deeply reflected on the traditional translation theory, especially questioned the universality of language, and proposed that when the meaning of the original text becomes obscure and difficult to understand, translators must fill in the gaps of the text according to their own experience. Therefore, translation theories of this period paid more attention to the creativity of translation and the language problems in translation. Although they did not separate themselves from the discussion of translation techniques such as word selection and sentence construction, they laid a foundation for the linguistic turn of translation studies and provided theoretical thinking for the translation literature as an independent existence. And about the specific translation theories in different countries in this period, Xie Tianzhen made a brief summary.

J. P. Postgate is a famous Translation theorist in Britain, and he put forward prospective translation and retrospective translation. Prospective translation means that the translator always keeps the reader in mind and adopts free methods and common expressions to ensure that the original ideas of the reader are not affected and their prediction is not interfered with. The purpose of translation is to show the translator’s mastery of the target language, focusing on the target language rather than the original one. Retrospective translation means that the translator always looks at the original author, because the purpose of translation is to impart knowledge of the original text, rather than to look ahead and consider the reader of the translation.（Xie，2011:29）

French scholar J. Marouzeau’s "On Translation of Latin" is an important translation literature in French. He believed that translation is a skill in which the translator should reveal to the reader the content of the original work, rather than its shell, using a living language.（Xie，2011:29）

German thinker Walter Benjamin pointed out that although the translation is based on the original, it is the afterlife of the original work and the translation need not pursue the same meaning as the original work. Mediocre translators pay more attention to the meaning of the original work than to its literariness and language style and they only know that the translation exists to serve the original work and can only translate the non-essential content of the original work. (Xie Tianzhen，2008:319-332) The translator’s task is to use his own language to release the pure language trapped by another language, that is, to liberate the imprisoned language in the re-creation of the original text. Edwin Gentzler, a contemporary American translation theorist, believed that the discussion of translation issues among Anglo-American deconstructionists mainly revolves around comments on Benjamin’s Translator’s Task. (Edwin Gentzler, 2004:173-174.) Therefore, Translator’s Task is regarded as the “Bible” of translation theory and the classic of deconstructive translation theory.（Xie，2011:30）

The Russian scholar Mikhail Vasilievich Lemonosov transformed the loanwords that entered the Russian language, russified them, and regarded translation as a creative activity. And this view of free translation lasted until the 19th century. Aleksandr Pushkin, the greatest Russian poet in the 19th century, based on his literary translation practice, proposed that translators should have their own opinions on the selection of materials and should have full freedom in dealing with the original work, but the uniqueness of the original work should be preserved as much as possible.（Xie，2011:30）

==The General Situation of Translation in the Contemporary Age==
After the Second World War, the world entered a period of relative peace. After the trauma of the war, the Western countries regrouped and began to restore and develop production and economy in an all-round way. Translation cause also entered a new period of development at extremely rapid pace, taking on a new look. During this period, not only in the Soviet Union, Britain, Germany, France and other major European countries, but also in the United States, Canada, the cause of translation showed a prosperous scene. In terms of the whole western translation career, the translation after the Second World War was unmatched in scope, form, scale and achievement. Therefore, the 20th century could be called as "the age of translation" , which in fact mainly referred to the decades since the end of the war. Though great achievement was also made in literary translation in this period, the 20th century is known as the "age of translation" mainly because western translation expanded into various fields during this period, which has five characteristics.

===The scale of translation extended to the field of business, diplomacy, science and many other professional affairs.===
Since the end of the Second World War, due to practical needs, commercial, diplomatic, scientific and technological translation had flourished, and its momentum even exceeded literary translation, thus forming a major content of the development of modern western translation.Here is the research of Tan Zaixi about the scale of translation.

In 1945, the United Nations was established with English, French, Russian, Chinese and Spanish as the five official and working languages. In 1957, the European Community was founded, consisting of six countries at that time. In 1993, the European Community developed into the European Union. By 2004, it had 25 member states, using nine languages including English, French, German, Italy, Denmark, Ireland, Greece, Spain and Portugal. That is to say, translation had become an indispensable part of daily work, both for communicating with countries in other regions and among western countries. According to UNESCO, the number of translations in the world increased four-and-a-half times from 1948 to 1970. The institutions of the European Common Market employed more than 1,300 employees to deal with translation, of whom 450 were full-time interpreters, 550 translators and others were freelance employees on short-term contracts. (Tan,2004:160-161)

===Translation teaching was widespread.===
In the past, translation was mainly the work of a few literary magnates. With the establishment of the United Nations and its specialized agencies, as well as the establishment of international institutions such as the European Common Market (EC, EU) and the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, the need for translators was increasing. To meet this need, a number of schools specializing in training translators had been set up.

According to the study of Tan Zaixi, the most prominent schools are the High School of Translation at the Third University of Paris and the School of Translation at the University of Ottawa. What’s more, many universities in Europe and the United States also offer translation classes or courses in senior grades.（Tan, 2004:161-162）

===Translators’associations were established and publications on translation studies were launched.===
Translators in different countries set up various translation associations and publications. These associations played an important role in the development of translation through their activities and publications.

According to Tan Zaixi, translation associations or federations in European and American capitalist countries, in particular, generally emphasize the following principles: to clarify the legal status of translators through legislative means; to take effective measures to protect the legal rights of translators (especially the copyright that translators should enjoy); to improve their social status and increase their economic income; to improve the learning and working conditions of translators to provide them with opportunities to constantly improve their translation skills and a good working environment.（Tan，2004:162）

There were more translators’ organizations in the United States than in other western countries, with a total of 30, among which the most influential were the American Society of Translators, the American Federation of Linguists and the Literary Society of America. The journal of the American Society of Translators was ATA Chronicle. The journal of the Literary Society of America was Translation Review.（Tan，2004:162-163）

In Canada, major translation associations included the Canadian Council of Translators and Interpreters, the Ontario Association of Translators and Interpreters, the Business Language Centre, and the Quebec Translation Association. The Ontario Association of Translators and Interpreters founded the journal of Inform ATIO. The most influential professional translation magazine in Canada was Meta: Journal des Traducteurs.（Tan，2004:164）

In Britain, major translation associations included the Association of Translation Companies of Great Britain, the Association of Translators and the Guild of Translators, of which the Guild of Translators was the most famous. The official publication of the guild is The Incorporated Linguist, which was published in 1962 and enjoyed high reputation in Britain.（Tan，2004:164)

There were two major translation associations in France: the Association of French Translators and the Association of French Literary Translators. There were also two major translation associations in West Germany, one was the Association of Federation Translators and Interpreters and the other was the German-speaking World Federation of Literary and Technical Translators. In addition, Austria, Italy, Spain, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, Finland, Belgium and other Western European countries also had local or national translation organizations and a variety of translation publications.（Tan，2004:164-165）

===Machine translation developed.===
In the process of more than two thousand years of development, the traditional translation method had not undergone substantial changes in technology, and the translation between the two languages still had to be carried out by hand. However, due to the increasingly frequent international scientific and cultural exchanges, manual translation could no longer timely meet the needs. Therefore, when the traditional manual translation was facing the challenge of the times, machine translation should be born. In 1946, under the auspices of the United States Army headquarters, J.P. Eckert and J.W. Mauchly who were both from the University of Pennsylvania developed the world’s first electronic computer named: Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator, or ENIAC for short. Computer’s astonishing speed inspired people to consider the innovation of translation technology. Therefore, in the same year, Andrew Booth and Warren Weaver first proposed the use of computers in the machine translation system. Since then, machine translation and machine translation research, driven by modern electronic computing technology officially began.American science, especially the development of computer science, to a large extent affected the development of computer science in the whole West and even the world. Therefore, especially in the pioneering period, the development history and model of Machine translation in America can almost be regarded as those in the whole West. In this sense, the development of machine translation in the west (and even the world) can be roughly divided into the following five major periods, just like the development of Machine translation in the United States: initial stage; high stage; low stage; recovery stage; vigorous stage. The following is a further overview of the five development periods of machine translation in the West (mainly in the United States) made by Tan Zaixi who referred to the books of Yang Muyun, Li Zhisheng，Yu Hao, Zhao Tiejun and so on.

====Initial stage (1946—1954)====
The pioneering period begins with Booth and Weaver’s idea of translating natural language by computer in 1954, and ends with the birth of the first machine translation system. After the idea of using computers to translate was put forward, although there was great resistance in the United States at first, the voice supporting it was mainstream. In particular, Weaver published a memorandum on machine translation in 1949, which not only opened up a series of research topics on machine translation in the United States, but also had a wide influence in western countries. The memo makes four basic points: the problem of polysemy can be solved by context; there is a logical basis in language; there are basic probabilities in language application; there are common elements in different languages. These are still the fundamental of the development of machine translation. In the following years, machine translation research had been actively carried out in some universities and organizations in the United States and Britain. In Massachusetts Institute of Technology, the first full-time machine translation researcher Bar-Hillel arrived, he made a great contribution to the early development of machine translation and put forward the main problems and basic strategies needed to be solved in machine translation research. The first machine translation conference was held at MIT in June 1952, after which machine translation research in the United States began to accelerate. In 1954, a machine translation system for computer was developed and demonstrated. Although the machine translation system was small, consisting of only 250 Russian words, six grammar rules, and a few translation examples, it first showed the public and the scientific community the feasibility of machine translation, inspiring substantial funding from U.S. government for machine translation research over the next decade.（Tan Zaixi，2004:167-168）

====High-tide stage(1954—1966)====
The successful demonstration of the world’s first machine translation system, the Georgetown-IBM system of United States, marked the first development climax of machine translation. The upsurge began in 1954 and lasted for 12 years. In the mid-1950s, inspired by successful demonstration of machine translation system, dozens of universities, companies, and government agencies in the United States began machine translation research programs. On the one hand, due to the competition between the United States and the Soviet Union at that time, the United States military, the National Science Foundation, the Central Intelligence Agency and so on needed to acquire a large amount of scientific and technological information of the Soviet Union, so that they invested a lot in machine translation, especially Russian-English translation. On the other hand, advanced computers in the United States provided good equipment for the development of the first generation of machine translation system. At the same time, many universities and institutions in most European countries had also carried out machine translation research.（Tan Zaixi，2004:168-170）

====Low-tide stage (1966—1975)====
The advent of machine translation had opened up a new way for traditional translation research and practice. However, the complexity of machine translation was underestimated at that time and the design of machine translation system was often too rough and simple. In this case, the first generation of machine translation systems in the initial stage could not achieve ideal results, the quality of translation is often poor, so that some people gradually lost confidence in machine translation research, and some scholars also became pessimistic and disappointed. （Tan Zaixi，2004:170）

In the mid-1960s, machine translation in the United States had suffered a severe blow. In 1966, the Automatic Language Processing Advisory Committee, part of the National Academy of Sciences, was asked to investigate machine translation research funded by government. The committee published its report, Language and Machines, after analyzing the speed, quality, cost and demand of machine translation at that time. The report pointed out that the quality of machine translation is significantly lower than that of human translation and asserted that there was no likelihood of any commercially useful machine translation system in the foreseeable future. On the committee’s recommendation, the U.S. government withdrew the funding for machine translation research. Thus, machine translation research in the United States plummeted from a high point to a low point of development. It should be noted, however, that machine translation research and development was not in a complete demise, following the official denials in the United States. Scholars and research institutions in many countries including the United States continued to carry out researches and experiments on machine translation under relatively difficult circumstances.（Tan Zaixi，2004:171）

====Recovery stage(1975—1989)====
In the middle of 1970s, with the emergence of new theories and ideas in the field of linguistics and the further development of computational linguistics, the research of machine translation was aroused in the world again. After ten years of silence, machine translation research stepped on the road of recovery. The recovery period of machine translation research and development is generally considered to date from the installation of the SYSTRAN system by EURATOM and the completion of the TAUM-METEO system by the University of Montreal in Canada.（Tan Zaixi，2004:171-174）

====Vigorous stage（1989—）====
Since the late 1980s, some new developments had changed the field of machine translation, marking machine translation research enter a new period. This is the emergence of the third generation of machine translation method that is corpus-based. Corpus-based machine translation systems include statistic-based translation and example-based translation, both of which are based on large-scale real text. （Tan Zaixi，2004:167-175）

Practice has proved that machine translation has great vitality. It is a new science, and its research and translation have entered a new stage of development. No matter whether it can replace the human brain and hands eventually and completely liberate human from the heavy artificial translation, it will develop and exist for a long time. Both in theory and practice, machine translation and its research will exert more and more influence on traditional translation and its research.

===Translation theories of different schools were emerging one after another.===
The most important feature of modern western translation is the rapid development of translation theory. After the Second World War, with the vigorous development of science and technology, modern linguistics, translation activities and the rise of machine translation, people gradually changed the traditional view of translation studies, believing that translation is not only an art or skill, but also a science with rules to follow.

On the whole, the development of contemporary translation theory has two characteristics :(1) theoretical research has been brought into the scope of linguistics, under the influence of modern linguistics and information theory; (2) the traditional situation of non-communication between theorists has been broken. Translation theorists fully express their views through various channels, such as published works.(Xie Tianzhen, 2009:32)

After the Second World War, with the modernization and integration of western social and economic development, western translation theories also began to enter a new period that transcends national boundaries. Therefore, it is difficult to classify some translation thoughts and some translation theorists in a narrow sense as belonging to a certain country or a certain place. It is acceptable to divide contemporary western translation theories into different schools according to their basic approaches and methods of translation studies or the basic characteristics of thought. Here is a brief introduction to some influential schools classified by Zhao Jiajin.

====American Translation Training School====
First established in 1964 at the University of Iowa, this school focused on translation practice, emphasized the literary taste and value of works, and adopted the methods of L. A. Richards and Williard V. Quine of Harvard University. Representative figures included poet and translator Ezra Pound, who translated Tang poetry and advocated the accurate restoration of details, words, fragments and the whole image description. Frederic Will of the University of Iowa, drawing on his training experience, regarded translation as a form of naming, fiction writing and cognition. Yale’s Jonas Zdnys argued that translation is an activity of subjective thought designed to explain literature. This school explores the role of the human mind in translation and raises the question of the nature of translation, but translation theory was limited to aesthetic experience and prescriptive translation rules.

====Translation Science School====
It was also known as “linguistic school”. According to this school, translation is the process of reproducing language as a whole, and it aims to correctly convey the original information to readers. The school was founded by Eugene Nida, whose masterpieces include Message and Mission (1960) and Toward Science of Translation (1946). Nida proposed functional equivalence theory according to Noam Chomsky’s transformational generative grammar and his experience in Bible translation, that is, to digest the original text and understand its basic structure and meaning; convey meaning based on basic structure; obtain semantic and stylistic equivalence with the original text. Thus the translation process can be summarized as: analyze—transfer—restructure, these three steps. The school of Translation science adopted linguistic theory and the more objective description method in translation theory. In the late 1970s, emphasis was placed on the cultural background of the information age, but the research was still limited to prescriptive research and translation criteria, ignoring the role of translators’thinking.（Zhao Jiajin,1996: 46）

====Translation school====
It is the so-called “literary school”. This school held that the original work is the unity of sentence series and article structure, and the translator is influenced by the original view and the future model of translation in the process of translation. The founder of this school was James Holmes, an American poet, who taught translation at the University of Amsterdam in the Netherlands before his death. His representative work is ''The Name and Nature of Translation Studies'' (1972).（Zhao Jiajin,1996: 46）

====Polysystem School====
Its founders are Itammar Even-Zohar and Gideon Toury of Tel Aviv University in Israel. Even coined the term Polysystem to explore the relationship between translated works and literary systems, and explained that the oriented culture of translation not only determines whether a work can be translated, but also regulates the wording. Toury held that translation belongs to the second system of multiple systems, and its role depends on the strength and development stage of the oriented culture of translation. He held that translation has no fixed identity and has multiple identities due to its social, literary and historical background. This school integrates translation studies with literary studies, social and economic factors, endows translation studies with historical significance, but it is still limited to the acceptability of translation and does not get rid of the fetters of cultural equivalence.（Zhao Jiajin,1996: 46）

====Deconstruction School====
It is also known as “affirmative productivity school”. It originated in France in the mid-1960s and is represented by Michel Foucault, Martin Heidegger and Jacques Derrida. This school introduced deconstruction into translation, claiming that translators create the subject and the target language is a new language. As Foucault put it, the original work is constantly rewritten in the process of translation, and the translator rewrites the original work every time he reads and translates it. Deconstruction studies the nature and process of translation and language, and advocates that translators exist as entities. The school even goes so far as to believe that language does not involve any objective reality, and translators have their own status only when they create texts.（Zhao Jiajin,1996: 46-47）

==Conclusion==
Under the influence of historical backgrounds, different periods of translation show different traits. In the modern period, the content of translation still focused on literature which included works form Russian, Nordic countries, China and so on. The way of translation was artificial and traditional. With the progress of economy and science, translation in the contemporary period also got great development. The content of translation was not confined to the field of literature. Instead, translation of science and technology, commerce, entertainment and so on became a major part of the actual translation activities. In addition, machine translation as a novel technique developed quickly. And the most important feature of modern western translation is the rapid development of translation theory thanks to many translator associations and publications on translation studies. Nowadays, under the influence of globalization, translation shows more and more importance and get better development environment.

==References==

Barnstone，Willis(1993). The Poetics of Trunslation: History, Theory, Practice[M]. New Haven:Yale University Press.

Bates, Ernest Stuart(1936). Modern Translation[M]. London: Oxford University Press.

Catford, John(1965). A Linguistic Theory of Translation: An Essay in Applied Linguistics[M].Oxford and London: Oxford University Press.

Delisle, Jean(1995). Translation: An Interpretive Approach[M]. Ottawa: University of Ottawa Press.

Feng Zhiwei 冯志伟(1994).《自然语言机器翻译新论》[M] New Theories of Machine Translation of Natural Language.北京:语文出版社Beijing: Chinese Press.

FitzMaurice-Kelly, J(1911). "Translation"[J]. Encyclopedia Britannica (11th edition, Cambridge),27:183-188.

Gentzler, Edwin(2004). Contemporary Translation Theories[M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

Hutchins，Robert(1952). Great Books of the Western World[M]. Chicago: Encyclopaedia .Britannica Ltd.

Mu Yunyang,Li Zhisheng,Yu Hao杨沐昀、李志升、于浩(2000).《机器翻译系统》[M]Machine Translation System.哈尔滨：哈尔滨工业大学出版社Harbin: Harbin University of Technology Press.

Tan Zaixi谭载喜(2004).西方翻译简史[M]A Brief History of Western Translation.北京：商务印书馆Beijing:The Commercial Press.

Tan Zaixi谭载喜(1985).西方翻译史浅谈[J]On the History of Western Translation.中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal,7:36-39.

Xie Tianzhen谢天振(2008).《当代国外翻译理论导读》[M]Introduction to Contemporary Foreign Translation Theories.天津：南开大学出版社Tianjin：Nankai University Press.

Xie Tianzhen谢天振(2011).中西翻译简史[M]A Brief History of Chinese and Western Translation.北京:外语教学与研究出版社Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.

Zhao Jiajin赵家琎(1996).当代翻译学派简介[J]A Brief Introduction to Contemporary Translation Schools.中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal,5：46—47.

Zhao Tiejun赵铁军等(2001).《机器翻译原理》[M]Principles of Machine Translation.哈尔滨：哈尔滨工业大学出版社Harbin: Harbin University of Technology Press.

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Wei Chuxuan: /* Translation teaching was widespread. */

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=Western Translation History In the Modern and Contemperary Ages=
'''现当代西方翻译史'''

魏楚璇，Wei Chuxuan, Hunan Normal University, China

==Abstract==
Under different historical backgrounds, western translation presents different characteristics. In the 20th century before the end of the Second World War, the two world wars inevitably brought obstacles and disturbances to the development of translation. Therefore, though translation in this period still continued to develop, it did not get breakthrough. Translation was still dominated by literary works in content, totally relying on manual labor. In translation theory, it emphasized the creativity of translation and laid a foundation for the linguistic turn of translation studies. After the end of World War II, the world entered an era of relative peace, the world economy recovered, and the translation industry was greatly revitalized. During this period, the scale of translation covered all aspects of social life, machine translation developed fast, translation training flourished, translation organizations were established in various countries and many translation theories and schools emerged. That is to say, this period can be called the golden age of translation.

==摘要==
在不同的历史背景下，西方翻译呈现出不同的特点。在二战结束之前的二十世纪，两次世界大战不可避免地为翻译事业的发展带来了阻碍和干扰，因而这一时期的翻译虽然仍在发展但并未取得突破性的成就，在翻译的内容上仍然以文学作品为主，技术上完全依赖人工，理论方面注重翻译的创造性且为翻译研究的语言学转向奠定了基础。二战结束后，世界进入到相对和平的年代，世界经济复苏，翻译事业也大为振兴。在这一时期，翻译的内容覆盖社会生活的方方面面，机器翻译发展迅速，翻译培训兴起，翻译组织在各国成立，各种翻译理论和翻译流派涌现，可谓是翻译的黄金年代。

==Keywords==
Western translation; translation history; modern; contemperary

==Introduction==
In this paper, western translation history in modern and contemporary ages will be introduced. Here the modern age refers to the nearly half century before the Second World War. And the contemporary age refers to the half century after the Second World War. That is to say, the modern and contemporary translation in this paper refers to the translation in the 20th century. Under the influence of different historical backgrounds, translation in these two ages showed different characteristics and traits which will be concluded and discussed in detail in the following.

==The General Situation of Translation in the Modern Age==
Into the 20th century, the capitalism in the developed countries developed into imperialism. On the one hand, the imperialist countries intensified their foreign expansion to oppress and exploit the weak countries and people in colony. On the other hand, they were engaged in a fierce battle among themselves for international markets and spheres of influence. Thus, in less than half a century, two world wars broke out. Under this historical background, translation in western countries will inevitably be seriously disturbed and destroyed. However, translation in western countries continued to develop and excellent translations still appeared from time to time. The translation of this period also has its own traits. The general situation of translation in this period can be summarized from the following two aspects.

===The emphasis of translation was on Russian and Nordic works and more Chinese works were translated.===
From the end of the 19th century to the beginning of the 20th century, the literature of Russia and the Nordic countries developed greatly with the emergence of Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoyevsky, Leo Tolstoy, Chekhov, Andersen, Ibsen, Strindberg and other world-renowned great writers and dramatists. Their works had attracted the attention of the people in Western Europe and North America so they were competing to learn Russian, Danish and Swedish and had these works translated into English, German and French. In the process of translation, many excellent translators emerged in various countries.
====Translation of Russian literature====
According to the research of Tan Zaixi, Constance Garnet is the most famous female translator in Britain in this century. She translated almost all classic Russian novels and is widely regarded as the most important Translator of translating Russian literature into English. She published her first translation of Turgenev's novel Ru-Din in 1894. In the following decades, she devoted almost all her energy and time to the translation of Russian literature. She was the first person to translate Turgenev, Dostoyevsky and Chekhov into English, successively translating all the major works of Turgenev, Goncharov, Dostoyevsky, Tolstoy, Gogol and Chekhov including 12 volumes of Dostoyevsky's Selected Works translated from 1912 to 1920, 15 volumes of Turgenev's Selected Works translated from 1894 to 1899, 15 volumes of Chekhov's Novels and Plays translated from 1916 to 1922, and 6 volumes of Gogol’s Selected Works translated from 1922 to 1928. In particular, her translations of Turgenev, Chekhov, Dostoyevsky and other works were widely welcomed by the English reading community, and thus gave rise to the Russian literature craze in English literature before the First World War. She translated 70 Russian works in her lifetime, making her the most prolific translator of Russian works.
Two other translators who did not translate as much from Russian to English as Garnett, but who had no less influence, were the couple——Louise and Aylmer Maude. They are famous in western modern literary circles for their research and translation of Tolstoy's works. From 1928 to 1937, they spent nearly ten years translating and publishing 21 volumes of The Complete Works of Tolstoy. Later, from 1940s to 1950s, they supplemented or retranslated some of Tolstoy's works, such as What I Believe and Resurrection. In 1952, their work of War and Peace was accepted as a standard English translation and was selected for the prestigious Great Books of the Western World, thus establishing them as the authoritative English translators of Tolstoy. In addition, R. S. Townsend, R. Edmonds, Samuel Koteliansky, Ethel C. Mayne, Boris Brasol, Richard Renfield and so on were famous for translating the works of Tolstoy, Dostoevsky, Turgenev, Chekhov, Goncharov into English.（Tan，2004:148-150）

====Translation of Nordic literature and drama====
In the first half of the 20th century, in addition to Russian literature, western European translators showed great interest in Nordic literature and drama, including the works of Andersen, Ibsen and Strindberg.

According to the study of Tan Zaixi, when Hans Christian Andersen was alive, one of his works was published simultaneously in 15 languages, including English, German, French, Italian, Spanish and almost all the major languages of Western Europe. Later, all of his works were translated into different languages, and there were many re-translations in English, French, German and other countries. The first English translator was Mary Howitt, who began translating Andersen’s fairy tales in 1846. Later translators include Charles Boner, Caroline Peachey, Lady Duff Gordon, Paul Leyssac, R. R. Keigwin and R. Spink. Some of the best translations are Leyssac’s translation in 1937, Keigwin’s translation from 1950 to 1960 and Spink’s translation.(Tan，2004:151)

The main English translators of Ibsen’s plays are William Archer and James MacFarlane. Archer translated 12 volumes of The Collected Works of H. I. from 1906 to 1912, including almost all of Ibsen’s plays and some of his previously unpublished papers. Macfarlane compiled translated eight volumes of The Oxford Ibsen from 1960 to 1977. In addition, F. E. Garrett translated Lyrics and Poems from Ibsen in 1912. Mary Morison translated The Correspondence of H.I. in 1905. Evert Sprinchorn translated H. I. Letters and Speeches in 1964. (Tan，2004:151)

In Germany, the standard German translation is the 10-volume The Collected Plays of Ibsen edited and published by G. Brandes, J. Elias, and P. Schlenther from 1898 to 1902. The standard French translation is The Complete Works of Ibsen in 16 volumes translated and published by P. G. La Chesnais from 1914 to 1945.(Tan，2004:151)

Strindberg’s work was translated into English as early as 1912. For the next fifty or sixty years, many people worked on Strindberg’s studies and translations. Major English translators included E. Schleussner, Walter Johnson, M. Sandbach, Elizabeth Sprigge and Michael Meyer. Some good works are Sprigge’s translations of Strinberg’s Plays in 1963 and Meyer’s translations of The Father, Miss Julie, Storm and so on in 1964. In other major western European countries such as Germany and France, Strindberg’s plays were also translated into German and French, and repeatedly staged in Berlin and Paris. (Tan，2004:152)

There is no doubt that the translation of modern and contemporary Russian and Nordic literature and drama was a mainstream of western translation in the first half of the century. However, at the same time, it must be pointed out that the mutual translation of modern and contemporary literary works in western European countries still enjoys considerable momentum.

====More and more Chinese works were translated.====
In the 20th century, more and more people in the West became interested in Chinese culture. Since the 1950s, with the improvement of new China’s international prestige, the fever of translating Chinese works had been constantly appearing in the West. Not only the Four Books, Five Classics, Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Water Margin, Journey to the West, A Dream of Red Mansions and the poems of Li Bai, Du Fu and Bai Juyi were translated into English, German and French, but modern writers such as Luxun, Maodun and Bajin were also introduced to western countries. In the process of translating and introducing Chinese works, excellent translators have emerged from every country.

According to the study of Tan Zaixi, Arthur Waley, the most eminent Sinologist in Britain in the 20th century, was a translator, writer and poet. In 1916, his first translation of Chinese Poems was published. In 1918, he published his second translated work One Hundred Seventy Chinese Poems. These two translations are both from Tang poems. In addition, he also translated part of Journey to the West in 1942, published four other Chinese-English translations, and wrote three books about China or Chinese writers. Another outstanding Sinologist and translator in the 20th century was Franz Kuhn of Germany. From 1919, when his first translation was published, to his death in 1961, he translated and published more than 40 classical and modern Chinese literary works, including 12 novels and 34 short stories. In particular, his translation of The Fortunate Union in 1926, Second Bloom in 1927, The Golden Lotus in 1930, A Dream of Red Mansions in 1932, Water Margin in 1934, Jade Dragonfly in 1936, Romance of the Three Kingdoms in 1940, Midnight and other works from 1940 to 1955, were well received by German readers.（Tan,2004:153-156）

===The creativity of translation and the language in translation were paid more attention.===
In the aspect of translation theory, scholars had deeply reflected on the traditional translation theory, especially questioned the universality of language, and proposed that when the meaning of the original text becomes obscure and difficult to understand, translators must fill in the gaps of the text according to their own experience. Therefore, translation theories of this period paid more attention to the creativity of translation and the language problems in translation. Although they did not separate themselves from the discussion of translation techniques such as word selection and sentence construction, they laid a foundation for the linguistic turn of translation studies and provided theoretical thinking for the translation literature as an independent existence. And about the specific translation theories in different countries in this period, Xie Tianzhen made a brief summary.

J. P. Postgate is a famous Translation theorist in Britain, and he put forward prospective translation and retrospective translation. Prospective translation means that the translator always keeps the reader in mind and adopts free methods and common expressions to ensure that the original ideas of the reader are not affected and their prediction is not interfered with. The purpose of translation is to show the translator’s mastery of the target language, focusing on the target language rather than the original one. Retrospective translation means that the translator always looks at the original author, because the purpose of translation is to impart knowledge of the original text, rather than to look ahead and consider the reader of the translation.（Xie，2011:29）

French scholar J. Marouzeau’s "On Translation of Latin" is an important translation literature in French. He believed that translation is a skill in which the translator should reveal to the reader the content of the original work, rather than its shell, using a living language.（Xie，2011:29）

German thinker Walter Benjamin pointed out that although the translation is based on the original, it is the afterlife of the original work and the translation need not pursue the same meaning as the original work. Mediocre translators pay more attention to the meaning of the original work than to its literariness and language style and they only know that the translation exists to serve the original work and can only translate the non-essential content of the original work. (Xie Tianzhen，2008:319-332) The translator’s task is to use his own language to release the pure language trapped by another language, that is, to liberate the imprisoned language in the re-creation of the original text. Edwin Gentzler, a contemporary American translation theorist, believed that the discussion of translation issues among Anglo-American deconstructionists mainly revolves around comments on Benjamin’s Translator’s Task. (Edwin Gentzler, 2004:173-174.) Therefore, Translator’s Task is regarded as the “Bible” of translation theory and the classic of deconstructive translation theory.（Xie，2011:30）

The Russian scholar Mikhail Vasilievich Lemonosov transformed the loanwords that entered the Russian language, russified them, and regarded translation as a creative activity. And this view of free translation lasted until the 19th century. Aleksandr Pushkin, the greatest Russian poet in the 19th century, based on his literary translation practice, proposed that translators should have their own opinions on the selection of materials and should have full freedom in dealing with the original work, but the uniqueness of the original work should be preserved as much as possible.（Xie，2011:30）

==The General Situation of Translation in the Contemporary Age==
After the Second World War, the world entered a period of relative peace. After the trauma of the war, the Western countries regrouped and began to restore and develop production and economy in an all-round way. Translation cause also entered a new period of development at extremely rapid pace, taking on a new look. During this period, not only in the Soviet Union, Britain, Germany, France and other major European countries, but also in the United States, Canada, the cause of translation showed a prosperous scene. In terms of the whole western translation career, the translation after the Second World War was unmatched in scope, form, scale and achievement. Therefore, the 20th century could be called as "the age of translation" , which in fact mainly referred to the decades since the end of the war. Though great achievement was also made in literary translation in this period, the 20th century is known as the "age of translation" mainly because western translation expanded into various fields during this period, which has five characteristics.

===The scale of translation extended to the field of business, diplomacy, science and many other professional affairs.===
Since the end of the Second World War, due to practical needs, commercial, diplomatic, scientific and technological translation had flourished, and its momentum even exceeded literary translation, thus forming a major content of the development of modern western translation.Here is the research of Tan Zaixi about the scale of translation.

In 1945, the United Nations was established with English, French, Russian, Chinese and Spanish as the five official and working languages. In 1957, the European Community was founded, consisting of six countries at that time. In 1993, the European Community developed into the European Union. By 2004, it had 25 member states, using nine languages including English, French, German, Italy, Denmark, Ireland, Greece, Spain and Portugal. That is to say, translation had become an indispensable part of daily work, both for communicating with countries in other regions and among western countries. According to UNESCO, the number of translations in the world increased four-and-a-half times from 1948 to 1970. The institutions of the European Common Market employed more than 1,300 employees to deal with translation, of whom 450 were full-time interpreters, 550 translators and others were freelance employees on short-term contracts. (Tan,2004:160-161)

===Translation teaching was widespread.===
In the past, translation was mainly the work of a few literary magnates. With the establishment of the United Nations and its specialized agencies, as well as the establishment of international institutions such as the European Common Market (EC, EU) and the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, the need for translators was increasing. To meet this need, a number of schools specializing in training translators had been set up.

According to the study of Tan Zaixi, the most prominent schools are the High School of Translation at the Third University of Paris and the School of Translation at the University of Ottawa. What’s more, many universities in Europe and the United States also offer translation classes or courses in senior grades.（Tan, 2004:161-162）

===Translators’associations were established and publications on translation studies were launched.===
Translators in different countries set up various translation associations and publications. These associations played an important role in the development of translation through their activities and publications.

According to Tan Zaixi, translation associations or federations in European and American capitalist countries, in particular, generally emphasize the following principles: to clarify the legal status of translators through legislative means; to take effective measures to protect the legal rights of translators (especially the copyright that translators should enjoy); to improve their social status and increase their economic income; to improve the learning and working conditions of translators to provide them with opportunities to constantly improve their translation skills and a good working environment.（Tan Zaixi，2004:162）

There were more translators’ organizations in the United States than in other western countries, with a total of 30, among which the most influential were the American Society of Translators, the American Federation of Linguists and the Literary Society of America. The journal of the American Society of Translators was ATA Chronicle. The journal of the Literary Society of America was Translation Review.（Tan Zaixi，2004:162-163）

In Canada, major translation associations included the Canadian Council of Translators and Interpreters, the Ontario Association of Translators and Interpreters, the Business Language Centre, and the Quebec Translation Association. The Ontario Association of Translators and Interpreters founded the journal of Inform ATIO. The most influential professional translation magazine in Canada was Meta: Journal des Traducteurs.（Tan Zaixi，2004:164）

In Britain, major translation associations included the Association of Translation Companies of Great Britain, the Association of Translators and the Guild of Translators, of which the Guild of Translators was the most famous. The official publication of the guild is The Incorporated Linguist, which was published in 1962 and enjoyed high reputation in Britain.（Tan Zaixi，2004:164)

There were two major translation associations in France: the Association of French Translators and the Association of French Literary Translators. There were also two major translation associations in West Germany, one was the Association of Federation Translators and Interpreters and the other was the German-speaking World Federation of Literary and Technical Translators. In addition, Austria, Italy, Spain, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, Finland, Belgium and other Western European countries also had local or national translation organizations and a variety of translation publications.（Tan Zaixi，2004:164-165）

===Machine translation developed.===
In the process of more than two thousand years of development, the traditional translation method had not undergone substantial changes in technology, and the translation between the two languages still had to be carried out by hand. However, due to the increasingly frequent international scientific and cultural exchanges, manual translation could no longer timely meet the needs. Therefore, when the traditional manual translation was facing the challenge of the times, machine translation should be born. In 1946, under the auspices of the United States Army headquarters, J.P. Eckert and J.W. Mauchly who were both from the University of Pennsylvania developed the world’s first electronic computer named: Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator, or ENIAC for short. Computer’s astonishing speed inspired people to consider the innovation of translation technology. Therefore, in the same year, Andrew Booth and Warren Weaver first proposed the use of computers in the machine translation system. Since then, machine translation and machine translation research, driven by modern electronic computing technology officially began.American science, especially the development of computer science, to a large extent affected the development of computer science in the whole West and even the world. Therefore, especially in the pioneering period, the development history and model of Machine translation in America can almost be regarded as those in the whole West. In this sense, the development of machine translation in the west (and even the world) can be roughly divided into the following five major periods, just like the development of Machine translation in the United States: initial stage; high stage; low stage; recovery stage; vigorous stage. The following is a further overview of the five development periods of machine translation in the West (mainly in the United States) made by Tan Zaixi who referred to the books of Yang Muyun, Li Zhisheng，Yu Hao, Zhao Tiejun and so on.

====Initial stage (1946—1954)====
The pioneering period begins with Booth and Weaver’s idea of translating natural language by computer in 1954, and ends with the birth of the first machine translation system. After the idea of using computers to translate was put forward, although there was great resistance in the United States at first, the voice supporting it was mainstream. In particular, Weaver published a memorandum on machine translation in 1949, which not only opened up a series of research topics on machine translation in the United States, but also had a wide influence in western countries. The memo makes four basic points: the problem of polysemy can be solved by context; there is a logical basis in language; there are basic probabilities in language application; there are common elements in different languages. These are still the fundamental of the development of machine translation. In the following years, machine translation research had been actively carried out in some universities and organizations in the United States and Britain. In Massachusetts Institute of Technology, the first full-time machine translation researcher Bar-Hillel arrived, he made a great contribution to the early development of machine translation and put forward the main problems and basic strategies needed to be solved in machine translation research. The first machine translation conference was held at MIT in June 1952, after which machine translation research in the United States began to accelerate. In 1954, a machine translation system for computer was developed and demonstrated. Although the machine translation system was small, consisting of only 250 Russian words, six grammar rules, and a few translation examples, it first showed the public and the scientific community the feasibility of machine translation, inspiring substantial funding from U.S. government for machine translation research over the next decade.（Tan Zaixi，2004:167-168）

====High-tide stage(1954—1966)====
The successful demonstration of the world’s first machine translation system, the Georgetown-IBM system of United States, marked the first development climax of machine translation. The upsurge began in 1954 and lasted for 12 years. In the mid-1950s, inspired by successful demonstration of machine translation system, dozens of universities, companies, and government agencies in the United States began machine translation research programs. On the one hand, due to the competition between the United States and the Soviet Union at that time, the United States military, the National Science Foundation, the Central Intelligence Agency and so on needed to acquire a large amount of scientific and technological information of the Soviet Union, so that they invested a lot in machine translation, especially Russian-English translation. On the other hand, advanced computers in the United States provided good equipment for the development of the first generation of machine translation system. At the same time, many universities and institutions in most European countries had also carried out machine translation research.（Tan Zaixi，2004:168-170）

====Low-tide stage (1966—1975)====
The advent of machine translation had opened up a new way for traditional translation research and practice. However, the complexity of machine translation was underestimated at that time and the design of machine translation system was often too rough and simple. In this case, the first generation of machine translation systems in the initial stage could not achieve ideal results, the quality of translation is often poor, so that some people gradually lost confidence in machine translation research, and some scholars also became pessimistic and disappointed. （Tan Zaixi，2004:170）

In the mid-1960s, machine translation in the United States had suffered a severe blow. In 1966, the Automatic Language Processing Advisory Committee, part of the National Academy of Sciences, was asked to investigate machine translation research funded by government. The committee published its report, Language and Machines, after analyzing the speed, quality, cost and demand of machine translation at that time. The report pointed out that the quality of machine translation is significantly lower than that of human translation and asserted that there was no likelihood of any commercially useful machine translation system in the foreseeable future. On the committee’s recommendation, the U.S. government withdrew the funding for machine translation research. Thus, machine translation research in the United States plummeted from a high point to a low point of development. It should be noted, however, that machine translation research and development was not in a complete demise, following the official denials in the United States. Scholars and research institutions in many countries including the United States continued to carry out researches and experiments on machine translation under relatively difficult circumstances.（Tan Zaixi，2004:171）

====Recovery stage(1975—1989)====
In the middle of 1970s, with the emergence of new theories and ideas in the field of linguistics and the further development of computational linguistics, the research of machine translation was aroused in the world again. After ten years of silence, machine translation research stepped on the road of recovery. The recovery period of machine translation research and development is generally considered to date from the installation of the SYSTRAN system by EURATOM and the completion of the TAUM-METEO system by the University of Montreal in Canada.（Tan Zaixi，2004:171-174）

====Vigorous stage（1989—）====
Since the late 1980s, some new developments had changed the field of machine translation, marking machine translation research enter a new period. This is the emergence of the third generation of machine translation method that is corpus-based. Corpus-based machine translation systems include statistic-based translation and example-based translation, both of which are based on large-scale real text. （Tan Zaixi，2004:167-175）

Practice has proved that machine translation has great vitality. It is a new science, and its research and translation have entered a new stage of development. No matter whether it can replace the human brain and hands eventually and completely liberate human from the heavy artificial translation, it will develop and exist for a long time. Both in theory and practice, machine translation and its research will exert more and more influence on traditional translation and its research.

===Translation theories of different schools were emerging one after another.===
The most important feature of modern western translation is the rapid development of translation theory. After the Second World War, with the vigorous development of science and technology, modern linguistics, translation activities and the rise of machine translation, people gradually changed the traditional view of translation studies, believing that translation is not only an art or skill, but also a science with rules to follow.

On the whole, the development of contemporary translation theory has two characteristics :(1) theoretical research has been brought into the scope of linguistics, under the influence of modern linguistics and information theory; (2) the traditional situation of non-communication between theorists has been broken. Translation theorists fully express their views through various channels, such as published works.(Xie Tianzhen, 2009:32)

After the Second World War, with the modernization and integration of western social and economic development, western translation theories also began to enter a new period that transcends national boundaries. Therefore, it is difficult to classify some translation thoughts and some translation theorists in a narrow sense as belonging to a certain country or a certain place. It is acceptable to divide contemporary western translation theories into different schools according to their basic approaches and methods of translation studies or the basic characteristics of thought. Here is a brief introduction to some influential schools classified by Zhao Jiajin.

====American Translation Training School====
First established in 1964 at the University of Iowa, this school focused on translation practice, emphasized the literary taste and value of works, and adopted the methods of L. A. Richards and Williard V. Quine of Harvard University. Representative figures included poet and translator Ezra Pound, who translated Tang poetry and advocated the accurate restoration of details, words, fragments and the whole image description. Frederic Will of the University of Iowa, drawing on his training experience, regarded translation as a form of naming, fiction writing and cognition. Yale’s Jonas Zdnys argued that translation is an activity of subjective thought designed to explain literature. This school explores the role of the human mind in translation and raises the question of the nature of translation, but translation theory was limited to aesthetic experience and prescriptive translation rules.

====Translation Science School====
It was also known as “linguistic school”. According to this school, translation is the process of reproducing language as a whole, and it aims to correctly convey the original information to readers. The school was founded by Eugene Nida, whose masterpieces include Message and Mission (1960) and Toward Science of Translation (1946). Nida proposed functional equivalence theory according to Noam Chomsky’s transformational generative grammar and his experience in Bible translation, that is, to digest the original text and understand its basic structure and meaning; convey meaning based on basic structure; obtain semantic and stylistic equivalence with the original text. Thus the translation process can be summarized as: analyze—transfer—restructure, these three steps. The school of Translation science adopted linguistic theory and the more objective description method in translation theory. In the late 1970s, emphasis was placed on the cultural background of the information age, but the research was still limited to prescriptive research and translation criteria, ignoring the role of translators’thinking.（Zhao Jiajin,1996: 46）

====Translation school====
It is the so-called “literary school”. This school held that the original work is the unity of sentence series and article structure, and the translator is influenced by the original view and the future model of translation in the process of translation. The founder of this school was James Holmes, an American poet, who taught translation at the University of Amsterdam in the Netherlands before his death. His representative work is ''The Name and Nature of Translation Studies'' (1972).（Zhao Jiajin,1996: 46）

====Polysystem School====
Its founders are Itammar Even-Zohar and Gideon Toury of Tel Aviv University in Israel. Even coined the term Polysystem to explore the relationship between translated works and literary systems, and explained that the oriented culture of translation not only determines whether a work can be translated, but also regulates the wording. Toury held that translation belongs to the second system of multiple systems, and its role depends on the strength and development stage of the oriented culture of translation. He held that translation has no fixed identity and has multiple identities due to its social, literary and historical background. This school integrates translation studies with literary studies, social and economic factors, endows translation studies with historical significance, but it is still limited to the acceptability of translation and does not get rid of the fetters of cultural equivalence.（Zhao Jiajin,1996: 46）

====Deconstruction School====
It is also known as “affirmative productivity school”. It originated in France in the mid-1960s and is represented by Michel Foucault, Martin Heidegger and Jacques Derrida. This school introduced deconstruction into translation, claiming that translators create the subject and the target language is a new language. As Foucault put it, the original work is constantly rewritten in the process of translation, and the translator rewrites the original work every time he reads and translates it. Deconstruction studies the nature and process of translation and language, and advocates that translators exist as entities. The school even goes so far as to believe that language does not involve any objective reality, and translators have their own status only when they create texts.（Zhao Jiajin,1996: 46-47）

==Conclusion==
Under the influence of historical backgrounds, different periods of translation show different traits. In the modern period, the content of translation still focused on literature which included works form Russian, Nordic countries, China and so on. The way of translation was artificial and traditional. With the progress of economy and science, translation in the contemporary period also got great development. The content of translation was not confined to the field of literature. Instead, translation of science and technology, commerce, entertainment and so on became a major part of the actual translation activities. In addition, machine translation as a novel technique developed quickly. And the most important feature of modern western translation is the rapid development of translation theory thanks to many translator associations and publications on translation studies. Nowadays, under the influence of globalization, translation shows more and more importance and get better development environment.

==References==

Barnstone，Willis(1993). The Poetics of Trunslation: History, Theory, Practice[M]. New Haven:Yale University Press.

Bates, Ernest Stuart(1936). Modern Translation[M]. London: Oxford University Press.

Catford, John(1965). A Linguistic Theory of Translation: An Essay in Applied Linguistics[M].Oxford and London: Oxford University Press.

Delisle, Jean(1995). Translation: An Interpretive Approach[M]. Ottawa: University of Ottawa Press.

Feng Zhiwei 冯志伟(1994).《自然语言机器翻译新论》[M] New Theories of Machine Translation of Natural Language.北京:语文出版社Beijing: Chinese Press.

FitzMaurice-Kelly, J(1911). "Translation"[J]. Encyclopedia Britannica (11th edition, Cambridge),27:183-188.

Gentzler, Edwin(2004). Contemporary Translation Theories[M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

Hutchins，Robert(1952). Great Books of the Western World[M]. Chicago: Encyclopaedia .Britannica Ltd.

Mu Yunyang,Li Zhisheng,Yu Hao杨沐昀、李志升、于浩(2000).《机器翻译系统》[M]Machine Translation System.哈尔滨：哈尔滨工业大学出版社Harbin: Harbin University of Technology Press.

Tan Zaixi谭载喜(2004).西方翻译简史[M]A Brief History of Western Translation.北京：商务印书馆Beijing:The Commercial Press.

Tan Zaixi谭载喜(1985).西方翻译史浅谈[J]On the History of Western Translation.中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal,7:36-39.

Xie Tianzhen谢天振(2008).《当代国外翻译理论导读》[M]Introduction to Contemporary Foreign Translation Theories.天津：南开大学出版社Tianjin：Nankai University Press.

Xie Tianzhen谢天振(2011).中西翻译简史[M]A Brief History of Chinese and Western Translation.北京:外语教学与研究出版社Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.

Zhao Jiajin赵家琎(1996).当代翻译学派简介[J]A Brief Introduction to Contemporary Translation Schools.中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal,5：46—47.

Zhao Tiejun赵铁军等(2001).《机器翻译原理》[M]Principles of Machine Translation.哈尔滨：哈尔滨工业大学出版社Harbin: Harbin University of Technology Press.

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2021-12-14T06:47:26Z

Wei Chuxuan: /* The scale of translation extended to the field of business, diplomacy, science and many other professional affairs. */

'''History of Translations'''

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=Western Translation History In the Modern and Contemperary Ages=
'''现当代西方翻译史'''

魏楚璇，Wei Chuxuan, Hunan Normal University, China

==Abstract==
Under different historical backgrounds, western translation presents different characteristics. In the 20th century before the end of the Second World War, the two world wars inevitably brought obstacles and disturbances to the development of translation. Therefore, though translation in this period still continued to develop, it did not get breakthrough. Translation was still dominated by literary works in content, totally relying on manual labor. In translation theory, it emphasized the creativity of translation and laid a foundation for the linguistic turn of translation studies. After the end of World War II, the world entered an era of relative peace, the world economy recovered, and the translation industry was greatly revitalized. During this period, the scale of translation covered all aspects of social life, machine translation developed fast, translation training flourished, translation organizations were established in various countries and many translation theories and schools emerged. That is to say, this period can be called the golden age of translation.

==摘要==
在不同的历史背景下，西方翻译呈现出不同的特点。在二战结束之前的二十世纪，两次世界大战不可避免地为翻译事业的发展带来了阻碍和干扰，因而这一时期的翻译虽然仍在发展但并未取得突破性的成就，在翻译的内容上仍然以文学作品为主，技术上完全依赖人工，理论方面注重翻译的创造性且为翻译研究的语言学转向奠定了基础。二战结束后，世界进入到相对和平的年代，世界经济复苏，翻译事业也大为振兴。在这一时期，翻译的内容覆盖社会生活的方方面面，机器翻译发展迅速，翻译培训兴起，翻译组织在各国成立，各种翻译理论和翻译流派涌现，可谓是翻译的黄金年代。

==Keywords==
Western translation; translation history; modern; contemperary

==Introduction==
In this paper, western translation history in modern and contemporary ages will be introduced. Here the modern age refers to the nearly half century before the Second World War. And the contemporary age refers to the half century after the Second World War. That is to say, the modern and contemporary translation in this paper refers to the translation in the 20th century. Under the influence of different historical backgrounds, translation in these two ages showed different characteristics and traits which will be concluded and discussed in detail in the following.

==The General Situation of Translation in the Modern Age==
Into the 20th century, the capitalism in the developed countries developed into imperialism. On the one hand, the imperialist countries intensified their foreign expansion to oppress and exploit the weak countries and people in colony. On the other hand, they were engaged in a fierce battle among themselves for international markets and spheres of influence. Thus, in less than half a century, two world wars broke out. Under this historical background, translation in western countries will inevitably be seriously disturbed and destroyed. However, translation in western countries continued to develop and excellent translations still appeared from time to time. The translation of this period also has its own traits. The general situation of translation in this period can be summarized from the following two aspects.

===The emphasis of translation was on Russian and Nordic works and more Chinese works were translated.===
From the end of the 19th century to the beginning of the 20th century, the literature of Russia and the Nordic countries developed greatly with the emergence of Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoyevsky, Leo Tolstoy, Chekhov, Andersen, Ibsen, Strindberg and other world-renowned great writers and dramatists. Their works had attracted the attention of the people in Western Europe and North America so they were competing to learn Russian, Danish and Swedish and had these works translated into English, German and French. In the process of translation, many excellent translators emerged in various countries.
====Translation of Russian literature====
According to the research of Tan Zaixi, Constance Garnet is the most famous female translator in Britain in this century. She translated almost all classic Russian novels and is widely regarded as the most important Translator of translating Russian literature into English. She published her first translation of Turgenev's novel Ru-Din in 1894. In the following decades, she devoted almost all her energy and time to the translation of Russian literature. She was the first person to translate Turgenev, Dostoyevsky and Chekhov into English, successively translating all the major works of Turgenev, Goncharov, Dostoyevsky, Tolstoy, Gogol and Chekhov including 12 volumes of Dostoyevsky's Selected Works translated from 1912 to 1920, 15 volumes of Turgenev's Selected Works translated from 1894 to 1899, 15 volumes of Chekhov's Novels and Plays translated from 1916 to 1922, and 6 volumes of Gogol’s Selected Works translated from 1922 to 1928. In particular, her translations of Turgenev, Chekhov, Dostoyevsky and other works were widely welcomed by the English reading community, and thus gave rise to the Russian literature craze in English literature before the First World War. She translated 70 Russian works in her lifetime, making her the most prolific translator of Russian works.
Two other translators who did not translate as much from Russian to English as Garnett, but who had no less influence, were the couple——Louise and Aylmer Maude. They are famous in western modern literary circles for their research and translation of Tolstoy's works. From 1928 to 1937, they spent nearly ten years translating and publishing 21 volumes of The Complete Works of Tolstoy. Later, from 1940s to 1950s, they supplemented or retranslated some of Tolstoy's works, such as What I Believe and Resurrection. In 1952, their work of War and Peace was accepted as a standard English translation and was selected for the prestigious Great Books of the Western World, thus establishing them as the authoritative English translators of Tolstoy. In addition, R. S. Townsend, R. Edmonds, Samuel Koteliansky, Ethel C. Mayne, Boris Brasol, Richard Renfield and so on were famous for translating the works of Tolstoy, Dostoevsky, Turgenev, Chekhov, Goncharov into English.（Tan，2004:148-150）

====Translation of Nordic literature and drama====
In the first half of the 20th century, in addition to Russian literature, western European translators showed great interest in Nordic literature and drama, including the works of Andersen, Ibsen and Strindberg.

According to the study of Tan Zaixi, when Hans Christian Andersen was alive, one of his works was published simultaneously in 15 languages, including English, German, French, Italian, Spanish and almost all the major languages of Western Europe. Later, all of his works were translated into different languages, and there were many re-translations in English, French, German and other countries. The first English translator was Mary Howitt, who began translating Andersen’s fairy tales in 1846. Later translators include Charles Boner, Caroline Peachey, Lady Duff Gordon, Paul Leyssac, R. R. Keigwin and R. Spink. Some of the best translations are Leyssac’s translation in 1937, Keigwin’s translation from 1950 to 1960 and Spink’s translation.(Tan，2004:151)

The main English translators of Ibsen’s plays are William Archer and James MacFarlane. Archer translated 12 volumes of The Collected Works of H. I. from 1906 to 1912, including almost all of Ibsen’s plays and some of his previously unpublished papers. Macfarlane compiled translated eight volumes of The Oxford Ibsen from 1960 to 1977. In addition, F. E. Garrett translated Lyrics and Poems from Ibsen in 1912. Mary Morison translated The Correspondence of H.I. in 1905. Evert Sprinchorn translated H. I. Letters and Speeches in 1964. (Tan，2004:151)

In Germany, the standard German translation is the 10-volume The Collected Plays of Ibsen edited and published by G. Brandes, J. Elias, and P. Schlenther from 1898 to 1902. The standard French translation is The Complete Works of Ibsen in 16 volumes translated and published by P. G. La Chesnais from 1914 to 1945.(Tan，2004:151)

Strindberg’s work was translated into English as early as 1912. For the next fifty or sixty years, many people worked on Strindberg’s studies and translations. Major English translators included E. Schleussner, Walter Johnson, M. Sandbach, Elizabeth Sprigge and Michael Meyer. Some good works are Sprigge’s translations of Strinberg’s Plays in 1963 and Meyer’s translations of The Father, Miss Julie, Storm and so on in 1964. In other major western European countries such as Germany and France, Strindberg’s plays were also translated into German and French, and repeatedly staged in Berlin and Paris. (Tan，2004:152)

There is no doubt that the translation of modern and contemporary Russian and Nordic literature and drama was a mainstream of western translation in the first half of the century. However, at the same time, it must be pointed out that the mutual translation of modern and contemporary literary works in western European countries still enjoys considerable momentum.

====More and more Chinese works were translated.====
In the 20th century, more and more people in the West became interested in Chinese culture. Since the 1950s, with the improvement of new China’s international prestige, the fever of translating Chinese works had been constantly appearing in the West. Not only the Four Books, Five Classics, Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Water Margin, Journey to the West, A Dream of Red Mansions and the poems of Li Bai, Du Fu and Bai Juyi were translated into English, German and French, but modern writers such as Luxun, Maodun and Bajin were also introduced to western countries. In the process of translating and introducing Chinese works, excellent translators have emerged from every country.

According to the study of Tan Zaixi, Arthur Waley, the most eminent Sinologist in Britain in the 20th century, was a translator, writer and poet. In 1916, his first translation of Chinese Poems was published. In 1918, he published his second translated work One Hundred Seventy Chinese Poems. These two translations are both from Tang poems. In addition, he also translated part of Journey to the West in 1942, published four other Chinese-English translations, and wrote three books about China or Chinese writers. Another outstanding Sinologist and translator in the 20th century was Franz Kuhn of Germany. From 1919, when his first translation was published, to his death in 1961, he translated and published more than 40 classical and modern Chinese literary works, including 12 novels and 34 short stories. In particular, his translation of The Fortunate Union in 1926, Second Bloom in 1927, The Golden Lotus in 1930, A Dream of Red Mansions in 1932, Water Margin in 1934, Jade Dragonfly in 1936, Romance of the Three Kingdoms in 1940, Midnight and other works from 1940 to 1955, were well received by German readers.（Tan,2004:153-156）

===The creativity of translation and the language in translation were paid more attention.===
In the aspect of translation theory, scholars had deeply reflected on the traditional translation theory, especially questioned the universality of language, and proposed that when the meaning of the original text becomes obscure and difficult to understand, translators must fill in the gaps of the text according to their own experience. Therefore, translation theories of this period paid more attention to the creativity of translation and the language problems in translation. Although they did not separate themselves from the discussion of translation techniques such as word selection and sentence construction, they laid a foundation for the linguistic turn of translation studies and provided theoretical thinking for the translation literature as an independent existence. And about the specific translation theories in different countries in this period, Xie Tianzhen made a brief summary.

J. P. Postgate is a famous Translation theorist in Britain, and he put forward prospective translation and retrospective translation. Prospective translation means that the translator always keeps the reader in mind and adopts free methods and common expressions to ensure that the original ideas of the reader are not affected and their prediction is not interfered with. The purpose of translation is to show the translator’s mastery of the target language, focusing on the target language rather than the original one. Retrospective translation means that the translator always looks at the original author, because the purpose of translation is to impart knowledge of the original text, rather than to look ahead and consider the reader of the translation.（Xie，2011:29）

French scholar J. Marouzeau’s "On Translation of Latin" is an important translation literature in French. He believed that translation is a skill in which the translator should reveal to the reader the content of the original work, rather than its shell, using a living language.（Xie，2011:29）

German thinker Walter Benjamin pointed out that although the translation is based on the original, it is the afterlife of the original work and the translation need not pursue the same meaning as the original work. Mediocre translators pay more attention to the meaning of the original work than to its literariness and language style and they only know that the translation exists to serve the original work and can only translate the non-essential content of the original work. (Xie Tianzhen，2008:319-332) The translator’s task is to use his own language to release the pure language trapped by another language, that is, to liberate the imprisoned language in the re-creation of the original text. Edwin Gentzler, a contemporary American translation theorist, believed that the discussion of translation issues among Anglo-American deconstructionists mainly revolves around comments on Benjamin’s Translator’s Task. (Edwin Gentzler, 2004:173-174.) Therefore, Translator’s Task is regarded as the “Bible” of translation theory and the classic of deconstructive translation theory.（Xie，2011:30）

The Russian scholar Mikhail Vasilievich Lemonosov transformed the loanwords that entered the Russian language, russified them, and regarded translation as a creative activity. And this view of free translation lasted until the 19th century. Aleksandr Pushkin, the greatest Russian poet in the 19th century, based on his literary translation practice, proposed that translators should have their own opinions on the selection of materials and should have full freedom in dealing with the original work, but the uniqueness of the original work should be preserved as much as possible.（Xie，2011:30）

==The General Situation of Translation in the Contemporary Age==
After the Second World War, the world entered a period of relative peace. After the trauma of the war, the Western countries regrouped and began to restore and develop production and economy in an all-round way. Translation cause also entered a new period of development at extremely rapid pace, taking on a new look. During this period, not only in the Soviet Union, Britain, Germany, France and other major European countries, but also in the United States, Canada, the cause of translation showed a prosperous scene. In terms of the whole western translation career, the translation after the Second World War was unmatched in scope, form, scale and achievement. Therefore, the 20th century could be called as "the age of translation" , which in fact mainly referred to the decades since the end of the war. Though great achievement was also made in literary translation in this period, the 20th century is known as the "age of translation" mainly because western translation expanded into various fields during this period, which has five characteristics.

===The scale of translation extended to the field of business, diplomacy, science and many other professional affairs.===
Since the end of the Second World War, due to practical needs, commercial, diplomatic, scientific and technological translation had flourished, and its momentum even exceeded literary translation, thus forming a major content of the development of modern western translation.Here is the research of Tan Zaixi about the scale of translation.

In 1945, the United Nations was established with English, French, Russian, Chinese and Spanish as the five official and working languages. In 1957, the European Community was founded, consisting of six countries at that time. In 1993, the European Community developed into the European Union. By 2004, it had 25 member states, using nine languages including English, French, German, Italy, Denmark, Ireland, Greece, Spain and Portugal. That is to say, translation had become an indispensable part of daily work, both for communicating with countries in other regions and among western countries. According to UNESCO, the number of translations in the world increased four-and-a-half times from 1948 to 1970. The institutions of the European Common Market employed more than 1,300 employees to deal with translation, of whom 450 were full-time interpreters, 550 translators and others were freelance employees on short-term contracts. (Tan,2004:160-161)

===Translation teaching was widespread.===
In the past, translation was mainly the work of a few literary magnates. With the establishment of the United Nations and its specialized agencies, as well as the establishment of international institutions such as the European Common Market (EC, EU) and the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, the need for translators was increasing. To meet this need, a number of schools specializing in training translators had been set up.

According to the study of Tan Zaixi, the most prominent schools are the High School of Translation at the Third University of Paris and the School of Translation at the University of Ottawa. What’s more, many universities in Europe and the United States also offer translation classes or courses in senior grades.（Tan Zaixi, 2004:161-162）
===Translators’associations were established and publications on translation studies were launched.===
Translators in different countries set up various translation associations and publications. These associations played an important role in the development of translation through their activities and publications.

According to Tan Zaixi, translation associations or federations in European and American capitalist countries, in particular, generally emphasize the following principles: to clarify the legal status of translators through legislative means; to take effective measures to protect the legal rights of translators (especially the copyright that translators should enjoy); to improve their social status and increase their economic income; to improve the learning and working conditions of translators to provide them with opportunities to constantly improve their translation skills and a good working environment.（Tan Zaixi，2004:162）

There were more translators’ organizations in the United States than in other western countries, with a total of 30, among which the most influential were the American Society of Translators, the American Federation of Linguists and the Literary Society of America. The journal of the American Society of Translators was ATA Chronicle. The journal of the Literary Society of America was Translation Review.（Tan Zaixi，2004:162-163）

In Canada, major translation associations included the Canadian Council of Translators and Interpreters, the Ontario Association of Translators and Interpreters, the Business Language Centre, and the Quebec Translation Association. The Ontario Association of Translators and Interpreters founded the journal of Inform ATIO. The most influential professional translation magazine in Canada was Meta: Journal des Traducteurs.（Tan Zaixi，2004:164）

In Britain, major translation associations included the Association of Translation Companies of Great Britain, the Association of Translators and the Guild of Translators, of which the Guild of Translators was the most famous. The official publication of the guild is The Incorporated Linguist, which was published in 1962 and enjoyed high reputation in Britain.（Tan Zaixi，2004:164)

There were two major translation associations in France: the Association of French Translators and the Association of French Literary Translators. There were also two major translation associations in West Germany, one was the Association of Federation Translators and Interpreters and the other was the German-speaking World Federation of Literary and Technical Translators. In addition, Austria, Italy, Spain, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, Finland, Belgium and other Western European countries also had local or national translation organizations and a variety of translation publications.（Tan Zaixi，2004:164-165）

===Machine translation developed.===
In the process of more than two thousand years of development, the traditional translation method had not undergone substantial changes in technology, and the translation between the two languages still had to be carried out by hand. However, due to the increasingly frequent international scientific and cultural exchanges, manual translation could no longer timely meet the needs. Therefore, when the traditional manual translation was facing the challenge of the times, machine translation should be born. In 1946, under the auspices of the United States Army headquarters, J.P. Eckert and J.W. Mauchly who were both from the University of Pennsylvania developed the world’s first electronic computer named: Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator, or ENIAC for short. Computer’s astonishing speed inspired people to consider the innovation of translation technology. Therefore, in the same year, Andrew Booth and Warren Weaver first proposed the use of computers in the machine translation system. Since then, machine translation and machine translation research, driven by modern electronic computing technology officially began.American science, especially the development of computer science, to a large extent affected the development of computer science in the whole West and even the world. Therefore, especially in the pioneering period, the development history and model of Machine translation in America can almost be regarded as those in the whole West. In this sense, the development of machine translation in the west (and even the world) can be roughly divided into the following five major periods, just like the development of Machine translation in the United States: initial stage; high stage; low stage; recovery stage; vigorous stage. The following is a further overview of the five development periods of machine translation in the West (mainly in the United States) made by Tan Zaixi who referred to the books of Yang Muyun, Li Zhisheng，Yu Hao, Zhao Tiejun and so on.

====Initial stage (1946—1954)====
The pioneering period begins with Booth and Weaver’s idea of translating natural language by computer in 1954, and ends with the birth of the first machine translation system. After the idea of using computers to translate was put forward, although there was great resistance in the United States at first, the voice supporting it was mainstream. In particular, Weaver published a memorandum on machine translation in 1949, which not only opened up a series of research topics on machine translation in the United States, but also had a wide influence in western countries. The memo makes four basic points: the problem of polysemy can be solved by context; there is a logical basis in language; there are basic probabilities in language application; there are common elements in different languages. These are still the fundamental of the development of machine translation. In the following years, machine translation research had been actively carried out in some universities and organizations in the United States and Britain. In Massachusetts Institute of Technology, the first full-time machine translation researcher Bar-Hillel arrived, he made a great contribution to the early development of machine translation and put forward the main problems and basic strategies needed to be solved in machine translation research. The first machine translation conference was held at MIT in June 1952, after which machine translation research in the United States began to accelerate. In 1954, a machine translation system for computer was developed and demonstrated. Although the machine translation system was small, consisting of only 250 Russian words, six grammar rules, and a few translation examples, it first showed the public and the scientific community the feasibility of machine translation, inspiring substantial funding from U.S. government for machine translation research over the next decade.（Tan Zaixi，2004:167-168）

====High-tide stage(1954—1966)====
The successful demonstration of the world’s first machine translation system, the Georgetown-IBM system of United States, marked the first development climax of machine translation. The upsurge began in 1954 and lasted for 12 years. In the mid-1950s, inspired by successful demonstration of machine translation system, dozens of universities, companies, and government agencies in the United States began machine translation research programs. On the one hand, due to the competition between the United States and the Soviet Union at that time, the United States military, the National Science Foundation, the Central Intelligence Agency and so on needed to acquire a large amount of scientific and technological information of the Soviet Union, so that they invested a lot in machine translation, especially Russian-English translation. On the other hand, advanced computers in the United States provided good equipment for the development of the first generation of machine translation system. At the same time, many universities and institutions in most European countries had also carried out machine translation research.（Tan Zaixi，2004:168-170）

====Low-tide stage (1966—1975)====
The advent of machine translation had opened up a new way for traditional translation research and practice. However, the complexity of machine translation was underestimated at that time and the design of machine translation system was often too rough and simple. In this case, the first generation of machine translation systems in the initial stage could not achieve ideal results, the quality of translation is often poor, so that some people gradually lost confidence in machine translation research, and some scholars also became pessimistic and disappointed. （Tan Zaixi，2004:170）

In the mid-1960s, machine translation in the United States had suffered a severe blow. In 1966, the Automatic Language Processing Advisory Committee, part of the National Academy of Sciences, was asked to investigate machine translation research funded by government. The committee published its report, Language and Machines, after analyzing the speed, quality, cost and demand of machine translation at that time. The report pointed out that the quality of machine translation is significantly lower than that of human translation and asserted that there was no likelihood of any commercially useful machine translation system in the foreseeable future. On the committee’s recommendation, the U.S. government withdrew the funding for machine translation research. Thus, machine translation research in the United States plummeted from a high point to a low point of development. It should be noted, however, that machine translation research and development was not in a complete demise, following the official denials in the United States. Scholars and research institutions in many countries including the United States continued to carry out researches and experiments on machine translation under relatively difficult circumstances.（Tan Zaixi，2004:171）

====Recovery stage(1975—1989)====
In the middle of 1970s, with the emergence of new theories and ideas in the field of linguistics and the further development of computational linguistics, the research of machine translation was aroused in the world again. After ten years of silence, machine translation research stepped on the road of recovery. The recovery period of machine translation research and development is generally considered to date from the installation of the SYSTRAN system by EURATOM and the completion of the TAUM-METEO system by the University of Montreal in Canada.（Tan Zaixi，2004:171-174）

====Vigorous stage（1989—）====
Since the late 1980s, some new developments had changed the field of machine translation, marking machine translation research enter a new period. This is the emergence of the third generation of machine translation method that is corpus-based. Corpus-based machine translation systems include statistic-based translation and example-based translation, both of which are based on large-scale real text. （Tan Zaixi，2004:167-175）

Practice has proved that machine translation has great vitality. It is a new science, and its research and translation have entered a new stage of development. No matter whether it can replace the human brain and hands eventually and completely liberate human from the heavy artificial translation, it will develop and exist for a long time. Both in theory and practice, machine translation and its research will exert more and more influence on traditional translation and its research.

===Translation theories of different schools were emerging one after another.===
The most important feature of modern western translation is the rapid development of translation theory. After the Second World War, with the vigorous development of science and technology, modern linguistics, translation activities and the rise of machine translation, people gradually changed the traditional view of translation studies, believing that translation is not only an art or skill, but also a science with rules to follow.

On the whole, the development of contemporary translation theory has two characteristics :(1) theoretical research has been brought into the scope of linguistics, under the influence of modern linguistics and information theory; (2) the traditional situation of non-communication between theorists has been broken. Translation theorists fully express their views through various channels, such as published works.(Xie Tianzhen, 2009:32)

After the Second World War, with the modernization and integration of western social and economic development, western translation theories also began to enter a new period that transcends national boundaries. Therefore, it is difficult to classify some translation thoughts and some translation theorists in a narrow sense as belonging to a certain country or a certain place. It is acceptable to divide contemporary western translation theories into different schools according to their basic approaches and methods of translation studies or the basic characteristics of thought. Here is a brief introduction to some influential schools classified by Zhao Jiajin.

====American Translation Training School====
First established in 1964 at the University of Iowa, this school focused on translation practice, emphasized the literary taste and value of works, and adopted the methods of L. A. Richards and Williard V. Quine of Harvard University. Representative figures included poet and translator Ezra Pound, who translated Tang poetry and advocated the accurate restoration of details, words, fragments and the whole image description. Frederic Will of the University of Iowa, drawing on his training experience, regarded translation as a form of naming, fiction writing and cognition. Yale’s Jonas Zdnys argued that translation is an activity of subjective thought designed to explain literature. This school explores the role of the human mind in translation and raises the question of the nature of translation, but translation theory was limited to aesthetic experience and prescriptive translation rules.

====Translation Science School====
It was also known as “linguistic school”. According to this school, translation is the process of reproducing language as a whole, and it aims to correctly convey the original information to readers. The school was founded by Eugene Nida, whose masterpieces include Message and Mission (1960) and Toward Science of Translation (1946). Nida proposed functional equivalence theory according to Noam Chomsky’s transformational generative grammar and his experience in Bible translation, that is, to digest the original text and understand its basic structure and meaning; convey meaning based on basic structure; obtain semantic and stylistic equivalence with the original text. Thus the translation process can be summarized as: analyze—transfer—restructure, these three steps. The school of Translation science adopted linguistic theory and the more objective description method in translation theory. In the late 1970s, emphasis was placed on the cultural background of the information age, but the research was still limited to prescriptive research and translation criteria, ignoring the role of translators’thinking.（Zhao Jiajin,1996: 46）

====Translation school====
It is the so-called “literary school”. This school held that the original work is the unity of sentence series and article structure, and the translator is influenced by the original view and the future model of translation in the process of translation. The founder of this school was James Holmes, an American poet, who taught translation at the University of Amsterdam in the Netherlands before his death. His representative work is ''The Name and Nature of Translation Studies'' (1972).（Zhao Jiajin,1996: 46）

====Polysystem School====
Its founders are Itammar Even-Zohar and Gideon Toury of Tel Aviv University in Israel. Even coined the term Polysystem to explore the relationship between translated works and literary systems, and explained that the oriented culture of translation not only determines whether a work can be translated, but also regulates the wording. Toury held that translation belongs to the second system of multiple systems, and its role depends on the strength and development stage of the oriented culture of translation. He held that translation has no fixed identity and has multiple identities due to its social, literary and historical background. This school integrates translation studies with literary studies, social and economic factors, endows translation studies with historical significance, but it is still limited to the acceptability of translation and does not get rid of the fetters of cultural equivalence.（Zhao Jiajin,1996: 46）

====Deconstruction School====
It is also known as “affirmative productivity school”. It originated in France in the mid-1960s and is represented by Michel Foucault, Martin Heidegger and Jacques Derrida. This school introduced deconstruction into translation, claiming that translators create the subject and the target language is a new language. As Foucault put it, the original work is constantly rewritten in the process of translation, and the translator rewrites the original work every time he reads and translates it. Deconstruction studies the nature and process of translation and language, and advocates that translators exist as entities. The school even goes so far as to believe that language does not involve any objective reality, and translators have their own status only when they create texts.（Zhao Jiajin,1996: 46-47）

==Conclusion==
Under the influence of historical backgrounds, different periods of translation show different traits. In the modern period, the content of translation still focused on literature which included works form Russian, Nordic countries, China and so on. The way of translation was artificial and traditional. With the progress of economy and science, translation in the contemporary period also got great development. The content of translation was not confined to the field of literature. Instead, translation of science and technology, commerce, entertainment and so on became a major part of the actual translation activities. In addition, machine translation as a novel technique developed quickly. And the most important feature of modern western translation is the rapid development of translation theory thanks to many translator associations and publications on translation studies. Nowadays, under the influence of globalization, translation shows more and more importance and get better development environment.

==References==

Barnstone，Willis(1993). The Poetics of Trunslation: History, Theory, Practice[M]. New Haven:Yale University Press.

Bates, Ernest Stuart(1936). Modern Translation[M]. London: Oxford University Press.

Catford, John(1965). A Linguistic Theory of Translation: An Essay in Applied Linguistics[M].Oxford and London: Oxford University Press.

Delisle, Jean(1995). Translation: An Interpretive Approach[M]. Ottawa: University of Ottawa Press.

Feng Zhiwei 冯志伟(1994).《自然语言机器翻译新论》[M] New Theories of Machine Translation of Natural Language.北京:语文出版社Beijing: Chinese Press.

FitzMaurice-Kelly, J(1911). "Translation"[J]. Encyclopedia Britannica (11th edition, Cambridge),27:183-188.

Gentzler, Edwin(2004). Contemporary Translation Theories[M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

Hutchins，Robert(1952). Great Books of the Western World[M]. Chicago: Encyclopaedia .Britannica Ltd.

Mu Yunyang,Li Zhisheng,Yu Hao杨沐昀、李志升、于浩(2000).《机器翻译系统》[M]Machine Translation System.哈尔滨：哈尔滨工业大学出版社Harbin: Harbin University of Technology Press.

Tan Zaixi谭载喜(2004).西方翻译简史[M]A Brief History of Western Translation.北京：商务印书馆Beijing:The Commercial Press.

Tan Zaixi谭载喜(1985).西方翻译史浅谈[J]On the History of Western Translation.中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal,7:36-39.

Xie Tianzhen谢天振(2008).《当代国外翻译理论导读》[M]Introduction to Contemporary Foreign Translation Theories.天津：南开大学出版社Tianjin：Nankai University Press.

Xie Tianzhen谢天振(2011).中西翻译简史[M]A Brief History of Chinese and Western Translation.北京:外语教学与研究出版社Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.

Zhao Jiajin赵家琎(1996).当代翻译学派简介[J]A Brief Introduction to Contemporary Translation Schools.中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal,5：46—47.

Zhao Tiejun赵铁军等(2001).《机器翻译原理》[M]Principles of Machine Translation.哈尔滨：哈尔滨工业大学出版社Harbin: Harbin University of Technology Press.

Hist Trans EN 14

2021-12-14T06:46:58Z

Wei Chuxuan: /* The creativity of translation and the language in translation were paid more attention. */

'''History of Translations'''

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=Western Translation History In the Modern and Contemperary Ages=
'''现当代西方翻译史'''

魏楚璇，Wei Chuxuan, Hunan Normal University, China

==Abstract==
Under different historical backgrounds, western translation presents different characteristics. In the 20th century before the end of the Second World War, the two world wars inevitably brought obstacles and disturbances to the development of translation. Therefore, though translation in this period still continued to develop, it did not get breakthrough. Translation was still dominated by literary works in content, totally relying on manual labor. In translation theory, it emphasized the creativity of translation and laid a foundation for the linguistic turn of translation studies. After the end of World War II, the world entered an era of relative peace, the world economy recovered, and the translation industry was greatly revitalized. During this period, the scale of translation covered all aspects of social life, machine translation developed fast, translation training flourished, translation organizations were established in various countries and many translation theories and schools emerged. That is to say, this period can be called the golden age of translation.

==摘要==
在不同的历史背景下，西方翻译呈现出不同的特点。在二战结束之前的二十世纪，两次世界大战不可避免地为翻译事业的发展带来了阻碍和干扰，因而这一时期的翻译虽然仍在发展但并未取得突破性的成就，在翻译的内容上仍然以文学作品为主，技术上完全依赖人工，理论方面注重翻译的创造性且为翻译研究的语言学转向奠定了基础。二战结束后，世界进入到相对和平的年代，世界经济复苏，翻译事业也大为振兴。在这一时期，翻译的内容覆盖社会生活的方方面面，机器翻译发展迅速，翻译培训兴起，翻译组织在各国成立，各种翻译理论和翻译流派涌现，可谓是翻译的黄金年代。

==Keywords==
Western translation; translation history; modern; contemperary

==Introduction==
In this paper, western translation history in modern and contemporary ages will be introduced. Here the modern age refers to the nearly half century before the Second World War. And the contemporary age refers to the half century after the Second World War. That is to say, the modern and contemporary translation in this paper refers to the translation in the 20th century. Under the influence of different historical backgrounds, translation in these two ages showed different characteristics and traits which will be concluded and discussed in detail in the following.

==The General Situation of Translation in the Modern Age==
Into the 20th century, the capitalism in the developed countries developed into imperialism. On the one hand, the imperialist countries intensified their foreign expansion to oppress and exploit the weak countries and people in colony. On the other hand, they were engaged in a fierce battle among themselves for international markets and spheres of influence. Thus, in less than half a century, two world wars broke out. Under this historical background, translation in western countries will inevitably be seriously disturbed and destroyed. However, translation in western countries continued to develop and excellent translations still appeared from time to time. The translation of this period also has its own traits. The general situation of translation in this period can be summarized from the following two aspects.

===The emphasis of translation was on Russian and Nordic works and more Chinese works were translated.===
From the end of the 19th century to the beginning of the 20th century, the literature of Russia and the Nordic countries developed greatly with the emergence of Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoyevsky, Leo Tolstoy, Chekhov, Andersen, Ibsen, Strindberg and other world-renowned great writers and dramatists. Their works had attracted the attention of the people in Western Europe and North America so they were competing to learn Russian, Danish and Swedish and had these works translated into English, German and French. In the process of translation, many excellent translators emerged in various countries.
====Translation of Russian literature====
According to the research of Tan Zaixi, Constance Garnet is the most famous female translator in Britain in this century. She translated almost all classic Russian novels and is widely regarded as the most important Translator of translating Russian literature into English. She published her first translation of Turgenev's novel Ru-Din in 1894. In the following decades, she devoted almost all her energy and time to the translation of Russian literature. She was the first person to translate Turgenev, Dostoyevsky and Chekhov into English, successively translating all the major works of Turgenev, Goncharov, Dostoyevsky, Tolstoy, Gogol and Chekhov including 12 volumes of Dostoyevsky's Selected Works translated from 1912 to 1920, 15 volumes of Turgenev's Selected Works translated from 1894 to 1899, 15 volumes of Chekhov's Novels and Plays translated from 1916 to 1922, and 6 volumes of Gogol’s Selected Works translated from 1922 to 1928. In particular, her translations of Turgenev, Chekhov, Dostoyevsky and other works were widely welcomed by the English reading community, and thus gave rise to the Russian literature craze in English literature before the First World War. She translated 70 Russian works in her lifetime, making her the most prolific translator of Russian works.
Two other translators who did not translate as much from Russian to English as Garnett, but who had no less influence, were the couple——Louise and Aylmer Maude. They are famous in western modern literary circles for their research and translation of Tolstoy's works. From 1928 to 1937, they spent nearly ten years translating and publishing 21 volumes of The Complete Works of Tolstoy. Later, from 1940s to 1950s, they supplemented or retranslated some of Tolstoy's works, such as What I Believe and Resurrection. In 1952, their work of War and Peace was accepted as a standard English translation and was selected for the prestigious Great Books of the Western World, thus establishing them as the authoritative English translators of Tolstoy. In addition, R. S. Townsend, R. Edmonds, Samuel Koteliansky, Ethel C. Mayne, Boris Brasol, Richard Renfield and so on were famous for translating the works of Tolstoy, Dostoevsky, Turgenev, Chekhov, Goncharov into English.（Tan，2004:148-150）

====Translation of Nordic literature and drama====
In the first half of the 20th century, in addition to Russian literature, western European translators showed great interest in Nordic literature and drama, including the works of Andersen, Ibsen and Strindberg.

According to the study of Tan Zaixi, when Hans Christian Andersen was alive, one of his works was published simultaneously in 15 languages, including English, German, French, Italian, Spanish and almost all the major languages of Western Europe. Later, all of his works were translated into different languages, and there were many re-translations in English, French, German and other countries. The first English translator was Mary Howitt, who began translating Andersen’s fairy tales in 1846. Later translators include Charles Boner, Caroline Peachey, Lady Duff Gordon, Paul Leyssac, R. R. Keigwin and R. Spink. Some of the best translations are Leyssac’s translation in 1937, Keigwin’s translation from 1950 to 1960 and Spink’s translation.(Tan，2004:151)

The main English translators of Ibsen’s plays are William Archer and James MacFarlane. Archer translated 12 volumes of The Collected Works of H. I. from 1906 to 1912, including almost all of Ibsen’s plays and some of his previously unpublished papers. Macfarlane compiled translated eight volumes of The Oxford Ibsen from 1960 to 1977. In addition, F. E. Garrett translated Lyrics and Poems from Ibsen in 1912. Mary Morison translated The Correspondence of H.I. in 1905. Evert Sprinchorn translated H. I. Letters and Speeches in 1964. (Tan，2004:151)

In Germany, the standard German translation is the 10-volume The Collected Plays of Ibsen edited and published by G. Brandes, J. Elias, and P. Schlenther from 1898 to 1902. The standard French translation is The Complete Works of Ibsen in 16 volumes translated and published by P. G. La Chesnais from 1914 to 1945.(Tan，2004:151)

Strindberg’s work was translated into English as early as 1912. For the next fifty or sixty years, many people worked on Strindberg’s studies and translations. Major English translators included E. Schleussner, Walter Johnson, M. Sandbach, Elizabeth Sprigge and Michael Meyer. Some good works are Sprigge’s translations of Strinberg’s Plays in 1963 and Meyer’s translations of The Father, Miss Julie, Storm and so on in 1964. In other major western European countries such as Germany and France, Strindberg’s plays were also translated into German and French, and repeatedly staged in Berlin and Paris. (Tan，2004:152)

There is no doubt that the translation of modern and contemporary Russian and Nordic literature and drama was a mainstream of western translation in the first half of the century. However, at the same time, it must be pointed out that the mutual translation of modern and contemporary literary works in western European countries still enjoys considerable momentum.

====More and more Chinese works were translated.====
In the 20th century, more and more people in the West became interested in Chinese culture. Since the 1950s, with the improvement of new China’s international prestige, the fever of translating Chinese works had been constantly appearing in the West. Not only the Four Books, Five Classics, Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Water Margin, Journey to the West, A Dream of Red Mansions and the poems of Li Bai, Du Fu and Bai Juyi were translated into English, German and French, but modern writers such as Luxun, Maodun and Bajin were also introduced to western countries. In the process of translating and introducing Chinese works, excellent translators have emerged from every country.

According to the study of Tan Zaixi, Arthur Waley, the most eminent Sinologist in Britain in the 20th century, was a translator, writer and poet. In 1916, his first translation of Chinese Poems was published. In 1918, he published his second translated work One Hundred Seventy Chinese Poems. These two translations are both from Tang poems. In addition, he also translated part of Journey to the West in 1942, published four other Chinese-English translations, and wrote three books about China or Chinese writers. Another outstanding Sinologist and translator in the 20th century was Franz Kuhn of Germany. From 1919, when his first translation was published, to his death in 1961, he translated and published more than 40 classical and modern Chinese literary works, including 12 novels and 34 short stories. In particular, his translation of The Fortunate Union in 1926, Second Bloom in 1927, The Golden Lotus in 1930, A Dream of Red Mansions in 1932, Water Margin in 1934, Jade Dragonfly in 1936, Romance of the Three Kingdoms in 1940, Midnight and other works from 1940 to 1955, were well received by German readers.（Tan,2004:153-156）

===The creativity of translation and the language in translation were paid more attention.===
In the aspect of translation theory, scholars had deeply reflected on the traditional translation theory, especially questioned the universality of language, and proposed that when the meaning of the original text becomes obscure and difficult to understand, translators must fill in the gaps of the text according to their own experience. Therefore, translation theories of this period paid more attention to the creativity of translation and the language problems in translation. Although they did not separate themselves from the discussion of translation techniques such as word selection and sentence construction, they laid a foundation for the linguistic turn of translation studies and provided theoretical thinking for the translation literature as an independent existence. And about the specific translation theories in different countries in this period, Xie Tianzhen made a brief summary.

J. P. Postgate is a famous Translation theorist in Britain, and he put forward prospective translation and retrospective translation. Prospective translation means that the translator always keeps the reader in mind and adopts free methods and common expressions to ensure that the original ideas of the reader are not affected and their prediction is not interfered with. The purpose of translation is to show the translator’s mastery of the target language, focusing on the target language rather than the original one. Retrospective translation means that the translator always looks at the original author, because the purpose of translation is to impart knowledge of the original text, rather than to look ahead and consider the reader of the translation.（Xie，2011:29）

French scholar J. Marouzeau’s "On Translation of Latin" is an important translation literature in French. He believed that translation is a skill in which the translator should reveal to the reader the content of the original work, rather than its shell, using a living language.（Xie，2011:29）

German thinker Walter Benjamin pointed out that although the translation is based on the original, it is the afterlife of the original work and the translation need not pursue the same meaning as the original work. Mediocre translators pay more attention to the meaning of the original work than to its literariness and language style and they only know that the translation exists to serve the original work and can only translate the non-essential content of the original work. (Xie Tianzhen，2008:319-332) The translator’s task is to use his own language to release the pure language trapped by another language, that is, to liberate the imprisoned language in the re-creation of the original text. Edwin Gentzler, a contemporary American translation theorist, believed that the discussion of translation issues among Anglo-American deconstructionists mainly revolves around comments on Benjamin’s Translator’s Task. (Edwin Gentzler, 2004:173-174.) Therefore, Translator’s Task is regarded as the “Bible” of translation theory and the classic of deconstructive translation theory.（Xie，2011:30）

The Russian scholar Mikhail Vasilievich Lemonosov transformed the loanwords that entered the Russian language, russified them, and regarded translation as a creative activity. And this view of free translation lasted until the 19th century. Aleksandr Pushkin, the greatest Russian poet in the 19th century, based on his literary translation practice, proposed that translators should have their own opinions on the selection of materials and should have full freedom in dealing with the original work, but the uniqueness of the original work should be preserved as much as possible.（Xie，2011:30）

==The General Situation of Translation in the Contemporary Age==
After the Second World War, the world entered a period of relative peace. After the trauma of the war, the Western countries regrouped and began to restore and develop production and economy in an all-round way. Translation cause also entered a new period of development at extremely rapid pace, taking on a new look. During this period, not only in the Soviet Union, Britain, Germany, France and other major European countries, but also in the United States, Canada, the cause of translation showed a prosperous scene. In terms of the whole western translation career, the translation after the Second World War was unmatched in scope, form, scale and achievement. Therefore, the 20th century could be called as "the age of translation" , which in fact mainly referred to the decades since the end of the war. Though great achievement was also made in literary translation in this period, the 20th century is known as the "age of translation" mainly because western translation expanded into various fields during this period, which has five characteristics.

===The scale of translation extended to the field of business, diplomacy, science and many other professional affairs.===
Since the end of the Second World War, due to practical needs, commercial, diplomatic, scientific and technological translation had flourished, and its momentum even exceeded literary translation, thus forming a major content of the development of modern western translation.Here is the research of Tan Zaixi about the scale of translation.

In 1945, the United Nations was established with English, French, Russian, Chinese and Spanish as the five official and working languages. In 1957, the European Community was founded, consisting of six countries at that time. In 1993, the European Community developed into the European Union. By 2004, it had 25 member states, using nine languages including English, French, German, Italy, Denmark, Ireland, Greece, Spain and Portugal. That is to say, translation had become an indispensable part of daily work, both for communicating with countries in other regions and among western countries. According to UNESCO, the number of translations in the world increased four-and-a-half times from 1948 to 1970. The institutions of the European Common Market employed more than 1,300 employees to deal with translation, of whom 450 were full-time interpreters, 550 translators and others were freelance employees on short-term contracts. (Tan Zaixi,2004:160-161)

===Translation teaching was widespread.===
In the past, translation was mainly the work of a few literary magnates. With the establishment of the United Nations and its specialized agencies, as well as the establishment of international institutions such as the European Common Market (EC, EU) and the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, the need for translators was increasing. To meet this need, a number of schools specializing in training translators had been set up.

According to the study of Tan Zaixi, the most prominent schools are the High School of Translation at the Third University of Paris and the School of Translation at the University of Ottawa. What’s more, many universities in Europe and the United States also offer translation classes or courses in senior grades.（Tan Zaixi, 2004:161-162）
===Translators’associations were established and publications on translation studies were launched.===
Translators in different countries set up various translation associations and publications. These associations played an important role in the development of translation through their activities and publications.

According to Tan Zaixi, translation associations or federations in European and American capitalist countries, in particular, generally emphasize the following principles: to clarify the legal status of translators through legislative means; to take effective measures to protect the legal rights of translators (especially the copyright that translators should enjoy); to improve their social status and increase their economic income; to improve the learning and working conditions of translators to provide them with opportunities to constantly improve their translation skills and a good working environment.（Tan Zaixi，2004:162）

There were more translators’ organizations in the United States than in other western countries, with a total of 30, among which the most influential were the American Society of Translators, the American Federation of Linguists and the Literary Society of America. The journal of the American Society of Translators was ATA Chronicle. The journal of the Literary Society of America was Translation Review.（Tan Zaixi，2004:162-163）

In Canada, major translation associations included the Canadian Council of Translators and Interpreters, the Ontario Association of Translators and Interpreters, the Business Language Centre, and the Quebec Translation Association. The Ontario Association of Translators and Interpreters founded the journal of Inform ATIO. The most influential professional translation magazine in Canada was Meta: Journal des Traducteurs.（Tan Zaixi，2004:164）

In Britain, major translation associations included the Association of Translation Companies of Great Britain, the Association of Translators and the Guild of Translators, of which the Guild of Translators was the most famous. The official publication of the guild is The Incorporated Linguist, which was published in 1962 and enjoyed high reputation in Britain.（Tan Zaixi，2004:164)

There were two major translation associations in France: the Association of French Translators and the Association of French Literary Translators. There were also two major translation associations in West Germany, one was the Association of Federation Translators and Interpreters and the other was the German-speaking World Federation of Literary and Technical Translators. In addition, Austria, Italy, Spain, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, Finland, Belgium and other Western European countries also had local or national translation organizations and a variety of translation publications.（Tan Zaixi，2004:164-165）

===Machine translation developed.===
In the process of more than two thousand years of development, the traditional translation method had not undergone substantial changes in technology, and the translation between the two languages still had to be carried out by hand. However, due to the increasingly frequent international scientific and cultural exchanges, manual translation could no longer timely meet the needs. Therefore, when the traditional manual translation was facing the challenge of the times, machine translation should be born. In 1946, under the auspices of the United States Army headquarters, J.P. Eckert and J.W. Mauchly who were both from the University of Pennsylvania developed the world’s first electronic computer named: Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator, or ENIAC for short. Computer’s astonishing speed inspired people to consider the innovation of translation technology. Therefore, in the same year, Andrew Booth and Warren Weaver first proposed the use of computers in the machine translation system. Since then, machine translation and machine translation research, driven by modern electronic computing technology officially began.American science, especially the development of computer science, to a large extent affected the development of computer science in the whole West and even the world. Therefore, especially in the pioneering period, the development history and model of Machine translation in America can almost be regarded as those in the whole West. In this sense, the development of machine translation in the west (and even the world) can be roughly divided into the following five major periods, just like the development of Machine translation in the United States: initial stage; high stage; low stage; recovery stage; vigorous stage. The following is a further overview of the five development periods of machine translation in the West (mainly in the United States) made by Tan Zaixi who referred to the books of Yang Muyun, Li Zhisheng，Yu Hao, Zhao Tiejun and so on.

====Initial stage (1946—1954)====
The pioneering period begins with Booth and Weaver’s idea of translating natural language by computer in 1954, and ends with the birth of the first machine translation system. After the idea of using computers to translate was put forward, although there was great resistance in the United States at first, the voice supporting it was mainstream. In particular, Weaver published a memorandum on machine translation in 1949, which not only opened up a series of research topics on machine translation in the United States, but also had a wide influence in western countries. The memo makes four basic points: the problem of polysemy can be solved by context; there is a logical basis in language; there are basic probabilities in language application; there are common elements in different languages. These are still the fundamental of the development of machine translation. In the following years, machine translation research had been actively carried out in some universities and organizations in the United States and Britain. In Massachusetts Institute of Technology, the first full-time machine translation researcher Bar-Hillel arrived, he made a great contribution to the early development of machine translation and put forward the main problems and basic strategies needed to be solved in machine translation research. The first machine translation conference was held at MIT in June 1952, after which machine translation research in the United States began to accelerate. In 1954, a machine translation system for computer was developed and demonstrated. Although the machine translation system was small, consisting of only 250 Russian words, six grammar rules, and a few translation examples, it first showed the public and the scientific community the feasibility of machine translation, inspiring substantial funding from U.S. government for machine translation research over the next decade.（Tan Zaixi，2004:167-168）

====High-tide stage(1954—1966)====
The successful demonstration of the world’s first machine translation system, the Georgetown-IBM system of United States, marked the first development climax of machine translation. The upsurge began in 1954 and lasted for 12 years. In the mid-1950s, inspired by successful demonstration of machine translation system, dozens of universities, companies, and government agencies in the United States began machine translation research programs. On the one hand, due to the competition between the United States and the Soviet Union at that time, the United States military, the National Science Foundation, the Central Intelligence Agency and so on needed to acquire a large amount of scientific and technological information of the Soviet Union, so that they invested a lot in machine translation, especially Russian-English translation. On the other hand, advanced computers in the United States provided good equipment for the development of the first generation of machine translation system. At the same time, many universities and institutions in most European countries had also carried out machine translation research.（Tan Zaixi，2004:168-170）

====Low-tide stage (1966—1975)====
The advent of machine translation had opened up a new way for traditional translation research and practice. However, the complexity of machine translation was underestimated at that time and the design of machine translation system was often too rough and simple. In this case, the first generation of machine translation systems in the initial stage could not achieve ideal results, the quality of translation is often poor, so that some people gradually lost confidence in machine translation research, and some scholars also became pessimistic and disappointed. （Tan Zaixi，2004:170）

In the mid-1960s, machine translation in the United States had suffered a severe blow. In 1966, the Automatic Language Processing Advisory Committee, part of the National Academy of Sciences, was asked to investigate machine translation research funded by government. The committee published its report, Language and Machines, after analyzing the speed, quality, cost and demand of machine translation at that time. The report pointed out that the quality of machine translation is significantly lower than that of human translation and asserted that there was no likelihood of any commercially useful machine translation system in the foreseeable future. On the committee’s recommendation, the U.S. government withdrew the funding for machine translation research. Thus, machine translation research in the United States plummeted from a high point to a low point of development. It should be noted, however, that machine translation research and development was not in a complete demise, following the official denials in the United States. Scholars and research institutions in many countries including the United States continued to carry out researches and experiments on machine translation under relatively difficult circumstances.（Tan Zaixi，2004:171）

====Recovery stage(1975—1989)====
In the middle of 1970s, with the emergence of new theories and ideas in the field of linguistics and the further development of computational linguistics, the research of machine translation was aroused in the world again. After ten years of silence, machine translation research stepped on the road of recovery. The recovery period of machine translation research and development is generally considered to date from the installation of the SYSTRAN system by EURATOM and the completion of the TAUM-METEO system by the University of Montreal in Canada.（Tan Zaixi，2004:171-174）

====Vigorous stage（1989—）====
Since the late 1980s, some new developments had changed the field of machine translation, marking machine translation research enter a new period. This is the emergence of the third generation of machine translation method that is corpus-based. Corpus-based machine translation systems include statistic-based translation and example-based translation, both of which are based on large-scale real text. （Tan Zaixi，2004:167-175）

Practice has proved that machine translation has great vitality. It is a new science, and its research and translation have entered a new stage of development. No matter whether it can replace the human brain and hands eventually and completely liberate human from the heavy artificial translation, it will develop and exist for a long time. Both in theory and practice, machine translation and its research will exert more and more influence on traditional translation and its research.

===Translation theories of different schools were emerging one after another.===
The most important feature of modern western translation is the rapid development of translation theory. After the Second World War, with the vigorous development of science and technology, modern linguistics, translation activities and the rise of machine translation, people gradually changed the traditional view of translation studies, believing that translation is not only an art or skill, but also a science with rules to follow.

On the whole, the development of contemporary translation theory has two characteristics :(1) theoretical research has been brought into the scope of linguistics, under the influence of modern linguistics and information theory; (2) the traditional situation of non-communication between theorists has been broken. Translation theorists fully express their views through various channels, such as published works.(Xie Tianzhen, 2009:32)

After the Second World War, with the modernization and integration of western social and economic development, western translation theories also began to enter a new period that transcends national boundaries. Therefore, it is difficult to classify some translation thoughts and some translation theorists in a narrow sense as belonging to a certain country or a certain place. It is acceptable to divide contemporary western translation theories into different schools according to their basic approaches and methods of translation studies or the basic characteristics of thought. Here is a brief introduction to some influential schools classified by Zhao Jiajin.

====American Translation Training School====
First established in 1964 at the University of Iowa, this school focused on translation practice, emphasized the literary taste and value of works, and adopted the methods of L. A. Richards and Williard V. Quine of Harvard University. Representative figures included poet and translator Ezra Pound, who translated Tang poetry and advocated the accurate restoration of details, words, fragments and the whole image description. Frederic Will of the University of Iowa, drawing on his training experience, regarded translation as a form of naming, fiction writing and cognition. Yale’s Jonas Zdnys argued that translation is an activity of subjective thought designed to explain literature. This school explores the role of the human mind in translation and raises the question of the nature of translation, but translation theory was limited to aesthetic experience and prescriptive translation rules.

====Translation Science School====
It was also known as “linguistic school”. According to this school, translation is the process of reproducing language as a whole, and it aims to correctly convey the original information to readers. The school was founded by Eugene Nida, whose masterpieces include Message and Mission (1960) and Toward Science of Translation (1946). Nida proposed functional equivalence theory according to Noam Chomsky’s transformational generative grammar and his experience in Bible translation, that is, to digest the original text and understand its basic structure and meaning; convey meaning based on basic structure; obtain semantic and stylistic equivalence with the original text. Thus the translation process can be summarized as: analyze—transfer—restructure, these three steps. The school of Translation science adopted linguistic theory and the more objective description method in translation theory. In the late 1970s, emphasis was placed on the cultural background of the information age, but the research was still limited to prescriptive research and translation criteria, ignoring the role of translators’thinking.（Zhao Jiajin,1996: 46）

====Translation school====
It is the so-called “literary school”. This school held that the original work is the unity of sentence series and article structure, and the translator is influenced by the original view and the future model of translation in the process of translation. The founder of this school was James Holmes, an American poet, who taught translation at the University of Amsterdam in the Netherlands before his death. His representative work is ''The Name and Nature of Translation Studies'' (1972).（Zhao Jiajin,1996: 46）

====Polysystem School====
Its founders are Itammar Even-Zohar and Gideon Toury of Tel Aviv University in Israel. Even coined the term Polysystem to explore the relationship between translated works and literary systems, and explained that the oriented culture of translation not only determines whether a work can be translated, but also regulates the wording. Toury held that translation belongs to the second system of multiple systems, and its role depends on the strength and development stage of the oriented culture of translation. He held that translation has no fixed identity and has multiple identities due to its social, literary and historical background. This school integrates translation studies with literary studies, social and economic factors, endows translation studies with historical significance, but it is still limited to the acceptability of translation and does not get rid of the fetters of cultural equivalence.（Zhao Jiajin,1996: 46）

====Deconstruction School====
It is also known as “affirmative productivity school”. It originated in France in the mid-1960s and is represented by Michel Foucault, Martin Heidegger and Jacques Derrida. This school introduced deconstruction into translation, claiming that translators create the subject and the target language is a new language. As Foucault put it, the original work is constantly rewritten in the process of translation, and the translator rewrites the original work every time he reads and translates it. Deconstruction studies the nature and process of translation and language, and advocates that translators exist as entities. The school even goes so far as to believe that language does not involve any objective reality, and translators have their own status only when they create texts.（Zhao Jiajin,1996: 46-47）

==Conclusion==
Under the influence of historical backgrounds, different periods of translation show different traits. In the modern period, the content of translation still focused on literature which included works form Russian, Nordic countries, China and so on. The way of translation was artificial and traditional. With the progress of economy and science, translation in the contemporary period also got great development. The content of translation was not confined to the field of literature. Instead, translation of science and technology, commerce, entertainment and so on became a major part of the actual translation activities. In addition, machine translation as a novel technique developed quickly. And the most important feature of modern western translation is the rapid development of translation theory thanks to many translator associations and publications on translation studies. Nowadays, under the influence of globalization, translation shows more and more importance and get better development environment.

==References==

Barnstone，Willis(1993). The Poetics of Trunslation: History, Theory, Practice[M]. New Haven:Yale University Press.

Bates, Ernest Stuart(1936). Modern Translation[M]. London: Oxford University Press.

Catford, John(1965). A Linguistic Theory of Translation: An Essay in Applied Linguistics[M].Oxford and London: Oxford University Press.

Delisle, Jean(1995). Translation: An Interpretive Approach[M]. Ottawa: University of Ottawa Press.

Feng Zhiwei 冯志伟(1994).《自然语言机器翻译新论》[M] New Theories of Machine Translation of Natural Language.北京:语文出版社Beijing: Chinese Press.

FitzMaurice-Kelly, J(1911). "Translation"[J]. Encyclopedia Britannica (11th edition, Cambridge),27:183-188.

Gentzler, Edwin(2004). Contemporary Translation Theories[M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

Hutchins，Robert(1952). Great Books of the Western World[M]. Chicago: Encyclopaedia .Britannica Ltd.

Mu Yunyang,Li Zhisheng,Yu Hao杨沐昀、李志升、于浩(2000).《机器翻译系统》[M]Machine Translation System.哈尔滨：哈尔滨工业大学出版社Harbin: Harbin University of Technology Press.

Tan Zaixi谭载喜(2004).西方翻译简史[M]A Brief History of Western Translation.北京：商务印书馆Beijing:The Commercial Press.

Tan Zaixi谭载喜(1985).西方翻译史浅谈[J]On the History of Western Translation.中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal,7:36-39.

Xie Tianzhen谢天振(2008).《当代国外翻译理论导读》[M]Introduction to Contemporary Foreign Translation Theories.天津：南开大学出版社Tianjin：Nankai University Press.

Xie Tianzhen谢天振(2011).中西翻译简史[M]A Brief History of Chinese and Western Translation.北京:外语教学与研究出版社Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.

Zhao Jiajin赵家琎(1996).当代翻译学派简介[J]A Brief Introduction to Contemporary Translation Schools.中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal,5：46—47.

Zhao Tiejun赵铁军等(2001).《机器翻译原理》[M]Principles of Machine Translation.哈尔滨：哈尔滨工业大学出版社Harbin: Harbin University of Technology Press.

Hist Trans EN 14

2021-12-14T06:46:11Z

Wei Chuxuan: /* More and more Chinese works were translated. */

'''History of Translations'''

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=Western Translation History In the Modern and Contemperary Ages=
'''现当代西方翻译史'''

魏楚璇，Wei Chuxuan, Hunan Normal University, China

==Abstract==
Under different historical backgrounds, western translation presents different characteristics. In the 20th century before the end of the Second World War, the two world wars inevitably brought obstacles and disturbances to the development of translation. Therefore, though translation in this period still continued to develop, it did not get breakthrough. Translation was still dominated by literary works in content, totally relying on manual labor. In translation theory, it emphasized the creativity of translation and laid a foundation for the linguistic turn of translation studies. After the end of World War II, the world entered an era of relative peace, the world economy recovered, and the translation industry was greatly revitalized. During this period, the scale of translation covered all aspects of social life, machine translation developed fast, translation training flourished, translation organizations were established in various countries and many translation theories and schools emerged. That is to say, this period can be called the golden age of translation.

==摘要==
在不同的历史背景下，西方翻译呈现出不同的特点。在二战结束之前的二十世纪，两次世界大战不可避免地为翻译事业的发展带来了阻碍和干扰，因而这一时期的翻译虽然仍在发展但并未取得突破性的成就，在翻译的内容上仍然以文学作品为主，技术上完全依赖人工，理论方面注重翻译的创造性且为翻译研究的语言学转向奠定了基础。二战结束后，世界进入到相对和平的年代，世界经济复苏，翻译事业也大为振兴。在这一时期，翻译的内容覆盖社会生活的方方面面，机器翻译发展迅速，翻译培训兴起，翻译组织在各国成立，各种翻译理论和翻译流派涌现，可谓是翻译的黄金年代。

==Keywords==
Western translation; translation history; modern; contemperary

==Introduction==
In this paper, western translation history in modern and contemporary ages will be introduced. Here the modern age refers to the nearly half century before the Second World War. And the contemporary age refers to the half century after the Second World War. That is to say, the modern and contemporary translation in this paper refers to the translation in the 20th century. Under the influence of different historical backgrounds, translation in these two ages showed different characteristics and traits which will be concluded and discussed in detail in the following.

==The General Situation of Translation in the Modern Age==
Into the 20th century, the capitalism in the developed countries developed into imperialism. On the one hand, the imperialist countries intensified their foreign expansion to oppress and exploit the weak countries and people in colony. On the other hand, they were engaged in a fierce battle among themselves for international markets and spheres of influence. Thus, in less than half a century, two world wars broke out. Under this historical background, translation in western countries will inevitably be seriously disturbed and destroyed. However, translation in western countries continued to develop and excellent translations still appeared from time to time. The translation of this period also has its own traits. The general situation of translation in this period can be summarized from the following two aspects.

===The emphasis of translation was on Russian and Nordic works and more Chinese works were translated.===
From the end of the 19th century to the beginning of the 20th century, the literature of Russia and the Nordic countries developed greatly with the emergence of Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoyevsky, Leo Tolstoy, Chekhov, Andersen, Ibsen, Strindberg and other world-renowned great writers and dramatists. Their works had attracted the attention of the people in Western Europe and North America so they were competing to learn Russian, Danish and Swedish and had these works translated into English, German and French. In the process of translation, many excellent translators emerged in various countries.
====Translation of Russian literature====
According to the research of Tan Zaixi, Constance Garnet is the most famous female translator in Britain in this century. She translated almost all classic Russian novels and is widely regarded as the most important Translator of translating Russian literature into English. She published her first translation of Turgenev's novel Ru-Din in 1894. In the following decades, she devoted almost all her energy and time to the translation of Russian literature. She was the first person to translate Turgenev, Dostoyevsky and Chekhov into English, successively translating all the major works of Turgenev, Goncharov, Dostoyevsky, Tolstoy, Gogol and Chekhov including 12 volumes of Dostoyevsky's Selected Works translated from 1912 to 1920, 15 volumes of Turgenev's Selected Works translated from 1894 to 1899, 15 volumes of Chekhov's Novels and Plays translated from 1916 to 1922, and 6 volumes of Gogol’s Selected Works translated from 1922 to 1928. In particular, her translations of Turgenev, Chekhov, Dostoyevsky and other works were widely welcomed by the English reading community, and thus gave rise to the Russian literature craze in English literature before the First World War. She translated 70 Russian works in her lifetime, making her the most prolific translator of Russian works.
Two other translators who did not translate as much from Russian to English as Garnett, but who had no less influence, were the couple——Louise and Aylmer Maude. They are famous in western modern literary circles for their research and translation of Tolstoy's works. From 1928 to 1937, they spent nearly ten years translating and publishing 21 volumes of The Complete Works of Tolstoy. Later, from 1940s to 1950s, they supplemented or retranslated some of Tolstoy's works, such as What I Believe and Resurrection. In 1952, their work of War and Peace was accepted as a standard English translation and was selected for the prestigious Great Books of the Western World, thus establishing them as the authoritative English translators of Tolstoy. In addition, R. S. Townsend, R. Edmonds, Samuel Koteliansky, Ethel C. Mayne, Boris Brasol, Richard Renfield and so on were famous for translating the works of Tolstoy, Dostoevsky, Turgenev, Chekhov, Goncharov into English.（Tan，2004:148-150）

====Translation of Nordic literature and drama====
In the first half of the 20th century, in addition to Russian literature, western European translators showed great interest in Nordic literature and drama, including the works of Andersen, Ibsen and Strindberg.

According to the study of Tan Zaixi, when Hans Christian Andersen was alive, one of his works was published simultaneously in 15 languages, including English, German, French, Italian, Spanish and almost all the major languages of Western Europe. Later, all of his works were translated into different languages, and there were many re-translations in English, French, German and other countries. The first English translator was Mary Howitt, who began translating Andersen’s fairy tales in 1846. Later translators include Charles Boner, Caroline Peachey, Lady Duff Gordon, Paul Leyssac, R. R. Keigwin and R. Spink. Some of the best translations are Leyssac’s translation in 1937, Keigwin’s translation from 1950 to 1960 and Spink’s translation.(Tan，2004:151)

The main English translators of Ibsen’s plays are William Archer and James MacFarlane. Archer translated 12 volumes of The Collected Works of H. I. from 1906 to 1912, including almost all of Ibsen’s plays and some of his previously unpublished papers. Macfarlane compiled translated eight volumes of The Oxford Ibsen from 1960 to 1977. In addition, F. E. Garrett translated Lyrics and Poems from Ibsen in 1912. Mary Morison translated The Correspondence of H.I. in 1905. Evert Sprinchorn translated H. I. Letters and Speeches in 1964. (Tan，2004:151)

In Germany, the standard German translation is the 10-volume The Collected Plays of Ibsen edited and published by G. Brandes, J. Elias, and P. Schlenther from 1898 to 1902. The standard French translation is The Complete Works of Ibsen in 16 volumes translated and published by P. G. La Chesnais from 1914 to 1945.(Tan，2004:151)

Strindberg’s work was translated into English as early as 1912. For the next fifty or sixty years, many people worked on Strindberg’s studies and translations. Major English translators included E. Schleussner, Walter Johnson, M. Sandbach, Elizabeth Sprigge and Michael Meyer. Some good works are Sprigge’s translations of Strinberg’s Plays in 1963 and Meyer’s translations of The Father, Miss Julie, Storm and so on in 1964. In other major western European countries such as Germany and France, Strindberg’s plays were also translated into German and French, and repeatedly staged in Berlin and Paris. (Tan，2004:152)

There is no doubt that the translation of modern and contemporary Russian and Nordic literature and drama was a mainstream of western translation in the first half of the century. However, at the same time, it must be pointed out that the mutual translation of modern and contemporary literary works in western European countries still enjoys considerable momentum.

====More and more Chinese works were translated.====
In the 20th century, more and more people in the West became interested in Chinese culture. Since the 1950s, with the improvement of new China’s international prestige, the fever of translating Chinese works had been constantly appearing in the West. Not only the Four Books, Five Classics, Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Water Margin, Journey to the West, A Dream of Red Mansions and the poems of Li Bai, Du Fu and Bai Juyi were translated into English, German and French, but modern writers such as Luxun, Maodun and Bajin were also introduced to western countries. In the process of translating and introducing Chinese works, excellent translators have emerged from every country.

According to the study of Tan Zaixi, Arthur Waley, the most eminent Sinologist in Britain in the 20th century, was a translator, writer and poet. In 1916, his first translation of Chinese Poems was published. In 1918, he published his second translated work One Hundred Seventy Chinese Poems. These two translations are both from Tang poems. In addition, he also translated part of Journey to the West in 1942, published four other Chinese-English translations, and wrote three books about China or Chinese writers. Another outstanding Sinologist and translator in the 20th century was Franz Kuhn of Germany. From 1919, when his first translation was published, to his death in 1961, he translated and published more than 40 classical and modern Chinese literary works, including 12 novels and 34 short stories. In particular, his translation of The Fortunate Union in 1926, Second Bloom in 1927, The Golden Lotus in 1930, A Dream of Red Mansions in 1932, Water Margin in 1934, Jade Dragonfly in 1936, Romance of the Three Kingdoms in 1940, Midnight and other works from 1940 to 1955, were well received by German readers.（Tan,2004:153-156）

===The creativity of translation and the language in translation were paid more attention.===
In the aspect of translation theory, scholars had deeply reflected on the traditional translation theory, especially questioned the universality of language, and proposed that when the meaning of the original text becomes obscure and difficult to understand, translators must fill in the gaps of the text according to their own experience. Therefore, translation theories of this period paid more attention to the creativity of translation and the language problems in translation. Although they did not separate themselves from the discussion of translation techniques such as word selection and sentence construction, they laid a foundation for the linguistic turn of translation studies and provided theoretical thinking for the translation literature as an independent existence. And about the specific translation theories in different countries in this period, Xie Tianzhen made a brief summary.

J. P. Postgate is a famous Translation theorist in Britain, and he put forward prospective translation and retrospective translation. Prospective translation means that the translator always keeps the reader in mind and adopts free methods and common expressions to ensure that the original ideas of the reader are not affected and their prediction is not interfered with. The purpose of translation is to show the translator’s mastery of the target language, focusing on the target language rather than the original one. Retrospective translation means that the translator always looks at the original author, because the purpose of translation is to impart knowledge of the original text, rather than to look ahead and consider the reader of the translation.（Xie Tianzhen，2011:29）

French scholar J. Marouzeau’s "On Translation of Latin" is an important translation literature in French. He believed that translation is a skill in which the translator should reveal to the reader the content of the original work, rather than its shell, using a living language.（Xie Tianzhen，2011:29）

German thinker Walter Benjamin pointed out that although the translation is based on the original, it is the afterlife of the original work and the translation need not pursue the same meaning as the original work. Mediocre translators pay more attention to the meaning of the original work than to its literariness and language style and they only know that the translation exists to serve the original work and can only translate the non-essential content of the original work. (Xie Tianzhen，2008:319-332) The translator’s task is to use his own language to release the pure language trapped by another language, that is, to liberate the imprisoned language in the re-creation of the original text. Edwin Gentzler, a contemporary American translation theorist, believed that the discussion of translation issues among Anglo-American deconstructionists mainly revolves around comments on Benjamin’s Translator’s Task. (Edwin Gentzler, 2004:173-174.) Therefore, Translator’s Task is regarded as the “Bible” of translation theory and the classic of deconstructive translation theory.（Xie Tianzhen，2011:30）

The Russian scholar Mikhail Vasilievich Lemonosov transformed the loanwords that entered the Russian language, russified them, and regarded translation as a creative activity. And this view of free translation lasted until the 19th century. Aleksandr Pushkin, the greatest Russian poet in the 19th century, based on his literary translation practice, proposed that translators should have their own opinions on the selection of materials and should have full freedom in dealing with the original work, but the uniqueness of the original work should be preserved as much as possible.（Xie Tianzhen，2011:30）

==The General Situation of Translation in the Contemporary Age==
After the Second World War, the world entered a period of relative peace. After the trauma of the war, the Western countries regrouped and began to restore and develop production and economy in an all-round way. Translation cause also entered a new period of development at extremely rapid pace, taking on a new look. During this period, not only in the Soviet Union, Britain, Germany, France and other major European countries, but also in the United States, Canada, the cause of translation showed a prosperous scene. In terms of the whole western translation career, the translation after the Second World War was unmatched in scope, form, scale and achievement. Therefore, the 20th century could be called as "the age of translation" , which in fact mainly referred to the decades since the end of the war. Though great achievement was also made in literary translation in this period, the 20th century is known as the "age of translation" mainly because western translation expanded into various fields during this period, which has five characteristics.

===The scale of translation extended to the field of business, diplomacy, science and many other professional affairs.===
Since the end of the Second World War, due to practical needs, commercial, diplomatic, scientific and technological translation had flourished, and its momentum even exceeded literary translation, thus forming a major content of the development of modern western translation.Here is the research of Tan Zaixi about the scale of translation.

In 1945, the United Nations was established with English, French, Russian, Chinese and Spanish as the five official and working languages. In 1957, the European Community was founded, consisting of six countries at that time. In 1993, the European Community developed into the European Union. By 2004, it had 25 member states, using nine languages including English, French, German, Italy, Denmark, Ireland, Greece, Spain and Portugal. That is to say, translation had become an indispensable part of daily work, both for communicating with countries in other regions and among western countries. According to UNESCO, the number of translations in the world increased four-and-a-half times from 1948 to 1970. The institutions of the European Common Market employed more than 1,300 employees to deal with translation, of whom 450 were full-time interpreters, 550 translators and others were freelance employees on short-term contracts. (Tan Zaixi,2004:160-161)

===Translation teaching was widespread.===
In the past, translation was mainly the work of a few literary magnates. With the establishment of the United Nations and its specialized agencies, as well as the establishment of international institutions such as the European Common Market (EC, EU) and the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, the need for translators was increasing. To meet this need, a number of schools specializing in training translators had been set up.

According to the study of Tan Zaixi, the most prominent schools are the High School of Translation at the Third University of Paris and the School of Translation at the University of Ottawa. What’s more, many universities in Europe and the United States also offer translation classes or courses in senior grades.（Tan Zaixi, 2004:161-162）
===Translators’associations were established and publications on translation studies were launched.===
Translators in different countries set up various translation associations and publications. These associations played an important role in the development of translation through their activities and publications.

According to Tan Zaixi, translation associations or federations in European and American capitalist countries, in particular, generally emphasize the following principles: to clarify the legal status of translators through legislative means; to take effective measures to protect the legal rights of translators (especially the copyright that translators should enjoy); to improve their social status and increase their economic income; to improve the learning and working conditions of translators to provide them with opportunities to constantly improve their translation skills and a good working environment.（Tan Zaixi，2004:162）

There were more translators’ organizations in the United States than in other western countries, with a total of 30, among which the most influential were the American Society of Translators, the American Federation of Linguists and the Literary Society of America. The journal of the American Society of Translators was ATA Chronicle. The journal of the Literary Society of America was Translation Review.（Tan Zaixi，2004:162-163）

In Canada, major translation associations included the Canadian Council of Translators and Interpreters, the Ontario Association of Translators and Interpreters, the Business Language Centre, and the Quebec Translation Association. The Ontario Association of Translators and Interpreters founded the journal of Inform ATIO. The most influential professional translation magazine in Canada was Meta: Journal des Traducteurs.（Tan Zaixi，2004:164）

In Britain, major translation associations included the Association of Translation Companies of Great Britain, the Association of Translators and the Guild of Translators, of which the Guild of Translators was the most famous. The official publication of the guild is The Incorporated Linguist, which was published in 1962 and enjoyed high reputation in Britain.（Tan Zaixi，2004:164)

There were two major translation associations in France: the Association of French Translators and the Association of French Literary Translators. There were also two major translation associations in West Germany, one was the Association of Federation Translators and Interpreters and the other was the German-speaking World Federation of Literary and Technical Translators. In addition, Austria, Italy, Spain, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, Finland, Belgium and other Western European countries also had local or national translation organizations and a variety of translation publications.（Tan Zaixi，2004:164-165）

===Machine translation developed.===
In the process of more than two thousand years of development, the traditional translation method had not undergone substantial changes in technology, and the translation between the two languages still had to be carried out by hand. However, due to the increasingly frequent international scientific and cultural exchanges, manual translation could no longer timely meet the needs. Therefore, when the traditional manual translation was facing the challenge of the times, machine translation should be born. In 1946, under the auspices of the United States Army headquarters, J.P. Eckert and J.W. Mauchly who were both from the University of Pennsylvania developed the world’s first electronic computer named: Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator, or ENIAC for short. Computer’s astonishing speed inspired people to consider the innovation of translation technology. Therefore, in the same year, Andrew Booth and Warren Weaver first proposed the use of computers in the machine translation system. Since then, machine translation and machine translation research, driven by modern electronic computing technology officially began.American science, especially the development of computer science, to a large extent affected the development of computer science in the whole West and even the world. Therefore, especially in the pioneering period, the development history and model of Machine translation in America can almost be regarded as those in the whole West. In this sense, the development of machine translation in the west (and even the world) can be roughly divided into the following five major periods, just like the development of Machine translation in the United States: initial stage; high stage; low stage; recovery stage; vigorous stage. The following is a further overview of the five development periods of machine translation in the West (mainly in the United States) made by Tan Zaixi who referred to the books of Yang Muyun, Li Zhisheng，Yu Hao, Zhao Tiejun and so on.

====Initial stage (1946—1954)====
The pioneering period begins with Booth and Weaver’s idea of translating natural language by computer in 1954, and ends with the birth of the first machine translation system. After the idea of using computers to translate was put forward, although there was great resistance in the United States at first, the voice supporting it was mainstream. In particular, Weaver published a memorandum on machine translation in 1949, which not only opened up a series of research topics on machine translation in the United States, but also had a wide influence in western countries. The memo makes four basic points: the problem of polysemy can be solved by context; there is a logical basis in language; there are basic probabilities in language application; there are common elements in different languages. These are still the fundamental of the development of machine translation. In the following years, machine translation research had been actively carried out in some universities and organizations in the United States and Britain. In Massachusetts Institute of Technology, the first full-time machine translation researcher Bar-Hillel arrived, he made a great contribution to the early development of machine translation and put forward the main problems and basic strategies needed to be solved in machine translation research. The first machine translation conference was held at MIT in June 1952, after which machine translation research in the United States began to accelerate. In 1954, a machine translation system for computer was developed and demonstrated. Although the machine translation system was small, consisting of only 250 Russian words, six grammar rules, and a few translation examples, it first showed the public and the scientific community the feasibility of machine translation, inspiring substantial funding from U.S. government for machine translation research over the next decade.（Tan Zaixi，2004:167-168）

====High-tide stage(1954—1966)====
The successful demonstration of the world’s first machine translation system, the Georgetown-IBM system of United States, marked the first development climax of machine translation. The upsurge began in 1954 and lasted for 12 years. In the mid-1950s, inspired by successful demonstration of machine translation system, dozens of universities, companies, and government agencies in the United States began machine translation research programs. On the one hand, due to the competition between the United States and the Soviet Union at that time, the United States military, the National Science Foundation, the Central Intelligence Agency and so on needed to acquire a large amount of scientific and technological information of the Soviet Union, so that they invested a lot in machine translation, especially Russian-English translation. On the other hand, advanced computers in the United States provided good equipment for the development of the first generation of machine translation system. At the same time, many universities and institutions in most European countries had also carried out machine translation research.（Tan Zaixi，2004:168-170）

====Low-tide stage (1966—1975)====
The advent of machine translation had opened up a new way for traditional translation research and practice. However, the complexity of machine translation was underestimated at that time and the design of machine translation system was often too rough and simple. In this case, the first generation of machine translation systems in the initial stage could not achieve ideal results, the quality of translation is often poor, so that some people gradually lost confidence in machine translation research, and some scholars also became pessimistic and disappointed. （Tan Zaixi，2004:170）

In the mid-1960s, machine translation in the United States had suffered a severe blow. In 1966, the Automatic Language Processing Advisory Committee, part of the National Academy of Sciences, was asked to investigate machine translation research funded by government. The committee published its report, Language and Machines, after analyzing the speed, quality, cost and demand of machine translation at that time. The report pointed out that the quality of machine translation is significantly lower than that of human translation and asserted that there was no likelihood of any commercially useful machine translation system in the foreseeable future. On the committee’s recommendation, the U.S. government withdrew the funding for machine translation research. Thus, machine translation research in the United States plummeted from a high point to a low point of development. It should be noted, however, that machine translation research and development was not in a complete demise, following the official denials in the United States. Scholars and research institutions in many countries including the United States continued to carry out researches and experiments on machine translation under relatively difficult circumstances.（Tan Zaixi，2004:171）

====Recovery stage(1975—1989)====
In the middle of 1970s, with the emergence of new theories and ideas in the field of linguistics and the further development of computational linguistics, the research of machine translation was aroused in the world again. After ten years of silence, machine translation research stepped on the road of recovery. The recovery period of machine translation research and development is generally considered to date from the installation of the SYSTRAN system by EURATOM and the completion of the TAUM-METEO system by the University of Montreal in Canada.（Tan Zaixi，2004:171-174）

====Vigorous stage（1989—）====
Since the late 1980s, some new developments had changed the field of machine translation, marking machine translation research enter a new period. This is the emergence of the third generation of machine translation method that is corpus-based. Corpus-based machine translation systems include statistic-based translation and example-based translation, both of which are based on large-scale real text. （Tan Zaixi，2004:167-175）

Practice has proved that machine translation has great vitality. It is a new science, and its research and translation have entered a new stage of development. No matter whether it can replace the human brain and hands eventually and completely liberate human from the heavy artificial translation, it will develop and exist for a long time. Both in theory and practice, machine translation and its research will exert more and more influence on traditional translation and its research.

===Translation theories of different schools were emerging one after another.===
The most important feature of modern western translation is the rapid development of translation theory. After the Second World War, with the vigorous development of science and technology, modern linguistics, translation activities and the rise of machine translation, people gradually changed the traditional view of translation studies, believing that translation is not only an art or skill, but also a science with rules to follow.

On the whole, the development of contemporary translation theory has two characteristics :(1) theoretical research has been brought into the scope of linguistics, under the influence of modern linguistics and information theory; (2) the traditional situation of non-communication between theorists has been broken. Translation theorists fully express their views through various channels, such as published works.(Xie Tianzhen, 2009:32)

After the Second World War, with the modernization and integration of western social and economic development, western translation theories also began to enter a new period that transcends national boundaries. Therefore, it is difficult to classify some translation thoughts and some translation theorists in a narrow sense as belonging to a certain country or a certain place. It is acceptable to divide contemporary western translation theories into different schools according to their basic approaches and methods of translation studies or the basic characteristics of thought. Here is a brief introduction to some influential schools classified by Zhao Jiajin.

====American Translation Training School====
First established in 1964 at the University of Iowa, this school focused on translation practice, emphasized the literary taste and value of works, and adopted the methods of L. A. Richards and Williard V. Quine of Harvard University. Representative figures included poet and translator Ezra Pound, who translated Tang poetry and advocated the accurate restoration of details, words, fragments and the whole image description. Frederic Will of the University of Iowa, drawing on his training experience, regarded translation as a form of naming, fiction writing and cognition. Yale’s Jonas Zdnys argued that translation is an activity of subjective thought designed to explain literature. This school explores the role of the human mind in translation and raises the question of the nature of translation, but translation theory was limited to aesthetic experience and prescriptive translation rules.

====Translation Science School====
It was also known as “linguistic school”. According to this school, translation is the process of reproducing language as a whole, and it aims to correctly convey the original information to readers. The school was founded by Eugene Nida, whose masterpieces include Message and Mission (1960) and Toward Science of Translation (1946). Nida proposed functional equivalence theory according to Noam Chomsky’s transformational generative grammar and his experience in Bible translation, that is, to digest the original text and understand its basic structure and meaning; convey meaning based on basic structure; obtain semantic and stylistic equivalence with the original text. Thus the translation process can be summarized as: analyze—transfer—restructure, these three steps. The school of Translation science adopted linguistic theory and the more objective description method in translation theory. In the late 1970s, emphasis was placed on the cultural background of the information age, but the research was still limited to prescriptive research and translation criteria, ignoring the role of translators’thinking.（Zhao Jiajin,1996: 46）

====Translation school====
It is the so-called “literary school”. This school held that the original work is the unity of sentence series and article structure, and the translator is influenced by the original view and the future model of translation in the process of translation. The founder of this school was James Holmes, an American poet, who taught translation at the University of Amsterdam in the Netherlands before his death. His representative work is ''The Name and Nature of Translation Studies'' (1972).（Zhao Jiajin,1996: 46）

====Polysystem School====
Its founders are Itammar Even-Zohar and Gideon Toury of Tel Aviv University in Israel. Even coined the term Polysystem to explore the relationship between translated works and literary systems, and explained that the oriented culture of translation not only determines whether a work can be translated, but also regulates the wording. Toury held that translation belongs to the second system of multiple systems, and its role depends on the strength and development stage of the oriented culture of translation. He held that translation has no fixed identity and has multiple identities due to its social, literary and historical background. This school integrates translation studies with literary studies, social and economic factors, endows translation studies with historical significance, but it is still limited to the acceptability of translation and does not get rid of the fetters of cultural equivalence.（Zhao Jiajin,1996: 46）

====Deconstruction School====
It is also known as “affirmative productivity school”. It originated in France in the mid-1960s and is represented by Michel Foucault, Martin Heidegger and Jacques Derrida. This school introduced deconstruction into translation, claiming that translators create the subject and the target language is a new language. As Foucault put it, the original work is constantly rewritten in the process of translation, and the translator rewrites the original work every time he reads and translates it. Deconstruction studies the nature and process of translation and language, and advocates that translators exist as entities. The school even goes so far as to believe that language does not involve any objective reality, and translators have their own status only when they create texts.（Zhao Jiajin,1996: 46-47）

==Conclusion==
Under the influence of historical backgrounds, different periods of translation show different traits. In the modern period, the content of translation still focused on literature which included works form Russian, Nordic countries, China and so on. The way of translation was artificial and traditional. With the progress of economy and science, translation in the contemporary period also got great development. The content of translation was not confined to the field of literature. Instead, translation of science and technology, commerce, entertainment and so on became a major part of the actual translation activities. In addition, machine translation as a novel technique developed quickly. And the most important feature of modern western translation is the rapid development of translation theory thanks to many translator associations and publications on translation studies. Nowadays, under the influence of globalization, translation shows more and more importance and get better development environment.

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Xie Tianzhen谢天振(2011).中西翻译简史[M]A Brief History of Chinese and Western Translation.北京:外语教学与研究出版社Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.

Zhao Jiajin赵家琎(1996).当代翻译学派简介[J]A Brief Introduction to Contemporary Translation Schools.中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal,5：46—47.

Zhao Tiejun赵铁军等(2001).《机器翻译原理》[M]Principles of Machine Translation.哈尔滨：哈尔滨工业大学出版社Harbin: Harbin University of Technology Press.

Hist Trans EN 14

2021-12-14T06:45:46Z

Wei Chuxuan: /* Translation of Nordic literature and drama */

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=Western Translation History In the Modern and Contemperary Ages=
'''现当代西方翻译史'''

魏楚璇，Wei Chuxuan, Hunan Normal University, China

==Abstract==
Under different historical backgrounds, western translation presents different characteristics. In the 20th century before the end of the Second World War, the two world wars inevitably brought obstacles and disturbances to the development of translation. Therefore, though translation in this period still continued to develop, it did not get breakthrough. Translation was still dominated by literary works in content, totally relying on manual labor. In translation theory, it emphasized the creativity of translation and laid a foundation for the linguistic turn of translation studies. After the end of World War II, the world entered an era of relative peace, the world economy recovered, and the translation industry was greatly revitalized. During this period, the scale of translation covered all aspects of social life, machine translation developed fast, translation training flourished, translation organizations were established in various countries and many translation theories and schools emerged. That is to say, this period can be called the golden age of translation.

==摘要==
在不同的历史背景下，西方翻译呈现出不同的特点。在二战结束之前的二十世纪，两次世界大战不可避免地为翻译事业的发展带来了阻碍和干扰，因而这一时期的翻译虽然仍在发展但并未取得突破性的成就，在翻译的内容上仍然以文学作品为主，技术上完全依赖人工，理论方面注重翻译的创造性且为翻译研究的语言学转向奠定了基础。二战结束后，世界进入到相对和平的年代，世界经济复苏，翻译事业也大为振兴。在这一时期，翻译的内容覆盖社会生活的方方面面，机器翻译发展迅速，翻译培训兴起，翻译组织在各国成立，各种翻译理论和翻译流派涌现，可谓是翻译的黄金年代。

==Keywords==
Western translation; translation history; modern; contemperary

==Introduction==
In this paper, western translation history in modern and contemporary ages will be introduced. Here the modern age refers to the nearly half century before the Second World War. And the contemporary age refers to the half century after the Second World War. That is to say, the modern and contemporary translation in this paper refers to the translation in the 20th century. Under the influence of different historical backgrounds, translation in these two ages showed different characteristics and traits which will be concluded and discussed in detail in the following.

==The General Situation of Translation in the Modern Age==
Into the 20th century, the capitalism in the developed countries developed into imperialism. On the one hand, the imperialist countries intensified their foreign expansion to oppress and exploit the weak countries and people in colony. On the other hand, they were engaged in a fierce battle among themselves for international markets and spheres of influence. Thus, in less than half a century, two world wars broke out. Under this historical background, translation in western countries will inevitably be seriously disturbed and destroyed. However, translation in western countries continued to develop and excellent translations still appeared from time to time. The translation of this period also has its own traits. The general situation of translation in this period can be summarized from the following two aspects.

===The emphasis of translation was on Russian and Nordic works and more Chinese works were translated.===
From the end of the 19th century to the beginning of the 20th century, the literature of Russia and the Nordic countries developed greatly with the emergence of Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoyevsky, Leo Tolstoy, Chekhov, Andersen, Ibsen, Strindberg and other world-renowned great writers and dramatists. Their works had attracted the attention of the people in Western Europe and North America so they were competing to learn Russian, Danish and Swedish and had these works translated into English, German and French. In the process of translation, many excellent translators emerged in various countries.
====Translation of Russian literature====
According to the research of Tan Zaixi, Constance Garnet is the most famous female translator in Britain in this century. She translated almost all classic Russian novels and is widely regarded as the most important Translator of translating Russian literature into English. She published her first translation of Turgenev's novel Ru-Din in 1894. In the following decades, she devoted almost all her energy and time to the translation of Russian literature. She was the first person to translate Turgenev, Dostoyevsky and Chekhov into English, successively translating all the major works of Turgenev, Goncharov, Dostoyevsky, Tolstoy, Gogol and Chekhov including 12 volumes of Dostoyevsky's Selected Works translated from 1912 to 1920, 15 volumes of Turgenev's Selected Works translated from 1894 to 1899, 15 volumes of Chekhov's Novels and Plays translated from 1916 to 1922, and 6 volumes of Gogol’s Selected Works translated from 1922 to 1928. In particular, her translations of Turgenev, Chekhov, Dostoyevsky and other works were widely welcomed by the English reading community, and thus gave rise to the Russian literature craze in English literature before the First World War. She translated 70 Russian works in her lifetime, making her the most prolific translator of Russian works.
Two other translators who did not translate as much from Russian to English as Garnett, but who had no less influence, were the couple——Louise and Aylmer Maude. They are famous in western modern literary circles for their research and translation of Tolstoy's works. From 1928 to 1937, they spent nearly ten years translating and publishing 21 volumes of The Complete Works of Tolstoy. Later, from 1940s to 1950s, they supplemented or retranslated some of Tolstoy's works, such as What I Believe and Resurrection. In 1952, their work of War and Peace was accepted as a standard English translation and was selected for the prestigious Great Books of the Western World, thus establishing them as the authoritative English translators of Tolstoy. In addition, R. S. Townsend, R. Edmonds, Samuel Koteliansky, Ethel C. Mayne, Boris Brasol, Richard Renfield and so on were famous for translating the works of Tolstoy, Dostoevsky, Turgenev, Chekhov, Goncharov into English.（Tan，2004:148-150）

====Translation of Nordic literature and drama====
In the first half of the 20th century, in addition to Russian literature, western European translators showed great interest in Nordic literature and drama, including the works of Andersen, Ibsen and Strindberg.

According to the study of Tan Zaixi, when Hans Christian Andersen was alive, one of his works was published simultaneously in 15 languages, including English, German, French, Italian, Spanish and almost all the major languages of Western Europe. Later, all of his works were translated into different languages, and there were many re-translations in English, French, German and other countries. The first English translator was Mary Howitt, who began translating Andersen’s fairy tales in 1846. Later translators include Charles Boner, Caroline Peachey, Lady Duff Gordon, Paul Leyssac, R. R. Keigwin and R. Spink. Some of the best translations are Leyssac’s translation in 1937, Keigwin’s translation from 1950 to 1960 and Spink’s translation.(Tan，2004:151)

The main English translators of Ibsen’s plays are William Archer and James MacFarlane. Archer translated 12 volumes of The Collected Works of H. I. from 1906 to 1912, including almost all of Ibsen’s plays and some of his previously unpublished papers. Macfarlane compiled translated eight volumes of The Oxford Ibsen from 1960 to 1977. In addition, F. E. Garrett translated Lyrics and Poems from Ibsen in 1912. Mary Morison translated The Correspondence of H.I. in 1905. Evert Sprinchorn translated H. I. Letters and Speeches in 1964. (Tan，2004:151)

In Germany, the standard German translation is the 10-volume The Collected Plays of Ibsen edited and published by G. Brandes, J. Elias, and P. Schlenther from 1898 to 1902. The standard French translation is The Complete Works of Ibsen in 16 volumes translated and published by P. G. La Chesnais from 1914 to 1945.(Tan，2004:151)

Strindberg’s work was translated into English as early as 1912. For the next fifty or sixty years, many people worked on Strindberg’s studies and translations. Major English translators included E. Schleussner, Walter Johnson, M. Sandbach, Elizabeth Sprigge and Michael Meyer. Some good works are Sprigge’s translations of Strinberg’s Plays in 1963 and Meyer’s translations of The Father, Miss Julie, Storm and so on in 1964. In other major western European countries such as Germany and France, Strindberg’s plays were also translated into German and French, and repeatedly staged in Berlin and Paris. (Tan，2004:152)

There is no doubt that the translation of modern and contemporary Russian and Nordic literature and drama was a mainstream of western translation in the first half of the century. However, at the same time, it must be pointed out that the mutual translation of modern and contemporary literary works in western European countries still enjoys considerable momentum.

====More and more Chinese works were translated.====
In the 20th century, more and more people in the West became interested in Chinese culture. Since the 1950s, with the improvement of new China’s international prestige, the fever of translating Chinese works had been constantly appearing in the West. Not only the Four Books, Five Classics, Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Water Margin, Journey to the West, A Dream of Red Mansions and the poems of Li Bai, Du Fu and Bai Juyi were translated into English, German and French, but modern writers such as Luxun, Maodun and Bajin were also introduced to western countries. In the process of translating and introducing Chinese works, excellent translators have emerged from every country.

According to the study of Tan Zaixi, Arthur Waley, the most eminent Sinologist in Britain in the 20th century, was a translator, writer and poet. In 1916, his first translation of Chinese Poems was published. In 1918, he published his second translated work One Hundred Seventy Chinese Poems. These two translations are both from Tang poems. In addition, he also translated part of Journey to the West in 1942, published four other Chinese-English translations, and wrote three books about China or Chinese writers. Another outstanding Sinologist and translator in the 20th century was Franz Kuhn of Germany. From 1919, when his first translation was published, to his death in 1961, he translated and published more than 40 classical and modern Chinese literary works, including 12 novels and 34 short stories. In particular, his translation of The Fortunate Union in 1926, Second Bloom in 1927, The Golden Lotus in 1930, A Dream of Red Mansions in 1932, Water Margin in 1934, Jade Dragonfly in 1936, Romance of the Three Kingdoms in 1940, Midnight and other works from 1940 to 1955, were well received by German readers.（Tan Zaixi,2004:153-156）

===The creativity of translation and the language in translation were paid more attention.===
In the aspect of translation theory, scholars had deeply reflected on the traditional translation theory, especially questioned the universality of language, and proposed that when the meaning of the original text becomes obscure and difficult to understand, translators must fill in the gaps of the text according to their own experience. Therefore, translation theories of this period paid more attention to the creativity of translation and the language problems in translation. Although they did not separate themselves from the discussion of translation techniques such as word selection and sentence construction, they laid a foundation for the linguistic turn of translation studies and provided theoretical thinking for the translation literature as an independent existence. And about the specific translation theories in different countries in this period, Xie Tianzhen made a brief summary.

J. P. Postgate is a famous Translation theorist in Britain, and he put forward prospective translation and retrospective translation. Prospective translation means that the translator always keeps the reader in mind and adopts free methods and common expressions to ensure that the original ideas of the reader are not affected and their prediction is not interfered with. The purpose of translation is to show the translator’s mastery of the target language, focusing on the target language rather than the original one. Retrospective translation means that the translator always looks at the original author, because the purpose of translation is to impart knowledge of the original text, rather than to look ahead and consider the reader of the translation.（Xie Tianzhen，2011:29）

French scholar J. Marouzeau’s "On Translation of Latin" is an important translation literature in French. He believed that translation is a skill in which the translator should reveal to the reader the content of the original work, rather than its shell, using a living language.（Xie Tianzhen，2011:29）

German thinker Walter Benjamin pointed out that although the translation is based on the original, it is the afterlife of the original work and the translation need not pursue the same meaning as the original work. Mediocre translators pay more attention to the meaning of the original work than to its literariness and language style and they only know that the translation exists to serve the original work and can only translate the non-essential content of the original work. (Xie Tianzhen，2008:319-332) The translator’s task is to use his own language to release the pure language trapped by another language, that is, to liberate the imprisoned language in the re-creation of the original text. Edwin Gentzler, a contemporary American translation theorist, believed that the discussion of translation issues among Anglo-American deconstructionists mainly revolves around comments on Benjamin’s Translator’s Task. (Edwin Gentzler, 2004:173-174.) Therefore, Translator’s Task is regarded as the “Bible” of translation theory and the classic of deconstructive translation theory.（Xie Tianzhen，2011:30）

The Russian scholar Mikhail Vasilievich Lemonosov transformed the loanwords that entered the Russian language, russified them, and regarded translation as a creative activity. And this view of free translation lasted until the 19th century. Aleksandr Pushkin, the greatest Russian poet in the 19th century, based on his literary translation practice, proposed that translators should have their own opinions on the selection of materials and should have full freedom in dealing with the original work, but the uniqueness of the original work should be preserved as much as possible.（Xie Tianzhen，2011:30）

==The General Situation of Translation in the Contemporary Age==
After the Second World War, the world entered a period of relative peace. After the trauma of the war, the Western countries regrouped and began to restore and develop production and economy in an all-round way. Translation cause also entered a new period of development at extremely rapid pace, taking on a new look. During this period, not only in the Soviet Union, Britain, Germany, France and other major European countries, but also in the United States, Canada, the cause of translation showed a prosperous scene. In terms of the whole western translation career, the translation after the Second World War was unmatched in scope, form, scale and achievement. Therefore, the 20th century could be called as "the age of translation" , which in fact mainly referred to the decades since the end of the war. Though great achievement was also made in literary translation in this period, the 20th century is known as the "age of translation" mainly because western translation expanded into various fields during this period, which has five characteristics.

===The scale of translation extended to the field of business, diplomacy, science and many other professional affairs.===
Since the end of the Second World War, due to practical needs, commercial, diplomatic, scientific and technological translation had flourished, and its momentum even exceeded literary translation, thus forming a major content of the development of modern western translation.Here is the research of Tan Zaixi about the scale of translation.

In 1945, the United Nations was established with English, French, Russian, Chinese and Spanish as the five official and working languages. In 1957, the European Community was founded, consisting of six countries at that time. In 1993, the European Community developed into the European Union. By 2004, it had 25 member states, using nine languages including English, French, German, Italy, Denmark, Ireland, Greece, Spain and Portugal. That is to say, translation had become an indispensable part of daily work, both for communicating with countries in other regions and among western countries. According to UNESCO, the number of translations in the world increased four-and-a-half times from 1948 to 1970. The institutions of the European Common Market employed more than 1,300 employees to deal with translation, of whom 450 were full-time interpreters, 550 translators and others were freelance employees on short-term contracts. (Tan Zaixi,2004:160-161)

===Translation teaching was widespread.===
In the past, translation was mainly the work of a few literary magnates. With the establishment of the United Nations and its specialized agencies, as well as the establishment of international institutions such as the European Common Market (EC, EU) and the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, the need for translators was increasing. To meet this need, a number of schools specializing in training translators had been set up.

According to the study of Tan Zaixi, the most prominent schools are the High School of Translation at the Third University of Paris and the School of Translation at the University of Ottawa. What’s more, many universities in Europe and the United States also offer translation classes or courses in senior grades.（Tan Zaixi, 2004:161-162）
===Translators’associations were established and publications on translation studies were launched.===
Translators in different countries set up various translation associations and publications. These associations played an important role in the development of translation through their activities and publications.

According to Tan Zaixi, translation associations or federations in European and American capitalist countries, in particular, generally emphasize the following principles: to clarify the legal status of translators through legislative means; to take effective measures to protect the legal rights of translators (especially the copyright that translators should enjoy); to improve their social status and increase their economic income; to improve the learning and working conditions of translators to provide them with opportunities to constantly improve their translation skills and a good working environment.（Tan Zaixi，2004:162）

There were more translators’ organizations in the United States than in other western countries, with a total of 30, among which the most influential were the American Society of Translators, the American Federation of Linguists and the Literary Society of America. The journal of the American Society of Translators was ATA Chronicle. The journal of the Literary Society of America was Translation Review.（Tan Zaixi，2004:162-163）

In Canada, major translation associations included the Canadian Council of Translators and Interpreters, the Ontario Association of Translators and Interpreters, the Business Language Centre, and the Quebec Translation Association. The Ontario Association of Translators and Interpreters founded the journal of Inform ATIO. The most influential professional translation magazine in Canada was Meta: Journal des Traducteurs.（Tan Zaixi，2004:164）

In Britain, major translation associations included the Association of Translation Companies of Great Britain, the Association of Translators and the Guild of Translators, of which the Guild of Translators was the most famous. The official publication of the guild is The Incorporated Linguist, which was published in 1962 and enjoyed high reputation in Britain.（Tan Zaixi，2004:164)

There were two major translation associations in France: the Association of French Translators and the Association of French Literary Translators. There were also two major translation associations in West Germany, one was the Association of Federation Translators and Interpreters and the other was the German-speaking World Federation of Literary and Technical Translators. In addition, Austria, Italy, Spain, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, Finland, Belgium and other Western European countries also had local or national translation organizations and a variety of translation publications.（Tan Zaixi，2004:164-165）

===Machine translation developed.===
In the process of more than two thousand years of development, the traditional translation method had not undergone substantial changes in technology, and the translation between the two languages still had to be carried out by hand. However, due to the increasingly frequent international scientific and cultural exchanges, manual translation could no longer timely meet the needs. Therefore, when the traditional manual translation was facing the challenge of the times, machine translation should be born. In 1946, under the auspices of the United States Army headquarters, J.P. Eckert and J.W. Mauchly who were both from the University of Pennsylvania developed the world’s first electronic computer named: Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator, or ENIAC for short. Computer’s astonishing speed inspired people to consider the innovation of translation technology. Therefore, in the same year, Andrew Booth and Warren Weaver first proposed the use of computers in the machine translation system. Since then, machine translation and machine translation research, driven by modern electronic computing technology officially began.American science, especially the development of computer science, to a large extent affected the development of computer science in the whole West and even the world. Therefore, especially in the pioneering period, the development history and model of Machine translation in America can almost be regarded as those in the whole West. In this sense, the development of machine translation in the west (and even the world) can be roughly divided into the following five major periods, just like the development of Machine translation in the United States: initial stage; high stage; low stage; recovery stage; vigorous stage. The following is a further overview of the five development periods of machine translation in the West (mainly in the United States) made by Tan Zaixi who referred to the books of Yang Muyun, Li Zhisheng，Yu Hao, Zhao Tiejun and so on.

====Initial stage (1946—1954)====
The pioneering period begins with Booth and Weaver’s idea of translating natural language by computer in 1954, and ends with the birth of the first machine translation system. After the idea of using computers to translate was put forward, although there was great resistance in the United States at first, the voice supporting it was mainstream. In particular, Weaver published a memorandum on machine translation in 1949, which not only opened up a series of research topics on machine translation in the United States, but also had a wide influence in western countries. The memo makes four basic points: the problem of polysemy can be solved by context; there is a logical basis in language; there are basic probabilities in language application; there are common elements in different languages. These are still the fundamental of the development of machine translation. In the following years, machine translation research had been actively carried out in some universities and organizations in the United States and Britain. In Massachusetts Institute of Technology, the first full-time machine translation researcher Bar-Hillel arrived, he made a great contribution to the early development of machine translation and put forward the main problems and basic strategies needed to be solved in machine translation research. The first machine translation conference was held at MIT in June 1952, after which machine translation research in the United States began to accelerate. In 1954, a machine translation system for computer was developed and demonstrated. Although the machine translation system was small, consisting of only 250 Russian words, six grammar rules, and a few translation examples, it first showed the public and the scientific community the feasibility of machine translation, inspiring substantial funding from U.S. government for machine translation research over the next decade.（Tan Zaixi，2004:167-168）

====High-tide stage(1954—1966)====
The successful demonstration of the world’s first machine translation system, the Georgetown-IBM system of United States, marked the first development climax of machine translation. The upsurge began in 1954 and lasted for 12 years. In the mid-1950s, inspired by successful demonstration of machine translation system, dozens of universities, companies, and government agencies in the United States began machine translation research programs. On the one hand, due to the competition between the United States and the Soviet Union at that time, the United States military, the National Science Foundation, the Central Intelligence Agency and so on needed to acquire a large amount of scientific and technological information of the Soviet Union, so that they invested a lot in machine translation, especially Russian-English translation. On the other hand, advanced computers in the United States provided good equipment for the development of the first generation of machine translation system. At the same time, many universities and institutions in most European countries had also carried out machine translation research.（Tan Zaixi，2004:168-170）

====Low-tide stage (1966—1975)====
The advent of machine translation had opened up a new way for traditional translation research and practice. However, the complexity of machine translation was underestimated at that time and the design of machine translation system was often too rough and simple. In this case, the first generation of machine translation systems in the initial stage could not achieve ideal results, the quality of translation is often poor, so that some people gradually lost confidence in machine translation research, and some scholars also became pessimistic and disappointed. （Tan Zaixi，2004:170）

In the mid-1960s, machine translation in the United States had suffered a severe blow. In 1966, the Automatic Language Processing Advisory Committee, part of the National Academy of Sciences, was asked to investigate machine translation research funded by government. The committee published its report, Language and Machines, after analyzing the speed, quality, cost and demand of machine translation at that time. The report pointed out that the quality of machine translation is significantly lower than that of human translation and asserted that there was no likelihood of any commercially useful machine translation system in the foreseeable future. On the committee’s recommendation, the U.S. government withdrew the funding for machine translation research. Thus, machine translation research in the United States plummeted from a high point to a low point of development. It should be noted, however, that machine translation research and development was not in a complete demise, following the official denials in the United States. Scholars and research institutions in many countries including the United States continued to carry out researches and experiments on machine translation under relatively difficult circumstances.（Tan Zaixi，2004:171）

====Recovery stage(1975—1989)====
In the middle of 1970s, with the emergence of new theories and ideas in the field of linguistics and the further development of computational linguistics, the research of machine translation was aroused in the world again. After ten years of silence, machine translation research stepped on the road of recovery. The recovery period of machine translation research and development is generally considered to date from the installation of the SYSTRAN system by EURATOM and the completion of the TAUM-METEO system by the University of Montreal in Canada.（Tan Zaixi，2004:171-174）

====Vigorous stage（1989—）====
Since the late 1980s, some new developments had changed the field of machine translation, marking machine translation research enter a new period. This is the emergence of the third generation of machine translation method that is corpus-based. Corpus-based machine translation systems include statistic-based translation and example-based translation, both of which are based on large-scale real text. （Tan Zaixi，2004:167-175）

Practice has proved that machine translation has great vitality. It is a new science, and its research and translation have entered a new stage of development. No matter whether it can replace the human brain and hands eventually and completely liberate human from the heavy artificial translation, it will develop and exist for a long time. Both in theory and practice, machine translation and its research will exert more and more influence on traditional translation and its research.

===Translation theories of different schools were emerging one after another.===
The most important feature of modern western translation is the rapid development of translation theory. After the Second World War, with the vigorous development of science and technology, modern linguistics, translation activities and the rise of machine translation, people gradually changed the traditional view of translation studies, believing that translation is not only an art or skill, but also a science with rules to follow.

On the whole, the development of contemporary translation theory has two characteristics :(1) theoretical research has been brought into the scope of linguistics, under the influence of modern linguistics and information theory; (2) the traditional situation of non-communication between theorists has been broken. Translation theorists fully express their views through various channels, such as published works.(Xie Tianzhen, 2009:32)

After the Second World War, with the modernization and integration of western social and economic development, western translation theories also began to enter a new period that transcends national boundaries. Therefore, it is difficult to classify some translation thoughts and some translation theorists in a narrow sense as belonging to a certain country or a certain place. It is acceptable to divide contemporary western translation theories into different schools according to their basic approaches and methods of translation studies or the basic characteristics of thought. Here is a brief introduction to some influential schools classified by Zhao Jiajin.

====American Translation Training School====
First established in 1964 at the University of Iowa, this school focused on translation practice, emphasized the literary taste and value of works, and adopted the methods of L. A. Richards and Williard V. Quine of Harvard University. Representative figures included poet and translator Ezra Pound, who translated Tang poetry and advocated the accurate restoration of details, words, fragments and the whole image description. Frederic Will of the University of Iowa, drawing on his training experience, regarded translation as a form of naming, fiction writing and cognition. Yale’s Jonas Zdnys argued that translation is an activity of subjective thought designed to explain literature. This school explores the role of the human mind in translation and raises the question of the nature of translation, but translation theory was limited to aesthetic experience and prescriptive translation rules.

====Translation Science School====
It was also known as “linguistic school”. According to this school, translation is the process of reproducing language as a whole, and it aims to correctly convey the original information to readers. The school was founded by Eugene Nida, whose masterpieces include Message and Mission (1960) and Toward Science of Translation (1946). Nida proposed functional equivalence theory according to Noam Chomsky’s transformational generative grammar and his experience in Bible translation, that is, to digest the original text and understand its basic structure and meaning; convey meaning based on basic structure; obtain semantic and stylistic equivalence with the original text. Thus the translation process can be summarized as: analyze—transfer—restructure, these three steps. The school of Translation science adopted linguistic theory and the more objective description method in translation theory. In the late 1970s, emphasis was placed on the cultural background of the information age, but the research was still limited to prescriptive research and translation criteria, ignoring the role of translators’thinking.（Zhao Jiajin,1996: 46）

====Translation school====
It is the so-called “literary school”. This school held that the original work is the unity of sentence series and article structure, and the translator is influenced by the original view and the future model of translation in the process of translation. The founder of this school was James Holmes, an American poet, who taught translation at the University of Amsterdam in the Netherlands before his death. His representative work is ''The Name and Nature of Translation Studies'' (1972).（Zhao Jiajin,1996: 46）

====Polysystem School====
Its founders are Itammar Even-Zohar and Gideon Toury of Tel Aviv University in Israel. Even coined the term Polysystem to explore the relationship between translated works and literary systems, and explained that the oriented culture of translation not only determines whether a work can be translated, but also regulates the wording. Toury held that translation belongs to the second system of multiple systems, and its role depends on the strength and development stage of the oriented culture of translation. He held that translation has no fixed identity and has multiple identities due to its social, literary and historical background. This school integrates translation studies with literary studies, social and economic factors, endows translation studies with historical significance, but it is still limited to the acceptability of translation and does not get rid of the fetters of cultural equivalence.（Zhao Jiajin,1996: 46）

====Deconstruction School====
It is also known as “affirmative productivity school”. It originated in France in the mid-1960s and is represented by Michel Foucault, Martin Heidegger and Jacques Derrida. This school introduced deconstruction into translation, claiming that translators create the subject and the target language is a new language. As Foucault put it, the original work is constantly rewritten in the process of translation, and the translator rewrites the original work every time he reads and translates it. Deconstruction studies the nature and process of translation and language, and advocates that translators exist as entities. The school even goes so far as to believe that language does not involve any objective reality, and translators have their own status only when they create texts.（Zhao Jiajin,1996: 46-47）

==Conclusion==
Under the influence of historical backgrounds, different periods of translation show different traits. In the modern period, the content of translation still focused on literature which included works form Russian, Nordic countries, China and so on. The way of translation was artificial and traditional. With the progress of economy and science, translation in the contemporary period also got great development. The content of translation was not confined to the field of literature. Instead, translation of science and technology, commerce, entertainment and so on became a major part of the actual translation activities. In addition, machine translation as a novel technique developed quickly. And the most important feature of modern western translation is the rapid development of translation theory thanks to many translator associations and publications on translation studies. Nowadays, under the influence of globalization, translation shows more and more importance and get better development environment.

==References==

Barnstone，Willis(1993). The Poetics of Trunslation: History, Theory, Practice[M]. New Haven:Yale University Press.

Bates, Ernest Stuart(1936). Modern Translation[M]. London: Oxford University Press.

Catford, John(1965). A Linguistic Theory of Translation: An Essay in Applied Linguistics[M].Oxford and London: Oxford University Press.

Delisle, Jean(1995). Translation: An Interpretive Approach[M]. Ottawa: University of Ottawa Press.

Feng Zhiwei 冯志伟(1994).《自然语言机器翻译新论》[M] New Theories of Machine Translation of Natural Language.北京:语文出版社Beijing: Chinese Press.

FitzMaurice-Kelly, J(1911). "Translation"[J]. Encyclopedia Britannica (11th edition, Cambridge),27:183-188.

Gentzler, Edwin(2004). Contemporary Translation Theories[M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

Hutchins，Robert(1952). Great Books of the Western World[M]. Chicago: Encyclopaedia .Britannica Ltd.

Mu Yunyang,Li Zhisheng,Yu Hao杨沐昀、李志升、于浩(2000).《机器翻译系统》[M]Machine Translation System.哈尔滨：哈尔滨工业大学出版社Harbin: Harbin University of Technology Press.

Tan Zaixi谭载喜(2004).西方翻译简史[M]A Brief History of Western Translation.北京：商务印书馆Beijing:The Commercial Press.

Tan Zaixi谭载喜(1985).西方翻译史浅谈[J]On the History of Western Translation.中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal,7:36-39.

Xie Tianzhen谢天振(2008).《当代国外翻译理论导读》[M]Introduction to Contemporary Foreign Translation Theories.天津：南开大学出版社Tianjin：Nankai University Press.

Xie Tianzhen谢天振(2011).中西翻译简史[M]A Brief History of Chinese and Western Translation.北京:外语教学与研究出版社Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.

Zhao Jiajin赵家琎(1996).当代翻译学派简介[J]A Brief Introduction to Contemporary Translation Schools.中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal,5：46—47.

Zhao Tiejun赵铁军等(2001).《机器翻译原理》[M]Principles of Machine Translation.哈尔滨：哈尔滨工业大学出版社Harbin: Harbin University of Technology Press.

Hist Trans EN 14

2021-12-14T06:45:07Z

Wei Chuxuan: /* Translation of Russian literature */

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=Western Translation History In the Modern and Contemperary Ages=
'''现当代西方翻译史'''

魏楚璇，Wei Chuxuan, Hunan Normal University, China

==Abstract==
Under different historical backgrounds, western translation presents different characteristics. In the 20th century before the end of the Second World War, the two world wars inevitably brought obstacles and disturbances to the development of translation. Therefore, though translation in this period still continued to develop, it did not get breakthrough. Translation was still dominated by literary works in content, totally relying on manual labor. In translation theory, it emphasized the creativity of translation and laid a foundation for the linguistic turn of translation studies. After the end of World War II, the world entered an era of relative peace, the world economy recovered, and the translation industry was greatly revitalized. During this period, the scale of translation covered all aspects of social life, machine translation developed fast, translation training flourished, translation organizations were established in various countries and many translation theories and schools emerged. That is to say, this period can be called the golden age of translation.

==摘要==
在不同的历史背景下，西方翻译呈现出不同的特点。在二战结束之前的二十世纪，两次世界大战不可避免地为翻译事业的发展带来了阻碍和干扰，因而这一时期的翻译虽然仍在发展但并未取得突破性的成就，在翻译的内容上仍然以文学作品为主，技术上完全依赖人工，理论方面注重翻译的创造性且为翻译研究的语言学转向奠定了基础。二战结束后，世界进入到相对和平的年代，世界经济复苏，翻译事业也大为振兴。在这一时期，翻译的内容覆盖社会生活的方方面面，机器翻译发展迅速，翻译培训兴起，翻译组织在各国成立，各种翻译理论和翻译流派涌现，可谓是翻译的黄金年代。

==Keywords==
Western translation; translation history; modern; contemperary

==Introduction==
In this paper, western translation history in modern and contemporary ages will be introduced. Here the modern age refers to the nearly half century before the Second World War. And the contemporary age refers to the half century after the Second World War. That is to say, the modern and contemporary translation in this paper refers to the translation in the 20th century. Under the influence of different historical backgrounds, translation in these two ages showed different characteristics and traits which will be concluded and discussed in detail in the following.

==The General Situation of Translation in the Modern Age==
Into the 20th century, the capitalism in the developed countries developed into imperialism. On the one hand, the imperialist countries intensified their foreign expansion to oppress and exploit the weak countries and people in colony. On the other hand, they were engaged in a fierce battle among themselves for international markets and spheres of influence. Thus, in less than half a century, two world wars broke out. Under this historical background, translation in western countries will inevitably be seriously disturbed and destroyed. However, translation in western countries continued to develop and excellent translations still appeared from time to time. The translation of this period also has its own traits. The general situation of translation in this period can be summarized from the following two aspects.

===The emphasis of translation was on Russian and Nordic works and more Chinese works were translated.===
From the end of the 19th century to the beginning of the 20th century, the literature of Russia and the Nordic countries developed greatly with the emergence of Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoyevsky, Leo Tolstoy, Chekhov, Andersen, Ibsen, Strindberg and other world-renowned great writers and dramatists. Their works had attracted the attention of the people in Western Europe and North America so they were competing to learn Russian, Danish and Swedish and had these works translated into English, German and French. In the process of translation, many excellent translators emerged in various countries.
====Translation of Russian literature====
According to the research of Tan Zaixi, Constance Garnet is the most famous female translator in Britain in this century. She translated almost all classic Russian novels and is widely regarded as the most important Translator of translating Russian literature into English. She published her first translation of Turgenev's novel Ru-Din in 1894. In the following decades, she devoted almost all her energy and time to the translation of Russian literature. She was the first person to translate Turgenev, Dostoyevsky and Chekhov into English, successively translating all the major works of Turgenev, Goncharov, Dostoyevsky, Tolstoy, Gogol and Chekhov including 12 volumes of Dostoyevsky's Selected Works translated from 1912 to 1920, 15 volumes of Turgenev's Selected Works translated from 1894 to 1899, 15 volumes of Chekhov's Novels and Plays translated from 1916 to 1922, and 6 volumes of Gogol’s Selected Works translated from 1922 to 1928. In particular, her translations of Turgenev, Chekhov, Dostoyevsky and other works were widely welcomed by the English reading community, and thus gave rise to the Russian literature craze in English literature before the First World War. She translated 70 Russian works in her lifetime, making her the most prolific translator of Russian works.
Two other translators who did not translate as much from Russian to English as Garnett, but who had no less influence, were the couple——Louise and Aylmer Maude. They are famous in western modern literary circles for their research and translation of Tolstoy's works. From 1928 to 1937, they spent nearly ten years translating and publishing 21 volumes of The Complete Works of Tolstoy. Later, from 1940s to 1950s, they supplemented or retranslated some of Tolstoy's works, such as What I Believe and Resurrection. In 1952, their work of War and Peace was accepted as a standard English translation and was selected for the prestigious Great Books of the Western World, thus establishing them as the authoritative English translators of Tolstoy. In addition, R. S. Townsend, R. Edmonds, Samuel Koteliansky, Ethel C. Mayne, Boris Brasol, Richard Renfield and so on were famous for translating the works of Tolstoy, Dostoevsky, Turgenev, Chekhov, Goncharov into English.（Tan，2004:148-150）

====Translation of Nordic literature and drama====
In the first half of the 20th century, in addition to Russian literature, western European translators showed great interest in Nordic literature and drama, including the works of Andersen, Ibsen and Strindberg.

According to the study of Tan Zaixi, when Hans Christian Andersen was alive, one of his works was published simultaneously in 15 languages, including English, German, French, Italian, Spanish and almost all the major languages of Western Europe. Later, all of his works were translated into different languages, and there were many re-translations in English, French, German and other countries. The first English translator was Mary Howitt, who began translating Andersen’s fairy tales in 1846. Later translators include Charles Boner, Caroline Peachey, Lady Duff Gordon, Paul Leyssac, R. R. Keigwin and R. Spink. Some of the best translations are Leyssac’s translation in 1937, Keigwin’s translation from 1950 to 1960 and Spink’s translation.(Tan Zaixi，2004:151)

The main English translators of Ibsen’s plays are William Archer and James MacFarlane. Archer translated 12 volumes of The Collected Works of H. I. from 1906 to 1912, including almost all of Ibsen’s plays and some of his previously unpublished papers. Macfarlane compiled translated eight volumes of The Oxford Ibsen from 1960 to 1977. In addition, F. E. Garrett translated Lyrics and Poems from Ibsen in 1912. Mary Morison translated The Correspondence of H.I. in 1905. Evert Sprinchorn translated H. I. Letters and Speeches in 1964. (Tan Zaixi，2004:151)

In Germany, the standard German translation is the 10-volume The Collected Plays of Ibsen edited and published by G. Brandes, J. Elias, and P. Schlenther from 1898 to 1902. The standard French translation is The Complete Works of Ibsen in 16 volumes translated and published by P. G. La Chesnais from 1914 to 1945.(Tan Zaixi，2004:151)

Strindberg’s work was translated into English as early as 1912. For the next fifty or sixty years, many people worked on Strindberg’s studies and translations. Major English translators included E. Schleussner, Walter Johnson, M. Sandbach, Elizabeth Sprigge and Michael Meyer. Some good works are Sprigge’s translations of Strinberg’s Plays in 1963 and Meyer’s translations of The Father, Miss Julie, Storm and so on in 1964. In other major western European countries such as Germany and France, Strindberg’s plays were also translated into German and French, and repeatedly staged in Berlin and Paris. (Tan Zaixi，2004:152)

There is no doubt that the translation of modern and contemporary Russian and Nordic literature and drama was a mainstream of western translation in the first half of the century. However, at the same time, it must be pointed out that the mutual translation of modern and contemporary literary works in western European countries still enjoys considerable momentum.

====More and more Chinese works were translated.====
In the 20th century, more and more people in the West became interested in Chinese culture. Since the 1950s, with the improvement of new China’s international prestige, the fever of translating Chinese works had been constantly appearing in the West. Not only the Four Books, Five Classics, Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Water Margin, Journey to the West, A Dream of Red Mansions and the poems of Li Bai, Du Fu and Bai Juyi were translated into English, German and French, but modern writers such as Luxun, Maodun and Bajin were also introduced to western countries. In the process of translating and introducing Chinese works, excellent translators have emerged from every country.

According to the study of Tan Zaixi, Arthur Waley, the most eminent Sinologist in Britain in the 20th century, was a translator, writer and poet. In 1916, his first translation of Chinese Poems was published. In 1918, he published his second translated work One Hundred Seventy Chinese Poems. These two translations are both from Tang poems. In addition, he also translated part of Journey to the West in 1942, published four other Chinese-English translations, and wrote three books about China or Chinese writers. Another outstanding Sinologist and translator in the 20th century was Franz Kuhn of Germany. From 1919, when his first translation was published, to his death in 1961, he translated and published more than 40 classical and modern Chinese literary works, including 12 novels and 34 short stories. In particular, his translation of The Fortunate Union in 1926, Second Bloom in 1927, The Golden Lotus in 1930, A Dream of Red Mansions in 1932, Water Margin in 1934, Jade Dragonfly in 1936, Romance of the Three Kingdoms in 1940, Midnight and other works from 1940 to 1955, were well received by German readers.（Tan Zaixi,2004:153-156）

===The creativity of translation and the language in translation were paid more attention.===
In the aspect of translation theory, scholars had deeply reflected on the traditional translation theory, especially questioned the universality of language, and proposed that when the meaning of the original text becomes obscure and difficult to understand, translators must fill in the gaps of the text according to their own experience. Therefore, translation theories of this period paid more attention to the creativity of translation and the language problems in translation. Although they did not separate themselves from the discussion of translation techniques such as word selection and sentence construction, they laid a foundation for the linguistic turn of translation studies and provided theoretical thinking for the translation literature as an independent existence. And about the specific translation theories in different countries in this period, Xie Tianzhen made a brief summary.

J. P. Postgate is a famous Translation theorist in Britain, and he put forward prospective translation and retrospective translation. Prospective translation means that the translator always keeps the reader in mind and adopts free methods and common expressions to ensure that the original ideas of the reader are not affected and their prediction is not interfered with. The purpose of translation is to show the translator’s mastery of the target language, focusing on the target language rather than the original one. Retrospective translation means that the translator always looks at the original author, because the purpose of translation is to impart knowledge of the original text, rather than to look ahead and consider the reader of the translation.（Xie Tianzhen，2011:29）

French scholar J. Marouzeau’s "On Translation of Latin" is an important translation literature in French. He believed that translation is a skill in which the translator should reveal to the reader the content of the original work, rather than its shell, using a living language.（Xie Tianzhen，2011:29）

German thinker Walter Benjamin pointed out that although the translation is based on the original, it is the afterlife of the original work and the translation need not pursue the same meaning as the original work. Mediocre translators pay more attention to the meaning of the original work than to its literariness and language style and they only know that the translation exists to serve the original work and can only translate the non-essential content of the original work. (Xie Tianzhen，2008:319-332) The translator’s task is to use his own language to release the pure language trapped by another language, that is, to liberate the imprisoned language in the re-creation of the original text. Edwin Gentzler, a contemporary American translation theorist, believed that the discussion of translation issues among Anglo-American deconstructionists mainly revolves around comments on Benjamin’s Translator’s Task. (Edwin Gentzler, 2004:173-174.) Therefore, Translator’s Task is regarded as the “Bible” of translation theory and the classic of deconstructive translation theory.（Xie Tianzhen，2011:30）

The Russian scholar Mikhail Vasilievich Lemonosov transformed the loanwords that entered the Russian language, russified them, and regarded translation as a creative activity. And this view of free translation lasted until the 19th century. Aleksandr Pushkin, the greatest Russian poet in the 19th century, based on his literary translation practice, proposed that translators should have their own opinions on the selection of materials and should have full freedom in dealing with the original work, but the uniqueness of the original work should be preserved as much as possible.（Xie Tianzhen，2011:30）

==The General Situation of Translation in the Contemporary Age==
After the Second World War, the world entered a period of relative peace. After the trauma of the war, the Western countries regrouped and began to restore and develop production and economy in an all-round way. Translation cause also entered a new period of development at extremely rapid pace, taking on a new look. During this period, not only in the Soviet Union, Britain, Germany, France and other major European countries, but also in the United States, Canada, the cause of translation showed a prosperous scene. In terms of the whole western translation career, the translation after the Second World War was unmatched in scope, form, scale and achievement. Therefore, the 20th century could be called as "the age of translation" , which in fact mainly referred to the decades since the end of the war. Though great achievement was also made in literary translation in this period, the 20th century is known as the "age of translation" mainly because western translation expanded into various fields during this period, which has five characteristics.

===The scale of translation extended to the field of business, diplomacy, science and many other professional affairs.===
Since the end of the Second World War, due to practical needs, commercial, diplomatic, scientific and technological translation had flourished, and its momentum even exceeded literary translation, thus forming a major content of the development of modern western translation.Here is the research of Tan Zaixi about the scale of translation.

In 1945, the United Nations was established with English, French, Russian, Chinese and Spanish as the five official and working languages. In 1957, the European Community was founded, consisting of six countries at that time. In 1993, the European Community developed into the European Union. By 2004, it had 25 member states, using nine languages including English, French, German, Italy, Denmark, Ireland, Greece, Spain and Portugal. That is to say, translation had become an indispensable part of daily work, both for communicating with countries in other regions and among western countries. According to UNESCO, the number of translations in the world increased four-and-a-half times from 1948 to 1970. The institutions of the European Common Market employed more than 1,300 employees to deal with translation, of whom 450 were full-time interpreters, 550 translators and others were freelance employees on short-term contracts. (Tan Zaixi,2004:160-161)

===Translation teaching was widespread.===
In the past, translation was mainly the work of a few literary magnates. With the establishment of the United Nations and its specialized agencies, as well as the establishment of international institutions such as the European Common Market (EC, EU) and the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, the need for translators was increasing. To meet this need, a number of schools specializing in training translators had been set up.

According to the study of Tan Zaixi, the most prominent schools are the High School of Translation at the Third University of Paris and the School of Translation at the University of Ottawa. What’s more, many universities in Europe and the United States also offer translation classes or courses in senior grades.（Tan Zaixi, 2004:161-162）
===Translators’associations were established and publications on translation studies were launched.===
Translators in different countries set up various translation associations and publications. These associations played an important role in the development of translation through their activities and publications.

According to Tan Zaixi, translation associations or federations in European and American capitalist countries, in particular, generally emphasize the following principles: to clarify the legal status of translators through legislative means; to take effective measures to protect the legal rights of translators (especially the copyright that translators should enjoy); to improve their social status and increase their economic income; to improve the learning and working conditions of translators to provide them with opportunities to constantly improve their translation skills and a good working environment.（Tan Zaixi，2004:162）

There were more translators’ organizations in the United States than in other western countries, with a total of 30, among which the most influential were the American Society of Translators, the American Federation of Linguists and the Literary Society of America. The journal of the American Society of Translators was ATA Chronicle. The journal of the Literary Society of America was Translation Review.（Tan Zaixi，2004:162-163）

In Canada, major translation associations included the Canadian Council of Translators and Interpreters, the Ontario Association of Translators and Interpreters, the Business Language Centre, and the Quebec Translation Association. The Ontario Association of Translators and Interpreters founded the journal of Inform ATIO. The most influential professional translation magazine in Canada was Meta: Journal des Traducteurs.（Tan Zaixi，2004:164）

In Britain, major translation associations included the Association of Translation Companies of Great Britain, the Association of Translators and the Guild of Translators, of which the Guild of Translators was the most famous. The official publication of the guild is The Incorporated Linguist, which was published in 1962 and enjoyed high reputation in Britain.（Tan Zaixi，2004:164)

There were two major translation associations in France: the Association of French Translators and the Association of French Literary Translators. There were also two major translation associations in West Germany, one was the Association of Federation Translators and Interpreters and the other was the German-speaking World Federation of Literary and Technical Translators. In addition, Austria, Italy, Spain, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, Finland, Belgium and other Western European countries also had local or national translation organizations and a variety of translation publications.（Tan Zaixi，2004:164-165）

===Machine translation developed.===
In the process of more than two thousand years of development, the traditional translation method had not undergone substantial changes in technology, and the translation between the two languages still had to be carried out by hand. However, due to the increasingly frequent international scientific and cultural exchanges, manual translation could no longer timely meet the needs. Therefore, when the traditional manual translation was facing the challenge of the times, machine translation should be born. In 1946, under the auspices of the United States Army headquarters, J.P. Eckert and J.W. Mauchly who were both from the University of Pennsylvania developed the world’s first electronic computer named: Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator, or ENIAC for short. Computer’s astonishing speed inspired people to consider the innovation of translation technology. Therefore, in the same year, Andrew Booth and Warren Weaver first proposed the use of computers in the machine translation system. Since then, machine translation and machine translation research, driven by modern electronic computing technology officially began.American science, especially the development of computer science, to a large extent affected the development of computer science in the whole West and even the world. Therefore, especially in the pioneering period, the development history and model of Machine translation in America can almost be regarded as those in the whole West. In this sense, the development of machine translation in the west (and even the world) can be roughly divided into the following five major periods, just like the development of Machine translation in the United States: initial stage; high stage; low stage; recovery stage; vigorous stage. The following is a further overview of the five development periods of machine translation in the West (mainly in the United States) made by Tan Zaixi who referred to the books of Yang Muyun, Li Zhisheng，Yu Hao, Zhao Tiejun and so on.

====Initial stage (1946—1954)====
The pioneering period begins with Booth and Weaver’s idea of translating natural language by computer in 1954, and ends with the birth of the first machine translation system. After the idea of using computers to translate was put forward, although there was great resistance in the United States at first, the voice supporting it was mainstream. In particular, Weaver published a memorandum on machine translation in 1949, which not only opened up a series of research topics on machine translation in the United States, but also had a wide influence in western countries. The memo makes four basic points: the problem of polysemy can be solved by context; there is a logical basis in language; there are basic probabilities in language application; there are common elements in different languages. These are still the fundamental of the development of machine translation. In the following years, machine translation research had been actively carried out in some universities and organizations in the United States and Britain. In Massachusetts Institute of Technology, the first full-time machine translation researcher Bar-Hillel arrived, he made a great contribution to the early development of machine translation and put forward the main problems and basic strategies needed to be solved in machine translation research. The first machine translation conference was held at MIT in June 1952, after which machine translation research in the United States began to accelerate. In 1954, a machine translation system for computer was developed and demonstrated. Although the machine translation system was small, consisting of only 250 Russian words, six grammar rules, and a few translation examples, it first showed the public and the scientific community the feasibility of machine translation, inspiring substantial funding from U.S. government for machine translation research over the next decade.（Tan Zaixi，2004:167-168）

====High-tide stage(1954—1966)====
The successful demonstration of the world’s first machine translation system, the Georgetown-IBM system of United States, marked the first development climax of machine translation. The upsurge began in 1954 and lasted for 12 years. In the mid-1950s, inspired by successful demonstration of machine translation system, dozens of universities, companies, and government agencies in the United States began machine translation research programs. On the one hand, due to the competition between the United States and the Soviet Union at that time, the United States military, the National Science Foundation, the Central Intelligence Agency and so on needed to acquire a large amount of scientific and technological information of the Soviet Union, so that they invested a lot in machine translation, especially Russian-English translation. On the other hand, advanced computers in the United States provided good equipment for the development of the first generation of machine translation system. At the same time, many universities and institutions in most European countries had also carried out machine translation research.（Tan Zaixi，2004:168-170）

====Low-tide stage (1966—1975)====
The advent of machine translation had opened up a new way for traditional translation research and practice. However, the complexity of machine translation was underestimated at that time and the design of machine translation system was often too rough and simple. In this case, the first generation of machine translation systems in the initial stage could not achieve ideal results, the quality of translation is often poor, so that some people gradually lost confidence in machine translation research, and some scholars also became pessimistic and disappointed. （Tan Zaixi，2004:170）

In the mid-1960s, machine translation in the United States had suffered a severe blow. In 1966, the Automatic Language Processing Advisory Committee, part of the National Academy of Sciences, was asked to investigate machine translation research funded by government. The committee published its report, Language and Machines, after analyzing the speed, quality, cost and demand of machine translation at that time. The report pointed out that the quality of machine translation is significantly lower than that of human translation and asserted that there was no likelihood of any commercially useful machine translation system in the foreseeable future. On the committee’s recommendation, the U.S. government withdrew the funding for machine translation research. Thus, machine translation research in the United States plummeted from a high point to a low point of development. It should be noted, however, that machine translation research and development was not in a complete demise, following the official denials in the United States. Scholars and research institutions in many countries including the United States continued to carry out researches and experiments on machine translation under relatively difficult circumstances.（Tan Zaixi，2004:171）

====Recovery stage(1975—1989)====
In the middle of 1970s, with the emergence of new theories and ideas in the field of linguistics and the further development of computational linguistics, the research of machine translation was aroused in the world again. After ten years of silence, machine translation research stepped on the road of recovery. The recovery period of machine translation research and development is generally considered to date from the installation of the SYSTRAN system by EURATOM and the completion of the TAUM-METEO system by the University of Montreal in Canada.（Tan Zaixi，2004:171-174）

====Vigorous stage（1989—）====
Since the late 1980s, some new developments had changed the field of machine translation, marking machine translation research enter a new period. This is the emergence of the third generation of machine translation method that is corpus-based. Corpus-based machine translation systems include statistic-based translation and example-based translation, both of which are based on large-scale real text. （Tan Zaixi，2004:167-175）

Practice has proved that machine translation has great vitality. It is a new science, and its research and translation have entered a new stage of development. No matter whether it can replace the human brain and hands eventually and completely liberate human from the heavy artificial translation, it will develop and exist for a long time. Both in theory and practice, machine translation and its research will exert more and more influence on traditional translation and its research.

===Translation theories of different schools were emerging one after another.===
The most important feature of modern western translation is the rapid development of translation theory. After the Second World War, with the vigorous development of science and technology, modern linguistics, translation activities and the rise of machine translation, people gradually changed the traditional view of translation studies, believing that translation is not only an art or skill, but also a science with rules to follow.

On the whole, the development of contemporary translation theory has two characteristics :(1) theoretical research has been brought into the scope of linguistics, under the influence of modern linguistics and information theory; (2) the traditional situation of non-communication between theorists has been broken. Translation theorists fully express their views through various channels, such as published works.(Xie Tianzhen, 2009:32)

After the Second World War, with the modernization and integration of western social and economic development, western translation theories also began to enter a new period that transcends national boundaries. Therefore, it is difficult to classify some translation thoughts and some translation theorists in a narrow sense as belonging to a certain country or a certain place. It is acceptable to divide contemporary western translation theories into different schools according to their basic approaches and methods of translation studies or the basic characteristics of thought. Here is a brief introduction to some influential schools classified by Zhao Jiajin.

====American Translation Training School====
First established in 1964 at the University of Iowa, this school focused on translation practice, emphasized the literary taste and value of works, and adopted the methods of L. A. Richards and Williard V. Quine of Harvard University. Representative figures included poet and translator Ezra Pound, who translated Tang poetry and advocated the accurate restoration of details, words, fragments and the whole image description. Frederic Will of the University of Iowa, drawing on his training experience, regarded translation as a form of naming, fiction writing and cognition. Yale’s Jonas Zdnys argued that translation is an activity of subjective thought designed to explain literature. This school explores the role of the human mind in translation and raises the question of the nature of translation, but translation theory was limited to aesthetic experience and prescriptive translation rules.

====Translation Science School====
It was also known as “linguistic school”. According to this school, translation is the process of reproducing language as a whole, and it aims to correctly convey the original information to readers. The school was founded by Eugene Nida, whose masterpieces include Message and Mission (1960) and Toward Science of Translation (1946). Nida proposed functional equivalence theory according to Noam Chomsky’s transformational generative grammar and his experience in Bible translation, that is, to digest the original text and understand its basic structure and meaning; convey meaning based on basic structure; obtain semantic and stylistic equivalence with the original text. Thus the translation process can be summarized as: analyze—transfer—restructure, these three steps. The school of Translation science adopted linguistic theory and the more objective description method in translation theory. In the late 1970s, emphasis was placed on the cultural background of the information age, but the research was still limited to prescriptive research and translation criteria, ignoring the role of translators’thinking.（Zhao Jiajin,1996: 46）

====Translation school====
It is the so-called “literary school”. This school held that the original work is the unity of sentence series and article structure, and the translator is influenced by the original view and the future model of translation in the process of translation. The founder of this school was James Holmes, an American poet, who taught translation at the University of Amsterdam in the Netherlands before his death. His representative work is ''The Name and Nature of Translation Studies'' (1972).（Zhao Jiajin,1996: 46）

====Polysystem School====
Its founders are Itammar Even-Zohar and Gideon Toury of Tel Aviv University in Israel. Even coined the term Polysystem to explore the relationship between translated works and literary systems, and explained that the oriented culture of translation not only determines whether a work can be translated, but also regulates the wording. Toury held that translation belongs to the second system of multiple systems, and its role depends on the strength and development stage of the oriented culture of translation. He held that translation has no fixed identity and has multiple identities due to its social, literary and historical background. This school integrates translation studies with literary studies, social and economic factors, endows translation studies with historical significance, but it is still limited to the acceptability of translation and does not get rid of the fetters of cultural equivalence.（Zhao Jiajin,1996: 46）

====Deconstruction School====
It is also known as “affirmative productivity school”. It originated in France in the mid-1960s and is represented by Michel Foucault, Martin Heidegger and Jacques Derrida. This school introduced deconstruction into translation, claiming that translators create the subject and the target language is a new language. As Foucault put it, the original work is constantly rewritten in the process of translation, and the translator rewrites the original work every time he reads and translates it. Deconstruction studies the nature and process of translation and language, and advocates that translators exist as entities. The school even goes so far as to believe that language does not involve any objective reality, and translators have their own status only when they create texts.（Zhao Jiajin,1996: 46-47）

==Conclusion==
Under the influence of historical backgrounds, different periods of translation show different traits. In the modern period, the content of translation still focused on literature which included works form Russian, Nordic countries, China and so on. The way of translation was artificial and traditional. With the progress of economy and science, translation in the contemporary period also got great development. The content of translation was not confined to the field of literature. Instead, translation of science and technology, commerce, entertainment and so on became a major part of the actual translation activities. In addition, machine translation as a novel technique developed quickly. And the most important feature of modern western translation is the rapid development of translation theory thanks to many translator associations and publications on translation studies. Nowadays, under the influence of globalization, translation shows more and more importance and get better development environment.

==References==

Barnstone，Willis(1993). The Poetics of Trunslation: History, Theory, Practice[M]. New Haven:Yale University Press.

Bates, Ernest Stuart(1936). Modern Translation[M]. London: Oxford University Press.

Catford, John(1965). A Linguistic Theory of Translation: An Essay in Applied Linguistics[M].Oxford and London: Oxford University Press.

Delisle, Jean(1995). Translation: An Interpretive Approach[M]. Ottawa: University of Ottawa Press.

Feng Zhiwei 冯志伟(1994).《自然语言机器翻译新论》[M] New Theories of Machine Translation of Natural Language.北京:语文出版社Beijing: Chinese Press.

FitzMaurice-Kelly, J(1911). "Translation"[J]. Encyclopedia Britannica (11th edition, Cambridge),27:183-188.

Gentzler, Edwin(2004). Contemporary Translation Theories[M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

Hutchins，Robert(1952). Great Books of the Western World[M]. Chicago: Encyclopaedia .Britannica Ltd.

Mu Yunyang,Li Zhisheng,Yu Hao杨沐昀、李志升、于浩(2000).《机器翻译系统》[M]Machine Translation System.哈尔滨：哈尔滨工业大学出版社Harbin: Harbin University of Technology Press.

Tan Zaixi谭载喜(2004).西方翻译简史[M]A Brief History of Western Translation.北京：商务印书馆Beijing:The Commercial Press.

Tan Zaixi谭载喜(1985).西方翻译史浅谈[J]On the History of Western Translation.中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal,7:36-39.

Xie Tianzhen谢天振(2008).《当代国外翻译理论导读》[M]Introduction to Contemporary Foreign Translation Theories.天津：南开大学出版社Tianjin：Nankai University Press.

Xie Tianzhen谢天振(2011).中西翻译简史[M]A Brief History of Chinese and Western Translation.北京:外语教学与研究出版社Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.

Zhao Jiajin赵家琎(1996).当代翻译学派简介[J]A Brief Introduction to Contemporary Translation Schools.中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal,5：46—47.

Zhao Tiejun赵铁军等(2001).《机器翻译原理》[M]Principles of Machine Translation.哈尔滨：哈尔滨工业大学出版社Harbin: Harbin University of Technology Press.

Hist Trans EN 14

2021-12-14T01:59:22Z

Wei Chuxuan: /* Machine translation developed. */

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=Western Translation History In the Modern and Contemperary Ages=
'''现当代西方翻译史'''

魏楚璇，Wei Chuxuan, Hunan Normal University, China

==Abstract==
Under different historical backgrounds, western translation presents different characteristics. In the 20th century before the end of the Second World War, the two world wars inevitably brought obstacles and disturbances to the development of translation. Therefore, though translation in this period still continued to develop, it did not get breakthrough. Translation was still dominated by literary works in content, totally relying on manual labor. In translation theory, it emphasized the creativity of translation and laid a foundation for the linguistic turn of translation studies. After the end of World War II, the world entered an era of relative peace, the world economy recovered, and the translation industry was greatly revitalized. During this period, the scale of translation covered all aspects of social life, machine translation developed fast, translation training flourished, translation organizations were established in various countries and many translation theories and schools emerged. That is to say, this period can be called the golden age of translation.

==摘要==
在不同的历史背景下，西方翻译呈现出不同的特点。在二战结束之前的二十世纪，两次世界大战不可避免地为翻译事业的发展带来了阻碍和干扰，因而这一时期的翻译虽然仍在发展但并未取得突破性的成就，在翻译的内容上仍然以文学作品为主，技术上完全依赖人工，理论方面注重翻译的创造性且为翻译研究的语言学转向奠定了基础。二战结束后，世界进入到相对和平的年代，世界经济复苏，翻译事业也大为振兴。在这一时期，翻译的内容覆盖社会生活的方方面面，机器翻译发展迅速，翻译培训兴起，翻译组织在各国成立，各种翻译理论和翻译流派涌现，可谓是翻译的黄金年代。

==Keywords==
Western translation; translation history; modern; contemperary

==Introduction==
In this paper, western translation history in modern and contemporary ages will be introduced. Here the modern age refers to the nearly half century before the Second World War. And the contemporary age refers to the half century after the Second World War. That is to say, the modern and contemporary translation in this paper refers to the translation in the 20th century. Under the influence of different historical backgrounds, translation in these two ages showed different characteristics and traits which will be concluded and discussed in detail in the following.

==The General Situation of Translation in the Modern Age==
Into the 20th century, the capitalism in the developed countries developed into imperialism. On the one hand, the imperialist countries intensified their foreign expansion to oppress and exploit the weak countries and people in colony. On the other hand, they were engaged in a fierce battle among themselves for international markets and spheres of influence. Thus, in less than half a century, two world wars broke out. Under this historical background, translation in western countries will inevitably be seriously disturbed and destroyed. However, translation in western countries continued to develop and excellent translations still appeared from time to time. The translation of this period also has its own traits. The general situation of translation in this period can be summarized from the following two aspects.

===The emphasis of translation was on Russian and Nordic works and more Chinese works were translated.===
From the end of the 19th century to the beginning of the 20th century, the literature of Russia and the Nordic countries developed greatly with the emergence of Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoyevsky, Leo Tolstoy, Chekhov, Andersen, Ibsen, Strindberg and other world-renowned great writers and dramatists. Their works had attracted the attention of the people in Western Europe and North America so they were competing to learn Russian, Danish and Swedish and had these works translated into English, German and French. In the process of translation, many excellent translators emerged in various countries.
====Translation of Russian literature====
According to the research of Tan Zaixi, Constance Garnet is the most famous female translator in Britain in this century. She translated almost all classic Russian novels and is widely regarded as the most important Translator of translating Russian literature into English. She published her first translation of Turgenev's novel Ru-Din in 1894. In the following decades, she devoted almost all her energy and time to the translation of Russian literature. She was the first person to translate Turgenev, Dostoyevsky and Chekhov into English, successively translating all the major works of Turgenev, Goncharov, Dostoyevsky, Tolstoy, Gogol and Chekhov including 12 volumes of Dostoyevsky's Selected Works translated from 1912 to 1920, 15 volumes of Turgenev's Selected Works translated from 1894 to 1899, 15 volumes of Chekhov's Novels and Plays translated from 1916 to 1922, and 6 volumes of Gogol’s Selected Works translated from 1922 to 1928. In particular, her translations of Turgenev, Chekhov, Dostoyevsky and other works were widely welcomed by the English reading community, and thus gave rise to the Russian literature craze in English literature before the First World War. She translated 70 Russian works in her lifetime, making her the most prolific translator of Russian works.
Two other translators who did not translate as much from Russian to English as Garnett, but who had no less influence, were the couple——Louise and Aylmer Maude. They are famous in western modern literary circles for their research and translation of Tolstoy's works. From 1928 to 1937, they spent nearly ten years translating and publishing 21 volumes of The Complete Works of Tolstoy. Later, from 1940s to 1950s, they supplemented or retranslated some of Tolstoy's works, such as What I Believe and Resurrection. In 1952, their work of War and Peace was accepted as a standard English translation and was selected for the prestigious Great Books of the Western World, thus establishing them as the authoritative English translators of Tolstoy. In addition, R. S. Townsend, R. Edmonds, Samuel Koteliansky, Ethel C. Mayne, Boris Brasol, Richard Renfield and so on were famous for translating the works of Tolstoy, Dostoevsky, Turgenev, Chekhov, Goncharov into English.（Tan Zaixi，2004:148-150）

====Translation of Nordic literature and drama====
In the first half of the 20th century, in addition to Russian literature, western European translators showed great interest in Nordic literature and drama, including the works of Andersen, Ibsen and Strindberg.

According to the study of Tan Zaixi, when Hans Christian Andersen was alive, one of his works was published simultaneously in 15 languages, including English, German, French, Italian, Spanish and almost all the major languages of Western Europe. Later, all of his works were translated into different languages, and there were many re-translations in English, French, German and other countries. The first English translator was Mary Howitt, who began translating Andersen’s fairy tales in 1846. Later translators include Charles Boner, Caroline Peachey, Lady Duff Gordon, Paul Leyssac, R. R. Keigwin and R. Spink. Some of the best translations are Leyssac’s translation in 1937, Keigwin’s translation from 1950 to 1960 and Spink’s translation.(Tan Zaixi，2004:151)

The main English translators of Ibsen’s plays are William Archer and James MacFarlane. Archer translated 12 volumes of The Collected Works of H. I. from 1906 to 1912, including almost all of Ibsen’s plays and some of his previously unpublished papers. Macfarlane compiled translated eight volumes of The Oxford Ibsen from 1960 to 1977. In addition, F. E. Garrett translated Lyrics and Poems from Ibsen in 1912. Mary Morison translated The Correspondence of H.I. in 1905. Evert Sprinchorn translated H. I. Letters and Speeches in 1964. (Tan Zaixi，2004:151)

In Germany, the standard German translation is the 10-volume The Collected Plays of Ibsen edited and published by G. Brandes, J. Elias, and P. Schlenther from 1898 to 1902. The standard French translation is The Complete Works of Ibsen in 16 volumes translated and published by P. G. La Chesnais from 1914 to 1945.(Tan Zaixi，2004:151)

Strindberg’s work was translated into English as early as 1912. For the next fifty or sixty years, many people worked on Strindberg’s studies and translations. Major English translators included E. Schleussner, Walter Johnson, M. Sandbach, Elizabeth Sprigge and Michael Meyer. Some good works are Sprigge’s translations of Strinberg’s Plays in 1963 and Meyer’s translations of The Father, Miss Julie, Storm and so on in 1964. In other major western European countries such as Germany and France, Strindberg’s plays were also translated into German and French, and repeatedly staged in Berlin and Paris. (Tan Zaixi，2004:152)

There is no doubt that the translation of modern and contemporary Russian and Nordic literature and drama was a mainstream of western translation in the first half of the century. However, at the same time, it must be pointed out that the mutual translation of modern and contemporary literary works in western European countries still enjoys considerable momentum.

====More and more Chinese works were translated.====
In the 20th century, more and more people in the West became interested in Chinese culture. Since the 1950s, with the improvement of new China’s international prestige, the fever of translating Chinese works had been constantly appearing in the West. Not only the Four Books, Five Classics, Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Water Margin, Journey to the West, A Dream of Red Mansions and the poems of Li Bai, Du Fu and Bai Juyi were translated into English, German and French, but modern writers such as Luxun, Maodun and Bajin were also introduced to western countries. In the process of translating and introducing Chinese works, excellent translators have emerged from every country.

According to the study of Tan Zaixi, Arthur Waley, the most eminent Sinologist in Britain in the 20th century, was a translator, writer and poet. In 1916, his first translation of Chinese Poems was published. In 1918, he published his second translated work One Hundred Seventy Chinese Poems. These two translations are both from Tang poems. In addition, he also translated part of Journey to the West in 1942, published four other Chinese-English translations, and wrote three books about China or Chinese writers. Another outstanding Sinologist and translator in the 20th century was Franz Kuhn of Germany. From 1919, when his first translation was published, to his death in 1961, he translated and published more than 40 classical and modern Chinese literary works, including 12 novels and 34 short stories. In particular, his translation of The Fortunate Union in 1926, Second Bloom in 1927, The Golden Lotus in 1930, A Dream of Red Mansions in 1932, Water Margin in 1934, Jade Dragonfly in 1936, Romance of the Three Kingdoms in 1940, Midnight and other works from 1940 to 1955, were well received by German readers.（Tan Zaixi,2004:153-156）

===The creativity of translation and the language in translation were paid more attention.===
In the aspect of translation theory, scholars had deeply reflected on the traditional translation theory, especially questioned the universality of language, and proposed that when the meaning of the original text becomes obscure and difficult to understand, translators must fill in the gaps of the text according to their own experience. Therefore, translation theories of this period paid more attention to the creativity of translation and the language problems in translation. Although they did not separate themselves from the discussion of translation techniques such as word selection and sentence construction, they laid a foundation for the linguistic turn of translation studies and provided theoretical thinking for the translation literature as an independent existence. And about the specific translation theories in different countries in this period, Xie Tianzhen made a brief summary.

J. P. Postgate is a famous Translation theorist in Britain, and he put forward prospective translation and retrospective translation. Prospective translation means that the translator always keeps the reader in mind and adopts free methods and common expressions to ensure that the original ideas of the reader are not affected and their prediction is not interfered with. The purpose of translation is to show the translator’s mastery of the target language, focusing on the target language rather than the original one. Retrospective translation means that the translator always looks at the original author, because the purpose of translation is to impart knowledge of the original text, rather than to look ahead and consider the reader of the translation.（Xie Tianzhen，2011:29）

French scholar J. Marouzeau’s "On Translation of Latin" is an important translation literature in French. He believed that translation is a skill in which the translator should reveal to the reader the content of the original work, rather than its shell, using a living language.（Xie Tianzhen，2011:29）

German thinker Walter Benjamin pointed out that although the translation is based on the original, it is the afterlife of the original work and the translation need not pursue the same meaning as the original work. Mediocre translators pay more attention to the meaning of the original work than to its literariness and language style and they only know that the translation exists to serve the original work and can only translate the non-essential content of the original work. (Xie Tianzhen，2008:319-332) The translator’s task is to use his own language to release the pure language trapped by another language, that is, to liberate the imprisoned language in the re-creation of the original text. Edwin Gentzler, a contemporary American translation theorist, believed that the discussion of translation issues among Anglo-American deconstructionists mainly revolves around comments on Benjamin’s Translator’s Task. (Edwin Gentzler, 2004:173-174.) Therefore, Translator’s Task is regarded as the “Bible” of translation theory and the classic of deconstructive translation theory.（Xie Tianzhen，2011:30）

The Russian scholar Mikhail Vasilievich Lemonosov transformed the loanwords that entered the Russian language, russified them, and regarded translation as a creative activity. And this view of free translation lasted until the 19th century. Aleksandr Pushkin, the greatest Russian poet in the 19th century, based on his literary translation practice, proposed that translators should have their own opinions on the selection of materials and should have full freedom in dealing with the original work, but the uniqueness of the original work should be preserved as much as possible.（Xie Tianzhen，2011:30）

==The General Situation of Translation in the Contemporary Age==
After the Second World War, the world entered a period of relative peace. After the trauma of the war, the Western countries regrouped and began to restore and develop production and economy in an all-round way. Translation cause also entered a new period of development at extremely rapid pace, taking on a new look. During this period, not only in the Soviet Union, Britain, Germany, France and other major European countries, but also in the United States, Canada, the cause of translation showed a prosperous scene. In terms of the whole western translation career, the translation after the Second World War was unmatched in scope, form, scale and achievement. Therefore, the 20th century could be called as "the age of translation" , which in fact mainly referred to the decades since the end of the war. Though great achievement was also made in literary translation in this period, the 20th century is known as the "age of translation" mainly because western translation expanded into various fields during this period, which has five characteristics.

===The scale of translation extended to the field of business, diplomacy, science and many other professional affairs.===
Since the end of the Second World War, due to practical needs, commercial, diplomatic, scientific and technological translation had flourished, and its momentum even exceeded literary translation, thus forming a major content of the development of modern western translation.Here is the research of Tan Zaixi about the scale of translation.

In 1945, the United Nations was established with English, French, Russian, Chinese and Spanish as the five official and working languages. In 1957, the European Community was founded, consisting of six countries at that time. In 1993, the European Community developed into the European Union. By 2004, it had 25 member states, using nine languages including English, French, German, Italy, Denmark, Ireland, Greece, Spain and Portugal. That is to say, translation had become an indispensable part of daily work, both for communicating with countries in other regions and among western countries. According to UNESCO, the number of translations in the world increased four-and-a-half times from 1948 to 1970. The institutions of the European Common Market employed more than 1,300 employees to deal with translation, of whom 450 were full-time interpreters, 550 translators and others were freelance employees on short-term contracts. (Tan Zaixi,2004:160-161)

===Translation teaching was widespread.===
In the past, translation was mainly the work of a few literary magnates. With the establishment of the United Nations and its specialized agencies, as well as the establishment of international institutions such as the European Common Market (EC, EU) and the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, the need for translators was increasing. To meet this need, a number of schools specializing in training translators had been set up.

According to the study of Tan Zaixi, the most prominent schools are the High School of Translation at the Third University of Paris and the School of Translation at the University of Ottawa. What’s more, many universities in Europe and the United States also offer translation classes or courses in senior grades.（Tan Zaixi, 2004:161-162）
===Translators’associations were established and publications on translation studies were launched.===
Translators in different countries set up various translation associations and publications. These associations played an important role in the development of translation through their activities and publications.

According to Tan Zaixi, translation associations or federations in European and American capitalist countries, in particular, generally emphasize the following principles: to clarify the legal status of translators through legislative means; to take effective measures to protect the legal rights of translators (especially the copyright that translators should enjoy); to improve their social status and increase their economic income; to improve the learning and working conditions of translators to provide them with opportunities to constantly improve their translation skills and a good working environment.（Tan Zaixi，2004:162）

There were more translators’ organizations in the United States than in other western countries, with a total of 30, among which the most influential were the American Society of Translators, the American Federation of Linguists and the Literary Society of America. The journal of the American Society of Translators was ATA Chronicle. The journal of the Literary Society of America was Translation Review.（Tan Zaixi，2004:162-163）

In Canada, major translation associations included the Canadian Council of Translators and Interpreters, the Ontario Association of Translators and Interpreters, the Business Language Centre, and the Quebec Translation Association. The Ontario Association of Translators and Interpreters founded the journal of Inform ATIO. The most influential professional translation magazine in Canada was Meta: Journal des Traducteurs.（Tan Zaixi，2004:164）

In Britain, major translation associations included the Association of Translation Companies of Great Britain, the Association of Translators and the Guild of Translators, of which the Guild of Translators was the most famous. The official publication of the guild is The Incorporated Linguist, which was published in 1962 and enjoyed high reputation in Britain.（Tan Zaixi，2004:164)

There were two major translation associations in France: the Association of French Translators and the Association of French Literary Translators. There were also two major translation associations in West Germany, one was the Association of Federation Translators and Interpreters and the other was the German-speaking World Federation of Literary and Technical Translators. In addition, Austria, Italy, Spain, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, Finland, Belgium and other Western European countries also had local or national translation organizations and a variety of translation publications.（Tan Zaixi，2004:164-165）

===Machine translation developed.===
In the process of more than two thousand years of development, the traditional translation method had not undergone substantial changes in technology, and the translation between the two languages still had to be carried out by hand. However, due to the increasingly frequent international scientific and cultural exchanges, manual translation could no longer timely meet the needs. Therefore, when the traditional manual translation was facing the challenge of the times, machine translation should be born. In 1946, under the auspices of the United States Army headquarters, J.P. Eckert and J.W. Mauchly who were both from the University of Pennsylvania developed the world’s first electronic computer named: Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator, or ENIAC for short. Computer’s astonishing speed inspired people to consider the innovation of translation technology. Therefore, in the same year, Andrew Booth and Warren Weaver first proposed the use of computers in the machine translation system. Since then, machine translation and machine translation research, driven by modern electronic computing technology officially began.American science, especially the development of computer science, to a large extent affected the development of computer science in the whole West and even the world. Therefore, especially in the pioneering period, the development history and model of Machine translation in America can almost be regarded as those in the whole West. In this sense, the development of machine translation in the west (and even the world) can be roughly divided into the following five major periods, just like the development of Machine translation in the United States: initial stage; high stage; low stage; recovery stage; vigorous stage. The following is a further overview of the five development periods of machine translation in the West (mainly in the United States) made by Tan Zaixi who referred to the books of Yang Muyun, Li Zhisheng，Yu Hao, Zhao Tiejun and so on.

====Initial stage (1946—1954)====
The pioneering period begins with Booth and Weaver’s idea of translating natural language by computer in 1954, and ends with the birth of the first machine translation system. After the idea of using computers to translate was put forward, although there was great resistance in the United States at first, the voice supporting it was mainstream. In particular, Weaver published a memorandum on machine translation in 1949, which not only opened up a series of research topics on machine translation in the United States, but also had a wide influence in western countries. The memo makes four basic points: the problem of polysemy can be solved by context; there is a logical basis in language; there are basic probabilities in language application; there are common elements in different languages. These are still the fundamental of the development of machine translation. In the following years, machine translation research had been actively carried out in some universities and organizations in the United States and Britain. In Massachusetts Institute of Technology, the first full-time machine translation researcher Bar-Hillel arrived, he made a great contribution to the early development of machine translation and put forward the main problems and basic strategies needed to be solved in machine translation research. The first machine translation conference was held at MIT in June 1952, after which machine translation research in the United States began to accelerate. In 1954, a machine translation system for computer was developed and demonstrated. Although the machine translation system was small, consisting of only 250 Russian words, six grammar rules, and a few translation examples, it first showed the public and the scientific community the feasibility of machine translation, inspiring substantial funding from U.S. government for machine translation research over the next decade.（Tan Zaixi，2004:167-168）

====High-tide stage(1954—1966)====
The successful demonstration of the world’s first machine translation system, the Georgetown-IBM system of United States, marked the first development climax of machine translation. The upsurge began in 1954 and lasted for 12 years. In the mid-1950s, inspired by successful demonstration of machine translation system, dozens of universities, companies, and government agencies in the United States began machine translation research programs. On the one hand, due to the competition between the United States and the Soviet Union at that time, the United States military, the National Science Foundation, the Central Intelligence Agency and so on needed to acquire a large amount of scientific and technological information of the Soviet Union, so that they invested a lot in machine translation, especially Russian-English translation. On the other hand, advanced computers in the United States provided good equipment for the development of the first generation of machine translation system. At the same time, many universities and institutions in most European countries had also carried out machine translation research.（Tan Zaixi，2004:168-170）

====Low-tide stage (1966—1975)====
The advent of machine translation had opened up a new way for traditional translation research and practice. However, the complexity of machine translation was underestimated at that time and the design of machine translation system was often too rough and simple. In this case, the first generation of machine translation systems in the initial stage could not achieve ideal results, the quality of translation is often poor, so that some people gradually lost confidence in machine translation research, and some scholars also became pessimistic and disappointed. （Tan Zaixi，2004:170）

In the mid-1960s, machine translation in the United States had suffered a severe blow. In 1966, the Automatic Language Processing Advisory Committee, part of the National Academy of Sciences, was asked to investigate machine translation research funded by government. The committee published its report, Language and Machines, after analyzing the speed, quality, cost and demand of machine translation at that time. The report pointed out that the quality of machine translation is significantly lower than that of human translation and asserted that there was no likelihood of any commercially useful machine translation system in the foreseeable future. On the committee’s recommendation, the U.S. government withdrew the funding for machine translation research. Thus, machine translation research in the United States plummeted from a high point to a low point of development. It should be noted, however, that machine translation research and development was not in a complete demise, following the official denials in the United States. Scholars and research institutions in many countries including the United States continued to carry out researches and experiments on machine translation under relatively difficult circumstances.（Tan Zaixi，2004:171）

====Recovery stage(1975—1989)====
In the middle of 1970s, with the emergence of new theories and ideas in the field of linguistics and the further development of computational linguistics, the research of machine translation was aroused in the world again. After ten years of silence, machine translation research stepped on the road of recovery. The recovery period of machine translation research and development is generally considered to date from the installation of the SYSTRAN system by EURATOM and the completion of the TAUM-METEO system by the University of Montreal in Canada.（Tan Zaixi，2004:171-174）

====Vigorous stage（1989—）====
Since the late 1980s, some new developments had changed the field of machine translation, marking machine translation research enter a new period. This is the emergence of the third generation of machine translation method that is corpus-based. Corpus-based machine translation systems include statistic-based translation and example-based translation, both of which are based on large-scale real text. （Tan Zaixi，2004:167-175）

Practice has proved that machine translation has great vitality. It is a new science, and its research and translation have entered a new stage of development. No matter whether it can replace the human brain and hands eventually and completely liberate human from the heavy artificial translation, it will develop and exist for a long time. Both in theory and practice, machine translation and its research will exert more and more influence on traditional translation and its research.

===Translation theories of different schools were emerging one after another.===
The most important feature of modern western translation is the rapid development of translation theory. After the Second World War, with the vigorous development of science and technology, modern linguistics, translation activities and the rise of machine translation, people gradually changed the traditional view of translation studies, believing that translation is not only an art or skill, but also a science with rules to follow.

On the whole, the development of contemporary translation theory has two characteristics :(1) theoretical research has been brought into the scope of linguistics, under the influence of modern linguistics and information theory; (2) the traditional situation of non-communication between theorists has been broken. Translation theorists fully express their views through various channels, such as published works.(Xie Tianzhen, 2009:32)

After the Second World War, with the modernization and integration of western social and economic development, western translation theories also began to enter a new period that transcends national boundaries. Therefore, it is difficult to classify some translation thoughts and some translation theorists in a narrow sense as belonging to a certain country or a certain place. It is acceptable to divide contemporary western translation theories into different schools according to their basic approaches and methods of translation studies or the basic characteristics of thought. Here is a brief introduction to some influential schools classified by Zhao Jiajin.

====American Translation Training School====
First established in 1964 at the University of Iowa, this school focused on translation practice, emphasized the literary taste and value of works, and adopted the methods of L. A. Richards and Williard V. Quine of Harvard University. Representative figures included poet and translator Ezra Pound, who translated Tang poetry and advocated the accurate restoration of details, words, fragments and the whole image description. Frederic Will of the University of Iowa, drawing on his training experience, regarded translation as a form of naming, fiction writing and cognition. Yale’s Jonas Zdnys argued that translation is an activity of subjective thought designed to explain literature. This school explores the role of the human mind in translation and raises the question of the nature of translation, but translation theory was limited to aesthetic experience and prescriptive translation rules.

====Translation Science School====
It was also known as “linguistic school”. According to this school, translation is the process of reproducing language as a whole, and it aims to correctly convey the original information to readers. The school was founded by Eugene Nida, whose masterpieces include Message and Mission (1960) and Toward Science of Translation (1946). Nida proposed functional equivalence theory according to Noam Chomsky’s transformational generative grammar and his experience in Bible translation, that is, to digest the original text and understand its basic structure and meaning; convey meaning based on basic structure; obtain semantic and stylistic equivalence with the original text. Thus the translation process can be summarized as: analyze—transfer—restructure, these three steps. The school of Translation science adopted linguistic theory and the more objective description method in translation theory. In the late 1970s, emphasis was placed on the cultural background of the information age, but the research was still limited to prescriptive research and translation criteria, ignoring the role of translators’thinking.（Zhao Jiajin,1996: 46）

====Translation school====
It is the so-called “literary school”. This school held that the original work is the unity of sentence series and article structure, and the translator is influenced by the original view and the future model of translation in the process of translation. The founder of this school was James Holmes, an American poet, who taught translation at the University of Amsterdam in the Netherlands before his death. His representative work is ''The Name and Nature of Translation Studies'' (1972).（Zhao Jiajin,1996: 46）

====Polysystem School====
Its founders are Itammar Even-Zohar and Gideon Toury of Tel Aviv University in Israel. Even coined the term Polysystem to explore the relationship between translated works and literary systems, and explained that the oriented culture of translation not only determines whether a work can be translated, but also regulates the wording. Toury held that translation belongs to the second system of multiple systems, and its role depends on the strength and development stage of the oriented culture of translation. He held that translation has no fixed identity and has multiple identities due to its social, literary and historical background. This school integrates translation studies with literary studies, social and economic factors, endows translation studies with historical significance, but it is still limited to the acceptability of translation and does not get rid of the fetters of cultural equivalence.（Zhao Jiajin,1996: 46）

====Deconstruction School====
It is also known as “affirmative productivity school”. It originated in France in the mid-1960s and is represented by Michel Foucault, Martin Heidegger and Jacques Derrida. This school introduced deconstruction into translation, claiming that translators create the subject and the target language is a new language. As Foucault put it, the original work is constantly rewritten in the process of translation, and the translator rewrites the original work every time he reads and translates it. Deconstruction studies the nature and process of translation and language, and advocates that translators exist as entities. The school even goes so far as to believe that language does not involve any objective reality, and translators have their own status only when they create texts.（Zhao Jiajin,1996: 46-47）

==Conclusion==
Under the influence of historical backgrounds, different periods of translation show different traits. In the modern period, the content of translation still focused on literature which included works form Russian, Nordic countries, China and so on. The way of translation was artificial and traditional. With the progress of economy and science, translation in the contemporary period also got great development. The content of translation was not confined to the field of literature. Instead, translation of science and technology, commerce, entertainment and so on became a major part of the actual translation activities. In addition, machine translation as a novel technique developed quickly. And the most important feature of modern western translation is the rapid development of translation theory thanks to many translator associations and publications on translation studies. Nowadays, under the influence of globalization, translation shows more and more importance and get better development environment.

==References==

Barnstone，Willis(1993). The Poetics of Trunslation: History, Theory, Practice[M]. New Haven:Yale University Press.

Bates, Ernest Stuart(1936). Modern Translation[M]. London: Oxford University Press.

Catford, John(1965). A Linguistic Theory of Translation: An Essay in Applied Linguistics[M].Oxford and London: Oxford University Press.

Delisle, Jean(1995). Translation: An Interpretive Approach[M]. Ottawa: University of Ottawa Press.

Feng Zhiwei 冯志伟(1994).《自然语言机器翻译新论》[M] New Theories of Machine Translation of Natural Language.北京:语文出版社Beijing: Chinese Press.

FitzMaurice-Kelly, J(1911). "Translation"[J]. Encyclopedia Britannica (11th edition, Cambridge),27:183-188.

Gentzler, Edwin(2004). Contemporary Translation Theories[M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

Hutchins，Robert(1952). Great Books of the Western World[M]. Chicago: Encyclopaedia .Britannica Ltd.

Mu Yunyang,Li Zhisheng,Yu Hao杨沐昀、李志升、于浩(2000).《机器翻译系统》[M]Machine Translation System.哈尔滨：哈尔滨工业大学出版社Harbin: Harbin University of Technology Press.

Tan Zaixi谭载喜(2004).西方翻译简史[M]A Brief History of Western Translation.北京：商务印书馆Beijing:The Commercial Press.

Tan Zaixi谭载喜(1985).西方翻译史浅谈[J]On the History of Western Translation.中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal,7:36-39.

Xie Tianzhen谢天振(2008).《当代国外翻译理论导读》[M]Introduction to Contemporary Foreign Translation Theories.天津：南开大学出版社Tianjin：Nankai University Press.

Xie Tianzhen谢天振(2011).中西翻译简史[M]A Brief History of Chinese and Western Translation.北京:外语教学与研究出版社Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.

Zhao Jiajin赵家琎(1996).当代翻译学派简介[J]A Brief Introduction to Contemporary Translation Schools.中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal,5：46—47.

Zhao Tiejun赵铁军等(2001).《机器翻译原理》[M]Principles of Machine Translation.哈尔滨：哈尔滨工业大学出版社Harbin: Harbin University of Technology Press.

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=Western Translation History In the Modern and Contemperary Ages=
'''现当代西方翻译史'''

魏楚璇，Wei Chuxuan, Hunan Normal University, China

==Abstract==
Under different historical backgrounds, western translation presents different characteristics. In the 20th century before the end of the Second World War, the two world wars inevitably brought obstacles and disturbances to the development of translation. Therefore, though translation in this period still continued to develop, it did not get breakthrough. Translation was still dominated by literary works in content, totally relying on manual labor. In translation theory, it emphasized the creativity of translation and laid a foundation for the linguistic turn of translation studies. After the end of World War II, the world entered an era of relative peace, the world economy recovered, and the translation industry was greatly revitalized. During this period, the scale of translation covered all aspects of social life, machine translation developed fast, translation training flourished, translation organizations were established in various countries and many translation theories and schools emerged. That is to say, this period can be called the golden age of translation.

==摘要==
在不同的历史背景下，西方翻译呈现出不同的特点。在二战结束之前的二十世纪，两次世界大战不可避免地为翻译事业的发展带来了阻碍和干扰，因而这一时期的翻译虽然仍在发展但并未取得突破性的成就，在翻译的内容上仍然以文学作品为主，技术上完全依赖人工，理论方面注重翻译的创造性且为翻译研究的语言学转向奠定了基础。二战结束后，世界进入到相对和平的年代，世界经济复苏，翻译事业也大为振兴。在这一时期，翻译的内容覆盖社会生活的方方面面，机器翻译发展迅速，翻译培训兴起，翻译组织在各国成立，各种翻译理论和翻译流派涌现，可谓是翻译的黄金年代。

==Keywords==
Western translation; translation history; modern; contemperary

==Introduction==
In this paper, western translation history in modern and contemporary ages will be introduced. Here the modern age refers to the nearly half century before the Second World War. And the contemporary age refers to the half century after the Second World War. That is to say, the modern and contemporary translation in this paper refers to the translation in the 20th century. Under the influence of different historical backgrounds, translation in these two ages showed different characteristics and traits which will be concluded and discussed in detail in the following.

==The General Situation of Translation in the Modern Age==
Into the 20th century, the capitalism in the developed countries developed into imperialism. On the one hand, the imperialist countries intensified their foreign expansion to oppress and exploit the weak countries and people in colony. On the other hand, they were engaged in a fierce battle among themselves for international markets and spheres of influence. Thus, in less than half a century, two world wars broke out. Under this historical background, translation in western countries will inevitably be seriously disturbed and destroyed. However, translation in western countries continued to develop and excellent translations still appeared from time to time. The translation of this period also has its own traits. The general situation of translation in this period can be summarized from the following two aspects.

===The emphasis of translation was on Russian and Nordic works and more Chinese works were translated.===
From the end of the 19th century to the beginning of the 20th century, the literature of Russia and the Nordic countries developed greatly with the emergence of Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoyevsky, Leo Tolstoy, Chekhov, Andersen, Ibsen, Strindberg and other world-renowned great writers and dramatists. Their works had attracted the attention of the people in Western Europe and North America so they were competing to learn Russian, Danish and Swedish and had these works translated into English, German and French. In the process of translation, many excellent translators emerged in various countries.
====Translation of Russian literature====
According to the research of Tan Zaixi, Constance Garnet is the most famous female translator in Britain in this century. She translated almost all classic Russian novels and is widely regarded as the most important Translator of translating Russian literature into English. She published her first translation of Turgenev's novel Ru-Din in 1894. In the following decades, she devoted almost all her energy and time to the translation of Russian literature. She was the first person to translate Turgenev, Dostoyevsky and Chekhov into English, successively translating all the major works of Turgenev, Goncharov, Dostoyevsky, Tolstoy, Gogol and Chekhov including 12 volumes of Dostoyevsky's Selected Works translated from 1912 to 1920, 15 volumes of Turgenev's Selected Works translated from 1894 to 1899, 15 volumes of Chekhov's Novels and Plays translated from 1916 to 1922, and 6 volumes of Gogol’s Selected Works translated from 1922 to 1928. In particular, her translations of Turgenev, Chekhov, Dostoyevsky and other works were widely welcomed by the English reading community, and thus gave rise to the Russian literature craze in English literature before the First World War. She translated 70 Russian works in her lifetime, making her the most prolific translator of Russian works.
Two other translators who did not translate as much from Russian to English as Garnett, but who had no less influence, were the couple——Louise and Aylmer Maude. They are famous in western modern literary circles for their research and translation of Tolstoy's works. From 1928 to 1937, they spent nearly ten years translating and publishing 21 volumes of The Complete Works of Tolstoy. Later, from 1940s to 1950s, they supplemented or retranslated some of Tolstoy's works, such as What I Believe and Resurrection. In 1952, their work of War and Peace was accepted as a standard English translation and was selected for the prestigious Great Books of the Western World, thus establishing them as the authoritative English translators of Tolstoy. In addition, R. S. Townsend, R. Edmonds, Samuel Koteliansky, Ethel C. Mayne, Boris Brasol, Richard Renfield and so on were famous for translating the works of Tolstoy, Dostoevsky, Turgenev, Chekhov, Goncharov into English.（Tan Zaixi，2004:148-150）

====Translation of Nordic literature and drama====
In the first half of the 20th century, in addition to Russian literature, western European translators showed great interest in Nordic literature and drama, including the works of Andersen, Ibsen and Strindberg.

According to the study of Tan Zaixi, when Hans Christian Andersen was alive, one of his works was published simultaneously in 15 languages, including English, German, French, Italian, Spanish and almost all the major languages of Western Europe. Later, all of his works were translated into different languages, and there were many re-translations in English, French, German and other countries. The first English translator was Mary Howitt, who began translating Andersen’s fairy tales in 1846. Later translators include Charles Boner, Caroline Peachey, Lady Duff Gordon, Paul Leyssac, R. R. Keigwin and R. Spink. Some of the best translations are Leyssac’s translation in 1937, Keigwin’s translation from 1950 to 1960 and Spink’s translation.(Tan Zaixi，2004:151)

The main English translators of Ibsen’s plays are William Archer and James MacFarlane. Archer translated 12 volumes of The Collected Works of H. I. from 1906 to 1912, including almost all of Ibsen’s plays and some of his previously unpublished papers. Macfarlane compiled translated eight volumes of The Oxford Ibsen from 1960 to 1977. In addition, F. E. Garrett translated Lyrics and Poems from Ibsen in 1912. Mary Morison translated The Correspondence of H.I. in 1905. Evert Sprinchorn translated H. I. Letters and Speeches in 1964. (Tan Zaixi，2004:151)

In Germany, the standard German translation is the 10-volume The Collected Plays of Ibsen edited and published by G. Brandes, J. Elias, and P. Schlenther from 1898 to 1902. The standard French translation is The Complete Works of Ibsen in 16 volumes translated and published by P. G. La Chesnais from 1914 to 1945.(Tan Zaixi，2004:151)

Strindberg’s work was translated into English as early as 1912. For the next fifty or sixty years, many people worked on Strindberg’s studies and translations. Major English translators included E. Schleussner, Walter Johnson, M. Sandbach, Elizabeth Sprigge and Michael Meyer. Some good works are Sprigge’s translations of Strinberg’s Plays in 1963 and Meyer’s translations of The Father, Miss Julie, Storm and so on in 1964. In other major western European countries such as Germany and France, Strindberg’s plays were also translated into German and French, and repeatedly staged in Berlin and Paris. (Tan Zaixi，2004:152)

There is no doubt that the translation of modern and contemporary Russian and Nordic literature and drama was a mainstream of western translation in the first half of the century. However, at the same time, it must be pointed out that the mutual translation of modern and contemporary literary works in western European countries still enjoys considerable momentum.

====More and more Chinese works were translated.====
In the 20th century, more and more people in the West became interested in Chinese culture. Since the 1950s, with the improvement of new China’s international prestige, the fever of translating Chinese works had been constantly appearing in the West. Not only the Four Books, Five Classics, Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Water Margin, Journey to the West, A Dream of Red Mansions and the poems of Li Bai, Du Fu and Bai Juyi were translated into English, German and French, but modern writers such as Luxun, Maodun and Bajin were also introduced to western countries. In the process of translating and introducing Chinese works, excellent translators have emerged from every country.

According to the study of Tan Zaixi, Arthur Waley, the most eminent Sinologist in Britain in the 20th century, was a translator, writer and poet. In 1916, his first translation of Chinese Poems was published. In 1918, he published his second translated work One Hundred Seventy Chinese Poems. These two translations are both from Tang poems. In addition, he also translated part of Journey to the West in 1942, published four other Chinese-English translations, and wrote three books about China or Chinese writers. Another outstanding Sinologist and translator in the 20th century was Franz Kuhn of Germany. From 1919, when his first translation was published, to his death in 1961, he translated and published more than 40 classical and modern Chinese literary works, including 12 novels and 34 short stories. In particular, his translation of The Fortunate Union in 1926, Second Bloom in 1927, The Golden Lotus in 1930, A Dream of Red Mansions in 1932, Water Margin in 1934, Jade Dragonfly in 1936, Romance of the Three Kingdoms in 1940, Midnight and other works from 1940 to 1955, were well received by German readers.（Tan Zaixi,2004:153-156）

===The creativity of translation and the language in translation were paid more attention.===
In the aspect of translation theory, scholars had deeply reflected on the traditional translation theory, especially questioned the universality of language, and proposed that when the meaning of the original text becomes obscure and difficult to understand, translators must fill in the gaps of the text according to their own experience. Therefore, translation theories of this period paid more attention to the creativity of translation and the language problems in translation. Although they did not separate themselves from the discussion of translation techniques such as word selection and sentence construction, they laid a foundation for the linguistic turn of translation studies and provided theoretical thinking for the translation literature as an independent existence. And about the specific translation theories in different countries in this period, Xie Tianzhen made a brief summary.

J. P. Postgate is a famous Translation theorist in Britain, and he put forward prospective translation and retrospective translation. Prospective translation means that the translator always keeps the reader in mind and adopts free methods and common expressions to ensure that the original ideas of the reader are not affected and their prediction is not interfered with. The purpose of translation is to show the translator’s mastery of the target language, focusing on the target language rather than the original one. Retrospective translation means that the translator always looks at the original author, because the purpose of translation is to impart knowledge of the original text, rather than to look ahead and consider the reader of the translation.（Xie Tianzhen，2011:29）

French scholar J. Marouzeau’s "On Translation of Latin" is an important translation literature in French. He believed that translation is a skill in which the translator should reveal to the reader the content of the original work, rather than its shell, using a living language.（Xie Tianzhen，2011:29）

German thinker Walter Benjamin pointed out that although the translation is based on the original, it is the afterlife of the original work and the translation need not pursue the same meaning as the original work. Mediocre translators pay more attention to the meaning of the original work than to its literariness and language style and they only know that the translation exists to serve the original work and can only translate the non-essential content of the original work. (Xie Tianzhen，2008:319-332) The translator’s task is to use his own language to release the pure language trapped by another language, that is, to liberate the imprisoned language in the re-creation of the original text. Edwin Gentzler, a contemporary American translation theorist, believed that the discussion of translation issues among Anglo-American deconstructionists mainly revolves around comments on Benjamin’s Translator’s Task. (Edwin Gentzler, 2004:173-174.) Therefore, Translator’s Task is regarded as the “Bible” of translation theory and the classic of deconstructive translation theory.（Xie Tianzhen，2011:30）

The Russian scholar Mikhail Vasilievich Lemonosov transformed the loanwords that entered the Russian language, russified them, and regarded translation as a creative activity. And this view of free translation lasted until the 19th century. Aleksandr Pushkin, the greatest Russian poet in the 19th century, based on his literary translation practice, proposed that translators should have their own opinions on the selection of materials and should have full freedom in dealing with the original work, but the uniqueness of the original work should be preserved as much as possible.（Xie Tianzhen，2011:30）

==The General Situation of Translation in the Contemporary Age==
After the Second World War, the world entered a period of relative peace. After the trauma of the war, the Western countries regrouped and began to restore and develop production and economy in an all-round way. Translation cause also entered a new period of development at extremely rapid pace, taking on a new look. During this period, not only in the Soviet Union, Britain, Germany, France and other major European countries, but also in the United States, Canada, the cause of translation showed a prosperous scene. In terms of the whole western translation career, the translation after the Second World War was unmatched in scope, form, scale and achievement. Therefore, the 20th century could be called as "the age of translation" , which in fact mainly referred to the decades since the end of the war. Though great achievement was also made in literary translation in this period, the 20th century is known as the "age of translation" mainly because western translation expanded into various fields during this period, which has five characteristics.

===The scale of translation extended to the field of business, diplomacy, science and many other professional affairs.===
Since the end of the Second World War, due to practical needs, commercial, diplomatic, scientific and technological translation had flourished, and its momentum even exceeded literary translation, thus forming a major content of the development of modern western translation.Here is the research of Tan Zaixi about the scale of translation.

In 1945, the United Nations was established with English, French, Russian, Chinese and Spanish as the five official and working languages. In 1957, the European Community was founded, consisting of six countries at that time. In 1993, the European Community developed into the European Union. By 2004, it had 25 member states, using nine languages including English, French, German, Italy, Denmark, Ireland, Greece, Spain and Portugal. That is to say, translation had become an indispensable part of daily work, both for communicating with countries in other regions and among western countries. According to UNESCO, the number of translations in the world increased four-and-a-half times from 1948 to 1970. The institutions of the European Common Market employed more than 1,300 employees to deal with translation, of whom 450 were full-time interpreters, 550 translators and others were freelance employees on short-term contracts. (Tan Zaixi,2004:160-161)

===Translation teaching was widespread.===
In the past, translation was mainly the work of a few literary magnates. With the establishment of the United Nations and its specialized agencies, as well as the establishment of international institutions such as the European Common Market (EC, EU) and the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, the need for translators was increasing. To meet this need, a number of schools specializing in training translators had been set up.

According to the study of Tan Zaixi, the most prominent schools are the High School of Translation at the Third University of Paris and the School of Translation at the University of Ottawa. What’s more, many universities in Europe and the United States also offer translation classes or courses in senior grades.（Tan Zaixi, 2004:161-162）
===Translators’associations were established and publications on translation studies were launched.===
Translators in different countries set up various translation associations and publications. These associations played an important role in the development of translation through their activities and publications.

According to Tan Zaixi, translation associations or federations in European and American capitalist countries, in particular, generally emphasize the following principles: to clarify the legal status of translators through legislative means; to take effective measures to protect the legal rights of translators (especially the copyright that translators should enjoy); to improve their social status and increase their economic income; to improve the learning and working conditions of translators to provide them with opportunities to constantly improve their translation skills and a good working environment.（Tan Zaixi，2004:162）

There were more translators’ organizations in the United States than in other western countries, with a total of 30, among which the most influential were the American Society of Translators, the American Federation of Linguists and the Literary Society of America. The journal of the American Society of Translators was ATA Chronicle. The journal of the Literary Society of America was Translation Review.（Tan Zaixi，2004:162-163）

In Canada, major translation associations included the Canadian Council of Translators and Interpreters, the Ontario Association of Translators and Interpreters, the Business Language Centre, and the Quebec Translation Association. The Ontario Association of Translators and Interpreters founded the journal of Inform ATIO. The most influential professional translation magazine in Canada was Meta: Journal des Traducteurs.（Tan Zaixi，2004:164）

In Britain, major translation associations included the Association of Translation Companies of Great Britain, the Association of Translators and the Guild of Translators, of which the Guild of Translators was the most famous. The official publication of the guild is The Incorporated Linguist, which was published in 1962 and enjoyed high reputation in Britain.（Tan Zaixi，2004:164)

There were two major translation associations in France: the Association of French Translators and the Association of French Literary Translators. There were also two major translation associations in West Germany, one was the Association of Federation Translators and Interpreters and the other was the German-speaking World Federation of Literary and Technical Translators. In addition, Austria, Italy, Spain, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, Finland, Belgium and other Western European countries also had local or national translation organizations and a variety of translation publications.（Tan Zaixi，2004:164-165）

===Machine translation developed.===
In the process of more than two thousand years of development, the traditional translation method had not undergone substantial changes in technology, and the translation between the two languages still had to be carried out by hand. However, due to the increasingly frequent international scientific and cultural exchanges, manual translation could no longer timely meet the needs. Therefore, when the traditional manual translation was facing the challenge of the times, machine translation should be born.

In 1946, under the auspices of the United States Army headquarters, J.P. Eckert and J.W. Mauchly who were both from the University of Pennsylvania developed the world’s first electronic computer named: Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator, or ENIAC for short. Computer’s astonishing speed inspired people to consider the innovation of translation technology. Therefore, in the same year, Andrew Booth and Warren Weaver first proposed the use of computers in the machine translation system. Since then, machine translation and machine translation research, driven by modern electronic computing technology officially began.American science, especially the development of computer science, to a large extent affected the development of computer science in the whole West and even the world. Therefore, especially in the pioneering period, the development history and model of Machine translation in America can almost be regarded as those in the whole West. In this sense, the development of machine translation in the west (and even the world) can be roughly divided into the following five major periods, just like the development of Machine translation in the United States: initial stage; high stage; low stage; recovery stage; vigorous stage. The following is a further overview of the five development periods of machine translation in the West (mainly in the United States) made by Tan Zaixi who referred to the books of Yang Muyun, Li Zhisheng，Yu Hao, Zhao Tiejun and so on.

====Initial stage (1946—1954)====
The pioneering period begins with Booth and Weaver’s idea of translating natural language by computer in 1954, and ends with the birth of the first machine translation system. After the idea of using computers to translate was put forward, although there was great resistance in the United States at first, the voice supporting it was mainstream. In particular, Weaver published a memorandum on machine translation in 1949, which not only opened up a series of research topics on machine translation in the United States, but also had a wide influence in western countries. The memo makes four basic points: the problem of polysemy can be solved by context; there is a logical basis in language; there are basic probabilities in language application; there are common elements in different languages. These are still the fundamental of the development of machine translation. In the following years, machine translation research had been actively carried out in some universities and organizations in the United States and Britain. In Massachusetts Institute of Technology, the first full-time machine translation researcher Bar-Hillel arrived, he made a great contribution to the early development of machine translation and put forward the main problems and basic strategies needed to be solved in machine translation research. The first machine translation conference was held at MIT in June 1952, after which machine translation research in the United States began to accelerate. In 1954, a machine translation system for computer was developed and demonstrated. Although the machine translation system was small, consisting of only 250 Russian words, six grammar rules, and a few translation examples, it first showed the public and the scientific community the feasibility of machine translation, inspiring substantial funding from U.S. government for machine translation research over the next decade.（Tan Zaixi，2004:167-168）

====High-tide stage(1954—1966)====
The successful demonstration of the world’s first machine translation system, the Georgetown-IBM system of United States, marked the first development climax of machine translation. The upsurge began in 1954 and lasted for 12 years. In the mid-1950s, inspired by successful demonstration of machine translation system, dozens of universities, companies, and government agencies in the United States began machine translation research programs. On the one hand, due to the competition between the United States and the Soviet Union at that time, the United States military, the National Science Foundation, the Central Intelligence Agency and so on needed to acquire a large amount of scientific and technological information of the Soviet Union, so that they invested a lot in machine translation, especially Russian-English translation. On the other hand, advanced computers in the United States provided good equipment for the development of the first generation of machine translation system. At the same time, many universities and institutions in most European countries had also carried out machine translation research.（Tan Zaixi，2004:168-170）

====Low-tide stage (1966—1975)====
The advent of machine translation had opened up a new way for traditional translation research and practice. However, the complexity of machine translation was underestimated at that time and the design of machine translation system was often too rough and simple. In this case, the first generation of machine translation systems in the initial stage could not achieve ideal results, the quality of translation is often poor, so that some people gradually lost confidence in machine translation research, and some scholars also became pessimistic and disappointed. （Tan Zaixi，2004:170）

In the mid-1960s, machine translation in the United States had suffered a severe blow. In 1966, the Automatic Language Processing Advisory Committee, part of the National Academy of Sciences, was asked to investigate machine translation research funded by government. The committee published its report, Language and Machines, after analyzing the speed, quality, cost and demand of machine translation at that time. The report pointed out that the quality of machine translation is significantly lower than that of human translation and asserted that there was no likelihood of any commercially useful machine translation system in the foreseeable future. On the committee’s recommendation, the U.S. government withdrew the funding for machine translation research. Thus, machine translation research in the United States plummeted from a high point to a low point of development. It should be noted, however, that machine translation research and development was not in a complete demise, following the official denials in the United States. Scholars and research institutions in many countries including the United States continued to carry out researches and experiments on machine translation under relatively difficult circumstances.（Tan Zaixi，2004:171）

====Recovery stage(1975—1989)====
In the middle of 1970s, with the emergence of new theories and ideas in the field of linguistics and the further development of computational linguistics, the research of machine translation was aroused in the world again. After ten years of silence, machine translation research stepped on the road of recovery. The recovery period of machine translation research and development is generally considered to date from the installation of the SYSTRAN system by EURATOM and the completion of the TAUM-METEO system by the University of Montreal in Canada.（Tan Zaixi，2004:171-174）

====Vigorous stage（1989—）====
Since the late 1980s, some new developments had changed the field of machine translation, marking machine translation research enter a new period. This is the emergence of the third generation of machine translation method that is corpus-based. Corpus-based machine translation systems include statistic-based translation and example-based translation, both of which are based on large-scale real text. （Tan Zaixi，2004:167-175）

Practice has proved that machine translation has great vitality. It is a new science, and its research and translation have entered a new stage of development. No matter whether it can replace the human brain and hands eventually and completely liberate human from the heavy artificial translation, it will develop and exist for a long time. Both in theory and practice, machine translation and its research will exert more and more influence on traditional translation and its research.

===Translation theories of different schools were emerging one after another.===
The most important feature of modern western translation is the rapid development of translation theory. After the Second World War, with the vigorous development of science and technology, modern linguistics, translation activities and the rise of machine translation, people gradually changed the traditional view of translation studies, believing that translation is not only an art or skill, but also a science with rules to follow.

On the whole, the development of contemporary translation theory has two characteristics :(1) theoretical research has been brought into the scope of linguistics, under the influence of modern linguistics and information theory; (2) the traditional situation of non-communication between theorists has been broken. Translation theorists fully express their views through various channels, such as published works.(Xie Tianzhen, 2009:32)

After the Second World War, with the modernization and integration of western social and economic development, western translation theories also began to enter a new period that transcends national boundaries. Therefore, it is difficult to classify some translation thoughts and some translation theorists in a narrow sense as belonging to a certain country or a certain place. It is acceptable to divide contemporary western translation theories into different schools according to their basic approaches and methods of translation studies or the basic characteristics of thought. Here is a brief introduction to some influential schools classified by Zhao Jiajin.

====American Translation Training School====
First established in 1964 at the University of Iowa, this school focused on translation practice, emphasized the literary taste and value of works, and adopted the methods of L. A. Richards and Williard V. Quine of Harvard University. Representative figures included poet and translator Ezra Pound, who translated Tang poetry and advocated the accurate restoration of details, words, fragments and the whole image description. Frederic Will of the University of Iowa, drawing on his training experience, regarded translation as a form of naming, fiction writing and cognition. Yale’s Jonas Zdnys argued that translation is an activity of subjective thought designed to explain literature. This school explores the role of the human mind in translation and raises the question of the nature of translation, but translation theory was limited to aesthetic experience and prescriptive translation rules.

====Translation Science School====
It was also known as “linguistic school”. According to this school, translation is the process of reproducing language as a whole, and it aims to correctly convey the original information to readers. The school was founded by Eugene Nida, whose masterpieces include Message and Mission (1960) and Toward Science of Translation (1946). Nida proposed functional equivalence theory according to Noam Chomsky’s transformational generative grammar and his experience in Bible translation, that is, to digest the original text and understand its basic structure and meaning; convey meaning based on basic structure; obtain semantic and stylistic equivalence with the original text. Thus the translation process can be summarized as: analyze—transfer—restructure, these three steps. The school of Translation science adopted linguistic theory and the more objective description method in translation theory. In the late 1970s, emphasis was placed on the cultural background of the information age, but the research was still limited to prescriptive research and translation criteria, ignoring the role of translators’thinking.（Zhao Jiajin,1996: 46）

====Translation school====
It is the so-called “literary school”. This school held that the original work is the unity of sentence series and article structure, and the translator is influenced by the original view and the future model of translation in the process of translation. The founder of this school was James Holmes, an American poet, who taught translation at the University of Amsterdam in the Netherlands before his death. His representative work is ''The Name and Nature of Translation Studies'' (1972).（Zhao Jiajin,1996: 46）

====Polysystem School====
Its founders are Itammar Even-Zohar and Gideon Toury of Tel Aviv University in Israel. Even coined the term Polysystem to explore the relationship between translated works and literary systems, and explained that the oriented culture of translation not only determines whether a work can be translated, but also regulates the wording. Toury held that translation belongs to the second system of multiple systems, and its role depends on the strength and development stage of the oriented culture of translation. He held that translation has no fixed identity and has multiple identities due to its social, literary and historical background. This school integrates translation studies with literary studies, social and economic factors, endows translation studies with historical significance, but it is still limited to the acceptability of translation and does not get rid of the fetters of cultural equivalence.（Zhao Jiajin,1996: 46）

====Deconstruction School====
It is also known as “affirmative productivity school”. It originated in France in the mid-1960s and is represented by Michel Foucault, Martin Heidegger and Jacques Derrida. This school introduced deconstruction into translation, claiming that translators create the subject and the target language is a new language. As Foucault put it, the original work is constantly rewritten in the process of translation, and the translator rewrites the original work every time he reads and translates it. Deconstruction studies the nature and process of translation and language, and advocates that translators exist as entities. The school even goes so far as to believe that language does not involve any objective reality, and translators have their own status only when they create texts.（Zhao Jiajin,1996: 46-47）

==Conclusion==
Under the influence of historical backgrounds, different periods of translation show different traits. In the modern period, the content of translation still focused on literature which included works form Russian, Nordic countries, China and so on. The way of translation was artificial and traditional. With the progress of economy and science, translation in the contemporary period also got great development. The content of translation was not confined to the field of literature. Instead, translation of science and technology, commerce, entertainment and so on became a major part of the actual translation activities. In addition, machine translation as a novel technique developed quickly. And the most important feature of modern western translation is the rapid development of translation theory thanks to many translator associations and publications on translation studies. Nowadays, under the influence of globalization, translation shows more and more importance and get better development environment.

==References==

Barnstone，Willis(1993). The Poetics of Trunslation: History, Theory, Practice[M]. New Haven:Yale University Press.

Bates, Ernest Stuart(1936). Modern Translation[M]. London: Oxford University Press.

Catford, John(1965). A Linguistic Theory of Translation: An Essay in Applied Linguistics[M].Oxford and London: Oxford University Press.

Delisle, Jean(1995). Translation: An Interpretive Approach[M]. Ottawa: University of Ottawa Press.

Feng Zhiwei 冯志伟(1994).《自然语言机器翻译新论》[M] New Theories of Machine Translation of Natural Language.北京:语文出版社Beijing: Chinese Press.

FitzMaurice-Kelly, J(1911). "Translation"[J]. Encyclopedia Britannica (11th edition, Cambridge),27:183-188.

Gentzler, Edwin(2004). Contemporary Translation Theories[M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

Hutchins，Robert(1952). Great Books of the Western World[M]. Chicago: Encyclopaedia .Britannica Ltd.

Mu Yunyang,Li Zhisheng,Yu Hao杨沐昀、李志升、于浩(2000).《机器翻译系统》[M]Machine Translation System.哈尔滨：哈尔滨工业大学出版社Harbin: Harbin University of Technology Press.

Tan Zaixi谭载喜(2004).西方翻译简史[M]A Brief History of Western Translation.北京：商务印书馆Beijing:The Commercial Press.

Tan Zaixi谭载喜(1985).西方翻译史浅谈[J]On the History of Western Translation.中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal,7:36-39.

Xie Tianzhen谢天振(2008).《当代国外翻译理论导读》[M]Introduction to Contemporary Foreign Translation Theories.天津：南开大学出版社Tianjin：Nankai University Press.

Xie Tianzhen谢天振(2011).中西翻译简史[M]A Brief History of Chinese and Western Translation.北京:外语教学与研究出版社Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.

Zhao Jiajin赵家琎(1996).当代翻译学派简介[J]A Brief Introduction to Contemporary Translation Schools.中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal,5：46—47.

Zhao Tiejun赵铁军等(2001).《机器翻译原理》[M]Principles of Machine Translation.哈尔滨：哈尔滨工业大学出版社Harbin: Harbin University of Technology Press.

Hist Trans EN 14

2021-12-13T12:54:30Z

Wei Chuxuan: /* The General Situation of Translation in the Modern Age */

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=Western Translation History In the Modern and Contemperary Ages=
'''现当代西方翻译史'''

魏楚璇，Wei Chuxuan, Hunan Normal University, China

==Abstract==
Under different historical backgrounds, western translation presents different characteristics. In the 20th century before the end of the Second World War, the two world wars inevitably brought obstacles and disturbances to the development of translation. Therefore, though translation in this period still continued to develop, it did not get breakthrough. Translation was still dominated by literary works in content, totally relying on manual labor. In translation theory, it emphasized the creativity of translation and laid a foundation for the linguistic turn of translation studies. After the end of World War II, the world entered an era of relative peace, the world economy recovered, and the translation industry was greatly revitalized. During this period, the scale of translation covered all aspects of social life, machine translation developed fast, translation training flourished, translation organizations were established in various countries and many translation theories and schools emerged. That is to say, this period can be called the golden age of translation.

==摘要==
在不同的历史背景下，西方翻译呈现出不同的特点。在二战结束之前的二十世纪，两次世界大战不可避免地为翻译事业的发展带来了阻碍和干扰，因而这一时期的翻译虽然仍在发展但并未取得突破性的成就，在翻译的内容上仍然以文学作品为主，技术上完全依赖人工，理论方面注重翻译的创造性且为翻译研究的语言学转向奠定了基础。二战结束后，世界进入到相对和平的年代，世界经济复苏，翻译事业也大为振兴。在这一时期，翻译的内容覆盖社会生活的方方面面，机器翻译发展迅速，翻译培训兴起，翻译组织在各国成立，各种翻译理论和翻译流派涌现，可谓是翻译的黄金年代。

==Keywords==
Western translation; translation history; modern; contemperary

==Introduction==
In this paper, western translation history in modern and contemporary ages will be introduced. Here the modern age refers to the nearly half century before the Second World War. And the contemporary age refers to the half century after the Second World War. That is to say, the modern and contemporary translation in this paper refers to the translation in the 20th century. Under the influence of different historical backgrounds, translation in these two ages showed different characteristics and traits which will be concluded and discussed in detail in the following.

==The General Situation of Translation in the Modern Age==
Into the 20th century, the capitalism in the developed countries developed into imperialism. On the one hand, the imperialist countries intensified their foreign expansion to oppress and exploit the weak countries and people in colony. On the other hand, they were engaged in a fierce battle among themselves for international markets and spheres of influence. Thus, in less than half a century, two world wars broke out. Under this historical background, translation in western countries will inevitably be seriously disturbed and destroyed. However, translation in western countries continued to develop and excellent translations still appeared from time to time. The translation of this period also has its own traits. The general situation of translation in this period can be summarized from the following two aspects.

===The emphasis of translation was on Russian and Nordic works and more Chinese works were translated.===
From the end of the 19th century to the beginning of the 20th century, the literature of Russia and the Nordic countries developed greatly with the emergence of Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoyevsky, Leo Tolstoy, Chekhov, Andersen, Ibsen, Strindberg and other world-renowned great writers and dramatists. Their works had attracted the attention of the people in Western Europe and North America so they were competing to learn Russian, Danish and Swedish and had these works translated into English, German and French. In the process of translation, many excellent translators emerged in various countries.
====Translation of Russian literature====
According to the research of Tan Zaixi, Constance Garnet is the most famous female translator in Britain in this century. She translated almost all classic Russian novels and is widely regarded as the most important Translator of translating Russian literature into English. She published her first translation of Turgenev's novel Ru-Din in 1894. In the following decades, she devoted almost all her energy and time to the translation of Russian literature. She was the first person to translate Turgenev, Dostoyevsky and Chekhov into English, successively translating all the major works of Turgenev, Goncharov, Dostoyevsky, Tolstoy, Gogol and Chekhov including 12 volumes of Dostoyevsky's Selected Works translated from 1912 to 1920, 15 volumes of Turgenev's Selected Works translated from 1894 to 1899, 15 volumes of Chekhov's Novels and Plays translated from 1916 to 1922, and 6 volumes of Gogol’s Selected Works translated from 1922 to 1928. In particular, her translations of Turgenev, Chekhov, Dostoyevsky and other works were widely welcomed by the English reading community, and thus gave rise to the Russian literature craze in English literature before the First World War. She translated 70 Russian works in her lifetime, making her the most prolific translator of Russian works.
Two other translators who did not translate as much from Russian to English as Garnett, but who had no less influence, were the couple——Louise and Aylmer Maude. They are famous in western modern literary circles for their research and translation of Tolstoy's works. From 1928 to 1937, they spent nearly ten years translating and publishing 21 volumes of The Complete Works of Tolstoy. Later, from 1940s to 1950s, they supplemented or retranslated some of Tolstoy's works, such as What I Believe and Resurrection. In 1952, their work of War and Peace was accepted as a standard English translation and was selected for the prestigious Great Books of the Western World, thus establishing them as the authoritative English translators of Tolstoy. In addition, R. S. Townsend, R. Edmonds, Samuel Koteliansky, Ethel C. Mayne, Boris Brasol, Richard Renfield and so on were famous for translating the works of Tolstoy, Dostoevsky, Turgenev, Chekhov, Goncharov into English.（Tan Zaixi，2004:148-150）

====Translation of Nordic literature and drama====
In the first half of the 20th century, in addition to Russian literature, western European translators showed great interest in Nordic literature and drama, including the works of Andersen, Ibsen and Strindberg.

According to the study of Tan Zaixi, when Hans Christian Andersen was alive, one of his works was published simultaneously in 15 languages, including English, German, French, Italian, Spanish and almost all the major languages of Western Europe. Later, all of his works were translated into different languages, and there were many re-translations in English, French, German and other countries. The first English translator was Mary Howitt, who began translating Andersen’s fairy tales in 1846. Later translators include Charles Boner, Caroline Peachey, Lady Duff Gordon, Paul Leyssac, R. R. Keigwin and R. Spink. Some of the best translations are Leyssac’s translation in 1937, Keigwin’s translation from 1950 to 1960 and Spink’s translation.(Tan Zaixi，2004:151)

The main English translators of Ibsen’s plays are William Archer and James MacFarlane. Archer translated 12 volumes of The Collected Works of H. I. from 1906 to 1912, including almost all of Ibsen’s plays and some of his previously unpublished papers. Macfarlane compiled translated eight volumes of The Oxford Ibsen from 1960 to 1977. In addition, F. E. Garrett translated Lyrics and Poems from Ibsen in 1912. Mary Morison translated The Correspondence of H.I. in 1905. Evert Sprinchorn translated H. I. Letters and Speeches in 1964. (Tan Zaixi，2004:151)

In Germany, the standard German translation is the 10-volume The Collected Plays of Ibsen edited and published by G. Brandes, J. Elias, and P. Schlenther from 1898 to 1902. The standard French translation is The Complete Works of Ibsen in 16 volumes translated and published by P. G. La Chesnais from 1914 to 1945.(Tan Zaixi，2004:151)

Strindberg’s work was translated into English as early as 1912. For the next fifty or sixty years, many people worked on Strindberg’s studies and translations. Major English translators included E. Schleussner, Walter Johnson, M. Sandbach, Elizabeth Sprigge and Michael Meyer. Some good works are Sprigge’s translations of Strinberg’s Plays in 1963 and Meyer’s translations of The Father, Miss Julie, Storm and so on in 1964. In other major western European countries such as Germany and France, Strindberg’s plays were also translated into German and French, and repeatedly staged in Berlin and Paris. (Tan Zaixi，2004:152)

There is no doubt that the translation of modern and contemporary Russian and Nordic literature and drama was a mainstream of western translation in the first half of the century. However, at the same time, it must be pointed out that the mutual translation of modern and contemporary literary works in western European countries still enjoys considerable momentum.

====More and more Chinese works were translated.====
In the 20th century, more and more people in the West became interested in Chinese culture. Since the 1950s, with the improvement of new China’s international prestige, the fever of translating Chinese works had been constantly appearing in the West. Not only the Four Books, Five Classics, Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Water Margin, Journey to the West, A Dream of Red Mansions and the poems of Li Bai, Du Fu and Bai Juyi were translated into English, German and French, but modern writers such as Luxun, Maodun and Bajin were also introduced to western countries. In the process of translating and introducing Chinese works, excellent translators have emerged from every country.

According to the study of Tan Zaixi, Arthur Waley, the most eminent Sinologist in Britain in the 20th century, was a translator, writer and poet. In 1916, his first translation of Chinese Poems was published. In 1918, he published his second translated work One Hundred Seventy Chinese Poems. These two translations are both from Tang poems. In addition, he also translated part of Journey to the West in 1942, published four other Chinese-English translations, and wrote three books about China or Chinese writers. Another outstanding Sinologist and translator in the 20th century was Franz Kuhn of Germany. From 1919, when his first translation was published, to his death in 1961, he translated and published more than 40 classical and modern Chinese literary works, including 12 novels and 34 short stories. In particular, his translation of The Fortunate Union in 1926, Second Bloom in 1927, The Golden Lotus in 1930, A Dream of Red Mansions in 1932, Water Margin in 1934, Jade Dragonfly in 1936, Romance of the Three Kingdoms in 1940, Midnight and other works from 1940 to 1955, were well received by German readers.（Tan Zaixi,2004:153-156）

===The creativity of translation and the language in translation were paid more attention.===
In the aspect of translation theory, scholars had deeply reflected on the traditional translation theory, especially questioned the universality of language, and proposed that when the meaning of the original text becomes obscure and difficult to understand, translators must fill in the gaps of the text according to their own experience. Therefore, translation theories of this period paid more attention to the creativity of translation and the language problems in translation. Although they did not separate themselves from the discussion of translation techniques such as word selection and sentence construction, they laid a foundation for the linguistic turn of translation studies and provided theoretical thinking for the translation literature as an independent existence. And about the specific translation theories in different countries in this period, Xie Tianzhen made a brief summary.

J. P. Postgate is a famous Translation theorist in Britain, and he put forward prospective translation and retrospective translation. Prospective translation means that the translator always keeps the reader in mind and adopts free methods and common expressions to ensure that the original ideas of the reader are not affected and their prediction is not interfered with. The purpose of translation is to show the translator’s mastery of the target language, focusing on the target language rather than the original one. Retrospective translation means that the translator always looks at the original author, because the purpose of translation is to impart knowledge of the original text, rather than to look ahead and consider the reader of the translation.（Xie Tianzhen，2011:29）

French scholar J. Marouzeau’s "On Translation of Latin" is an important translation literature in French. He believed that translation is a skill in which the translator should reveal to the reader the content of the original work, rather than its shell, using a living language.（Xie Tianzhen，2011:29）

German thinker Walter Benjamin pointed out that although the translation is based on the original, it is the afterlife of the original work and the translation need not pursue the same meaning as the original work. Mediocre translators pay more attention to the meaning of the original work than to its literariness and language style and they only know that the translation exists to serve the original work and can only translate the non-essential content of the original work. (Xie Tianzhen，2008:319-332) The translator’s task is to use his own language to release the pure language trapped by another language, that is, to liberate the imprisoned language in the re-creation of the original text. Edwin Gentzler, a contemporary American translation theorist, believed that the discussion of translation issues among Anglo-American deconstructionists mainly revolves around comments on Benjamin’s Translator’s Task. (Edwin Gentzler, 2004:173-174.) Therefore, Translator’s Task is regarded as the “Bible” of translation theory and the classic of deconstructive translation theory.（Xie Tianzhen，2011:30）

The Russian scholar Mikhail Vasilievich Lemonosov transformed the loanwords that entered the Russian language, russified them, and regarded translation as a creative activity. And this view of free translation lasted until the 19th century. Aleksandr Pushkin, the greatest Russian poet in the 19th century, based on his literary translation practice, proposed that translators should have their own opinions on the selection of materials and should have full freedom in dealing with the original work, but the uniqueness of the original work should be preserved as much as possible.（Xie Tianzhen，2011:30）

==The General Situation of Translation in the Contemporary Age==
After the Second World War, the world entered a period of relative peace. After the trauma of the war, the Western countries regrouped and began to restore and develop production and economy in an all-round way. Translation cause also entered a new period of development at extremely rapid pace, taking on a new look. During this period, not only in the Soviet Union, Britain, Germany, France and other major European countries, but also in the United States, Canada, the cause of translation showed a prosperous scene. In terms of the whole western translation career, the translation after the Second World War was unmatched in scope, form, scale and achievement. Therefore, the 20th century could be called as "the age of translation" , which in fact mainly referred to the decades since the end of the war. Though great achievement was also made in literary translation in this period, the 20th century is known as the "age of translation" mainly because western translation expanded into various fields during this period, which has five characteristics.

===The scale of translation extended to the field of business, diplomacy, science and many other professional affairs.===
Since the end of the Second World War, due to practical needs, commercial, diplomatic, scientific and technological translation had flourished, and its momentum even exceeded literary translation, thus forming a major content of the development of modern western translation.Here is the research of Tan Zaixi about the scale of translation.

In 1945, the United Nations was established with English, French, Russian, Chinese and Spanish as the five official and working languages. In 1957, the European Community was founded, consisting of six countries at that time. In 1993, the European Community developed into the European Union. By 2004, it had 25 member states, using nine languages including English, French, German, Italy, Denmark, Ireland, Greece, Spain and Portugal. That is to say, translation had become an indispensable part of daily work, both for communicating with countries in other regions and among western countries. According to UNESCO, the number of translations in the world increased four-and-a-half times from 1948 to 1970. The institutions of the European Common Market employed more than 1,300 employees to deal with translation, of whom 450 were full-time interpreters, 550 translators and others were freelance employees on short-term contracts. (Tan Zaixi,2004:160-161)

===Translation teaching was widespread.===
In the past, translation was mainly the work of a few literary magnates. With the establishment of the United Nations and its specialized agencies, as well as the establishment of international institutions such as the European Common Market (EC, EU) and the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, the need for translators was increasing. To meet this need, a number of schools specializing in training translators had been set up.

According to the study of Tan Zaixi, the most prominent schools are the High School of Translation at the Third University of Paris and the School of Translation at the University of Ottawa. What’s more, many universities in Europe and the United States also offer translation classes or courses in senior grades.（Tan Zaixi, 2004:161-162）
===Translators’associations were established and publications on translation studies were launched.===
Translators in different countries set up various translation associations and publications. These associations played an important role in the development of translation through their activities and publications.

According to Tan Zaixi, translation associations or federations in European and American capitalist countries, in particular, generally emphasize the following principles: to clarify the legal status of translators through legislative means; to take effective measures to protect the legal rights of translators (especially the copyright that translators should enjoy); to improve their social status and increase their economic income; to improve the learning and working conditions of translators to provide them with opportunities to constantly improve their translation skills and a good working environment.（Tan Zaixi，2004:162）

There were more translators’ organizations in the United States than in other western countries, with a total of 30, among which the most influential were the American Society of Translators, the American Federation of Linguists and the Literary Society of America. The journal of the American Society of Translators was ATA Chronicle. The journal of the Literary Society of America was Translation Review.（Tan Zaixi，2004:162-163）

In Canada, major translation associations included the Canadian Council of Translators and Interpreters, the Ontario Association of Translators and Interpreters, the Business Language Centre, and the Quebec Translation Association. The Ontario Association of Translators and Interpreters founded the journal of Inform ATIO. The most influential professional translation magazine in Canada was Meta: Journal des Traducteurs.（Tan Zaixi，2004:164）

In Britain, major translation associations included the Association of Translation Companies of Great Britain, the Association of Translators and the Guild of Translators, of which the Guild of Translators was the most famous. The official publication of the guild is The Incorporated Linguist, which was published in 1962 and enjoyed high reputation in Britain.（Tan Zaixi，2004:164)

There were two major translation associations in France: the Association of French Translators and the Association of French Literary Translators. There were also two major translation associations in West Germany, one was the Association of Federation Translators and Interpreters and the other was the German-speaking World Federation of Literary and Technical Translators. In addition, Austria, Italy, Spain, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, Finland, Belgium and other Western European countries also had local or national translation organizations and a variety of translation publications.（Tan Zaixi，2004:164-165）

===Machine translation developed.===
In the process of more than two thousand years of development, the traditional translation method had not undergone substantial changes in technology, and the translation between the two languages still had to be carried out by hand. However, due to the increasingly frequent international scientific and cultural exchanges, manual translation could no longer timely meet the needs. Therefore, when the traditional manual translation was facing the challenge of the times, machine translation should be born.

In 1946, under the auspices of the United States Army headquarters, J.P. Eckert and J.W. Mauchly who were both from the University of Pennsylvania developed the world’s first electronic computer named: Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator, or ENIAC for short. Computer’s astonishing speed inspired people to consider the innovation of translation technology. Therefore, in the same year, Andrew Booth and Warren Weaver first proposed the use of computers in the machine translation system. Since then, machine translation and machine translation research, driven by modern electronic computing technology officially began.American science, especially the development of computer science, to a large extent affected the development of computer science in the whole West and even the world. Therefore, especially in the pioneering period, the development history and model of Machine translation in America can almost be regarded as those in the whole West. In this sense, the development of machine translation in the west (and even the world) can be roughly divided into the following five major periods, just like the development of Machine translation in the United States: initial stage; high stage; low stage; recovery stage; vigorous stage. The following is a further overview of the five development periods of machine translation in the West (mainly in the United States) made by Tan Zaixi who referred to the books of Yang Muyun, Li Zhisheng，Yu Hao, Zhao Tiejun and so on.

====Initial stage (1946—1954)====
The pioneering period begins with Booth and Weaver’s idea of translating natural language by computer in 1954, and ends with the birth of the first machine translation system. After the idea of using computers to translate was put forward, although there was great resistance in the United States at first, the voice supporting it was mainstream. In particular, Weaver published a memorandum on machine translation in 1949, which not only opened up a series of research topics on machine translation in the United States, but also had a wide influence in western countries. The memo makes four basic points: the problem of polysemy can be solved by context; there is a logical basis in language; there are basic probabilities in language application; there are common elements in different languages. These are still the fundamental of the development of machine translation. In the following years, machine translation research had been actively carried out in some universities and organizations in the United States and Britain. In Massachusetts Institute of Technology, the first full-time machine translation researcher Bar-Hillel arrived, he made a great contribution to the early development of machine translation and put forward the main problems and basic strategies needed to be solved in machine translation research. The first machine translation conference was held at MIT in June 1952, after which machine translation research in the United States began to accelerate. In 1954, a machine translation system for computer was developed and demonstrated. Although the machine translation system was small, consisting of only 250 Russian words, six grammar rules, and a few translation examples, it first showed the public and the scientific community the feasibility of machine translation, inspiring substantial funding from U.S. government for machine translation research over the next decade.（Tan Zaixi，2004:167-168）

====High-tide stage(1954—1966)====
The successful demonstration of the world’s first machine translation system, the Georgetown-IBM system of United States, marked the first development climax of machine translation. The upsurge began in 1954 and lasted for 12 years. In the mid-1950s, inspired by successful demonstration of machine translation system, dozens of universities, companies, and government agencies in the United States began machine translation research programs. On the one hand, due to the competition between the United States and the Soviet Union at that time, the United States military, the National Science Foundation, the Central Intelligence Agency and so on needed to acquire a large amount of scientific and technological information of the Soviet Union, so that they invested a lot in machine translation, especially Russian-English translation. On the other hand, advanced computers in the United States provided good equipment for the development of the first generation of machine translation system. At the same time, many universities and institutions in most European countries had also carried out machine translation research.（Tan Zaixi，2004:168-170）

====Low-tide stage (1966—1975)====
The advent of machine translation had opened up a new way for traditional translation research and practice. However, the complexity of machine translation was underestimated at that time and the design of machine translation system was often too rough and simple. In this case, the first generation of machine translation systems in the initial stage could not achieve ideal results, the quality of translation is often poor, so that some people gradually lost confidence in machine translation research, and some scholars also became pessimistic and disappointed. （Tan Zaixi，2004:170）

In the mid-1960s, machine translation in the United States had suffered a severe blow. In 1966, the Automatic Language Processing Advisory Committee, part of the National Academy of Sciences, was asked to investigate machine translation research funded by government. The committee published its report, Language and Machines, after analyzing the speed, quality, cost and demand of machine translation at that time. The report pointed out that the quality of machine translation is significantly lower than that of human translation and asserted that there was no likelihood of any commercially useful machine translation system in the foreseeable future. On the committee’s recommendation, the U.S. government withdrew the funding for machine translation research. Thus, machine translation research in the United States plummeted from a high point to a low point of development. It should be noted, however, that machine translation research and development was not in a complete demise, following the official denials in the United States. Scholars and research institutions in many countries including the United States continued to carry out researches and experiments on machine translation under relatively difficult circumstances.（Tan Zaixi，2004:171）

====Recovery stage(1975—1989)====
In the middle of 1970s, with the emergence of new theories and ideas in the field of linguistics and the further development of computational linguistics, the research of machine translation was aroused in the world again. After ten years of silence, machine translation research stepped on the road of recovery. The recovery period of machine translation research and development is generally considered to date from the installation of the SYSTRAN system by EURATOM and the completion of the TAUM-METEO system by the University of Montreal in Canada.（Tan Zaixi，2004:171-174）

====Vigorous stage（1989—）====
Since the late 1980s, some new developments had changed the field of machine translation, marking machine translation research enter a new period. This is the emergence of the third generation of machine translation method that is corpus-based. Corpus-based machine translation systems include statistic-based translation and example-based translation, both of which are based on large-scale real text. （Tan Zaixi，2004:167-175）

Practice has proved that machine translation has great vitality. It is a new science, and its research and translation have entered a new stage of development. No matter whether it can replace the human brain and hands eventually and completely liberate human from the heavy artificial translation, it will develop and exist for a long time. Both in theory and practice, machine translation and its research will exert more and more influence on traditional translation and its research.

===Translation theories of different schools were emerging one after another.===
The most important feature of modern western translation is the rapid development of translation theory. After the Second World War, with the vigorous development of science and technology, modern linguistics, translation activities and the rise of machine translation, people gradually changed the traditional view of translation studies, believing that translation is not only an art or skill, but also a science with rules to follow.

On the whole, the development of contemporary translation theory has two characteristics :(1) theoretical research has been brought into the scope of linguistics, under the influence of modern linguistics and information theory; (2) the traditional situation of non-communication between theorists has been broken. Translation theorists fully express their views through various channels, such as published works.(Xie Tianzhen, 2009:32)

After the Second World War, with the modernization and integration of western social and economic development, western translation theories also began to enter a new period that transcends national boundaries. Therefore, it is difficult to classify some translation thoughts and some translation theorists in a narrow sense as belonging to a certain country or a certain place. It is acceptable to divide contemporary western translation theories into different schools according to their basic approaches and methods of translation studies or the basic characteristics of thought. Here is a brief introduction to some influential schools classified by Zhao Jiajin.

====American Translation Training School====
First established in 1964 at the University of Iowa, this school focused on translation practice, emphasized the literary taste and value of works, and adopted the methods of L. A. Richards and Williard V. Quine of Harvard University. Representative figures included poet and translator Ezra Pound, who translated Tang poetry and advocated the accurate restoration of details, words, fragments and the whole image description. Frederic Will of the University of Iowa, drawing on his training experience, regarded translation as a form of naming, fiction writing and cognition. Yale’s Jonas Zdnys argued that translation is an activity of subjective thought designed to explain literature. This school explores the role of the human mind in translation and raises the question of the nature of translation, but translation theory was limited to aesthetic experience and prescriptive translation rules.

====Translation Science School====
It was also known as “linguistic school”. According to this school, translation is the process of reproducing language as a whole, and it aims to correctly convey the original information to readers. The school was founded by Eugene Nida, whose masterpieces include Message and Mission (1960) and Toward Science of Translation (1946). Nida proposed functional equivalence theory according to Noam Chomsky’s transformational generative grammar and his experience in Bible translation, that is, to digest the original text and understand its basic structure and meaning; convey meaning based on basic structure; obtain semantic and stylistic equivalence with the original text. Thus the translation process can be summarized as: analyze—transfer—restructure, these three steps. The school of Translation science adopted linguistic theory and the more objective description method in translation theory. In the late 1970s, emphasis was placed on the cultural background of the information age, but the research was still limited to prescriptive research and translation criteria, ignoring the role of translators’thinking.（Zhao Jiajin,1996: 46）

====Translation school====
It is the so-called “literary school”. This school held that the original work is the unity of sentence series and article structure, and the translator is influenced by the original view and the future model of translation in the process of translation. The founder of this school was James Holmes, an American poet, who taught translation at the University of Amsterdam in the Netherlands before his death. His representative work is ''The Name and Nature of Translation Studies'' (1972).（Zhao Jiajin,1996: 46）

====Polysystem School====
Its founders are Itammar Even-Zohar and Gideon Toury of Tel Aviv University in Israel. Even coined the term Polysystem to explore the relationship between translated works and literary systems, and explained that the oriented culture of translation not only determines whether a work can be translated, but also regulates the wording. Toury held that translation belongs to the second system of multiple systems, and its role depends on the strength and development stage of the oriented culture of translation. He held that translation has no fixed identity and has multiple identities due to its social, literary and historical background. This school integrates translation studies with literary studies, social and economic factors, endows translation studies with historical significance, but it is still limited to the acceptability of translation and does not get rid of the fetters of cultural equivalence.（Zhao Jiajin,1996: 46）

====Deconstruction School====
It is also known as “affirmative productivity school”. It originated in France in the mid-1960s and is represented by Michel Foucault, Martin Heidegger and Jacques Derrida. This school introduced deconstruction into translation, claiming that translators create the subject and the target language is a new language. As Foucault put it, the original work is constantly rewritten in the process of translation, and the translator rewrites the original work every time he reads and translates it. Deconstruction studies the nature and process of translation and language, and advocates that translators exist as entities. The school even goes so far as to believe that language does not involve any objective reality, and translators have their own status only when they create texts.（Zhao Jiajin,1996: 46-47）

==Conclusion==
Under the influence of historical backgrounds, different periods of translation show different traits. In the modern period, the content of translation still focused on literature which included works form Russian, Nordic countries, China and so on. The way of translation was artificial and traditional. With the progress of economy and science, translation in the contemporary period also got great development. The content of translation was not confined to the field of literature. Instead, translation of science and technology, commerce, entertainment and so on became a major part of the actual translation activities. In addition, machine translation as a novel technique developed quickly. And the most important feature of modern western translation is the rapid development of translation theory thanks to many translator associations and publications on translation studies. Nowadays, under the influence of globalization, translation shows more and more importance and get better development environment.

==Reference==
Feng Zhiwei 冯志伟(1994).《自然语言机器翻译新论》[M] A New Approach to Natural Language Machine Translation.北京:语文出版社Beijing: Chinese Language Publishing House.

Gentzler, Edwin(2004). Contemporary Translation Theories[M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

Mu Yunyang,Li Zhisheng,Yu Hao杨沐昀、李志升、于浩(2000).《机器翻译系统》[M]Machine Translation System.哈尔滨：哈尔滨工业大学出版社Harbin: Harbin University of Technology Press.

Tan Zaixi谭载喜(2004).西方翻译简史[M]A Brief History of Western Translation.北京：商务印书馆Beijing:The Commercial Press.

Tan Zaixi谭载喜(1985).西方翻译史浅谈[J]On the History of Western Translation.中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal,7:36-39.

Xie Tianzhen谢天振(2008).《当代国外翻译理论导读》[M]Introduction to Contemporary Foreign Translation Theories.天津：南开大学出版社Tianjin：Nankai University Press.

Xie Tianzhen谢天振(2011).中西翻译简史[M]A Brief History of Chinese and Western Translation.北京:外语教学与研究出版社Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.

Zhao Jiajin赵家琎(1996).当代翻译学派简介[J]A Brief Introduction to Contemporary Translation Schools.中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal,5：46—47.

Zhao Tiejun赵铁军等(2001).《机器翻译原理》[M]Principles of Machine Translation.哈尔滨：哈尔滨工业大学出版社Harbin: Harbin University of Technology Press.

Hist Trans EN 13

2021-12-13T12:49:24Z

Wei Chuxuan: /* Abstract */

'''History of Translations'''

[[History_of_Translations|Overview Page of History of Translation]]

30 Chapters（0/30)

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[[Book_projects|Back to translation project overview]] [[DCG-To-Do|Zur To-Do-Liste]]

=Chapter 13: The Chinese Translation History In Modern Age=
钟义菲 Zhong Yifei，Hunan Normal University, China
==Abstract==
Since the middle of the 19th century, translation has gradually become a tool for people resolved to save the country from extinction. The spread of the large number of translation works has broadened the ways for the public, especially the intellectuals, to learn the west. In the meantime, it has also changed the social climate. The invasion of western civilization, translators' spontaneous development of translation activities and the passivity of national politics made Chinese society enter an important period of western learning translation, especially around the period of Opium War. The cause of translation in modern China coincided with the Chinese people's struggle against aggression. After the Opium War, China had to open the door. China had to end its isolation and began to face the outside world directly. However, the prolonged blockade made China lag behind the western world. Modern politics, economy, diplomacy and cultural activities are closely related to translation, which plays an indispensable role in history. The theme and source of the original translation often reflect the development trend of modern Chinese ideology and the direction of government policy. As for the nature and quantity of translation books in different periods, we can also see the motivation of translation books, the general trend of intellectual interests, and the impact of the dissemination in society. The time clue of this article is from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement, briefly introducing the translation and the translator, emphasizing its emergence background and several important period of development, research and analysis of western culture reflected in translation works in modem Chinese history, the change of Chinese people’s thoughts in translation and the influence of modern translation on Chinese society. This paper is divided into three chapters. The first chapter introduces the emergence, importance and main characteristics of modern translation works, then reviews the emergence of modem translation works, emphasizes their importance, and briefly introduces representative translation works. The second chapter introduces the background of translation works and translation climax stages of western books, studies the main characteristics and development trend of translation in each period. The third chapter studies the influence and performance of modern translation on people's ideology and social life through the description in translation works. This paper focuses on the development of modern translation, the important role of translation in Chinese history, and the specific impact of translation on modern society.

==Key words==
Modern Translation，Translation，Social Life，Ideology

==Introduction==
Around the middle of the 19th century, The Western invasion brought new knowledge. The Westernization Movement sent a large number of international students to study abroad and translated a large number of books for military purposes.The Qing government decayed, and was tired of the invasion of foreign enemies, the war repeatedly failed. After the Sino-Japanese War in 1894, faced with internal and external troubles, far-sighted people knew that they could not rely on the Qing government, so they devoted themselves to writing novels. Many people accepted and spread Western culture through translating books. The importance of translation was recognized by the development of journalism, media, and provident men influenced by the Western culture at that time. In this social context, people have criticized the corruption of government through literature and translation.

Modern China began in the Opium War in 1840. It was a special period in Chinese history. During this period, the Chinese were attacked by foreign guns, as well as by foreign culture and foreign education. Especially after the Sino-Japanese War, the Chinese people were greatly shocked psychologically, and people began to realize that the West was more advanced than China in political, economic, cultural and other aspects, which was providing a great opportunity for the introduction of translation literature. Translators at that time also hoped to translate the western advanced scientific knowledge to the Chinese people so that they could broaden their horizons and innovate their ideas. During the Reform Movement of 1898, Liang Qichao advocated publicizing political ideas by translating foreign political novels to transform the society. He believed that the incredible power of novels was "enough to dominate people's psychology and could change the society of one generation." Based on the translation of the novel, Liang Qichao gave the novel new significance and mission. He put forward the idea of improving the novel, with the famous ones such as ''The Beauty Adventures'' and ''The Fifteen Little Heroes'', which promoted the process of novel revolution and the prosperity and development of the translating novels. Yan Fu translated works such as ''Heaven'' and Yuan Fu. His translation had a great influence at that time and was the most important enlightenment translation in China in the 20th century. In the translation of ''Heaven'', Yan Fu proposed three difficulties: Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance. It was advocated by many literary writers at that time and used as the theoretical basis for their translation. The concept of "natural selection: the fittest to survive" conveyed in Yan Fu's Heaven woke people up from the dream of the heavenly world. There are more famous translation works such as Lin Shu’s ''The Lady of the Camellias'', Black slaves call for heaven record and so on. It had an important influence on the change of people's concept. People are not limited to the traditional concept of marriage and love, and the concept of freedom and equality gradually spread. Under the prevalence of translation works, traditional values, such as emphasizing agriculture and suppressing business, men being superior to women, gradually lost their status and were gradually replaced by new ideas. （A 1981:741）

The paper mainly includes three chapters: First, modern translation works and the overview of translators. Second, the background and climax of modern translation works. Third, the impact of modern translation on social life. In the modern Chinese literary circle, there was a wave of translation in western books, and the translation activities of foreign works were unprecedentedly prosperous.The emergence of a large number of translation works has also caused a large influx of foreign cultural ideas. Under the translation of domestic scholars, the translators not only conveyed the literary nature of foreign works, but also expressed their translation purpose through translation language and techniques, and had a huge impact on Chinese social life at that time. Academia research is more aimed at the overview of modern translation works and its prosperity, but little research on its impact on national social life. This paper analyzes the wide variety of materials and works to detail the influence of modern translation on social life. （Lian 2009:93）

==1. Modern Translation Work and Its Main Characteristics ==
===1.1 The Emergence of Translation Works and Their Importance===
The premise of the emergence of translation works is the introduction of western civilization. The spread of western culture in modern China can be traced back to the eve of the Opium War. The main translators are missionaries, who mainly introduce religious doctrine, and also bring western history and geography to China. They established schools, translated western books (such as the Bible), compiled magazines, wrote books and so on. It can be said that missionaries are the first wave of intermediaries communicating between Chinese and Western culture. Early missionaries in China, although for the purpose of conquest, tended to teach by words and deeds than coercion. However, considering China's closure at that time, the Chinese were not allowed to learn foreign languages. The missionaries have also made great efforts in communicating the Chinese and Western cultures. This also led to the introduction of western civilization at this stage and laid the foundation for the development of the modern translation and cultivated talents. The Opium War was an important period of western translation. The rise and fall of China is always closely related to the rise and fall of translation culture. As a special component of Chinese literature, the development of translation literature has always affected the process of Chinese literature and historical changes, especially the occurrence of modern Chinese translation literature, which has effectively promoted the transformation and development of Chinese literature and modern society. Modern translation, from its emergence to the development, is inseparable with China's social changes. Translation has promoted the change of people's ideas, enriched people's knowledge in many fields, and not only promoted the development of Chinese literature, but also played a certain positive role in the development of politics and Chinese society. （Guo 1979:126）

===1.2 Representative Works of Modern Translations and Their Main Categories===
The introduction of modern western literature made Lin Shu a famous literary translator. Many people will misunderstand ''The Lady of the Camellias'' as the first translation novel in modern China. But ''The Declaration'' has already begun to publish translation novels earlier. The first translation novel should be ''Xinxi Talk''. According to Zou Zhenhuan, the most expensive translation of the Bible was the first version to enter the palace, the "royal version" of the late Qing Dynasty. The first modern Japanese novel translated into Chinese was ''The Beauty Adventure'', translated by Liang Qichao, which opened the translation of the political novel in the late Qing Dynasty. At the same time, the Chinese translation books related to Japan was ''Ryukyu Geography''. Tan Ruqian thought it as “the first Chinese translation of Japanese documents”. After translation into Chinese, the most influential translation is Yan Fu’s ''Heaven'', Lin Shu’s ''The Lady of the Camellias'', and ''Black Slaves Call for Heaven'' record translated by Wei Yi and Lin Shu. The three works had a great influence on Chinese society in different aspects. Thai new history can represent part of the translation works since modern times. It is widely spread into China though it doesn’t achieve any effect in the West. The book is considered by western scholars as the most boring residual history and a third-rate world history. In China, it sold more than one million copies, which is the most popular reading book in the Restoration period. It can be said that the social influence in different historical stages and social backgrounds can be different. ''The Law of the Duke of Nations'' theoretically defeated the ignorant idea of the Qing government. In addition, there are translations about life which popularized scientific knowledge in China and played a good role in the abolition of feudal superstition. ''Foreign Cookery'' in Chinese was the earliest Chinese translation of a relatively systematic introduction of western cooking methods in the process of introducing western food culture in China. In the aspects of medicine, there were books such as ''Tessi’s Personal Theory'', ''Optical Disclosure and Cardiotherapy''. The first sociological monograph of full-text translation in modern China was translated by Zhang Taiyan, which had an important influence on the progress of social cognition.（Feng 2012: 234-235）

===1.3 Main Characteristics of Modern Translation Works===
One is catering to the taste and ethics of the Chinese readers in order to obtain a wider popularity. Influenced by the social background of the late Qing Dynasty, most people who learned from the West were limited to intellectuals and politicians. In order to make the translation get more attention, the translator chose more accepted literary works for translation. This to some extent leads to the lack of extensive translation categories. In Introduction to Translation, the second chapter "Translation of Catholic Scholars between the Ming and Qing Dynasties" discussed the Catholic doctrine translation and scientific translation between the Ming and Qing Dynasties, and pointed out that " at that time, translation sought more elegance, integrity and the willingness of Chinese officials and scholars to read. However, there are also some translators who try to keep the original meaning rather than deliberately satisfying the readers’ interests." On the other hand, it also confirms that the characteristics of translation was catering to readers at that time. （Zhang 2003:158）

The second is to use foreign novel translation as a tool for reform politics. After the failure of the Opium War, people with insight were eager to find good ways to save the country. The most direct and effective way is to learn western culture. In the process of learning western culture, the most convenient thing is to translate western works. However, hindered by language factors, the translation of monographs is far more difficult than the novels. Therefore, except for the few people who are proficient in foreign languages, most translators basically choose to take novels as the entry point to give personal political opinions and ideas to achieve the purpose of political improvement. Third, readers often take the translation of novels as a pastime, resulting in the flood of boring detective novels and romantic novels. Popular novels translations are enough while famous novels translations are rare. To cater to the market and earn publication costs, many translators translate foreign works for the purpose of making a profit. And after a few celebrities do not classify foreign translations, many translators will have a herd mentality. At the same time, due to the influence of domestic readers' literary taste, popular novels and simple literary works are more acceptable to them, so resulting in the flood of some novel categories. Fourth, the translation is not faithful. Influenced by traditional ideas, some phenomena in western works were not accepted by the Chinese at that time, and to avoid unnecessary trouble, the translator chose to omit part of the plot in the original, and could not completely express the original idea. In order to express his political position and views, the translator will fabricate the plot and comments not included in the original. For example, when Su Manshu translated ''Hugo's Bad World'', he invented a character called Lauder, using him to satirize the corrupt stupidity of the Qing government. Secondly, the translator will change the narrative perspective and structure of the original, which is largely influenced by the traditional Chinese narrative style. For example, Liang Qichao used the serial structure when translating ''The Beauty Adventure''.（Zhang 1934:42）

It is summarized as follows: excessive catering to readers and lack of independence; the monotonous type of translation with limitations; lack of translation proficiency and transmission of the idea; separation from the original work.

==2. The Rise Background and Climax of Modern Translation Works ==
===2.1 The Background of the Rise of Modern Translation===
After the Opium War, the Qing government successively signed the Nanjing Treaty and the Humen Treaty, which made insightful people attempt to save modern China from abyss of suffering. In the face of an unprecedented crisis, a group of people began to search for the way to save the country, and every individual has put all his strength into the efforts to save the nation in danger. Modern China is faced with a more powerful opponent in all aspects. People with insight realize that they must break through the current situation of self-isolation and learn from the outside world. Learning from the West and imitating the West became an important strategy of saving the nation at that time. Chinese society has constantly updated the old mechanism, trying to get rid of the original closed and rigid political dilemma, starting to find a new development direction, from the learning of western skills to the study of western political and economic system, ideology and culture. To learn from the West and seek self-improvement, translation is first serve as a bridge of communication. Domestic people with insight can bring western works to China by translating them. After the failure of the Second Opium War, China was forced to sign the Treaty of Beijing. The national crisis became more and more serious, the national crisis further strengthened the Chinese people's thought of self-improvement, and the understanding of the outside world became more and more urgent. At the same time, due to the current situation, foreign language communication and diplomatic intercourse have become very urgent. In this environment, translation became indispensable in this era.

===2.2 The Purpose of the Rise of Modern Translation===
The 19th century was a period of complex economic situation and chaotic political situation. At this time, the demand for formal translators increased. However, in this period, translation was very sophisticated and had a great influence on the control authority of the government and exchanges between Chinese and foreign countries. In the Treaty of Beijing, Britain and France sent documents that are written in English and French to China. But considering that there was almost no translation talent in China at that time, the two sides agreed to attach Chinese version. But if there was any dispute, both English and French characters should be the authority. Then the Qing government had to start training translation talents, and the first batch of foreign language schools were established accordingly. The original motivation of The School of Combined Learning was quite related to the signing of the Sino-British Treaty, and the British authorities attached a Chinese translation within three years, aiming to allow the Chinese government to cultivate a number of qualified translators during this period, so the establishment of The School of Combined Learning was established in 1861. It was the first official foreign language school in the late Qing Dynasty with the purpose of cultivating foreign language translation talents. Foreigners were the teachers, training specialized foreign language translators. In order to become rich and train soldiers, China must learn from advanced western science and technology. To learn from advanced western technology, it is bound to remove the language barriers in the process of learning. Zeng Guofan once mentioned that translation must occupy the fundamental strategic position of westernization cause. It is easy to see that the purpose of translation is to learn the advanced western technology more efficiently and to achieve the purpose of saving the nation. The process of modernizing Chinese literature is, in a sense, the process of Chinese literature learning from the West and seeking innovation and change under the impact of western culture. （Shi 1983:216）

===2.3 The Climax of Translation in the Western Book===
====2.3.1 From the Opium War to the Sino-Japanese War====
From the Opium War to the Sino-Japanese War, especially after the 1860s, with the rise of the westernization movement aimed at self-improvement and wealth, there was an upsurge in the translation of Western science and technology books. In the late Qing Dynasty, under the influence of opium smuggling, China and the UK exchanges are getting closer and closer. Until the Opium War broke out, the door of China was completely opened, and the Qing government had to face the outside world. Lin Zexu fought in the front line of the anti-smoking movement and the anti-British struggle from 1839 to 1840. He organized personnel to translate many books. In the monthly Macao, there are five volumes: on China, on tea, on smoking prohibition, on the use of military forces and on the feelings of foreigners in various countries. These materials are mainly translated from Guangzhou weekly, Guangzhou chronicle and etc. Lin Zexu never neglected to give up the work of organizing translation. Among Lin Zexu's translations, ''The Chronicles of Four Continents'' has the most far-reaching impact on Modern Chinese history. It is the first book in modern China to systematically introducing world geography and history. The translation of these books opened the eyes of the Chinese people and began to import Western learning in modern times, which is of great significance to the history of modern thought and culture. One of the most direct effects is that it has led to the emergence of a number of masters who compile and study foreign profiles. It indirectly led to the development of the style of study for practical use, and also had an important impact on the literary reform in history. Wei Yuan revised and supplemented ''The Records of the Four Continents''. This book not only retained the characteristics of the west, but also sublimated in combination with the domestic reality, added many notes and political comments, and put forward many political propositions represented by "learning from the foreigners and mastering their skills to control the foreigners", which gathered huge ripples in the ideological circles at that time, and even spread to Japan, It also had an impact on Japan's Meiji Restoration.However, at this time, the work of Lin Zexu and Wei Yuan only played the role of foresight and did not form a huge social situation. The development of translation still needs new forces to promote. At this time, the Westernization school played such a role. （Zou 2008:57-58）

The Westernization Movement took place after the second Opium War and before the Sino-Japanese war. During this period, the Qing government experienced the impact of two Opium Wars. Facing the strong ships and guns of Western powers, it was in a difficult situation at home and abroad, and felt a profound crisis never seen in history. The Westernization school, divided from the feudal landlord class, had a certain understanding of the world situation. They advocate learning from western capitalist countries. The main figures of the Westernization school were Zeng Guofan, Li Hongzhang and others. They held high positions in the Qing government. Compared with other ordinary officials, they were more deeply aware of the need to learn and introduce advanced military weapons and manufacturing technology from Western powers in order to maintain the ruling order of the feudal society and realize the stability of the regime of the Qing Dynasty. However, at that time, the Westernization school could only recognize the progress of Western skills and the strength of military strength. Their change Geng Chang's method was only limited to "learning from foreigners". Among them, the translation of foreign books became an important means to achieve the goal of learning from foreigners. （Wang 1987:23-24）

In 1862, due to the needs of diplomacy and Westernization Movement, Tongwen museum was established in Beijing to train translators. The Tongwen Library in Beijing regards translation and washing as an important activity. The Jiangnan manufacturing Bureau, founded in 1865, had a greater impact during this period. The two primary problems faced by Jiangnan manufacturing Bureau after its completion are technology and talents, and the key to solving these two problems is the translation of technical books. Therefore, it decided to "set up another school to learn translation", "it is planned to select intelligent disciples to study with the school when it is completed", "You don't have to fake a foreigner, you can also extend it and make it into a book." The books translated by the translators were mainly about natural science and applied technology, which played a positive role in introducing modern science and technology and promoting the development of productive forces, and became important teaching materials for people of insight at that time to understand the external world and update their knowledge structure. These books can be said to have cultivated the next batch of cultural newcomers, such as Kang Youwei, Liang Qichao, Zhang Taiyan and Cai Yuanpei and so on. （Zeng 1987:83）

During this period, the importance of translation has been paid some attention, and the government has begun to operate translation in an organized and planned way. At the same time, the translation activities of the church have also been strengthened. Missionaries played the role of cultural invaders in the process of foreign military aggression. At first, missionaries wanted to carry out cultural aggression in the sense of Christianity, but they were influenced by Chinese tradition The influence of culture was resisted by the Chinese people. So they turned to spread new western knowledge and Western civilization, set up institutions, run newspapers and translate books, and tried to open the gap of the Chinese people's thought, so as to achieve the purpose of cultural aggression control. But objectively speaking, they also played a role in spreading Western learning to a certain extent. The translation by foreign missionaries had a great impact on Chinese society. The Chinese people's own pure literary translation also began at this stage. However, the literary translation at this stage still lacks systematic theoretical guidance and positive social atmosphere.

====2.3.2 After the Sino-Japanese War====
After the Sino-Japanese War was defeated, the Westernization Movement was declared bankrupt, and China's current situation was at stake. People with lofty ideals learned from the failure of the Westernization Movement that reform is far from solving the problem. To make China embark on the road of independence, prosperity and strength, we must fundamentally learn from the West and change the feudal autocratic system. In order to comprehensively learn western learning, translation is the first thing at this time. Therefore, this is the moment The translation career of this period is very prosperous, which is very different from the translation characteristics of the previous era. First, the expansion of the field of translation. At this time, the focus of importing western learning turned to various fields of social science, and paid particular attention to the import of political and academic ideas. The eight famous works translated by Yan Fu were outstanding representatives of this period, which had a significant impact on the society of the Qing Dynasty. During this period, translation methods were widely used, that is, abridged translation and free translation of foreign works, which were understood by the translator At this time, a large number of social sciences have been introduced, which has greatly improved the ideological level of Chinese people and brought the political and cultural activities to a new stage. Secondly, the translation field has also been expanded. The previous translation work was limited to government-run institutions. After the Sino-Japanese War, the reformers stepped onto the historical stage, and the translation work has been included in the overall plan of the reform. The reformers created schools, ran newspapers and opened publishing houses, with the import of Western learning and the translation and introduction of Western books as the main activities. After the failure of the reform movement, the establishment of newspapers and publishing houses did not stop. At this time, China's translation industry began to gradually break away from the limited government-run and turn to the private sector, resulting in an unprecedented prosperity in the translation industry. In addition, the translation team has gradually expanded. The establishment of foreign language teaching has gradually increased the number of foreign students and personnel abroad. The emergence of more and more translation talents meets the development of the publishing industry and social needs at this time. More and more people who know foreign languages are engaged in translation. This period is also an era of a large number of translators. Not only Lin Shu and Yan Fu, but also Liang Qichao, Su Manshu, Zhou Guisheng, Wu Guangjian are all well-known. During this period, the level of translation was also greatly improved. In the early days, most of the translations were spoken by foreigners who knew a little Chinese, and then recorded and polished by Chinese. The level of translation was uneven. During this period, most translators were proficient in foreign languages, their Chinese level was also high, and the quality of translation improved greatly Great improvement.（Xiao 1984:23）

This stage is also a period of vigorous rise and unprecedented prosperity of novel translation. In the early modern times, novel translation was not paid much attention. The first foreign novel translated into China was translated by foreign missionaries and published by the church. It was ''The Pilgrim’s Progress'' by British writer John Buyan, and the translation was published in Xiamen in 1853. During this period, translation activities also had some defects. Due to the popularity of translation, although abridged translation and free translation made the translator more free to express his political ideas, it also caused the disadvantages of breaking away from the original works. The purpose of translation was not to introduce western literature, but to express the translator's own ideas as a political means. At the same time, translation theory was strongly advocated in this period and political utilitarianism have also been greatly strengthened.

====2.3.3 Marked by the Rise of the New Culture Movement====
After the revolution of 1911, people's political enthusiasm was obviously low. In terms of translation, few people paid attention to social, political and economic works, and the number of translated novels was significantly lower than that of creative novels. However, people's literary concept was gradually strengthened. During this period, many translators introduced foreign literature from a literary perspective, bringing a new atmosphere to the translation circle and the history of Chinese literature In the period of the new culture movement, the translator's political and literary ideas were significantly improved, which laid a good foundation for the third wave of Western Chinese book translation starting from the new culture movement.

During this period, first of all, the number of short stories was greatly increased. During this period, new translators preferred to translate short stories. For example, Hu Shi translated ''The Last Lesson'' and Zhou Zuoren also published several short translation novels in the magazine New youth. The short translation novels published during this period also included ''The Leisure Review of Customs'' translated by Lin Shu and Chen Jialin. At this stage, the translator chooses the original work carefully after fully understanding and studying the original author, and describes his own opinions and ideas in the preface and postscript. Unlike in the past, he arbitrarily cuts the original work to express his political ideas, most of them are serious and loyal to the original. During this period, script translation gradually prevailed, and poetry translation appeared a new atmosphere. German poetry began to receive attention, and vernacular poetry began to appear. A new generation of translation practitioners consciously linked the translation of foreign literature with the transformation of Chinese literature and the purpose of the new culture movement. Chinese literary translation and Chinese society have entered a new era. （Wang 1992:321-322）

==3. The Influence of Modern Translation on Social Ideas==
===3.1 Appearance of the Concept of Marriage===
The translation that made an important change in the concept of scholars in the late Qing Dynasty was ''The Legacy of the Camellia'' in Paris translated by Lin Shu. This book describes the ups and downs of the protagonist Mark fate and complex psychological feelings. After the Sino-Japanese War, Lin Shu joined the ranks of reformers. He took a more open attitude towards love, which made Lin's translated novels reflect some changes of the times to a certain extent, implying that modern marriage and love pay attention to color. In Lin Shu's concept, if women want to benefit from freedom of marriage, they must first receive good education, such as Qiu Zhilan as a chivalrous woman, the heroine Qiu Zhilan sneaked into the capital to avenge her father's murder. She met scholar LV Qiushi and fell in love at first sight. She took the initiative to give a keepsake while LV Qiushi was reading at night. Finally, with the help of the blind nun of Shuiyue nunnery, they got married. Qiu Zhilan pursued love independently and persevered, suggesting that women's sense of marriage and love had begun to change under the circumstances at that time, Or the wind of free marriage and love has gradually risen. In Lin Shu's translated novels, Lin Shu points out the rigidity of the orders of parents and the words of matchmakers. He also advocates that women should maintain the beauty of temperament. In Lin Shu, women generally can consciously control their emotions, maintain a certain degree of reserve and gentleness in their behavior, and never do things carelessly. To a certain extent, this reflects the love aesthetics and love trend of the society at that time.（Hu 1916:474）

In the past, the novels of talented women and beauties in ancient China were a special kind of art to express the love concept of the citizen class. In Chinese novels of talented women and beauties, most of the talented people in the books were portrayed as the images of handsome, talented, elegant and noble, and not in line with the times. Second, the highest ideal commonly pursued by scholars at that time was "wedding night, golden list." The happy ending of joys and sorrows can satisfy people's aesthetic taste in the past. In ''The Legacy of the Camellia Woman'' in Paris, It depicts the heroine, who is loyal to her feelings and has a sense of morality, left because of Yameng's career future and family happiness. This self-sacrifice combined with tragic color made the people who have seen the story of talented people and beautiful women for a long time with an unprecedented freshness, which provided a new type of love aesthetics for the people at that time. （Chen 1990:213）

There are also relevant translation works such as ''Better Return'' published during the Meiji period, which is called "the milestone of the theme novel describing women's consciousness in the Meiji period", which describes the content of women's resistance to the oppression of old morality and ethics, and the dramatic work ''Doll's House'', the heroine Nala breaks away from her originally happy family and realizes that she is a neglected individual value. Her home is just a doll's home. It can be inferred that Nora is not the only one. The concepts of marriage and love freedom and women's individual values conveyed in her works since modern times have gradually penetrated into the society, and people have begun to gradually recognize the importance of women’ s rights. （Yuan 1989:178-181）

During the May 4th movement, The Troubles of Young Witt was strongly favored by young Chinese readers at that time for its crazy love passion, very dreamy action, rebellious and independent thought of the society and the protagonist's individualistic thinking method. This book was once regarded as the "Bible" by young men and women at that time As a general cultural phenomenon, the love between Witt and Lvdi made the young people talk about the freedom of marriage and love at that time and take the sacred love between men and women as the ideal. Witt easily reminded people of the talents in the love story at that time. Witt's lovelorn was expressed through strong sadness, which was the best comfort and inspiration for the young people who were eager to escape from the feudal cage at that time. It was a landmark translation that influenced modern Chinese society at that time.（Shi 1989:245）

===3.2 The Emergence of the Concept of Freedom and Equality and the Changes and Manifestations of Social Values===
Feminism is also one of the concepts of freedom and equality. Among the reformers after the failure of the Sino Japanese War of 1894-1895, Lin Shu was one of the first to advocate feminism. This was also mentioned in the previous section when describing the concept of marriage and love. The rise of women's concept of freedom of marriage and love has gradually spread, which implies that women pay attention to their own rights. From the novels translated by Lin Shu, Lin Shu's admiration for women's courage to pursue their love or rights shows that Lin supports and advocates women's rights. Xinxi Gossip deals with the values of money and the concept of social class. The novel expounds the role of money in Europe, which is unheard of by Chinese scholars. For example, the third volume of the novel describes that the British set up marriage halls, that is, intermediaries such as today's marriage agencies, many people who come to the museum are losers, hoping to cheat into marrying rich families, it describes that many people go to parties, but are driven by money worship in an attempt to cheat them into marrying rich people. At the same time, it also describes that money can make an old woman get a young husband, and the young husband aims at the old woman's rich family wealth. In the eyes of the Chinese people at that time, this was not in line with the code of ethics and could not be accepted.（Lu 1981:56）

==Conclusion==
In the transition period of modern China, the social function of translation played an important role, and the subversion was the most prominent in the social function of translation. At that time, China had experienced a long period of inaction towards western culture and regardless of the political and economic state of locking the country, resulting in China's ignorance of the West. However, at this time, the western world has not stopped the translation and introduction of Chinese culture through various channels Understanding. Asymmetric information exchange and translation make China in a passive position when communicating with the West. With the continuous entry of western new ideas and translation into China, values are constantly challenged, and even some extreme culturists try to subvert traditional Chinese culture and social values. The current situation requires China to make progress, and the current situation also forces China to make progress. In this period of mixed internal and external relations and political chaos, translation, as a communication tool, has always led Chinese people of insight in the exploration of saving the nation from subjugation and strengthening the country. （Zhang 1966:5-7）

The changes of modern history and the prominence of modern cultural view are greatly influenced by the input of Western learning. In modern Chinese society under the shock of Western learning civilization, translation makes western learning smoothly enter the Chinese people's political world, cultural undertakings and social life, but the overall westernization is absolutely impossible. In modern times, although Chinese traditional Confucianism has been criticized, even as a cultural pioneer The activists threw the target of political opinions, but middle school can not be reduced. Middle school is also the spiritual belief of Chinese unity since modern times. Lin Shu has always stressed that the traditional ethics revealed by Confucian culture has some eternal value and universal significance. The real Western civilization does not let us abandon middle school and completely replace it with Western learning, but let middle school be a traditional culture The social atmosphere under the coverage is more civilized.

==Reference==
Amos, Flora Ross. (1920). Early Theories of Translation. New York: Columbia University Press.

Benjamin, Andrew. (1989). Translation and the Nature of Philosophy: A New Theory of Words. London and New York: Routledge.

Catford,J.C.(1965) A Linguistic Theory of Translation.New York: Oxford University Press.

Dolet, Etienne. (1540). How to Translate Well from One Language to Another. Robinson.

A Yin 阿英.阿英文集［M］.Collection of A Ying’s Books三联书店, Sanlian Bookstore 1981:741.

Chen Xulu 陈旭麓.陈旭麓学术文存［M］.Chen Xulu Academic Archives上海：上海人民出版社, Shanghai：Shanghai People’s Press 1990:213.

Feng Zhijie 冯志杰.中国近代翻译史 History of Modern Chinese Translation（late Qing dynasty）（晚清卷）[M].北京：九州出版社, Bejing：Kyushu Press 2012:234-235.

Guo Moruo郭沫若.少年时代［M］,The Youth Age 人民文学出版社,People’s Literature Press1979:126.

Hu Shi 胡适.论译书寄陈独秀.胡适学术文集新文学运动［M］.Hu Shi’s Academic anthology New Literature Movement 1916:474.

Lian Yantang 连燕堂.二十世纪翻译文学史[M].History of Translated Literature in the 20th Century 百花文化出版社, Baihua Culture Press 2009:93.

Lu Xun 鲁迅.中国小说史略［M］.A Brief History of Chinese Novels 北京：人民文学出版社,Beijing:People’s Literature Publishing House 1973:125-126.

Lu Xun 鲁迅.文化偏至论［M］On Cultural Deviation （《鲁迅全集》第一卷）.人民文学出版社，People’s Literature Press 1981:56.

Shi Meng 时萌.晚清小说［M］.Novels of the Late Qing Dynasty 上海：上海古籍出版社,Shanghai: Shanghai Ancient Books Press 1989:245.

Shiteng Huixiu 实藤惠秀著，谭汝谦等译.《中国人留学日本史》History of Chinese People Studying in Japan［M］.三联书店, Sanlian Bookstore 1983:216.

Tan Sitong 谭嗣同.谭嗣同全集［M］.Complete Works of Tan Sitong北京：中华书局5 Beijing Zhonghua Book Company 1981.

Wang Xiangrong 汪向荣.中国的近代化与日本［M］.China’s Modernization and Japan湖南人民出版社,Hunan People’s Press1987:23-24.

Wang Lixing 王立兴.中国近代文学考论［M］.A Research on Modern Chinese Literature南京：南京大学出版社,Nanjing：Nanjing University Press1992:321-322.

Xiaotian Qiejin 小田切近著，山人译.日本的名作［M］.Japanese Masterpieces 福建人民出版社,Fujian People’s Press1984:23.

Yuan Jian 袁健，郑荣.晚清小说研究概说［M］.An Overview of Novels in Late Qing Dynasty 天津：天津教育出版社,Tianjin：Tianjin Education Press1989:178-181.

Zou Zhenhuan 邹振环.影响中国近代社会的一百种译作 One Hundred Translations Influential on Modern Chinese Society [M].江苏教育出版社，Jiangsu Education Press 2008: 57-58.

Zhang Hailin 张海林.近代中外文化交流史[M].History of Modern Sino-foreign Cultural Exchanges 南京：南京大学出版社, Nanjing University Press 2003:158.

Zhang Xingniang 张星娘.欧化东渐史［M］.History of Europeanization Spreading to the East 商务印书馆,Commercial Press1934:42.

Zhang Zhenyu 张振玉.译学概论［M］.Introduction to Translation 中台印刷厂,Zhongtai Press1966:5-7.

Zeng Guofan 曾国藩.轮船工竣并陈机器局情形疏.郑振铎编.晚清文选［M］,The Steamship Engineer and Machinery Bureau 上海书店, Shanghai Bookstore 1987影印本：83.

Written by--[[User:Zhong Yifei|Zhong Yifei]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yifei|talk]]) 13:50, 8 December 2021 (UTC)

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'''History of Translations'''

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=Western Translation History In the Modern and Contemperary Ages=
'''现当代西方翻译史'''

魏楚璇，Wei Chuxuan, Hunan Normal University, China

==Abstract==
Under different historical backgrounds, western translation presents different characteristics. In the 20th century before the end of the Second World War, the two world wars inevitably brought obstacles and disturbances to the development of translation. Therefore, though translation in this period still continued to develop, it did not get breakthrough. Translation was still dominated by literary works in content, totally relying on manual labor. In translation theory, it emphasized the creativity of translation and laid a foundation for the linguistic turn of translation studies. After the end of World War II, the world entered an era of relative peace, the world economy recovered, and the translation industry was greatly revitalized. During this period, the scale of translation covered all aspects of social life, machine translation developed fast, translation training flourished, translation organizations were established in various countries and many translation theories and schools emerged. That is to say, this period can be called the golden age of translation.

==摘要==
在不同的历史背景下，西方翻译呈现出不同的特点。在二战结束之前的二十世纪，两次世界大战不可避免地为翻译事业的发展带来了阻碍和干扰，因而这一时期的翻译虽然仍在发展但并未取得突破性的成就，在翻译的内容上仍然以文学作品为主，技术上完全依赖人工，理论方面注重翻译的创造性且为翻译研究的语言学转向奠定了基础。二战结束后，世界进入到相对和平的年代，世界经济复苏，翻译事业也大为振兴。在这一时期，翻译的内容覆盖社会生活的方方面面，机器翻译发展迅速，翻译培训兴起，翻译组织在各国成立，各种翻译理论和翻译流派涌现，可谓是翻译的黄金年代。

==Keywords==
Western translation; translation history; modern; contemperary

==Introduction==
In this paper, western translation history in modern and contemporary ages will be introduced. Here the modern age refers to the nearly half century before the Second World War. And the contemporary age refers to the half century after the Second World War. That is to say, the modern and contemporary translation in this paper refers to the translation in the 20th century. Under the influence of different historical backgrounds, translation in these two ages showed different characteristics and traits which will be concluded and discussed in detail in the following.

==The General Situation of Translation in the Modern Age==
Into the 20th century, the capitalism in the developed countries developed into imperialism. On the one hand, the imperialist countries intensified their foreign expansion to oppress and exploit the weak countries and people in colony. On the other hand, they were engaged in a fierce battle among themselves for international markets and spheres of influence. Thus, in less than half a century, two world wars broke out. Under this historical background, translation in western countries will inevitably be seriously disturbed and destroyed. However, translation in western countries continued to develop and excellent translations still appeared from time to time. In some specific fields and countries (such as the Soviet Union), the translation of this period also has its own traits. The general situation of translation in this period can be summarized from the following three aspects.

===The emphasis of translation was on Russian and Nordic works and more Chinese works were translated.===
From the end of the 19th century to the beginning of the 20th century, the literature of Russia and the Nordic countries developed greatly with the emergence of Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoyevsky, Leo Tolstoy, Chekhov, Andersen, Ibsen, Strindberg and other world-renowned great writers and dramatists. Their works had attracted the attention of the people in Western Europe and North America so they were competing to learn Russian, Danish and Swedish and had these works translated into English, German and French. In the process of translation, many excellent translators emerged in various countries.
====Translation of Russian literature====
According to the research of Tan Zaixi, Constance Garnet is the most famous female translator in Britain in this century. She translated almost all classic Russian novels and is widely regarded as the most important Translator of translating Russian literature into English. She published her first translation of Turgenev's novel Ru-Din in 1894. In the following decades, she devoted almost all her energy and time to the translation of Russian literature. She was the first person to translate Turgenev, Dostoyevsky and Chekhov into English, successively translating all the major works of Turgenev, Goncharov, Dostoyevsky, Tolstoy, Gogol and Chekhov including 12 volumes of Dostoyevsky's Selected Works translated from 1912 to 1920, 15 volumes of Turgenev's Selected Works translated from 1894 to 1899, 15 volumes of Chekhov's Novels and Plays translated from 1916 to 1922, and 6 volumes of Gogol’s Selected Works translated from 1922 to 1928. In particular, her translations of Turgenev, Chekhov, Dostoyevsky and other works were widely welcomed by the English reading community, and thus gave rise to the Russian literature craze in English literature before the First World War. She translated 70 Russian works in her lifetime, making her the most prolific translator of Russian works.
Two other translators who did not translate as much from Russian to English as Garnett, but who had no less influence, were the couple——Louise and Aylmer Maude. They are famous in western modern literary circles for their research and translation of Tolstoy's works. From 1928 to 1937, they spent nearly ten years translating and publishing 21 volumes of The Complete Works of Tolstoy. Later, from 1940s to 1950s, they supplemented or retranslated some of Tolstoy's works, such as What I Believe and Resurrection. In 1952, their work of War and Peace was accepted as a standard English translation and was selected for the prestigious Great Books of the Western World, thus establishing them as the authoritative English translators of Tolstoy. In addition, R. S. Townsend, R. Edmonds, Samuel Koteliansky, Ethel C. Mayne, Boris Brasol, Richard Renfield and so on were famous for translating the works of Tolstoy, Dostoevsky, Turgenev, Chekhov, Goncharov into English.（Tan Zaixi，2004:148-150）

====Translation of Nordic literature and drama====
In the first half of the 20th century, in addition to Russian literature, western European translators showed great interest in Nordic literature and drama, including the works of Andersen, Ibsen and Strindberg.

According to the study of Tan Zaixi, when Hans Christian Andersen was alive, one of his works was published simultaneously in 15 languages, including English, German, French, Italian, Spanish and almost all the major languages of Western Europe. Later, all of his works were translated into different languages, and there were many re-translations in English, French, German and other countries. The first English translator was Mary Howitt, who began translating Andersen’s fairy tales in 1846. Later translators include Charles Boner, Caroline Peachey, Lady Duff Gordon, Paul Leyssac, R. R. Keigwin and R. Spink. Some of the best translations are Leyssac’s translation in 1937, Keigwin’s translation from 1950 to 1960 and Spink’s translation.(Tan Zaixi，2004:151)

The main English translators of Ibsen’s plays are William Archer and James MacFarlane. Archer translated 12 volumes of The Collected Works of H. I. from 1906 to 1912, including almost all of Ibsen’s plays and some of his previously unpublished papers. Macfarlane compiled translated eight volumes of The Oxford Ibsen from 1960 to 1977. In addition, F. E. Garrett translated Lyrics and Poems from Ibsen in 1912. Mary Morison translated The Correspondence of H.I. in 1905. Evert Sprinchorn translated H. I. Letters and Speeches in 1964. (Tan Zaixi，2004:151)

In Germany, the standard German translation is the 10-volume The Collected Plays of Ibsen edited and published by G. Brandes, J. Elias, and P. Schlenther from 1898 to 1902. The standard French translation is The Complete Works of Ibsen in 16 volumes translated and published by P. G. La Chesnais from 1914 to 1945.(Tan Zaixi，2004:151)

Strindberg’s work was translated into English as early as 1912. For the next fifty or sixty years, many people worked on Strindberg’s studies and translations. Major English translators included E. Schleussner, Walter Johnson, M. Sandbach, Elizabeth Sprigge and Michael Meyer. Some good works are Sprigge’s translations of Strinberg’s Plays in 1963 and Meyer’s translations of The Father, Miss Julie, Storm and so on in 1964. In other major western European countries such as Germany and France, Strindberg’s plays were also translated into German and French, and repeatedly staged in Berlin and Paris. (Tan Zaixi，2004:152)

There is no doubt that the translation of modern and contemporary Russian and Nordic literature and drama was a mainstream of western translation in the first half of the century. However, at the same time, it must be pointed out that the mutual translation of modern and contemporary literary works in western European countries still enjoys considerable momentum.

====More and more Chinese works were translated.====
In the 20th century, more and more people in the West became interested in Chinese culture. Since the 1950s, with the improvement of new China’s international prestige, the fever of translating Chinese works had been constantly appearing in the West. Not only the Four Books, Five Classics, Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Water Margin, Journey to the West, A Dream of Red Mansions and the poems of Li Bai, Du Fu and Bai Juyi were translated into English, German and French, but modern writers such as Luxun, Maodun and Bajin were also introduced to western countries. In the process of translating and introducing Chinese works, excellent translators have emerged from every country.

According to the study of Tan Zaixi, Arthur Waley, the most eminent Sinologist in Britain in the 20th century, was a translator, writer and poet. In 1916, his first translation of Chinese Poems was published. In 1918, he published his second translated work One Hundred Seventy Chinese Poems. These two translations are both from Tang poems. In addition, he also translated part of Journey to the West in 1942, published four other Chinese-English translations, and wrote three books about China or Chinese writers. Another outstanding Sinologist and translator in the 20th century was Franz Kuhn of Germany. From 1919, when his first translation was published, to his death in 1961, he translated and published more than 40 classical and modern Chinese literary works, including 12 novels and 34 short stories. In particular, his translation of The Fortunate Union in 1926, Second Bloom in 1927, The Golden Lotus in 1930, A Dream of Red Mansions in 1932, Water Margin in 1934, Jade Dragonfly in 1936, Romance of the Three Kingdoms in 1940, Midnight and other works from 1940 to 1955, were well received by German readers.（Tan Zaixi,2004:153-156）

===The creativity of translation and the language in translation were paid more attention.===
In the aspect of translation theory, scholars had deeply reflected on the traditional translation theory, especially questioned the universality of language, and proposed that when the meaning of the original text becomes obscure and difficult to understand, translators must fill in the gaps of the text according to their own experience. Therefore, translation theories of this period paid more attention to the creativity of translation and the language problems in translation. Although they did not separate themselves from the discussion of translation techniques such as word selection and sentence construction, they laid a foundation for the linguistic turn of translation studies and provided theoretical thinking for the translation literature as an independent existence. And about the specific translation theories in different countries in this period, Xie Tianzhen made a brief summary.

J. P. Postgate is a famous Translation theorist in Britain, and he put forward prospective translation and retrospective translation. Prospective translation means that the translator always keeps the reader in mind and adopts free methods and common expressions to ensure that the original ideas of the reader are not affected and their prediction is not interfered with. The purpose of translation is to show the translator’s mastery of the target language, focusing on the target language rather than the original one. Retrospective translation means that the translator always looks at the original author, because the purpose of translation is to impart knowledge of the original text, rather than to look ahead and consider the reader of the translation.（Xie Tianzhen，2011:29）

French scholar J. Marouzeau’s "On Translation of Latin" is an important translation literature in French. He believed that translation is a skill in which the translator should reveal to the reader the content of the original work, rather than its shell, using a living language.（Xie Tianzhen，2011:29）

German thinker Walter Benjamin pointed out that although the translation is based on the original, it is the afterlife of the original work and the translation need not pursue the same meaning as the original work. Mediocre translators pay more attention to the meaning of the original work than to its literariness and language style and they only know that the translation exists to serve the original work and can only translate the non-essential content of the original work. (Xie Tianzhen，2008:319-332) The translator’s task is to use his own language to release the pure language trapped by another language, that is, to liberate the imprisoned language in the re-creation of the original text. Edwin Gentzler, a contemporary American translation theorist, believed that the discussion of translation issues among Anglo-American deconstructionists mainly revolves around comments on Benjamin’s Translator’s Task. (Edwin Gentzler, 2004:173-174.) Therefore, Translator’s Task is regarded as the “Bible” of translation theory and the classic of deconstructive translation theory.（Xie Tianzhen，2011:30）

The Russian scholar Mikhail Vasilievich Lemonosov transformed the loanwords that entered the Russian language, russified them, and regarded translation as a creative activity. And this view of free translation lasted until the 19th century. Aleksandr Pushkin, the greatest Russian poet in the 19th century, based on his literary translation practice, proposed that translators should have their own opinions on the selection of materials and should have full freedom in dealing with the original work, but the uniqueness of the original work should be preserved as much as possible.（Xie Tianzhen，2011:30）

==The General Situation of Translation in the Contemporary Age==
After the Second World War, the world entered a period of relative peace. After the trauma of the war, the Western countries regrouped and began to restore and develop production and economy in an all-round way. Translation cause also entered a new period of development at extremely rapid pace, taking on a new look. During this period, not only in the Soviet Union, Britain, Germany, France and other major European countries, but also in the United States, Canada, the cause of translation showed a prosperous scene. In terms of the whole western translation career, the translation after the Second World War was unmatched in scope, form, scale and achievement. Therefore, the 20th century could be called as "the age of translation" , which in fact mainly referred to the decades since the end of the war. Though great achievement was also made in literary translation in this period, the 20th century is known as the "age of translation" mainly because western translation expanded into various fields during this period, which has five characteristics.

===The scale of translation extended to the field of business, diplomacy, science and many other professional affairs.===
Since the end of the Second World War, due to practical needs, commercial, diplomatic, scientific and technological translation had flourished, and its momentum even exceeded literary translation, thus forming a major content of the development of modern western translation.Here is the research of Tan Zaixi about the scale of translation.

In 1945, the United Nations was established with English, French, Russian, Chinese and Spanish as the five official and working languages. In 1957, the European Community was founded, consisting of six countries at that time. In 1993, the European Community developed into the European Union. By 2004, it had 25 member states, using nine languages including English, French, German, Italy, Denmark, Ireland, Greece, Spain and Portugal. That is to say, translation had become an indispensable part of daily work, both for communicating with countries in other regions and among western countries. According to UNESCO, the number of translations in the world increased four-and-a-half times from 1948 to 1970. The institutions of the European Common Market employed more than 1,300 employees to deal with translation, of whom 450 were full-time interpreters, 550 translators and others were freelance employees on short-term contracts. (Tan Zaixi,2004:160-161)

===Translation teaching was widespread.===
In the past, translation was mainly the work of a few literary magnates. With the establishment of the United Nations and its specialized agencies, as well as the establishment of international institutions such as the European Common Market (EC, EU) and the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, the need for translators was increasing. To meet this need, a number of schools specializing in training translators had been set up.

According to the study of Tan Zaixi, the most prominent schools are the High School of Translation at the Third University of Paris and the School of Translation at the University of Ottawa. What’s more, many universities in Europe and the United States also offer translation classes or courses in senior grades.（Tan Zaixi, 2004:161-162）
===Translators’associations were established and publications on translation studies were launched.===
Translators in different countries set up various translation associations and publications. These associations played an important role in the development of translation through their activities and publications.

According to Tan Zaixi, translation associations or federations in European and American capitalist countries, in particular, generally emphasize the following principles: to clarify the legal status of translators through legislative means; to take effective measures to protect the legal rights of translators (especially the copyright that translators should enjoy); to improve their social status and increase their economic income; to improve the learning and working conditions of translators to provide them with opportunities to constantly improve their translation skills and a good working environment.（Tan Zaixi，2004:162）

There were more translators’ organizations in the United States than in other western countries, with a total of 30, among which the most influential were the American Society of Translators, the American Federation of Linguists and the Literary Society of America. The journal of the American Society of Translators was ATA Chronicle. The journal of the Literary Society of America was Translation Review.（Tan Zaixi，2004:162-163）

In Canada, major translation associations included the Canadian Council of Translators and Interpreters, the Ontario Association of Translators and Interpreters, the Business Language Centre, and the Quebec Translation Association. The Ontario Association of Translators and Interpreters founded the journal of Inform ATIO. The most influential professional translation magazine in Canada was Meta: Journal des Traducteurs.（Tan Zaixi，2004:164）

In Britain, major translation associations included the Association of Translation Companies of Great Britain, the Association of Translators and the Guild of Translators, of which the Guild of Translators was the most famous. The official publication of the guild is The Incorporated Linguist, which was published in 1962 and enjoyed high reputation in Britain.（Tan Zaixi，2004:164)

There were two major translation associations in France: the Association of French Translators and the Association of French Literary Translators. There were also two major translation associations in West Germany, one was the Association of Federation Translators and Interpreters and the other was the German-speaking World Federation of Literary and Technical Translators. In addition, Austria, Italy, Spain, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, Finland, Belgium and other Western European countries also had local or national translation organizations and a variety of translation publications.（Tan Zaixi，2004:164-165）

===Machine translation developed.===
In the process of more than two thousand years of development, the traditional translation method had not undergone substantial changes in technology, and the translation between the two languages still had to be carried out by hand. However, due to the increasingly frequent international scientific and cultural exchanges, manual translation could no longer timely meet the needs. Therefore, when the traditional manual translation was facing the challenge of the times, machine translation should be born.

In 1946, under the auspices of the United States Army headquarters, J.P. Eckert and J.W. Mauchly who were both from the University of Pennsylvania developed the world’s first electronic computer named: Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator, or ENIAC for short. Computer’s astonishing speed inspired people to consider the innovation of translation technology. Therefore, in the same year, Andrew Booth and Warren Weaver first proposed the use of computers in the machine translation system. Since then, machine translation and machine translation research, driven by modern electronic computing technology officially began.American science, especially the development of computer science, to a large extent affected the development of computer science in the whole West and even the world. Therefore, especially in the pioneering period, the development history and model of Machine translation in America can almost be regarded as those in the whole West. In this sense, the development of machine translation in the west (and even the world) can be roughly divided into the following five major periods, just like the development of Machine translation in the United States: initial stage; high stage; low stage; recovery stage; vigorous stage. The following is a further overview of the five development periods of machine translation in the West (mainly in the United States) made by Tan Zaixi who referred to the books of Yang Muyun, Li Zhisheng，Yu Hao, Zhao Tiejun and so on.

====Initial stage (1946—1954)====
The pioneering period begins with Booth and Weaver’s idea of translating natural language by computer in 1954, and ends with the birth of the first machine translation system. After the idea of using computers to translate was put forward, although there was great resistance in the United States at first, the voice supporting it was mainstream. In particular, Weaver published a memorandum on machine translation in 1949, which not only opened up a series of research topics on machine translation in the United States, but also had a wide influence in western countries. The memo makes four basic points: the problem of polysemy can be solved by context; there is a logical basis in language; there are basic probabilities in language application; there are common elements in different languages. These are still the fundamental of the development of machine translation. In the following years, machine translation research had been actively carried out in some universities and organizations in the United States and Britain. In Massachusetts Institute of Technology, the first full-time machine translation researcher Bar-Hillel arrived, he made a great contribution to the early development of machine translation and put forward the main problems and basic strategies needed to be solved in machine translation research. The first machine translation conference was held at MIT in June 1952, after which machine translation research in the United States began to accelerate. In 1954, a machine translation system for computer was developed and demonstrated. Although the machine translation system was small, consisting of only 250 Russian words, six grammar rules, and a few translation examples, it first showed the public and the scientific community the feasibility of machine translation, inspiring substantial funding from U.S. government for machine translation research over the next decade.（Tan Zaixi，2004:167-168）

====High-tide stage(1954—1966)====
The successful demonstration of the world’s first machine translation system, the Georgetown-IBM system of United States, marked the first development climax of machine translation. The upsurge began in 1954 and lasted for 12 years. In the mid-1950s, inspired by successful demonstration of machine translation system, dozens of universities, companies, and government agencies in the United States began machine translation research programs. On the one hand, due to the competition between the United States and the Soviet Union at that time, the United States military, the National Science Foundation, the Central Intelligence Agency and so on needed to acquire a large amount of scientific and technological information of the Soviet Union, so that they invested a lot in machine translation, especially Russian-English translation. On the other hand, advanced computers in the United States provided good equipment for the development of the first generation of machine translation system. At the same time, many universities and institutions in most European countries had also carried out machine translation research.（Tan Zaixi，2004:168-170）

====Low-tide stage (1966—1975)====
The advent of machine translation had opened up a new way for traditional translation research and practice. However, the complexity of machine translation was underestimated at that time and the design of machine translation system was often too rough and simple. In this case, the first generation of machine translation systems in the initial stage could not achieve ideal results, the quality of translation is often poor, so that some people gradually lost confidence in machine translation research, and some scholars also became pessimistic and disappointed. （Tan Zaixi，2004:170）

In the mid-1960s, machine translation in the United States had suffered a severe blow. In 1966, the Automatic Language Processing Advisory Committee, part of the National Academy of Sciences, was asked to investigate machine translation research funded by government. The committee published its report, Language and Machines, after analyzing the speed, quality, cost and demand of machine translation at that time. The report pointed out that the quality of machine translation is significantly lower than that of human translation and asserted that there was no likelihood of any commercially useful machine translation system in the foreseeable future. On the committee’s recommendation, the U.S. government withdrew the funding for machine translation research. Thus, machine translation research in the United States plummeted from a high point to a low point of development. It should be noted, however, that machine translation research and development was not in a complete demise, following the official denials in the United States. Scholars and research institutions in many countries including the United States continued to carry out researches and experiments on machine translation under relatively difficult circumstances.（Tan Zaixi，2004:171）

====Recovery stage(1975—1989)====
In the middle of 1970s, with the emergence of new theories and ideas in the field of linguistics and the further development of computational linguistics, the research of machine translation was aroused in the world again. After ten years of silence, machine translation research stepped on the road of recovery. The recovery period of machine translation research and development is generally considered to date from the installation of the SYSTRAN system by EURATOM and the completion of the TAUM-METEO system by the University of Montreal in Canada.（Tan Zaixi，2004:171-174）

====Vigorous stage（1989—）====
Since the late 1980s, some new developments had changed the field of machine translation, marking machine translation research enter a new period. This is the emergence of the third generation of machine translation method that is corpus-based. Corpus-based machine translation systems include statistic-based translation and example-based translation, both of which are based on large-scale real text. （Tan Zaixi，2004:167-175）

Practice has proved that machine translation has great vitality. It is a new science, and its research and translation have entered a new stage of development. No matter whether it can replace the human brain and hands eventually and completely liberate human from the heavy artificial translation, it will develop and exist for a long time. Both in theory and practice, machine translation and its research will exert more and more influence on traditional translation and its research.

===Translation theories of different schools were emerging one after another.===
The most important feature of modern western translation is the rapid development of translation theory. After the Second World War, with the vigorous development of science and technology, modern linguistics, translation activities and the rise of machine translation, people gradually changed the traditional view of translation studies, believing that translation is not only an art or skill, but also a science with rules to follow.

On the whole, the development of contemporary translation theory has two characteristics :(1) theoretical research has been brought into the scope of linguistics, under the influence of modern linguistics and information theory; (2) the traditional situation of non-communication between theorists has been broken. Translation theorists fully express their views through various channels, such as published works.(Xie Tianzhen, 2009:32)

After the Second World War, with the modernization and integration of western social and economic development, western translation theories also began to enter a new period that transcends national boundaries. Therefore, it is difficult to classify some translation thoughts and some translation theorists in a narrow sense as belonging to a certain country or a certain place. It is acceptable to divide contemporary western translation theories into different schools according to their basic approaches and methods of translation studies or the basic characteristics of thought. Here is a brief introduction to some influential schools classified by Zhao Jiajin.

====American Translation Training School====
First established in 1964 at the University of Iowa, this school focused on translation practice, emphasized the literary taste and value of works, and adopted the methods of L. A. Richards and Williard V. Quine of Harvard University. Representative figures included poet and translator Ezra Pound, who translated Tang poetry and advocated the accurate restoration of details, words, fragments and the whole image description. Frederic Will of the University of Iowa, drawing on his training experience, regarded translation as a form of naming, fiction writing and cognition. Yale’s Jonas Zdnys argued that translation is an activity of subjective thought designed to explain literature. This school explores the role of the human mind in translation and raises the question of the nature of translation, but translation theory was limited to aesthetic experience and prescriptive translation rules.

====Translation Science School====
It was also known as “linguistic school”. According to this school, translation is the process of reproducing language as a whole, and it aims to correctly convey the original information to readers. The school was founded by Eugene Nida, whose masterpieces include Message and Mission (1960) and Toward Science of Translation (1946). Nida proposed functional equivalence theory according to Noam Chomsky’s transformational generative grammar and his experience in Bible translation, that is, to digest the original text and understand its basic structure and meaning; convey meaning based on basic structure; obtain semantic and stylistic equivalence with the original text. Thus the translation process can be summarized as: analyze—transfer—restructure, these three steps. The school of Translation science adopted linguistic theory and the more objective description method in translation theory. In the late 1970s, emphasis was placed on the cultural background of the information age, but the research was still limited to prescriptive research and translation criteria, ignoring the role of translators’thinking.（Zhao Jiajin,1996: 46）

====Translation school====
It is the so-called “literary school”. This school held that the original work is the unity of sentence series and article structure, and the translator is influenced by the original view and the future model of translation in the process of translation. The founder of this school was James Holmes, an American poet, who taught translation at the University of Amsterdam in the Netherlands before his death. His representative work is ''The Name and Nature of Translation Studies'' (1972).（Zhao Jiajin,1996: 46）

====Polysystem School====
Its founders are Itammar Even-Zohar and Gideon Toury of Tel Aviv University in Israel. Even coined the term Polysystem to explore the relationship between translated works and literary systems, and explained that the oriented culture of translation not only determines whether a work can be translated, but also regulates the wording. Toury held that translation belongs to the second system of multiple systems, and its role depends on the strength and development stage of the oriented culture of translation. He held that translation has no fixed identity and has multiple identities due to its social, literary and historical background. This school integrates translation studies with literary studies, social and economic factors, endows translation studies with historical significance, but it is still limited to the acceptability of translation and does not get rid of the fetters of cultural equivalence.（Zhao Jiajin,1996: 46）

====Deconstruction School====
It is also known as “affirmative productivity school”. It originated in France in the mid-1960s and is represented by Michel Foucault, Martin Heidegger and Jacques Derrida. This school introduced deconstruction into translation, claiming that translators create the subject and the target language is a new language. As Foucault put it, the original work is constantly rewritten in the process of translation, and the translator rewrites the original work every time he reads and translates it. Deconstruction studies the nature and process of translation and language, and advocates that translators exist as entities. The school even goes so far as to believe that language does not involve any objective reality, and translators have their own status only when they create texts.（Zhao Jiajin,1996: 46-47）

==Conclusion==
Under the influence of historical backgrounds, different periods of translation show different traits. In the modern period, the content of translation still focused on literature which included works form Russian, Nordic countries, China and so on. The way of translation was artificial and traditional. With the progress of economy and science, translation in the contemporary period also got great development. The content of translation was not confined to the field of literature. Instead, translation of science and technology, commerce, entertainment and so on became a major part of the actual translation activities. In addition, machine translation as a novel technique developed quickly. And the most important feature of modern western translation is the rapid development of translation theory thanks to many translator associations and publications on translation studies. Nowadays, under the influence of globalization, translation shows more and more importance and get better development environment.

==Reference==
Feng Zhiwei 冯志伟(1994).《自然语言机器翻译新论》[M] A New Approach to Natural Language Machine Translation.北京:语文出版社Beijing: Chinese Language Publishing House.

Gentzler, Edwin(2004). Contemporary Translation Theories[M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

Mu Yunyang,Li Zhisheng,Yu Hao杨沐昀、李志升、于浩(2000).《机器翻译系统》[M]Machine Translation System.哈尔滨：哈尔滨工业大学出版社Harbin: Harbin University of Technology Press.

Tan Zaixi谭载喜(2004).西方翻译简史[M]A Brief History of Western Translation.北京：商务印书馆Beijing:The Commercial Press.

Tan Zaixi谭载喜(1985).西方翻译史浅谈[J]On the History of Western Translation.中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal,7:36-39.

Xie Tianzhen谢天振(2008).《当代国外翻译理论导读》[M]Introduction to Contemporary Foreign Translation Theories.天津：南开大学出版社Tianjin：Nankai University Press.

Xie Tianzhen谢天振(2011).中西翻译简史[M]A Brief History of Chinese and Western Translation.北京:外语教学与研究出版社Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.

Zhao Jiajin赵家琎(1996).当代翻译学派简介[J]A Brief Introduction to Contemporary Translation Schools.中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal,5：46—47.

Zhao Tiejun赵铁军等(2001).《机器翻译原理》[M]Principles of Machine Translation.哈尔滨：哈尔滨工业大学出版社Harbin: Harbin University of Technology Press.

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Wei Chuxuan: /* Reference */

'''History of Translations'''

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=Western Translation History In the Modern and Contemperary Ages=
'''现当代西方翻译史'''

魏楚璇，Wei Chuxuan, Hunan Normal University, China

==Abstract==
Under different historical backgrounds, western translation presents different characteristics. In the 20th century before the end of the Second World War, the two world wars inevitably brought obstacles and disturbances to the development of translation. Therefore, though translation in this period still continued to develop, it did not get breakthrough. Translation was still dominated by literary works in content, totally relying on manual labor. In translation theory, it emphasized the creativity of translation and laid a foundation for the linguistic turn of translation studies. After the end of World War II, the world entered an era of relative peace, the world economy recovered, and the translation industry was greatly revitalized. During this period, the scale of translation covered all aspects of social life, machine translation developed fast, translation training flourished, translation organizations were established in various countries and many translation theories and schools emerged. That is to say, this period can be called the golden age of translation.

==摘要==
在不同的历史背景下，西方翻译呈现出不同的特点。在二战结束之前的二十世纪，两次世界大战不可避免地为翻译事业的发展带来了阻碍和干扰，因而这一时期的翻译虽然仍在发展但并未取得突破性的成就，在翻译的内容上仍然以文学作品为主，技术上完全依赖人工，理论方面注重翻译的创造性且为翻译研究的语言学转向奠定了基础。二战结束后，世界进入到相对和平的年代，世界经济复苏，翻译事业也大为振兴。在这一时期，翻译的内容覆盖社会生活的方方面面，机器翻译发展迅速，翻译培训兴起，翻译组织在各国成立，各种翻译理论和翻译流派涌现，可谓是翻译的黄金年代。

==Keywords==
Western translation; translation history; modern; contemperary

==Introduction==
In this paper, western translation history in modern and contemporary ages will be introduced. Here the modern age refers to the nearly half century before the Second World War. And the contemporary age refers to the half century after the Second World War. That is to say, the modern and contemporary translation in this paper refers to the translation in the 20th century. Under the influence of different historical backgrounds, translation in these two ages showed different characteristics and traits which will be concluded and discussed in detail in the following.

==The General Situation of Translation in the Modern Age==
Into the 20th century, the capitalism in the developed countries developed into imperialism. On the one hand, the imperialist countries intensified their foreign expansion to oppress and exploit the weak countries and people in colony. On the other hand, they were engaged in a fierce battle among themselves for international markets and spheres of influence. Thus, in less than half a century, two world wars broke out. Under this historical background, translation in western countries will inevitably be seriously disturbed and destroyed. However, translation in western countries continued to develop and excellent translations still appeared from time to time. In some specific fields and countries (such as the Soviet Union), the translation of this period also has its own traits. The general situation of translation in this period can be summarized from the following three aspects.

===The emphasis of translation was on Russian and Nordic works and more Chinese works were translated.===
From the end of the 19th century to the beginning of the 20th century, the literature of Russia and the Nordic countries developed greatly with the emergence of Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoyevsky, Leo Tolstoy, Chekhov, Andersen, Ibsen, Strindberg and other world-renowned great writers and dramatists. Their works had attracted the attention of the people in Western Europe and North America so they were competing to learn Russian, Danish and Swedish and had these works translated into English, German and French. In the process of translation, many excellent translators emerged in various countries.
====Translation of Russian literature====
According to the research of Tan Zaixi, Constance Garnet is the most famous female translator in Britain in this century. She translated almost all classic Russian novels and is widely regarded as the most important Translator of translating Russian literature into English. She published her first translation of Turgenev's novel Ru-Din in 1894. In the following decades, she devoted almost all her energy and time to the translation of Russian literature. She was the first person to translate Turgenev, Dostoyevsky and Chekhov into English, successively translating all the major works of Turgenev, Goncharov, Dostoyevsky, Tolstoy, Gogol and Chekhov including 12 volumes of Dostoyevsky's Selected Works translated from 1912 to 1920, 15 volumes of Turgenev's Selected Works translated from 1894 to 1899, 15 volumes of Chekhov's Novels and Plays translated from 1916 to 1922, and 6 volumes of Gogol’s Selected Works translated from 1922 to 1928. In particular, her translations of Turgenev, Chekhov, Dostoyevsky and other works were widely welcomed by the English reading community, and thus gave rise to the Russian literature craze in English literature before the First World War. She translated 70 Russian works in her lifetime, making her the most prolific translator of Russian works.
Two other translators who did not translate as much from Russian to English as Garnett, but who had no less influence, were the couple——Louise and Aylmer Maude. They are famous in western modern literary circles for their research and translation of Tolstoy's works. From 1928 to 1937, they spent nearly ten years translating and publishing 21 volumes of The Complete Works of Tolstoy. Later, from 1940s to 1950s, they supplemented or retranslated some of Tolstoy's works, such as What I Believe and Resurrection. In 1952, their work of War and Peace was accepted as a standard English translation and was selected for the prestigious Great Books of the Western World, thus establishing them as the authoritative English translators of Tolstoy. In addition, R. S. Townsend, R. Edmonds, Samuel Koteliansky, Ethel C. Mayne, Boris Brasol, Richard Renfield and so on were famous for translating the works of Tolstoy, Dostoevsky, Turgenev, Chekhov, Goncharov into English.（Tan Zaixi，2004:148-150）

====Translation of Nordic literature and drama====
In the first half of the 20th century, in addition to Russian literature, western European translators showed great interest in Nordic literature and drama, including the works of Andersen, Ibsen and Strindberg.

According to the study of Tan Zaixi, when Hans Christian Andersen was alive, one of his works was published simultaneously in 15 languages, including English, German, French, Italian, Spanish and almost all the major languages of Western Europe. Later, all of his works were translated into different languages, and there were many re-translations in English, French, German and other countries. The first English translator was Mary Howitt, who began translating Andersen’s fairy tales in 1846. Later translators include Charles Boner, Caroline Peachey, Lady Duff Gordon, Paul Leyssac, R. R. Keigwin and R. Spink. Some of the best translations are Leyssac’s translation in 1937, Keigwin’s translation from 1950 to 1960 and Spink’s translation.(Tan Zaixi，2004:151)

The main English translators of Ibsen’s plays are William Archer and James MacFarlane. Archer translated 12 volumes of The Collected Works of H. I. from 1906 to 1912, including almost all of Ibsen’s plays and some of his previously unpublished papers. Macfarlane compiled translated eight volumes of The Oxford Ibsen from 1960 to 1977. In addition, F. E. Garrett translated Lyrics and Poems from Ibsen in 1912. Mary Morison translated The Correspondence of H.I. in 1905. Evert Sprinchorn translated H. I. Letters and Speeches in 1964. (Tan Zaixi，2004:151)

In Germany, the standard German translation is the 10-volume The Collected Plays of Ibsen edited and published by G. Brandes, J. Elias, and P. Schlenther from 1898 to 1902. The standard French translation is The Complete Works of Ibsen in 16 volumes translated and published by P. G. La Chesnais from 1914 to 1945.(Tan Zaixi，2004:151)

Strindberg’s work was translated into English as early as 1912. For the next fifty or sixty years, many people worked on Strindberg’s studies and translations. Major English translators included E. Schleussner, Walter Johnson, M. Sandbach, Elizabeth Sprigge and Michael Meyer. Some good works are Sprigge’s translations of Strinberg’s Plays in 1963 and Meyer’s translations of The Father, Miss Julie, Storm and so on in 1964. In other major western European countries such as Germany and France, Strindberg’s plays were also translated into German and French, and repeatedly staged in Berlin and Paris. (Tan Zaixi，2004:152)

There is no doubt that the translation of modern and contemporary Russian and Nordic literature and drama was a mainstream of western translation in the first half of the century. However, at the same time, it must be pointed out that the mutual translation of modern and contemporary literary works in western European countries still enjoys considerable momentum.

====More and more Chinese works were translated.====
In the 20th century, more and more people in the West became interested in Chinese culture. Since the 1950s, with the improvement of new China’s international prestige, the fever of translating Chinese works had been constantly appearing in the West. Not only the Four Books, Five Classics, Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Water Margin, Journey to the West, A Dream of Red Mansions and the poems of Li Bai, Du Fu and Bai Juyi were translated into English, German and French, but modern writers such as Luxun, Maodun and Bajin were also introduced to western countries. In the process of translating and introducing Chinese works, excellent translators have emerged from every country.

According to the study of Tan Zaixi, Arthur Waley, the most eminent Sinologist in Britain in the 20th century, was a translator, writer and poet. In 1916, his first translation of Chinese Poems was published. In 1918, he published his second translated work One Hundred Seventy Chinese Poems. These two translations are both from Tang poems. In addition, he also translated part of Journey to the West in 1942, published four other Chinese-English translations, and wrote three books about China or Chinese writers. Another outstanding Sinologist and translator in the 20th century was Franz Kuhn of Germany. From 1919, when his first translation was published, to his death in 1961, he translated and published more than 40 classical and modern Chinese literary works, including 12 novels and 34 short stories. In particular, his translation of The Fortunate Union in 1926, Second Bloom in 1927, The Golden Lotus in 1930, A Dream of Red Mansions in 1932, Water Margin in 1934, Jade Dragonfly in 1936, Romance of the Three Kingdoms in 1940, Midnight and other works from 1940 to 1955, were well received by German readers.（Tan Zaixi,2004:153-156）

===The creativity of translation and the language in translation were paid more attention.===
In the aspect of translation theory, scholars had deeply reflected on the traditional translation theory, especially questioned the universality of language, and proposed that when the meaning of the original text becomes obscure and difficult to understand, translators must fill in the gaps of the text according to their own experience. Therefore, translation theories of this period paid more attention to the creativity of translation and the language problems in translation. Although they did not separate themselves from the discussion of translation techniques such as word selection and sentence construction, they laid a foundation for the linguistic turn of translation studies and provided theoretical thinking for the translation literature as an independent existence. And about the specific translation theories in different countries in this period, Xie Tianzhen made a brief summary.

J. P. Postgate is a famous Translation theorist in Britain, and he put forward prospective translation and retrospective translation. Prospective translation means that the translator always keeps the reader in mind and adopts free methods and common expressions to ensure that the original ideas of the reader are not affected and their prediction is not interfered with. The purpose of translation is to show the translator’s mastery of the target language, focusing on the target language rather than the original one. Retrospective translation means that the translator always looks at the original author, because the purpose of translation is to impart knowledge of the original text, rather than to look ahead and consider the reader of the translation.（Xie Tianzhen，2011:29）

French scholar J. Marouzeau’s "On Translation of Latin" is an important translation literature in French. He believed that translation is a skill in which the translator should reveal to the reader the content of the original work, rather than its shell, using a living language.（Xie Tianzhen，2011:29）

German thinker Walter Benjamin pointed out that although the translation is based on the original, it is the afterlife of the original work and the translation need not pursue the same meaning as the original work. Mediocre translators pay more attention to the meaning of the original work than to its literariness and language style and they only know that the translation exists to serve the original work and can only translate the non-essential content of the original work. (Xie Tianzhen，2008:319-332) The translator’s task is to use his own language to release the pure language trapped by another language, that is, to liberate the imprisoned language in the re-creation of the original text. Edwin Gentzler, a contemporary American translation theorist, believed that the discussion of translation issues among Anglo-American deconstructionists mainly revolves around comments on Benjamin’s Translator’s Task. (Edwin Gentzler, 2004:173-174.) Therefore, Translator’s Task is regarded as the “Bible” of translation theory and the classic of deconstructive translation theory.（Xie Tianzhen，2011:30）

The Russian scholar Mikhail Vasilievich Lemonosov transformed the loanwords that entered the Russian language, russified them, and regarded translation as a creative activity. And this view of free translation lasted until the 19th century. Aleksandr Pushkin, the greatest Russian poet in the 19th century, based on his literary translation practice, proposed that translators should have their own opinions on the selection of materials and should have full freedom in dealing with the original work, but the uniqueness of the original work should be preserved as much as possible.（Xie Tianzhen，2011:30）

==The General Situation of Translation in the Contemporary Age==
After the Second World War, the world entered a period of relative peace. After the trauma of the war, the Western countries regrouped and began to restore and develop production and economy in an all-round way. Translation cause also entered a new period of development at extremely rapid pace, taking on a new look. During this period, not only in the Soviet Union, Britain, Germany, France and other major European countries, but also in the United States, Canada, the cause of translation showed a prosperous scene. In terms of the whole western translation career, the translation after the Second World War was unmatched in scope, form, scale and achievement. Therefore, the 20th century could be called as "the age of translation" , which in fact mainly referred to the decades since the end of the war. Though great achievement was also made in literary translation in this period, the 20th century is known as the "age of translation" mainly because western translation expanded into various fields during this period, which has five characteristics.

===The scale of translation extended to the field of business, diplomacy, science and many other professional affairs.===
Since the end of the Second World War, due to practical needs, commercial, diplomatic, scientific and technological translation had flourished, and its momentum even exceeded literary translation, thus forming a major content of the development of modern western translation.Here is the research of Tan Zaixi about the scale of translation.

In 1945, the United Nations was established with English, French, Russian, Chinese and Spanish as the five official and working languages. In 1957, the European Community was founded, consisting of six countries at that time. In 1993, the European Community developed into the European Union. By 2004, it had 25 member states, using nine languages including English, French, German, Italy, Denmark, Ireland, Greece, Spain and Portugal. That is to say, translation had become an indispensable part of daily work, both for communicating with countries in other regions and among western countries. According to UNESCO, the number of translations in the world increased four-and-a-half times from 1948 to 1970. The institutions of the European Common Market employed more than 1,300 employees to deal with translation, of whom 450 were full-time interpreters, 550 translators and others were freelance employees on short-term contracts. (Tan Zaixi,2004:160-161)

===Translation teaching was widespread.===
In the past, translation was mainly the work of a few literary magnates. With the establishment of the United Nations and its specialized agencies, as well as the establishment of international institutions such as the European Common Market (EC, EU) and the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, the need for translators was increasing. To meet this need, a number of schools specializing in training translators had been set up.

According to the study of Tan Zaixi, the most prominent schools are the High School of Translation at the Third University of Paris and the School of Translation at the University of Ottawa. What’s more, many universities in Europe and the United States also offer translation classes or courses in senior grades.（Tan Zaixi, 2004:161-162）
===Translators’associations were established and publications on translation studies were launched.===
Translators in different countries set up various translation associations and publications. These associations played an important role in the development of translation through their activities and publications.

According to Tan Zaixi, translation associations or federations in European and American capitalist countries, in particular, generally emphasize the following principles: to clarify the legal status of translators through legislative means; to take effective measures to protect the legal rights of translators (especially the copyright that translators should enjoy); to improve their social status and increase their economic income; to improve the learning and working conditions of translators to provide them with opportunities to constantly improve their translation skills and a good working environment.（Tan Zaixi，2004:162）

There were more translators’ organizations in the United States than in other western countries, with a total of 30, among which the most influential were the American Society of Translators, the American Federation of Linguists and the Literary Society of America. The journal of the American Society of Translators was ATA Chronicle. The journal of the Literary Society of America was Translation Review.（Tan Zaixi，2004:162-163）

In Canada, major translation associations included the Canadian Council of Translators and Interpreters, the Ontario Association of Translators and Interpreters, the Business Language Centre, and the Quebec Translation Association. The Ontario Association of Translators and Interpreters founded the journal of Inform ATIO. The most influential professional translation magazine in Canada was Meta: Journal des Traducteurs.（Tan Zaixi，2004:164）

In Britain, major translation associations included the Association of Translation Companies of Great Britain, the Association of Translators and the Guild of Translators, of which the Guild of Translators was the most famous. The official publication of the guild is The Incorporated Linguist, which was published in 1962 and enjoyed high reputation in Britain.（Tan Zaixi，2004:164)

There were two major translation associations in France: the Association of French Translators and the Association of French Literary Translators. There were also two major translation associations in West Germany, one was the Association of Federation Translators and Interpreters and the other was the German-speaking World Federation of Literary and Technical Translators. In addition, Austria, Italy, Spain, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, Finland, Belgium and other Western European countries also had local or national translation organizations and a variety of translation publications.（Tan Zaixi，2004:164-165）

===Machine translation developed.===
In the process of more than two thousand years of development, the traditional translation method had not undergone substantial changes in technology, and the translation between the two languages still had to be carried out by hand. However, due to the increasingly frequent international scientific and cultural exchanges, manual translation could no longer timely meet the needs. Therefore, when the traditional manual translation was facing the challenge of the times, machine translation should be born.

In 1946, under the auspices of the United States Army headquarters, J.P. Eckert and J.W. Mauchly who were both from the University of Pennsylvania developed the world’s first electronic computer named: Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator, or ENIAC for short. Computer’s astonishing speed inspired people to consider the innovation of translation technology. Therefore, in the same year, Andrew Booth and Warren Weaver first proposed the use of computers in the machine translation system. Since then, machine translation and machine translation research, driven by modern electronic computing technology officially began.American science, especially the development of computer science, to a large extent affected the development of computer science in the whole West and even the world. Therefore, especially in the pioneering period, the development history and model of Machine translation in America can almost be regarded as those in the whole West. In this sense, the development of machine translation in the west (and even the world) can be roughly divided into the following five major periods, just like the development of Machine translation in the United States: initial stage; high stage; low stage; recovery stage; vigorous stage. The following is a further overview of the five development periods of machine translation in the West (mainly in the United States) made by Tan Zaixi who referred to the books of Yang Muyun, Li Zhisheng，Yu Hao, Zhao Tiejun and so on.

====Initial stage (1946—1954)====
The pioneering period begins with Booth and Weaver’s idea of translating natural language by computer in 1954, and ends with the birth of the first machine translation system. After the idea of using computers to translate was put forward, although there was great resistance in the United States at first, the voice supporting it was mainstream. In particular, Weaver published a memorandum on machine translation in 1949, which not only opened up a series of research topics on machine translation in the United States, but also had a wide influence in western countries. The memo makes four basic points: the problem of polysemy can be solved by context; there is a logical basis in language; there are basic probabilities in language application; there are common elements in different languages. These are still the fundamental of the development of machine translation. In the following years, machine translation research had been actively carried out in some universities and organizations in the United States and Britain. In Massachusetts Institute of Technology, the first full-time machine translation researcher Bar-Hillel arrived, he made a great contribution to the early development of machine translation and put forward the main problems and basic strategies needed to be solved in machine translation research. The first machine translation conference was held at MIT in June 1952, after which machine translation research in the United States began to accelerate. In 1954, a machine translation system for computer was developed and demonstrated. Although the machine translation system was small, consisting of only 250 Russian words, six grammar rules, and a few translation examples, it first showed the public and the scientific community the feasibility of machine translation, inspiring substantial funding from U.S. government for machine translation research over the next decade.（Tan Zaixi，2004:167-168）

====High-tide stage(1954—1966)====
The successful demonstration of the world’s first machine translation system, the Georgetown-IBM system of United States, marked the first development climax of machine translation. The upsurge began in 1954 and lasted for 12 years. In the mid-1950s, inspired by successful demonstration of machine translation system, dozens of universities, companies, and government agencies in the United States began machine translation research programs. On the one hand, due to the competition between the United States and the Soviet Union at that time, the United States military, the National Science Foundation, the Central Intelligence Agency and so on needed to acquire a large amount of scientific and technological information of the Soviet Union, so that they invested a lot in machine translation, especially Russian-English translation. On the other hand, advanced computers in the United States provided good equipment for the development of the first generation of machine translation system. At the same time, many universities and institutions in most European countries had also carried out machine translation research.（Tan Zaixi，2004:168-170）

====Low-tide stage (1966—1975)====
The advent of machine translation had opened up a new way for traditional translation research and practice. However, the complexity of machine translation was underestimated at that time and the design of machine translation system was often too rough and simple. In this case, the first generation of machine translation systems in the initial stage could not achieve ideal results, the quality of translation is often poor, so that some people gradually lost confidence in machine translation research, and some scholars also became pessimistic and disappointed. （Tan Zaixi，2004:170）

In the mid-1960s, machine translation in the United States had suffered a severe blow. In 1966, the Automatic Language Processing Advisory Committee, part of the National Academy of Sciences, was asked to investigate machine translation research funded by government. The committee published its report, Language and Machines, after analyzing the speed, quality, cost and demand of machine translation at that time. The report pointed out that the quality of machine translation is significantly lower than that of human translation and asserted that there was no likelihood of any commercially useful machine translation system in the foreseeable future. On the committee’s recommendation, the U.S. government withdrew the funding for machine translation research. Thus, machine translation research in the United States plummeted from a high point to a low point of development. It should be noted, however, that machine translation research and development was not in a complete demise, following the official denials in the United States. Scholars and research institutions in many countries including the United States continued to carry out researches and experiments on machine translation under relatively difficult circumstances.（Tan Zaixi，2004:171）

====Recovery stage(1975—1989)====
In the middle of 1970s, with the emergence of new theories and ideas in the field of linguistics and the further development of computational linguistics, the research of machine translation was aroused in the world again. After ten years of silence, machine translation research stepped on the road of recovery. The recovery period of machine translation research and development is generally considered to date from the installation of the SYSTRAN system by EURATOM and the completion of the TAUM-METEO system by the University of Montreal in Canada.（Tan Zaixi，2004:171-174）

====Vigorous stage（1989—）====
Since the late 1980s, some new developments had changed the field of machine translation, marking machine translation research enter a new period. This is the emergence of the third generation of machine translation method that is corpus-based. Corpus-based machine translation systems include statistic-based translation and example-based translation, both of which are based on large-scale real text. （Tan Zaixi，2004:167-175）

Practice has proved that machine translation has great vitality. It is a new science, and its research and translation have entered a new stage of development. No matter whether it can replace the human brain and hands eventually and completely liberate human from the heavy artificial translation, it will develop and exist for a long time. Both in theory and practice, machine translation and its research will exert more and more influence on traditional translation and its research.

===Translation theories of different schools were emerging one after another.===
The most important feature of modern western translation is the rapid development of translation theory. After the Second World War, with the vigorous development of science and technology, modern linguistics, translation activities and the rise of machine translation, people gradually changed the traditional view of translation studies, believing that translation is not only an art or skill, but also a science with rules to follow.

On the whole, the development of contemporary translation theory has two characteristics :(1) theoretical research has been brought into the scope of linguistics, under the influence of modern linguistics and information theory; (2) the traditional situation of non-communication between theorists has been broken. Translation theorists fully express their views through various channels, such as published works.(Xie Tianzhen, 2009:32)

After the Second World War, with the modernization and integration of western social and economic development, western translation theories also began to enter a new period that transcends national boundaries. Therefore, it is difficult to classify some translation thoughts and some translation theorists in a narrow sense as belonging to a certain country or a certain place. It is acceptable to divide contemporary western translation theories into different schools according to their basic approaches and methods of translation studies or the basic characteristics of thought. Here is a brief introduction to some influential schools classified by Zhao Jiajin.

====American Translation Training School====
First established in 1964 at the University of Iowa, this school focused on translation practice, emphasized the literary taste and value of works, and adopted the methods of L. A. Richards and Williard V. Quine of Harvard University. Representative figures included poet and translator Ezra Pound, who translated Tang poetry and advocated the accurate restoration of details, words, fragments and the whole image description. Frederic Will of the University of Iowa, drawing on his training experience, regarded translation as a form of naming, fiction writing and cognition. Yale’s Jonas Zdnys argued that translation is an activity of subjective thought designed to explain literature. This school explores the role of the human mind in translation and raises the question of the nature of translation, but translation theory was limited to aesthetic experience and prescriptive translation rules.

====Translation Science School====
It was also known as “linguistic school”. According to this school, translation is the process of reproducing language as a whole, and it aims to correctly convey the original information to readers. The school was founded by Eugene Nida, whose masterpieces include Message and Mission (1960) and Toward Science of Translation (1946). Nida proposed functional equivalence theory according to Noam Chomsky’s transformational generative grammar and his experience in Bible translation, that is, to digest the original text and understand its basic structure and meaning; convey meaning based on basic structure; obtain semantic and stylistic equivalence with the original text. Thus the translation process can be summarized as: analyze—transfer—restructure, these three steps. The school of Translation science adopted linguistic theory and the more objective description method in translation theory. In the late 1970s, emphasis was placed on the cultural background of the information age, but the research was still limited to prescriptive research and translation criteria, ignoring the role of translators’thinking.（Zhao Jiajin,1996: 46）

====Translation school====
It is the so-called “literary school”. This school held that the original work is the unity of sentence series and article structure, and the translator is influenced by the original view and the future model of translation in the process of translation. The founder of this school was James Holmes, an American poet, who taught translation at the University of Amsterdam in the Netherlands before his death. His representative work is ''The Name and Nature of Translation Studies'' (1972).（Zhao Jiajin,1996: 46）

====Polysystem School====
Its founders are Itammar Even-Zohar and Gideon Toury of Tel Aviv University in Israel. Even coined the term Polysystem to explore the relationship between translated works and literary systems, and explained that the oriented culture of translation not only determines whether a work can be translated, but also regulates the wording. Toury held that translation belongs to the second system of multiple systems, and its role depends on the strength and development stage of the oriented culture of translation. He held that translation has no fixed identity and has multiple identities due to its social, literary and historical background. This school integrates translation studies with literary studies, social and economic factors, endows translation studies with historical significance, but it is still limited to the acceptability of translation and does not get rid of the fetters of cultural equivalence.（Zhao Jiajin,1996: 46）

====Deconstruction School====
It is also known as “affirmative productivity school”. It originated in France in the mid-1960s and is represented by Michel Foucault, Martin Heidegger and Jacques Derrida. This school introduced deconstruction into translation, claiming that translators create the subject and the target language is a new language. As Foucault put it, the original work is constantly rewritten in the process of translation, and the translator rewrites the original work every time he reads and translates it. Deconstruction studies the nature and process of translation and language, and advocates that translators exist as entities. The school even goes so far as to believe that language does not involve any objective reality, and translators have their own status only when they create texts.（Zhao Jiajin,1996: 46-47）

==Conclusion==
Under the influence of historical backgrounds, different periods of translation show different traits. In the modern period, the content of translation still focused on literature which included works form Russian, Nordic countries, China and so on. The way of translation was artificial and traditional. With the progress of economy and science, translation in the contemporary period also got great development. The content of translation was not confined to the field of literature. Instead, translation of science and technology, commerce, entertainment and so on became a major part of the actual translation activities. In addition, machine translation as a novel technique developed quickly. And the most important feature of modern western translation is the rapid development of translation theory thanks to many translator associations and publications on translation studies. Nowadays, under the influence of globalization, translation shows more and more importance and get better development environment.

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