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History of Translation Studies 8

2021-01-03T09:12:56Z

Weiyafei: /* On Chinese-to-English Translation of The Summer Palace from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches to Translation 魏亚菲 Wei Yafei 202020080648 */

这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第八部分(Part 8)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。

学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。

*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]
*Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].

='''History of Translation'''=

==A Comparative Study on the Translation History in Western Countries and China, 王煜 Wang Yu, MTI 英美文学==
<center>Wang Yu 王煜，202020080645.</center>
===Abstract===
Translation is an intercultural communication activity. Translation activities have accelerated the development of human civilization and broken through the language barriers. As time goes by, things are in a state of flux and both the Western and Eastern countries have gradually formed their own histories of translation, the study of translation history is a basic project of discipline construction. Although there are many differences between the translation histories of the Western countries and of China, the two kinds of translation histories are still shining their own bright and unique lights and have a lasting influence and they contribute indelibly to translation activities. This chapter intends to make a brief comparison between the translation histories of Western countries and of China. It includes the origins, the stages, the representatives of the stages, the significance and influence as well as the differences of the two translation histories.

===Key words===
translation history of the West; translation history of China; comparative study

===中西翻译史对比研究===

===摘要===
翻译是一种跨文化交流活动，翻译活动加快了人类文明发展步伐，减少了人们之间的沟通障碍。随着时代的变迁，中国和西方国家逐渐形成了各自的翻译史，翻译史的研究是学科建设的一项基础工程。尽管中西方翻译史在某些方面有所差异，但却都有着各自的独特性，并对人类的翻译活动产生了巨大的影响与贡献。文章将以中国和西方国家为主要对象，从二者翻译史起始，包含阶段和各阶段代表人物，影响意义，差异性出发，对二者的翻译史进行简略的对比研究。

===关键词===
西方翻译史；中国翻译史；对比研究

===1. Introduction===

No matter where, in China or in the West, translation plays an important role in knowledge-spreading. As an indispensable part of translatology, the study of translation history had a huge impact on translation activities, it has gradually become the focus of literary and historical circles in recent years. Translation activities can be traced back to the origin of languages. The history of translation is almost as old as language itself, which is closely related to the changes in today's society.

Since the 1980s, the translation studies in mainland China have made remarkable progress in the design of curricula of Chinese and Western translation history courses and the compilation of related works. In the early 1980s and 1990s, many related works appeared, one after the other, including ''A Brief History of Chinese Translation. Vol. "Until the May 4th Movement"''（《中国翻译简史-“五四”运动以前部分》） written by Ma Zuyi , ''A Historical Manuscript of Chinese Translated Literature'' （《中国翻译文学史稿》）edited by Chen Yugang, and also ''A Short History of Translation in the West''（《西方翻译简史》）, authored by Tan Zaixi. Thus, it opens the door for the compilation of works on Chinese and Western translation history. (Xie Tianzhen 2009, Ⅴ)

The history of Western translation can be divided into five stages while the Chinese study of translation has a history of more than two thousand years and has experienced five climaxes in respect of volume. The comparative study of Chinese and Western translation history will help us to get a deeper understanding of Chinese and Western translation activities, thus to gather a general full view of it, which is a meaningful attempt.

===2. The Translation History of Western Countries===

Western translation activities have a rich and long history. The history of Western translation can be roughly divided into three stages: traditional, modern and contemporary. There are five peaks during the three stages: the ancient times, the middle ages, the Renaissance period and the time after WWⅡ.

===2.1 The First Stage: Translation in Ancient Times===
In literature we often find wrong assessments. An example is Tan Zaixi's book about translation history: According to him, the translation history of Western countries began in the 3rd century BCE. In a broad sense, as Tan argues, the earliest translation in the West is the Old Testament translated by 72 Jewish scholars in Alexandria, ancient Egypt, between the 3rd and 2nd centuries BCE. Strictly speaking, in Tan's understanding, the first Western translation is the Greek Homer Epic ''Odyssey'' translated by Andronicus in Rome in the middle of the third century BCE. (Tan Zaixi 2000, 88-89) However, we know, the first evidences of translations date back 5000 years, i.e. 3000 BCE, e.g. the Gilgamesh Epos, the Rosetta Stone etc.

At the end of the 4th century BCE, Greek cities began to collapse and the Romans became stronger and stronger with their military expansion. With the expansion of the Roman Empire, it came into contact with the rich Greek culture. After conquering Greek cities, the Romans inherited and developed the highest achievements of ancient Greek culture, and then their culture dominated the region after the Greek epoch. Thus, large scale translation activities of translating and introducing Greek classical works began in this period. (Liu Junping 2009, 8)

At that time, many famous translation theorists began to make their presences, namely Cicero, Quentin, Jerome and so on, also the Roman litterateurs like Andronicus, Naevius, Ennius, these great writers used Latin language to translate Homer’s epic or other Greece dramas. It started the translation tradition of Rome and promoted the development of Roman literature. (Tan Zaixi 2000, 89)

===2.2 The Second Stage: Translation in the Middle Ages (4th-6th)===

According to Tan's view, the second culmination occurred in the late Roman Empire in the early Middle Ages. In this period, translation was mainly related to the religious stuff. Religious forces have a broad-ranging influence in the West. Christianity strived to promote its own religion, thus, ''the Bible'', as a source and psychological weapon of the Christianism, naturally meant a lot to the people in religious world. Because the Old Testament of the Bible was written in Hebrew and Greek, it needed to be translated into Latin for effective circulation in Rome.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 89)

Jerome was a Latin Christian priest, he translated the Bible into Latin(Vulgute) according to the Hebrew version of the Bible. This version he translated had made impact on medieval theology and was the most widely circulated and authoritative translation in the Middle Ages, marking an unprecedented level of the development of the Western translation."(Tan Zaixi 2000, 89)

===2.3 The Third Stage: Translation in the Middle Ages (11th-12th)===

This period can also be called "the period of the Arab Centennial Translation Movement",(Liu Junping 2009, 9) which lasted over two hundred years. In order to consolidate the rule and promote socio-economic and cultural development, the medieval Arab Empire undertook a massive, organized academic activity to translate and introduce the scientific and cultural classics of ancient Greece and the East. Translators of this period actively translated some important works of Greek literature in all disciplines with an open mind and a strong desire for knowledge.

Between the 11th and 12th centuries, Toledo became Europe’s academic center for its prosperous translation activities, the Western translators who gathered here translated many works from Arabic into Latin. Cultural patterns and religious ideas gradually converged here.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 90)

Until nowadays, the positive influence of this movement still plays an inherent role: numerous proprietary names such as ‘concept’, ‘category' are gradually established in Arabic. This movement not only facilitated the integration of the inner Arab world, but also, in fact, promoted the integration of the Western and Persian worlds.

===2.4 The Fourth Stage: Translation in the Renaissance Period===

The Renaissance movement is a European ideological and cultural movement that took place from the 14th century to the 16th century, and reached its peak in the 16th century and inspired a cascade of the development of science, art and literature. A large number of famous translators shown up and a series of translation works had been produced. During this time, a quantity of ancient Greek and Roman classics had been rediscovered and translated into various European languages, which had brought about an impact on the European nation states.

Leonardo Buruni, who was one of the most influential cultural translation practitioners in the Renaissance period, and he was also one of the earliest representatives of humanistic translators in the history of Western translation. He was famous for his translation of Plato's and Aristotle's works. Also, some humanists began to study the Bible with the method of studying classical literature, and translated the Bible into theie national language, which led to the rise of the religious reform movement. In Germany, Martin Luther, a religious reformer, translated the first mass Bible, which ushered in a new era in the development of modern German. In Britain, Chapman, a writer and translator, translated Homer's ''Iliad'' and ''Odyssey'' from 1958 to 1616, and the translation and publication of the King James Bible in 1611 marked the formation of modern English.(Liu Junping 2009, 9)

From above examples we can see that the Renaissance movement played a very important role in the Western history of the development of translation, it marked the status of national language in the field of literature. Simultaneously, it showed that translation is playing a role in the formation and development of the national language, literature and thought.(Liu Junping 2009, 9)

During the three hundred years lasted from the 17th century to the 19th century, translation activities at this time continued to move forward. Although the scale and influence of these activities could not be compared with that of the Renaissance movement, there were still many excellent translators and works they translated. The biggest feature of this period was that translators not only continued to translate classical works, but also became interested in modern and contemporary works. The works of Cervantes, Shakespeare, Balzac, Goethe and other great writers had been repeatedly translated into various languages, and translations of Eastern literature have also been published.(Liu Junping 2009, 9)

===2.5 The Fifth Stage: Translation after WWⅡ===

World War II has brought different degrees of blows to many Western countries, after the end of the war, some Western countries have used a large amount of capital to actively resume the production, developed various social fields and attached great importance to the person with ability. Western science and technology are changing with each passing day, driven by cybernetics, information theory and system theory. The world of knowledge and experience has been greatly expanded, and the social and cultural exchanges have become increasingly closee, all of these changes have provided a solid material foundation and ideological guarantee for the prosperity of the translation at this time.

With the growth in number of translation activities, translation theory continues to develop, and the number of translation talents in various countries keeps on increasing. Translation has gradually expanded from traditional literary and religious translation to other fields, such as scientific and technical translation and business translation. Some professional translators appeared in international conferences which has shown that the influence of translation in international communication has become more and more obvious. (Liu Junping 2009, 9)

===3. The Translation History of China===

China has a long history with 5000 years of civilization. we know that China is a multi-ethnic country, we can not ignore the irreplaceable role of translation in the communication between different ethnic groups. There is no reference to the history of translation in China, although there are some documents in the Xia and Shang Dynasties, we still can not discern the translation activities at that time from the existing records. According to Ma' saying, "The song of the Yue Boatman can be regarded as the first poetry translation in Chinese history."(Ma Zuyi1998,5) However, it was only an isolated translation activity and did not trigger a large-scale translation movement in China.

===3.1 The First Stage：Translation of Ancient Buddhist Scriptures===

The first stage of the Chinese translation history was the time of the translation of ancient Buddhist scriptures. Some said that ''The Potala Sutra'' should be the earliest translation of Buddhist scriptures in China. It was also said that the ''Forty-Two Chapters Sutra'' is the earliest Chinese translation of the Buddha's sutras. However, the one that was proven to be reliable should be the book ''The Fifty Books of the Mingdu'' translated by An Shigao during the reign of Emperor Huan of the Eastern Han Dynasty.(Ma Zuyi 1998, 17)

From the book of Ma we konw that the history of the translation of ancient Buddhist scriptures has experienced four phases, each of which had its own features: the first was the starting period from the last year of emperor Huan in the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Western Jin Dynasty. Translators in this period were mainly Buddhist monks.(Ma Zuyi 1998, 33) However, the quality of the translated works depends on the ability of the translators’ understanding of Chinese, so the classics of the translated works are varied. Also, due to the shortage of learners' knowledge of language, they usually used literal translation to translate the works.

The second was the developing time of the translation of ancient Buddhist scriptures, from the Eastern Jin Dynasty to the Sui Dynasty. The Buddhist scriptures continued to prevail under the rulers' advocacy and people began to translated Buddhist scriptures in an organized way but still translated the works literally. During this period, Shi Daoan put forward the his famous theory of ‘Five losses of source texts and three difficulties in translation’.

Meanwhile, through the translation and interpretation of nearly 400 volumes of Buddhist classics, Kumarajiva first introduced Indian Buddhism to Chinese people, which played an important role in the prosperity of Chinese Buddhism at that time.(Ma Zuyi 1998, 40) The translation in this time had changed from individual translation into group translation which had improved the quality of translation and as well made some progress in translation theories and skills.(Ma Zuyi 1998, 55)

The third was the heyday of the translation history which took place in Tang Dynasty.(Ma Zuyi 1998, 58) Xuanzang was an important figure in promoting Sino-Indian friendship and cultural exchanges in China's history，he was a great translator and organizer of translation activities, and he was also a great translation theorist whose contribution to translation studies still remains an impact today.

The last phase was the Northern Song Dynasty, the activities of studing the translation of Buddhist scriptures gradually withered, and during this period, the translation activities mainly focused on the esoteric classics translations.(Ma Zuyi 1998, 82)

===3.2 The Second Stage：Technical Translation during the Yuan and Ming Dynasties===

The activities of the translation of Buddhist scriptures gradually declined during the two hundred years of the Ming Dynasty. With the arrival of the Western Christian missionaries, China came into contact with Europe. In order to facilitate their relations with Chinese officials and intellectuals, the missionaries translated the works of Western science and technology as well as Christian texts assisted by Chinese officials. They also introduced the Chinese classics to the West.(Ma Zuyi 1998, 263)

Matteo Ricci came to China on a mission to introduce Western scientific and technological knowledge. He pioneered the history of combining the Chinese and Western translation to introduce Western scientific and technical literature, and he was the first to translate the ''Four Books'' into Latin and introduced Chinese texts to the West.(Ma Zuyi 1998, 263)

From the Wanli period of the Ming Dynasty to the "new learning" period of the Qing Dynasty, translators who introduced science, literature and philosophy of Western Europe, represented by Xu Guangqi, Lin Shu and Yan Fu appeared. Xu Guangqi was a patriotic scientist and organizer of the scientific and cultural movement in China at the end of the Ming Dynasty, he made outstanding achievements in introducing Western natural sciences and promoted the development of science in China.

===3.3 The Third Stage：Literary Translation in Late Qing Dynasty===

After the Opium War, the Qing government organized a large number of scholars to translate books of Western natural science. Under the influence of the refroming thought, a large number of translations introducing Western political thoughts, scientific methods and some literary works appeared. ''The Records of Four Continents'', translated by Liang Jinde, asked by Lin Zexu, was the first systematic introduction to the geographical knowledge of Western countries in modern China.（Ma Zuyi 1998, 329）

After the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895, Yan Fu translated the theory of evolution and put forward the three criterias of ‘faithfulness, fluency and elegance’, which has played a guiding role in the translation practice of later generations. His translation promoted the development of "new learning" and enlightened the Chinese nation at that time.（Ma Zuyi 1998, 377）

Another scholar Liang Qichao, who was a politician, thinker and encyclopedia scholar of that time, advocated that China needs to develop the translation career and cultivate translation talents at a full stretch. He had done fruitful researches on the translation of Buddhist scriptures and the translation of science and technology between the Ming and Qing Dynasties.（Ma Zuyi 1998, 384）

===3.4 The Fourth Stage：The Translation of Socialist and Communist Works===

The May 4th Movement was a watershed in China's modern translation history, which made a significant contribution to the introduction of foreign literature to China and the development of literature in China. After the May 4th movement, China's translation industry has ushered in a new historical period. Translators in this period, compared with those during the late Qing dynasty, were more selective in source texts. Chinese translation scholars began to introduce the classic works of Marxism-Leninism and the literature of the proletariat. The translation of the Manifesto of the Communist Party was published during the May 4th movement.

During this period, great changes have taken place in the content and form of translation work: vernacular began to replace classical Chinese, as a result, popular language becomes easy to understand and the excellent literary works of western countries have attracted more and more Chinese readers.

Famous translators like Lu Xun, Mao Dun, Zheng Zhenduo, Guo Moruo, Zhu Shenghao, Lin Yutang had translated a large number of foreign masterpieces, which enriched the inner world of the Chinese people. Lu Xun once advocated that there should be an exotic atmosphere in the translated works which would familiarize the readers with the foreign cultures. He also believed that the literal translation of culturally loaded words was one of the important means of enriching the mother tongue. These scholars helped the Chinese people to know more about the outside world and laid a good foundation for the systematization and scientification of translation theory in China.

===3.5 The Fifth Stage：The Translation after 1949===

The founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949 enabled translation to enter a new era. With the founding of the new China, China's translation industry was also liberated. Translation became a very important part of the national, cultural and educational cause. National organizations for translators were established in order to protect the interests and benefits of translators, as a result, the quantity and quality of translated works have grown by leaps and bounds.

Since then, translation work has been an important part of the new socialist culture and developed rapidly, many achievements have been made and translation theories are perfected. The classical works of Marxism-Leninism, excellent foreign literature, scientific and technical literature and the like were systematically introduced by translators or the scholars. There are large-scale translation activities like the activities of translating the works of Marx and Lenin.

In the 1950s, scientific and technical works were translated in order to meet the demands of the national social and economic construction. In the 1970s, the United Nations documents were translated after China was restored to its rightful seat in the United Nations. Also, literary translators became a very important part of China's literature and arts personnel. Qian Zhongshu at this time put forward his "transmigration theory"(化境说) for literary translation. In 1978, two years after the end of disastrous "cultural revolution," China adopted its policy of reform and opening up, a new and dynamic atmosphere for translation thus came into being.

===4.The Comparative Study Among the Two Kinds of Translation Histories===

===4.1 The Similarities of the Western and Chinese Translation History===

We can easily notice that in the history of Chinese and Western translation, almost all the early translation activities were the translation of religious classics. The translation of religious classics had opened the curtain of Chinese and Western translation history. The spread of religion is always accompanied by the translation of religious classics. It is not difficult for us to understand the reason: after the emergence of religion, in order to absorb more believers, it is necessary to spread the religious beliefs widely across nations and countries. Therefore, from ancient times to the present, religion is always a kind of forms of various national beliefs and cultures, it keeps on influencing the spiritual belief and behavior of people in society.

The translation activities have made many contributions to the establishment and development of national languages in various countries. For example, in the history of Western translation, Martin Luther's translation of the Bible played an important role in the unification and development of the German language and the establishment of modern German.

What’s more, the English version of the Bible enriched the English vocabulary and benefited the modernization of English language a lot. The same in China, the translation of the Buddhist scripture also enriched the use of Chinese vocabulary. And in the ideological field, it not only laid the foundation for the establishment of Taoism, but also paved the way for the formation of "New Confucianism" in the Song Dynasty. And we also can not ignore the contribution of the literary translation made in the first half of the 20th century to the establishment and development of modern vernacular Chinese.

The translation activities help to transmit cultural values and promote cultural exchange. These activities make a close connection between nations and countries and introduceg the language and cultural habits of one nation to another. For example, Jesuits came to China in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, they translated Chinese classics and literary works into foreign languages, and became the middlemen of the exchange of Chinese and Western civilizations in a state of isolation between China and Europe.(Tan Zaixi 1999, 26)

===4.2 The Differences Between the Western and Chinese Translation History===

First, time is different. The history of Western translation predates Chinese translation jistory by over 200 years. It is said that the reason is the differences in topography and geomorphology of the two parts. We all know that China possesses a great number of mountains and lakes, and in ancient times, it would take quite a few days to send messages from one place to another, especially when people in remote areas, it would be a hard and long journey for them to head for thier destinations. So, there is a difficulty in communicating among the various peoples in different nations or different places because there would be a delay in their communications and connections.

As for the West, there are numerous plains, so, it was much convenient and easier for the Western people to communicate and exchange their ideas with each other, which set a ideal environment for the development of translation activities.

Also, the position of religion varies. China and the West have different concepts of religion, because different religious cultures have different forms of expression and vocabularies of their own. In the West, the Bible is not only a religious classic but also an important mainstay of Western culture and the foundation of Christian faith. Buddhism was introduced into China from India in a very early year and became a very important part of Chinese traditional culture, the rulers of that time controlled their people spiritually in order to consolidate his ruling position, and the doctrines of Buddhism satisfied to the ruler's appetite, so Buddhism was first spread among the ruling class and gradually gained its legal status.

The tradition of Western and Chinese translation differs. One of the differences is between the single system and poly system. “The simplicity of Chinese translation tradition is mainly in the narrow sense，though there are different kinds of translations of national languages in China, most of them are still dominated by the tradition of Chinese language and culture translation, because they all occurred in the same environment of the language culture since ancient times, that is , the environment of Chinese language culture.”(Tan Zaixi 2000, 15)

In contrast, in terms of space, the Western translation tradition did not always develop in the same region. In the later formation and development process, it spread throughout all ethnic regions in Europe；In terms of time, the Western translation tradition began in ancient Rome, and then evolved into the ancient Latin language and culture system. In the later period of the middle ages, the system expanded and evolved into many relatively independent ethnic systems. So the system of the West is more like a kind of poly system instead of a single system like China.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 15)

The focus of Chinese and Western translation is different. Chinese translation traditions are more practical rather than theoretical. Like professor Tan Zaixi once said: “What Chinese translators and translation theorists most concerned about is how to deal with the difficulties in translation.” However, Western translation pays more attention to systematicness and theory.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 16)

Secondly, the national characteristics of China and the West are also different. Relatively speaking, Western ideas are more open and Chinese more conservative. For a long time, the Chinese people advocate authority and afraid of challenging it. China's three cardinal principles and five constancies in religion are in sharp contrast to the religious reform in the West. Although the West also advocates authority and takes religion as its belief, it dares to break dogmatism, which brings a breakthrough to Western translation studies to a certain extent.

===Conclusion===

History is like a bridge connecting the past, present and future. Throughout the history of translation between China and the West, although the differences between them inevitably exist, the translation achievements made by both sides are remarkable: excellent translators, translation scholars, or translation theories, translation works, all of these guide the way for our future translation research, they are leading people to pursue knowledge and to explore into the unknown field.

Also, mastering the history of a discipline can help us see the direction of its development clearly, we then will be able to learn from the experience and lessons in the process and use this kind of method to guide the development of this subject. To know more about the history of translation is helpful for us to improve the level of our skills of translation and develop the translation career. The achievements of our predecessors have accumulated valuable cultural heritages for us, we should sum up our predecessors' translation experience and continue to make our efforts for our country's translation career.

===References===

*Li Xuan. 李璇. (2012). 中西翻译高潮之对比 [Comparison of Translation Climax Between China and the West]. ''青年文学家'' Youth Literator(3) 131.
*Liu Junping. 刘军平. (2009). ''西方翻译理论通史'' [A General History of Western Translation Theory]. Wuhan: Wuhan University Press 武汉大学出版社.
*Ma Zuyi. 马祖毅. (1998). ''中国翻译简史-“五四”以前部分（修订本）'' [A Brief History of Chinese Translation: The Part Before the May 4th Movement] . China Translation Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.
*Qi Jian. 戚健. (2017). 古罗马时期翻译思想新探 [A New Probe Into the Translation Thoughts in Ancient Rome]. ''南昌航空大学学报：社会科学版'' Journal of Nanchang Hangkong University: Social Science (3) 68-74.
*Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (2000). ''翻译学'' [A Series of Translation Studies in China]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.
*Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (1999). 中国翻译与西方翻译 [Chinese Translation and Western Translation].''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation Journal(5) 6-8.
*Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (2000). 中西译论的相异性 [The Differences Between the Chinese and Western Traditions of Translation Theories]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation Journal (1) 15-21.
*Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (1999). 中西译论的相似性 [The Similarities Between the Chinese and Western Traditions of Translation Theories]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation Journal (6) 25-28.
*Wang Yong. 汪勇. (2008). 翻译与宗教传播 [Translation and Religious Communication]. ''中国校外教育理论'' Education for Chinese After-school(26) 51-53.
*Xie Tianzhen. 谢天振. (2009). ''中西翻译简史'' [A Brief History of Translation in China and the West]. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社.--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 01:49, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Comparison and Translation Studies Between Chinese and Western Color Terms 方洁玲 Fang Jieling 外国语言学及应用语言学==

=== Abstract ===
Color terms are terms used to describe the external color characteristics of things, and are very common in our lives. We use them not only to describe the external image of an object, but also to express our inner psychological feelings. Color words contain rich cultural connotations, which should not be understood simply from their literal meanings when translated, but from the different cultural connotations and extended meanings contained in the color words to understand and choose the meanings of the words. This paper first introduces the composition of color words in Chinese and English and makes a comparative analysis of their characteristics, then discusses the different meanings given to the six colors in Chinese and English, and then provides different translation methods that should be used in different situations, providing a certain reference for the English-Chinese translation.

===Key words ===
color terms, cultural difference , reason ,translation methods

=== 摘要 ===
颜色词是用来描述事物外在颜色特征的词语，在我们生活中非常常见。我们不仅用它描绘物体的外在形象，也用它表达内在心理感受。颜色词包含了丰富的文化内涵，在翻译的时候不能简单地从字面意思上理解，应从颜色词所包含的不同文化内涵和引申意义来理解和选择词义。本文将首先介绍中英颜色词的构成并对其特点进行对比分析，然后具体论述六种颜色在中英文中被赋予的不同意义，接着提供了面对不同情况应该采用的不同翻译方法，为英汉互译提供了一定的参考。

=== 关键词 ===
颜色词文化差异原因翻译方法

=== 1.Introduction ===

Color is an indispensable part of human life,it is because of the colorfulness of colors that the world is much more varied and pleasant. Color words not only have an important impact on people's vision, but also have a great impact on people's inner feelings and emotional expression. As an important part of language, color words are frequently used by human beings in English, but due to different histories, cultures, customs and habits, in the long run, different people have given specific meanings to various colors.

Analyzing and comparing the different connotations of color words in Chinese and Western cultures and exploring the cultural differences between English and Chinese will be of great help to the translation work between English and Chinese. At the same time, translators will inevitably meet a lot of problems in the translation work. In this paper, we mainly discuss the composition and cultural connotation of color words between Chinese and English. In addition, we also propose some translation methods and make a brief conclusion.

=== 2.Characteristics of the Composition of Chinese and Western Color Words ===

Color words are words used to describe the color of different things. And they are the symbols that exist in human languages to record a large number of colors, which are generally considered to be adjectives in grammar.
In the historical development of Chinese color words, there are three types.(Cai Xiaomin2020,65)

(1) Basic words. These words are the most basic and objective, and are generally used to objectively describe the most direct external color state of an object. They are "white", "black", "red", "yellow", "blue ""Green" "Gray" "Purple" "Brown" and "orange".
(2) Reference words. Reference words means that people specifically distinguish basic words to show different colors. These words are more detailed and specific than the basic words. For example, we tend to divide "green" into "dark green" "grass green" and so on.
(3)Descriptive words. Descriptive words comes from people's perception of nature. These words can not only distinguish colors, but also describe what they look like. Such color words are more literary and subjective.(Cai Xiaomin2020,65)

Color words in English are mainly divided into basic color words and compound color words.
basic color words : (1) simple colors. For example, black, white. (2) Colors of plants. For example, orange, etc.
Compound color words : (1) the name of plant + simple color. For example, apple green. (2) Chemical name + simple color. For example, vermilion, etc(Cai Xiaomin2020,65)

=== 3.The Different Understanding and Perception of Colors in China and the West ===
Nature is colorful and can be described with many words. Generally speaking, black symbolizes oppression, white symbolizes purity and innocence, and green symbolizes life force. However, due to different histories and cultures, the same color may have different meanings. After a careful study of color words, it is easy to see that color words create various associations that have a great impact on a person's emotions and behavior. This is the main reason why people use color words to explain their moral character, emotions, and perceptions of things.(Wang Yu2012,151)

Different cultures and ways of thinking lead to different meanings of color words, and this disparity can affect people's understanding of the meaning of the same word. For example, in English-speaking countries, white symbolizes purity and beauty, which is why brides wear white wedding dresses in Western weddings. However, in China, white is often used to express grief, and a white funeral dress is worn at a funeral.(Du Tianyu2020,188) In this paper, we start with the six basic color words red, black, white, yellow, purple and blue, and compare their cultural connotations in English and Chinese, discussing the different understanding and cognition of colors in China and the West and the differences in cultural connotations between Chinese and Western cultures.

====3.1 红and Red ====

In traditional Chinese culture, "红" represents joy, happiness, good luck, and prosperity. "红" is a color that cannot be absent from important events in China, such as the red couplets(红包), red lanterns（红灯笼）, and red packets（红包） during Chinese New Year festivals, the red dress of the bride at weddings, and other festive ceremonies in China. Similarly, words combining the word "红" generally mean prosperity, such as “hongguangmanmian”（红光满面）、”dahongdazi”(大红大紫)、”honghuo”(红火)、”hongren”(红人)、”hongrun”(红润), etc. In addition, during the revolutionary era, the color red also symbolized the modern Chinese revolution and power, such as the“hongsezhengquan”(红色政权)、”hongjun”(红军)、”hongqi”(红旗)、”hongge”(红歌)、”hongsewenjian”(红头文件)、”hongseganglin”(红色纲领), etc.( Zhao Fenyan2019,232)

In the West, red refers to the color of blood, and when red is mentioned, it is generally associated with cruelty, violence, and bloodshed. For example, "red hands", "red battle", "the red rules" " red revenge", the color red also symbolizes radical and violent revolution, as in "red activities", but also danger and tension,such as "a red flag". "red alert" "a red adventure story",in addition to the above-mentioned symbolic meaning, the color red also has connotations of debauchery and obscenity.(Yan Wen2012,177)For example, red light district, a red waste of one's youth, and so on. The positive connotation of the color red in Western culture is due to the exchange and integration of different cultures, which is said to have been introduced to the West via Persia from the Far East. like red letter day、red envelope、the red carpet.

====3.2 黑 and Black ====

In Chinese history, “黑” is an honorable and dignified color, which had a high status in ancient times. During the Xia, Qin, and early Han dynasties, “黑” was the dress of emperors and officials, and the common people were only allowed to wear plain clothes, and then a restriction that was gradually relaxed after the Northern Song Dynasty. In China, the derivation of “黑” includes the positive meanings of stern, iron-faced, upright, and mysterious, such as in the art of theatrical masks, where the “黑脸” symbolizes the noble character of uprightness and selflessness. In addition to its positive connotations, “黑” sometimes symbolizes a derogatory meaning, indicating a counter-revolutionary, regressive, or stubborn party. For example, the ”阴曹地府” is said to be dark and sunless, and “黑”, as opposed to light, symbolizes darkness, death, terror, etc. (Wang Yu2012,150)

In the West, black is the color of death, symbolizing death, suffering, and grief, hence the black color of Western mourning garments. black tidings means "bad news"，Jesus was crucified on the Friday before Easter, The Black Friday is considered to be a "dangerous and ominous day". Black also symbolizes "anger" and "irritation", such as: black in the face,to look black at sb，Other words that express negative meanings，such as black sheep, black dog, black eye, black list, black and blue, black art, and other black symbols.(Wang Yu2012,151)In addition, black also represents seriousness, discretion, and pomp. Black suit and black dress have always been the most revered traditional clothing in the West. In solemn formal occasions, people like to wear black clothing. Symphony orchestra performers almost always wear black suits. The term "black-ball" refers to a costume ball. In business English, "a company in black" refers to a profitable business, where“ in black” means profitable, because on financial statements, profit figures are written in black ink.

====3.3 白 and White ====

In Chinese, “白” is often used to represent death, such as at funerals with white decorations, white flowers, and white mourning clothes, but there are also many words containing “白” that do not represent color at all, but rather the name of something or have another meaning,[8]such as”baicai”(白菜), “baixiong”（白熊）、 “baiyi”(白蚁)、”baijuan” (白卷)、 “baichi”(白痴), White" also means "pure, or unadulterated, such as”baikaishui”(白开水)、”baizhi”(白纸)、”baiqierou”(白切肉)etc. "White" also often means "in vain" or "without cost", such as”baifeishi”(白费事)、“baida”（白搭）、”baisong” (白送)、“baishouqijia” (白手起家) etc(Chen Yongye2005,425)

and The Chinese word “白” is also not the same as the English word "white", which we can say the white people (白人), but is better translated as: She has a fair skin. In addition, it is difficult to summarize the exact meaning of some of the“白” in Chinese, For example “baihua”(白话) vernacular, “tanbai”（坦白）: to confess, to make a clean breast of something, etc.(Yan Wen2012,176)
In the West, however, white is considered as a symbol of purity, and it is customary to wear white wedding dresses and gowns at weddings, hence there exist the expressions like white-handed，a white lie，a white day, they treated us white etc.

====3.4 黄 and Yellow ====

In traditional Chinese culture,”黄” is a symbol of power, honor, and nobility, in the Chinese feudal society, yellow is a symbol of imperial power and nobility, such as ”chonggao”(崇高)，”huangpao”(皇袍)、”huanggong”(皇宫)、”shengzhi”(圣旨) and so on. In modern Chinese, words such as “huangchengcheng”(黄澄澄),”huangcanvan”(黄灿灿)mean a good harvest and an auspicious day. ”黄” is a glorious color. And it is always associated with "honor", "brilliance", it is a symbol of "power" and "nobility". To this day, ”黄” is still the symbol of ancient China, which is its positive meaning. Similarly, ”黄” has negative connotations, such as ”huangseshukan”(黄色书刊) , “huangseluxiang”(黄色录像) etc.(Yan Wen2012,178)

but in the West, the term "the blue video", "the blue talk" is used to describe the pornographic nature of the country. It means ”huangsedianying”(黄色电影)and ”huangsexinxi”(黄色信息)(Du Tianyu2020,188). In addition, ”黄” also means failure, sickness, or old age, such as ”huangji”(黄髫). The word ”黄” also means youth and ignorance.In the West, in Western Christianity, yellow is a symbol of shame. Because in the Bible, Judas betrayed Jesus by wearing a yellow dress. Therefore, "yellow" has the connotation of betrayal .And it also means sadness, sickness, cowardice, etc.(Chen Yongye2005,425) For example, "a yellow streak" means cowardice. "yellow" also has mean and vulgar semantics. In the 18th century, Americans often printed pornographic books on yellow paper.

As a result, the low level of exaggeration and exaggerated distortion of facts used by newspapers and periodicals to attract readers was later extended to journalistic styles as well. For example, "yellow journalism" is a style of journalism that attempts to attract people in any way possible. In English, Yellow Pages is the "yellow phone book", and yellow boy is a slang term for "gold coin. The English words for Chinese ”黄” would be: pornographic, filthy, vulgar, obscene, etc. In English, blue is often used to mean ”黄”, such as blue jokes(下流的玩笑)、blue revolution (性解放)、blue films (黄色影片)、blue software (黄色软件)etc.(Chen Yongye2005,425) Some Chinese words have nothing to do with the English word yellow, such as blue jokes(下流的玩笑)、blue revolution (性解放)、blue films (黄色影片)、blue software (黄色软件)and so on.

====3.5 绿and Green ====

In Chinese culture, “绿”represents vitality, and phrases related to”绿”express hope and vitality of people, such as“lüzhou”（绿洲）、“lvyiangran”（绿意盎然）. In today's China, ”绿”has a new symbolic meaning, such as: “lvseshipin”(绿色食品),”lvsechanye”(绿色产业), all referring to the concept of health, safety and non-pollution. The green light is also a signal for safe passage. In Chinese, a "lvmao" （绿帽）means that a man's wife is in an illicit relationship with someone else.(Hu Zongkang, Zhang Jun2019,153) However, in ancient Chinese culture, ”绿”means humbleness, because humble people wore green clothes. Also,”lvlinhaohan” (绿林好汉)means a barbarian who occupies a mountain and becomes king.

In traditional British culture, "Green" is a symbol of youth and vitality. It reminds people of the harmony and tranquility of nature. The "Green Peace Organization" is an organization that protects animals and plants. A dove with a green olive branch in its beak is a symbol of peace, "green winter" refers to a warm winter, and "in a green wood" refers to when people are young and strong. Green also represents a sense of madness and despair, just as Satan's image in the Bible is green. In addition, green in English also has a derogatory meaning of jealousy, lack of training, and childishness, such as “as green as grass”，’a green eye”，”a green hand”.(Chen Yuan2020,49) In addition, greenback means U.S. currency in English, and since U.S. dollar bills are green in color, green also means "money," "bills," or "economic power" in the United States.

====3.6 蓝 and Blue ====

Blue is the color of the sea and clear skies, giving people a feeling of peace and tranquility. In Chinese, in addition to the color,”蓝” is often used together with other words to form phrases that have different meanings from the color.
For example, “蓝青官话 “the standard Chinese spoken by the people with accent、“蓝本”script on which the works are based； model
“蓝图”（blue print）building plan、“蓝田生玉”the noble people usually come from the good family、“青出于蓝而胜于蓝 “the new coming from the old is better than the old .(Chen Yuan2020,49)

But blue in English can be extended to depression, sadness, nervousness, immorality, obscenity, and pornography. For example :“feel blue“, ”be blue about future“,”Her mood is blue“,“be down with blues”,“sing the blues”,“blue devils”,“blue funk“,”blue revolution“, ”blue films“, ”blue jokes“, ”blue room” refers to a place in The White House where the president meets his friends and family. and the ”Blue Book“ refers to a book that contains the names of celebrities and important government officials.(Du Tianyu2020,187-188)

=== 4.Reasons for the Difference in the English-Chinese Translation of Color Words ===

Different countries and regions have different interpretations of color. The main reasons for this difference are geographical factors, historical factors, religious beliefs, and social systems.
====4.1 Geographic Factors ====

Chinese civilization originated in the Yellow River Basin. The rich water resources and flat land of the Yellow River Basin have nurtured several generations of Chinese people. This is the main reason why the Chinese people love yellow. For generations, we Chinese people are also known as the “yanhuangzisun”(炎黄子孙)(Cai Xiaomin2020,66).Western civilization originated in ancient Rome. The only way out for Greece was to expand abroad. Therefore, blue became the favorite color of the Greeks.

==== 4.2 Historical and Cultural Factors ====

A large number of color words have been created in different historical backgrounds and conditions. Therefore, it is important to understand the differences in the historical background and culture of different countries. For example, during the War of Resistance Against Japanese Aggression, our Party was called the”hongjun”(红军), which gave rise to expressions like “hongsezhengquan”(红色政权)、”hongjun”(红军)、”hongqi”(红旗)、”hongge”(红歌)、”hongsewenjian”(红头文件)、”hongseganglin”(红色纲领),etc.(Li Dan2018,132)

In addition to some basic meanings, the color “红” in China also has some special historical meanings, such as the heroic and fearless revolutionary spirit. This is also the main reason why our national flag adopts the color red. Also in ancient China, yellow was a symbol of power, a color reserved for the royal family, representing the supreme authority, which meant that yellow robes were added to the flag. In the West, purple is used as a metaphor for "throne" and "prominence," and the addition of a purple robe means rising to a position of prominence, because Western emperors and bishops have a tradition of wearing purple robes,(Li Dan2018,132) such as :be born in the purple(生于皇室), be raised to the purple.

In recent years, yellow has become more and more of a symbolic term in China for low taste, erotic vulgarity, and obscenity, such as”huangsedianying”(黄色电影)、”huangseshukan”(黄色书刊)、”huangseguangdie”(黄色光碟).etc. The "黄" in these names has nothing to do with the English "yellow", these words in English are expressed like this pornographic, vulgar, obscene. (Chen Yongye2005,425)It is very different from the associations in Chinese culture. The color vocabulary is visually and psychologically positive and derogatory for people of different nationalities.

In different historical backgrounds and conditions, a large number of color words have been produced.Therefore, it is important to understand the historical background and cultural differences of different countries.For example, during the Anti-Japanese War, our Party was called "Hongjun" (Red Army), which looks like "Hongsezhengquan" (red Government), "Hongjun" (Red Army), "Red Flag" (red Flag), "Red Song" (red song), "Hongsewenjian" (red document), "Hongseganglin" (Red program), and so on.(Dan2018 lee, 132)
In addition to some basic meanings, the color "red" in China also has some special historical meanings, such as heroism and fearless revolutionary spirit.That's the main reason our flag is red.Also in ancient China, yellow was a symbol of power, a color reserved for royalty that represented supreme power, which meant the yellow robes were added to the flag.In the West, purple is used metaphorically to "throne" and "stand out", and a purple robe means to rise to a prominent position, because western emperors and bishops have a tradition of wearing purple,(Dan2018, 132) e.g. : born in purple (born in royalty), raised in purple.

==== 4.3 Religious beliefs ====

In China, the Five Element Theory is widely spread. Since "gold" is at the core of the theory, yellow becomes noble. In contrast, in the West, because yellow is stigmatized in Christianity and most people are Christians, many people dislike yellow and often even use it to convey negative connotations, according to "the Gospels" in the Bible's, in which Jesus was willing to be crucified, bleed to death, and be sacrificed with the blood of the Gospels. The Bible has been a classic of Christianity, and most people in Europe and the United States believe in Christianity.(Chen Yongye2005,425) Since the Bible has always been a Christian classic, and most people in Europe and the United States are Christian, its influence on Western culture as a whole is immeasurable, and on English culture as well.

Therefore, people think that "red" is associated with bloodshed, martyrdom, and bad things, and "red" makes them think of horrible things, such a“ red hand”( 沾满血的手 ),“ a red battle”( 血战 ),“ to see the red light”(灾祸临头)."(Chen Yongye2005,425)In Chinese language, the color red is a symbol of honor, splendor, good fortune, and celebration. Such as: :“ 开门红”make/ get off to a good start,“ 满堂红”success in every field,“ 红榜 ”honor roll,“ 红运 ”goodluck,“ 红事 ”wedding,“ 红人 ”a favorite with someone in power etc.".

The theory of the Five Elements is widely spread in China.Because "gold" is the core of the theory, yellow becomes noble.On the contrary, in the West, because yellow is stigmatized by Christianity and most people are Christians, even many people do not like yellow and often use it to convey negative meanings, according to the "Gospels" in the Bible, Jesus was willing to be crucified, bleed to death, sacrifice with the blood of the Gospels.The Bible has always been a classic of Christianity, which is practiced by most people in Europe and the United States.(Chen yongye, 2005,425) since the bible has always been a classic of Christianity, and most people in Europe and America are christians, the influence of the bible on the whole western culture is inestimable, and the same is true for British culture.

Therefore, people think "red" is associated with blood, sacrifice, and bad things, and "red" makes them feel terrible things, such as "red hands" (stained with blood), "red battles" (bloody battles), "seeing red lights" (disaster coming).(Chen yongye 2005,425) in Chinese, red is the symbol of honor, splendor, wealth, auspiciousness and happiness.Such as :: "get off to a good start" make/get off to a good start, "full of red" success in every field, "red list" honor, "Red luck" Goodluck, "red thing" wedding, "red" people most like to be with someone in electricity, etc.

==== 4.4 Social System ====

The use of different colors to represent political affiliations or national identities has long been a common practice among peoples of different social systems in China and the West due to their political, economic, and religious differences. In English, the true blue refers to the loyal members of a political party, especially the die-hard conservative members of the British party; White Paper or Blue Paper refers to a report or diplomatic document with blue or white covers issued by the British and American governments on a particular topic; Yellow Paper refers to the French and other countries. A government report of a country; Green Paper is a draft report for discussion by various committees; the Chinese use the term "红" to symbolizes the proletarian revolution, the meaning of which is derived from the book "Red Star Over China"(“红星照耀下的中国”,and is also translated into”西行漫记”) by American writer Edward Snow.(Li Dan2018,132)

===5.Translation Methods of English-Chinese Color Words ===

From the above analysis, we can conclude that there are similarities and differences in the cultural connotations of Chinese and English color words. Therefore, in the translation of color words, it is impossible to generalize, so translators need to adapt to the local conditions and adopt an appropriate way to translate.

====5.1 Literal Translation ====

Literal translation means that every effort should be made to maintain the linguistic style of the original work. At the same time, it requires that the target language should be fluent and easy to understand. There are similarities between English and Chinese languages and cultures. In the translation of English-Chinese color words, some color words can be found in the target language, while others have similar extended cultural meanings. Sometimes there is no similar extended meaning, but only a literal translation meaning, so the literal translation can also be used for translation.(Hu Zongkang, Zhang Jun,153)

For example, when the word black remains in its original color in the corresponding language, i.e, it has the same connotation, a literal translation is usually used.black humor 黑色幽默 (an absurd, grotesque, or morbid humor in literature, especially in novels and plays)、
black Friday黑色的星期五 (the Friday on which any disaster occurs)、black hand黑手党 (a secret organization that originated in Sicily, Italy, and has spread to the United States to engage in criminal activities)black market 黑市、black- hearted 黑心的、blacklist 黑名单、black and white TV黑白电视, etc.(Chen Yuan2020,49）and red light district can be directly translated as“红灯区“, which refers to the neighborhoods where sex industries are concentrated in cities of certain countries and regions.(Hu Zongkang, Zhang Jun,152)

Similarly, some color words in Chinese can be directly translated into English, for example:” 白露”, one of the 24 solar terms, is a culturally specific term in Chinese, which is completely unfamiliar to Western countries. Due to cultural exchanges, "white dew" is becoming more and more familiar to foreigners, and it has the same cultural meaning in English as "白露" in China. As another example, "绿油油" is a Chinese adjective used to describe the color of vibrant green leaves.(Hu Zongkang, Zhang Jun,153) We can translate it into English as "green and shiny" because the color words here are only used to describe objective points of view, and they have the same meaning.

==== 5.2 Free Translation ====

Free translation. When the meaning of a color word in the original language is different from the meaning of the color word in the target language, the translator has to translate the meaning of the color word in the original language into the customary expression in the target language. In some cases, color words appear in both Chinese and English, but they do not have any color meaning; some are customary object names, while others give new meaning to them. In this case, the color itself cannot be focused on, so the colorless translation should be abandoned.This kind of translation based on the cultural background of two languages to correspond to the meaning is called "free translation".(Chen Yuan2020,49）

Take black as an example, for instance, black lie--恶意的谎言、black and blue--青一块紫一块、black tea-- 红茶、black guard--恶棍、black coffee --不加牛奶的咖啡、pain somebody black-- 把某人描写成坏人、黑帮can be translated into “reactionary gang”、黑钱--ill-gotten money、黑面包 brown bread, and so on. Another example is that we often say "他是老师面前的“红人", which is translated into English as "He is teacher's favourite student" ,”hongren”(红人)is an extended paraphrase of the Chinese, which does not mean literally, it means someone who is popular and be sought after by others,(Hu Zongkang, Zhang Jun,150) and the exact meaning needs to be contextualized. People from English-speaking countries will be confused if we translate it as "red people".

In English, the meaning of "one's favourite people" is somewhat similar to "红人", so the phrase "one's favorite people" is appropriate. Another example is "a white elephant," which is said to be a punishment given by the king of Thailand to his erring ministers in the past, as the cost of keeping white elephants is very high and would be a great financial burden. This word is very common in English, but a literal translation of "白象" would not have any connotation in Chinese, so it can be translated as "expensive and useless thing.（Jin Yan2012，130）

===6. Conclusion ===

This paper first discusses the construction of color words in Chinese and English, and then compares their compositional features. Secondly, six colors (red, black, yellow, white, green, blue) are taken as examples to analyze the cultural similarities and differences between Chinese and English color words. The reasons for the differences are divided into four main categories: geographical factors, historical factors, psychological factors, religious beliefs, and social systems,Finally, a solution to the problem is proposed, which provides a proper reference for translators when translating Chinese and English color words.(Hu Zongkang, Zhang Jun,153)

When doing translation, translators can mainly use two different translation methods, namely, literal translation and free translation. When the Chinese cultural connotation of a color word in a sentence is the same as the English one, the literal translation can be used. When it is different from English, a free translation is appropriate.(Bao Dongjiao2005,106) With the continuous penetration of globalization, people's languages and cultures are gradually interwoven, so does the meaning of color words, and also the similarities are expanding gradually.

However, each nation-state has its own unique culture and customs, so the color words have completely different meanings in different regions and different languages. Therefore, when translating color terms, in order to translate the meaning of the text more accurately, the translator must have a deeper understanding of the color words.(Bao Dongjiao2005,107).In addition, the translator should not only learn translation skills, but also the history, geography, and culture of the country where the source and target language are located, which will help the accuracy of the translation. In short, the key to a good color word translation is the combination of translation skills and a deep understanding of the culture, as well as an accurate analysis of the color word.

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*Wang Yu.王羽.(2012).中西文化对比下颜色词的差异比较[Comparison of the differences in color words between Chinese and Western cultures].教育时空[Education Time],151.

*Li Yun, Jia Aiguang.李云,贾爱光.(2020).大学英语教学中英汉基本颜色词翻译对比探讨[A Comparative Discussion on the Translation of English and Chinese Basic Color Words in University English Teaching].校园英语[Campus English],11-21.

*Chen Yuan陈缘.(2020)英汉颜色词的文化差异与翻译[Cultural differences between English and Chinese color words and translation].海外英语[Overseas English],48-49.

==Translation Manipulated by Ideology 许静Xu Jing, MTI 英语笔译==

<center> 许静 Xu Jing 202070080614 </center>
===摘要===
传统翻译理论将研究重点放在原文与译文的对比上，遵循翻译的最高原则“忠”。本文将根据勒菲费尔的翻译改写理论，从历史角度探讨中国建国初期翻译活动的过程及其制约因素，旨在揭示这一阶段中国翻译活动的基本特点，为新时期翻译活动的良性发展提供一点借鉴。

===关键词===
翻译；意识形态；操纵；赞助人

===Abstract===
Traditional translation theory focuses on the comparison between the original text and the translated text, following the strict principle of translation, "fidelity". This article will explore from a historical perspective the process of translation activities and its constraints in the early years of China's founding, based on Lefevere's theory of translation rewriting, with the aim of revealing the basic characteristics of Chinese translation activities at this stage and providing a little reference for the benign development of translation activities in the new era.

===Key words===
Translating; Ideology; Manipulation; Patronage

===Introduction===
Traditionally, translation studies have only focused on the linguistic level, confined to the conversion of two texts, and have not broken through the understanding of the "faithful" concept.
Since the 1970s, leading translators from various countries have abandoned their original narrow thinking and begun to emphasize that "translation does not take place in the vacuum of two languages, but in the context of two literary and cultural traditions." In the 1980s, the French translation studies scholar Antoine Berman stressed that the translation of literary works is driven by ideological choices. (Xu Baoqiang, Yuan Wei 2001,13)

In the 1990s, the contemporary American translation theorist Lefevere, in his Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulation of Literary Fame, argues that translation involves several factors such as ideology, patronage, poetics and literary scholarship. Translation is the rewriting of an original text; it is a form of creating a text. Whatever the rewriting or the intention, it reflects a certain ideology and poetics and responds to the dominant ideology of the period. As a result, the intercultural activity of translation inevitably bears the mark of ideology. (Xu Baoqiang, Yuan Wei 2001,13)

===Ideology===
The word “ideology”, derived from the Greek word “idea” and “logos”, literally means conceptual logos, i.e. the doctrine of ideas. It was a concept proposed by Destutt de Tracy at the end of the 18th century, initially as a world view and a body of philosophical thought, for a modern critique of religion, which encompassed the whole field of culture, including science, and was an essential intermediary between ourselves and the world. This is generally considered to be the positive use of this concept. (Jiang Xiaohua 2003, 28)

But there are also a number of scholars who recognise and use this concept in a negative or pejorative sense. In their view, ideology is a form of false-consciousness, a set of interconnected value judgements that guide social and political action but are not subject to rational scrutiny. These judgements, which contain prejudices and preconceptions, tend to distort our understanding of the world and are therefore necessarily unreliable. (Jiang Xiaohua 2003, 28)

Ideology, in this context, includes religion and all distorted forms of consciousness, is the antithesis of science and functions politically as a specific element of the social superstructure. Both meanings of ideology, positive and negative, have long been used in the field of philosophical and cultural studies. The Dictionary of Modern Chinese (2002) gives the following summary of ideology:

Ideology is a systematic view of the world and society, formed on the basis of a certain economic foundation. Ideology is a component of the superstructure and has a class character in a class society. It is also called conceptual form. (The Dictionary of Modern Chinese 2002, 455)

Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary defines:

1. especially the systematic sum of ideas about human life or culture; 2. the way of thinking or content specific to an individual, group, or culture; 3. the integrated claims, theories, and goals that shape a socio-political agenda. (Merriam Webster 2003, 507)

The two definitions are worded differently, but the substantive content is basically the same. The use of the concept of ideology in this paper will take its broad form, taking into account both positive and negative meanings, reflecting its narrow political connotation as well as covering its conceptual doctrine in its original sense. It is on this conceptual basis that our discussion will proceed. (Wang Dongfeng 2003, 20)

===Ideology and Translation===
Traditional translation theory has always measured all translations with a yardstick of loyalty and infidelity, as if questioning a young daughter-in-law in a family shrine about her disobedience. In this small-minded ritualistic vision, the self-appointed patriarchal status of the commentator gives himself an unwarranted authority, so much so that some conclusions seem to be drawn without even bothering to fetch the ritualistic ruler: translators are like women, beautiful ones are unfaithful, faithful ones are not beautiful. (Lu Jun 2002, 107)

Thus, we see in the clan shrine of translation Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Fu Donghua, etc., who were condemned with few sensible reasons; and Pound, the foreigner who did not know Chinese and dared to translate Tang poems. The crime exerted on them is infidelity. (Ma Zuyi 2006, 209)

Finally, in the 1980s, translation scholars began to pay attention to the pressure of ideology on the practice of translation. In the 1990s, the American translator Lefevere wrote a book entitled Translation, Rewriting, and the Manipulation of Literary Fame. In this book, he systematically described the two main factors that manipulate the translation process, namely ideology and poetics. According to his theories, it seems that we can offer another explanation for the 'infidelity'. (Lefevere 1992, 56)

According to Lefevere, there are two factors that control literary creation and translation: internal factors and external factors. The internal factor is the so-called 'professionals', made up of critics, teachers, translators, etc., while the external factor is the 'people, institutions' who have the 'power to promote or prevent' literary creation and translation. "The term he uses is patronage. Here, 'the patronage is usually interested in the ideology of literature', while 'the literary scholars are concerned with poetics'. Thus, the two main factors governing the translation process are ultimately ideology and poetics. (Lefevere 1992, 56)

Lefevere also points out that the endogenous factor (the literary person and his or her poetic conception) works within the parameters set by the exogenous factor (the patron and his or her ideology) (ibid). In other words, the patron representing the ideology of a culture or society establishes a set of decisive ideological value parameters within which literary scholars and translators accomplish their poetic pursuits. (Munday, J 2010, 127)

On the one hand, the patrons, as spokespersons of a certain ideology, use their discursive power to intervene directly in the translation process; on the other hand, the literary scholars and translators, who are familiar with this set of ideological value parameters, mostly consciously avoid violating the ideological tenets and manipulate their limited discursive power and poetic skills within the limits they deem permissible. Thus, when literary scholars and translators use discourse, both ideology and poetics come into play in their consciousness, influencing their compositions or 'rewriting' and 'determining the strategies of the translator'. (Munday, J 2010, 127)

The above distinction between ideology and poetics made by Lefevere has, in my view, some debatable points. In terms of the division of categories, poetics as a system of aesthetic ideas about literature and art still belongs to the realm of ideology, and therefore this paper will treat the poetic element as a category under ideology. It must be stated that the author only disagrees with the validity of the distinction between categories in Lefevere's theory, but agrees and admires his thesis on the influence of ideology and poetics on the translation process. (Bassnett, S & Ledever, A 2001, 48)

In my understanding, Lefevere's theory provides a justification for those "beautiful women" who have "lost their modesty". Of course, the task of defending "them" is now left to our descendants. Ideology is a product of a certain society and culture. As societies emerge and cultures emerge, so do ideologies. (Wu Xufei 2015, 57)

Translation, as an act of cross-language and cross-cultural communication, is inevitably marked by ideology from the very beginning. When a translator introduces the ideas contained in the discourse of a foreign culture into the local culture, he or she will inevitably make his or her own judgement on the values of the foreign culture, and then decide on the strategy to convey them: whether to be straightforward or to distort their meaning; whether to "pluck out the nose and cut the eyes" or to start a new one. (Wu Xufei 2015, 57)

Ideology is the expression of the will of patronage or power, and to go against this will is to be censured, sometimes either to lose the rules to translate, or even to lose one's head. Translators, as living human beings, are not willing to go against the will of power, except for those who are fighting for the 'truth'. To paraphrase the post-modern hipsterism of "Journey to the West", we are all "translators", so why take ourselves so seriously? This may sound ungrateful, but from a historical point of view, it's also very unhelpful. (Wu Xufei 2015, 57)

Lefevere quotes Foucault as saying:

What makes power unbreakable, what makes it acceptable, is in fact a simple fact: power not only makes us feel a pressure to say no, but also transcends and produces things, provokes pleasure, forms knowledge, produces discourse. (Lefevere, 1992, 15)

In short, it means "those who obey will prosper, those who disobey will perish". Every society has its own unique ideological system, with its own hidden or explicit ideological boundaries. Every thinking member of a society knows where that boundary is; and in general, is conscious of operating within it. You can go to the edge, but you must not go beyond it. This is the rule of the game in any society, and translators have to abide by it as well. Even the United States, which boasts freedom of speech, would not allow Bin Laden's writings (if he had them) to be translated and published in the United States, at least for now. For such an act would cross the line of the ideological "parameters" of the American power class. (Xu Baoqiang, Yuan Wei 2001,13)

Translation involves the exchange of two cultures, which is a common expression these days. On the surface, "exchange" is a pleasant-sounding term, as it seems to imply equality and friendship. However, what is really implied behind such an exchange is a confrontation between two ideologies. The apparently 'equal and friendly' 'exchange' is in fact often the result of a confrontation followed by a compromise. (Xu Baoqiang, Yuan Wei 2001,13)

Translation is the transfer of the ideology of the local culture to the ideology of the foreign culture. The ideology of the foreign culture. For the local value system, this is a foreign cultural penetration, which means destruction, subversion and therefore a test of the local culture. A strong superstructure will use its own power discourse to manipulate this foreign destructive force, just like Tai Chi, by using the force to its advantage; a weak superstructure will be helpless in the face of this foreign destructive force, and will either be assimilated or subverted by it. (Hu Fangyi 2014, 41)

Those cultures that refuse to interact with foreign cultures are condemned to primitiveness, backwardness and, ultimately, extinction. Translators, as elite members of the superstructure, are faced with a complex choice of strategies: either to be rebellious or submissive, to seek conformity in the midst of rebellion, or to seek rebellion in the midst of conformity. Thus, among the superficial translation methods, we see "literary" and "qualitative" translations, "direct" and "meaningful" translations ", "naturalization" and '"dissimilation", and the way of "the middle", which strives for impartiality. (Hu Fangyi 2014, 41)

Translation is always a purposeful act. In class society, when translation is inevitably related to the superstructure, it becomes part of elite culture. It is part of the culture of the elite. When the elites of society engage in translation activities, their aims are themselves strongly ideological. The translation activities in class society, including pseudo-translations, creative translations and forgeries, all came from the elite elements of society. It is no coincidence that their actions, either in line with the right path or deviating from it, are the result of a certain ideology. (Ma Zuyi 2006, 209)

Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theory has attached great importance to the influence of ideology on translation practice. The significance of ideology in determining a translator's translation strategy can be seen in Zhi Qian's Preface to the Dharma Sutra, which has been called the "opening chapter of translation theory" in the history of Chinese translation. In his preface, he 'dislikes' Zhu Zhongyan's translation as 'indecent' (Zhiqian, 1984:22), showing the importance he attached to the aesthetic perception of the target audience. Similarly, the influence of the target language and aesthetic values on translation can also be seen in Dao An's 'Five Losses of the Text and Three Difficulties': 'One, the Hu language is inverted and made to follow the Qin, a loss of the text. The second is that the Hu scriptures are still of good quality, while the Qin people are good at writing, and the transmission can be done with the hearts of all people, but not with the text. (Ma Zuyi 2006, 209)

Western translators have similarly valued the influence of ideology on translation. When the Roman poet and translator Horace spoke of the 'faithful translator', Lefevere argued that this already included an emphasis on ideology, but he did not say why. The famous French writer Victor Hugo also pointed out:

When you dedicate a translation to a country, that country almost always sees the translation as an act of violence against it... To translate the work of a foreign poet is to add his work to the poetry of your own country; but to open up in this way does not please those with vested interests, at least at first. Their first reaction is resistance." (Lefevere 1992, 56)

Different cultures have different ideologies. History teaches us that exchanges between cultures are often, first and foremost, ideological. As Hugo asserts, such exchanges always begin with confrontation. What comes after confrontation? Successful exchanges often involve confrontation leading to compromise, and compromise leading to prosperity, as in the case of Buddhism and the flourishing of Chinese culture in China's history. Unsuccessful exchanges often lead to hostility and even war, as in the case of the clash between Islamic and Christian civilisations. (Bassnett, S & Ledever, A 2001, 48)

In the case of translators, it was also often the case that those who obeyed me prospered, as in the case of the Chinese translator of the Buddhist scriptures Xuanzang, and those who disobeyed me died, as in the case of the English religious translator William Tyndale (1494-1536), who was burnt at the stake, and the French religious translator Etienne Dolet (1509- 1546). The literature shows that the influence of ideology on translation has long been of interest to translators and translation theorists, but they have not used the term 'ideology' when discussing this issue. (Wu Xufei 2015, 57)

===Translation activities under the control of power in the early stage of the PRC===
After the founding of the People's Republic of China, internationally, the Western powers tried their best to contain the new regime and obstructed other countries from establishing diplomatic relations with the new China, Mao Zedong put forward the three major diplomatic policies of "falling on one side", "starting a new cooker" and "cleaning up the house before inviting guests "From a domestic perspective, the new regime was in urgent need of purging reactionary forces and propagating socialist and communist ideas in order to consolidate the proletarian regime. (Wu Xufei 2015, 57)

Taking into account the domestic and international political situation, the CPC, as the ruling party, strengthened its ideological. control, i.e.:vigorously propagating socialist and communist ideology. The translation activities were influenced by this and showed obvious ideological tendencies in terms of the choice of texts and translation strategies and even the patrons. (Wu Xufei 2015, 57)

====Ideological manipulation of translation activities====
Ideology is a product of a particular society and culture, and it accompanies the emergence of society and culture. Translation, as an act of intercultural communication, involves the exchange of two cultures. The essence of translation is to introduce the culture and ideology of the "other" into the local culture, and to assimilate it into the local value system and ideology. (Ma Zuyi 2006, 209)

The translation activities in the seventeen years after the founding of the People's Republic of China have seen a phased peak in both Chinese to foreign and foreign to Chinese translation. From the perspective of Chinese to foreign translation, first of all, the new China set off a comprehensive wave of learning from the Soviet Union, as Zhou Yang pointed out in an article in the Soviet magazine Banner: "'Go the way of the Russians'. This is true in politics, but also in literature and art. (Li Hongxia 2010, 86)

Literary and artistic workers should study harder the creative experience and artistic techniques of Soviet writers, and in particular go deeper into their socialist realism which is the basis of their creativity." Influenced by this idea, and in terms of text selection, socialist and realist literature from Soviet Russia was translated in large numbers, and this peak occurred mainly in the early decade of the founding of the country; according to statistics, from October 1949 to December 1958, a total of 3,526 Soviet and Russian literary works were translated and published, accounting for two-thirds of the entire foreign literature in translation. (Mei Zhang 2012, 755)

However, from the late 1950s onwards, the Sino-Soviet relations began to fray, and the ideological confrontation between China and the Soviet Union severely affected Chinese translation and mediation activities into Soviet literature; between 1960 and 1966, a total of 11 single-volume translations of Soviet literature were publicly published in the first four years, and zero Soviet literary works were translated into Chinese in the latter three years. (Mei Zhang 2012, 755)

Secondly, scientific and technical works from the Soviet Union were translated in large numbers. Most of the scientific works translated in the early years of the founding of the state were originally from the Soviet Union, among which the most scientific works were translated from 1952 to 1960, reaching 911 titles in 1954 and the most in 1957, with a total of 2557 scientific works translated, more than two-thirds of which came from the Soviet Union. (Munday, J 2010, 127)

The Soviet Union unilaterally withdrew its experts from China from 1960 onwards, and when Sino-Soviet relations broke down, there was a downturn in translations from the Soviet Union, especially in 1961, when only 126 original Soviet scientific and technical works were translated. [Ind.] Finally, the translation of political works. In order to further propagate proletarian ideology, in January 1953 the Party Central Committee set up the Central Bureau of Compilation and Translation with the task of translating the works of Marx, Engels, Lenin and Stalin in a systematic and planned manner. (Zhou Dongyuan, Qi Wendong 1999, 399)

Thus, for seventeen years, the works of Marx, Engels, Lenin and Stalin were translated from Russian into Chinese in large numbers and contributed to the spread of socialist and communist ideology and political consciousness in China. (Zhou Dongyuan, Qi Wendong 1999, 399)

From 1956 to 1966, the Central Compilation Bureau of the Communist Party of China translated and published the first 22 volumes of the Complete Works of Marx and Engels (excluding volume 20) on the basis of the second Russian edition of the Complete Works of Marx and Engels; from 1955 to 1963, all 39 volumes of the Complete Works of Lenin were translated into Chinese from Russian, and all 13 volumes of the Complete Works of Stalin were translated from 1953 to 1956. The 13 volumes of Stalin's Complete Works were also translated between 1953 and 1956. [10] The translation and editing of Marx and Lenin's works was rapidly completed under the direction of the state, which provided a good political basis for the economic and cultural development of the new China. (Zhou Dongyuan, Qi Wendong 1999, 399)

In conclusion, the translation activities from foreign to Chinese in the early years of the founding of the state were subject to the constraints of various political, economic and cultural factors at the time and showed obvious characteristics: for one thing, Soviet works, both literary and scientific, were rapidly translated into Chinese and widely disseminated within a few short years, but at the same time, due to the influence of political consciousness, they fell from a high point to a low point within a very short time; for another, with the support of the state regime and the government, political classics were quickly translated into Chinese in large numbers via Russian, which to a certain extent contributed to the development of translation activities and the consolidation of the new regime. (Zhou Dongyuan, Qi Wendong 1999, 399

In terms of foreign translations into Chinese, very few Chinese books in Chinese history have been translated into foreign languages and widely disseminated in foreign countries. After the founding of New China, in order to let the world's proletarians know more about China and at the same time establish diplomatic relations with more countries, the Chinese Foreign Languages Bureau translated and published a large number of foreign language books under the name of Foreign Languages Publishing House. (Xu Baoqiang, Yuan Wei 2001,13)

Among them the translation of Mao Zedong's works was given top priority, especially the translation and publication of the fourth volume of the English edition of Mao Zedong's Selected Works. The Foreign Languages Publishing House decided to publish the forth volume, followed by the first, second and third volumes. (Xu Baoqiang, Yuan Wei 2001,13)

In 1961, the Ministry of Culture issued two written circulars on the publication and distribution of Mao's works, requiring local bookshops to consult the party and government leaders before starting distribution, and limiting the target audience and the number of copies to be distributed. This shows that the translation and publication of Mao's works was treated as a political task and drew a great deal of attention from all sectors of society. (Xu Baoqiang, Yuan Wei 2001,13)

According to statistics, between 1949 and 1965, more than 3,000 Chinese books were translated into more than 20 foreign languages and distributed abroad, of which 536 were Mao's writings.11 In addition, pamphlets introducing the leader's writings and the Chinese revolutionary experience were translated into several languages and distributed abroad, where they were well received and became an effective way for foreigners to learn about and study China. These pamphlets were well received abroad and became an effective way for foreigners to understand and study China. (Ma Zuyi 2006, 209)

In short, this phase of Chinese to foreign translation activities was dominated by translations of Mao's writings and pamphlets of political literature, which had a clear ideological orientation. In order to consolidate the new proletarian regime, the new China used translations to propagate its political ideas in order to gain more support, and its targets were countries in Asia, Africa and Latin America fighting for national independence, as well as some leftist organisations and progressive people in developed countries in Europe and America. As a result, this phase of Chinese to foreign translation activity focused on the text itself while giving greater consideration to the political and social factors it contained. (Ma Zuyi 2006, 209)

====Patron manipulation of translation activities====
The patron's sense of power was another important factor in the manipulation of translation, one of the fundamental forces driving the progress of early modern society, far more influential than the influence of literature on society. The word 'patron' in English comes from the Latin patronus, meaning a person who gives financial support to a client for the achievement of a specific purpose. (Hu Fangyi 2014, 41)

Patrons control all aspects of the translation, including the content of the translation, the choice of material and even the strategy of the translation and its promotion. The patron may be an authoritative individual, a publisher, a government agency, etc., whose aim is to ensure that the translation conforms to a particular social norm or the interests of a particular class of people by providing the translator or author with a certain amount of financial support, social status or political patronage, so that his or her creation and translation are in line with the prevailing ideology. (Wang Dongfeng 2003, 20)

After the founding of New China, the patronage of translation activities as a whole was divided into two phases. (Wang Dongfeng 2003, 20)

The first stage lasted from the founding of New China in 1949 to the completion of the Three Great Transformations in 1956. The role of publishers as patrons was changing during this phase. At the beginning of the founding of the country, the publishing industry developed unevenly in different parts of the country, and state-owned and private publishers coexisted. (Wang Dongfeng 2003, 20)

According to statistics from March 1950, there were 244 private bookshops operating in 11 major cities across the country, and publishing houses became the main patrons during this period, possessing a certain degree of financial independence and sponsoring translation activities through financial support for translators. By the end of 1956, the socialist transformation of private publishing houses had basically been achieved, with the withdrawal of the private sector from the publishing houses and a simultaneous change in the composition of the patrons. (Wang Dongfeng 2003, 20)

The second phase, from 1957 to 1966, saw the weakening of the power of publishing houses as independent sponsors, and the predominance of patronage by government agencies, such as the Ministry of Culture and the Central Propaganda Department, and by authoritative individuals, such as state leaders Mao Zedong and Zhou Enlai, in translation activities; the independence of publishing houses no longer existed, although they could decide what and how to translate in translation activities, when their ideology When their ideology contradicts that of government agencies or authoritative individuals, they must obey the latter. (Wang Dongfeng 2003, 20)

For example, in terms of the content of translations, some people advocated translating the foreign-language edition of People's Pictorial to introduce the experience of the Chinese revolution, but Chairman Mao disapproved of this, arguing that "it would be good to be able to introduce our lives in a realistic way. [12] For example, in the translation of the English version of the fourth volume of Mao Zedong's Selected Works, the Party Central Committee appointed Zhang Hanfu and Meng Yongqian to take charge of the specific leadership work. (Wang Dongfeng 2003, 20)

The sponsor's control over the translation activities was also reflected in the choice of translation strategies. Different types of texts have different translation strategies. The translation of political texts should aim to express the content of the original text accurately and completely, and the editorial processing of such texts should be strictly reported; the translation of literary and artistic works should try to appreciate the style of the original text and make appropriate text processing when necessary, but should not alter the content of the original text at will; general reports should be more adapted to the habits of foreign reports and take into account the receptiveness of foreign readers, so there can be greater flexibility in translation, but However, the relevant guidelines, policies and important facts should not be changed at will. (Wang Dongfeng 2003, 20)

As Yang Xian Yi said, "Unfortunately, we were only hired translators, and it was not up to us to decide what to translate. ...... The selected work had to suit the political climate and the taste of the time. the political climate and the taste of the moment." (Yang Xianyi, Xuehongshi 2001, 225)

===Insights from the Translation Activities in the Early Stage of the PRC===
The translation activities in the seventeen years after the founding of the state formed the fourth translation climax in China's history, and the key factor contributing to this climax was the government's unified leadership and planning of translation activities. In the early years of the founding of the country, the state strengthened its organisation and planning of the publishing industry and translation activities by convening a number of national conferences.

Firstly, in order to rectify the chaotic state of the publishing industry and lead the nation's publishing work, the State General Administration of Publications convened the First National Conference on Publishing in September 1950 and the First National Conference on Publication Administration in August 1951, both of which stressed the quality of publications, especially the second conference, which made improving the quality of publications the top priority of the publishing industry, and stressed the importance of book review and the importance of conducting book reviews. (He Mingxing 2014, 17)

Secondly, in order to improve the quality of translations and establish plans, the State General Administration of Publications convened the First National Conference on Translation Work in November 1951, at which the planning and institutionalisation of translation work was made a central task in the organisation of translation work, and emphasis was placed on the widespread development of criticism and self-criticism in the national academic and publishing community in order to improve and enhance the quality of translation work. (He Mingxing 2014, 17)

Once again, in August 1954, the Chinese Writers' Association held the first national conference on literary translation work. At the meeting, Mao Dun proposed that literary translation work must be carried out in an organised and planned manner, and that criticism and self-criticism in literary translation work should be strengthened in order to improve the level of artistic creation in literary translation. (Xu Baoqiang, Yuan Wei 2001,13)

After these conferences, translation activities, especially translation criticism, were widely carried out in China, and both the quantity and quality of translated works improved greatly. According to statistics, a total of 6,680 translated works were published in China in the 30 years from 1919 to 1949, and from October 1949 to the end of 1958, more than 5,300 foreign literary works were translated and published nationwide, of which 65.5 per cent were translated from the Soviet Union. And translations of popular science works during this period amounted to more than 3,600, most of which also came from the Soviet Union. (Ma Zuyi 2006, 209)

From 1950 to 1952, 74 articles were published in the Translation Bulletin alone, and many translators not only dared to criticize, but also took the initiative to criticize themselves for the errors in their own translations. For example, in May 1952, Wang Feibai published 'Review of Jiang's translation of "Star"' in the Translation Bulletin, criticising Jiang Lu's translation, followed by 'Review of the translation of "Star"', in which Jiang Lu self-criticised the errors in his translation. (Ma Zuyi 2006, 209)

Compared with the translation activities in the seventeen years after the founding of the state, the translation activities in China have become more prosperous and extensive since the 21st century, but at the same time, many problems have emerged. Firstly, the quality of translations has been low. (Ma Zuyi 2006, 209)

In order to expand sales and pursue lucrative profits, many publishing houses have been competing to buy the rights to foreign bestsellers and organise translators to translate them into Chinese as quickly as possible in order to make maximum profits. Secondly, piracy is rampant. Pirated books are not only available in many editions but also at low prices and in beautiful packaging. (Wang Dongfeng 2003, 20)

Many publishers have even misrepresented the names of the compilers in order to avoid charges of piracy. In the case of Mr. Ye Junjian's translation of Hans Christian Andersen's Fairy Tales, for example, there are about 40 pirated editions known to him alone. Another example is that almost all of the books translated and published by the People's Literature Publishing House in the past have been pirated. Similar examples abound, and piracy not only affects the rights of regular publishers, but also undermines the right of readers to enjoy fine translations. (Wang Dongfeng 2003, 20)

In response to these problems, from a historical perspective, it is, first of all, essential to strengthen the leadership and organisation of translation activities by the government. So far, there is no government department in China specifically in charge of translation activities. While the market economy has promoted the extensive development of translation activities, its blindness and the pursuit of profits have made it difficult for the spirituality and culture of translation products to be well reflected. Therefore, the overall planning and guidance of the relevant government departments play an important role in the effective development of translation activities. (Hu Fangyi 2014, 41)

Secondly, vigorously carrying out criticism and self-criticism is an effective way to improve the quality of translations. To a certain extent, the low quality of translated works can be attributed to the lack of translation criticism. On the whole, the number of articles published on translation criticism in China is still relatively small and there are more practical studies than theoretical studies, for example, in 2011, there were 14 articles on translation criticism, accounting for only 2.2% of the total. (Hu Fangyi 2014, 41)

In terms of content, literary criticism dominates and is mostly of the appreciation type, especially focusing on the analysis of famous writers, praising translators more than criticizing them, and the theoretical construction of translation criticism is insufficient, lacking real substantive criticism. This is the case with translation criticism, and there is even less self-critical writing from translators. In short, as an important area of translation activity, translation criticism is indispensable. (Hu Fangyi 2014, 41)

===Conclusion===
Ever since translation inevitably entered our culture, the social ideology that is also inevitably present in our culture has almost never ceased to manipulate the further development of the movement. In short, the ideological manipulation of translation activities in the early years of the founding of the state has been a constant and pivotal role in translation activities, especially the leading role of the government and the widespread activities of criticism and self-criticism in the translation community have provided a certain historical mirror for the benign development of translation activities in the new era.

===Reference books===
*许宝强，袁伟．语言与翻译的政治[C]．北京:中央编译出社，2001:1-20.

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==Comparison between the History of Chinese and Western Translation 周书尧 Zhou Shuyao,Japenese Language and Literature==

<center> 周书尧 Zhou Shuyao 202020080672 </center>

===Abstract===
Translation has existed since historical records. Translation goes hand in hand with human history, even before historical records. Whether in China or in western countries, the long tradition of translation seems to be the most dazzling pearl in the process of human civilization. In addition, it plays an important role in promoting cross-cultural communication. This chapter first discusses the history of translation in China from the four translation climaxes in China, then discusses the history of translation in the West from the five translation climaxes in the west, and finally makes a comparative analysis of the similarities and differences between Chinese and western translation history, and puts forward some views of the author.

===Key words===
The history of Chinese,The history of Western,the stages of translation history,comparison

===摘要===
自历史记载以来，就存在翻译。翻译与人类的历史并道而驰，甚至先于历史记载。无论在我国，还是西方国家，悠久的翻译传统俨然成为人类文明进程中一颗最耀眼的明珠。此外，翻译在促进跨文化交流和文化传播上起着着不可忽视的作用。本文首先从中国的四次翻译高潮论述中国的翻译史，其次从西方的五次翻译高潮探讨西方的翻译史，最后对中西方翻译史的异同进行对比分析，提出一些笔者自己的看法。

===关键词===
中国翻译史，西方翻译史，翻译高潮，对比

===I.Introduction===
Since the 1980s, the Chinese translation studies community has made remarkable progress in the establishment of Chinese and Western translation history courses and the compilation of related works.In the 1980s and early 1990s,A Brief Introduction to the History of Translation in China from Ma Zuyi and other books of Chen Yugang and Tan Zaixi were published one after another,which raised the curtain for the compilation of Chinese and Western translation history works by the domestic translation scholars.The four stages in the history of Chinese translation have promoted the development of Chinese history, culture and society to varying degrees.(Xu 2018,5)

The same as China, Western translation has an age-old history.In a sense, the development of Western European civilization should first be attributed to the translators.The five stages in the history of European translation have promoted the exchanges of literature, art, science and trade between countries, and to a certain extent promoted the development of Chinese translation.In fact, when we examine the development trajectory of Chinese and Western translation activities and the evolution of translation concepts together, we find that there are some similarities between Chinese translation and Western translation.Especially in the evolution of Chinese and Western translation concepts, the two have very similar evolution laws.(Xie 2010,5)

===Ⅱ.The history of Chinese translation===
According to records, there have been four stages in China's long history of translation development, leaving behind many classic discussions.From these four translation climaxes, we can see the translators, translation theories and practices that emerged in different periods in China.Moreover, these translation stages have exerted different influences on China's history, culture, society, and literature, including the development of Chinese translation.(Li 2016,132)

====2.1 The first stage: Ancient Translation History====
The translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties (25-1279) can be regarded as the first important period in the history of Chinese translation, the initiation period of traditional Chinese translation theory, and the first large-scale, planned, Organized translation activities.A large number of Buddhist scriptures were introduced into our country from various countries in the Western Regions, which had a profound impact on our country's language, religious philosophy, painting, arts, etc.The Chinese translation of Buddhist scriptures with textual research should be translated by An Shigao（安室高） during the Eastern Han Dynasty (151 AD).(Liu 2016,147)

From 148 AD to 170 AD, he translated more than 30 Buddhist scriptures in Luoyang, making great contributions to Buddhist translation and the spread of Buddhist culture in China.The translation of Lokaksema（支娄迦谶）, who was at the same time as An Shigao, was basically a word-for-word translation, which was not easy to understand. The literal translation in the Chinese translation community probably started from this time.Zhi Loujiachen were the masters of the literal translation school. In addition to them, the major translators include Lokaksema and Dharmaraksha（竺法护）. And most of these translators were “foreigners”.(Liu 2016,147)

Shi Daoan (314-385), who was an eminent monk, set up a translation workshop, ushering in the period of translation on a large scale. And a State Translation School was founded for this purpose. Shi daoan put forward the famous "five instances of losing the source and three instances of difficulties", which had a great influence on later translation studies.(Li 2016,132)The Sui and Tang Dynasties were the prosperous period of Chinese Buddhist translation.Xuan Zang（玄奘）, Kumarajiva（鸠摩罗什）, and Zhen Di（真谛） of the Tang Dynasty are collectively known as the three major translators of Chinese Buddhism.（Li 2016,132）

In the translation of Buddhist scriptures, he fumbled and summed up the famous "Five do not flip"(五不翻原则）and “six methods of translation”. "Five do not flip"means translators should employ transliteration facing mysterious words, polyseme, culture-loaded words, conventional transliterating words and words showing respect. And the core of his translation theory can be concluded in one sentence. That is: it is necessary to seek truth and be straightforward.（既须求真又须喻俗)
The Buddhist translation of this period enriched the religious beliefs of the people, became the spiritual support of the people at that time, promoted the exchange between China and the world at that time, and made Buddhist scriptures an inseparable part of our traditional culture.（Li 2016,132）

====2.2 The stage two:Modern Translation History ====
During the Ming and Qing Dynasties (from the middle of the 14th century to the 19th century), the second stage of translation appeared in Chinese history. During this period, the translation was mainly scientific and technological translation.This major turn was also decided by the Chinese and Western countries at the time in order to seek their own interests and finally reached an agreement on mutual terms.Western missionaries wanted to spread religious thought and culture in China, while Chinese scholars at that time were eager for knowledge and were keen on Western advanced science and technology in order to maintain the regime.（Li 2016,132）

In this way, the mutual complementation of the two needs led to the gradual formation of the atmosphere of translation of Western science books, thus promoting the great development of science and technology translation at that time.In 1868, the official translation and publishing organization of the Qing Dynasty, referred to as the Translation Museum, used the translation method from Western to Chinese, which means that foreign scholars interpret and Chinese scholars write and polish.(Liu 2016,148)The main representatives of translation activities in this period include Xu Guangqi（徐光启）, Li Zhizao （李之藻）, etc.Especially Xu Guangqi, known as the "Father of Western Translation", does not understand foreign languages, and his translations are mainly through listening to people's dictation, co-translation and compilation with others.(Liu 2016,148)

He proposed that the translation of Western historical books should be prioritized and progressive，and put forward his own translation thought: "If you want to be superior, you must understand; before you can understand, you must translate first."Although there were many translation achievements during this period, there was no systematic translation theory.Although the later translation museum had clear translation principles, its main purpose was to maintain its own rule by learning advanced Western technology.(Liu 2016,148)

====2.3 The third stage: Contemporary Translation History ====
From the end of the 19th century to the beginning of the 20th century, China was in turmoil, internal and external troubles. Some rulers and intellectuals with capitalist thoughts demanded to unite to resist the invasion of western countries and proposed to strengthen through reform. Translation in this period is a watershed in the history of modern translation in China. Translation in the field of science and technology has gradually spread to the fields of literature, philosophy, economics, sociology and ethics. China has entered a new stage of translation, and the scale and influence of its translation activities have surpassed any other period in modern times.（Li 2016,132）

At the end of the 19th century, Western academic translation represented by Ma Jianzhong （马建忠）and Yan Fu（严复）was a translation act driven by "national anxiety", which promoted the expansion and deepening of foreign exchanges.(Liu 2016,148-149)In particular, Yan Fu's "faithfulness,expressiveness and elegance" translation standards have had a profound impact on translators' translation activities."faithfulness" means loyalty, and "expressiveness" means unobstructed. In Yan Fu's interpretation, "elegance" means the translation strives to be elegant.The representative translator at that time was Lin Shu（林纾）. He proposed to pay attention to the purpose and function of translation, which meant that the translation should be able to achieve the expected goals and effects.

In his translation, Lin Shu emphasizes the involvement of subjective feelings, and the translator needs to communicate with the original author and the characters in the original works. A large number of translators, represented by Lin Shu, mostly adopt the principle of domestication and advocate free translation, which reflects the flexibility and openness of translation to a certain extent. During the May 4th movement, New Youth magazine began to translate and introduce western cultural thoughts and literary works. Representative figures such as Chen Duxiu（陈独秀）, Hu Shi（胡适） and Zhou Zuoren（周作人） attached great importance to introducing foreign literature and foreign culture.(Liu 2016,149)

Translation activities during this period included the introduction of scientific and technological knowledge and the dissemination of advanced ideas. The scale and the number of works all showed its important position in the history of translation.Moreover, the audience in this period has also expanded from intellectuals to part of the people, broadening the horizons of the Chinese people, increasing their knowledge, and playing a good catalytic role in modern intellectual circles.(Liu 2016,149)

====2.4 The fourth stage: Present Translation====
Since the reform and opening up, China and the Western world have had a broader space for communication, and the translation industry has achieved prosperity and development.In an open China, from the initial learning from modern and contemporary Western translation theories, to actively conducting cultural exchanges with other countries, learning and exploring research methods, and focusing on cross-disciplinary comprehensive innovation, translation practices and theories have achieved unprecedented development.(Xu 2018,5)For example, cultural schools, structuralism, post-colonialism, and other translation theories have been translated into China in large numbers. Literary works involve politics, economy, culture, literature, art and other fields, and the quantity and variety greatly exceed the previous generations.

Representatives at this time include Liu Miqing（刘宓庆）, Tan Zaixi（谭载喜）, Huang Long（黄龙） and others. Among them, Tan Zaixi compiled the book "A Brief History of Western Translation". The whole book pays attention to absorb the relevant research results at home and abroad. It is important for various historical periods, especially since the 20th century. The representative tasks in the western translation field, translation works, schools of thought, etc. are described and commented, and the mutual promotion, evolution and development of translation practice and translation theory are analyzed and discussed in a simple way, which promotes the formation of a systematic translation theory in China.(Xu 2018,5)

During this period, our research is no longer limited to the summary of translation practices and abstract induction of translation principles, but from the generalization of subjective thoughts to the description and analysis of specific translation phenomena, translation events and processes.Translation studies have changed from a single-paradigm study to a multi-paradigm study. In short, the reform and opening up has created a new situation in China's translation industry, constantly expanding research fields, and effectively promoting the development of Chinese translation studies.

===Ⅲ.The history of western translation===
The same as China, Western translation has a long history.In a sense, the development of Western European civilization should first be attributed to the translators.From the ancient Roman Empire to the modern European Community, literary, artistic, scientific, and trade exchanges between countries are all carried out through the work of translators. Throughout the whole process, the history of Western translation can be divided into five major development stages.Broadly speaking, the earliest translation in the West is The Septuagint.Strictly speaking, the first translation is the Homer epic "Odyssey" translated in Latin by Andronicus .Both the former and the latter began in the third century BC, with a history of more than two thousand years, and are an important part of the entire European history of development.(Tan 1985,36)

====3.1 The first stage : Ancient====
Ancient translation mainly revolved around the Greek translation and Latin translation of the "The Bible·Old Testament" from the third century BC to the sixth century AD. Translation in this period can be divided into the first stage of ancient Greek literature translation and the second stage of religious translation.At the end of the fourth century BC, the Greek slave society began to decline, while the relatively backward Rome gradually became stronger.At this time, Greece has a certain cultural foundation and is still superior to Roman culture. Therefore, Greek culture has a greater attraction to Roman culture. (Tan 1985,36)

The translation and introduction of Greek culture may have begun in this period.It was not until the middle of the third century BC that recorded translations began to appear. Andronicus, Neveus, Ennius, and other excellent translators, who are known as the three ancestors of Roman literature, have translated a large number of Greek dramas in Latin.This large-scale translation first opened the situation of local translation in Europe. It spread Greek culture to Rome, promoted the development of Roman culture, and served as an important bridge for Rome and later generations to inherit ancient Greek literature.(Tan 1985,36)

The translation activities from the fourth century to the sixth century were mainly religious translation.In Europe, religious forces have always been strong and stubborn. From the very beginning, the Christian Church was hostile to secular literature, and tried to develop a religious culture that served its own interests.As the source of Christian thought and spiritual weapon, the "Bible" has naturally become the most concerned classic in the religious world.In 384 AD, Jerome was entrusted by the Roman Pope to compile a translation called "The New Testament", which marked that the translation of the "Bible" had achieved an important position on par with the translation of secular literature.As Europe entered feudal society, religious translation was popularized, and the Bible was translated into various languages .（Tan 2004,79）

====3.2 The second stage : Middle Ages====
In the middle ages, Latin translation was no longer limited to religious documents. Oriental literature was translated and introduced to the East. The achievements of Arabic academic research promoted the development of Western translation.At that time, Western translators gathered in Toledo, Spain, and translated a large number of works from Arabic to Latin. This is the rare closely contact between Christians and Muslims in history.(Tan 2004,64)In the ninth and tenth centuries, Syrian scholars went to Athens to translate a large number of Greek classics into Syrian and brought them back to Baghdad. Baghdad established an important translation center, and many Greek classical works were translated into Arabic.Later, in the eleventh century, a large number of Arabic works appeared in Toledo. Translators translated these works into Latin. Toledo gradually became an academic center and translation center, becoming a "Translation Museum" similar to Baghdad. His translation and academic activities lasted for a hundred years, and the impact was also great.

====3.3 The third stage :The Renaissance Period====
In the 14th to the 16th century, the Renaissance took place in Europe. It was a great movement of ideological and literary innovation, and a great development in the history of Western translation. The translation practice and theoretical research of Western countries did not make a real leap until the Renaissance.During the Renaissance, Western translators constantly discovered new literary fields, unearthed new cultural heritage, and transplanted new ideas to the mainland. Translation at this time went deep into various fields such as ideology, politics, philosophy, literature, and religion, and involved some major works in ancient, modern and contemporary times.Translation in this period played an important role in the formation of national languages, marking the consolidation of the status of national languages in translation.(Tan 1985,37)

In Germany, Martin Luther created a precedent for the Reformation. His translation of the "Bible" through the people's language laid the foundation for the later standardization and standardization of German and played an important role in the unification of German.In France, "Celebrity biography" translated by the writer Amyot became an immortal literary translation in the history of translation in France and the entire West.In the United Kingdom, the translation of Greco-Roman history and literary works provided important historical materials and new ideological resources for the formation of an autocratic monarchy in the United Kingdom, which promoted the occurrence of the British bourgeois revolution and promoted Britain to become a modern nationalized country earlier.(Tan 1985,37)

In a word, the Renaissance around 1500 AD had a profound and long-term impact on Europe, especially the Western European society. Cultural translation played an important role in the ideological liberation movement. At the same time, it also showed that translation played an important role in the formation and development of national language, literature and thought.(Tan 1985,37)

====3.4 The fourth stage :Since the end of the Second World War====
After the Second World War, the West entered a relatively stable period of peace, the economy was restored, production was secured, and science and technology developed rapidly. These are important material foundations for the development and progress of translation.(Tan 1985,37)Compared with the past, translation in the new period has undergone great changes. First, the scope of translation has been expanded. Traditional translation mainly focused on literary and religious works, while translation during this period expanded to the fields of technology and business.Second, the scale of translation is much larger than before. In the past, translation was mainly the work of a few high-level intellectuals.

Nowadays, translation has become a profession, and there is even a professional team that has been specially trained.Third, the role of translation has also been enhanced, especially with the establishment of the European Community and the European Union, the process of globalization has accelerated, and the communication activities between countries are realized through translation. Therefore, translation plays a very important role in the economy, culture, science and technology of western countries.(Tan 2004,80)

The form of translation during this period has also changed greatly, such as the strengthening of the professionalization of the translation business, the establishment of higher translation education and the training of professional translators.Especially the way of translation has broken the tradition, and machine translation has been developed and popularized.Since English and American scholars first discussed the possibility of using computers for translation in 1946, the development and application of translation machines have increasingly shown vitality after nearly 40 years of tortuous development.It is not only a challenge to the traditional manual translation for thousands of years, but also a revolution with far-reaching significance in the history of translation.(Tan 2004,80)

===Ⅳ.Comparison between the History of Chinese and Western Translation===
====4.1 Commonality====
Through the introduction of the Chinese translation history and the Western translation history in the above two chapters, it is not difficult to find that there are some similarities between the translation concepts and the evolution process of the two, especially the laws of evolution of the Chinese and Western translation concepts are very similar.
First of all, the initiation and development of large-scale Chinese and Western translation activities are closely related to the translation of religious documents.In the West it is the translation of the Bible, while in China it is the translation of Buddhist classics.(Xie 2010,5)

In my opinion, this commonality is the origin of translation concepts such as "original supremacy" and "faithful original text" that have dominated the Chinese and Western translation circles for two thousand years.(Xie 2010,5)Looking back at history, when Chinese and Western ancient translators were translating these religious documents, they must be pious and absolutely faithful to the original text to translate word by word, lest they would distort the will of God and the teachings of the Buddha.Until the 1950s, due to the advent of the era of professional translation, the target of translation has evolved from religious documents and literary masterpieces to non-literary practical documents such as economy, technology, business, and entertainment. Since then, translation Views have been greatly changed.(Xie 2010,5)

Secondly, both in China and in the West, translation has played an important role in disseminating knowledge.When we compare the contribution of Chinese and Western translation in spreading knowledge together, this effect is further demonstrated.In the West, backward Rome developed rapidly due to the absorption of advanced Greek culture and became the later Roman Empire.In the Middle Ages, after the Baghdad Translation Center, the translation activities of the "Translation Museum" in Toledo, Spain.The translators provided a source of learning for the Western world by translating ancient Greek and Roman natural science works, philosophy and other classics translated by the Arabs into Latin, as well as the Arabs' own academic works.(Xie 2009,47)

It is through these classical classics that Western talents began to come into contact with a large number of classical cultures and promoted the Renaissance. Its influence is reflected in all aspects of art, philosophy, literature, music, science and technology, politics, religion, and intellectual inquiry.For China, a large number of Buddhist scriptures from the Western Regions to China from the Han Dynasty to the Song Dynasty opened up the history of Chinese translation.The translation of science and technology at the end of the Ming Dynasty and the beginning of the Qing Dynasty was also influential in disseminating Western science and technology literature and promoting the development of China's natural science and engineering technology.(Xie 2009,47)

In particular, the literary translation from the Opium War to the "May 4th" period was the dividing line of modern translation history. The translation from the field of science and technology gradually spread to the fields of literature, philosophy, economics, sociology, ethics, etc. In the new stage of translation, the scale and influence of its translation activities have exceeded any period in modern times.Since China's reform and opening up, translation has played a role in promoting communication between China and various countries. The development of the globalization process cannot be separated from the bridge and hub of translation.(Xie 2010,5)

Thirdly, the role of translation in the establishment and development of national languages of different countries has some obvious similarities in the West and China. In the west, Martin Luther's Bible translation plays a very important role in the unification and development of German as well as modern German. The English translation of the Bible also contributes significantly to enriching English vocabulary and means of expression. As for China, Buddhist translation enriched Chinese vocabulary, especially literary translation during the May 4th movement, and promoted the establishment and development of modern Chinese vernacular. And now the new era of translation, to a certain extent, has enriched the vocabulary. For example, the Chinese word "人山人海" is translated into English as "people mountain people sea", even included in the English dictionary.(Xie 2010,5)

Finally, regardless of Chinese and Western, translation plays a vital role in conveying foreign social and cultural values.(Xie 2010,5)In the West, for example, the excavation, dissemination and development of the spirit of humanism during the Renaissance were largely due to the translation of ancient Greek and Roman classics.In China, Li Zhizao, Xu Guangqi and others' translations of Western social science masterpieces in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties broadened the horizons of the Chinese people and promoted the modernization of China.During the May Fourth Movement, Yan Fu, Lu Xun and others' translations of Western literature and dramas refreshed the Chinese worldview, increased the Chinese people's knowledge, and played a good catalytic role in modern intellectual circles.

====4.2 Difference====
The last section elaborated from four aspects that the evolutionary laws of Chinese and Western translation history are very similar. Of course, the development of Chinese and Western translation history has its own unique performance, not only in the development period and nodes, but also in certain These aspects are even far apart.
Although the initiation and development of large-scale Chinese and Western translation activities are closely related to the translation of religious documents, the status of Buddhism in Chinese and Western social and political life is different.Religion plays an extremely important role in Western society.(Xie 2009,51)

In Western Christian society, God is not only the creator and nurturer of the universe and mankind, but also the maker and arbitrator of the political and ethical order of the world. Is the primary source of Western moral standards.Therefore, the importance of "Bible" translation can be imagined.In China, imperial power is greater than divine power. Monarchs profess themselves to be the emperor, exercise power by the mandate of heaven, and enjoy supreme authority.Religion can only be spread and developed under the support and use of imperial power. Its essence is actually a tool to maintain rule, and it has never become a religious behavior for the whole people.(Xie 2009,51)

In Chinese history, religion was never allowed to harm the ethical principles of feudal rule. Once harm occurred, it would be banned and eliminated.The extermination of Buddhism in the history of Chinese Buddhism and the "Chinese Etiquette Controversy" in the history of modern Chinese Catholicism are typical features.Therefore, the influence of Chinese Buddhist scripture translation is more in folk culture, and the effect of its influence is more manifested in a subtle form.For example, the change of world outlook, the penetration of language, the borrowing of the plots of Buddhist classics in literary works, and so on.Moreover, Chinese society uses blood as a bond and family as a unit. It is the blood relationship that closely connects family members.Festivals and weddings and funerals are always carried out on a family or family basis, not under the auspices of the church as in the West.(Xie 2010,6)

On the other hand, due to the differences in national characteristics between China and the West, the Chinese nation is more pragmatic, focusing on physical and mental cultivation, ethics and morality, paying attention to whether translation theory has practical effects, whether it can guide translation practice and solve various problems encountered in the translation process.(Xie 2010,6)The Western Christian culture and my country's Confucianism have formed a sharp contrast in this respect.Westerners influenced by Christian thought have a strong pioneering and innovative national character. They advocate speculation and pay more attention to the abstract, systematic and systematic nature of translation theories.

They believe that the focus is on describing what kind of theory exists behind translation practice, and how to understand and interpret translation from a theoretical perspective.This makes the development path of the two translation theories different.If there were many similarities in the concepts and characteristics of Chinese and Western translation activities before the 1950s, then the differences in the development trends of the two translation theories in the later stages, especially from the end of the 19th century, became larger and larger.Western translation theories have been systematized earlier.(Xie 2010,6)

Any research is carried out under the guidance of a certain theory, and the results of related disciplines are fully used to make the connotation (translation standard itself) and extension (research method) of translation standards become truly pluralistic. Which embodies a strong scientific spirit.However, Chinese translation theories have remained at the level of translation practice experience perception for a long time, which is largely subjective.In particular, the proponents of traditional translation theory pay attention to the unspoken artistic conception, giving people more space for association and comprehension, but they cannot make precise regulations for translation practice, which is implicit.(Xie 2010,6)

===Ⅴ.conclusion===
Based on the above understanding of the history of Chinese and western translation from different aspects, I think it is possible to describe, analyze and sort out the history of Chinese and western translation in the same framework. By doing so, we can not only emphasize the common points in the development of Chinese and western translation, but also find out the rules of them. At the same time, we can show their own uniqueness in the process of development.

This chapter adopts the method of compiling parallel narratives based on synchronic presentation, supplemented by diachronic combing, combining two seemingly unrelated development contexts in the history of Chinese and Western translation, and analyzing and describing them as a whole.And the development stages of Chinese and Western translation history are divided into stages according to the mainstream translation objects of the specific era, and then the internal laws of the evolution of Chinese and Western translation concepts are explored and revealed.

Generally speaking, translation and culture are inseparable, whether religious, political, or literary, they all grow up in the soil of culture.(Chen 2016,1)In the process of understanding Chinese and Western translation history, people also feel the cultural collision.Not only in the long history of the past, but in the 21st century today, translation is a bridge and a link between countries, and an indispensable existence in people's social, political, and economic life. At the same time, translation is also an art. Through translating works, we not only understand the beauty of each country's culture, but also realize that translation is originally an art.

Translation is a rigorous and extensive academic science. Various forms of cultural exchanges between Chinese and Western languages, literature, philosophy, and religion require not only artistic performance, but also rigorous academic attitudes and systematic theories to support.Translators and scholars from different countries, languages and cultures have contributed their outstanding talents and wisdom in the field of translation. They have studied and published a wealth of academic theories and skills in translation studies from different perspectives, which have promoted the progress and development of society.

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Ma Zuyi. 马祖毅. (1998). 中国翻译简史-“五四”以前部分（修订本） [A Brief History of Chinese Translation: The Part Before the May 4th Movement] . China Translation Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.

Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.(1985).西方翻译史浅谈[On the history of Western translation].中国翻译(07)Chinese Translation(36-39).

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Xu Jun许钧.(2018.06)改革开放以来中国翻译研究的发展之路[The development of Chinese translation studies since reform and opening up].Chinese Traslation Journal.

Xie Tianzhen 谢天振.(2009)中西翻译简史[A brief history of Chinese and Western translation].外语教学与研究出版社Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.

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--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 15:01, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

='''Literal and Free Translation'''=

==Rethink Literal and Free Translation 彭永亮 Peng Yongliang==

<center> 彭永亮 Peng Yongliang 202020080634 </center>

===Abstract===

Literal translation and free translation are a pair of very important concepts in translation studies, which run through the development of translation theory. Starting from Chinese and Western translation theories, this manuscript clarifies the similarities and differences between literal translation and free translation, and compares the differences in translation methods and strategies. Literal translation and free translation in translation strategies are connected with the concept of domestication and foreignization. Here, this manuscript introduces how the concept of domestication and foreignization enters Chinese translation theory from Western translation theories, and compares them. The nature and characteristics of these two pairs of concepts. This manuscript believes that literal translation and free translation are not only a question of translation methods or translation strategies, but at a strategic level, they have risen to a question of domestication and foreignization. In essence, there is no distinction between good and bad.

=== Key Words===

Literal translation;Free translation;Domestication;Foreignization

===题目===

直译与意译，归化与异化

=== 摘要 ===

直译与意译是翻译学中非常重要的一对概念，贯穿翻译理论的发展过程。本稿从中西翻译理论出发，厘清直译与意译这对概念的异同，并比较了其在翻译方法和翻译策略中的区别。在翻译策略中的直译和意译又与归化和异化这一对概念产生了联系，在这里，本稿在介绍归化与异化这一对概念如何从西方翻译理论进入中国翻译理论的同时，比较了这两对概念的性质与特征。本稿认为，直译和意译不仅是翻译方法或翻译策略的问题，在战略层次上其上升为归化和异化的问题，它们本质上没有优劣之分。

=== 关键词 ===

直译；意译；归化；异化

===0. Introduction===

Literal translation and free translation are a pair of important terms in Chinese and Western translation theories. The discussion of literal translation and free translation is a common phenomenon in Chinese and Western translation theories, which runs through the entire process of translation theory. To a certain extent, literal translation and free translation seem to have become very natural categories, so there is no need to specifically define these two concepts in the discussion. Take the term "literal translation" used in Chinese translation theory as an example. From the "Six Examples of Scripture Translation" recorded in "Song Gaoseng Biography", it can be seen that the concept of "literal translation" in traditional translation theories was first opposed to "retranslation" , Refers to the translation method of translating the scriptures directly from the Sanskrit version. The concept of "literal translation" that frequently appears in modern and contemporary translation theories is at least related to the following three different western translation theory terms, namely "word-for-word translation", "literal translation" and "inter lineal translation". In this way, there is a fundamental difference between "literal translation" as the concept of "implantation" and the concept of literal translation in traditional Chinese translation theories. Therefore, there are different understandings of the term "literal translation".

In fact, the understanding of the concept often limits the scope of the discussion itself, so the different understanding of literal translation and free translation may make the disputes about these two concepts often carried out on different levels. Therefore, when using the two terms literal translation and free translation to participate in discussions, it is particularly important to clarify the concept of literal translation and free translation and re-examine the scope of discussion.

===1. Literal Translation and Free Translation===

===1.1 Literal Translation and Free Translation in Translation Methods===

From the perspective of etymology, "method" refers to the method of governance. It originally meant criminal law and regulations. Later it was used to refer to the sum of the ways, methods and procedures for people to understand and transform the objective world. It is a sign of wonderful deeds." Similar to the "method" in Chinese, the "method" in English is derived from the Greek word "μ＇εθοδοζ", which consists of two words "along" and "road", meaning to proceed along the right path. Therefore, whether it is "method" in Chinese or "method" in English, it refers to the correct way to recognize and understand objective objects, focusing on "action". Schleiermacher put forward in his far-reaching "On Two Methods of Translation", "Bring the author to the reader" and "Bring the reader to the author" are just to place the original text, translator and target reader in the same At the level, discuss the real task that the translator must complete-shorten the distance between the original author and the target reader, and highlight the relationship between language, understanding and thinking. Therefore, Schleiermacher's two translation methods are actually the choice of two paths, and they are the decisions and actions taken by the translator in language conversion. If translation is defined as a conversion of language signs, the translation method can be regarded as a specific way for the translator to recognize the source text and carry out the conversion of language signs.

British translation theorist Newmark summarized 13 different translation methods in Chapter 5 of the "Translation Tutorial", among which word-for-word translation, literal translation, faithful translation, semantic translation, etc. are all defined as one translation method. Examining his definitions of the different translation methods mentioned above, we can summarize the common points of these translation methods as “reproduce” based on determining a fixed translation unit (such as morphemes, grammatical structure, contextual meaning, etc.) The meaning of the original text. In other words, although Newmark uses a prescriptive research method to associate translation methods with "equivalence", and does not clearly define what translation methods are, the 13 translation methods he summarized illustrate the use of various Translation methods are all aimed at solving practical problems in the translation process. In this sense, "the translation method is related to the entire text" (Newmark, 2001:81). Translators will not be limited to a certain translation method in their translation process, but will adopt different translation methods according to actual problems. Both literal translation and free translation are one of them.

Western translation theorist Steiner believes-"The ideal situation for translation is to not suffer any loss during conversion" (Steiner, 2001:319). It can be found that although the original text and the translated text cannot be completely equivalent , But the ideal state required by the translator is still consistent in all aspects of the original text and the target text. To achieve such an ideal state, the translator needs to use the most appropriate translation method to solve the actual problems in the translation process on the basis of correct understanding. In the specific process of the translator, it is difficult to clearly distinguish the "degree" between literal translation and free translation as a specific translation method, such as the "most natural and most appropriate" translation. Therefore, in the discourse of most theorists, the opposite of literal translation and free translation should be hard translation, dead translation, Hu translation, etc. If we look at the controversy of "literal translation and free translation, which is better?" from this perspective, it seems to be said that literal translation and free translation, as two translation methods, do not have the advantages and disadvantages. The two are not completely different and opposed to each other. Translation methods are specific methods used by the translator for different issues. Therefore, the discussion about literal translation and free translation not only includes the discussion of "how to translate", but also involves the question of "what is the ideal state of translation".

In summary, in Chinese and Western translation theories, literal translation and free translation as translation methods are used to solve practical problems in translation, and these practical problems are closely related to the language structure of the source and target languages. Different issues have different levels of discussion. In this way, it is necessary to re-examine the actual translation issues behind the discussion to understand the dispute over literal translation and free translation. In any case, in Chinese translation theory, when literal translation and free translation are regarded as two translation methods, there is actually no so-called problem of which is better, and there is no substantial difference between the two, the difference is only the translator. The gap between its translation practice and its ideal translation target.

===1.2 Literal Translation and Free Translation in Translation Strategies===

From the perspective of etymology, strategy means "strategy and strategy" in Chinese. Like the word "strategy" in English, it is derived from military science and refers to specific methods, means, and methods used to achieve a certain goal. Sum. Translation strategy can be understood as the sum of specific methods, means and methods used by the translator to achieve a specific translation goal. Riitta Jaaskelainen, a researcher on the translation process of TAPs, defines translation strategy as "a process associated with ‘goal-oriented’ and ‘subjective optimality’, rather than a process of problem solving." The American translation theorist Venuti distinguishes between translation methods and translation strategies in the definition of "translation strategy" under the term "translation strategy"(Bassnett, 2004). His so-called domesticating and foreignizing are translation strategies. Susan Bassnett also deliberately distinguishes between strategies and methods when discussing poetry translation-"When analyzing the many different translation methods used by the English translators of Catullus’ 64 Poems, Andrew Le Pfeiffer summarized seven different translation strategies." (Bassnett, 2004:84) It should be said that in terms of the terms used by the above scholars, translation methods and translation strategies are not the same. Therefore, when literal translation is regarded as a translation method or strategy, the issues that the critics want to explain are not All the same.
It can be said that the translation method aims to solve the problems in translation practice and achieve the desired translation effect, and the translation strategy reflects how the translator strives to achieve its translation purpose under the constraints of various external factors. To some extent, when literal translation and free translation are used as two translation strategies, the understanding of literal translation and free translation cannot be separated from the investigation of the translation and the social and cultural context of the translator. The translation strategy adopted by the translator is not an abstract theoretical assumption that has nothing to do with the social context of the translator, but a decision made by the translator in the tension between language, history, and social culture. Hidden behind the decision are the various translation purposes of the initiators of translation activities. What needs special attention is that the translator’s translation goals are multiple, so the strategies adopted to achieve different translation goals are naturally different.

===2. Domestication and Foreignization in Chinese===

Domestication and foreignization can be regarded as the conceptual extension of literal translation and free translation, but they are not completely equivalent to literal translation and free translation. As the product of cultural shift, domestication and foreignization must contain profound cultural, literary and even political connotations. If literal translation and free translation are only discussions at the language level, domestication and foreignization are the continuation of the discussion at the language level to the cultural, poetic and political level. That is to say, the bullseye of the dispute between literal translation and free translation is the gain and loss of meaning and form, while the bullseye of the dispute between domestication and foreignization is the cultural identity in the vortex of the gain and loss of meaning and form, and literacy is the gain and loss of the power of pumping discourse. problem.

===2.1 Assimilation and Alienation===

Domestication and foreignization in Chinese correspond to two pairs of terms in English: the first pair is "assimilation, alienation", and the second pair is "domestication, foreignization".

The connotation of Assimilation in translation studies should regard the original language and culture as "different traditional individuals or groups", and try to make them "participate" in the target language and culture during translation. "Participate" here means to move closer to the other party, or even merge with it. The "language" mentioned here mainly refers to the way of expression of thoughts, sentence structure, and sometimes also includes style, text layout, etc. "Culture" refers to the national behavior and language expression (such as rhetoric, etc.), living environment, ideology and other things that reflect this national characteristic. In the process of translation, the original language and cultural characteristics disappear in the target language to satisfy the aesthetic and acceptance psychology of the target language readers. Alienation is the opposite. In the process of translation, it tries to maintain the characteristics of the original text, keep a distance from the target language and its culture, so that the target readers feel "unfamiliar" when reading and realize that they are reading a translation. The meaning of assimilation and alienation we are talking about here refers to how to treat the differences between the two languages and cultures on the basis of equal status, and how to make different strategic choices in translation.

The meanings of the terms Domestication and Foreignization are related to the background in which they were produced. In the 1990s, translation has been placed in a large system of culture and society for research. Venuti was inspired by a so-called "fluency tendency" that has existed in the Western translation industry, especially the English and American translation circles for more than 40 years This pair of terms is proposed for the unequal relationship of literature in different cultures. It mainly refers to the translation from other foreign languages to English. Compared with assimilation and alienation, this pair of terms not only reflects the difference in meaning between language and culture. You can also see the deeper meaning of cultural inequality behind this different background. In this way, translation is placed in the context of culture, society, politics, and ideology, and the choice of translation strategies reflects the different positions of different cultures in the world today. Translation is used as a tool of struggle, and it is not equal. To fight against the phenomenon. It should be said that this is an improvement, and it is also the main difference between these two pairs of terms, or it is the reason why Venuti put forward this new pair of terms under the premise of assimilation and alienation.

===2.2 Domestication and Foreignization===

Domestication and foreignization in Chinese are the same as assimilation and alienation. They both discuss the differences between languages and cultures, and they are all based on the equality of different languages and cultures. Chinese "domestication" also focuses on the process from different to similar and identical, but the meaning of "domestication" in domestication is not included in "domestication"; and "foreignization" in Chinese also maintains the "different" component, which is reserved Difference, no cultural inequality, as a means of struggle and resistance to cultural colonization. "Naturalization" and "alienation" are closer to assimilation and alienation in meaning. When and who the term "domestication" and "foreignization" in Chinese were first used in translation studies in my country has not been ascertained. According to the materials we see now, "domestication" was used in translation research earlier than "foreignization".

Through the above-mentioned comparative analysis of the origin, extension and connotation of the categories of “domestication” and “foreignization”, we can now define them as follows: Domestication and foreignization are the differences between the two languages and cultures that the translator faces in translation Two different translation strategies are adopted due to differences in the target text type, author's intention and target language readers, etc., and their purpose is to guide the choice and application of specific translation methods and techniques. Domestication pursues the translation to comply with the target language and culture norms, and better meets the reading needs of the target language readers with less odor; the pursuit of foreignization retains the characteristics of the original language and culture, so as to enrich the target language and culture. It satisfies the reader’s demand for the "stranger" of the target text. The choice of these two strategies sometimes also refers to social, cultural, political and ideological regulations. Regardless of the strategy chosen, it should focus on the needs of readers and society.

===3. Rethink===

The choice of the translation strategy of domestication or foreignization will have a great impact on the translation, and even some meanings will be lost. But in literal translation, no matter which one is selected, the content of the original text will be faithfully expressed. For example, the works translated by Lin Xian, we can only say that it is a domesticated translation, and cannot be called a free translation, because he has rewritten and created a lot of the original text. This is one of the differences between the two pairs of terms. The second difference is that literal translation and free translation are translation methods, while domestication and foreignization are translation strategies. The two are not at the same level, and the latter guides the former. "Modern Chinese Dictionary"says that "methods" are "methods, procedures, etc. for solving problems such as thinking, speaking, actions, etc."and "strategies" are "action policies and struggles formulated according to the development of the situation." Method.” There is a certain connection between method and strategy. Method is the specific method under the guidance of strategy, and strategy is the policy and goal of guiding method. Under the guidance of domestication and foreignization, the translator chooses the appropriate translation method. In addition to literal translation and free translation, there are also multiple methods such as clip translation, transliteration, and compilation. Although domestication and foreignization are related to literal translation and free translation, there are also obvious differences. The mixed use of the two pairs of terms is not conducive to the standardization of the category, not conducive to theoretical research, nor is it used in translation practice.

Liu Yingkai interpreted the concept of naturalization in this way: the so-called "naturalization", according to the interpretation of "Cihai", "is the old name of naturalization". The "domestication" of translation refers to the fact that the starting language of the guest "ji" is incorporated into the "ji" of the home language in the translation process: English-Chinese translation spares no effort to Sinicize; Chinese-English translation will make every possible effort to Englishize...and so on There are always the theorists of "Ning Shun but not believing" in the translation circle, and the translation of "Nation" is familiar to the ears; after seeing it familiar, there is no sense of discomfort or resistance,...... (Liu Yingkai, 1987).

According to the reality of the Chinese translation world, Liu Yingkai summarized the manifestations of naturalization into five types: 1. Abuse of four-character idioms; 2. Abuse of quaint words; 3. Abuse of "abstraction method"; 4. Abuse of "substitution method"; 5. To visualize or allusion without basis. Liu Yingkai has a negative attitude towards the translation method of domestication. He believes that domestication will "reform the objective facts of foreign countries, obliterate their national characteristics, force them to subdue, and assimilate them into the language of their destination, so it must be a distortion of the original text. ".

Venuti's definition of domesticated translation is: abiding by the current mainstream values of the target language and culture, and openly adopting conservative assimilation methods to the original text to cater to the local canon, publishing trends and political needs.The Dictionary of Translation Studies published by St Jerome Press, UK, based on Venuti's deconstructionist insights, and defines domestication as: the use of a transparent and smooth style in translation to minimize the strangeness of the original text. Strategy. And the application of the domestication translation method has six steps: l carefully choose the original work suitable for domestication translation; 2. consciously adopt a smooth and natural target language style; 3. make the translation work Adapt to the type of target utterance; 4. Add explanatory materials; 5. Eliminate the geographical and historical colors in the original language; 6. Make the translation consistent with the prejudices and preferences of the monthly language.

Venuti believes that fluent domestication translation not only conceals the translator’s work efforts and exposes the translator to the “invisible” unfair situation; it also conceals the differences between cultures and the sense of history of the original work, and integrates the contemporary values of mainstream culture. Impose on the original. Since the stylistic effect pursued by domestication translation is that the translation does not read like the translation, it is easy for readers to mistakenly believe that the translation that has been contaminated by the mainstream culture and language values of the target language is the original appearance of the original. A narcissistic experience that identifies with local culture". (Venuti, 1995:15) Aiming at the tradition of Anglo-American domestication translation, Venuti pointed out that domestication translation is "a ethnocentric decomposition of the original text according to the cultural values of the target language, bringing the original author home",Actual divination is a kind of imperialist cultural plunder. He also believes that the more domesticated the translation, the more invisible the translator; the more invisible the translator, the more concealed the fact that the original is maliciously naturalized, that is to say, the readers of the translation are more likely to be deceived. The post-colonial translation theory also makes a useful discussion on domestication and foreignization. In the discourse of post-colonial theory, domestication translation is related to the conquest and colonization of imperialism. Domestication is an indispensable content of conquest and colonization, and as a specific translation method, domestication is the violence, even rape, of the original text and the starting culture. (Robinson, 1997: 58)

Canadian translator Robinson discussed the issue of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of post-colonial theory. His definition of domestication is: domestication translation is a term used by foreignization translation scholars to describe the worst translation. This kind of translation adopts the method of assimilating the original work into the target culture and language values, and domesticating the original work. Traditionally, people call this concept "paraphrase"; also known as "assimilative translation" (Robinson, 1997: 116). With regard to domestication translation, Robinson's views and Venuti have a consensus, but also have differences. Robinson expressed difficulty in accepting the tendency of Venuti and other alienationists to over-politicize the issue of domestication and alienation, and raised a discussion. At the same time, he also questioned the view that some post-colonial scholars believe that naturalized translation helps the process of colonization. In fact, the political factors in Robinson's post-colonial translation theory are more than that in Venuti, which is mainly related to his post-colonial vision.

The concept of alienation has surpassed the linguistic level of literal translation and has risen to the level of culture, poetics and politics. Therefore, alienation cannot be simply equated with literal translation. Venuti's definition of alienation is summed up as deviating from the local mainstream values and retaining the language and cultural differences of the original text.Based on Venuti’s opinion, Dictionary of Translation Studies defines alienation as: To a certain extent, to preserve the foreignness of the original text and deliberately break the convention of the target language. Venuti suggests that foreignizing translation should be adopted in those "aggressive" monolingual cultures where domestication translation is prevalent (such as British and American cultures), which can carry out strategic cultural interventions in "current international affairs and challenge the hegemonic English-speaking countries and inequality." The cultural exchanges,... the use of English for foreignization translation can also be a form of resisting our ethnocentrism and racism, cultural narcissism and cultural imperialism". (Venuti, 1995:20) He believes that foreignization translation can impose "ethnodeviant pressure" on the cultural values of the target language, and has the effect of sending readers to a foreign land. He said: "Resistance translation can help preserve the language and cultural differences of the original text, and translate texts that have a sense of strangeness and alienation. These translations mark the limit of the mainstream values of the target language and culture, and prevent these values from affecting a certain culture. The other is the domestication of imperialism.”Specifically, the use of foreignized translation means that the translator can not only be free from the restriction of the target language and text habits, but also can use the non-fluency when appropriate. , Opaque speech style, deliberately retain the cultural color of the starting language, so as to give the target reader a different reading experience. However, because the preservation of the original text has to rely on local cultural materials, Venuti also admits that, just like domesticated translation, foreignized translation "is also one-sided when interpreting the original text, but it does not cover its one-sidedness, but instead Show off." (Venuti, 1995:34)

===4. Conclusion===

The result of literal translation and free translation is not just the gain and loss of semantics and form. From a cultural perspective, it involves issues such as the equal exchange of cultural identity and a sense of history loaded in language forms; from a poetic perspective, it involves literary issues loaded in language forms; from politics From the angle of view, it involves the issues of colonization and decolonization, hegemony and anti-hegemony. Therefore, the dispute between literal translation and free translation has evolved into a dispute between domestication and foreignization at a new level. In the context of globalization, this level of controversy can be regarded as a confrontation between nationalism and cosmopolitanism, a confrontation between a weak culture and a powerful culture, or a confrontation between Orientalism and Western centralism.

===References===

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==On the Chinese Translation of ''A Pale View of Hills'' from House's Translation Quality Assessment Model 宋建茹 Song Jianru 202020080639 ==

<center> 宋建茹 Song Jianru 202020080639 英美文学</center>

===Abstract===

Translation quality assessment is an integral part of translation criticism. The first TQA model with comprehensive theories and practices Juliane House represented provides a significant reference for translation exercises. ''A Pale View of Hills'', as the first work of Kazuo Ishiguro, possesses a great research value on its narrative styles by virtue of memory and topics about migrants. As of 2011 when its Chinese translation was published, no scholar has evaluated it. This study applies House's TQA model to assess the Chinese translation of ''A Pale View of Hills'' with qualitative and quantitative analysis from lexical, syntactic and textual aspects, in a bid to examine validity of the model on novel translation, which turns out that it is an overt and high-quality translation.

=== Key Words===

''A Pale View of Hills''; House's TQA model; Novel translation

===题目===

从豪斯翻译质量评估模式谈《远山淡影》中文翻译

=== 摘要 ===

翻译质量评估是翻译批评的核心课题。朱莉安·豪斯提出的第一个有完整的理论和实践的翻译质量评估模式，为翻译实践提供了重要参考。《远山淡影》是石黑一雄的处女作，其依托回忆的叙事风格和移民主题具有很高的研究价值。《远山淡影》中译本自2011年出版至今，尚未有学者对其进行评估研究。本文运用豪斯的翻译质量评估模式，采用定性与定量相结合的分析方式，从语场、语旨、语式等三个层面对原文和译文进行分析，开展《远山淡影》中译本的翻译质量评估研究，为豪斯翻译质量评估模式对小说翻译的运用进行进一步的探索和补充。通过分析，本文得出《远山淡影》中译本为显性翻译，翻译质量较高。

=== 关键词 ===

《远山淡影》；豪斯质量评估模式；小说翻译

===Introduction===

Translation criticism refers to the analysis and review of thoughts, activities and works of translation by virtue of relevant theories and views, in a bid to improve the overall quality of translators and translations. It is an integral part of translation studies. Translation quality assessment, as the integral and key part of translation criticism, plays a significant role in surveillance and promotion of translation quality. Among the extant translation quality assessment models, Juliane House's ''A Model for Translation Quality Assessment and Translation Quality Assessment: A Model Revised'', based on Halliday's systemic functional linguistics and discourse analysis, are systematic, scientific and rational with a relatively complete system of parameters, quantitative methods and steps adhering to specific procedures.(Wang Enmian 1999,7)

''A Pale View of Hills'', as Kazuo Ishiguro's first full-length novel, tells the life of the people in Nagasaki after WWII through the memory of protagonist Etsuko and explores recovery of trauma, collision between the old and new ideas, and kinship after war. The first person narrative, memory, humor and satire and international perspectives in the book became his major writing styles in the future. The novel won the Winifred Holtby Memorial Prize from the Royal Society. Its only Chinese translation at present, from Zhang Xiaoyi, is still not analyzed by the scholars(Wang Fei 2017, 152).

This paper uses House's translation quality assessment model, with combination of qualitative and quantitative analysis, from field, tenor and mode to analyze the mismatches between original and translation in an attempt to assess the Chinese translation quality of ''A Pale View of Hills'' and further explore the application of House's model in novel translation. The aim of the study is to promote scholars to regulate the behaviors of translation, to improve the quality of translation and translation evaluation, and to provide a reasonable way for establishing the interlingual conversion mechanism.

The thesis consists of five chapters.

After the Introduction, Chapter One gives a brief account of ''A Pale View of Hills'' and its research status, involving the author, background, content and influence. Chapter Two gives a brief introduction of House’s TQA model, including its theoretic basis, parameter setting, operation steps and feasibility. Chapter Three is a detailed analysis of original and translation of ''A Pale View of Hills'' based on House’s model. Chapter Four is the statement of translation quality assessment. Chapter Five draws a concise conclusion about this paper.

===I Overview and Research Status of ''A Pale View of Hills''===

''A Pale View of Hills'' is Kazuo Ishiguro's first novel, which laid a solid foundation for the formation of Ishiguro's writing style. The chapter mainly introduces the author, plot, theme and influence of the novel and analyzes its research status, in an attempt to master the material well and seek new perspectives for the paper.

'''1.1 Overview of ''A Pale View of Hills'''''

Kazuo Ishguro is a noble contemporary Japanese English writer, whose novels feature first person narrative, detailed depiction of loneliness, depression, self-deception and anxiety of characters' inner world and dual narrative strategy to deconstruct the narrator's self-identity, as well as discuss postwar trauma and migrant identity. He won Booker Prize, the British top literary prize, in 1989 and the Nobel Prize in literature in 2017. By virtue of his outstanding literary achievements, he is known as one of the Three Masters of English Migrant Literature together with Salman Rushdi and Naipaul(Liu Xiaoya 2015,5).

''A Pale View of Hills'', published in 1982, is Ishiguro's debut. The story, with postwar Nagasaki as its background, enjoys two clues: one is what happened when Niki (Etsuko's little daughter) visited her mother after her sister Keiko died; the other is Etsuko's memory about people and events in Nagasaki after the war. The two lines integrated together during the narrative, forming the illusory and imaginary impression(Liu Xiaoya 2015,5).

Many in-depth topics in this work are worth pondering: postwar trauma recovery, the collision between new and old ideas after war and discussion of family relations. Many marks in the work became his own styles: first-person narrative, memory, humor and satire, international perspectives. In addition, it won the Winifred Holtby Memorial Prize from the Royal Society and is still in print thirty years after its publication. This book, with its enormous emotion, unearths the abyss beneath the illusion of our connection to the world, whose artistic value and charm could be time-tested(Liu Xiaoya 2015,8).

'''1.2 Research Status of ''A Pale View of Hills'''''

There are 54 papers about A Pale View of Hills in domestic researches. According to the statistics from How Net, the number of studies on the work has been mounting, especially after Kazuo Ishiguro won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 2017. The perspectives of these researches are mainly from identity anxiety, unreliable narrative and post-war trauma.

In "Identity Anxiety in Kazuo Ishiguro's A Pale View of Hills", Wang Fei discusses the identity anxiety of migrants, exploring manifestations, causes and influence of such anxiety on the characters( Wang Fei 2017,152). In "Memory and Narrative Unreliability of ''A Pale View of Hills''", He Xiaobing combined with the classical narratology to analyze how unreliable narration method is presented in the work and discussed the inner world of the characters(He Xiaobing 2018,3). In "Trauma in Kazuo Ishiguro's A Pale View of Hills", Liu Xiaoya explores the protagonist's trauma by using Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalysis theory and trauma theory (including post-freudian psychological trauma theory), contemporary trauma culture theory along with rhetorical narrative theory(Liu Xiaoya 2015,3).

At abroad there are more perspectives about the studies of A Pale View of Hills. In addition to the main research directions of domestic scholars, such as identity anxiety of characters, unreliable narrative research and post-war trauma, cultural displacement, family relationship and the influence of region on personality presented in the works are also analyzed.

''The Impact of Place on Personality in Kazuo Ishiguro's A Pale View of Hills: An Eco-critical Study'' written by Awla, Y.N, from the perspective of ecocriticism, clarifies the fact that a place is able to define and guide the emotions and thoughts of characters, and analyzes the reasons why geography forms characters of people in order to draw people’s attention to the impact of surrounding environment on them. Ruth Forsythe's article ''Cultural Displacement and the Mother-daughter Relationship in Kazuo Ishiguro's A Pale View of Hills'' focuses more on the relationship between mother and daughter under cultural displacement. However, no scholars have analyzed the language itself from the perspective of systemic functional linguistics.( Awla,Y.N 2019,1)

The Chinese translation of A Pale View of Hills, Zhang Xiaoyi's version, was published by Shanghai Translation Publishing House in 2011, and the bilingual version in 2019. Up to now, there has no translation criticism or discussion about this translation. Since 2011 when it was translated, it came to draw the attention of scholars and readers. Translation is a direct factor that affects the integrity of author's thought, the reader's perception and the accuracy of the scholar’s study, thus it is indispensable to use the House’s Translation Quality Assessment model to analyze the Chinese translation of ''A Pale View of Hills''.

===II Introduction of House's Translation Quality Assessment Model===

Juliane House's model was described as the first translation quality assessment model with complete theories and practices by international translation criticism, which could provide an important reference for translation learners and scholars. By introducing the theoretical basis, parameter system and operation steps of House's model, this chapter will discuss the feasibility of House’s model in the evaluation of the Chinese translation of ''A Pale View of Hills'', in an effort to foster the application of House's model in the quality evaluation of full-length novels.(Zhou Fenfen 2018,784)

'''2.1 Theoretical Basis of House's Model'''

The assessment of translation quality draws upon different translation standards, which are then embodied by the recognition about essence of translation. House deemed that crunch of the translation quality assessment lies in recognition of the nature of translation, namely that "translation is the replacement of a text in the source language by a semantically and pragmatically equivalent text in the target language."(House 1977, 30)

In House's initial model in 1977, she drew upon language behavior theory, language and text function and context to divide the source language text into two situational dimensions: dimension of language user and dimension of language use. The former includes three aspects: geographical origin, social class and time. The latter includes five aspects: medium, participation, social role relationship, social attitude and province(House 1977, 30).

Based on myriad practice, House realized that the initial eight dimensions overlap in some parts. Therefore, in 1997, she revised the original model from the perspective of the context, unifying the previous eight parameters to field, tenor and mode. Field compares subject matter and social action of the original with that of translation. Tenor emphasizes the matching degree on the relationship of participants, time, region, position of author, social role relationship and social attitudes. Mode pays more attention to medium and participation. In addition, House incorporated "genre" into revision model in order to explain the deep structure of the text.(House 1977, 30)

'''2.2 Operation Steps of House's Model'''

When evaluating the translation quality of the text, House's model focuses on comparison between original text and translation from field, tenor, mode and genre, clarifies and summarizes mismatches found in the text, so as to obtain a quality report of the translation. The detailed steps presented as follows: (House 1997, 108)

1) Analyze the register and genre of the original text to get its textual functional profile. The original text is analyzed from four dimensions: field, tenor, mode and genre. According to the analysis, “functional statement”, involving ideational and interpersonal functions, needs to be deduced.(House 1997, 108)

2)Compare the target text and the source text to find differences or mismatches. Through the comparative analysis between original and translation along the dimensions on the model, mismatches or differences found in the comparison are sorted out by virtue of overt errors or covert errors and expounded in detail one by one.(House 1997, 108)

3)Summarize the differences and mismatches demonstrated from the above steps in lexical, syntactic and textual aspects. Based on above statistics and statement, make the quality statement. The fewer the mismatches are, the better the translation quality is. If readers clearly realize the text a translation work, it is overt translation; while if not, it is covert translation.(House 1997, 108)

'''2.3 Feasibility of the Model in Chinese Translation of ''A Pale View of Hills'''''

At present, there are 78 relevant studies on House’s Translation Assessment model, which are mainly divided into three directions: interpretation of House Translation Assessment model and its revision, evaluating translation of literary works along the model and evaluating translation of applied text along the model. Among them, evaluation of the translation of literary works accounts for 29, which enjoys the following two characteristics:

1)There are merely a few researches applying House model to Chinese translation of literary works. Among the 29 journals and papers evaluating translation of literary works, there are 25 studies that attach great importance to the English translation and 4 to Chinese translation, which signifies that we need more researches of Chinese translation to support the validity of the model on different languages. Therefore, the paper, with the Chinese translation of A Pale View of Hills as its corpus, intends to examine the feasibility of the application of House's model to Chinese translation.

2)There are merely a few researches applying House model to the translation of full-length novels. Among the 29 journals and papers on evaluating translation of literary works, most of which focus on the evaluation of poems and prose, merely 5 studies are analysis of translation of full-length novels. English translation accounts for 3 and Chinese translation for 2, which demonstrates that we need more researches with full-length novels as corpus to support the validity of the model in different genres. Therefore, the paper, with the full-length novel A Pale View of Hills as its corpus, intends to examine the feasibility of the application of House’s model to full-length novels.

In conclusion, given that the researches based on Chinese translation of full-length novels are insufficient, the paper will use the Chinese translation of A Pale View of Hills as its corpus to validate the feasibility of House's TQA model.

===III Comparison of Original and Translation of ''A Pale View of Hills'' Along House's Translation Quality Assessment Model===

''A Pale View of Hills'' is the debut of Kazuo Ishiguro, whose Chinese translation was published by Shanghai Translation Publishing House in 2011. House's Translation Quality Assessment model is the first objective model combining quantative analysis with qualitive analysis. The paper applies House's Translation Quality Assessment model to Chinese translation of ''A Pale View of Hill'', comparing the source text and target text in lexical, syntactic and textual aspects along the three dimensions of register and summarizing the mismatches on field, tenor and mode, in an effort to quantitatively assess the translation quality of ''A Pale View of Hills''.

'''3.1 Comparison on Field'''

Field refers to the content or the topic of the text. It is concerned with subject matter and social action which covers the specificity of lexical items. After comparison between the source text and target text on field, there are 18 mismatches, 12 of which are overt errors and 6 covert errors. Among them, there are 9 lexical errors, 1 textual error and 8 syntactic errors. The lexical and textual errors are mainly covert errors, so in general their translation is of high quality. Although most of syntactic errors are not in line with the grammar of target language system, they won’t influence the understanding of the text. Therefore, by and large, translation on field are high-quality.(Feng Yufang & Wang Feifei 2015,114)

'''3.1.1 Lexical Field'''

Lexical field means the immediate or possible scenes or events evoked in people's mind when they read or hear the words or lexical items. After the analysis of the original and target text, there are 9 mismatches, 4 of which are overt errors and 5 are covert ones. Most of them won't block readers to master the overall meanings. Therefore, the translation quality on lexical items are relatively high.(Feng Yufang & Wang Feifei 2015,115)

Example 1：

...and the soaked surfaces of brick and concrete were drying all around us.

湿透了的砖头和水泥开始变干。(P8)

Concrete refers to building material that is made by mixing together cement, sand, small stones and water according to Oxford Dictionary, which includes cement rather than equates it. So, it is not very accurate to translate in this way even if the two words are similar. It is obviously an overt error.

Example 2：

As far as I remember, that was the first occasion I spoke to Mariko.

我印象那是我第一次跟万里子说话。(P11)

In the translation, “印象” as a noun refers to a mental picture that you have of what somebody/something is like or looks like. In the light of the rules or grammar of Chinese, it is hardly used as a verb. Thus, it is an overt error.

Example 3：

It's such a shame.

真不像话。(P16)

A shame is used to say that somthing is a cause for feeling sad or disappointed. In the original, the sentence is to express Etsuko’s pity to the homeless dogs and cats around her community rather than her distaste or complaint. Here it is translated into its other meaning when ignoring the context, belonging to a covert error.

Example 4：

Why don't you go into the kitchen for a little while?

你为什么不到厨房去一会儿呢？(P26)

In the translation, “去” is not very appropriate on the basis of grammar of Chinese, since it is such an action verb that does not match with state phrases. In the course of translation, some prepositions in English need to be transferred into verb in Chinese, which are supposed to pay attention to the rules of target language. Here it is obviously an overt error.

Example 5：

It's not appreciated simply because the product disappears so quickly.

不能因为它的产品很快就消失了而不懂得欣赏。(P34)

According to the context, Ogata-San believes that cooking is “as noble as painting or poetry”. So here the product refers to food cooked. Given the concrete expression in Chinese, the product is supposed to be translated more concretely in accordance with the context. It is a covert error.

Example 6：

Perhaps it is just my fancy that I felt a cold touch of unease there on that bank, a feeling not unlike premonition.

这也许只是我的想象，但是那时我在河边觉得凉飕飕的，很不自在，像是感觉有事要发生。(P44)

“Unease” refers to the feeling of being worried or unhappy about something. Given the above-mentioned, Etsuko worried about the safety of Mariko when she was not at home. It differs from its translation that means the feeling of being ill at ease. It is an overt error.

Example 7：

You mustn't suppose, Etsuko, simply because you've seen her in these…in these present surroundings, that she's some peasant's child.

悦子，你不能因为……因为眼前的事物就认为她是什么贫农的孩子。(P51)

Sachiko is not rich according to the context, so “peasant” intimates the meaning of poverty. Its translation explicitly represents it, which is accessible and intelligible. However, “贫农” enjoys extra cultural meaning in China, which could date back to the Cultural Revolution when lands was apportioned based on people’s wealth, so it might mislead readers to its political implication. It is a covert error.

Example 8：

“I must have been such a burden to you in those days,” I said, quietly.

“我那时肯定成了您的负担，”我静静地说。(P68)

Here “quiet” refers to making very little noise, which coincides with the act of saying. According to the context, Etsuko lowered her noise out of guilt when she realized she bothered her family when she practiced violin before. However, its translation means the statement without any noise, which obviously contravenes the context, belonging to covert translation.

Example 9：

I could see something moving beside her in the shade.

我看见她身旁的影子里有什么东西在动。(P14)

“Shade” means an area that is dark and cool under or behind something, for example a tree or building, because the sun’s light does not get to it, rather than the shadow which the translator believed. As previously mentioned in the text, “Mariko was lying in the corner furthest from the sunlight”, which also signifies that it is impossible to exist dark shape under the light around Mariko. Thus, the translation of “shade” is not on a par with the context, belonging to a covert error.

'''3.1.2 Syntactic Field'''

Syntactic field means the immediate image appeared in people's mind when they read the sentences. The mismatches in syntactic field are usually for the violation of rules of target language or misinterpreting the source text. On syntactic field, there are 8 mismatches, seven of which are overt errors and one is covert. Among the overt errors, seven sentences are not in line with the rules of target language, which won't influence the ideational meaning. Therefore, the translation quality on syntactic field is high.(Feng Yufang & Wang Feifei 2015,116)

Example 1：

It did upset me, hearing about her.

我真的很难过，听到她的死讯。(P4)

Example 2：

But I was sad though, when I heard.

可是我真的很难过，听到她的消息。(P4)

Example 3：

It's certainly an amusing sort of experience, working in a noodle shop.

这真是很有趣的经历，在面包店里工作。(P26)

In English, the important or unknown information appeared firstly, and the second one follows. However, in Chinese, the second important presents at first, paving the foundation for the more pivotal or unknown one. In above three examples, their translation doesn't adjust the sequence in line with target language rules. These are overt errors.

Example 4：

…certain arrangements I made have not gone as planned.

一些事情没有照我计划的那样。(P17)

The translation is not complete as the predicate verb “have gone” is not translated, which does not conform with the grammar of Chinese. It is an overt error.

Example 5：

She appeared to know them, for as she walked across the forecourt, she gave them a familiar greeting.

看来她认识她们，边走过水泥地，边熟识地跟她们打招呼。(P26)

The original is a compound-complex sentence with "for" for causal relation and "as" for coordinate relation. In the translation, the former is represented but the later isn't, neither by conjunction words nor by clause sequence. It causes that the translation lacks of logic, belonging to an overt error.

Example 6：

It's an opportunity for a teacher to see the fruits of his work, and for the pupils to express their gratitude to him.

这是一个机会让老师看看他的劳动成果，让学生们向他表示感谢。(P30)

The translation adheres to the sequence of the original but ignores the fluency of the sentence. In English, attributives are at both ahead of and behind the objects; while in Chinese, they mostly are preceded. Therefore, the translation violates the grammar of the target language, belonging to an overt error.

Example 7：

There's nothing like a timely reminder of one's personal obligations.

及时地提醒个人的责任之类的东西也没有。(P71)

"There's nothing like" is a common sentence pattern in spoken English, meaning nothing else is able to match. The original would have expressed that "a timely reminder of one's personal obligations" is the most important. The translator misunderstood the meaning utterly, making an overt error.

Example 8：

It amazes me, how things have changed so much so quickly.

太让我吃惊了，世道变得如此之大，如此之快。(P195)

The translation, by and large, is in accordance with the original. Yet there is possibility for readers to be confused about the accuracy of words collocation. Although "so much" and "so quickly" modify the verb "change", we have to respectively choose the proper words to collocate. It is a covert error.

'''3.1.3 Textual Field'''

On textual field, there is only one error---overt error. It is caused by misconstruing what the pronoun refers to. By and large, the translation, through the comprehensive analysis on textual field, is high-quality. (Feng Yufang & Wang Feifei 2015,117)

Example 1：

That's just not how it was though.

但是我和她根本不是这样。(P4)

According to “Sisters are supposed to be people you're close to, aren't they. You may not like them much, but you're still close to them”, it refers to the whole view instead of certain relationship between me and my sister. The referential meaning does not accord with that of the original. It is an overt error.

'''3.2 Comparison on Tenor'''

Tenor refers to the nature of the participants, the addresser and the addressee, and the relationship between them in terms of social power and social distance. After comparing the original and the translation of A Pale View of Hills, there are 8 mismatches on social attitude and social role relationship, one of which is an overt error and the rest are covert. In general, the translation is highly in accordance with the original so the quality is high on tenor. (Feng Yufang & Wang Feifei 2015,118)

'''3.2.1 Social Attitude'''

Social attitude refers to the social distance between communicators and the degree of formality of discourse. The misunderstanding of social attitude in the translation process will affect the readers' understanding of the characters in the novel. Therefore, mistakes in representing social attitude of characters should be minimized and even avoided in the translation process. There are 4 mismatches on social attitude in the translation: one is an overt error and the rest are covert errors. By and large, the translation on displaying the social attitude of the original is great.(House 1997, 108)

Example 1：

The English are fond of their idea that our race has an instinct for suicide.

英国人有个奇特的想法，觉得我们这个民族天生爱自杀。(P4)

In the original text, the attitude of the character is relatively objective. However, in the translation, the attitude is represented overly by using an adjective, which might be translator's understanding on author's attitude. It limits different interpretation to the author's attitude from readers. It is an overt error.

Example 2:

“Which are you hoping for, Etsuko?” he asked, eventually. “A boy or a girl?”

“你想是男孩还是女孩呢，悦子？”过了一会儿他问道。(P35)

Ogata-San would like to know Etsuko's mind about the upcoming baby, but he is not sure if it is proper. At last, curiosity overpowers his hesitation. In the original text "eventually" signifies both time and emotion span. But the translation only manifests the time span. It is a covert error.

Example 3:

“Tell me, Etsuko,” he said, not looking up from his laces. “Have you met this Shigeo Matsuda?”

“告诉我，悦子，”他头也不抬地说。“你见过这个松田重夫吗？”(P36-P37)

Ogata-San, as Etsuko’s father-in-law and adopter after the war, gets along well with her. In the original text, Ogata-San is “not looking up” when speaking to Etsuko since he is lying his laces. The translation ignores the reason, which renders Ogata-San a cold man. It is a covert error.

Example 4:

I'm sure she'd be the first to agree with me about Kazuo mourning her like this.

我肯定她会第一个同意我的观点，和夫不应该再这样想着他了。(P94)

From the original, we can feel the love of Mrs. Fujiwara to her son. However, after reading its translation, we can feel nothing but her dominance. It signifies that the translation deviates from the original context. It is a covert error.

'''3.2.2 Social Role Relationship'''

Social role relationship refers to the social relation between the speaker and the receiver, that is, symmetry and asymmetry. The analysis on the social roles relationship in novels is generally from two aspects: relationship between the author and readers, and relationship between the various characters in the work. The former is remained utterly, while the latter is slightly different from that in the original. A total of 4 mismatches are found in the comparison, all of which are covert errors. In the full-text translation, the overall relationship between the characters is the same as that of the original text, and only a few mismatches are found. Therefore, on social role relationship, translation is of high quality.(Feng Yufang & Wang Feifei 2015,117)

Example 1：

She said it would be perfectly all right if you came and waited for her at my house.

她说你可以到我家来等她。(P13)

The translation omits "be perfectly all right if", which takes the edge off the amiability from Etsuko to Mariko. Given the whole plot of the novel, Mariko is a phantom of Etsuko's old daughter Keiko. The obscure feelings between Mariko and Etsuko are very important to implicate their special emotion. Therefore, the translation ignores to take a consideration of the context. It is a covert error.

Example 2：

As I say, this order came into the office the day you arrived. A real nuisance.

我说过了，订单刚好在您来的那天来了。真是讨厌。(P29)

On the basis of the context, Jiro (Etsuko's husband) is explaining to his father Ogata-San that he is so busy that he could not accompany him. He feels apologetic about that. However, the tone of speaking in translation is impatient and a bit furious, which runs against that of the original. So, it is a covert error.

Example 3：

I should warn you, perhaps. My daughter has been in a somewhat difficult mood these past few days.

也许我应该警告你。我女儿这几天情绪很不好。(P90)

Warn enjoys two major meanings: to tell somebody about something, especially something dangerous or unpleasant that is likely to happen, so that they can avoid it; to strongly advise somebody to do or not to do something in order to avoid danger or punishment. In the original, Sachiko entrusts Etsuko to look after her daughter so the former one is appropriate. However, in the translation the later one is adopted, which is absolutely improper. It is a covert error.

Example 4：

Now listen carefully, or else you'll never find the noodle shop.

现在您听好了，不然您永远也别想找到面馆。(P183)

The sentence is said when Etsuko intends to tell Ogata-San the route to the restaurant of Mrs Fujiwara. On the basis of the context, Etsuko is very reverent to Ogata-San. However, the manner of translation is tough, which is not of a piece with the original. It doesn't take account of the context, so it is a covert error.

'''3.3 Comparison on Mode'''

Mode can be divided into medium and participation. In the course of analyzing both the original and the translation, a total of 6 mismatches are found on the two dimensions and all of them are covert errors, which manifests the translation are generally of a piece with the original. The translation on mode is of high quality.(Zhou Fenfen 2018,784)

'''3.3.1 Language Medium'''

Language medium mainly refers to whether the form of language is spoken or written, simple or complex. The contrast between the model of the source text and the target text is mainly reflected in the linguistic features and diction features of text rather than language types used. The language of A Pale View of Hills is simple, delicate and easy to understand, with short sentence, plenty of dialogues between characters and a high degree of colloquialism. The overall style of the translation is similar with that of the original, with only 4 stylistic covert mismatches. Therefore, on language medium, the translation quality is great.(House 1997, 108)

Example 1：

…on one side of the tracks at the foot of the hill could be seen a cluster of roofs.

山脚下铁路的一侧是鳞次栉比的屋顶。(P8)

Cluster means a group of things of the same type that grow or appear close together, whose translation accords with it in the ideational meaning. Nonetheless, “鳞次栉比” in Chinese is a four-character phrase that usually appears in formal written text. It is more complex than the style of the text. It is a covert error.

Example 2：

We're just rabble, like your husband says.Please don’t make a fuss, please sit down.

正如您丈夫说的，我们只是两个混蛋。不用麻烦了，请坐下。(P74)

The situation happens when Jiro's colleagues come round. From the conversation between Jiro and his colleagues, it is found that they are very familiar and intimate. So, words such as "rabble" and "like" are of high colloquialism. Nevertheless, in the translation "正如" is a formal expression, which is not in line with the original. Thus, it is a covert error.

Example 3：

Blankets and laundry hung from many of the balconies.

很多阳台上挂着毯子啦、洗的衣服啦。(P181)

Example 4：

Young women these days are all so headstrong. And forever talking about washing-machines and American dresses.

现在女孩子任性得很。而且整天在讲什么洗衣机啦、洋裙啦。(P195)

The two sentences are the description of the street which Etsuko and Ogata-San pass by when they intend to visit Shigeo. Etsuko is a calm and composed Japanese woman, whose language style is the same. Modal particles used in translation render the language abrupt and frisky. So, it is a covert error.

'''3.3.2 Participation'''

Participation refers to whether the speech is a simple monologue or a complex form that prompts the listeners or readers to participate indirectly, for example, by the transition between statements and questions and the special use of pronouns. The whole plot of ''A Pale View of Hills'' is a soliloquy narrated in the first person, interleaved with dialogues between different characters. Readers hardly could participate indirectly in it. The translation is basically in the same style as the original, except for the two following examples. The two declarative sentences are translated into a rhetorical question, which does not require readers to answer as well. Therefore, the translation is of high quality in terms of participation.(House 1997, 108)

Example 1：

That’s no way to bring a child into the world, visiting the cemetery every week.

这样怎么能把孩子带到这个世上呢？(P24)

Example 2：

It seems very disloyal.

这不是忘恩负义吗？(P32)

In conclusion, the quality statement of the Chinese Translation of A Pale View of Hills focuses on whether it is an overt transaltion or a covert translation and its matching degree.

On the one hand, it is an overt translation. Accoring to above analysis, the translation is closely related to the culture of the sourse language text. From the translation, expressions with Japanese culture can be found clearly. On the other hand, it is of high quality. There are 32 mismatches in total, 18 mismatches on field, 8 on tenor and 6 on mode. Among them, there are 13 overt errors and 19 covert errors. Covert errors caused by ignoring the context and overt errors caused by violating the rules of target language inflict only a little ambiguity on ideational function, interpersonal function and the quality of the text.

===IV Quality Statement of Chinese Translation of ''A Pale View of Hills''===

The quality statement of the Chinese Translation of A Pale View of Hills focuses on its cultural participation degree and its matching degree. Based on the two aspects, this chapter will make a quality statement of the Chinese Translation of A Pale View of Hills.(House 1997, 108)

'''4.1 Overt Translation'''

Overt translation refers to the obvious translation rather than the second original. The translation is obviously not aimed at the readers with target language, because the original text, literary works, political speeches and religious sermons, is closely related to the culture it is rooted in. But covert translation can be used as the second text, that is, independent writing.

House deems that texts requiring overt translation have no special connection with their culture, and they are not unique to their culture, such as academic papers and travel brochures. She also believes that in overt translation, equivalence can only be established at the level of language/text, register and genre, but it is difficult to achieve equivalence in function. In contrast, the purpose of covert translation is to achieve functional equivalence, and there will be some deficiencies in language, register.(House 1997,108)

In the contrast reading between the original and the translation, the obvious traces of the original can be found, for example, “你想她们还在打吗？” and “呃，我想小孩子是会打架的。但是我想我应该告诉你一声。还有你看，我想你女儿不是要去上学。”. In English, words representing speculation, such as “suppose” and “think”, are used frequently, while in Chinese they are not. Thus, the target text which remains these words possesses obvious sighs of translation. Furthermore, other signs in the translation, such as “欠了欠身”，show the culture of Japan when greeting. In conclusion, the target text of A Pale View of Hills is overt translation.

'''4.2 High-quality Translation'''

This study applies House's TQA model to assess the Chinese translation of A Pale View of Hills on lexical, syntactic and textual aspects. On basis of analysis between the original and the translation, there are 18 mismatches on field, 8 on tenor and 6 on mode. Among them, there are 13 overt errors and 19 covert errors. Covert errors caused by ignoring the context and overt errors caused by violating the rules of target language inflict only a little ambiguity on ideational function, interpersonal function and the quality of the text.

Chinese translation of ''A Pale View of Hills'', by and large, consisting with the original, is of high quality. On the field, the translation, which transmits the subject matter and social action which covers the specificity of linguistic items, is in accordance with the original on lexical, syntactic and textual dimension in general; on the tenor, the representation of social attitude and social role relationship of the Chinese text is consistent with the English text; on the mode, the language of the translation is as simple and delicate as that of the original and the participation is of low level as well. Therefore, Zhang Xiaoyi's Chinese translation of ''A Pale View of Hills'' is of high quality.

===Conclusion===

''A Pale View of Hills'', as the debut of Kazuo Ishiguro, involves many in-depth subjects, which initiates the development of author's peculiar writing style. House's model is the first scientific and objective translation quality assessment mode with the integration of both theory and practice. This study applies House's TQA model to assess the Chinese translation of ''A Pale View of Hills'' on lexical, syntactic and textual aspects.

On basis of analysis between the original and the translation, there are 18 mismatches on field, 8 on tenor and 6 on mode. By and large, the Chinese translation of ''A Pale View of Hills'' is overt translation. Although a few mismatches can be found in the translation, they cause a little affect to the functions of the text and the presentation of the plot, role characters and role relationship of the whole novel. In conclusion, the translation is in line with the original on register and is of high quality.

Different from the traditional evaluation methods, House's model, based on micro and macro criteria, both quantitative analysis and qualitative analysis, is the first scientific and objective translation quality assessment model with a complete theory and empirical evidence. It can be used as an auxiliary tool to find problems in translation so as to make modifications, which to some extent promotes the development of translation activities.(House 1997, 180)

However, in the actual operation process, although the translation quality assessment can be carried out according to parameters, the comparison results still rely on subjective judgment, which cannot utterly guarantee the scientificity of the final evaluation results. In addition, due to the large number of parameters, it takes a lot of time to compare the differences in vocabulary, sentence structure and discourse between the original text and the translation in the evaluation of full-length novel, so the evaluation is not very efficient. Although there are still some shortcomings in the House's model, it is still worth applying in the practice of translation criticism as a relatively complete and objective theoretical model.(House 1997, 182)

===References===

*Awla, Y. N. (2019). The The Impact of Place on Personality in Kazuo Ishiguro's ''A Pale View of Hills'': An Eco-critical Study. ''Journal of University of Raparin''. 1-18.

*House, J. (1977) ''A Model for Translation Quality Assessment''. Germany: Gunter Narr Verlag Tubingen.

*House, J. (1997) ''Translation Quality Assessment: A Model Revised''. German: Gunter Narr Verlag Tubingen.

*Newmark, P. (2001) ''A Textbook of Translation''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

*Reiss, L. (2000) ''Translation Criticism, the potentials & Limitations''. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing.

*Forsythe, R. (2005) Cultural Displacement and the Mother-Daughter Relationship in Kazuo Ishiguro's ''A Pale View of Hills''. ''West Virginia University Philological Papers''.

*Jeremy M. (2001) ''Introduction Translation Studies: Theory and Applications''. London and New York: Routledge.

*Feng Yufang & Wang Feifei丰玉芳, 王菲菲. (2015) 从豪斯的翻译质量评估模式看宋词翻译——以宋词《声声慢》和许渊冲英译本为例[Translation of Ci-poetry Based on J.House's TQA Model——A case study of ''Sheng Sheng Man'' and its English translation by Xu Yuanchong]. 扬州大学学报(人文社会科学版)[Journal of Yangzhou University(Humanities and Social Sciences Edition)]. 114-121.

*He Xiaobing 贺晓冰. (2018) 论《远山淡影》的不可靠叙述与记忆[Memory and Narrative Unreliability in ''A Pale View of Hills'']. 西安外国语大学[Xi'an International Studies University].

*Jiang Ruiping 姜睿萍. (2007) 豪斯翻译质量评估模式在英汉互译中的可行性分析[An Analysis on the Feasibility of House s TQA Model in CE Translation]. 哈尔滨工程大学[Harbin Engineering University].

*Li Xiaolin & He Shaobin 李晓林, 何绍斌. (2010) 朱莉安·豪斯的“翻译质量评估模式”运作过程可行性浅评[The Feasibility of House's Model of Translation Quality Assessment]. 哈尔滨学院学报[Journal of Harbin University]. 127-1.

*Liu Xiaoya 刘晓亚. (2015) 《远山淡影》中的创伤研究[Trauma in Kazuo Ishiguro's ''A Pale View of Hills'']. 四川师范大学[Journal of Sichuan Normal University(Social Sciences Edition)].

*Si Xianzhu 司显柱. (2005) 朱莉安·豪斯的“翻译质量评估模式”批评[Juliane House's Translation Quality Assessment Model:A Critique]. 外语教学[Foreign Language Education]. 79-84.

*Tang Jun & Wang Yan 唐军, 王燕. (2011) 豪斯翻译质量评估模式在汉译英翻译中的应用——以朱自清《背影》的英译为例[Application of House＇s Translation Quality Assessment Model in C-E Translation—A Case Study of ''The Sight of Father's Back'' by Zhu Ziqing]. 合肥工业大学学报(社会科学版)[Journal of Hefei University of Technology(Social Sciences)]. 129-135.

*Wang Lichuan 王丽川. (2019) 《远山淡影》中的反讽解读[A Study of the Irony in ''A Pale View of Hills'']. 河南: 郑州大学[Henan: Journal of Zhengzhou University].

*Wang Fei 王飞. (2017) 石黑一雄中的身份焦虑[Identity Anxiety in Kazuo Ishiguro's ''A Pale View of Hills'']. 中南大学学报(社会科学版)[Journal of Central South University(Social Science)]. 152-157.

*Zhou Fenfen 周芬芬. (2013) 豪斯翻译质量评估模式的实践应用——以《荷塘月色》英译本为例[The Application of Translation Quality Assessment Model by Julian House——A Case Study on Chinese-English Translation of ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'']. 山西农业大学学报(社会科学版)[Journal of Shanxi Agricultural University:Social Science Edition]. 782-786.

==On the Relationship among Literal Translation, Free Translation, Domestication and Foreignization--Wei Honglang 韦洪朗,国别区域研究，202020080647==

===Abstract===
Abstract
This paper makes a systematic discussion on the relationship among literal translation, free translation, domestication and foreignization,which have been always controversial in translation history. Based on the theories and contents of free translation, literal translation, domestication and foreignization, this paper analyzes the similarities and differences between literal translation and free translation, foreignization and foreignization respectively. After cross-contrast analysis between them, it comprehensively sorts out the relationship between translation methods of literal translation and free translation and translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and discusses their comprehensive application on the basis that domestication and foreignization are the extension of literal translation and free translation to cultural level, which has certain reference significance for further enriching translation practice.

===Key words===
Key Words: Literal Translation; Free Translation; Domestication; Foreignization

===摘要===
摘要
本文就翻译史上备受争论的归化、异化和意译、直译的关系问题进行了系统的讨论。基于意译、直译和归化、异化的理论及其内容，分别分析直译和意译、异化和归化两对概念之间的异同，在他们之间进行交叉对比分析后，综合整理直译、意译的翻译方法和归化、异化翻译策略的关系，在继承归化和异化是直译和意译向文化层面的延伸的基础关系上，具体讨论他们之间的综合运用，为进一步丰富翻译实践具有一定的借鉴意义。

===关键字===
关键词：意译；直译；归化；异化

===I.Introduction ===

In the history, argues between literal translation and free translation have been lasting for so long. Since there existed so many countries and nations on the continent of Europe, communicating frequently with different languages, the skill and cognition of language translation naturally developed and achieved a lot. During those time, two main methods of translation called literal translation and free translation came into being and accompanied by the problem on choosing which of them. The earliest opinion of translating methods can go back to the period of Roman Empire, when Cicero put forward that free translation should be used in translating Greek texts into Latin, on account of that literal translation , “word for word translation”at that time, couldn’t reflect Roman way of expression and couldn’t be easy-understanding and fluent as free translation, “sense for sense translation”. (Lu Shu, Wang Jintang 2005,115-116)

This view of point had a great and dominate influence at that time, which did not change until late Roman period, when Christianity was gradually in power and the necessity of spreading and translating Bible by the way “exactly what it is ” made literal translation become more popular. Then comes the renaissance, in which many linguisticians realized the importance of keeping the style and features of their own nations. Since then, the two translation methods have taken the lead and been debated endlessly in the translation field. By the 1960s and 1970s, when domesticating translation and foreignizing translation accordingly emerged with free translation and literal translation, reception theory, which upgraded the dominance of readers or we called receivers of translation, again made the domestic translating one-up. (Lu Shu, Wang Jintang 2005,115-116)

This kind of method was criticized by Venuti on its aggressivity of different cultures, based on which he officially put forward the two concepts of domestication and foreignization, which have been two central strategies in translation. So it’s vital to get a better understanding of those four concepts and make their relationships clear, which is of guiding significance to promote translation in practice.(Lu Shu, Wang Jintang 2005,115-116)

===II.Literal Translation and Free Translation===

When seeing translation as shift of linguistic sign, the method of translating could be regarded as the specific approach used by the translator shifting the ST(Source Text) into TT(Target Text), especially the two methods mentioned before--literal translation and free translation.Peter Newmark, in his "A Textbook of Translation", proposed that the only goal of translating should be repeating the meaning of ST, which means those translating methods exist for dealing with some problems happened during the process when translating.( Ma Shikui 2012,20)The meaning and structure of the ST might not be taken into account every time, so it’s important to search for a appropriate solution to deal with this kind of problem, that’s what literal translation and free translation do.

===2.1 Literal translation ===

Literal translation is the method chosen when the original structure and the meaning of ST could both be perfectly taken into account, by adhering to strict original meaning and style of the TT, including the structures of sentences and rhetorical devices. “Word for word translation” could be counted as the original way of literal translation, like the translation of "The Bible" in the middle Age I showed before. But as the argue and relevant theories developing till modern age, more and more experts realize and have a common sense that “word for word translation” can’t be equal to literal translation, since there always exist more or less differences among different languages. Personally speaking, the way Professor Fan Zhongying explains that literal translation means keeping the linguistic form of the SL, such as the words, the sentence structures and the rhetorical means, fluently and easily understood at the same time comprehensively interprets literal translation.(Joe Zeng Rui 2000,249)

===2.2 Free translation===

It’s better if we can have langugage forms and meanings achieved both ways, which cannot happened all the time. Thus, free translation might be better when translator can’t follow with the exact structure of SL. Free translation, “sense for sense translation”, refers to a kind of method used to translate the exact sense of the SL into the TL without retaining the sentence structures or the expression way of the SL. The supporters of free translation believe that the purpose of translation is to transform and convey the sense of the SL to the recipient of the TL, so it’s worthy to adopt an expression way closer to the TL, which is easier for the recipient to understand. Free translation has certain flexibility, which means the position of words and sentences can be adjusted. In order to facilitate readers' understanding, even some necessary supplements can be added.(Joe Zeng Rui 2000,249)

===2.3 Analysis with Examples of Literal translation and Free translation===

Here are some specific examples of the contrast between literal translation and free translation：

===2.3.1 On words===

ST:"Why do men have an Adam's Apple but women don't? "

Literal translating: 为什么男人有亚当的苹果而女人没有呢？

Free translating: 为什么男人有喉结而女人没有呢？

From above, the “Adam's apple” can be translated literally into "亚当的苹果", but it can't reflect the original sense of the ST, because in the western world, "Adam's apple" refers to "喉结" in Chinese instead of literally meaning "亚当的苹果", so free translation is more accurate here. In addition, it is worth mentioning that this example perfectly reflects the fit of sentence structure between Chinese and English. It also shows that translators should also be sure of the culture behind the SL.

===2.3.2 On sentence structures===

ST:"Here comes the bus!"

Literal translating: 这来了巴士!

Free translating: 巴士来了!

According to the literal translating way, if following with the source structure of the English sentence, which is a inverted sentence in English by the way, the translation result is “这来了巴士”, which is obviously both incoherent and hard to understand in Chinese and even twist the sense of the ST. According to the sentence meaning, it should be translated into “巴士来了 ”, which is totally different from the ST in grammar though.

===2.3.3 On rhetorical means===

ST: "If Main Street didn' t understand this , Wall Street did."(The Glory and the Dream, p .85)

Literal translating: 如果主街不能理解这一点，华尔街可以。

Free translating: 这一点, 一般人不理解, 华尔街那些大老板们却是明白的。(Professor Wang Zongyan, 1983 :10)

From this example, the key information is that Professor Wang Zongyan translates “Wall Street” into “华尔街的那些大老板们”. In Literature Translation, free translation is evidently more popular, because some literary images are difficult to express accurately through literal translation. In fact, the “Wall Street” here does not mean “Wall Street” itself, but people in power in Wall Street, so it is more appropriate for Professor Wang to translate it into “华尔街的那些老板们” by free translation. The reason of “Main Street”translating into “一般人”is the same.

===2.4 The Relationships between literal translation and free translation===

According to those demonstrations above, we can see that literal translation is more partial to SL(Source Language) and free translation considers more about TL(Target Language) users. The advantage of literal translation is to keep the style of the source language(show how other people talk), which plays a certain role in spreading the source language culture; the disadvantage is that sometimes it might be too long and difficult to understand, which hinders the communication and understanding between the two sides. Because free translation is biased towards the expression of the nation of the TL, its advantage is that it is more fluent and easy to understand, but its disadvantage is that it conceals the style of the source language and loses the role of translation as a cultural bridge, in which the translator's position seem not that important. All in all, I think it is best to combine the two translation methods organically in the process of translation. Just as professor Lu Dianyang proposed: “ Translate literally, if possible, or appeal to free translation.”(Zhao Jing 2011,61)

===III.Domestication and Foreignization===

Through the above introduction, we can know that with the change of historical environment, a period of political opposition and cultural exchange encountering a new period after World War II, the dispute between literal translation and free translation has reached a deeper level of development, which is the arrival of Foreignization and Domestication. Although Foreignization and Domestication were first formally proposed by Lawrence Venuti in "The Translator's Invisibility" in 1995, the translation strategy later called Domestication actually can be seen from Nida's translation theory of "dynamic equivalence"in 1964, which seeks for an expression whose meaning is closest to the SL and conforms to the habit of the TL expression way.（Chen Ying 2009,42）

Nida's theory has been strongly criticized by Venuti, who supports Deconstructivism, and holds that domesticating translation is an obliteration of the SL culture and a manifestation of cultural colonialism, which is manifested by its failure to comply with the expression of the source language culture. Based on this, on the contrary, Venuti shows strong support for foreignizating translation, and he thinks that this translation strategy of preserving the linguistic and cultural differences of the SL shows respect for the SL culture. The following part mainly clarifies the concepts and contents of these two translation strategies, which will helps to compare with literal translation and free translation mentioned above.（Chen Ying 2009,42）

===3.1 Domestication ===

Domestication refers to a translation strategy dealing with the language forms, customs and cultural traditions, such as proverbs, idioms and allusions when translating, which tends to serve the readers of the target language. According to Eugene A. Nida's concept of natural equivalence, the translation version should be close to the original sense and intention in a most natural expression, therefore, the behavior pattern of the source language should be brought into the cultural understanding category of the target language as much as possible, which means that the recipients of the target language can avoid accepting the cultural expression of the source language in order to better understand the original intention.(Zhu Yuanzhong 2013,54)

===3.2 Foreignization===

Venuti studies translation under the background of culture, society, politics and cultural consciousness, and reflects the different positions of different cultures in today's world through the choice of translation strategies, and regards translation as a tool to fight against inequality. From this, we can see the reason why he criticized domestication and vigorously advocated foreignization translation, which is used to advocate that the translation should adapt and consider more the culture of the source language and the original author's habit of choosing words as much as possible. Thus, foreignizing translation tends to serve the SL culture, because he thinks that the translation version should take the source language culture as its destination and guide the reader to approach the original author.(Jiang Cui 2015,71-71)

===3.3 Analysis with Examples of Domestication and Foreignization===

Examples for domesticating translation and foreignizing translation:

===3.3.1 On Politics===

Titles：동해 (donghae)& にほんかい(nihonkai)

Since the 19th century, the world has experienced terrible periods of two world wars and the Cold War . During this long period, independent nation-states gradually chose their own country's "roads" and directions, different ideologies and political positions having a strong sense of existence in international relations, among which there were many translation contradictions caused by geopolitics. (Pan Wenxiao 2020，https://weibo.com/ttarticle/p/show?id=2309404578145859666401)

For example, the title of the sea area between South Korea and Japan has caused controversy between those two countries. South Korea has always called the sea area "동해"(East Sea) in history, but Japan continues to use the European navigator's giving name "Japan Sea"(にほんかい) and gradually gained international recognition from the 19th century. However, South Korean believes that the title change was imposed on South Korea by Japan colonizing Korea, which is a title that violates South Korea's territorial waters and disrespects South Korea. Something similar has happened many times in the world, which is the political difference on domestication and foreignization.(Pan Wenxiao 2020，https://weibo.com/ttarticle/p/show?id=2309404578145859666401)

===3.3.2 On Culture===

ST:“情人眼里出西施。”

Domesticating translation: Love is blind.

Foreignizing translation: The beauty Xi Shi is in the eye of lovers.

This example shows relevantly how different it could be between two cultures: the ST and the domesticating one of TT express almost the same meaning in completely different ways, that is, lovers can only see each other's good thing. That is to say, if you want to convey the exact meaning of the original Chinese sentence to English speakers, then domesticating method is the best choice, although it will make the "translation results" look beyond recognition. However, if we choose foreignizing translation, especially retaining the word "Xi Shi", it will give English speakers a chance to understand Chinese traditional culture (Xi Shi is a beautiful woman in the Spring and Autumn Period of China, and "西施" in "情人眼里出西施" means "beauty"), although such translating way may be difficult to understand at first.

===3.4 The relationships between Domestication and Foreignization ===

Through the above analysis, it can be concluded that domestication and foreignization also have their own merits and reasonable existence. Although these two translation strategies were born in different historical backgrounds, their struggles to a certain extent reflect the struggle between the dominant position of stronger culture and weaker culture with different identities, which, of course is just one of those aspects, also reflect the problems of cultural communication: domesticating translation is conducive to conveying the meaning of the source language to the target language recipients without obstacles, especially in the case of great cultural differences existing, but this localization behavior will make it difficult for readers to learn what differences the two sides culture have, and in fact cultural diffusion will not be achieved.(Zhu Yuanzhong 2013,54)

On the contrary, foreignization translation conveys the target text to readers according to the discourse mode of the source language culture, which can not only make readers realize the charm of different cultures, but also increase the expression ways of their own nation, but it is very likely that the meaning of the target text is difficult to understand. This contradiction is particularly prominent in the political level. Therefore, in translation practice, we should decide which way to choose in different contexts and in the face of different groups of people, so that the two can complement each other and have unity of opposites under proper application.(Zhu Yuanzhong 2013,54)

===IV.The relationship among Literal Translation, Free Translation, Domestication and Foreignization===

Sun Zhili, a contemporary Chinese translator, said: "Historically, domestication and foreignization can be regarded as extensions of literal translation and free translation, but they are not completely equivalent to each other. The core issue of literal translation and free translation is how to deal with form and sense at the linguistic level, while domestication and foreignization break through the limitations of language factors and expand their horizons to language, culture and aesthetics.(Sun Zhili 2011,27) " Even after the above introduction, the boundary between literal translation, free translation, foreignization and domestication seems to be very vague. In order to better clarify the relationship between the two pairs of concepts, the following will distinguish and compare them.

===4.1 The comparison among Literal Translation and Free Translation, Domestication and Foreignization===

These two pairs of conceptss have some points in common. First of all, foreignization and domestication are extensions of literal translation and free translation, so the two pairs of relations are all methods put forward to guide translation practice; Secondly, relatively speaking, the roles of the two pairs of relations are very similar, especially in linguistic form: literal translation and foreignization both emphasize following the expression of the source text; Both free translation and domestication believe that in order to convey the sense of the source text accurately, the expression of the source text can be sacrificed. However，they are not the same in the following aspect. The first point is that the scope is different, which leads to different objects: literal translation and free translation are proposed according to the different structures and characteristics of the source language and the target language, and their discussion focuses on the relationship between form and content, which belongs to the level of language conversion. (Zhao Jing 2011,62)

Foreignization and domestication, as a product of cultural turn, is not only manifested in linguistic form, but also in cultural content. In other words, the emergence and development of foreignization and domestication raise the discussion of language level to the level of culture, poetics and politics. Obviously, the former is a micro translation method, while the latter is a macro translation strategy. Choosing specific translation methods under the guidance of the general direction of translation strategies can make good use of these two pairs of concepts when doing translation. Second, the condition is different: Because literal translation and free translation are aimed at figuring out the issue of the text itself and the language structure, those two translation methods rely heavily on the text on linguistics, and have little room for evolution, development and independence, which make them relatively being static; However, domestication and foreignization do not have such problems. Their appearances were largely influenced by external social factors and the background of times and history, moreover, they focus on the external factors of translation too. Therefore, these two translation strategies are actually unstable and present a relatively dynamic state.(Zhao Jing 2011,62)

===4.2 The connection among Literal Translation and Free Translation, Domestication and Foreignization===

It can be concluded that the basic relationship between these two pairs of concepts is that domestication and foreignization make the discussion of translation transition move from pure language level to cultural level, not only paying attention to the internal transformation of language, but also starting to study the political and cultural environment outside language and text, which makes the change of translation’s function happen--from micro-analysis of language to macro-control of the social function of translation.(Chen Ying 2009,42)

===4.2.1 Foreignization and Literal translation===

According to the comparative analysis in the previous section, we can conclude from their similarities that under normal circumstances, foreignization usually takes literal translation as method, or foreignizing translation usually includes literal translation methods, such as:(Lv Yinping 2007,138)

(1)Pandora’s box 潘多拉的盒子

(2)the forbidden fruit 禁果

The above two examples clearly show the way literal translation works out, which is also the result under the guidance of foreignizating translation strategy. "Pandora's box" comes from Greek mythology, which refers to the root of all evils, but the translation into Chinese, which is not “万恶之源”, has followed the European saying, and even be quoted in daily communication, which has played the purpose of "understanding other national cultures through translation"; Similarly, "forbidden fruit" comes from "The Bible", which means something forbidden, but Chinese translation also follows the expression of the original way.

===4.2.2 Domestication and Free translation===

Similarly, free translation is visible in domesticating translation. For example:(Lv Yinping 2007,137)

(1)drink like a fish 牛饮

(2)a fool’s paradise 黄粱美梦

As far as the first example is concerned, if literally translated into "像鱼一样喝水", it is extremely out of line with the Chinese expression habit, because there is no such statement way in China, which leads to misunderstanding or confusion.. However, if we translate "drink like a fish" into “牛饮” in Chinese, which does exists in China and has the same meaning as "drink like a fish" in English. Then the translation effect is not only interesting but also easy to understand.

However, in the process of actual translation practice, due to the variety and diversity of cultures, the methods and strategies used in text or language conversion are also comprehensive. We can find that the comprehensive and flexible use of literal translation and free translation, domestication and foreignization can make up for the regret of some traditional opposing ways(It is said that the two pairs of concepts are opposite and cannot coexist).

===4.2.3 Domestication and Literal translation===

Foreignizating translation is usually regarded as an extension of literal translation, which means that in general, literal translation methods are often used under the guidance of foreignization strategies, but in some special cases, literal translation can also coexist with domestication strategies. For instances:

(1) 什么时候都要谦虚谨慎，把尾巴夹紧一些。（Jia Wenbo 2000,11）

We must always be modest and prudent and must, so to speak, tuck our tail between our legs.

The meaning of "把尾巴夹紧" in Chinese coincides with "tuck tail between our legs" in English. In this example, it can be said that literal translation is the most suitable choice, which keeps the form and cultural connotation of the source language to the maximum extent, and at the same time coincides with the meaning and culture of the target language.

(2) 一石二鸟(Song Tianxi 2013,49)

Kill two birds with one stone.

Similarly, this is an example of having language structure and cultural meaning between China and Britain in both ways, which uses the method of literal translation but achieves the effect of domestication. But in Chinese, "一石二鸟" can also be synonymous with "一箭双雕" and "一举两得", which can be chosen when translating "kill two birds with one stone" if you want, however, this way of using the method of free translation is not literal translation anymore.

Domestication and literal translation can coexist under the situation when two sides of language structures and cultures can coincide at the same time, which exists by chance and cannot be forced; It is almost impossible to find examples of coexistence like foreignization and free translation. However, through the above argument, we can find that in translation practice, translators should practice the principle of "concrete analysis of specific problems", flexibly and dialectically combine free translation and literal translation with domestication and foreignization, and avoid rigid translation methods, so as to better assume the responsibility of cultural exchange.

===V.Conclusion===

Through the analysis above of the concepts and intensions of literal translation and free translation, domestication and foreignization, we further arrive at and even deepen our understanding of the relationship between the two pairs of concepts, which is helpful for translators to approach a better version of translation result and effect as much as possible on the basis of understanding the culture and language of both sides and combining with the practice through rational choice of translation strategies and translation methods under the guidance of the theories. After all, translation is not only a linguistic transformation, whose fundamental task is to reach communication and cultural exchange.

Therefore, to some extent, translation plays the role of cultural "fax". In order to coordinate the spread of the source language culture and the acceptance of the target language side, and it is necessary to avoid rigid use of a single translation method and translation strategy, or solidifying the idea of translation guiding theory. After comprehensive consideration of translation purpose, target and recipient, it is a translator's duty to use translation method flexibly and dialectically, as being a "cultural bridge".

===References===

Sun Zhili 孙致礼.(2011).新编英汉翻译教程[A New Coursebook on English-Chinese Translation].上海:上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press

Sun Zhili 孙致礼.(2002).中国的文学翻译:从归化趋向异化[China’s Literary Translation: from Domestication to Foreignization].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal(01):39-43.

Jia Wenbo 贾文波.(1999).汉英时文翻译-政治经济汉译英300句析[On Practical C-E Translation in Political & Economic Practice].北京:中国对外翻译出版公司Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Corporation.

Zhang Meifang 张美芳.(2004).翻译策略二分法透视[A dichotomous perspective in translation strategies].天津外国语学院学报Journal of Tianjin Foreign Studies University(03):1-6.

Zhao Jing 赵静.(2011).直译、意译与归化、异化之比较[Comparison between literal translation and free translation and Domestication and Foreignization].河南农业Henan agriculture(22):61-62.

Lv Yinping 吕银平.(2007).“直译与意译归化与异化”译法之我见[My Opinion on Literal Translation, Free Translation, Domestication and Foreignization].宁夏师范学院学报Journal of Ningxia Teachers Univercity( Social Science)(04):136-138.

Venuti Lawrence.(1995). The Translator’s Invisibility .London&New York: Routledge.
--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 05:54, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==On Chinese-to-English Translation of The Summer Palace from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches to Translation 魏亚菲 Wei Yafei 202020080648==
<center> 魏亚菲 Wei Yafei 202020080648 俄语语言文学</center>

===Abstract===
The Chinese-English translation of tourist texts, as a window for the external publicity of national history and culture, plays an important role in promoting the development of local tourism. The Summer Palace is well known for its large and priceless collection of cultural relics, which is among the first group of historical and cultural heritage sites in China to be placed under special state protection.

The Chinese-English translation of tourist texts, as a window for the external publicity of national history and culture, plays an important role in promoting the development of local tourism. The Summer Palace is well known for its abundant and priceless collection of cultural relics, which is among the first group of historical and cultural heritage sites in China to be under special state protection.

Based on the functionalist approach and the skopos rule, this paper discusses the problems existing in the translation of scenic spots in the Summer Palace from the perspectives of garden culture, historical culture and religious culture. Skopos theory holds that translation depends on communicative purpose. To achieve this goal, translators can choose different translation strategies. It is believed that the purpose of Chinese-English translation of scenic spots is to attract target readers and promote traditional culture. Therefore, when translating tourism materials, it is necessary not only to express the local cultural connotation, but also to consider the cross-cultural factors. The Chinese-English translation of the introduction of scenic spots guided by functionalist approach can make English readers have expectations of scenic spots and understand the cultural connotation of scenic spots. This paper aims to better promote the development and communication of Chinese culture and improve the level of tourism text translation in China by relying on the theory of functionalist approach.

Based on the functionalist approaches and the skopos rule, this paper discusses the problems existing in the translation of scenic spots in the Summer Palace from the perspectives of garden culture, historical culture and religious culture. Skopos theory holds that translation depends on communicative purpose. To achieve this goal, translators can choose different translation strategies. It is believed that the purpose of Chinese-English translation of scenic spots is to attract target readers and promote traditional culture. Therefore, when translating tourism materials, it is necessary not only to express the local cultural connotation, but also to consider the cross-cultural factors. The Chinese-English translation of the introduction of scenic spots guided by functionalist approaches can make English readers have expectations of scenic spots and understand the cultural connotation of scenic spots. This paper aims to better promote the development and communication of Chinese culture and improve the level of tourism text translation in China by applying the theory of functionalist approach.

===Key words===
functionalist approach，the Summer Palace，translation strategies
===题目===
从功能派翻译理论视角看旅游文本英译—以北京景点颐和园为例
===摘要===
旅游资料的英译作为民族历史文化对外宣传的一道窗口,对地方旅游业的发展有着不可低估的促进作用。颐和园作为中国著名的皇家园林，具有浓厚的中国园林特色及优美的风景，同时也蕴涵着深厚文化内涵。
本篇旅游文本英译的分析以功能派翻译理论作为理论指导，以目的法则为主要原则，从颐和园的园林文化、历史文化和宗教文化三个角度出发对颐和园景点英译中存在的问题进行探讨。目的论认为译文取决于翻译目的，这个目的通常指的是交际目的。为达到这个目的，译者可以选择不同的翻译策略。也就是说，译者的翻译策略必须由译文的预期目的或功能决定，即所谓的“目的法则”。笔者认为景点介绍的汉英翻译的目的就是吸引译文读者以及弘扬传统文化，因此在翻译旅游资料的时候不仅要把当地的文化内涵表达出来，而且要考虑到跨文化的因素。而以功能派翻译理论为指导的景点介绍的汉英翻译，可以使英语读者通过译文产生对旅游景点的期盼，以及对景点文化内涵的理解。以颐和园景区内的翻译文本为例本，依托功能翻译理论，通过“发现问题，指出问题，解决问题”，以期更好地促进中国文化的传播与交流，提高我国现阶段旅游文本翻译的水平。
===关键字===
功能翻译；颐和园；翻译目的；翻译策略
===Contents===
1.Introduction
2. Studies on Functionalist Approach
2.1 The Viewpoint of Functionalist Approach
2.1.1 Reiss’s Text Typology
2.1.2 Vermeer’s Skopos Theory
2.1.3 Manttari’s Theory of Translational Action
2.1.4 Nord’s Theory of Function plus Loyalty
2.2 The Application of Functionalist Approach
3.C-E Translation of the Summer Palace under Functionalist Approach
3.1 Garden Culture
3.2 Historical Culture
3.3 Religious Culture
4. Conclusion
5.References
===Outline===

Thesis Statement: Based on the main viewpoints of functionalist approaches to translation, this paper aims to give an analysis to C-E translation of the Summer Palace from cultural, historical and religious aspects, hoping to provide some translation strategies for other cultural attractions.

1. Introduction
2. Studies on Functionalist Approaches
2.1 The Viewpoint of Functionalist Approach
2.1 Reiss’s Text Typology
2.2 Vermeer’s Skopos Theory
2.3 Manttari’s Theory of Translational Action
2.4 Nord’s Theory of Function plus Loyalty
2.2 The Application of Functionalist Approach
3. C-E Translation of the Summer Palace under Functionalist Approach
3.1 Garden Culture
3.2 Historical Culture
3.3 Religious Culture
4. Conclusion

===1. Introduction ===
The Chinese-English translation of tourist texts is a bridge to spread the culture of classical Chinese gardens, so the accuracy of it has a direct impact on foreigners' understanding of the specific history and culture.
Functionalist approach has made a pioneering contribution to the translation of non-literary genres. Functional translation theory emphasizes the function of discourse, and believes that different types of discourse have different functions, so translators should choose appropriate translation strategies according to the type of source text and corresponding functions. Functionalist approach is to take the "skopos rule" as the highest standard, and any translation activity is a purposeful behavior. The ultimate goal and main function of scenic spot translation is to help people understand the main content of the scenic spot.

As a window for the publicity of national history and culture, the Chinese-to-English translation of tourist texts plays an important role in promoting the development of local tourism. Well known for its large and priceless collection of cultural relics, the Summer Palace was among the first group of historical and cultural heritage sites in China to be placed under special state protection. Based on the viewpoints of functionalist approach to translation, this paper aims to analyze C-E translation of the Summer Palace from cultural, historical and religious aspects, hoping to provide some translation strategies for other cultural attractions.

As a window for the publicity of national history and culture, the Chinese-to-English translation of tourist texts plays an important role in promoting the development of local tourism. Well known for its rich and priceless collection of cultural relics, the Summer Palace was among the first group of historical and cultural heritage sites in China to be placed under special state protection. Based on the viewpoints of functionalist approach to translation, this paper aims to analyze C-E translation of the Summer Palace from cultural, historical and religious aspects, hoping to provide some translation strategies for other cultural attractions.
===2. Studies on Functionalist Approaches===
Functionalism is a theory that advocates reader-centered translation, emphasizing the functions of texts and highlighting the communicative effects. It is believed that many unnecessary mistakes can be avoided and better results can be achieved by applying functionalist approach in Chinese-English translation of tourist text.

===2.1 The Viewpoint of Functionalist Approaches===
Functionalist Translation Theory, also known as German Functionalist Translation Theory, was proposed by German scholars in the 1970s. It includes four main theories: Katharina Reiss’s Text Typology, Hans Vermeer’s Skopos Theory, Justa Holtz Manttari’s Theory of Translational Action and Christiane Nord’s Theory of Function plus Loyalty. This chapter aims to present the main ideas of this theory.

===2.1.1 Reiss’s Text Typology===
In 1971, Reiss in her book Possibilities and Limitation of Translation Criticism first made text function as a standard of translation criticism, namely evaluate the translated text from the relationship between the functions of the original and the translated text. She insists on the original-centered equivalence theory and holds the view that the ideal translation is to achieve the equivalence between the target text and the source text in terms of ideological content, linguistic form and communicative function. However, translation practice makes her realize that it’s difficult to achieve equivalence sometimes and that sometimes equivalence cannot be pursued. Because of the particularity of translation requirements, the function of the target text is not always the same as that of the source text. Therefore, the translator should give priority to the functional role of the target text rather than the principle of equivalence.

Reiss believes that in the normal situation the type of text decides the translator’s choice of a proper translation method (Reiss, 2004). Therefore, she divides text into four types: content-focused text, form-focused text, appeal-focused text and audio-media text. Content-focused text, also known as informative text, includes news reports, commercial correspondence, operating instructions, official documents, patent specifications, essays, treaties, etc. For this text, the main function is to convey information revealed in language itself to readers. The emphasis is on content and topic, so the choice of language and style should serve this function. If both the source text and target text belong to informative text, the translator should represent the content and information of source text accurately and completely (Reiss, 2004)

Form-focused text, also known as expressive text, refers to literary works such as novels, poems and so on. “Distinct from ‘content’, which deals with what the author says, ‘form’ is concerned with how an author expresses himself” (Reiss, 2004). For expressive texts, information is only a supplement. What is dominant is the aesthetic factor. When translating such texts, the translator should pay attention to the aesthetic and artistic forms of the original text and to the differences between two cultural habits, trying to achieve the same effect as the source text. In a word, in a form-focused text, the linguistic form of the source text determines the form in the target language (Reiss, 2004).

Appeal-focused text, also known as operative text, mainly includes notice, instruction manual, advertisement, publicity manual and so on. For operative texts, the primary task for the translator is to provoke a particular reaction on the hearers or readers to incite them to engage in specific actions, while content and form are subordinate. Therefore, to achieve the same effect, the translator need to change the content and stylistic features of the original text, try to keep the potential influential factors of the original text and seek functional equivalence (Reiss, 2004: 38-43). Audio-medial text, also known as multi-media text, refers to radio and television scripts, such as radio newscasts and reports, topical surveys and dramatic productions.

It is distinctive in its dependence on non-linguistic media and on graphic, acoustic, and visual kinds of expression. Only in combination with them can the whole complex literary form realize its full potential (Reiss, 2004). In conclusion, different texts determine different translation focuses and methods. In many cases, however, a text may have more than one function, which means that translators should integrate different translation strategies skillfully to achieve different functions of texts.

===2.1.2 Vermeer’s Skopos Theory===
Reiss’s student Vermeer, who broke the limitation of the theory of equivalent and took skopos to be the first criterion of translation process proposed the key theory: Skopostheorie. According to Skopos Theory, when translating a text, the translator needs to consider the purpose of translation first and then choose the translation method according to the purpose, which means “the end justifies the means” (Nord, 2001). Vermeer believes that translation, like other human actions, is also a purposeful act. Translation often takes place in cultural backgrounds with different customs and values, so translation is not a simple equivalent transformation between languages. Skopos Theory does not focus on achieving the equivalence between the target text and the original text or the perfection of the target text, but on choosing the best translation strategy based on the analysis of the source text and the intended function of the target text. In a word, translation methods and strategies are determined by the intended purpose or function of the target text.

According to Skopos Theory, the first rule that all translators must follow is the Skopos Rule. Translation purpose can be divided into three categories: (1) the purpose of the translator, such as earning a living; (2) the communicative purpose of the translation, such as instructing the reader; (3) the purpose of using a particular translation method, such as the literal translation according to its structure to illustrate the peculiarities of grammatical structure in a language (Nord, 2001). In general, the communicative purpose is more important than the other two. The communicative purpose is usually determined by the initiator of the translation act, but the translator can take part in deciding. The second rule is the Coherence Rule. Coherence Rule requires that the translation conform to the criterion of intratextual coherence, which means that the translation must be accessible to recipients and meaningful in the target culture and in the communicative environment (Nord, 2001). The third rule is the Fidelity Rule. It means that there should be intertextual coherence between the source text and the target text, which means being faithful to the source text. Nevertheless, the degree and form of faithfulness lie in the target text and the degree that the translator understands the original text. Normally “Intertexual coherence is considered subordinate to intratexual coherence and both are subordinate to the Skopos rule” (Nord, 2001).

===2.1.3 Manttari’s Theory of Translational Action===
Following Vermeer, Manttari develops Vermeer’s Skopos Theory and puts forward the Theory of Translational Action. He emphasizes three aspects: the behavior of the translation process, the role of the participants (the initiator, the translator and the target reader, etc.) and the environment (time, place and media) in which the translation process takes places. It views translation as “purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and construes the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds that involve intercultural transfer” (Mundy, 2001). According to Manttari, translation is “ a complex act to achieve a particular purpose”
(Nord, 2001). It is not about translating words, sentences or texts but is about guiding the intended cooperation over cultural barriers and promoting functional communication. Cooperation here means “transcultural communication” by Manttari.

The Theory of Translational Action attaches great importance to providing a functional communicative text for the recipient, a text suitable for the target culture in
form and style. Functional suitability is determined by the translator. The translator is an expert in translation, whose role is to ensure the successful completion of culturaltransformation. In producing the target text, the analysis of the source text is necessary so that the translator can find out its structural and functional characteristics, which can be described by content and form. The need of the recipient is the decisive factor for the target text.In short, “the value of Manttari’s work is the placing of translation (or at least the professional non-literary translation which she describes) within its sociocultural context, including the interplay between the translator and the initiating institution”(Mundy, 2001).

===2.1.4 Nord’s Theory of Function plus Loyalty===

Though skopos rule changes the focus of translation from the source language text to the target language text and the target receivers, it has some limitations. One is that different readers have different expectations, and the translation purpose cannot satisfy all the expectations of the target reader. Another is that the translation purpose may sometimes be against the intention of the source language. Therefore, based on the skopos rule, Nord introduces the loyalty principle. The principle of loyalty is a supplementary principle proposed by Nord to make up for the deficiency of skopos rule. According to the explanation of Nord, it is not the relationship between the original text and the target text, nor the equivalence between the original text and the form of the target text, but the consistency between the author of the original text, the initiator of the translation, the translator and the reader of the target text, which is the principle of loyalty. The proposal of the loyalty principle makes up for the mistakes that some radical skopos translators usually make, such as omitting and rewriting, which makes skopos theory more perfect and makes skopos theory more likely to guide the translation of literary works.

“Function” and “loyalty” are two pillars of Nord’s functionalist approach. “Function” refers to what a text means or is intended to mean from the receiver’s point of view”, while “loyalty” means that “target-text purpose should be compatible with the original author’s intention” (Nord,2001). It emphasizes the interpersonal relationship between the translator, the source-text sender, the target-text addresses and the initiator. Function plus loyalty enables the translator to avoid the limitations of skopos rule and try to achieve a balance between translation purpose and the source-text author’s intention”(Nord,2001). That is to say, when translating the original text, the translator should take into account the readers' cultural background, knowledge level and expectation of the translation, and choose the corresponding translation strategy according to the translation requirements. If the reader wants to read a word-for-word translation of the article, then the translator must meet the reader's requirements, otherwise he must explain to the reader why he chose his own translation method. The translator's job is to weigh two different cultures instead of imposing one culture on another.

===2.2The Application of Functionalist Approach to the Tourist Texts.===
In the 1990s, Functionalist Translation Theory was introduced to China, and since then it has been applied to translation studies by Chinese translation scholars. In his article published in 1995, Zhang Nanfeng briefly introduces Skopos theory to China for the first time, and considers that Skopos theory is referential (Zhang Nanfeng, 1995). German Functionalist Translation Theory, a paper released in1999, is the first article in China which systematically introduces German Functionalist Translation Theory (Zhong Weihe & Zhong Yu, 1999). Based on an overview of Functionalist Translation Theory, Zhang Meifang focuses on introducing Nord’s theory, especially on the detailed analysis of Nord’s principle of loyalty (Zhang Meifang, 2005). Famous domestic scholars, such as Liu Junping (2009), Liu Miqing (2012) and Li Wenge (2004), also introduce this theory in their books. With the rise of Functionalist Translation Theory in China, someone has compared it with other theories. Zhu Haotong compares Skopos Theory with Functional Equivalence Theory to analyze the similarities and differences between them, and further reveals that Functionalist Translation Theory inherits the reasonable part of Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory, which is an important breakthrough and supplement to solve the problems that Functional Equivalence Theory leaves (Zhu Haotong, 2006). Some scholars also combine theory with translation practice to explore the application of Functionalist Translation Theory to translation practice. Jia Yanli and Wang Hongjun point out that Skopos Theory has its limitations, but it is still of instruction and reference value for non-literary translation texts, such as advertisements and tourism materials (Jia Yanli & Wang Hongjun, 2012). Li Liangchen selects several famous tourist attractions in China to translate the on-site tour-guide commentary into English. Then he improves them under the guidance of Skopos Theory and sends out questionnaires to overseas tourists for further analysis. He argues that the translation of on-site tour-guide commentary which is guided by Skopos Theory is more favorable to conveying information to foreign visitors, to promoting cultural exchanges and to improving the image of China’s tourist destinations (Li Liangchen, 2013). In Pragmatic Translation: Theory & Practice, Wu Feng and He Qingji introduce Functionalist Translation Theory (Wu Feng & He Qingji, 2008) and the characteristics of tourism text and translation skills (Wu Feng & He Qingji, 2008). In this book, they also discuss the controversy over the Chinese name of Functionalist Translation Theory, and holds that “功能派翻译理论” is the most appropriate Chinese translation (Wu Feng & He Qingji, 2008).Based on his own translation practice and under the guidance of Functionalist Translation Theory, Wu Zixuan probes into some special phenomena in the English translation of CNN newsreels. The author believes that in the translation of external publicity, we should not stick to the standard of faithfulness to the original text, but should deal with the original text properly from the perspective of achieving the purpose of translation, such as rewriting, abridging. (Wu Zixuan, 2005).

Functionalist approach establishes a theoretical system of diversified translation standards dominated by skopos rule. From the definition of Functionalist approach, it can be seen that the advantage of it is that the translator can get rid of the bondage of the original text, study the translation process with "translation purpose" as the starting point, and determine the translation strategies and methods. This can give full play to the translator's own initiative, flexible processing of the original text, in order to achieve the translation of the communicative function. In addition, functionalist approach requires the translation to be examined in the cultural context of the reader. The reader can accept the translation and understand the meaning of the original text through the translation, so the translation can realize the communicative function. On the basis of such advantages, functionalist approach can be used to guide the English translation of garden scenic spots, and the translator can choose a wider range of translation strategies and break out of the constraints of the original text.

Only by clarifying the purpose of translation can we avoid these limitations in the English translation of garden attractions. When using functionalist approach to guide the English translation of Chinese classical garden scenic spots, it is necessary to flexibly choose translation strategies and methods, give full play to the advantages of skopos theory, and achieve the balance between "principle of purpose" and "principle of fidelity" as far as possible.

With the deepening of globalization and cross-cultural communication, tourismis becoming a major industry in the 21st century. The development of tourism can not only promote the economic development of a country but also promote the external dissemination of national culture. Therefore, tourism translation deserves attention. Tourism text is a typical informative and operational text, and the language is unique. It is full of gorgeous words, such as four-character expressions, verses, proper nouns and so on.

Tourism text materials include tourism advertising, tourism brochures, scenic spots signs and so on. In this paper, we focus on the introduction of Chinese gardens’ scenic spots, which is usually colorful in language and rich in literary style. Tourism text translation belongs to applied translation, which should play a series of practical functions to publicize the image and resources of the country or place and attract overseas tourists. Therefore, the translator of tourism text must be clear about the type and function of tourism text, and to grasp the ultimate purpose of the translation.

On tourism text translation, the communicative purpose of the translation should be placed in a central position. Furthermore, the tourism text has both the information function and the calling function. The information function and the calling function complement each other. Only when the target language readers acquire the expected tourism information and cultural knowledge can the calling function be realized and the purpose of tourism text translation be achieved. With different translation strategies, the translated version should both expressed contains basic information, and make the tourists feel the profound of the Chinese culture from the beautiful scenery.

Cultural tourism has long been the focus of international tourism, and understanding Chinese culture is the main purpose of inbound tourists, so the translation of tourism texts bears the mission of cultural transmission and cultural publicity. However, due to the great differences between Chinese and English culture and language, there are many difficulties in cultural transmission in tourism text translation. China has a long and splendid history and culture. When introducing the scenic spots of cultural relics and historic sites, we usually associate with many historical figures and stories. These terms are cultural blank for most foreign tourists, but this kind of cultural experience is also the most attractive place for foreign tourists. It is of great importance to pay attention to cultural differences in tourism translation and carry out cultural transmission effectively. Chinese and English languages have different logic views, and Chinese expressions in tourism texts value decoration. English expressions tend to be clear, concise and to the point. For example, Chinese tourism texts often use a four-character lattice, which is symmetrical, while there is no corresponding four-character lattice expression in English. Therefore, in Chinese-English translation of tourism texts with frequent use of four-character phrases, it is necessary to keep in mind the objective principle of functionalist approach and give priority to cultural communication instead of rigidly adhering to form.

===3. C-E Translation of the Summer Palace under Functionalist Approach===
By studying the specific translation strategies made by predecessors, the following steps are also adopted in this paper: first, the translation strategies are determined according to the text type, such as faithful reproduction of the original information or rewriting; Secondly, the translation strategies are determined according to the potential purpose of the translation, such as paraphrasing or deleting poems, generalizing specific expressions and transliterating proper nouns. Thirdly, the translation strategies are defined with the tourists as the center, such as adding logical words, adding explanatory information and using plain English.
The Summer Palace epitomizes the philosophy and practice of Chinese garden design, which played a key role in the development of this cultural form throughout the east. It is an outstanding expression of the creative art of Chinese landscape garden design, incorporating the works of humankind and nature in a harmonious whole, which was once the most important place of political and diplomatic activity for the supreme rulers of the late Qing dynasty. Based on three aspects of the Summer Palace, namely, garden culture, historical culture and religious culture, this paper discusses the problems existing in the English translation of the scenic spots of the Summer Palace and puts forward corresponding countermeasures under the guidance of the skopos rule of functionalist translation theory.
===Approach===
By studying the specific translation strategies made by predecessors, the following steps are also adopted in this paper: first, the translation strategies are determined according to the text type, such as faithful reproduction of the original information or rewriting; Secondly, the translation strategies are determined according to the potential purpose of the translation, such as paraphrasing or deleting poems, generalizing specific expressions and transliterating proper nouns. Thirdly, the translation strategies are defined with the tourists as the center, such as adding logical words, adding explanatory information and using plain English.
The Summer Palace epitomizes the philosophy and practice of Chinese garden design, which played a key role in the development of this cultural form throughout the east. It is an outstanding expression of the creative art of Chinese landscape garden design, incorporating the works of humankind and nature in a harmonious whole, which was once the most important place of political and diplomatic activity for the supreme rulers of the late Qing dynasty. Based on three aspects of the Summer Palace, namely, garden culture, historical culture and religious culture, this paper discusses the problems existing in the English translation of the scenic spots of the Summer Palace and puts forward corresponding countermeasures under the guidance of the skopos rule of functionalist translation theory.

===3.1 Garden culture.===
The Summer Palace is a classical garden famous for its magnificence and beauty. There are many temples in the garden, and the green waves of kunming lake ripple. Landscape and humanities complement each other, containing rich natural and cultural information, reflecting the characteristics of Chinese classical gardens. The garden cultural features of the three scenic spots, namely, the hall of clouds, the foxiang pavilion and the Wenchang courtyard, are particularly outstanding. Therefore, this paper takes these three scenic spots as examples to discuss the Chinese-English translation of the introduction of the Summer Palace.

(1)排云殿、佛香阁景区是颐和园内建筑布局最完整、建筑形式最丰富的中轴建筑群体，殿、阁、廊、亭、桥、坊、碑等建筑约两万平方米。从临水的云辉玉宇牌坊至排云门、排云殿、德辉殿、佛香阁、众香界、智慧海、层层升高，排列有序，气势巍峨，金碧辉煌，将园林、寺庙和宫殿融为一体。

Translation：This scenic spot covers an area of 20,000 square meters with an assortment of buildings such as palaces, towers, corridors, pavilions, walkways, bridges, archways and inscribed stone steles. It comprises a well-arranged group of structures, all diverse in style, located in the center of the Summer Palace garden. This complex of structures, ranging from the Glowing Clouds and Holy Land Archway on the waterside, the Gate that Dispels the Clouds, the Hall that Dispels the Clouds, the Hall of Moral Glory, and the Tower of the Fragrance of the Buddha, to the Realm of Popular Fragrance and the Sea of Wisdom Temple, were built in an orderly manner running from the foot of the hill to its top, with gardens, temples and palaces harmoniously integrated into the whole.

Analysis：As we all know, the design style of ancient Chinese buildings is beautiful with "symmetry". The "axis" in hall of clouds scenic spot refers to the layout of the Summer Palace from far to near and from top to bottom, which cannot be simply understood as the center. Simply translating "axis" as "center" cannot express accurately the meaning of "symmetry". Comparatively speaking, "axis" can better reflect the architectural style of the scenic spot.

(2)从临水的云辉玉宇牌坊至排云门、排云殿、德辉殿、佛香阁、众香界、智慧海，层层升高，排列有序，气势巍峨，金碧辉煌，将园林、寺庙和宫殿融为一体。

Translation：These structures，including Glowing Clouds and Holy Land Archway at lake side，the Gate of Dispelling Clouds，the Hall of Dispelling Clouds，the Hall of moral Glory，and the Tower of Buddhist Incense，the Realm of Multitudinous Fragrance and the Sea of Wisdom Temple，were built in an orderly manner ranging up the hill with gardens，temples and palaces harmoniously integrated. This manifests beauty，grace and splendor，reminiscent of the loftingness and grandeur of a once mighty empire.

Analysis：In terms of the characteristics of language, Chinese emphasizes parataxis and four-word antithesis. When describing and naming scenes, gorgeous words and poetic words are generally chosen in Chinese. But, English emphasizes hypotaxis, on the other hand, puts more emphasis on reproducing the original appearance of things, using simple and natural words and preferring direct description. In sign translation, the English translation pays more attention to accurate, concise and lively. In the above paragraph, "层层升高，排列有序，将园林、寺庙和宫殿融为一体" is an introduction to the architectural features of foxiang pavilion, in order to make tourists have a clear understanding of the overall layout and architectural features of the scenic spot. This information is essential and can be translated into detail. However, "气势巍峨，金碧辉煌" focuses on the subjective description, and its explicit translation needs more complicated words. If this paragraph is translated in detail, it is easy to drag the content and make the key information vague. Therefore, the deletion of the English translation of this sentence will not affect the basic information of the original text.

(3)主阁（文昌阁）两层，内供铜铸文昌帝君和仙童、铜骑。文昌阁与万寿山西供武圣的宿云檐象征“文武辅弼”。

Translation: A bronze statue of the God Wenchang, statues of gaeries, and a bronze steed were placed in the two-story pavilion. This tower is pared with the Tower of Cloud- Retaining Eaves, located to the west of the Longevity Hill, in which a statue of the Martial God was placed. The God Wenchang and the Martial God together symbolize reining of the emperor supported by scholars and warriors.

Analysis: Two questions arise in Chinese-English translation. First, there are two translations of wenchang pavilion in the translation: pavilion and tower, which appear in the same sign. Two different translations of the same scenic spot name tend to make foreign tourists think that it refers to different scenic spots, which may cause difficulty in understanding. Second, the translation of Wenchang pavilion into "Wenchang Tower" is against the actual architectural characteristics. In fact, the meanings of "pavilion" and "tower" have both similarities and differences. According to the Oxford dictionary, Tower means "a tall narrow building or part of a building, especially of a church or castle", mainly referring to the tower-shaped part of a building, usually a tall and slender structure, such as the Eiffel Tower. "Pavilion" means "a building that is meant to be more beautiful than usual, built as a shelter in a park or used for concerts and dances". The top structure of the pavilion usually has rectangles, triangles, hexagons, etc. The common feature of them is that the top is supported by columns without walls. From the external structure of Wenchang pavilion, its bottom is solid and its top is supported by columns. Therefore, the pavilion can accurately reflect the architectural characteristics of Wenchang pavilion, so I think it should be translated as Wenchang pavilion.

===3.2 Historical culture. ===
The accurate Chinese-English translation of the introduction of the Summer Palace not only enables foreign tourists to understand the characteristics of Chinese gardens, but also enables foreign tourists to understand the historical knowledge of a specific period of China. However, the Chinese-English translation of the Summer Palace still has problems in accurately conveying the historical background of the scenic spots, such as the English translation of Wenchang pavilion scenic spot:

(4)此景区始建于清乾隆十五年，一八六零年被英法联军烧毁，光绪时按原样重建。阁结构为八面三层四重檐，通高36.44米，耸立于20米高的石造台基上，气势雄伟，是颐和园全园的构图中心。阁内供奉有铜铸金裹千手观世音菩萨站像。像高五米，重万斤，为明代万历年间所造，在八根贯通全阁上下的承重铁梨木擎天柱的衬托下，美妙庄严，熠熠生辉，有极高的文物和艺术价值。

Translation: The Wenchang tower was first built in 1750 and rebuilt under Emperor Guangxu after the Anglo-French Allied Forces builted it down in 1860. The octahedral tower has three stories with four-layered eaves, altogether 36.44 meters high. Standing upright on a 20 meter-high stone foundation, it constitutes the center of the Summer Palace landscape and serves to accentuate its magnificence. A statue of the thousand-handed Guanshiyin Buddha, cast in bronze and gilded with gold, stands inside the tower. The statue, five meters high and five tons in weight, was cast during the reign of Emperor Wanli of the Ming Dynasty. Set off by the eight imposing pillars which support the tower, it glows with beauty, grandeur and brilliance. Its historical, cultural and artistic value can hardly be overstated.

Analysis: “始建于乾隆十五年”only was translated into “was first built in 1750” and the “光绪年间重建” was translated into “rebuilt under Emperor Guangxu”.The first sentence does not show that 1750 was the fifteenth year of the reign of emperor Qianlong, and the second sentence does not give foreign visitors the exact date of the reign of emperor Guangxu. The change of time concept and the disunity of expression easily make foreign tourists feel confused. Therefore, the translation of the time and the historical dynasties should be accurate and meticulous, and the supplementary method should be used to not only describe the dynasties clearly, but also supplement the corresponding years, so as to achieve the standardization of the translation. In this way, foreign tourists can not only be clear about the time of the event, but also understand the Chinese historical dynasties. Consider as follows: the Wenchang Pavilion was first built in 1750 during Emperor Qianlong’s reign（1735- 1795）and rebuilt in 1886 under Emperor Guangxu（1875- 1908）after the Anglo- French Allied Forces burned it down in 1860.

===3.3 Religious culture. ===
Many scenic spots in the Summer Palace have a strong buddhist atmosphere. While visiting the scenic spots, foreign tourists can understand the profound buddhist culture. Wenchang pavilion in the Summer Palace is the representative of Chinese religious culture.

(5)主阁两层，内供铜铸文昌帝君和仙童、铜特。文昌阁与万寿山西供武圣的宿云檐象征“文武辅弼”。

Translation: A bronze statue of the god，Wenchang，and statues of two followers，the celestial boy，and the bronze steed，were placed in the two- storey pavilion. This tower is pared with the tower of Cloud- Retaining Eaves，located to the west of the Longevity Hill，in which a statue of the Martial God was placed. The two towers symbolize the support by both scholars and warriors to the ruling emperor.

Analysis: It is well known that westerners believe in theism, which refers to god as supreme . In Chinese religious culture, people believe in atheism and do not believe in the existence of god. Therefore, it is inappropriate to translate "文昌帝军" and "武圣" into "the god, Wenchang" and "the Martial god" in the translation. In fact, the "文昌帝军" was Zhang yu, an emperor of Shu of Ning kang (374). And "武圣" refers to Guan yu in history. Therefore, the simple translation of "God" is not in line with the traditional Chinese culture, which will not only cause western tourists to misunderstand that Chinese religious tradition also believes in God, but also fail to convey Chinese historical allusions and relevant historical figures. In contrast, if "文昌帝军" is translated as "the emperor, Wenchang" and "武圣" is translated as "the Martial Master (Guanyu)", it can more faithfully convey the history and religious culture contained in the source language.

===4. Conclusion===
To sum up, Under the guidance of the skopos rule of functionalist translation theory, translators should have a cross-cultural awareness, fully understand the reading psychology and cultural appreciation needs of target language readers, and use effective translation strategies and methods to achieve the purpose of tourism text translation. Functionalist approach has made a pioneering contribution to the translation of non-literary genres. Functional translation effectively eliminates the disadvantages of traditional word-for-word translation, improves the efficiency of translation, and helps readers to grasp the meaning of the original text.

To sum up, Under the guidance of the skopos rule of functionalist translation theory, translators should '''have cross-cultural awareness''', fully understand the reading psychology and cultural appreciation needs of target language readers, and use effective translation strategies and methods to achieve the purpose of tourism text translation. Functionalist approach has made a pioneering contribution to the translation of non-literary genres. Functional translation effectively eliminates the disadvantages of traditional word-for-word translation, improves the efficiency of translation, and helps readers to grasp the meaning of the original text.--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 14:18, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The importance of the translation of the Summer Palace lies in the profound garden culture, historical culture and religious culture. The English translation is not only helpful for international friends to know more about the garden characteristics of the Summer Palace, but also helpful for spreading the long history and profound culture of China. In order to attract target readers and promote traditional Chinese culture, it is not only necessary to carefully explore Chinese culture and history, but also to use the fuctionalist approach appropriately.

Translation is a complicated process. Functionalist approach stresses the function of the discourse, the purpose of translation. In the practice of translation, if the translator can get rid of the bondage of the original equivalence, actively playing to subjective initiative, fully understanding the original text, depending on the purpose of discourse and adopting different translation strategies, the effect and readability of translation can be improved.

Translation is a complicated process. Functionalist approach stresses the function of the discourse '''and''' the purpose of translation. In the practice of translation, if the translator can get rid of the bondage of the original equivalence, actively playing to subjective initiative, fully understanding the original text, depending on the purpose of discourse and adopting different translation strategies, the effect and readability of translation can be improved.--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 14:18, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===References===
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Munday, Jeremy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications. Routledge publishing.2001.

Mason, “Textual Practices and Audience Design: and Interactive View of the Tourist Brrochure”. In Navarro et al.(eds.). Pragmatics at Work: The Translation of Tourist Literature. Bern: Perter Lang. 157-176.2004.

Nord, Text Analysis in Translation: Theory, Methodology and Didactic Application of a Model for Translation-Oriented Text Analysis. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press. 2006.

Nord, Translating as a purposeful activity. Shanghai: SFLE PRESS, 2001:27,30,32,65,245.

Reiss, Katharina. Translation Criticism: The Potentials & Limitations. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. Shanghai. 2004.

Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator’s Invisibility: A History Translation. Routledge.1995.

方梦之、毛忠明，英汉—汉英应用翻译教程，上海: 上海外语教育出版社，2004.

金惠康，跨文化旅游翻译，中国对外翻译出版公司，2004.

贾文波，应用翻译功能论，北京：中国对外翻译出版公司，2004

孙艺风，文化翻译的困惑与挑战，中国翻译，2016年第3期.

王宏志，翻译与创作，北京大学出版社，2000.

吴自选，德国功能派翻译理论与 CNN 新闻短片英译，中国科技翻译, 2005.

谢天振，当代国外翻译理论，天津：南开大学出版社，2005.

张南峰，走出死胡同建立翻译学. 中国翻译, 1995.

仲伟合，钟钰. 德国的功能派翻译理论. 中国翻译, 1999.

张美芳，功能加忠诚—介评克里丝汀· 诺德的功能翻译理论.上海外国语大学学报, 2005.

==Contrast between Literal Translation and Free Translation 张雪仪 Zhang Xueyi 202020080668 Russian language and Literature ==
<center>张雪仪 202020080668</center>

=== Abstract ===

The contrast between literal translation and free translation has always been the most discussed issue in translation studies. The ultimate goal of translation is to help different cultures communicate better, so that people of different languages can understand each other's culture. Due to the differences of social, historical and cultural backgrounds between languages, translators need to compare the two methods and weigh their advantages and disadvantages. This chapter mainly analyzes the literal translation and free translation of Russian Idioms and proverbs in the process of Chinese translation, and explores the differences of different idioms translated by different methods, so as to help students and translators better carry out translation practice.

=== Key words ===

Translation strategies, Literal translation,Free translation

=== 摘要 ===

直译与意译间的对比一直是翻译学中讨论度最高的问题。翻译的最终目的在于帮助不同文化进行更好的交流，让使用不同语种的人相互理解彼此的文化。由于语种间社会历史文化背景的差异，需要译者对这两种方法进行比较，衡量利弊。本文主要分析俄语成语和谚语在汉译过程中的直译和意译，探寻不同成语用不同方法翻译所产生的差别在以帮助学生和译者更好地进行翻译实践。

=== 关键词 ===

翻译策略，直译，意译

=== Introduction ===
The former Soviet Union translation theorist Fedorov believes that “translation is an activity of expressing what has been used in one language as a unified whole of content and form, and accurately and completely expressed in another language.” Translation theorist Barhudaro The husband also wrote: "Translation is the process of changing the coherent discourse of one language into the coherent discourse of another language while maintaining its content and meaning." Mr. Lu Xun once advocated "literal translation." He said: "Translation must take both sides into consideration: (Cai Yi, Duan Jinghua 2000)

One is of course to be easy to understand, the other is to maintain the fullness of the original." The Chinese translator Zhang Peiji summed up the translation standard as "faithful and smooth." To some extent, translation is a process of thinking re-creation, so certain standards and principles must be followed when translating. Translation standard is a measure of the quality of translation, it can guide translation practice, and it is a principle that must be followed in translation activities. (Gong Linjing 2015,192)

Although each scholar has different opinions on the standard of translation, the final result he pursues is the same: the original text and the translated text express the same effect.In order to achieve the same effect, different translation methods have been derived from the translator's translation practice. The most basic and common ones are literal translation and free translation.(Gong Linjing 2015,192)

Russian Idioms and proverbs, as the crystallization of Russian national wisdom and immortal fossils in Russian, are one of the best materials for China to understand and learn Russian history, culture and society. Due to different geographical, historical and economic conditions, Russian and Chinese have formed different cultural backgrounds, which have caused great difficulties for Russian people to further understand Russia. This paper will take the Chinese translation of Russian Idioms and proverbs as an example to study the basic definitions of literal translation and free translation, their advantages and disadvantages, and their relationship, so as to help Russian students better understand literal translation and free translation.(Gong Linjing 2015,192)

=== Controversy between literal translation and free translation===

In different periods and countries, people's views on translation theory have changed a lot, but the debate on literal translation and free translation has always existed.

==== Controversy in Chinese Translation Community====

Which is better, literal translation or free translation, has always been divided in Chinese translation community. This kind of controversy first occurred during the translation of Buddhist scriptures written in Sanskrit into Chinese. During the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties, the famous monk Dao An was the earliest representative of the literal translation in China. Dao An himself did not understand Sanskrit and was afraid that paraphrase would lose the maxims in Buddhist scriptures, so he advocated strict literal translation. (Wang Zhuan 1996,55)

However, Kumarajiva from India, who was invited by Dao An, advocated free translation. On the basis of fully understanding the original thought content and artistic style, the translation was appropriately deleted. Although Dao An and Kumarajiva are also engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures, the translation methods they adhere to were very different. This divergence continued into the Tang Dynasty. Xuan Zang, as the most famous monk in the Tang Dynasty, proposed a translation method that was completely different from the previous two translation methods—a combination of literal translation and free translation.(Wang Zhuan 1996,55)

The contradiction between literal translation and free translation may be due to the different understanding of the two translation methods. Sun guiding, a translator, believes that literal translation is rigidly based on the structure of the original words and sentences, without considering whether the Chinese language is smooth or natural; while free translation is to use Chinese idioms and the most natural words and sentences as far as possible in addition to specialized subject nouns, so as to achieve the effect of transmitting the meaning of the original text.(Feng Shujian 1993,44)

Du zuozhou, former president of Wuhan University, believes that literal translation is to translate word for word according to the original text; free translation is to translate according to the original meaning, and the translation is more appropriate to the common grammar of the translated language. Meng Xiancheng, an educator, believes that literal translation is a translation with different technical correctness. Literal translation refers to faithful and correct translation according to the original text; free translation refers to the translation of the general idea of the original text.(Feng Shujian 1993,44)

Zhu Guangqian said, "literal translation" refers to the literal translation of the original text. Every word is translated one word at a time, and the order of each sentence is not changed. The so-called "free translation" is to express the meaning of the original text in Chinese, without having to follow the literal and sequential order of the original text. " Feng Shize thinks that "the relationship between translation and literal translation is up-down, while that between literal translation and free translation is left-right relationship. They are involved in each other and must become a system. If the word order is reversed as free translation, the definition of free translation is equal to translation, and there is no other translation to speak of except free translation. "

The principle of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" put forward by the modern Chinese translator Yan Fu has long been the basic principle guiding translation practice. A large number of beginners who learn foreign languages regard "faithfulness and expressiveness" as translations that are completely faithful to the original text when translating. In fact, Yan Fu's translation requirements are a guiding principle for translation based on semantics. When translating, if the structure and expression of the original text cannot be directly adopted, the sentence structure and expression must be changed according to the characteristics of the target language. (Feng Shujian 1993,44)

Moreover, in the process of translation, there are many differences between the source language and the target language in terms of word order, grammar, form change and rhetoric. In many cases, there is no direct corresponding word. Therefore, the translator should consider the actual semantic, background and other factors to convey the content of the original text and reproduce the language style of the original work in an appropriate way without losing the original meaning of the sentence.(Feng Shujian 1993,44)

==== Controversy in Soviet Translation Community====
In the Soviet Union, under the influence of ideology, Western translation theories could not be widely disseminated, but within the Soviet Union, translation theories similar to Western translation theories have been formed and developed, and two main schools of translation theory have been further differentiated — Linguistic Translation School and Literary Translation School. To a certain extent, the dispute between these two schools also reflects the debate on literal translation and free translation among translators' groups. (Xie Yuncai 2002,99)

In terms of the principles or standards of translation, the linguistic translation school believes that an ideal translation should be an equivalent translation, first of all linguistic correspondence, that is, the translation should have the same meaning as the corresponding language or discourse unit of the original; the literary translation school believes that translation pursues artistic correspondence, and linguistic correspondence must be subordinate to artistic correspondence. Therefore, it proposes that the aesthetic standards of translation should reproduce the artistic reality reflected by the unity of the original content and form. (Xie Yuncai 2002,99)

The characteristic is to use images to translate images, that is, to create the same image in different languages. In 1953, Andrei Venediktovich Fedorov, the leader of the linguistic translation school, published his work "Summary of Translation Theory", which was the first monograph of the Soviet Union to study translation theory from the perspective of linguistics. The author proposes that translation theory is a branch of linguistics. Since the translation of any genre work must rely on the comparison of two languages, translation problems can only be solved in the field of language. (Xie Yuncai 2002,99)

However, feodorov's view was refuted by the literary school represented by Kashin. The school of literature and art holds that aesthetics is the core of literary translation theory, and translation should be regarded as a form of language art, that is, translation should be studied from the perspective of literature and art. As a matter of fact, literature and art school emphasizes the translation of literary works, which belongs to the specific translation theory, while the study of language school focuses on the general translation theory, that is, the translation of works of all subjects including literary works. The debate between linguistic school and literary school provides another perspective for Chinese translators to explore the relationship between literal translation and free translation.(Xie Yuncai 2002,99)

=== The application of literal translation and free translation in the Chinese translation of Russian idioms ===

The idioms of different nationalities are the most dynamic and expressive units at the lexical level in different languages, and they are also the units that can best reflect the characteristics of national culture in languages. The number of Russian idioms is extremely rich, it records and reflects all aspects of Russian national life. (Feng Yongmei 1999,97)

Due to the great differences in geographical location and customs between China and Russia, the national culture reflected in Chinese and Russian must be quite different. One of the difficulties in idiom translation is its image. When translating idioms, both meaning and image should be considered. Although there are great cultural differences between China and Russia, many commonalities of human beings, such as emotion and natural environment, have created conditions for mutual communication, mutual understanding and idiom translation between different languages.(Feng Yongmei 1999,97)

==== Literal translation ====

In short, literal translation refers to a method of translating the original text directly without changing the language features and styles of the original text on the basis of fully respecting the meaning of the original text. The advantage of literal translation in Chinese translation of Russian idioms is that it can express the meaning of idioms intuitively and faithfully, and maintain the unique style and image of the original text. However, the disadvantage is that the translated idioms may not be understood by the Chinese people. This is because the historical and cultural background, grammatical structure and language world picture of Chinese and Russian are different, and it is easy to form obstacles in the process of understanding.(Zhou Changyu 2010,34)

Translating Russian idioms by literal translation is further divided into two methods — literal translation into Chinese idioms and literal translation into non-idiom sentences or words.(Zhou Changyu 2010,34)

Literal translation of Russian idioms into Chinese idioms is suitable for the translation of Russian and Chinese idioms that are completely equivalent in image, structure, and meaning. The advantage is that it is easy to understand, and the translation is simple and fast.(Feng Yongmei 1999,98) E.g:

домашнего (своего) вора не убережешься. 家贼难防

знать как свои пять пальцев (видно, как на ладони) 了如指掌

подлить масла в огонь 火上浇油

как рыба в воде 如鱼得水

как ножом по сердцу 心如刀割

как гром среди ясного неба 晴天霹雳

на добро отвечают добром 善有善报

копейка рубль бережет 财从细起

мечты сбываются 梦想成真

курица всегда следует за петухом 嫁鸡随鸡

чего мало, того и дорого (дорого то, что мало) 物以稀为贵(12)

изгонять яд с помощью яда 以毒攻毒

сидеть как на иголках 如坐针毡

действия громче слов 事实胜于雄辩

зарыть талант в землю 埋没人才

висеть на волоске 千钧一发

лить как из ведра 倾盆大雨(Wang Fuxiang, Wu Hanying 2014)

The idioms in the above examples are completely equivalent in image, structure or meaning in Russian and Chinese, so Chinese idioms can be used for literal translation.

In fact, in the two languages, idioms with the same image, structure, and meaning are still in the minority, so it is more common to translate Russian idioms into non-Chinese idiom sentences or vocabulary. E.g:

настоять на своем 坚持自己

камень с души свалился 心里的一块石头落地

связать свою судьбу 把自己的命运与……相连

быть на голову 高出一头

вбивать в голову 往脑子里灌

блеснуть метеором 像流星一样一闪而过

с мизинец 小拇指这么大(Wang Fuxiang, Wu Hanying 2014)

It is not difficult to find that the literal translation method can completely retain the original appearance of the idiom, show the common concept of human understanding of the world, and be beneficial to the cultural exchange between China and Russia.

==== Free translation ====

Another method commonly used in Chinese translation of Russian idioms is free translation. The lexical gap between languages is a common phenomenon, which causes many difficulties in translation. The causes of lexical vacancy are various, such as life experience, customs, religious beliefs and other cultural reasons, as well as linguistic reasons. There are generally two ways to fill the gaps in language: replacing images for free translation and abandoning images for free translation.(Feng Yongmei 1999,98)

Russian says "Два медведя в одной берлоге не уживутся (一个洞穴容不下两头熊).", while Chinese says "一山不容二虎". Another example is "Скатерть со стола, и дружба сплыла (桌布一收，友谊不再) " in Russian, and "人走茶凉" in Chinese. This method belongs to paraphrasing by replacing the image.(Wang Fuxiang, Wu Hanying 2014)

For the "harmony" of the translation, sometimes the translator has to choose to abandon the image for free translation. This is determined by both cultural and linguistic factors. Some linguistic features cannot be translated, and some idioms themselves are not strong enough. In this case, if Choosing a literal translation method will make readers confused.(Hu Guming, Shen Man 2011,18) E.g:

Как женился я на вашей матери да взял вот этот домишко в приданье, так думал, что богаче да лучше меня и людей нет, фертом ходил! (А. Островский)

我和你母亲一成亲，就得到了这栋作为陪嫁的屋子，当时我心想，再没有人比我更富足、更好的了。我那时可真是双手叉腰、得意洋洋的。

“Фертом” is the name of the letter “Ф” in ancient times.Its shape is like a person with hands on hips, and “фертом ходить” is an idiom evolved from body language. The cultural meaning of this idiom is "神气十足、得意洋洋、威武自负的样子" . The translation uses other idioms to complement the missing images in Chinese, clarify the meaning of the idiom, and convey the emotional color contained in the original idiom.(Hu Guming, Shen Man 2011,19)

The idioms in a certain language are fixed and unchanged after long-term use and tempering, but the frequency of each idiom is different. Some idioms are universally used by the whole people, spread and used in a wide range, while some idioms are only used in written styles. In Russian literature, there are improved precise and interesting idioms. For example, in the works of the famous Russian fable writer Krylov, there are reduced idioms, such as “ медвежья услуга”（直译：熊的帮忙；意译：帮倒忙）， “ сильнее кошки зверя нет”（直译：再没有比猫更厉害的野兽；意译：井底之蛙）， “зелен как виноград”（直译：葡萄还很青；意译：年轻人没经验). When translating literature, translators often need to learn cultural background knowledge, replace the image in the original idiom, and then convey it to Chinese readers.(Wang Fuxiang, Wu Hanying 2014)

Crows are a very common animal, usually black and gray. The description of crows in Chinese idioms is "the crows in the world are generally black（天下乌鸦一般黑）". It can be seen that white crows are rare. However, "белая ворона" often appears in Russian literary works, as a metaphor for people who are different from the masses in terms of external characteristics or ideological qualities. In the Chinese and Russian concepts, the crow is a nasty animal. (Wang Fuxiang, Wu Hanying 2014)

Although white crows are rare, this Russian idiom is usually derogatory, expressing disdain, contempt, or ridicule against the person. In Chinese, animal images are also used as a metaphor for "different people", such as idioms that stand out from the crowd and phoenix feathers are rare. "Crane" and "phoenix" have always been regarded as precious and noble animals in traditional Chinese culture, so they cannot be compared with " Corresponding to "White Crow", it is not suitable for translating "белая ворона".Examples are as follows:(Wang Fuxiang, Wu Hanying 2014)

Он замкнулся, не вдается в разговоры — вот вам и белая ворона.（Сталин)

直译：他不与人交往，不与人交流，真是一只白乌鸦。

意译：他不与人交往，不与人交流，真是与众不同。

Боишься, что они среди нас белой вороной окажется. Недосягаемым экземпляром.(Кожевников В “Корни и крона”)

直译：你是担心他们会变成我们中间的白乌鸦，一个无法达到的例子。

意译：你是担心他们会变成我们中间标新立异，望尘莫及的人。

Most Chinese who come into contact with Russian are students majoring in Russian. The Russian idioms we usually encounter appear in textbooks. These idioms are often used by the Russian public and are easily understood and accepted by the Chinese. E.g:(Wang Fuxiang, Wu Hanying 2014)

В Тулу со свим самоваром не ездят.
直译：去图拉不用带自己的茶炊。
意译：多此一举。

Честь лучше бесчестья.
直译：尊重比不尊重好。
意译：礼多人不怪。

словно горя с плеч
直译：把山从肩膀下卸下。
意译：如释重负。

выеденного яйца не стоит
直译：一个空蛋壳不值钱。
意译：鸡毛蒜皮，一文不值。

чужими руками жар загребать
直译：用别人的手将红炭火拨成一堆。
意译：坐享其成，不劳而获。

ни рыба, ни мясо
直译：没有鱼也没有肉。
意译：不三不四，不伦不类。

лучше синица в руках, чем журавль в небе
直译：天上的仙鹤不如手中的山雀。
意译：远亲不如近邻。

На языке мед, а под лед
直译：嘴上甜得像蜂蜜，心里冷得像冰。
意译：笑里藏刀。

И на солнце есть пятна
直译：太阳上也有黑点。
意译：人无完人。

семь раз отмерь, один раз отрежь
直译：测量了七次后再剪裁。
意译：三思而后行。(Wang Fuxiang, Wu Hanying 2014)

Using free translation to translate Russian idioms requires the translator to accurately understand the meaning of the original text, because cultural differences make it impossible to literally translate. Only through the translator can an unobstructed bridge between Russian idioms and Chinese idioms be built.(Wang Fuxiang, Wu Hanying 2014)

=== The application of literal translation and free translation in the Chinese translation of Russian proverbs ===

There are often multiple translations of the same Russian proverb in Russian-Chinese dictionaries. On the one hand, because the translator uses different translation methods; on the other hand, because Russian proverbs have very rich connotations, a translation cannot perfectly interpret the inner meaning of the proverb. According to the context and the connotation of the proverbs, the most commonly used methods of Chinese translation of Russian proverbs are literal translation and free translation.(Feng Yongmei 1999,98)

==== Literal translation ====

In Russian and Chinese, some proverbs not only have the same meaning or implied meaning, but also use the same or similar figurative images to express the same meaning, and they are completely consistent in content and form. In this case, the equivalent translation of Chinese proverbs with synonyms can convey the information contained in the image of the original language, which not only retains the rhetorical color of the original language, but also enables readers to understand the original text perfectly. The other is that the Russian people have summed up the experience in their long-term labor and life, which has evolved into a proverb. However, the Chinese have not summed up this experience. If the Russian proverbs are translated into Chinese, the Chinese can clearly understand it at a glance and increase their understanding of the world. E.g:(Feng Yongmei 1999,98)

Беда не приходит одна. 祸不单行。

Век живи, век учись. 活到老，学到老。

Выше встанешь, дальше увидишь. 站得高，看得远。

Лучше один раз увидеть, чем сто раз услышать. 百闻不如一见。

Береги платье снову, а честь смолоду. 衣服要从新的时候爱惜，荣誉要从年轻时珍惜。

Выше лба уши не растут. 耳朵高不过额头。

Для милого друга семь верст не околица. 为了好友，多绕七里也不嫌远。

Лучше умереть стоя, чем жить на коленях. 宁愿站着死，绝不站着生。

Не имей сто рублей, а имей сто друзей. 宁要一百个朋友，不要一百个卢布。

По одежке встречают, по уму провожают. 迎客时看衣，送客时看才智。(Jia Sufen 1996)

There is another situation where the literal translation method can be used. Although the image in Russian proverbs is different from the commonly used images in Chinese, it is also easy to understand. For example, "Молодец против овец, а против молодца — сам овца." In fact, this proverb can be paraphrased as "欺软怕硬 ", but in this way the translation discards the lively literal meaning of the original text. On the other hand, it is literally translated as "见到绵羊充好汉，碰到好汉成绵羊" , on the basis of retaining the original image, readers can easily understand the meaning of the original proverb.(Jia Sufen 1996)

Another example is "Заяц от лисицы, а лягушка от зайца бежит. " can be translated as "一物降一物", but the image in the original text was completely abandoned, if it is literally translated as "one thing drops one thing "狐惊兔，兔惊蛙", this kind of translation is not only simple and clear, but also in line with the aesthetics of Chinese proverbs. In general, the literal translation not only retains the symmetrical rhetorical techniques in the original sentence, but also retains the symmetrical beauty of the original sentence structure. It not only conforms to the aesthetic characteristics of the original Russian text, but also shows the beauty of phonology and structure in Chinese.(Jia Sufen 1996)

The literal translation of Russian proverbs not only keeps the style of the original language, but also transplants the unique figurative language of Russian proverbs into Chinese, which not only expands the vision of Chinese readers, but also enriches the expression of Chinese.(Jia Sufen 1996)

==== Free translation ====

Due to the influence of cultural factors, many Russian and Chinese proverbs with the same meaning use different figurative images. In the process of translating some Russian proverbs into Chinese, it is difficult to retain the image of the original text. If literal translation is made according to the original image, due to the different national and cultural backgrounds of China and Russia, the translated version is difficult to be accepted by Chinese people and even misread.(Jia Sufen 1996)

In order to convey the original meaning to readers accurately, we can explore the story behind the proverb. On the basis of correctly understanding the meaning of the original text, we can readjust the structure of the original text, and reproduce Russian proverbs with standard Chinese expression, so as to avoid ambiguity and misunderstanding.(Jia Sufen 1996)

There are some elements used in proverbs that foreigners cannot understand. For example, the Russian proverb "В огороде бузина, а в Киеве дядька." is literally translated as "菜园里长接骨木，而基辅里住叔叔", which cannot be understood by the Chinese. The four elements “огород” “бузина” “Киева” “дядька”, which contained in this proverb are completely unrelated. In fact, this proverb means that there is no logical relationship between what someone says, and the translator can directly paraphrase it as "胡说八道", "前言不搭后语" or more easily understood "满嘴跑火车". (Jia Sufen 1996)

Another example is "На воре шапка горит." literally means "the hat on the thief's head is on fire". In fact, this proverb originated from a short story in the Kievan Rus period: someone’s money bag disappeared and he shouted "Catch the thief", but no one knew where the thief was. This man had an idea and shouted, "The thief's hat is on fire." After hearing this, the thief touched his hat unconsciously and exposed himself. Therefore, "На воре шапка горит." can be paraphrased as "不打自招" or "做贼心虚."(Jia Sufen 1996)

There are some Russian proverbs that are more suitable for free translation:

От труда- радость, от безделья- усталость.
直译：快乐从劳动中来，疲劳从闲散中来。
意译：劳动使人快乐。

Баба с возу- кобыле легче.
直译：农妇下了车，马儿就轻松。
意译：求之不得

Герой не моего романа.
直译：不是我小说中的主人公。
意译：不是我的意中人。

Терпенье (ученье\уменье) и труд всё перетрут.
直译：耐心和勤劳能克服一切。
意译：锲而不舍，金石可镂（只要功夫深，铁杵磨成针）。

Чтобы узнать человека, надо с ним пуд соль съесть.
直译：想要了解一个人，应该和他吃一普特盐。
意译：日久见人心。

Посади свинью за стол — она и ноги на стол.
直译：让猪入席，它会把爪子也伸上来。
意译：得寸进尺。

Черного кобеля не отмоешь добела.
直译：黑色的狗洗不白。
意译：本性难改。

Конь о четырех ногах, да спотыкается.
直译：马有四条腿，也会摔倒。
意译：聪明一世，糊涂一时。

За что купил, за то и продаю.
直译：怎么买来，怎么卖出。
意译：人云亦云。

Обжегшись на молоке, дуешь на воду.
直译：一旦被牛奶烫，喝水也要吹一吹。
意译：一种被蛇咬，十年怕井绳。(Jia Sufen 1996)

=== Conclusion ===

In the process of translation, translators often feel that there are a lot of contradictions and differences between the two languages in terms of vocabulary composition, syntactic structure, expression and metaphor. Most of the time, the translator understands the original meaning but does not know how to express it in the target language, which leads to the debate about which is better, literal translation or free translation. When translators translate works with more contradictions between bilinguals, they tend to use free translation. When there are more similarities or similarities between bilinguals than contradictions or conflicts, translators will tend to literal translation in order to be faithful to the original text.

In fact, the relationship between literal translation and free translation is interdependent and inseparable. Therefore, when we translate an article or a book, it is not feasible to translate every sentence literally or freely. Only when the translator cleverly arranges the alternation of the two can it be possible to translate a better translation. When we comment on literal translation and free translation, we should consider the effects of the division of labor and cooperation between the two, and should not one-sidedly understand the advantages and disadvantages of literal translation and meaning.

=== References ===

*Cai Yi, Duan Jinghua. 蔡毅，段京华. (2000). 苏联翻译理论. [Soviet Translation Theory]. 武汉: 湖北教育出版社[Wuhan: Hubei Education Press].
*Feng Shize. 冯世则. (1981). 直译、意译、逐字译. [Literal Translation, Free Translation, Verbatim Translation]. 中国翻译[Chinese Translators Journal] 7-10.
*Feng Shujian. 冯树鉴. (1993). 意译与直译笔谈. [Written Free Translation and Literal Translation]. 外语学刊[Foreign Language Research] 43-47.
*Feng Yongmei. 冯咏梅. (1999). 浅谈俄语成语翻译中民族文化特色的保留. [On the Preservation of National Cultural Characteristics in Russian Idiom Translation]. 解放军外国语学院学报[Journal of PLA Foreign Languages University] 97-100.
*Gong Linjing. 宫琳菁. (2015). 直译与意译——中国近现代代表人物观点之概述. [Literal Translation and Free Translation: An Overview of the Viewpoints of Representatives in Modern China]. 赤峰学院学报（汉文哲学社会科学版）[Journal of Chifeng University (Soc.Sci)] 192-193.
*Hu Guming, Shen Man. 胡谷明, 沈曼. (2011). 汉俄翻译中文化空缺词汇的翻译策略.[The Translation Strategies of Cultural Vacancies in Chinese-Russian Translation]. 中国俄语教学[Russian in China] 17-21.
*Jia Shufen. 贾淑芬. (1996). 简明俄汉谚语词典. [Concise Russian-Chinese Proverbs Dictionary]. 沈阳: 辽宁大学出版社[Shenyang: Liaoning University Publishing House].
*Li Quan’an. 李全安. (1990). 直译与意译之争是一场什么样的争论. [What kind of controversy is the dispute between literal translation and free translation]. 中国翻译[Chinese Translators Journal] 18-22.
*Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (1999). 中西译论的相似性.[Similarities between Chinese and Western Translation Theories]. 中国翻译[Chinese Translators Journal] 25-28.
*Wang Fuxiang, Wu Hanying. 王福祥,吴汉樱. (2014). 东方大学俄语系列：迷你俄语成语词典. [Oriental University Russian Series: Mini Dictionary of Russian Idioms]. 外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press]
*Wang Zhuang. 王转. (1996). 直译与意译漫谈. [On Literal Translation and Free Translation]. 湖南教育学院学报[Journal of Educational Institute] 55-60.
*Xie Yuncai. 谢云才. (2002). 俄罗斯翻译理论的语言学派与文艺学派——两派文学翻译理论对比分析. [Linguistic Schools and Literary Schools of Russian Translation Theory: A Comparative Analysis of the Two Schools of Literary Translation Theories]. 外语学刊[Foreign Language Research] 97-101.
*Yang Shizhang. 杨仕章. (2002). 俄语现代翻译理论之概述. [An Overview of Russian Modern Translation Theory]. 解放军外国语学院学报[Journal of PLA Foreign Languages University] 62-65.
*Zhang Yi. 张艺. (2010). 从目的论看直译与意译之争. [The Controversy between Literal Translation and Free Translation from Skopos Theory]. 海外英语[Overseas English] 189-190.
*Zhou Changyu. 周长雨. (2010). 俄语谚语的翻译方法. [How to translate Russian proverbs]. 俄语学习[Russian Learning] 33-36.

--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 14:38, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Dialectical thinking in arguments between literal translation and free translation 甘奉玉 Gan Fengyu 202070080584 英语笔译==

===Abstract===
As two methods of translation, how to use literal translation and free translation has always been the focus of debate between Chinese and Western translation circles. Through the study of translation methods of literal translation and free translation at home and abroad, we can know that to some extent literal translation and free translation are two relative conceptions, so there will be word-for-word translation, that is, dead translation, and over free translation. However, these two are only two extremes of literal translation and free translation. In fact, although there are differences in definitions and application fields between literal translation and free translation, they are unified in common translation purpose, translation procedure and translation standard. Therefore, the two are contradictory and unified in translation activities. This is also a profound embodiment of the unity of opposites in materialist dialectics.

===Key words===
literal translation, free translation, word-for-word translation, over free translation, unity of opposites

===题目===
直译与意译之争中的辩证思维

===摘要===
作为翻译方法，怎样使用直译(literal translation)与意译(free translation)一直是中西方翻译界争论不休的一个焦点。通过对国内外直译与意译的翻译方法的研究，我们可以得知，从某种程度而言，直译与意译是两个相对的概念, 所以才会有逐字翻译，即死译，与过度意译这两个完全对立的概念。但是，这两者只不过是直译与意译的两个极端点。其实，直译和意译虽然在定义，适用范围上有所差异，但却又统一于共同的翻译目的、翻译过程和翻译标准中，所以两者在翻译活动中应该是既对立又统一的矛盾体。而这也正是唯物辩证法中的对立统一矛盾观的深刻体现。

===关键字===
直译；意译；死译；过度意译；对立统一

===Introduction===
Throughout the translation history at home and abroad, the literal translation and free translation have always sparked a heated discussion in the translation circles. Someone absolutely approve literal translation and demean free translation, even pursue dead translation, which creates an translated text difficult to understand. While some people absolutely agree with free translation even advocate random translation, which means a random deletion in the translation practices and creates another entirely different text. However, there are also a few of translators who have recognized that these two translation methods are not totally opposite. So they adopt a dialectical and flexible way. That means they will choose the most appropriate one depending on the text's demand. Therefore, we can deduce from it that this dialectical translation is consistent with the Contradiction View of Unity of Opposite in Materialist Dialectics. In fact, literal translation and free translation are a set of contradictions which are both opposite and unified. They complement each other into an integral one.

The dispute between free translation and literal translation in Chinese translation circle first appeared in the dispute of "text" and "quality" in the Eastern Han Dynasty. During this period, Shi Dao-an, a senior monk in the Eastern Jin Dynasty, advocated literal translation and put forward that the translation should not be added or deleted but only make some adjustments to the word order. In the post-Qin period opposed to the Eastern Jin Dynasty, the monk Hatoyama advocated that the Buddhist scriptures should be translated freely. He suggested the original text should be changed to adapt to the Chinese style. Subsequently, Xuanzang, a senior monk of the Tang Dynasty, drew lessons from former translation achievements and put forward that we should seek both loyalty and vulgarity.(Chen Fukang 2011, 14-38) In another word, literal translation should complement with free translation, not just using one method. At that time, some translators have noticed that literal translation and free translation are not completely opposite.

After that, in modern times from the Opium War to the May 4th Movement, since Yan Fu has put forward the translation standard of faithfulness, smoothness and elegance, Lu Xun and Qu Qiubai ignited the dispute on faith and smoothness. Lu Xun is a representative of literal translation school. He insists faithfulness first and smoothness second and even tolerates incoherence. He adopts the method of dead translation. While Qu Qiubai believes that faithfulness and smoothness are not opposite. From the New Culture Movement(1915-1923) to the 1980s, Mao Dun also put forward that literal translation doesn't mean word-for-word translation without any addition or deletion. Since the reform and opening up, Xu Yuanchong has said that literal translation should be faithful to the original content first then to the original form and last to the smooth translated text. On the other hand, free translation should be faithful to the original text first then to the smooth translated text and last to the original form. Therefore, although there are differences in translation methods between literal translation and free translation, their ultimate goal is to be faithful to the original content and express the original meaning.（Chen Fukang 2011, 288-333）

Since Cicero, the first translation theorist in the western world, has put forward that we should avoid word-by-word translation but perform as a speaker, the dispute between literal translation and free translation began to appear in the West. In ancient times, Perot insisted on dead translation in the translation of the Bible, which greatly affected the translation quality. Poitius in the Middle Ages also advocated word-by-word translation and strict formal correspondence. In modern times, French translator Abulangour aimed to cater to readers in a way of over free translation and arbitrary deletion.

Even so, there are many translation theorists in the western translation world who advocated dialectical and flexible translation. For example, in ancient times, Jerome advocated the flexible principle to apply in literary translation and religious translation differently. During the Renaissance, French Amyot emphasized the dialectical unity of content and form, free translation and literal translation. Moreover, some translators did not exercise their own translation ideas. During the Renaissance, Reichlin was one of them. Although he advocated word-by-word translation, he abandoned this method in his practice. This can also further explain that absolute promotion of literal translation or free translation is not desirable. In translation practice, we must take a suitable degree in the way of combining literal translation and free translation to better serve the target readers.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 5-15 )

The purpose of this paper is to explore the dialectical thinking contained in the dispute between literal translation and free translation, that is, the viewpoint of unity of opposites between them. The first chapter is about the word-for-word translation, and the second chapter is about the over free translation. From these two parts, we can draw a conclusion that it is not advisable to regard literal translation and free translation as absolute opposites. The third chapter is about the dialectical translation, which is the correct method for us to learn and adopt. It is also a method that follows the view of unity of opposites. The fourth chapter will analyze the differences between literal translation and free translation from the view of definitions and application fields. Then the fifth chapter focuses on the unity of literal translation and free translation in translation goals, translation procedures and translation standards. Through the discussion of the whole article, we can clearly see the unity of opposites between literal translation and free translation and draw a conclusion that we should apply dialectical translation in our translation practice and adopt the point of view of unity of opposites in translation theory. (He Lirong 2018, 40)

===1.Dialectical thinking of the Unity of opposites===
The theory of unity of opposites is the core content of materialist dialectics theory. (Xu Guoliang 2020, 75) In the history of philosophy, the German philosopher Hegel first expounded the basic thought of contradiction theory from the standpoint of objective idealism. Later, Marx, Engels and Lenin critically absorbed Hegel's theory and developed contradiction theory into the core content of materialist dialectics theory. The theory of contradiction contains two basic problems, and one is the relationship between unity and opposition, while the other is the universality and particularity of contradiction, which involves a series of basic concepts of contradiction theory, such as basic contradiction and non-basic contradiction, fundamental contradiction and non-fundamental contradiction, principal contradiction and non-principal contradiction. Understanding these basic concepts and their relationships is the key to understanding and grasping the contradiction theory completely and accurately and finally applying it to the practice of social life. (Yan Mengwei 2020, 41)

The problem of unity and opposition of contradiction is actually about the nature of contradiction. We always know things from comparison. The so-called comparison is to find the similarities and differences between two things. The former is called unity and the latter is called opposition. The unity is relative and the opposition is absolute. It is worth emphasizing that the opposition of contradictions plays a key and decisive role in development, because development comes from the unity of opposites. This means that unity and opposition are two indispensable elements in the process of development. They complement and interact with each other.

Literal translation and free translation are such a pair of contradictions. The opposition of the two is reflected in the absolute opposition between word-for-word translation and over free translation, while the unity is reflected in their commons. More clearly, there are differences in their definitions and applications and similarities in their translation goals, procedures and standards.(Yang Ying 2019,161)

===2.Word-for-word translation===

Literal translation is a method that not only maintains the original content, but also the original form.(Xu Yuanchong 1996,92) Fu Sinian and Zheng Zhenduo all advocate literal translation. In the history of modern Chinese translation, Lu Xun and his younger brother Zhou Zuoren's works of The Collection of Extraterritorial Fiction are regarded as the representatives of literal translation.

In particular, literal translation is neither dead translation nor a mechanical verbatim translation. Because English and Chinese have different structures, it is impossible to translate word by word. From the perspective of linguistics, the biggest difference between them is that Chinese focuses parataxis while English focuses hypotaxis.(Zhu Xiaojia 2008, 1) In another word, in Chinese, a sentence is usually short with few modifiers and connected words, while in English, several meanings can be expressed by use of complicated structure with assorted clauses and connected words only in a sentence.

Besides, the English is a more static language in which nouns and adjectives are always used, but the Chinese is the more dynamic one, and verbs are more active in it. Finally, the former has a systematic grammar but the latter seems free in its arrangement.(Cao Huoqun 2005, 40)

Therefore, when we do some translating exercise, we should focus on their grammar structures. When the structure of the original text is inconsistent with that of the target language, adopting word-for-word translation will lead to formalism. Such a translated text is also not intelligible for readers. Literal translation must be readable without any misunderstanding or violation of expression.

===3.Over free translation===

Free translation refers to the method that maintains original content rather than original form. In the process of translation, in order to make the language clear and persuasive, the translator must try to conform to the language customs of target texts rather than adhere to the expressive pattern of the original work. Zhao Jingshen put forward that it is better to be smooth with some disloyalty instead of absolute loyalty. Obviously, Mr. Zhao Jingshen is in favor of free translation, and so does Mr. Yan Fu. Many of Yan Fu's classical works have adopted free translation, the Theory of Heaven is a typical example of free translation.

When we translate English into Chinese, especially some idioms that are in closer ties with western culture, we have to move or change these cultural barriers so that Chinese readers could understand easily. It is also true when translating Chinese into English. Under this condition, free translation will be more suitable and effective.

However, free translation does not mean random translation. Random translation means making up sentences by subjective imagination without analyzing the structure of the original text. It is also known as over free translation.(Wu Shuang 2018, 107) In fact, when we translate, we must master the thought and style of the original and regard them as the correspondence of the target language. In addition, the theory, fact and logic of the original work should also be corresponding in the target language. We can not replace these features of the original with our personal thoughts, styles, facts, theories and logic. Only in this way can the contents not be changed after translation.

===4.Dialectical translation===

Feng Qinghua put forward in the book of A Practical Translation Course that the so-called literal translation is a kind of translation method to maintain both the original content and the original form. If there are the same language form and expressive effect between original and target text, we should adopt literal translation to deliver the same contents. While the so-called free translation is a method to keep the original content and style only. So if there are different language forms and expressive effects between the two texts, we should adopt free translation mostly. (Feng Qinghua 1997, 12)

Therefore, Literal translation and free translation have their own advantages and restrictions. The former is beneficial to the transplantation of culture, while the latter can avoid obscurity in literal translation.

In literal translation, we will translate the sentence “mashing a mirror is no way to make an ugly person beautiful, nor is it a way to make social problem evaporate” into "砸镜子不能使丑八怪变漂亮,也不能使社会问题烟消云散", while in free translation, we can turn it into "砸镜子并不能解决实际问题". (Fan Zhongying 1994, 22) We can see the latter one is more concise and comprehensive to express the connotative meaning. Although the former is totally literal translation, we still feel it terrible.

Therefore, a translator should use these two translation strategies according to the specific situation to express the surface structure and deep meaning of the original text. The use of literal or free translation depends on the rules of both English and Chinese. In translation, if we can not directly adopt the structure and expressive form of the original work, we must change the sentence structure and expressive way to convey the connotation of the original work. An excellent translated text is realized neither by simple literal translation nor by simple free translation but by the combination of two. We should adopt dialectical translation in our practice.

===5.Opposition and unity between literal translatiuon and free translation===

===5.1 Opposition===

===5.1.1 Opposition in definition===
Qiao Zengrui defines literal translation in Chapter 4 of Translation Theory as a method that deliberately retains the original form to maintain the content and style of the original. At the same time, He also defines free translation as a method that keeps the original content and style by use of the same or similar expressions as the original text in the target language regardless of the two different languages. The first one regards form as the only way, content and style as targets, while the second directly takes no account of form. With this regard, the two totally opposite in definition.(Qiao Zengrui 2000,78)

===5.1.2 Opposition in application fileld===

Generally speaking, literal translation is used to translate some political books, laws, treaties, scientific and technological documents, terms, idioms, and some simple sentences. (Wu Shuang 2018,178) The early translation of Buddhist scriptures of early Chinese generally followed this theory. So do the Marxism-Leninism works and Mao Zedong's works. For example, "纸老虎" can only be translated as "paper tiger" but not "scarecrow". The latter one was corrected by Mao Zedong when the interpreter translated it into "scarecrow". Chairman Mao emphasized that this word had two characteristics and if it was translated into "scarecrow", it will lose duality. Because "纸老虎" in China means imperialism and reactionary, which seems scary but no great power in it. Since it is made of paper, this tiger becomes soft in the damp and finally was washed away when it was rained. While scarecrow can scare away children and birds. So paper tiger is better than scarecrow.

In the process of translation, there are many situations that literal translation can not be applied, so we must adopt the method of free translation, especially the translation of literary works.(Wu Shuang, 2018, 178) On the one hand, there are many common traditional Chinese words that reflect the unique cultural concepts and cultural phenomena of our country, which can't be translated directly into corresponding words in English. For instance, if we translate"初生牛犊不怕虎" into "A new born calf is not afraid of a tiger", then our target readers in English-speaking countries will find it difficult to understand the substance of the literal meaning.(Yang Yin 2019, 161) So here "The more wit, the less courage" will be better. On the other hand, some certain maxims, idioms and puns in English have no choice but to use free translation.(He Lirong 2018,43) For example, "have a wolf in the stomach" means "饥肠辘辘" 饥饿难忍" rather than "肚子里有个豺狼". Moreover, some exclusive English nouns should be freely translated such as "the heel of Achilles" into "致命的弱点" instead of "阿克琉斯的脚后跟".

===5.2 Unity===
===5.2.1 Unity in translation goal===
In literal translation, loyalty to the original form should be put first, followed by loyalty to the original content and last pursuit of fluency and popularity in target language. In free translation, loyalty to the original content should be put first, then the fluency and popularity of the translation language second, and the original form comes last. It is clear that loyalty to the original content is the common purpose of literal translation and free translation.(Wu Shuang 2018, 108)

The unity of literal translation and free translation is also reflected in the fact that the translation must be smooth and fluent and conform to the expressive habits of target language. If the translated text is obscure and unreadable without conforming to the habits of the target language and culture, the two translation strategies have not achieved the true unity, so the purpose of communication has not been realized.

Therefore, literal translation and free translation are two different translation methods used in translation. They are unified in the translation goal to accurately and faithfully convey the original meaning and intention.(He Lirong 2018, 41)

===5.2.2 Unity in translation procedure===
The literal translation and free translation are unified in translation procedures. Both of them should conform to the following translation steps of understanding, expressing and verifying.

Understanding is the first stage of translation process. It includes not only the understanding of language and cultural phenomena, but also logical relations. A translator should be good at analyzing ambiguous sentences and make correct judgments before translating. Expression is the process by which the translator reproduces the content of the original text into target language. Expressing is the result of understanding, but understanding correctly does not mean expressing right. Therefore, we must learn many specific methods and techniques, such as literal translation, free translation, literal translation plus free translation, literal translation plus annotation, and so on. The third stage is verifying. In this stage, we must check the translation at least twice. In the first time, we should check whether there is any missing translation or wrong translation. And in the second time, we should check whether it's smooth and intelligible out of the original text.

Whether literal translation or free translation, we must follow the three steps of understanding, expressing and verifying in translation practice. Understanding is the premise of expression, but understanding and expressing are usually complementary and unified, which can not be separated completely. To understand the original text, the translator also chooses proper expression and further deepen his or her understanding.

===5.2.3 Unity in translation standard===
On the establishment of translation standards, Chinese and foreign translation theorists in different historical periods put forward different views. In China, there are Ma Jianzhong's view of "good translation" on the basis of modern linguistic theory, Yan Fu's translation standards of "faithfulness, smoothness, and elegance", Chen Xiying's theory of "similarities in shape, meaning and spirit", Lin Yutang's translation standards of "loyalty, smoothness and beauty". In the West, there are Twelve Translation Principles of Bart, Three Principles of Tettler, Seven principles of Luther, functional equivalence of Nida and so on. All these translation standards are based on different social needs, translation contents, translation objects and translation purposes.(He Lirong 2018, 42)

No matter which translation standard we use, it is impossible to meet it only by literal translation or free translation. Therefore, the two translation methods are unified in any translation standard. Therefore, they are inseparable unity of opposites.

===6.Conclusion===
Literal translation and free translation are two different translation methods. Although they are different in conceptual definitions and applicable fields, in order to achieve a unified translation standard and a common translation goal, they both follow the same three procedures of understanding, expressing and verifying.

In the process of translation, if the target text has the same form and style as the original text, it can be translated literally. If there are different forms and styles, it should be translated freely. When the structure of the original text is inconsistent with that of the target language, sticking to word-for-word translation will cause stiff translation difficult to understand. In the same way, making up sentences through subjective assumption according to the literal meaning without analyzing original text will cause random translation disloyalty to the original one.

Therefore, we can conclude that we should treat literal translation and free translation with a dialectical way and use these two translation methods flexibly to create wonderful translations in our concrete translation practice.

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== Peter Newmark’s Improved Views on Literal Translation and Free Translation 赵茜 Zhao Xi 202070080627 MTI 英语笔译==
<center> 赵茜, 202070080627 </center>
===Abstract===
The dispute over the two basic translation methods, literal translation and free translation, has never stopped since ancient times. In view of the basic problem of his argument, Peter Newmark, an English translation theorist divides the various translation methods into eight, points out that different translation methods should be taken according to different text characteristics and puts forward with semantic translation and communicative translation based on years of translation researches. Semantic translation focuses on maintaining the content of the original text, while communicative translation emphasizes the effect of the translation. The author of this paper expresses some views on literal translation and free translation. Peter Newmark's theory has taken a big step forward from the fragmented and one-sided view of literal translation and free translation in the past, which has brought people out of the struggle between them and made people see the direction of further development of translation research.

===Key words===
Free translation, Literal translation, Peter Newmark, Semantic translation, Communicative translation

===标题===
彼得·纽马克对直译和意译的改进观点

===摘要===
直译与意译这两种翻译基本方法之争从古至今从未停止过。针对其争论的基本问题，英国翻译理论家彼得·纽马克把各种翻译方法分成了八种，指出应根据不同的文本特点釆取不同的翻译方法，并在多年翻译研究的基础上提出了语义翻译和交际翻译。语义翻译重点在强调保持原文的内容，而交际翻译更多强调的是译文的效果。本文作者也提出了对直译和意译的一些看法。彼得·纽马克的理论把人们以往对直译、意译的零散的、片面的观点向前推进了一大步，使人们从直译、意译之争中走出来并看到翻译研究进一步发展的方向。

===关键词===
直译, 意译, 彼得·纽马克, 语义翻译, 交际翻译

===Introduction===
According to Chinese and western translation history, no matter in China or in western countries, studies on translation theories and practice have been performed over two thousand years. Translation, as an ancient and extremely significant human thinking activity, is closely related to the development of language itself. And translation after more than two thousand years of development, has developed prosperously, appearing quantities of translation theories, translation schools and translators. However, the dispute between two translation methods, literal translation and free translation has been lasting from throughout history. The fundamental problem between literal translation and free translation is based on the relationship between content and form. To solve this fundamental problem of the dispute, Peter Newmark first points out that translation studies have been long beset by the time-honored theoretical debate over free and literal translation. A range of wider aspects of translation related to the contribution to the development of languages, its relation to meaning, the intention of translation, the readers' background, the type of discourse and the language universals have been long neglected. Therefore, according to Newmark's own translation practice, he puts forward right translation methods, word-for-word translation, literal translation, faithful translation, semantic translation, adaption, free translation, idiomatic translation and communicative translation, which provide to translators to consider and use. Although in the actual translation practice, translators have no necessity to distinguish such translation methods and even to use these methods, this proposal may help translators open their horizons and translate more appropriately. Among the eight translation methods, semantic translation and communicative translation proposed by Newmark own the advantages of other six methods, becoming the most ideal translation methods. Peter Newmark's semantic translation and communicative translation are highly valued and influence the practice of translation in general. (Li Minghan 2014, 3)

===Literal Translation and Free Translation===

====Brief Introduction of Literal Translation and Free Translation====

From ancient times, translators hold various attitudes toward such two translation methods, literal translation and free translation.

=====Literal Translation=====

Literal translation is a translation method which not only keeps the substance of the original, but also keeps the form of the original. This definition implies that the translation version is expressing the content of the original and should spare no efforts to make every part of the translation version corresponding to every part in the original text, including construction of sentence, meaning of the original words, metaphor of the original and so on.

According to Liu Zhongde, literal translation can be summarized into "to reproduce both the ideological content and style of the entire literary work and retain as much as possible the figures of speech". (Liu Zhongde 1991, 52)

Xu Yuanchong defines literal translation as "the kind of translation which is faithful not only to the content but also to the form of the original." (Xu Yuanchong 1984, 45)

Newmark suggests that literal translation is like, "sometimes it is very difficult to define what is literal translation, it is believed that a translation can be regarded as the literal translation when the translator is not influenced but the foreign flavors."(Newmark 2001, 46)

Mr. Yang Xianyi holds that the translators should be as faithful as possible to the original image and too much explanation and creativity should be avoided. This means translators should try to use literal translation method to introduce imagery in the source language to the target language readers. The reason why those translators who insist on literal translation are that they think literal translation is the only way to keep faithful to the original. They endeavor to adopt from as similarly as possible to the original to show the original meaning, thinking that it's the truest reflection of the original. (Wang Zuoliang 1989, 43)

=====Free Translation=====

Free translation is a translation method which only keeps the substance of the original, but not keeps the form the original. Target language and source language have different forms to show the same substance, and they could not produce the same result. Free translation does not mean to delete or add content to the original, though it does not pay much attention to the form of the original. Otherwise, the translation would not be faithful to the original. Translators always discover the meaning behind the forms in the source language and dose their best to produce the same meaning in the target language, using the forms and structures in the target language. Consequently, what is supposed to change is the form and the code, and what should remain unchanged is the meaning and the message.

Shuttle worth and Cowie define free translation as "a type of translation in which more attention is paid to producing a natural target language than to preserving the source language wording intact." (Shuttle worth&Cowie 2004, 62)

Free translation is the conveying of the discourse meaning of the speaker is not restricted by the structure and linguistic and rhetoric styles of the original text. (Ren Wen 2012, 18)

Liu Zhongde has given his definition to free translation. According to his definition, free translation aims at transmitting the meaning regardless of the sentence forms and rhetorical devices. If translators are not able to make the translated text faithful to the original text through literal translation, they may use their own words to explain the meaning of the text without considering the words and forms in original text. (Liu Zhongde 1991, 53-54)

====Disputes over Free Translation and Literal Translation====

In the past, translators generally believed that language and thought were unified, and language was form while thought was content. However, it was impossible to realize the consistence between language forms and ideological content, producing the contradiction between form and content, which is the problem between literal translation and free translation. Modern science has proved that language and thought are not a unity and constitutes a relationship between form and content. Language is only a symbolic system to express thoughts. Translation expresses the same idea by using two different language signals.

Marcus Tullius Cicero is generously acknowledged to be the first person to put forward a systematic description of the practice of translation and he said "I did not translate them as an interpreter, but as an orator... I did not hold it necessary to render word for word, but I preserve the general style and force of language." (Tan Zaixi 2018, 20) He puts forward the following two viewpoints.

Firstly, the translation should be as close as possible to the language habits of the target language. At that time, namely, the translation should correspond with Roman habits as much as possible to touch and resonate with the readers. What's more, he advocates free translation and opposes literal translation as he believes that free translation is superior to literal translation. The most important thing in translation is not the corresponding in form, but the meaning and thought in the source language. Cecero's thoughts have provided a guide for other translators and produced an effect on them. Since Cicero came up with his opinion, the disputes over literal translation and free translation has never been stopped. (Tan Zaixi 2018, 20)

Eugene Nida holds that if all languages differ in form, then quite naturally the forms must be changed if one is to preserve the content. He is in favor of dynamic equivalence instead of formal correspondence, maintaining the original meanings. In this sense, Nida agrees with free translation, just as he expresses that translating means translating meaning. (Nida 1985, 119-125)

Zhai Qiubai insists literal translation and claims that the correct translation is based on Chinese syntax and rhetoric and has its specific intentions. First of all, he regards translation as a part of Proletarian literature. Translation should systematically introduce proletarian revolution thoughts to Chinese readers. Furthermore, translation should help create modern Chinese language and literal translation is an approach. To preserve the spirit in the original text, some non-smoothness can be tolerated. (Cheng Yongsheng 2002, 65)

Lu Xun defines clearly that translation must take into account of two sides: one is easy to understand, the other maintains the style of the original. This explanation refers that the translators must translate according to the original text rather than their own world view and aesthetic taste. The translators must try their best to maintain the style of the original author and inherit historic and national characters rather than imposing extrinsic aesthetic and social background culture of other people on the translation. (Chen Fukang 2000, 301)

Mao Dun has pointed out that due to different language families of Chinese and English and different structures, word-by-word translation is almost impossible actually. Because word-by-word translation is difficult to achieve its ideal effect, any discussion related with literal translation and free translation is inevitably involved with the problem "what is the boundary between them?" He also holds that the so-called literal translation, superficially speaking, means not to alter the original words and sentences. (Xu Haiyan & Sun Weihong 2012, 80)

In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, the criteria to judge literal translation and free translation is whether the translation is faithful to the original. If a translation is faithful to both meaning and form of the original text, it is literal translation. If a translation is only faithful to meaning rather than form, it is free translation. If a translation is only faithful to form rather than content, it is mechanical translation. And the standard to judge faithfulness are form and content. For translation, content is more significant than form. Besides, translators should use both literal translation and free translation. However, sometimes it is difficult to use literal translation or free translation in a translation, so it is not necessary to define literal translation or free translation in those situations. (Cheng Yongsheng 2002, 66)

Xu argues that literal translation is not only being faithful to the content of the original text but also being close to its form. When Xu discusses the situations using literal translation or free translation, he often mentions readers and contexts, among which readers are more important. No matter literal translation or free translation, translators should put faithfulness to the content of the original text first, smoothness of target text form second, faithfulness to the form of the source text third. In other words, on the premise of faithfulness to the source language, translation should strive for smoothness of form. On the premise of smoothness of translation, translators should try their best to realize faithfulness to form of the original. If there is a contradiction between the smoothness and faithfulness of the original form, it is of no necessity to stick to the original form. These are the relationships between content and form, and literal translation and free translation. (Cheng Yongsheng 2002, 66)

Whether in Chinese translation circle or in western translation circle, the contradiction between content and form, and literal translation and free translation exists and arouses heated discussion.

===Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation===

To solve the fundamental problem of free translation and literal translation, Peter Newmark, a renowned western translation theorist, linguist and professor of translation at the University of Surrey, combining with years of translation experience, has concluded and summarized a corresponding theory, semantic translation and communicative translation, whose core is the problem of literal translation and free translation. Semantic translation and communicative translation have been put forward against the background that the majority of scholars have argued for a long time whether to translate literally or freely. The concepts of communicative and semantic translation represent Newmark’s main contribution to general translation theory. (Newmark 1991, 10)

====Semantic Translation====

Newmark puts the definition of semantic translation as "Semantic translation, attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. " As this version of definition indicates, communicative translation focuses essentially upon the comprehension and response of TL receptors. Semantic translation severs for the source language author and gives a high priority to reflecting his thought patterns and stylistics. (Shuttleworth and Cowie 2004, 22)

Here is an example.

E.g. 谋事在人，成事在天。

Yang Hsien-yi and Gladys Yang's Version: Man Proposes, Heaven disposes.

In this example, the Chinese idiom means that a man has done his or her best to do something and as to whether he or she can achieve the goal, it depends on the fortune. “天” refers to the master of nature in ancient Chinese culture. This word is semantically translated into “heaven” as the translation emphasizes the original information and tries to preserve the favor, style and culture maintained in the source language.

====Communicative Translation====

Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. As this version of definition indicates, communicative translation centers around the semantic aspects of the source language texts. To be specific, in communicative translation, the emphasis should be on conveying the message of the original in a form, which conforms to the linguistic, cultural and pragmatic conventions of target language. Both content and language are readily acceptable and comprehensible to the readership. (Chen Boyu 2003, 4)

Communicative translation intends to present the main idea of the original text and emphasize the social value generated by the translation. Communicative translation highlights on conveying the message expressed in the original and form of the the source language. Due to different textual functions, content and form should have different focuses. Texts of informative function emphasize on the information beyond the language, while texts of vocative function center on readers. The primary intention of translators is to convey the message to the target readers, without paying much attention to the style of the original. If it is necessary, translators can adjust grammar and words to better transmit the information. The change of forms is not only allowed, but also encouraged. (Zhang Linlin 2010, 17)

E.g. 谋事在人，成事在天。

Hawkes's Version: Man Proposes, God disposes.

This translation is communicative translation. Different from the version of Yang, Hawkes translated "天" into "God". In western culture, people believe that "God" is the master of nature. It renders the contextual meaning of the original in such a way that both content and language are readily acceptable and comprehensible to the readers.

====Comparison Between Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation====

The fundamental difference between semantic translation and communicative translation is that semantic translation attaches more importance to the content rather than effect and communicative translation is just opposite.

Firstly, semantic translation is more objective, stresses accuracy and is submitted to the author, culture and meaning of the original. Communicative translation is more subjective, pays much attention to the readers' responses, and is submitted to the target language and its culture. Semantic translation and communicative translation have difference in expression form. (Wei Mengfen 2010, 132)

Second, semantic translation make the translated text more close to the original form and retain the vocative effect as much as possible. If there is no much difference between the source and target language specifications, translation should maintain the length of sentences in the original text as well. Communicative translation will reorganize the syntax and utilize more common collocations or words to make translation more fluent, idiomatic and understandable. In the communicative translation, to make the translation brief and emphasize key information, translators should get rid of the bondage of the source language structure and make appropriate adjustments which are not allowed in the semantic translation, such as adjusting the logic relations in the original, making obscure concepts distinct, deleting repeated unnecessary details or redundant information, normalizing some peculiar expressions, and even correcting factual or writing mistakes. (Wei Mengfen 2010, 132-133)

Thus, they have different functions. Semantic translation, performing expressive function, tries to preserve the language characteristics and unique expression forms of the source language to present thinking process of the author. Its translation judged by the target readers is likely to be smoother, simpler, clearer and more direct. While communicative translation is to convey message, performing vocative function. (Wei Mengfen 2010, 133)

In addition, the key of communicative translation is immediacy which means the success of translation depends on the readers' responses. Semantic translation lays stress on faithfulness to the source text, but cannot neglect to convey the message contained in the source text. (Lin Xiaoqin 1987, 50)

Here are some examples to better present the differences between semantic translation and communicative translation.

E.g. 世人都晓神仙好。

Yang Hsien-yi and Gladys Yang's Version: All men long to immortals.

David Hawkes’s Version: All men knew that salvation should be won.

In this example, “神仙” is the difficult point because there is no corresponding expression in English. In Chinese culture, “神仙” refers to transcendence and is a life with “supernatural forces” in human beings. Yang directly translated “神仙” as “immortals” because being an immortal is the highest ideal of Taoism. His translation is semantic translation. While Hawkes used “salvation” which is a concept in the Christianity. The creed of Christianity is to be saved from sins. And his translation is communicative translation. Yang chose to be faithful to the original text to preserve the concept in the Taoism. While Hawkes decided to pay more attention to religious background and mentality of the target readers.

E.g. 真是“天有不测风云，人有旦夕祸福”。

Yang Hsien-yi and Gladys Yang's Version: Truly, “storms gather without warning in nature, and had luck befalls men overnight.”

David Hawkes’s Version: I know “the weather and human life are both unpredictable.”

In this sentence, “天有不测风云，人有旦夕祸福” is a challenge in translation. It is a Chinese idiom which means the occurrences of some disasters are unpredictable in advance. According to antithesis habit in Chinese, Yang translated these two idioms into the corresponding English compound sentence, which adopted semantic translation. While Hawkes briefly translated into a single sentence, which adopted communicative translation. The former sentence may be appreciated by Chinese readers, and the simplified processing of the latter is easier for native English speakers to understand and accept because it conforms to the British and American expressions, especially in line with the habits of daily expression.

E.g. Wet Paint!

Version 1: 湿油漆

Version 2: 油漆未干

Version 3: 小心油漆

Version 4: 勿触油漆

This sentence is an official notice. From the four versions of the source text, there are differences among them. Version 1 is word-by-word translation, conveying an obscure message and not involving in any receptors. Version 2 just describes a fact that the paint is not dry but wet and does not present the informative function of the original. This notice aims to warn people not to do something and keep away from the paint. Version 3 and version 4 are free translations because they emphasize more on the content instead of form. The first and second version are semantic translation because they only describe the fact and tell readers the information that the paint is not dry. However, the third and fourth version are communicative translation which not only tell people the information but also play the warning function to notify readers not to touch the wet paint.

However, semantic translation and communicative translation are not opposite. Newmark points out that the two should be viewed as a whole, instead of isolated or opposite parts. And a problem should be emphasized. Corresponding text-types can overlap. Semantic translation pays more attention to a mainly expressive text and communicative translation is more popular in mainly informative or vocative texts. In brief, translators should think the type of text over and ensure a good balance between them. (Wei Mengfen 2010, 134)

====Text Typology====

Language is a unique symbolic system, which has its own most important semantic system, as well as a functional system involving context.

Newmark's text tppology theory is influenced by Reiss, Jacobson and other translators. In the book of Approaches to Translation, Newmark put forward three functional texts, including expressive text, informational text and vocative text. In accordance with these types of classification, Newmark summarized semantic translation and communicative translation. (Newmark 2001, 39)

Expressive text mainly talks about the author's subjective emotions and his or her standpoints, which centers on the source language and the author regardless of the target readers' responses. Newmark points out that the expressive text includes three literary styles: "(1)serious imaginative literature such as poem, novels and dramas, (2) authoritative statements such as speech or statements from government officials or party's officials or party's leaders, documents and regulations and laws from government, and academic works from authorities, (3) autobiography, prose and personal correspondence without target readers." (Newmark 2001, 55) Semantic translation is applicable to the expressive text, with a particular emphasis on the language features and language structure of the original language which is similar to literal translation.

As for informative text, Newmark proposes that "typical informative texts are concerned with any topic of knowledge". (Newmark 1988, 40) The informative text focuses on the information or the content provided in the text. According to Newmark, informative text includes textbooks, papers, reports, and minutes about science, industry, technology, economy, commerce and other areas of knowledge or events, which are mainly used to deliver information and reflect truth. In light of translation of informative text, Newmark proposes that communicative translation can be adopted to convey accurate meaning or the content of the source text to the target readers. (Newmark 2001, 67)

"The function of vocative text is to call upon readers to act, to think, to feel and to react in the way intended by the text." (Newmark 2001, 41) The vocative text includes all kinds of specifications, publicity materials, advertisements, notices and other persuasive words. Two factors must be emphasized in vocative text: one is the relationship between the author of the source text and readers of the source text and another is that translation is easy to be understood by the target readers, therefore, translators should take the source language and its cultural background into consideration in the course of translation practice. And communicative translation should also be used in the vocative text which means much attention should be paid on the target readers' understanding and reaction.

===Newmark's Improved Views on Literal Translation and Free Translation===

It can be said that literal translation and free translation in the past were had their own disadvantages. Newmark agrees with literal translation and he holds that "translation means filling the blank between two languages and even explaining is translating." (Newmark 1999, 33) This indicates that he does not neglect the importance of free translation. If the language and grammar structure of the original are not that important, the fidelity of the translation can be lowered, creating more room for translation. This situation can mainly adopts free translation. He even believes that translators can create better translation than the original one. Communicative translation and free translation resemble when it comes to the preference for the message to the manner, and the content to the form of the original. In his masterpiece ''Approaches To Translation'', he analyzes and discusses the loss of meaning. As long as the loss of meaning in the translation is inevitable, content cannot separate from form. And complete faithfulness to the original is almost impossible because the so-called preserving the original meaning is relative.

What's more, the content of a text should not be equal to referent in language, but include referent, rhyme, genre, style and so on. As the slogan, being faithful to the original, was too empty, some translators advocating literal translation did free translation and even paraphrased the original in the practice. Newmark holds that translators need to notice the content in four layers, the original text level, referred level, coherent language level and natural tone level. In this way, he transforms the empty slogan into concrete requirements in the translation practice and meanwhile criticized the disadvantages of literal translation. (Newmark 1999, 33)

Likewise, the viewpoints of free translation are not advisable as well. Newmark criticizes the basis of free translation school, making the target readers obtain feelings similar to that of the original readers. He thinks the goal is too difficult to achieve because translators had problem in completely knowing the feelings and responses of the original readers. He further puts forward some reasons why this goal cannot be realized. As long as the same feelings cannot be obtained by the source and target readers, there exists no reason or judging basis of great amending or creative rewriting. Free translation produces the matter rather than the manner, or the content rather than the form. Newmark regards it as usually a paraphrase much longer than the original, often prolix and pretentious, and not translation at all. In free translation, "more translation is paid to producing a natural reading TL text than to preserving the ST wording intact." (Shuttleworth and Cowie 2004, 62)

Newmark criticizes that the argument is theoretical without taking other important facets of translator's purpose, the nature of readership and text typology into consideration. Newmark claims the argument could come to a compromise if translators deal with two sides with another visual angle. In 1981, he proposed semantic translation and communicative translation to replace the old terms. (Newmark 1988, 45)

"(a) communicative translation, where the translator attempts to produce the same effect of the target language readers as produced by the original on the source language readers, and (b) semantic translation, where the translator attempts, with the bare syntactic and semantic constraints of the TL, to reproduce the precise contextual meaning of the author." (Newmark 1981, 22) In order to better explain these two methods, he designed the form of a flattened diagram. (Newmark 1988, 45)

SL emphasis TL emphasis
word for word translation Adaption
Literal translation Free translation
Faithful translation Idiomatic translation
Semantic translation Communicative translation

The diagram indicates that there is a hugest gap between the translation guided by word for word translation and the translation guided by adaption, then between literal translation and free translation, faithful translation and idiomatic translation and semantic translation and communicative translation last. These eight translation methods are a continuity, and they complement each other and cannot be completely separated. In Newmark's opinion, adaption is the freest translation method, and suitable for drama and poem translation. Free translation reproduces the main content of the original and pay more attention to interpret and expound. Target texts guided by idiomatic translation are more natural, more fluent and more coherent. But due to adopt some unknown expressions, the original meaning may be distorted.

Communicative translation possesses the advantages of adaption, free translation, idiomatic translation and semantic translation maintains the advantages of word for word translation, literal translation and faithful translation. Newmark maintains only by combining semantic translation and communicative translation can achieve two aims of translation-accuracy and conciseness. By distinguishing these right methods, he gives further refinements to the above definition of semantic translation and communicative translation. He adds one more element "aesthetic value". Meanwhile, he gives up emphasizing the "effect", and refines communicative translation to be more specific, "communicative translation attempts to render the exact contextual meaning of the original in such a way that both content an language are readily acceptable and comprehensible to the readership." (Newmark 1988, 47)

===My Thoughts on Literal Translation and Free Translation===

The two translation methods, literal translation and free translation, are useful in the translation practice. Taking English-Chinese translation for example, in the translating process, translators can use the method of literal translation when the pattern of sentence in original text is similar with the Chinese one, and we can find some Chinese words being equivalent in meaning to the words used in the sentence of original text. In some cases there are some complex sentences that can be translated with the method of literal translation as well. As long as these sentences are short and the pattern of these sentences is relatively simple compared with other complex sentences, they can be translated by literal translation method. In English, the using of some metaphors and similes is almost similar to the way that they are used by in Chinese. For instance, "time flies" in English can be directly translated into Chinese as "时间飞逝", as the Chinese people also describe time passing very fast in this way, which accords with the expression habit of Chinese.

As English and Chinese are two kinds of different languages, there are many differences in various aspects, such as different grammar and language habits. In English there are some words or phrases we cannot find the relative words or phrases in Chinese. In this cases, using using literal translation method would not be proper. Under this condition, if the translator insists on using literal translation, the translation text will be difficult to be understood by the target readers. So in order to make the translation text readable, translators should adopt free translation. Under the direction of literal translation, translators will try their best to keep the flavor of original work, no matter on the material or the form. Literal translation is the effective method to keep the cultural flavor of original language. Therefore, when there are some cultural differences affecting the translation of culture-loaded words between the source language and the target language, free translation can become one of the translation strategies which provide possibility in reducing or even removing the restrictive factors in translation process.

In the process of translation, it is an ideal way to combine literal translation and free translation because they mutually complement in many cases. When literal translation cannot express the original and basic content of the author and hinder readers to understand, it is crucial for the translator to use free translation to express the author's meaning. When free translation cannot meet the requirement of being faithful to the content of the original text, it is significant for the translation to use literal translation to show features ad the structure of the author's language.

===Conclusion===

The dispute between two translation methods, literal translation and free translation has been lasting from throughout history. The argument of them is based on the relationship between content and form. This paper attempts to introduce Peter Newmark's improved views on the literal translation and free translation. Newmark criticizes some disadvantages and proposes semantic translation and communicative translation. Semantic translation focuses on maintaining the content of the original text, while communicative translation emphasizes more on the effect of the translation. The author also shows opinions on literal translation and free translation. Peter Newmark's theory has taken a big step forward from one-sided view of literal translation and free translation in the past, which has provided the direction of further development of translation research.

===References===
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*Li Minghan 李明瀚.(2014).语义翻译和交际翻译在汉语政论文翻译中的应用[Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation in the Translation of Chinese Political Writings]. 辽宁大学[Liaoning University].

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='''Document Translation'''=

==On translation of official documents of CangNan County 吴恺 Wu Kai==

On Translation of Official Documents of Cangnan County

Japanese Language and Literature, School of Foreign Languages, Hunan Normal University, Wu Kai--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 04:45, 2 December 2020 (UTC)

==='''Abstract'''===
As one of the forefronts of Zhejiang’s opening-up cause, Cangnan County in Zhejiang Province has been enjoying a rapid development and an ever-growing degree of opening-up with lasting vitality as it’s supported by national policies and nourished by the dividends of economic globalization since China's reform and opening-up. As China has ushered in a period of major changes rarely seen in a century, Cangnan County is also facing new opportunities and challenges. Under the background of this era, Cangnan County is expected to make good use of its own advantages, especially the geographical ones—it is close to countries and regions including Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan—and should spare no efforts to achieve a higher level of opening-up, and, in turn, further promote its development. As an embodiment of the collective will of the people of Cangnan County, the official document is one of the best manifestations of its governance and stability control capabilities. For this reason, the research on how to translate official documents is of great significance for that it offers a great opportunity for Cangnan County to re-examine itself and to show the rest of the world its achievement in building a culture-enriched county.

==='''Key words'''===
official document translation, Cangnan County, opening-up, Japan, South Korea

==='''摘要'''===
自中国改革开放以来，浙江省苍南县作为全浙江对外开放的前沿阵地之一，得到了国家政策支持和经济全球化红利的滋润，苍南县发展水平与对外开放程度日新月异，全县活力持久带劲。随着中国迎来“百年未有之大变局”，苍南县也面临着新的机遇和挑战，在此时代背景下，苍南县应该利用好自身优势，特别是临近日本、韩国、台湾等国家与地区的地理优势，努力开展更高层次、更高水平的对外开放事业，促进苍南更好的发展。为此，作为苍南县人民集体意志的体现，苍南县的公文就是对外展示其治理水平、稳控能力的最好的体现之一。而对于苍南县公文的如何翻译的研究，是促使苍南县重新审视自己、推进苍南人文县情传播海外的良机，意义重大。

==='''关键词'''===
公文翻译苍南县对外开放日本韩国

==='''I. System and Translation of Official Documents of Cangnan County'''===

The unique official document system adopted by Chinese government agencies is a special integration of the thousands-of-years excellent political traditions in China and the essence of the organizational structure of the socialist regime. As a county-level unit in China's local administrative structure, Cangnan County has an official document system that is consistent with the national ones in general while has its own features. Official documents of Cangnan County can be basically divided into the following types of writing: resolutions, decisions, orders, bulletins, announcements, notifications, opinions, notices, reports, requests for instructions, approvals, proposals, letters, and minutes. Above-mentioned categories are collectively known as official documents. Besides, there are also some types of practical writing, including summaries, plans, notes, memos, briefings, speeches, manuals and so on, that are often used in our day-to-day work.

In addition to those characteristics of the official documents that are commonly seen in China, official documents of Cangnan County also have its own features, which is mainly reflected in the aspect of proprietary terminology. Cangnan County, which used to be a part of Pingyang County in Zhejiang Province, was officially designated as a county in 1981 with the approval of the Central Government. It takes its name Cangnan, which means “on the south of the Yucang Mountain”, from its geographical location. As a relatively young county-level administrative unit in China’s administrative divisions, Cangnan County has a complex natural endowment and cultural environment, which is the reason why there are many special proprietary terms used in the official documents of Cangnan County, such as “Beautiful South Gate of Zhejiang Province”, “Southern Ouyue (an ancient kingdom in modern Wenzhou and Taizhou)” , “South Gate of Jiangsu-Zhejiang Region” and so on. Moreover, Cangnan is also the birthplace of the “Wenzhou Model”. Since the implementation of policy for the exchange of production materials and commercial grains in 1984, Cangnan has become an important base for the experiments and development of Wenzhou's private economy and market economy, and, thus, has made a significant contribution to the great cause of China's reform and opening-up.

To conclude, the unity of the official document system viewed from the national scope of China and the uniqueness of the official document system viewed from the local scope of Cangnan area are both reflections of the integration of economic, political, and cultural elements. Therefore, when translating the terms and sentences in these official documents, obviously, it is almost impossible to follow general translation theories, such as Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” theory which applies to literature translation, and Christiane Nord’ Skopos theory which emphasizes schematic analysis. Due to the features of the official documents of Cangnan County, it is hard to imagine the consequence it will cause if those Cangnan and Chinese elements they contain are missed when translating them. Therefore, the starting point for the translation and research of Cangnan official documents should be analyzing the official document itself, but not choosing which translation theory to apply.

The translation method focusing on the official documents themselves is undoubtably the one that emphasizes the content while manages to achieve a similarity in form. Thus, the translation theory that meets the requirements of official document translation in Cangnan County shall be the functional equivalence theory of the American linguist Eugene A. Nida. Eugene A. Nida argued in his theory that translation is to use the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language to reproduce the informational function of the source language both semantically and stylistically. Nida’s definition of translation specified that translation is seeking equivalence not only in lexical meaning, but also in semantics, style and literary form. Translation should convey both the denotative and connotative meaning of a message. Regarding the equivalence of translation, he believed that the equivalence consists of four parts: lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence, and stylistic equivalence. Among the four aspects, he emphasized that the meaning the core and most important part, followed by the form. The form of a text is likely to conceal the cultural connotation of the source language and may, therefore, hinder cultural exchanges. Based on the above, the reasons why the functional equivalence theory is applicable to official document translation in Cangnan County can be concluded as follows:

First, the functional equivalence theory advocates that the target text should be equivalent to the source text both semantically and culturally. Official documents of Cangnan County are carriers of profound political culture with Chinese characteristics and the cultural environment in Cangnan. When translating them, in addition to showing the political consciousness and judicial authority of Cangnan government agencies, the local culture of Cangnan must also be reflected in the translations.

Second, the functional equivalence theory suggests that if the lexical meanings and cultural elements cannot be taken into account at the same time, the translator then may give up the equivalence in form and try to reproduce the semantic and cultural meaning of the source text by changing the form of the sentence. There are many specialized terms with Chinese characteristics and Cangnan’s characteristics in official documents of Cangnan County. When translating them, once there is no corresponding expression in the target language, other forms of expression must be adopted to retain the meanings of those specialized terms as much as possible.

Third, the functional equivalence theory proposes that if the change in form is still not enough to express the semantic and cultural meaning of the expression in the source language, the translation technique of “heavy damage” can be adopted to resolve cultural differences , so that the source language and the target language can achieve equivalence in semantic meaning. “Heavy damage” refers to the transformation of the deep structure of the source language into the surface structure of the target language, that is, expressing the cultural connotation of the source text with expressions of the target language. It cannot be ruled out that there are words and sentences in the official document of Cangnan County that cannot be translated, and when this happens, the translator can only rely on his translation techniques and understanding ability to process them creatively.
Above are simply macro analyses of the official document system in Cangnan County, and when it comes to specific analyses, challenges we face will only be severer.

==='''II. Stylistic Features and Translation of Official Documents in Cangnan County'''===

Looking at the official documents of Cangnan County from the micro level, we can work on the study of its translation based on the following characteristics.

'''1. Details and Accurate'''

As an officially-written document geared for the needs of our people, wording of the official documents of Cangnan County has a very specific orientation. Almost all content words have very clear meanings and connotations.

For example, the sentence “经研究，县政府决定召开市对县安全生产巡查反馈会暨突出问题集中教育警示会，现将有关事宜通知如下。(As discussed, the county government decided to convene a feedback meeting on city-to-county inspections of production safety and a meeting for education and warning on outstanding issues. The relevant matters are hereby notified as follows.)” in the document 《苍南县人民政府办公室关于召开市对县安全生产巡查反馈会暨突出问题集中教育警示会的通知》(“Notice of the Office of the People's Government of Cangnan County on Convening a Feedback Meeting on City-to-County Inspections of Production Safety and A Meeting For Education and Warning On Outstanding Issues”) (the office of the People's Government of Cangnan County on June 8th, 2020) conveys several points very accurately and clearly, including the decision maker, the type, content and theme of the meeting. Therefore, special attention must be paid to the integrity of the information delivered when translating this sentence. For example, it is translated into Japanese as “討議を通じて、県政府は県の安全生産状況に対する市政府の巡査結果反映会及び顕著問題教育警告会を開催することが決定した。関連事項を以下のようにお知らせする。”

'''2. Precise and Compact'''

The role of official documents is to exchange formal information between the upper and the lower, the people and the officials, and the relevant departments. Therefore, the wording of the official documents must be rigorous. No slang and loose sentences should be used, and excessive use of parentheses and descriptive modifiers should be avoided. Official documents of Cangnan County follow this rule as well, in which there will never be informal expressions like daily spoken words.

For example, the expression “三、决策目录施行动态管理，因工作需要增减或变更重大行政决策事项的，承办单位应按照相关规定程序提请调整。(Third, the decision catalogue shall be managed in a dynamic way, the undertaker shall submit application for adjustments in accordance with the relevant regulations if any increase/decrease or change shall be made to the major administrative decision-making matters because of the need of actual work.)” in the document《关于公布苍南县2020年度重大行政决策事项目录的通知》(“Notice on Issuing the 2020 Annual Catalogue of Major Administrative Decision-Making Matters of Cangnan County”) (the office of the People's Government of Cangnan County on Sept. 20th, 2020) When translating this sentence into Japanese, the translator shall fully considers the preciseness of the original expression, and translate it as “三つ目、戦略目録動的管理施行、仕事需要によっての増減または変更が必要な場合、請負機構は関連規定の手順に従って調整を提出しなければならない。”

'''3. Programmed and Standardized'''

The purpose of official documents requires a stable and routine writing program so that the official business can be conducted in an orderly manner. It is essential that the document writing is reasonably programmed. It allows the officer to know what it is and what to do at a glance if a standardized official document program is followed. The standardization of the official documents of Cangnan County can be regarded as a tricky feature in their translation.

For example, the expression “各乡镇人民政府，县政府直属各单位 (the people's government of all townships and towns and all directly affiliated institutions of the people’s government of Cangnan County)” in the document《关于公布苍南县2020年度重大行政决策事项目录的通知》(“Notice on Issuing the 2020 Annual Catalogue of Major Administrative Decision-Making Matters of Cangnan County”) (the Office of the People's Government of Cangnan County on Sept. 20th, 2020) is obviously a standardized addressing of the receiving units of an official document, and it should be translated into Japanese as “各郷鎮人民政府、県政府直属の各部門”.
Viewing from a micro perspective, we may find that special attention should be paid to many precise details when translating those official documents. It is of great significance that, during the cause of reform and opening-up, we strike a balance between the macro level and the micro level in official document translation, which will serve as a stage for Cangnan County to show itself to Japan, South Korea and other East Asian countries and regions.

==='''III. Translation of Official Documents of Cangnan County under the Context of the Japanese Language'''===

Cangnan County is one of the nearest administrative units to Japan in China, and Okinawa Prefecture in Japan and Cangnan County are neighbors facing each other across the sea. Furthermore, Cangnan County itself has ports in Xiaguan, Pacao, Yanting, Dayu and other places, and has the basic conditions for conducting small transactions of freights with Okinawa. However, due to the inadequacy policies, laws and regulations, a large portion of Japan’s trade with China, especially with Zhejiang Province, is still conducted in the three port cities, namely Ningbo, Zhoushan, and Hangzhou. Cangnan’s geographical advantages have never been given to full play. To Japan, Cangnan is not a total stranger. Wenzhou City has a great influence upon Japanese culture and history. Special local products such as Wenzhou green tea and Wenzhou satsuma orange are very attractive to Japanese people. Many of the business exchanges during the Kamakura Bakufu in Japan were happened between Hakata merchants and Wenzhou people. As an important subordinate region of Wenzhou City, Cangnan County naturally has left an impression on Japanese people when it comes to China.

If Cangnan hopes to lay a foundation for the future cooperation with Japan through its cause of opening up to the outside world, it is of great importance that we study the methods and techniques to make the translation of Cangnan’s official documents to meet the specific context of the Japanese language, which is also a part of the cultural exchanges that will facilitate economic and trade cooperation between Japan and China. The political status of Cangnan County is equivalent to the one of regular cities and special wards in Japan, but this does not mean that the official documents of Cangnan County can be regarded as equivalents to the official documents released by the governments of the regular cities and special wards in Japan, and there are huge differences between their respective official documents in form, wording, Cultural connotation and etc. To better translate Cangnan official documents under the context of Japanese language, the following aspects must be paid attention to:

1. Detailed Comparison of Types

In the Japanese official document system, the word “公文” is different in meaning from the word “公文” in Chinese official document system. In Chinese “公文” means government official documents, while in Japanese “公文” generally refer to legal documents that have the force of law and the term “公文書” is the one that refers to government official documents, which roughly includes “外交文書” and “起案文”, “通達” , “命令”, “許可”, “通知書” and so on . When translating official documents of Cangnan County into Japanese, attention should be paid to the transformation of the types of the official documents. The classifications of official documents in China and Japan are different from each other.
For example, when translating documents such as “proposal letter”, “report” and the like into Japanese, the title should be translated as “建言書” and “報告書”, while “命令(order)”, “通知(notice)”, “提案(Proposal)” and etc. need no translation and can be titled with the original characters directly as “命令”, “通知”, “提案”, and can also be further translated into “命令状”, “通知書”, “提案書”. Those reflect the characteristics of the division of the types of the official document system in Japan.

2. Careful Consideration of the Translation of Chinese Characters

There are a large number of Chinese characters in Japanese. This will for sure be an advantage when translating official documents of Cangnan County into Japanese, however, at the same time, this is also a huge disadvantage. After all, those Chinese characters are Japanized Chinese characters, and their meanings and usages are more or less different from the original ones in Chinese.

For example, the expression “设定全县森林防火期(setting the season of forest fire prevention)” in the document 《苍南县应急管理局局长王再忠关于<苍南县人民政府关于做好森林防火期护林防火工作的通告>的政策解读》(“Policy Interpretation Of ‘Notice of Doing Forest Protection and Fire Prevention during the Season of Forest Fire Prevention by the People's Government Of Cangnan County’ by the Director of Cangnan Emergency Management Agency Wang Zaizhong”) in could be translated character by character into Japanese as “全県域森林防火期間設定”. However, expressions such as “野外火源如何管理” cannot be translated in the same way, and must be processed accordingly and translated into Japanese as “野外の火の元が如何に処理すること”. When translating official documents of Cangnan County into Japanese, the translators must reject the preconceived thinking and native Chinese thinking, or it will lead to irreversible misunderstandings and mistakes.

3. Mastery of the Equivalence of Semantic Meaning

Chinese is an isolating language, in which the grammatical meaning is reflected by the order of words, while Japanese is an agglutinative language, in which auxiliary words and flexible usages of vocabulary are adopted to reflect the grammatical meaning. This requires the translators to have mastery of the equivalence of semantic meanings when translating official documents of Cangnan County into Japanese and try to achieve perfect equivalence in official document translation.

For example, there is a expression as “全体公民必须认真贯彻‘以人为本、预防为主、积极扑救、有效消灾’的森林防灭火工作方针，一旦发现森林火灾，要立即向当地人民政府或森林防灭火指挥部办公室报告(all citizens must seriously implement the working policy of forest fire prevention and firefighting ‘people-oriented, prevention-focused, active in firefighting, effective in disaster relief’, once a forest fire is detected, it must be reported to the local people’s government or the forest fire prevention and firefighting headquarters office immediately)” in the document 《苍南县应急管理局局长王再忠关于<苍南县人民政府关于做好森林防火期护林防火工作的通告>的政策解读》(“Policy Interpretation Of ‘Notice of Doing Forest Protection and Fire Prevention during the Season of Forest Fire Prevention by the People's Government Of Cangnan County’ by the Director of Cangnan Emergency Management Agency Wang Zaizhong”). When dealing with long and complex sentences, the translator must be flexible in using translation techniques to decompose the sentences and translate them step by step, focusing on the balance between the form of the sentence and its semantic meaning. Based on this principle, the abovementioned sentence could be translated into Japanese as “人間本位、予防軸化、積極救助、有効消災という森林防火作業方針は全県民が必ず強固に守らなければならない。林に火事が発見された際、直ちに所轄人民政府や森林防火指揮部執務室に報告すること。”

There is no doubt that, in terms of four-character idioms, allusions, new words of the era and etc., the translation of official documents of Cangnan County under the context of the Japanese language still has a long way to go, but the part that we should pay most attention to in translation is always the differences in culture between the source language and the target language. Only by keeping this basic point in mind at all times, will there be no huge mistakes being made when translating official documents of Cangnan County into Japanese.

==='''Ⅳ. Translation of Official Documents of Cangnan County under the Context of the Korean Language'''===

Zhejiang Province and South Korea have laid a good foundation for economic and trade cooperation projects, and a framework that is comprehensive, wide-ranging, and multi-level has been established for Zhejiang-South Korea cooperation. The advantages of the two regions are obviously complementary and the development potential for both sides and in between is huge. In September 2016, the Zhejiang China-Korea (Quzhou) Industrial Cooperation Park was approved as the first batch of “Zhejiang International Industrial Cooperation Parks” in Zhejiang Province. The total planned area is about 3,000 acres and the total planned investment is 12 billion yuan. Represented by the Zhejiang China-Korea Industrial Cooperation Park, a large number of economic and trade cooperation projects has been carried out with South Korea by Zhejiang Province. As an indispensable part of Zhejiang Province, Cangnan County is facing a huge gap in the cultural exchanges and economic cooperation with South Korea. How to elevate the level of Cangnan’s opening up to the outside world and advancing Cangnan’s economic, trade and cultural cooperation with South Korea is a question that is well worth exploring. Although Cangnan is further away from South Korea compared with regions in the north of Zhejiang, geographic location should never be a factor that hindering Cangnan’s economic, trade and cultural cooperation with South Korea. In an era of ever-deepening globalization, it is of great significance that we think about how to develop and promote the economic and trade and cultural cooperation between Cangnan and South Korea.

Northern Zhejiang is a key area for economic, trade and cultural cooperation with South Korea. As the south gate of Zhejiang Province, if Cangnan County could open the door of economic, trade and cultural cooperation to South Korea, then this will inevitably bring extraordinary development opportunities to southern Zhejiang and make the pattern of Zhejiang and South Korea’s economic and cultural cooperation more balanced and healthy. The political status of Cangnan County is equivalent to the one of si(city), gu (district), and gun(county) in South Korea. Because of some historical reasons, South Korea is greatly influenced by Chinese culture. From the Three Kingdoms era of Joseon, to the Unified Silla Dynasty, the Wang’s Goryeo Dynasty, and the Yi’s Joseon Dynasty, the basic system of administrative divisions in South Korea is almost the same as the one in China, so the official document system of cities, districts, and counties in South Korea can be regarded as basically equivalent to the official document system of Cangnan County with only slight differences originated from the localized political and cultural traditions and the basic social condition of South Korea. Therefore, there are relatively fewer difficulties of translation when translating official documents of Cangnan County into Korean, aside from the barriers caused by Korean Hangul words. The translation of official documents of Cangnan County under the context Korean language requires attention to the following aspects:

1. The Combination of Chinese characters and Hangul

Modern Korean uses Hangul as the main written characters, but this does not mean that there is no place for Chinese characters in the Korean system. Since the launch of the abolition of Chinese characters movement in South Korea in the 1970s, Hangul did exactly achieved an overall penetration of every aspect of their daily life, but when it comes to important documents, Chinese characters still reserve a seat in the arena of South Korea’s history. Furthermore, a higher level of talent training is required now to meet the need of South Korea’s economic and social development, and the mastery of sinology has become, among all the necessary skills, one of the most straightforward evaluation criteria to access the qualified personnel. Thus, South Korea has restarted the Chinese character teaching movement. Nowadays, the official document system in South Korea has become one in which Hangul serves as the main language and the mixed use of Chinese characters and Hangul serves as a supplement. Just as how the mixed use of kana and Chinese characters in Japanese official documents may help in its translation, the mixed use of Chinese characters and Hangul also greatly facilitate the translation of official documents of Cangnan County into Korean. However, because Chinese characters used in Korea are composed of traditional Chinese characters and a small number of Korean self-made Chinese characters, we can not take it for granted that it is advisable to translate them word by word.

For example, the title of the document《苍干任〔2020〕18号王再忠等同志的任命》(“Cangnan Cadre Appointment [2020] No. 18: Appointment of Wang Zaizhong and etc.”) (the Office of CPC Cangnan Party Committee on March 27th, 2020) can be translated with the mixed use of Chinese characters and Hangul into Korean as《蒼南縣의 幹部任命〔2020〕18號王再忠등 同志의任命》. Also, it be translated into Korean with Hangul alone as《참남현의 간부임명〔2020〕18호 왕재충등 동지의임명》.

2. The Usage of Refined Language

In recent years, South Korea has carried out reforms of the official document system, urging that the South Korean government agencies at all levels should use “refined(or purified) language”, that is, to write and publish official documents with words that are easy for the public to understand and have explicit meanings, reducing the cost of communication between the government and the public and, in this way, building a closer relationship between the government and the people, so that civil servants can communicate with the people more effectively. Refined language is a kind of common vernacular that differs from the official language. Although this trend of the wording of Korean official documents is not unconditional, but when compared with official documents of Cangnan County, which emphasize the solemnity and formality of official documents, this trend is the part that the translator has to pay his attention to.

For example, when translating the expression “为加强行政规范性文件管理，切实推进依法行政，加快法治政府建设 (To strengthen the management of administrative normative documents, promote the administration in accordance with law, and accelerate the construction of a government ruled by law)” in the document《苍南县人民政府关于公布县政府及县政府办公室行政规范性文件清理结果的通知（有效）》(“Notice of the Office of the People's Government of Cangnan County on the Announcement of the Results of the Cleanup of the Administrative Normative Documents of the County Government and the County Government Offices (Effective)”) (the Office of the People's Government of Cangnan County on October 23th, 2020) , blunt expressions may not be that applicable and this expression translated into Korean in a more public-friendly way as “행정 규범적인 문서관리를 강화하기 위해, 법에따라 행정을 철저히 추진하고 법치정부의 건설을 가속화시킨다.”

3. Mastery of the Equivalence of Semantic Meaning

Like Japanese, Korean is also a typical agglutinative language. A sentence is formed by connecting independent words with various auxiliary words, and with a subordinating conjunction at the end of the sentence. Auxiliary words are just like glues, they exist after every subject, predicate, and object component of a Korean sentence to them together. For that these auxiliary words have no substantial meaning themselves, they must stay close to the main body in front, and a space must be put after. Therefore, when translating Chinese, which is an isolated language, into Korean, which is an agglutinative language, it is necessary to have mastery of the equivalence of the semantic meaning of the expression.

For example, when translating the expression “全面实施全民参保计划，做好参保情况清查，提升参保信息质量，清理重复参保，稳定持续参保，减少漏保断保，实现应保尽保。(Fully implement the national social security plan, do a good job in checking the coverage of the social security, improve the quality of the collection of the information of the insured, clean up repeated insureds, stabilize the renewal of the social security, reduce the interruption of the social security, and achieve full social security coverage.)” in the document《关于做好2021年度城乡居民基本医疗保障工作的通知》(“Notice on Doing a Good Job in Basic Medical Security for Urban and Rural Residents in 2021”)( the Office of Medical Security Bureau of Cangnan County on November 5th, 2020), the translator should pay attention to the equivalence of semantic meaning of this long sentence and translated it into Korean as “전국민기본의료보험가입계획을 전면적으로 실시하고 기본의료보험가입상황을 철저히 조사하며 기본의료보험가입 정보의 질을 향상시키고 중복기본의료보험가입을 청산하며 안정적이고 지속적인 기본의료보험가입을 하며 보험누락을 줄이고 기본의료보험가입 을 실현해야 한다.”

==='''Ⅴ. Studies of Official Document Translation and the Cause of Opening-up in Cangnan County'''===

Based on the abovementioned basic characteristics of the official document system of Cangnan County, the notes for official documents translation under the context of the Japanese language and the notes for official documents translation under the context of the Korean language, we can see that official documents of Cangnan County is not as difficult to handle as something untranslatable. Cangnan County enjoys a good geographic location: it is located in the coast of the East China Sea, and is close to both Japan and South Korea, two strong economies in East Asia. However, Cangnan County has not yet made use of these favorable conditions to the fullest to promote cultural cooperation and trade with the two countries. Cangnan’s opening up to the outside world requires innovative thinking and an elaborate layout. Studies on the translation of official documents of Cangnan County, especially the translation of official documents under the context of the Japanese and Korean language, will help to explore the cultural spirit of the government institutions, and play an important role in building a good image of Cangnan County in East Asia and laying a foundation for Cangnan's cooperation with major countries and regions in East Asia .

The world today is undergoing profound changes rarely in a century, and so is China. The tide of history moves on and Cangnan shall not stay out of the matter, but must follow it courageously and strive to open new doors for Cangnan's opening up to the outside world through the study of the official document translation of its own.

===References===

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[2]Mu Dan. Discussion on Translation Activities Under the Guidance of Functional Equivalence Theory[J]. International Journal of Education and Management,2018,3(2).

[3]李琳琳. 功能对等翻译理论与关联翻译理论比较研究[D].辽宁师范大学,2006.

[4]赵娟廷. 汉韩公文语体对比研究[D].复旦大学,2003.

[5]周萱. 《中国共产党怎样解决民族问题》（节选）中韩翻译报告[D].青岛大学,2017.

[6]张利军. 《教学的游戏性研究》的汉日翻译实践报告[D].广西师范大学,2019.

[7]栾亚琼. 《2015年山东省政府工作报告》汉日翻译实践报告[D].曲阜师范大学,2016.

[8]占丽华. 源流与演变—日本地方公文书馆发展路径研究[D].山东大学,2020.

[9]任清萍. 功能翻译理论视角下政府工作报告日译研究[D].外交学院,2020.

[10]孙慧. 产业竞争力与区域经济增长[D].苏州大学,2006.

--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 04:45, 2 December 2020 (UTC)

==The Translation Process and Methods of Translating English Long Sentences - Zhou Yiwen 周艺文 202070080629 MTI 英语笔译==

<center>Zhou Yiwen 周艺文, 202070080629.</center>

===Abstract===

The translation of long English sentences is a difficult point in English-Chinese translation. It is very important to understand the features of sentence structure and the translation process and methods of long English sentences. This paper studies the translation process and methods of English long sentences through the comparative study of English and Chinese language characteristics and specific English-Chinese translation analysis. This paper is divided into five parts. The first part introduces the characteristics of English long sentences. The second part illustrates translation difficulties of English long sentences by making contrasts the language features of English with that of Chinese, which can be divided into three aspects: English sentences emphasize hypotaxis, Chinese sentences emphasize parataxis; English is a static language, while Chinese is a dynamic language; English prefers passive voice while Chinese prefers active voice. The third part expounds the translation principles for English long sentences from the perspective of Skopos theory, which are skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule. The fourth part mainly analyzes the process of translating English long sentences through some examples. In the end, five translation methods are discussed, which are liner translation, reorganization translation, division, embedding and synthesis.

===Key words===

English long sentences; language characteristics; translation process; translation methods

===英语长句翻译过程及翻译策略===

===摘要===

英语长句翻译是英汉翻译的难点，了解英语长句的句子结构特点和翻译过程及方法在英汉翻译中十分重要。本文通过对比研究英汉语言特点及具体英汉译本分析对英语长句翻译过程和方法进行研究。本文分为五个部分，第一部分介绍了英语长句的特点。第二部分分析了造成翻译英语长句困难的原因，即英汉两种语言在句子结构上的差异，即英语句子重形合，汉语句子重意合; 英语是静态语言，汉语是动态语言; 英语喜用被动语态，汉语喜用主动语态。第三部分运用目的论阐述了翻译英语长句的原则，即目的原则，连贯原则和忠实原则三个方面。第四部分主要通过具体的句子分析英语长句的翻译步骤及过程。最后探讨了英语长句汉译时采用的五种翻译方法，即顺序法、变序法、分译法、包孕法和综合法。

===关键词===

英语长句子；语言特点；翻译过程；翻译方法

===1.Characteristics of English Long Sentences===

The existence of long English sentences are usually caused by three elements. The first one is postmodifier, the second is the large number of joint components, the third one is the complex structure of long sentences. In general, long English sentences are more common in the literary text, discussion text and technical text (Wang 2010, 124).English and Chinese have many similarities in basic sentence structure. The main elements of sentence structure mainly include subject, predicate, object, predicative, attribute, adverbial modifier, and complement. In English, the sentence emphasizes the form and the sentence has a tree structure, and the Chinese sentence emphasizes the parataxis, and the sentence has a bamboo structure.(Wang 2010, 124)

The main characteristics of English long and difficult sentences are as follows:

(1) There are much more words, more complex sentence patterns, and more modifiers in these sense.

(2) Compared with simple sentences, long and difficult sentences often use inversion structure, and there are phenomena of omission and word order inversion.

(3) The reason for the formation of long and difficult sentences is that there are many long and difficult sentences with coordinate components, phrases, additional components, clauses, and coordinate sentences.

(4) The language structure of long and difficult sentences is relatively complex and has a strong sense of hierarchy.

===2.Translation difficulties of English long sentences===

The difficulties of translation are mainly caused by the differences between the source language and target language. English and Chinese belong to different language systems, the former belongs to Indo-European language family, the latter belongs to Sino-Tibetan language family, so there are significant differences in syntax between them. In addition, the different cultures of English and Chinese will inevitably lead to the difference in sentence structure between the two languages, because language is the carrier and medium of culture. (Jiang 2019, 62-65)

===2.1Hypotaxis vs. parataxis===

English syntactic structure is hypotaxis while Chinese syntactic structure is parataxis (Lian, 2010 73). Hypotaxis is that the words or clauses in a sentence are connected together by means of linguistic formal means (such as using related words) to express grammatical meaning and logical relations(Jia 2002, 101). English emphasizes explicit connection, emphasizes form and structure, and often helps with various means of connection. As a result, the sentence structure is rigorous and lacks elasticity. English sentences are often made with relatives (who, whom, whose, which, that, where, when, etc.), conjunctions (but, however, unless, because, since, so, and, if, etc. ), preposition (in, about, without, throughout, according to, along with, etc.), and other connective means. Parataxis means that words and clauses are not connected by means of linguistic forms, and the grammatical meaning and logical relation in a sentence are expressed by the meaning of words and clauses (Jia 2002, 101). Chinese sentences are made with little or no means of formal connection, with emphasis on invisible coherence, function and meaning, so the sentence structure is loose and flexible (Jia 2002, 101).

Example 1:

ST: Individuals develop within themselves an ability to persevere and tolerate things that are unexpected or bad, difficult to get through.

TT: 人们在内心修炼一种能力，在面对意外、不幸或者挑战时也能继续坚持和忍耐。

Analysis: In this sentence, “that...to get through” is a attributive clause to modify “things”, which is a kind of hypotaxis. The translation is not limited to the original sentence structure but follows Chinese expression habit, so the language is very smooth.

===2.2Static language vs. dynamic language===

English is static language and Chinese is dynamic language. The reason why English is a static language is that nouns and prepositions are frequently used and predominate in English. In English sentences, there can only be one predicate verb and other action words can only be nominal verbs. Therefore, nominalization has become a common phenomenon in English. (Wang 2004, 5) Prepositions are used to before nouns and noun phrases. They have no morphological changes and are very flexible in use. Therefore, the frequency of using prepositions in English is very high and the number of prepositions far exceeds that in Chinese. When translating Chinese to English, an important way to make the target text conform to the expression of English is to pay attention to the application of English prepositions. Since Chinese is parataxis language, verbs have no morphological changes, and the use of verbs makes the language more vivid, so verbs are frequently used in Chinese. In addition to a large number of verb-object structures, Chinese sentences can be more dynamic by using a series of verbs. In English-Chinese translation, we must pay attention to the conversion between static and dynamic. (Jiang 2019, 62-65)

Example 2:

ST:This month, when earthquakes rocked Southern California on back-to-back days, it was a visceral reminder that we may one day experience the “Big One”, a quake with the power to kill and destroy.

TT:本月南加州连遭地震，人们本能地联想到，我们某天可能会经历“一次大的”具有杀伤力和破坏力的地震。

Analysis: The noun “reminder” is translated into a verb “联想”, which is a transformation from static language to dynamic language.

===2.3Passive voice vs. active voice===

Although both English and Chinese have active voice and passive voice, the frequency of English passive voice is much higher than that of Chinese, which is also one of the characteristics that distinguishes English from Chinese. Especially in English scientific technical text, the passive voice is much more used, almost becoming a expression habit, because the passive sentence does not have to point out the actor but highlight the target, which is more objective(Zhu 2004, 94). In English-Chinese translation, we must grasp this difference in language, so as to make the translation conform to the expression habit of the target language. (Zhu 2004, 94)

Example 3:

ST: At the heart of the system--known as the multi-lateral trading system--are the WTO’s agreements, negotiated and signed by a large majority of the world’s trading nations, and ratified in their parliaments.

TT: 世界贸易组织的核心--多边贸易体系--是世界上大多数贸易国经协商谈判并签署的多个协议, 这些协议同时也经过成员国议会批准。

Analysis: The sentence of the source text is passive, “negotiated”, “signed” and “ratified” are passive in meaning, while Chinese sentence was translated into active, “协商”, “谈判”, “签署” are verbs in active verb.

===3.Translation principles for English long sentences===

Skopos theory was put forward by Hans Vermeer, an outstanding contributor to the translation theory of the German functional school. Different from the traditional equivalence theory, Skopos theory is based on behaviorism and proposes that translation is a purposeful activity(Zhang 2004, 35). The purpose of translation determines the translation method(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984). According to teleology, translators should follow three general principles in the process of translation: skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule(Liu 2009, 378).

Of the three principles, the skopos rule is the most important. The “skopos” can be the translatorss purpose, the communicative purpose of the target text or the purpose to be achieved by using a particular translation method. It usually refers to the communicative purpose of the target text, that is, the communicative function of the target text for the target reader in the socio-cultural context of the target text (Venuti, 2001). Vermeer emphasizes that translation occurs in a cultural context, and translation is not a corresponding conversion of language due to the differences between cultures. The translator should not only accurately understand and interpret the author’s intention, but also make the translation acceptable to readers(Vermeer, 1989).

Coherence rule refers to the fact that the target text must achieve intratextual coherence, making readers to understand and make sense in the communicative context of the target culture and target text. The fidelity rule means that the original text should be intertextually coherent, which is equivalent to being faithful to the original text in other translation theories. And the degree and form of fidelity to the original text depend on the purpose of the translation and the translator’s understanding of the original text. According to Skopos theory, the first one that all translations should follow is skopos rule, coherence and fidelity are subordinate to it. And fidelity is subordinate to coherence (Nord 2001, 32). There are many differences between English and Chinese in thinking and expression, and translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication behavior. Therefore, translators must not ignore the communicative purpose of translation. Guided by skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule, and based on the full analysis of the original text, the most appropriate strategies can be chosen to deal with specific long English sentences with the communicative purpose of the target text (Nord 2001, 32).

===4. Translation process of English long sentences===

Bell divided the cognitive process of translation into 3steps: first, analyze the semantic meaning and grammar of the source language as a universal representation, and then synthesize and reconstruct it to form a translation (Bell 1991, 5). This is also the case with the translation of long sentences, and the analysis of English long sentences is the first step. Since English long sentences focus on the expression of form, the basic methods of analyzing Long sentences based on characteristics are as follows: first understand the meaning of the sentence, analyze the grammatical structure of the long sentence, extract the main sentence, and then analyze the branches of the sentence. Finally, dividing long sentences according to the meaning group. (Bell 1991, 5)

As for the translation process from a macro point of view, first, the translator used some translation tools to look up new words and polysemous words. Then the translator began to translate for the first time, aiming to get a faithful text, and did not add any subjective guess to prevent the misunderstanding and inaccurate translation. In the second translation, the translator began to check the wrong words, as well as inappropriate points, and combined the language features of the text, which aimed to achieve coherent and intelligible. Finally, in the third translation, the translator got rid of the source language, and only read the target language to check whether it conformed to the reading habits and thinking modes of Chinese readers. If not, the translator would revise inappropriate sentences from the perspective of the target readers.

As for the translation steps from micro point of view, it can be divided into five steps: Find the main body of the sentence; Make clear the relationship between each modifier and the main sentence; Divide long sentences into several parts according to the expression requirements; Translate each part one by one; Adjust and polish the translation according to the Chinese expression habits.

Example 4:

ST: It has a mobile payments system that has been widely adopted in China, which allows people to shop，play games，pay utility bills and order meal deliveries all from within the app.

To analyze and translate this sentence, the most important is to find the main structure. It's easy to find the main body of this sentence is “It has a mobile payments system”. And second it is necessary to analyze the relationship between the modifiers and the main components of the sentence. “That has been widely adopted in China” is a post-positive attributive clause to modify the object “mobile payments system”, and “which allows…within the app” is a non-restrictive attributive clause to further explain the “system”, making readers know more about the target. Third, divide it into several parts according to the meaning and expression requirements. So this sentence can be divided three parts: the main body “It has a mobile payments system” is one part; and the two modifiers “that has been widely adopted in China” and “which allows … within the app” are the other two parts. Forth, translate every part: “它有一个移动支付系统”; “在中国得到广泛应用”; “让人们在该应用内购物、玩游戏、支付水电费和订餐”. Finally, adjust and polish the translation according to the Chinese expression habits. So the original sentence could be translated into: “它的移动支付系统在中国得到了下广泛应用，人们可以在该应用内购物、玩游戏、支付水电费和订餐”.

===5.Translation strategies for English long sentences===

===5.1Liner translation===

When the narrative level of English long sentences is basically the same as that of Chinese, that is, the sentences are narrated according to the time sequence or internal logic of the action, which is consistent with the expression habit of Chinese, and can be translated into Chinese in the same order as the original English. (Zeng 2010, 149-150)

Example 5:

ST: They learned with stupefaction that there is another aspect from which human action might be viewed than that of good and bad, of fair and unfair, of just and unjust. In the course of social events there prevails a regularity of phenomena to which man must adjust his actions if he wishes to succeed.

TT: 另一方面，他们茫然地想要了解到人类的哪些行为可以被看作是好的和坏的，公平的和不公平的，公正的和不公正的。在社会事件的过程中普遍存在着规律的现象，如果他希望成功，必须调整他的行动。

Analysis: There is an object clause in the first sentence. In the process of translation, the sentence can be simply translated in accordance with the order of the composition of the sentence. The translation is natural to read and can express the meaning of the original text by using liner translation.

Example 6:

ST: The joy and the tedium of labor are psychological phenomena which influence neither the individual’s subjective valuation of the disutility and the mediate gratification of labor nor the price paid for labor on the market.

TT: 劳动的快乐或厌恶都是心理现象，既不影响个人对于劳动负效用和报酬的主观评价也不影响市场上的劳动力价格。

Analysis: Although this sentence has both an attributive clause and “neither... nor...” structure with a large number of vocabulary, but its logical thinking, sentence structure and temporal and spatial order are consistent with Chinese habits. Therefore, we can translate it by using the liner translation method.

===5.2 Reorganization translation===

Reorganization is a way of changing the order of the original text, pushing forward from behind or from the middle. English is hypotaxis language, while Chinese is parataxis language(Lian 2010, 73). In terms of word order, English pays attention to the use of various conjunctions, such as relation words, conjunctions, prepositions, etc., to express the logical relations among them. Chinese, on the other hand, is used to connecting words with logical relations. The logic of long sentences in Scientific English is often quite different from that in Chinese, sometimes even the opposite. According to the expression habits of Chinese, the word order can be adjusted by means of reverse translation, so as to make the translation expression standard and easy to be understood and accepted by readers. (Lian 2010, 73)

Example 7:

ST: No technological improvement would have been possible if the additional capital goods required for the practical utilization of new inventions had not previously been made available by saving.

TT: 实际利用新发明需要额外资本，如果以前没有通过储蓄获得这些额外资本, 就不可能有技术改进。

Analysis: The “if-” clause contains a post-positive attributive “required for the practical utilization of new inventions”, which makes the clause look very complicated, if translated according to the word order, it would be misunderstood. Therefore, in order to better translate the sentence, the translator can reorganize the structure of the clause in the process of translation, and then translate the main sentence after a clear explanation, so that the meaning of the translated sentence is relatively clear.

Example 8:

ST: It may be useful to compare the doctrine of Marxism and the Prussian Historical School, according to which wage rates are a historical datum and not a catallactic phenomenon, with the regression theorem of money’s purchasing power.

TT: 用货币的购买力的回归定理对马克思主义理论和普鲁士历史学派进行比较可能是比较有用的。普鲁士历史学派认为工资率是历史数据而不是交换现象。

Analysis: In this sentence, “It” is the formal subject, and the real subject is “to compare the doctrine of Marxism and the Prussian Historical School”. Therefore, we should follow the Chinese expression habit and reorganize the sentences before translating them.

===5.3Division===

The so-called division in translation means separating the different parts of English sentences into a single component of Chinese, such as word group, phrases, sentences and even independent sentences (Wang 2009, 144). There are great differences between English and Chinese in syntax. English sentences are long, verbs are few, and balance is stressed, while Chinese is short, verbs are more, and symmetry is stressed. Therefore, when translating long English sentences, it is impossible to translate every sentence into a Chinese sentence, otherwise, the translation will appear bloated and stiff. In English, long sentences are mainly composed of compound and subordinate clauses. According to the habit of using short sentences in Chinese, sometimes the clauses or phrases in the original sentence can be translated separately, and the original sentence can be divided into two or more sentences, so as to make the translation clear and accurately. (Wang 2009, 144)

Example 9:

ST: It may be useful to compare the doctrine of Marxism and the Prussian Historical School, according to which wage rates are a historical datum and not a catallactic phenomenon, with the regression theorem of money’s purchasing power.

TT: 用货币的购买力的回归定理对马克思主义理论和普鲁士历史学派进行比较可能是比较有用的。普鲁士历史学派认为工资率是历史数据而不是交换现象。

Analysis: In this sentence, “according to which ... money’s purchasing power” is not a independent sentence, but for the easy understanding to the meaning this part was translated into another complete sentence by adding and deleting some words.

===5.4 Embedding===

Embedding means transforming the post modifiers of the center word in the source text into the premodifiers in the target text, which is suitable for the translation of long sentences with many post-modifiers and strong sense of sentence compactness(Liu 1998, 191).

Example 10:

ST: What brings us together is that we have common interests which transcend those differences.

TT: 使我们走到一起的，是我们有超越这些分歧的共同利益。

Analysis: In this sentence, “which transcend those differences” is a attributive clause to modify the antecedent “common interests”. If we translate it according to the English word order, it must be tedious and difficult to understand. Therefore, we can use insertion to put the clause before the main word, which will be simple and easy to understand.

Example 11:

ST: This refined playing must not be confused with the simple games of children which are merely pleasure-producing.

TT: 这细化的游戏一定不要和儿童仅仅为了快乐的简单游戏混淆。

Analysis: The post-positive attributive “which..” is a modifier used to explain “the simple games of children”. In order to make the sentence structure more compact, smooth and coherent, the modifier needs to be put before the noun “game”. This method is often used in the translation of attributive clauses or post-positive attributives in English.

===5.5 Synthesis===

Synthesis means to use the above methods to translate long English sentences. In fact, when translating long English sentences, it is rare to adopt only one translation method, and it is often necessary to combine several translation methods. The key to the synthesis method is to adjust the structure of the original text flexibly on the basis of accurate understanding of the original text, and to pursue the spirit likeness rather than the appearance likeness when expressing in Chinese (Jiang 2019, 62-65).

Example12:

ST: For all of our complaints about contemporary air- ports and flying, it might be a comfort to remember that thanks to the little Pacific island nation of Fiji, we are actually getting to our destinations faster and more safely than ever before.

TT: 对于如今的机场和乘机体验，尽管我们有诸多抱怨，但也多亏了斐济这个太平洋岛国，我们飞抵目的地已变得更快更安全，想到这一点，或许会让我们心里又感宽慰不少.

Analysis: The main body of this sentence is “it might be a comfort”, among which “it”, is the formal subject, and “to remember that…ever before” is the real subject. We can not find such a sentence structure in Chinese. So in order to make the translation more authentic, the sentence order must be changed. Based on the understanding of the source text, it is appropriate to adopt both liner method and reorganization method to translate.

===Conclusion===

In the practice of the translation of long and difficult sentences, there is a higher requirement for translators’ English comprehension and expression ability. For the translation of long and difficult sentences in English, the translator should be familiar with the sentence structure and main ideas of long and difficult sentences in English, and make clear the main logical relationship with the content of the original text, so as to effectively analyze the structure of long and difficult sentences in English and choose the correct way of translation. In the specific translation practice, translators should, on the basis of understanding the grammatical features of English, choose reasonable translation methods and skills so as to achieve the accurate translation of long and difficult Sentences. Translation activities require a high level of English reading and comprehension, and the effective translation of long and difficult sentences requires translators to constantly improve their ability to summarize, update their English translation skills, and realize the summary and innovation of long and difficult sentences.

===References===

*Bell, R.T. (1991). ''Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice''. London and New York: Longman.

*Nord, C. (2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity--Functionalist Approaches Explained'' . Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

*Reiss, Katharina & Vermeer, Hans J. (1984). ''Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation'' . Tubingen: Walter de Gruyter Press.

*Venuti, L. (2001). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' . London: London and New York Routledge.

*Vermeer, Hans J. (1989). ''Didactics of Translation. in Baker, Routledge Encyclopedia of Translation Studies'' . London: London and New York Routledge.

*Jia Dejiang贾德江. (2002). 英汉语对比研究与翻译 [Contrastive Study and Translation of English and Chinese].''国防科技大学出版社'' Changsha: NUDT Press.

*Jiang Yuqin蒋玉琴. (2019). 从英汉对比角度解析英语长句的翻译 [Translation of English Long Sentences into Chinese: a Contrastive Study]. ''宜春学院学报'' Journal of Yichun University (11) 62-65.

*Lian Shuneng连淑能. (2010). 英汉对比研究 [Contrastive Studies of English and Chinese]. ''高等教育出版社'' Beijing Higher Education Press.

*Liu Miqing刘宓庆. (1998). 文体与翻译 [English Varieties and Translation]. ''中国对外翻译出版公司'' Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.

*Liu Junping刘军平. (2009). 西方翻译理论通史 [A General History of Western Translation Theory]. ''武汉大学出版社'' Wuhan: Wuhan University Press.

*Wang Enmian王恩冕. (2009). 大学英汉翻译教程 [A College Textbook on English-Chinese Translation]. ''对外经济贸易大学出版社'' Beijing: University of International Business and Economics Press.

*Wang Shuwen王述文. (2010). 综合汉英翻译教程 [A Comprehensive Coursebook on Chinese-English Translation]. Beijing: National Defence Industry Press国防工业出版社.

*Wang Wuxing王武兴. (2004). 英汉互译指导与篇章翻译 [A Guide to Essay Translation from Chinese into English and Vise Versa]. ''朝华出版社'' Beijing: Morning Glory Publishers.

*Zhang Jinlan张锦兰. (2004).目的论与翻译方法 [Skopos Theory and Translation Methods]. ''中国科技翻译'' Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal (1) 35-37.

*Zhu Wei朱微. (2004). 汉英翻译教程 [A Textbook of Chinese-English Translation]. ''重庆大学出版社'' Chongqing: Chongqing University Press.
--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 14:28, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==3.2Static language vs. dynamic language==

==3.3 Passive voice vs. active voice==

==4.1Cross-cultural communication==

==4.2Attaching great importance to form==

==4.3Clearing language logic==

===5.The process of translating long English sentences===

===6.Methods of translating English long sentences===

==6.1Liner translation==

==6.2Reorganization translation=

==6.3Splitting translation==

==6.4Synthesis==

==6.5Insertion==

===Conclusion===

In the practice of the translation of long and difficult sentences, there is a higher requirement for translators’ English comprehension and expression ability. For the translation of long and difficult sentences in English, the translator should be familiar with the sentence structure and main ideas of long and difficult sentences in English, and make clear the main logical relationship with the content of the original text, so as to effectively analyze the structure of long and difficult sentences in English and choose the correct way of translation. In the specific translation practice, translators should, on the basis of understanding the grammatical features of English, choose reasonable translation methods and skills so as to achieve the accurate translation of long and difficult Sentences. Translation activities require a high level of English reading and comprehension, and the effective translation of long and difficult sentences requires translators to constantly improve their ability to summarize, update their English translation skills, and realize the summary and innovation of long and difficult sentences.

===Bibliography===

==Chinese-English Translation of News Headlines From the Perspective of Skopos Theory 张维虹 Zhang Weihong No.202070080648 MTI 英语口译 ==

===Abstract===
In recent years, with the rapid development of the society and economy, the exchanges between China and the rest of the world are increasingly frequent. In this process, massive information is transmitted through the translation of news reports. The translation quality of news headlines that serve as the eye of news, directly affects the effectiveness of its dissemination. Under the guidance of Skopos Theory of German Functionalist Translation School, this paper analyzes the characteristics of Chinese and English news headlines, illustrates the functions and translation criteria of news headlines, and puts forward corresponding translation strategies, aiming at retaining the conciseness of news and realizing dissemination and social value of news.

===key words===
News headlines translation; Skopos theory; Translation strategies

===题目===
目的论视角下中英新闻标题翻译研究
===摘要===
近年来，中国社会经济飞速发展，与外界交流日趋频繁，在此过程中大量信息传递需通过新闻报道翻译完成。而新闻标题作为新闻的眼睛，其翻译质量直接影响新闻传播的有效性。本文以德国功能翻译学派目的论为指导，分析中英新闻标题的特点，阐述新闻标题功能以及新闻标题翻译准则，并提出汉译英翻译策略，旨在还原新闻简明本色从而实现新闻传播目的和社会价值。

===关键字===
新闻标题翻译；目的论；翻译策略

===I. Introduction===
With the continuous development of culture and economy, news reporting is playing an increasingly important role in people's lives. We read news through TV, the Internet, or newspapers and magazines to keep abreast of current events. But thousands of pieces of news and the information they carry may confuse us, because we are in a world where massive information is flowing nonstop. There is no doubt that some news has been omitted or even ignored. Therefore, a clear-cut and intriguing headline is of great importance and can be considered as the only way to attract the target readers. (Chen Lizhao, 2002: 3-4)

Headlines are compared to the eyes of news reports, in which clear, concise information must be contained to generate interests. (Hu Shuzhong, 2012: 199) That is to say, headlines are expected to be vivid and eye-catching in order to attract readers and provide reading guidance. So, translators must learn how to effectively extract and reconstruct the information in the Chinese-English translation of news headlines, so as to make it cater to the target language readers.

In addition, news translation is playing a significant role in the promotion of cross-cultural communication and mutual understanding as China is having more and more exchanges with the rest of the world with the rapid development of society and economy brought about by the reform and opening-up policy and “go global” strategy. As the soul of news, headlines and their translation are what translators should pay attention to. (Liu Yunxi 2018(11):123-125.)

There are many studies about E-C news translation and news headline translation. However, research on Chinese-English news headlines translation is very few. According to statistics from CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure), there are only two pages of discussion on Chinese-English news headlines translation. Therefore, this paper is designed to provide further exploration and reference in the area.

As functions for headlines are obvious, this paper takes Skopos as the theory guide to conduct the research. First, the paper illustrates the development and three rules of Skopos theory. Then it discusses the features and functions of news headlines. Later, the paper tells some translation methods of Chinese-English news headlines from a perspective of Skopos Theory. At last, it draws a conclusion.

===II. Overview of the Skopos Theory ===
====2.1 Development of the Skopos Theory====
Skopos Theory was initially proposed by Katherina Reiss in her 1971 book ''Possibilities and Limits of Translation Criticism'', which formed the early theory. According to Reiss, the ideal translation would be “one in which the aim in the target language is equivalence as regards the conceptual content, linguistic form and communicative function of a source-language text” (Reiss 1977, translated in 1989: 112). Even though Reiss took the concept of equivalence as the main focus of her analysis, she realized that in some cases, equivalence is impossible and, in some situations, not even desired. Therefore, she indicated that the function of texts should be considered when translating.

The idea of text typology including content-focused, form-focused and appeal-focused text put forward by Reiss, is another contribution of her to the Skopos theory. It is supposed to be the starting point for Skopos theory.

Later, Hans Vermeer, the student of Reiss, made a major breakthrough in the limitations of equivalent theory and laid the theoretical foundation for it. He first mentioned the basic principles of Skopos Theory in 1978. He and Reiss jointly published ''Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation'' in 1984. In this book, Vermeer argued that translation should be seen as a fundamental action of the transformation of the source text. As all actions are generally purposeful, translation also has its own purposes which could have influences over the culture of the target language. (Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation, 1984)

For Vermeer, translation cannot be treated as a one-to-one transfer between the source language and the target language. In his research, on the basis of the source text, translation is a form of action to which some of the other forms of translational action may relate. Every translation is directed at an intended audience since to translate means “to produce a text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addresses in target circumstances” (Vermeer, 1987a: 29). Vermeer’s Skopos Theory serves as the foundation for his general theory of translation.

Later, two other German translators, Christiane Nord and Justa Holz Manttari, enriched and refined the Skopos theory. Mantarri’s theory is based on the rules of action theory and is intended to contain all forms of intercultural transmission, as well as those source or target texts which do not involve. (Nord, 2001: 12-13) Her theory reflects the role of the participants in the process of translation and the environment in which the process takes place. Nord, as the latest batch of German researchers, summarized the “Fidelity rule” and applied the Skopos theory extensively in the study of translation from multiple perspectives and related fields.

In conclusion, Reiss laid the foundation of Skopos theory. Vermeer, who summarized and outlined the rules to be followed in the process of Skopos theory in practice, became the founding father of the theory. Manttari focused on the specific issues of translation behavior and context in the translation process, while Nord made many contributions to the refinement of the theory and greatly expanded the practical application of this theory.

==== 2.2 Three Rules of Skopos theory ====
There are three significant rules of Skopos theory including Skopos rule, coherence rule, and fidelity rule, which will be discussed respectively as follows.

===== 2.2.1 Skopos Rule=====
The Skopos rule is the top-ranking rule for translation. That is to say, Skopos determines any translation action. “The translators should finish the task in a way that enables your translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function. All in all, the end justifies the means.” (Nord, 2001:29).

Translating is an international interaction as it is just said, and the Skopos rule has a stable position after it appeared. In Vermeer’s term, intention is thought of as an “aim-oriented plan of action” (Vermeer, 1983:41).

According to Vermeer, Skopos rule is that “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The Skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate in a way that enables your text to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.” (Vermeer, 1989a: 20, translated by Luo Dan) Skopos theory is the foundation for Chinese-English news headlines translation. All efforts made are meant to achieve the Skopos of news headline translation because “the end justifies the means".

=====2.2.2 Coherence Rule=====
The coherence rule, another important rule of the Skpos theory indicates that “the target text must be interpretable as coherent with the target text receiver’s situation”. (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 113) It implies that the target text must be translated in a way that it is clearly understood by the target readers, taking into consideration of their existing knowledge and situation.

===== 2.2.3 Fidelity Rule =====
Apart from the "intratextual coherence", there is another intertextual coherence which refers to the relationship between the target text and the source text. It is presumed as a further principle, fidelity rule. The fidelity rule by Vermeer indicates that there has to be coherence between the target text and the source text. That means that the target text should be faithful to its source text in a certain level of features, such as grammatical features, special collocations, and rhetorical devices, or to some degree between a complete imitation and deviation. (Nord 2001: 31)

In accordance with the Skopos theory, the source text is no longer considered as the “sacred original”, and it is up to the translator to determine the aspect and the degree of the fidelity. In Vermeer’s opinion, any text is just an offer of information, and that any target text is an offer of information formulated by a translator in a target culture and language about an offer of information formulated by someone else in the source culture and language. (Nord 2001: 32)

Three principal rules of Skopos theory have been illustrated as above. As for the relationships between the three rules, Reiss and Vermeer believe that the fidelity rule is subordinate to the coherence rule and is included to the Skopos rule. If the skopos of the target text demands a change of function, the fidelity of the source text will no longer be taken as the only standard, but adequacy and appropriateness will be supplemented as the standard with regard to the skopos (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 139).

====2.3 Summary ====
This chapter introduced the development of Skopos theory and its three main principles, laying a theoretical foundation for Chinese-English news headlines translation. The function and skopos of news headlines are to intrigue readers and convey information to them. Therefore, C-E news headlines translation, guided by Skopos theory, is a faithful re-creation.（Wang Chi, 2013: 33-34）

===III. Overview of News Headlines===
A headline is an essential part of news. So, it is important for translators to know the features and functions of news headlines. (Liu Yunxi, 2018: 123-125) The previous chapter introduces the theoretical framework of Skopos theory, which lay a foundation for the practical translation of Chinese news headlines. In this chapter, the author will discuss features and functions of news headlines, in order to search for some strategies for the Chinese-English translation of news headlines.

==== 3.1 Definition of News and News Headlines====
News refers to the timeliest report of events that have just happened, are happening, or are going to happen. It is born to meet the need for propagation and communication of information in human society. (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 4) This definition prescribes the features and functions of news. News should be timely and share ideas and information.

News headlines are compared to the “eye” of news. According to the dictionary, “A head of a newspaper story or article, usually printed in large type and devised to summarize, gives essential information about, or interests readers in reading the story or article that follows.” (Webster’s Third New International Dictionary, 1961: 1042) From the definition, we can see that news headlines tell the essence of the news; the function is to attract readers’ interests. The paper will discuss the features and functions of news headlines in detail in the following part.

====3.2 Features of News Headlines====
As a text genre, news headlines have their own features. Chinese and English news headlines share much in common, though they differ from each other in certain areas. Understandings about the differences and similarities of Chinese and English news headlines are important for translators. （Luo Dan, 2012: 30-31）So, this chapter will analyze the features of news headlines from the following aspects: grammar, rhetoric, culture, and structure.

===== 3.2.1 Grammatical Features=====

3.2.1.1 Lexical Feature

a. Midget words

A good headline must be clear to attract readers and be strong to save space. In other words, the headline should convey the intends of the news without confusion or ambiguity; the words should be powerful to persuade the headline consumer to read on. These two requirements determine the prevalence of powerful, or strong worlds – mostly verbs and nouns – in headlines. (Shen Jinbo, 1989:52) That is to say, powerful words are short, simple and concrete, for extensive or abstractive words can only lead to dullness and confusion. There are no such powerful words in Chinese, but Chinese headlines, on the premise of conveying the exact meanings also put emphasis on the shortness of words.

[1]: Dancing '''gets''' Olympic status (China Daily Dec 9, 2020)

[2]: 霹雳舞'''成'''巴黎奥运项目 (China Daily Dec 9, 2020)

b. Numeral words

Numbers are used in news headlines to highlight the key information, especially in economic and sports news.

[3]: Pink diamond sold for '''$26.6M''' (China Daily Nov 23, 2020)

[4]: 外储余额创'''4'''年多新高(China Daily Dec 9, 2020)

c. Abbreviations

The limitation of page space leads to the frequent use of abbreviations in headlines. English abbreviations, according to Lu Guoqiang (陆国强, 1984), consist of two major types: lipped words and initialisms or acronyms. The common types of abbreviations found in Chinese headlines, nevertheless, are mostly number-assisted summarizing, blending and substituting. (Chen Lizhao, 2002:36)

[5]: '''Intl''' student enrollment falls (China Daily, Nov 19, 2020)

[6]: 第二届'''“一带一路”'''国际合作高峰论坛举行圆桌峰会 (People’s Daily, April 28, 2019)

d. Vogue words

“Freshness” is the life of news, which lies in the contents of the report. As the gist of the news, headlines would certainly reveal some of the new ideas or hot topics in order to catch the reader’s attention. Therefore, vogue words are frequently seen in headlines. (Chen Lizhao, 2002: 4-5)

[7]: ''''Cooling-off period'''' added (China Daily Dec 8, 2020)

[8]: '''“离婚冷静期”'''新规将施行 (China Daily Dec 8, 2020)

3.2.1.2 Syntactical features

a. Omission

Omission appears in almost every headline. Eliminating meaningless words can shorten the length of a headline and highlight the core information. In English headlines, all articles and some auxiliary verbs, lexical verbs, pronouns, and the subject and the predicate are often omitted, as they weigh little in giving information. Chinese headlines also omit those unimportant words, including conjunctions, and auxiliary words as well. (Chen Lizhao, 2002: 4-5)

[9] Biden declares victory (China Daily, Nov 10, 2020)

[10] 研究：医患“互粉”对治疗不利 (China Daily, Nov 25, 2014)

b. Voice

Active voice is frequently adopted in news headlines.

[11] UK '''approves''' Pfizer vaccine (China Daily Dec 4, 2020)

[12]英国'''批准'''辉瑞新冠疫苗 (China Daily Dec 4, 2020)

[13] Biden '''unveils''' economic team (China Daily Dec 2, 2020)

[14]拜登'''拟'''提名耶伦任财长 (China Daily Dec 2, 2020)

c. Tense

One of the distinct features of news headlines, particularly in English news headlines, is the wide use of present tense, which saves the space of “-ed” in the past tense. But sometimes past tense is used to indicate the timeline. While Chinese news headlines use different tenses, as they are not revealed by the different forms of verbs as in English. So, the auxiliary verbs or adverbs in Chinese news headlines tell the time of happening form. (Chen Lizhao, 2002: 4-5)

[15] COVID vaccine distribution (China Daily Dec 1, 2020)

[16] 英美'''即将'''启动疫苗分配 (China Daily Dec 1, 2020)

=====3.2.2 Rhetorical Features =====
The figures of speech found in headlines, English and Chinese alike, include metaphor, simile, pun, alliteration and rhyme, repetition, allusion, etc. They are aimed at creating musical sound as well as vivid images to provide spiritual enjoyment to the readers. (Chen Lizhao, 2002: 4-5)

[1] 苹果发新机加入5G'''战局''' (metaphor) (China Daily Oct 16, 2020)

[2] 美国加州火灾蔓延居民'''仿佛置身火星'''(simile)

===== 3.2.3 Cultural Features=====
Language is the carrier of culture. News, as a practical genre, also bears cultural characteristics of a certain country or region. These cultural elements also appear in news headlines. (Fan Tengteng, 2006: 44-45)

=====3.2.4 Structural Features =====
To achieve the headline’s distinctiveness and simplicity, certain punctuation marks are used in English news headlines, which are not often seen in Chinese news headlines. However, the pursuit of using punctuation marks shares a common destination—to make the news headlines clear and easily perceptible. The rule for headlines is that the fewer punctuation marks are, the better. (Fan Tengteng, 2006: 45-46)

[1] 世界精神卫生日：超半数英国员工最担心就业问题 (China Daily Oct 16, 2020)

[2] World Mental Health Day: More than half of UK workers worry about finding a job (China Daily Oct 16, 2020)

====3.3 Functions of News Headlines ====
According to the theory of text-style function by Peter Newmark, new headlines fulfill the following four functions: informative function, expressive function, aesthetic function and vocative function, which will be illustrated in this section. (Newmark 2001: 40)

=====3.3.1 Informative Function =====
“The core of the informative function of language is external situation, the facts of a topic, reality outside language, including ideas or theories” (Newmark 2001: 40) That is to say, news headline tells readers the basic information and facts of the news.

=====3.3.2 Expressive Function =====
“The core of the expressive function is the mind of the speaker, the writer, the originator of the utterance. He uses the utterance to express his feelings irrespective of any response” (Newmark 2001: 39) The expressive function of a news headline is to reveal the writer’s or the editor’s attitude toward the news by using commentary words or rhetoric devices.

=====3.3.3 Aesthetic Function=====
“This is a language designed to please the sense, firstly through its actual or imagined sound, and secondly through its metaphors. The rhythm, balance, and contrast of sentences, clauses, and words also play their part.” (Newmark 2001: 42) As the eye of the news, headlines use elegant words, abbreviations, punctuations, and so on to strengthen their aesthetic function.

=====3.3.4 Vocative Function=====
The vocative function is reader-oriented. Here, the term “vocative” is interpreted as “calling upon” the readers to act, think or feel, in fact, to “react” in the way intended by the text. (Newmark 2001: 41) Vocative words in news headlines can attract the readers to read the whole article, and in certain circumstances call upon the readers to take some actions after finishing the news.

====3.3 Summary ====
This chapter discussed the features and functions of news headlines as well as differences between Chinese and English news headlines. It helps the author to seek for certain translation strategies and methods to retain the features and achieve the purposes of news headlines, which will be mentioned in the following chapter.

===IV. Application of Skopos theory in Chinese-English Translation===
Many translation strategies and techniques can be adopted under the guidance of the Skopos theory. Based on the dominant informative function of news headlines, new information should be transferred with fidelity and clarity. Moreover, considering the aesthetical function of headlines, the source text should be aesthetically handled to the target readers. This chapter will explain how the Skopos theory is applied in the translation of Chinese-English news headlines. Before that, the criteria for C-E news headlines translation will be discussed. (Luo Dan, 2012）

====4.1 Criteria of News Headline Translation ====
According to the basis of translation criteria, the author discussed four criteria for Chinese news headline translation, including fidelity, readability, adaptability, and rapidity.

===== 4.1.1Fidelity =====
Fidelity means to accurately convey the message of the source text. The translation of news headlines from Chinese to English is a kind of intercultural communication in which messages should be transferred objectively and accurately by reflecting reality. Considering this point of view, fidelity can be acted as the main rule for translating news headlines. （Luo Dan, 2012: 45-46）

=====4.1.2 Readability =====
Readability means the translation version is smooth as much as possible so that it is easier for readers or audiences to read and understand. According to a survey on ''Beijing citizens’ newspaper reading and willingness'' by Chinese People’s University, vividness and readability are the first to be considered while consumers buying and reading a newspaper. Therefore, the translation of news headlines should value readability. If the rule of fidelity concerns the content, then the rule of readability aims at the form. （Luo Dan, 2012: 46-47）

=====4.1.3Adaptability =====
Adaptability means that the translated headline should be in an appropriate writing pattern in line with the features of news language. In other words, the style of the target language should be consistent with the source language. Style-maintaining is considered to be essential and important in translation, which is also true in the translation of news headlines. So, translators must deal with the grammar and diction of English seriously, and make sure the style of the original is mostly intact when translating a Chinese news headline. (Tang Ting, 2010: 35-36)

===== 4.1.4Rapidity =====
Rapidity, as the fourth request of news headline translation, is the most indispensable one. It requires that the translation of a news headline should be completed at a given period of time without any delay. The news is more valuable if the time between happening and reporting is shorter. So, the timeliness of news decides the rapidity of news translation, especially the headlines. (Tang Ting, 2010: 36-37)

====4.2 Strategies and Methods of Chinese-English News Headlines Translation ====
News headlines are considered to be the soul of the news. Since Chinese and English readers are different in thinking patterns, education systems, and cultural backgrounds, some proper translation strategies and methods should be taken into consideration to enable the readers to understand the news headlines easily. Under the guidance of Skopos theory, translation methods including literal translation, free translation, amplification, omission, amplification, restructuring, and adaptation are applied in news headlines translation. (Wang Jun, Chen Shiyue, 2017: 102-103)

=====4.2.1 Literal Translation=====
Literal translation, also called word-for-word translation, is the basic approach used in Chinese news headline translation, since it can retain both the form and contents of the original to the maximum. Here are some examples: (Wang Jun, Chen Shiyue, 2017: 102-103)

[1] 疫情致牛仔裤销量骤减

Pandemic leads to jeans sales slump
(China Daily Aug 10, 2020)

The headline introduces that Covid-19 pandemic has led to jeans sales slump. “疫情”was translated into “Pandemic”, “牛仔裤销量” was “jeans sales”, and “骤减” “slump”, which is exactly an example of literal translation. There’s no change in the form or style between the source text and the target text. It conforms to the fidelity rule of the Skopos Theory.

[2] 新冠抗原检测试剂获批

COVID antigen tests approved
(China Daily Nov 10, 2020)

This example is a typical word-for-word translation. “新冠”, an abbreviation for “新冠病毒”, was translated into “COVID”, short for coronavirus. “抗原检测”was translated into “antigen tests”and“获批”,“approved”. We can see that in this example, literal translation was used so that the form, style, and even the tense and voice of the source text are all retained. It is royal to the source text.

[3] 成都将建首个大熊猫主题公园

Chengdu Set to Get Unique Panda-themed Park
(China Daily, Jan 17, 2018)

This is an example of literal translation, remaining the original form and style of the Chinese version. It uses midget words “set” and “get”, taking into consideration the style of English news headlines, in order to attract readers from different walks of life. At the same time, the Chinese noun “大熊猫主题” is converted to the English adjective “Panda-themed”, which is very concise and accurate.

=====4.2.2 Free Translation =====
Free translation is applied when the news headline of the source text is obscure and difficult to understand or there are no equivalent words in the target language. Sometimes it is preferred because it adapts the original headlines to the target language. (Wang Jun, Chen Shiyue, 2017: 102-103)

[4] 不要人夸颜色好，只留清气满乾坤

Xi: China Welcomes Constructive Suggestions
(China Daily, Oct 25, 2017)

The source text is a poem, cited by President Xi at the press conference of 19th CPC Central Committee Political Bureau to hear constructive suggestions from people both at home and abroad. The poem, Ink Plum written by a famous Chinese ancient poet, Wang Mian, carries rich cultural connotations. If it is directly translated as “Not angling for compliments, we should be content that integrity fills the universe”, it will cause confusion to the target readers. Obviously, such a mechanical translation will discourage the reader from understanding the meaning of the poem. Therefore, the translation of this news headline should be based on the content of the news – Xi: Welcomes Constructive Suggestions. So, it is a typical example of free translation.

[5]姜瑜：外资应凭实力在华竞争

Foreign investors told to sharpen edge

This example takes into consideration of the reading habits and backgrounds of the target readers. “凭实力竞争” is translated to “sharpen one’s edge”, which is more understandable. “姜瑜”(Jiang Yu”, a heroic character in Chinese history is omitted. So, it is a free translation, which serves the informative function of the news and conforms to the Skopos rule.

=====4.2.3 Amplification =====
Most news headlines contain certain backgrounds that are familiar to the source language readers, but alien to those who read the target language. So, translators have the responsibility to turn information that is rich in cultural connotation into something understandable to target readers. This is particularly significant in translating news headlines from the perspective of Skopos theory because the purpose is to convey effective information to target readers. As mentioned in the chapter before, Chinese news headlines usually are culture-loaded. Therefore, amplification is frequently used in Chinese-English news headlines translation. （Fan Tengteng, 2006: 50-51）

[6] 水陆两栖飞机AG600首飞成功

China’s First Large Amphibious Aircraft Makes a Successful Maiden Flight
(China Daily, Dec 25, 2018)

Amplification is used in this translation. AG600, as called Kun Lun600, is the world’s largest amphibious aircraft developed by China. The translator adds a modifier “China’s first large” as a supplement of background to better inform the targe readers. Here, coherence rule of Skopos theory is considered.

[7] 共享单车来到“世界屋脊”

Shared Bikes Climb to the “Roof of the World” (Tibet)

“Roof of the World” is confusing for some target readers, so the translator adds “(Tibet)” at the end of the sentence to avoid ambiguity. This example obeyed the Skopos rule.

=====4.2.4 Omission =====
Omission is a translation method to make the news headline simple and concise by eliminating the redundant verbs, pronouns, and other words in the source text. As Chinese usually use unnecessary modifiers, this method can highlight the main point of the news. (Wang Jun, Chen Shiyue, 2017: 102-103)

[8] 对外汉语专家齐聚京城共议国际汉语教师缺口问题

Beijing forum addresses Chinese teacher shortage
(China.org.cn, Jul 21, 2021)

In this example, the first sentence is translated into a phrase, so as to shorten the length of the news headline and more it more concise. What’s more, redundant words like “齐聚”, “共议” “问题” are omitted to point out the main contents of the news.

[9] '大流行病'当选年度词汇

Word of the year: pandemic

(China Daily, Dec 12, 2020)

In the example, the verb “当选”(elected) in the source text is eliminated to save space.

=====4.2.5 Restructuring =====
Restructuring refers to the rearranging of the words in logical order to make the translation more consistent and coherent. The target text should be acceptable and meaningful in a sense that it is coherent with the situation in which it is received. Once translated, the translator revises the order and rearranges all words into a perfect sentence. In doing so, the news is more logical and tuned with the habit of native readers’ thinking and reading. It is frequently used in translating news headlines from Chinese into English. (Tang Ting, 2010: 25-26)
[10] 疫情期间夫妻关系改善

Marriages benefit from lockdown
(China Daily, Nov 23, 2020)

The English version changes the structure of the Chinese news headline, and adds a preposition to show the logic of this sentence. By restructuring, English readers can better understand this news headline.

=====4.2.6 Adaptation =====
Adaptation is a translation method, which refers to selecting, adding, deleting, and constructing cautiously instead of simply translating one word to another word. In order to make the translated version more proper to certain readers or audiences, adaptation always makes some essential changes for a special aim. Specific to C-E news headlines translation, the translator can take the Chinese news headlines as the basis and refer to the key news facts of the report, in order to offer as much information as possible to the target readers. (Wang Chi, 2013: 42-42)

[11] 高考将不再是 “一考定终身”

Changes to Uni Eligibility
（People’s Daily, 2014）

In this example, “高考” refers to the National College Entrance Examination in China, which is an expression with Chinese characteristics. Therefore, based on the main idea of the news, the translator translated it into “Uni Eligibility”

[12] 中国女性主导财务决策

'She' to power wealth management
(China Daily, Nov 23, 2020)

Adaptation is used in this translation. According to the contents of the news, women in different countries are mentioned. So, instead of translating “中国女性” into Chinese women, the English version adapted it into “she”, which adds interest and fun to the headline and thus can attract more readers. So, the functions of news headlines are performed by taking into consideration the Skopos rule.

====4.3 Summary====
This chapter introduces criteria, and strategies and methods of Chinese-English news headlines translation. It is the main body of the paper, which can serve as guidelines for translators who translate Chinese news headlines into English ones.

===V. Conclusion===
Based on Skopos theory, this paper discussed the features and functions of news headlines and their relevance to translation, summarized translation criteria, and strategies and methods adopted in actual C-E news headlines translation.

News translation is a cultural transformation with certain purposes(skopos). While conveying the connotation of the information, news translation must also take into account the habits of target readers. The purpose-oriented approach helps translators to break the language barriers and helps to convey cultural connotations and facilitate communication. The purposes and functions of translation determine the translation methods. In translation, the standard of translation should not be how to be faithful to the source text, to highlight the main points of the news and attract English readers. Therefore, the paper, applying the Skopos theory to Chinese-English news headlines, is of significance.

However, there are also limitations in the paper. The first problem is the complexity of the theoretical basis. The second one is that few data have been collected. And the last one is the capability of the author herself. So, there is still room for improvement.

--[[User:Zhang Weihong|Zhang Weihong]] ([[User talk:Zhang Weihong|talk]]) 02:27, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Zhang Weihong

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==On Chinese-English Translation of Public Service Advertisements From the Perspective of Text-type Theory 司妤 Si Yu Student No.202070080606==
<center> 司妤 Si Yu Student No.202070080606</center>

===Abstract===

Public-service advertising is an advertising activity that provides free services to the community without the purpose of making profit. Since the founding of the People's Republic of China, public-service advertising activities have increased and played an important role in the moral and ideological education of society as a whole, such as fire and burglary prevention, forest protection, birth control, maintenance of public order, no spitting and so on, all of which are in the nature of public-service advertising.

With the improvement of China's status in the international society, the accuracy of the translation of PSAs, as a medium to convey Chinese culture, is attracting more and more attention. Accurate translations help to showcase Chinese culture to foreigners and promote communication, while incorrect translations can be laughable.

In some public occasions, I have noticed that there are many excellent PSAs, but there are also some "Chinglish" PSAs. This paper analyzes the text of PSAs by using the Text-type theory, gives suggestions to improve the messy translation phenomenon, and summarizes several translation methods, hoping to provide reference for the translators of PSAs.

===key words===

Public-service advertisement;Text typeTheory;Translation methods

===文本理论视角下公益广告的中英翻译===

===摘要===

公益广告是不以营利为目的而为社会提供免费服务的广告活动。我国建国以后，公益性的广告活动日益增多，对全社会进行道德和思想教育发挥了重要作用，例如有关部门进行的防火防盗、保护森林、节制生育、维护公共秩序、不要随地吐痰等广告宣传，均属公益广告的性质。

随着中国在国际社会地位的提高，公益广告作为一种传递中国文化的媒介，其翻译的准确性日益受到人们的关注，翻译准确有利于向外国友人展示中国文化，促进交流。而翻译错误则容易贻笑大方。

笔者注意到在一些公众场合不乏优秀的公益广告翻译，同时也仍有一些“中式英语”公益广告存在。本文运用文本类型理论对公益广告文本进行分析，对乱译现象提出改进建议，总结了几点翻译方法，希望能够为公益文本译者提供借鉴。

===关键字===

公益广告；文本类型理论；翻译方法

===Introduction===

====Research Background====

Economic and social development and the improvement of people's living standards have brought many unprecedented changes to people, making their lives more convenient and colorful. But along with it comes a series of social problems such as indiscriminate dumping of urban garbage, neglect of wildlife protection, lack of care for public property, smoking in public places, etc.These social problems have also been magnified by the advance of urbanization. At this time, public service advertisement (PSA)can offer help if we want to activate more people to solve them.

There are many forms of public service advertisements, such as public service advertisement (PSA) clips, public service messages, and public service slogans. Each of these PSAs has its own textual characteristics, such as the PSA short film in the form of a short video, using a fascinating plot to illustrate the concept of public welfare; public service messages are simple but informative; public service slogans are neat and thought-provoking. The translation of these texts should be done according to the characteristics of the text in order to achieve the public service effect of the text.

With China playing an increasingly important role in the international community, a large number of international conferences are being held in China, and the number of foreign travelers arriving in the country is on the rise. The accuracy of the translation of public service advertisements is especially important at this time, not only to help foreigners in their travel work in China, but also to promote Chinese culture and to enhance their understanding of China.

It is worth mentioning that the overall quality of the Chinese people has been significantly improved compared to a few years ago, and the appearance of more and more elites has made the society think more deeply about the accuracy of translation, which is conducive to building a good city image and improving the aesthetic level of city residents and tourists.

Advertisements can be divided into commercial advertisements and public service advertisements according to content and purpose. Commercial advertisements are mostly published by enterprises, and their main purpose is to stimulate consumers and arouse their desire to consume, and their content is mostly product information.(Liu Xiaofang 2014)

There are some definitions from different people. Berkowitz, a famous scholar, who makes a thorough study of advertisement for more than 25 years, states that PSA is generally sponsored by a non-profitable institution, civic group, religious organization, trade association, or political group with a central focus on public welfare (Berkowitz, 2004). In China, according to Zhang Minxin’s definition, PSA is a sub-branch of non-commercial advertisement whose purposes are to serve the public interests. This kind of advertisement can push the public to change their attitudes and behaviors (Zhang Mingxin, 2004). There are some researchers at home and abroad trying to discover how public service advertisements work, such as: Judie Lannon (2008), Nancy Lee (2006), Josephson (2005) and other scholars hoping to discover the secrets behind public service advertisements and society, such as Charles Atkin (2001) and Pan Zehong (2001).

====Research Significance and Objectives====

As the influence of Chinese culture increases internationally, more and more foreigners want to learn about China. Some want to learn Chinese, and others want to know more about the social situation. Public service advertisements (PSAs) provide such an opportunity for them to learn and better understand China.

At the same time, some social problems, such as the Cov-19 epidemic, SARS, and AIDS, may not only be a problem for China, but also for the whole world, and the PSAs can provide a Chinese perspective and Chinese wisdom to solve these problems. In addition, when a disaster occurs, such as the Wenchuan earthquake, which aroused the attention and sympathy of the international community, and some friendly countries want to provide assistance, PSAs are extremely important. In this paper, the writer will analyze different public service advertisements from the perspective of text type theory and provide translation suggestions.

Public service advertisement texts are common texts in daily life, and many scholars have discussed them from various perspectives, including the theory of purpose, aesthetic perspective, semantic translation and communicative translation perspective. However, no scholars have analyzed them from the perspective of text type theory. The writer boldly proposes to look at public-interest text translation from such a perspective, which may lead to new insights.

====Methodology====

The texts in this paper are mostly from public service advertisements released by CCTV, publicservice text messages received by the public, and public service slogans around them. This paper adopts a descriptive approach to analyze the content and purpose of the texts in detail, and also gives its own suggestions on how to translate the public service texts.

====Framework of this paper====

This paper is divided into seven chapters.

Chapter 1 introduces the background, significance and purpose of the research, methodology, and general framework of this thesis.

Chapter 2 introduces the theoretical perspective used in this paper.

Chapter 3 analyzes the characteristics of public service texts from the perspective of content and text.

Chapter 4 gives examples of texts according to the three categories of text type theory and analyzes the more appropriate translations.

Chapter 5 lists the obvious mistranslations in PSAs and gives suggested versions of the translations.

Chapter 6 summarizes the methods that can be used to translate PSA texts.

Chapter 7 summarizes what has been discussed throughout the essay and reflects on the limitations of the essay.

===Overview of Theoretical Foundation and Comparisons===

====Reiss’s View of Text Type Theory====

Katharina Reiss is the founder of the German functional school of translation, and in her book Possibilities and Limitations in Translation Criticism she presented the prototype of the functional school's theoretical ideas. Reiss's text types are divided into four main categories. She points out that content texts emphasize the depictive function, formal texts emphasize the expressive function, operative texts emphasize the persuasive function, and audio-visual texts emphasize the audio-visual function. function). Therefore, these text categories can also be referred to as informative text, expressive text, operative text, and audio-visual text, respectively. Correspondingly, there are four types of functions.(Reiss 1972)

1. Content-based text

This type of text is content-based, and the text can be used to convey information and so on. When translating, the content should be restored to the greatest extent possible. These texts mainly include news reports and commentaries, business letters, cargo lists, instructions for use, operating instructions, and other professional works in technical fields.

2. Formal texts

The focus of formal texts is on their aesthetic significance. When translating such texts, the translator should aim to create a similar text effect in the form. Formal texts include literary prose (short essays, biographies, pure literature), imaginative prose (anecdotes, short stories, novels, romances), and all forms of poetry (from didactic poetry to narrative poetry to purely emotional poetry).
If the form is not preserved in translation, the content of the text may be lost as a result.

3. Operative texts

Operative texts are concerned with the response of the recipient of the text. This type of text clearly appeals to the recipient of the text through a certain point of view and with a certain purpose, expecting to receive the desired response. The representative texts are all operative texts in which the appealing element predominates, using advertisements, propaganda, sermons, debates, agitation or satirical texts that have an expressive purpose or linguistic expression.

4. Audiovisual texts

Generally speaking, any text that requires some degree of non-verbal communication with the audience is an audio-visual text. This includes mainly radio and television scripts, such as radio news and reports, overviews of hot topics, and theater productions. In these texts, not only grammar and narration techniques, but also sound effects and visual devices (in television and film) play an important role.

====Peter Newmark’s View of Text Type Theory====

Peter Newmark is one of the leading figures in the linguistic school of British translation theory. Newmark also made a detailed classification of texts, and he summarized them into the following three types according to their contents.(Peter Newmark 2001)

1. Expressive texts

This type of text focuses on the content of the text and the author's own point of view. Newmark divides them into three types of texts. (1) serious and imaginative literature, including lyric poetry, short stories, long novels, and plays; (2) authoritative texts, including a variety of texts whose authority comes from the author's status or linguistic ability, such as speeches and statements by senior government officials and political party leaders, legal regulations, documents, and literary and academic works written by authorities; (3) autobiographies, essays, and private letters that are straightforward and have no direct readership.(Jia Heping 2015)

2. Informative texts

The text often contains some content that does not involve the emotional and opinion part, and this part of the content can have its practicality, which is the information function of the text. Typical informative texts include textbooks, technical reports, newspaper articles, scientific papers, conference proceedings, etc.

3. Operative text

The function focuses on the response of the text receiver, and the text is set to get the desired response from the receiver, to produce certain influence on them or even change their concepts and behaviors. Typical vocative texts include notices, advertising campaigns, instructions, and persuasive texts (such as requests, appeals, etc.).

He classifies language functions into six categories, based on what the philosophers of language Bühler and Jacobson have said about language functions. He believes that a text may have one function or several functions, but that one of these functions is the main one, as explained below.

1. Expressive function

Expression is a fundamental property of language. Expression is the process by which people use language to express their feelings, attitudes, and opinions. Expression focuses on output of the writer, not on the other person's reaction and feelings.

2. Informative function

The content of the text is mainly fixed, not with emotion, can be used by people in certain situations.

3. Operative function

This function focuses on the reaction of the recipient of the text, and the writer envisages the reaction of the recipient of the text when writing, in order to achieve the corresponding purpose.

4. Aesthetic function

Language contains traces of history, which represents a certain aesthetic of people. The first means used for this function is sound, and the second is metaphor. In addition, the rhythm, balance and contrast of sentences and words also have a role. The aesthetic function is present in most of the text categories, moreover, it is indispensable for poems, nursery rhymes and some advertising campaigns.

5. Interpersonal function

The interpersonal function is reflected in people's daily interactions and conversations. That is, language helps people establish relationships with each other.

6..Meta-linguistic function

Meta-linguistic function is a special function of language, refers to the language of the language itself to explain, name, analyze, comment on the function. Some expressions in the text, such as “strictly speaking, literally, so called, so to speak, by definition, etc.”, are manifestations of the meta-linguistic function.

Of the above six functions, the first three are the main ones, but within a text, there may be multiple functions, but the text itself has a focus, and rarely does textual knowledge contain purely one function.(Li Zhi 2008)

====Similarities and Differences Between Reiss's and Newmark's View of Text Type Theory====

=====Similarities=====
Both theories are based on Bühler's triadic approach to language function.

Both have the same understanding of the division and characteristics of different kinds of texts.

=====Differences=====
First of all, language used in lived interaction is the main basis for Rice's definition of text types, and these are classified as text types that value content. Newmark, on the other hand, regards such lived language as a special linguistic function, and many experts consider this understanding by Newmark problematic.

Second, there is a significant difference in their views of instructions, with Rice classifying them as informative texts because of their ability to provide certain information to readers. Newmark, on the other hand, classifies it as a operative text because of its ability to guide people and thus change their behaviors. In my opinion, the text of instruction manuals is due to the nature of the product itself, and the readers have the will to act before reading the text, and the manuals only provide them with certain information, so they should belong to the information category.

Furthermore, the language used in living interactions is the main basis for Rice's definition of text types, and these are classified as text types that value content. Newmark, however, regards this lived language as a special language function, and many experts think that this understanding of Newmark is problematic.(Jia Heping 2015)

===Features of Public Service Advertisements===

As an advertising method, public service advertisements have their own characteristics in many aspects. By analyzing the characteristics, we can accurately convey the idea that the PSA is trying to convey.

====Content Features====

1. Public welfare. The public welfare nature of PSAs is their essential feature, which is concerned with the common interests of the entire society. By observing the theme and content of the PSAs in both China and abroad, it can be seen that the topics of PSAs cover ecological protection, care for the earth, quality birth and education, opposing cults, advocating science, opposing war, advocating polite social mores, patriotism, and so on.

2. Non-Profit. Public service advertisements are non-profit in nature. It does not exist for an organization or a business entity, but rather to draw people’s attention to and activate action on social issues. Commercial advertising, on the other hand, exists for financial gain.

3. Popularity. The public service advertisements are made for the general public. As the audience's cultural level, the ability to understand different, so public service advertisements must be easy to understand. It not only requires the spread of advertising content to have universal significance, but also the form of popular, concise, accessible language, easy to understand. Only in this way, the public service advertisement can really serve the purpose of the public.

4. Creativity. The advertising market is so diverse that the only way to make advertisements spread to the public is to design them in a creative and meaningful way that will make them known to
more people.

====The Features of Text Forms====

1.Advertising texts that we see in our daily lives include slogans, public service messages and public service videos, and so on. Advertising slogans are usually short and meaningful, with simple counterpoint sentences, and are operative texts. On the other hand,public service messages are mostly preventive messages issued by social organizations to help disseminate precautions and draw people’s attention to an unexpected situation in order to maintain social order. They are mostly informative texts. Most PSAs have a complete storyline, thought-provoking dialogue, and a short slogan that summarizes the message of the ad.

2. Public service advertisements are often designed with certain rhetorical techniques to enhance the aesthetics of the ad, make it catchy to read, and ultimately leave a deep impression on the public.

====Similarities and Differences Between Chinese and English PSA texts====

=====Similarities=====

1. Public service texts in both languages often use certain rhetorical techniques, such as personification, alliteration, and end-rhyme, in order to evoke a call to action.

2. Public service texts in both languages often use short sentences, especially in public service slogans, which are easy to remember and achieve the desired effect.

3. Both languages use idioms and sayings that have been around for a long time.

=====Differences=====

1. Chinese public service texts are good at using strong words such as "forbidden", while English texts use more euphemistic words such as "Please". When translating, we should respect the habits of the translating countries in order to better play the role of public welfare texts.

2. Chinese public service texts tend to use poetry-like forms, with seven or five characters in order to be neatly matched. In English, they mostly use phrases of the same number of words to match each other.

3.The translation of advertising slogans also needs to respect certain cultural differences, as Western societies emphasize the individual while the Chinese value collectivism. For example:

Example 1：保护生态环境，造福子孙后代。

Translation 1:Leave a sound ecological environment to your children.

Such a slogan in Chinese emphasizes the impact on future generations without specifying whose children and grandchildren it is, but in the translation, the translator translates it as "Leave a sound ecological environment to your children.” to call on people to protect the environment.

4. Westerners focus on direct expressions, while Chinese expressions are more subtle. For example:

Example 2: 司机一滴酒，亲人两行泪。

Translation:Drink and drive costs your life.

The sentence contrasts the words "酒" and "泪" without directly pointing out the possible serious consequences, leaving the reader to think about them and take actions. Instead, the translator simply translates it as "Drink and drive costs your life.”(Li Qingxue, Wang Huaiwang 2019)

===Examples of C-E Translation of Public Service Advertisements===

====Operative Text====

Most of the PSAs are operative texts, and the pupose of operative texts in PSAs is to affect the public in order to attain the desired response from the advertisers. PSAs are created to publicize something of common social interest in order to attract attention and action, so the creative design of the advertisement should take this into account and retain the appealing elements of the original text when designing the advertisement.

Example 3: 爱心播散希望萌芽

Translation: Spread love Sow hope

The public service advertisement slogan is from a public service advertisement released by CCTV in 2016, which tells the story of Zhao Xiaoting, a student from Wuhan University, who volunteered to go to Guizhou to teach in the mountains. It was her selfless love that sowed hope for the children in the mountains. The ad reflects the great power of ordinary people and promotes the core values of socialism. It shows the power that volunteering can bring.

The ad is very short, with a neat counterpoint, and the verb and noun have been swapped in the translation, with the verb being in front of the noun, indicating a dynamic process that can arouse the public's recognition of the act and inspire them to join in and contribute to the poor areas. The second verb in the original text is "萌芽", but the translation uses "sow" to indicate the growth of hope, which is similar to the original text.(Jin Haibing 2005)
In addition, the translation version capitalize these two verbs to emphasize these selfless behavior. Learning from this, we can also adopt this translation skill which originates from the difference between Chinese and English.

Example 4: 有你在，就是家。

Translation：You bring me warmth of home.

In this short film, a father in a rural area has never been away from home, and because he misses his son, who has not been home for a long time, he sets out on his own to visit him. The father has to change various means of transportation to get to the city, and encounters many difficulties because his being unable to speak mandarin well. The helpless father finally gets help from the staff, through whom he contacts his son. Eventually they both cry, and the short film ends with the father sitting on his son's motorcycleand going home together.

The short film is very touching, and through the process of going into the city to look for his son, it shows us how brave and gentle people can be for love. If we translate the text word by word in the original order, we can't express this meaning, so we use phrases like "bringing sb warmth" to express the meaning of the original Chinese.(Ye Qiuling 2020)

====Informative Text====

Public service messages are informatiive texts, mainly used to convey certain information, with straightforward and concise text content, and the translator only needs to express its literal meaning directly when translating.

Example 5：请您收到来自境外、国内新冠疫情中高风险地区的邮件、包裹，先对物品表面进行消毒，或在阳台等室外空旷处放置一段时间再打开。处理完包裹、邮件后，应立即用肥皂或洗手液清洗双手，或用免洗手消毒剂进行消毒。洗手前双手不触碰口、鼻、眼等部位。疫情防控有您的参与才能胜利！

Translation: If you receive mail or parcels from overseas or domestic areas at high risk of Cov-19 outbreak, please disinfect the suface of the items first, and leave them on the balcony or other outdoor open space for a period of time before opening them. Immediately after handling parcels and mail, wash your hands with soap and hand sanitizer, or disinfect them with hand sanitizer. Do not touch your mouth, nose, eyes or other parts of your body before washing your hands. Outbreak prevention and control can only be won with your participation!

Example 6：应急公益短信:为严防新型冠状病毒感染的肺炎疫情，山东省严禁任何形式的野生动物交易活动，严禁野生动物对外扩散和转运贩卖。对于违反规定的经营者、经营场所将予以停业整顿、查封，涉嫌犯罪的，将移送公安机关。社会各界如有发现违法违规交易野生动物的，欢迎拔打12345等投诉举报。

Translation: In order to prevent the outbreak of pneumonia due to new coronavirus infection, any form of wildlife trade is strictly prohibited in Shandong Province, and the proliferation and trafficking of wildlife is strictly prohibited. The company's main goal is to provide the best service to the public.
If you are suspected of committing a crime, you will be transferred to the public security organs. If any
illegal trade of wild animals is found, the community is welcome to call 12345 to report complaints.

====Expressive Text====

The purpose of an expressive text is to express emotions and attitudes, the language focuses on aesthetics, and the focus of the text is on the form of expression, which requires attention to equity in translation. With the development of the economy and society and the improvement of people's living standards, the aesthetic level of the masses is also improving, and accordingly, the translation of advertising slogans should also change to adapt to the improvement of people's aesthetics.

Example 7：善行无痕一种习惯的美丽

Translation: Kindness is traceless. A habit of beauty.

The slogan is from a public service advertisement by CCTV in 2016. In the short film, a wife walks into a room to rest after stopping on the balcony for a long time, and her husband comes back and intends to tum off the balcony light to save electricity. The wife stops the husband, and the camera turns to two elderly sanitation workers who are finishing their meal by the light of the lamp she left for them, which the young couple lit for them in the night.

Such kindness is obviously not accidental,but has been a habit of the wife in the short film, and is therefore natural and touching. The ad is intended to call attention to good deeds and habit formation through a story like this one. The ad's slogan is a literal translation, with "善行" translated as "Kindness" and "无痕" as "traceless"."The use of end-rhyme rhetoric, which pursues equivalence of expressions and enhances the rhythmic beauty of the language, impresses readers and influences their perceptions and habits of good deeds, serving as a public service advertisement.(LiQingxue, Wang Huaiwang 2019)

Example 8：保护肺脏，珍爱生命。（禁烟广告）

Translation: Save your lung, save your life.

The slogan comes from an anti-smoking advertisement that uses the alliteration, “lung” and “life”, to emphasize that quitting smoking is about protecting your lungs and your life. The two “saves” remind people that smoking is harmful to their health and that they should quit smoking as soon as possible to save themselves.

===Misinterpretation of Public Service Advertisments===

====Chinglish====
Chinglish refers to word-for- word translations that do not consider translation strategies from the perspective of the receiving language and cultural differences, and often cause difficulties in comprehension for the receiving readers.

Example 9：小心地滑

Misinterpretation: Foot Care.

Suggested translation: Mind your step.

The above misinterpretation is translated word-for-word, which not only makes it difficult for the recipient readers to read, but also affects the image of the city as a whole, so more citizens are taking notice and taking action to reject "dead translation" and "Chinglish".

====Grammatical errors====
Most grammatical errors are caused by the translator's own incompetence, mainly in the use of articles, subject- predicate inconsistencies, mis-matching of verb phrases, and word confusion.

Example 10：珍爱生命远离毒品。

Mistranslation: Yes to life, no to drugs.

Suggested translation: Cherish life and avoid drugs.

The public service advertisement came from an anti-drug advertisement, obviously the mistranslated structure of the translation does not fit English conventions.

====Inappropriate Use of Words====
There are some words in English that are very similar to each other, and improper use of words means that the translator uses words haphazardly without clearly distinguishing between similar words, resulting in a misinterpretation.

Example 11：关爱残障人士

Improper translation: Care for the handicapped.

Suggested translation: Care for the disabled.

The slogan is from a public service advertisement in which the word "handicapped," which translates to "the handicapped," is now somewhat outdated and contains a certain amount of offensive language that sometimes causes people to be It would make more sense to change it to "the disabled", relatively speaking.

====Redundancy====
The redundancy is due to the fact that the translators do not fully understand the differences between Chinese and foreign cultures and the purpose of the text.

Example12：一花一草皆生命一枝一叶总关情

Improper Translation: Alive as all living things each flower and leaf of grasses require our care.

Suggested Translation: Please give me a chance to grow.

The original translator intended to present a vivid description of the original slogan in front of people, but failed to consider that the slogan was intended to arouse people's love for flowers and plants. We suggest that the translation should start from the operative textual features of the slogan and combine it with the straightforward expression habits of foreigners to call on people to take care of flowers and plants in a more euphemistic way.

===Methods of C-E Translation of Public Service Advertising===

====Literal Translation====

The main characteristics of literal translation are twofold: in the treatment of word meanings and rhetoric (e. g., metaphors), it does not use transitive techniques (this distinguishes "literal translation"from "free translation"); in the treatment of linguistic forms (i.e., lexical-syntactic structure), it allows appropriate changes and shifts (This distinguishes "literal translation" from "word- for-word translation").(Xiong Bing 2013) For example.

Example 13: 我的盛开需要你的关爱

Translation : Luxuriant flowers need your care.

The translation retains the personification of the original, treating flowers as species with emotions, but directly specifies that "I" means "flower", which is in line with the habit of expression of the target audience and serves as a reminder.

Example 14: 节约用水就是珍爱生命

Translation : To save water is to save life

The original text translates "conserve water" and "cherish life" into a neat pairing, and the translation also translates them into a neat pairing, and the expression is in line with the habits of expression of the people in the receive language. Both the original text and the translation equate "conserve water" with "cherish life" to arouse the attention of the masses and advertise the importance of saving water.

====Paraphrase====

A paraphrase translation is one in which the translator does not stick to the details of the meaning of the original text, much less to its vocabulary and syntactic structure, but "uses the original text as a reference model" and either translates only the general meaning, gist or key information (or selectively some of it) by condensing it, or translates it into a text with more information compared to the original article. (Xiong Bing 2013) For example.

Example 15:爱我,追我,千万别吻我。

Translation: Drive carefully!

The original text is from a public service advertisement advocating cautious driving. The translation does not follow the literal meaning, but rather the translator uses a paraphrasing technique after understanding the meaning of the sentence and chooses two words to express the meaning. It is short and serves as a warning to motorists.

Example 16：手下留情花自香，脚下留意草如茵。

Translation: Take care of grass and flowers, please.

The original text is a public service slogan with Chinese cultural characteristics, but it is difficult to find a corresponding expression in English when translating. Here the translator uses an invocation to remind the masses.

====Borrowing Translation====

A borrowing Translation is an explanation that replaces the original word or phrase by borrowing the idiom of the target language. For example.

Example 17: 爱心传递你我，文明就在身边。

Translation: Where there is a love, there is a virtue.

The original is a slogan from an advertisement for the Olympic Games, which is a medium for promoting the spirit of the Games and the country's outlook. The translator chose a well-known proverb from the translated country, "Where there is a will, there is a way," to expand the publicity effect.

Example 18: 让世界倾听我们的声音

Translation : Let our voice be heard in the world.

The original text was a slogan from a CCTV public service advertisement, which was based on the lyrics "Let our voice be heard.

===Conclusion===

In this paper, the writer divides and analyzes different texts and explain the approaches they take in translation. This perspective of using text type theory to analyze and discuss how to translate public service texts may be of some help to scholars.

According to different texts, the text type theory has its own emphasis in translation, and different PSA texts are mostly operative texts, and sometimes one text has multiple textual characteristics, which translators can take into full consideration when choosing the emphasis and translation methods.
Public service translation is very different from commercial advertising translation, which is mainly used to educate the public, convey correct and positive values, encourage people to take actions to help others, and create a good social environment to resist bad behaviors. Generally speaking, it is necessary to consider the actual situation when translating the PSAs.

Through analyzing the texts of PSAs, the author has made the following discoveries, and the translation of PSAs can be done according to the text type theory. Although there are some cultural differences between the two languages, the differences do not make translation difficult to achieve. If literal translation cannot translate the meaning of the source text, then paraphrase,borrowing translation and other translation methods can also be used.

===Limitation===

In this paper, I put forward some personal ideas, but in the final version, I can still find my own shortcomings. First of all, there is still a lack of richness of information due to the limitation of space. Secondly, the depth of my ideas is still insufficient, and I only hope that this article can provide some research ideas for researchers and contribute to the translation of public service texts.

===References===

Newmark .(2001).P.A Textbook of Translation .Shanghai :Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

Reiss,Katherina.(2004).Translation Criticism: the potential & limitation . trans .by Erroll F.Rhodes .Shanghai :Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

Chen Yanhong 陈燕红. (2012). 文化视角中汉英公益广告的翻译策略 [Translation Strategies of Chinese-English Public Service Advertisements in Cultural Perspective].

Jin Haibing 金海兵. (2005). 试谈公益广告标语及其翻译 [On Analyzing Public Service Advertisements and Their Translation].

Jia Heping 贾和平. (2019). 论纽马克与赖斯的文本分类比较研究 [A Comparative Study on Newmark’s and Reiss’s Text Type Classification ].

Li Zhi 李治. (2008). 论纽马克与赖斯的文本分类比较研究 [Newmark’s and Reiss’s Text Type Classification and A Comparative Analysis of Translation Methodology ].

Li Qingxue, Wang Huaiwang 李庆学王怀望. (2019). 接受美学视角下的公益广告翻译 [A Study of English Translation of Public Service Advertisements from the Perspective of Reception Aesthetics].

Liu Xiaofang 刘晓芳. (2015). 目的论视角下《中国日报》公益广告英译的探析 [The English Translation of PSAs in China Daily from the Perspective of Skopos theorie].

Xiong Bing 熊兵. (2013). 翻译研究中的概念混淆 [Conceptual Confusion in Translation Studies].

Ye Qiuling 叶秋伶. (2020). 语义翻译和交际翻译理论视角下中文公益广告英译——以央视公益广告为例 [English Translation of Chinese Public Service Advertisements from the Perspective of Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation Theory - Taking CCTV Public Service Advertisements as an Example].

History of Translation Studies 8

2021-01-03T09:11:11Z

Weiyafei: /* On Chinese-to-English Translation of The Summer Palace from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches to Translation 魏亚菲 Wei Yafei 202020080648 */

这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第八部分(Part 8)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。

学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。

*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]
*Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].

='''History of Translation'''=

==A Comparative Study on the Translation History in Western Countries and China, 王煜 Wang Yu, MTI 英美文学==
<center>Wang Yu 王煜，202020080645.</center>
===Abstract===
Translation is an intercultural communication activity. Translation activities have accelerated the development of human civilization and broken through the language barriers. As time goes by, things are in a state of flux and both the Western and Eastern countries have gradually formed their own histories of translation, the study of translation history is a basic project of discipline construction. Although there are many differences between the translation histories of the Western countries and of China, the two kinds of translation histories are still shining their own bright and unique lights and have a lasting influence and they contribute indelibly to translation activities. This chapter intends to make a brief comparison between the translation histories of Western countries and of China. It includes the origins, the stages, the representatives of the stages, the significance and influence as well as the differences of the two translation histories.

===Key words===
translation history of the West; translation history of China; comparative study

===中西翻译史对比研究===

===摘要===
翻译是一种跨文化交流活动，翻译活动加快了人类文明发展步伐，减少了人们之间的沟通障碍。随着时代的变迁，中国和西方国家逐渐形成了各自的翻译史，翻译史的研究是学科建设的一项基础工程。尽管中西方翻译史在某些方面有所差异，但却都有着各自的独特性，并对人类的翻译活动产生了巨大的影响与贡献。文章将以中国和西方国家为主要对象，从二者翻译史起始，包含阶段和各阶段代表人物，影响意义，差异性出发，对二者的翻译史进行简略的对比研究。

===关键词===
西方翻译史；中国翻译史；对比研究

===1. Introduction===

No matter where, in China or in the West, translation plays an important role in knowledge-spreading. As an indispensable part of translatology, the study of translation history had a huge impact on translation activities, it has gradually become the focus of literary and historical circles in recent years. Translation activities can be traced back to the origin of languages. The history of translation is almost as old as language itself, which is closely related to the changes in today's society.

Since the 1980s, the translation studies in mainland China have made remarkable progress in the design of curricula of Chinese and Western translation history courses and the compilation of related works. In the early 1980s and 1990s, many related works appeared, one after the other, including ''A Brief History of Chinese Translation. Vol. "Until the May 4th Movement"''（《中国翻译简史-“五四”运动以前部分》） written by Ma Zuyi , ''A Historical Manuscript of Chinese Translated Literature'' （《中国翻译文学史稿》）edited by Chen Yugang, and also ''A Short History of Translation in the West''（《西方翻译简史》）, authored by Tan Zaixi. Thus, it opens the door for the compilation of works on Chinese and Western translation history. (Xie Tianzhen 2009, Ⅴ)

The history of Western translation can be divided into five stages while the Chinese study of translation has a history of more than two thousand years and has experienced five climaxes in respect of volume. The comparative study of Chinese and Western translation history will help us to get a deeper understanding of Chinese and Western translation activities, thus to gather a general full view of it, which is a meaningful attempt.

===2. The Translation History of Western Countries===

Western translation activities have a rich and long history. The history of Western translation can be roughly divided into three stages: traditional, modern and contemporary. There are five peaks during the three stages: the ancient times, the middle ages, the Renaissance period and the time after WWⅡ.

===2.1 The First Stage: Translation in Ancient Times===
In literature we often find wrong assessments. An example is Tan Zaixi's book about translation history: According to him, the translation history of Western countries began in the 3rd century BCE. In a broad sense, as Tan argues, the earliest translation in the West is the Old Testament translated by 72 Jewish scholars in Alexandria, ancient Egypt, between the 3rd and 2nd centuries BCE. Strictly speaking, in Tan's understanding, the first Western translation is the Greek Homer Epic ''Odyssey'' translated by Andronicus in Rome in the middle of the third century BCE. (Tan Zaixi 2000, 88-89) However, we know, the first evidences of translations date back 5000 years, i.e. 3000 BCE, e.g. the Gilgamesh Epos, the Rosetta Stone etc.

At the end of the 4th century BCE, Greek cities began to collapse and the Romans became stronger and stronger with their military expansion. With the expansion of the Roman Empire, it came into contact with the rich Greek culture. After conquering Greek cities, the Romans inherited and developed the highest achievements of ancient Greek culture, and then their culture dominated the region after the Greek epoch. Thus, large scale translation activities of translating and introducing Greek classical works began in this period. (Liu Junping 2009, 8)

At that time, many famous translation theorists began to make their presences, namely Cicero, Quentin, Jerome and so on, also the Roman litterateurs like Andronicus, Naevius, Ennius, these great writers used Latin language to translate Homer’s epic or other Greece dramas. It started the translation tradition of Rome and promoted the development of Roman literature. (Tan Zaixi 2000, 89)

===2.2 The Second Stage: Translation in the Middle Ages (4th-6th)===

According to Tan's view, the second culmination occurred in the late Roman Empire in the early Middle Ages. In this period, translation was mainly related to the religious stuff. Religious forces have a broad-ranging influence in the West. Christianity strived to promote its own religion, thus, ''the Bible'', as a source and psychological weapon of the Christianism, naturally meant a lot to the people in religious world. Because the Old Testament of the Bible was written in Hebrew and Greek, it needed to be translated into Latin for effective circulation in Rome.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 89)

Jerome was a Latin Christian priest, he translated the Bible into Latin(Vulgute) according to the Hebrew version of the Bible. This version he translated had made impact on medieval theology and was the most widely circulated and authoritative translation in the Middle Ages, marking an unprecedented level of the development of the Western translation."(Tan Zaixi 2000, 89)

===2.3 The Third Stage: Translation in the Middle Ages (11th-12th)===

This period can also be called "the period of the Arab Centennial Translation Movement",(Liu Junping 2009, 9) which lasted over two hundred years. In order to consolidate the rule and promote socio-economic and cultural development, the medieval Arab Empire undertook a massive, organized academic activity to translate and introduce the scientific and cultural classics of ancient Greece and the East. Translators of this period actively translated some important works of Greek literature in all disciplines with an open mind and a strong desire for knowledge.

Between the 11th and 12th centuries, Toledo became Europe’s academic center for its prosperous translation activities, the Western translators who gathered here translated many works from Arabic into Latin. Cultural patterns and religious ideas gradually converged here.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 90)

Until nowadays, the positive influence of this movement still plays an inherent role: numerous proprietary names such as ‘concept’, ‘category' are gradually established in Arabic. This movement not only facilitated the integration of the inner Arab world, but also, in fact, promoted the integration of the Western and Persian worlds.

===2.4 The Fourth Stage: Translation in the Renaissance Period===

The Renaissance movement is a European ideological and cultural movement that took place from the 14th century to the 16th century, and reached its peak in the 16th century and inspired a cascade of the development of science, art and literature. A large number of famous translators shown up and a series of translation works had been produced. During this time, a quantity of ancient Greek and Roman classics had been rediscovered and translated into various European languages, which had brought about an impact on the European nation states.

Leonardo Buruni, who was one of the most influential cultural translation practitioners in the Renaissance period, and he was also one of the earliest representatives of humanistic translators in the history of Western translation. He was famous for his translation of Plato's and Aristotle's works. Also, some humanists began to study the Bible with the method of studying classical literature, and translated the Bible into theie national language, which led to the rise of the religious reform movement. In Germany, Martin Luther, a religious reformer, translated the first mass Bible, which ushered in a new era in the development of modern German. In Britain, Chapman, a writer and translator, translated Homer's ''Iliad'' and ''Odyssey'' from 1958 to 1616, and the translation and publication of the King James Bible in 1611 marked the formation of modern English.(Liu Junping 2009, 9)

From above examples we can see that the Renaissance movement played a very important role in the Western history of the development of translation, it marked the status of national language in the field of literature. Simultaneously, it showed that translation is playing a role in the formation and development of the national language, literature and thought.(Liu Junping 2009, 9)

During the three hundred years lasted from the 17th century to the 19th century, translation activities at this time continued to move forward. Although the scale and influence of these activities could not be compared with that of the Renaissance movement, there were still many excellent translators and works they translated. The biggest feature of this period was that translators not only continued to translate classical works, but also became interested in modern and contemporary works. The works of Cervantes, Shakespeare, Balzac, Goethe and other great writers had been repeatedly translated into various languages, and translations of Eastern literature have also been published.(Liu Junping 2009, 9)

===2.5 The Fifth Stage: Translation after WWⅡ===

World War II has brought different degrees of blows to many Western countries, after the end of the war, some Western countries have used a large amount of capital to actively resume the production, developed various social fields and attached great importance to the person with ability. Western science and technology are changing with each passing day, driven by cybernetics, information theory and system theory. The world of knowledge and experience has been greatly expanded, and the social and cultural exchanges have become increasingly closee, all of these changes have provided a solid material foundation and ideological guarantee for the prosperity of the translation at this time.

With the growth in number of translation activities, translation theory continues to develop, and the number of translation talents in various countries keeps on increasing. Translation has gradually expanded from traditional literary and religious translation to other fields, such as scientific and technical translation and business translation. Some professional translators appeared in international conferences which has shown that the influence of translation in international communication has become more and more obvious. (Liu Junping 2009, 9)

===3. The Translation History of China===

China has a long history with 5000 years of civilization. we know that China is a multi-ethnic country, we can not ignore the irreplaceable role of translation in the communication between different ethnic groups. There is no reference to the history of translation in China, although there are some documents in the Xia and Shang Dynasties, we still can not discern the translation activities at that time from the existing records. According to Ma' saying, "The song of the Yue Boatman can be regarded as the first poetry translation in Chinese history."(Ma Zuyi1998,5) However, it was only an isolated translation activity and did not trigger a large-scale translation movement in China.

===3.1 The First Stage：Translation of Ancient Buddhist Scriptures===

The first stage of the Chinese translation history was the time of the translation of ancient Buddhist scriptures. Some said that ''The Potala Sutra'' should be the earliest translation of Buddhist scriptures in China. It was also said that the ''Forty-Two Chapters Sutra'' is the earliest Chinese translation of the Buddha's sutras. However, the one that was proven to be reliable should be the book ''The Fifty Books of the Mingdu'' translated by An Shigao during the reign of Emperor Huan of the Eastern Han Dynasty.(Ma Zuyi 1998, 17)

From the book of Ma we konw that the history of the translation of ancient Buddhist scriptures has experienced four phases, each of which had its own features: the first was the starting period from the last year of emperor Huan in the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Western Jin Dynasty. Translators in this period were mainly Buddhist monks.(Ma Zuyi 1998, 33) However, the quality of the translated works depends on the ability of the translators’ understanding of Chinese, so the classics of the translated works are varied. Also, due to the shortage of learners' knowledge of language, they usually used literal translation to translate the works.

The second was the developing time of the translation of ancient Buddhist scriptures, from the Eastern Jin Dynasty to the Sui Dynasty. The Buddhist scriptures continued to prevail under the rulers' advocacy and people began to translated Buddhist scriptures in an organized way but still translated the works literally. During this period, Shi Daoan put forward the his famous theory of ‘Five losses of source texts and three difficulties in translation’.

Meanwhile, through the translation and interpretation of nearly 400 volumes of Buddhist classics, Kumarajiva first introduced Indian Buddhism to Chinese people, which played an important role in the prosperity of Chinese Buddhism at that time.(Ma Zuyi 1998, 40) The translation in this time had changed from individual translation into group translation which had improved the quality of translation and as well made some progress in translation theories and skills.(Ma Zuyi 1998, 55)

The third was the heyday of the translation history which took place in Tang Dynasty.(Ma Zuyi 1998, 58) Xuanzang was an important figure in promoting Sino-Indian friendship and cultural exchanges in China's history，he was a great translator and organizer of translation activities, and he was also a great translation theorist whose contribution to translation studies still remains an impact today.

The last phase was the Northern Song Dynasty, the activities of studing the translation of Buddhist scriptures gradually withered, and during this period, the translation activities mainly focused on the esoteric classics translations.(Ma Zuyi 1998, 82)

===3.2 The Second Stage：Technical Translation during the Yuan and Ming Dynasties===

The activities of the translation of Buddhist scriptures gradually declined during the two hundred years of the Ming Dynasty. With the arrival of the Western Christian missionaries, China came into contact with Europe. In order to facilitate their relations with Chinese officials and intellectuals, the missionaries translated the works of Western science and technology as well as Christian texts assisted by Chinese officials. They also introduced the Chinese classics to the West.(Ma Zuyi 1998, 263)

Matteo Ricci came to China on a mission to introduce Western scientific and technological knowledge. He pioneered the history of combining the Chinese and Western translation to introduce Western scientific and technical literature, and he was the first to translate the ''Four Books'' into Latin and introduced Chinese texts to the West.(Ma Zuyi 1998, 263)

From the Wanli period of the Ming Dynasty to the "new learning" period of the Qing Dynasty, translators who introduced science, literature and philosophy of Western Europe, represented by Xu Guangqi, Lin Shu and Yan Fu appeared. Xu Guangqi was a patriotic scientist and organizer of the scientific and cultural movement in China at the end of the Ming Dynasty, he made outstanding achievements in introducing Western natural sciences and promoted the development of science in China.

===3.3 The Third Stage：Literary Translation in Late Qing Dynasty===

After the Opium War, the Qing government organized a large number of scholars to translate books of Western natural science. Under the influence of the refroming thought, a large number of translations introducing Western political thoughts, scientific methods and some literary works appeared. ''The Records of Four Continents'', translated by Liang Jinde, asked by Lin Zexu, was the first systematic introduction to the geographical knowledge of Western countries in modern China.（Ma Zuyi 1998, 329）

After the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895, Yan Fu translated the theory of evolution and put forward the three criterias of ‘faithfulness, fluency and elegance’, which has played a guiding role in the translation practice of later generations. His translation promoted the development of "new learning" and enlightened the Chinese nation at that time.（Ma Zuyi 1998, 377）

Another scholar Liang Qichao, who was a politician, thinker and encyclopedia scholar of that time, advocated that China needs to develop the translation career and cultivate translation talents at a full stretch. He had done fruitful researches on the translation of Buddhist scriptures and the translation of science and technology between the Ming and Qing Dynasties.（Ma Zuyi 1998, 384）

===3.4 The Fourth Stage：The Translation of Socialist and Communist Works===

The May 4th Movement was a watershed in China's modern translation history, which made a significant contribution to the introduction of foreign literature to China and the development of literature in China. After the May 4th movement, China's translation industry has ushered in a new historical period. Translators in this period, compared with those during the late Qing dynasty, were more selective in source texts. Chinese translation scholars began to introduce the classic works of Marxism-Leninism and the literature of the proletariat. The translation of the Manifesto of the Communist Party was published during the May 4th movement.

During this period, great changes have taken place in the content and form of translation work: vernacular began to replace classical Chinese, as a result, popular language becomes easy to understand and the excellent literary works of western countries have attracted more and more Chinese readers.

Famous translators like Lu Xun, Mao Dun, Zheng Zhenduo, Guo Moruo, Zhu Shenghao, Lin Yutang had translated a large number of foreign masterpieces, which enriched the inner world of the Chinese people. Lu Xun once advocated that there should be an exotic atmosphere in the translated works which would familiarize the readers with the foreign cultures. He also believed that the literal translation of culturally loaded words was one of the important means of enriching the mother tongue. These scholars helped the Chinese people to know more about the outside world and laid a good foundation for the systematization and scientification of translation theory in China.

===3.5 The Fifth Stage：The Translation after 1949===

The founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949 enabled translation to enter a new era. With the founding of the new China, China's translation industry was also liberated. Translation became a very important part of the national, cultural and educational cause. National organizations for translators were established in order to protect the interests and benefits of translators, as a result, the quantity and quality of translated works have grown by leaps and bounds.

Since then, translation work has been an important part of the new socialist culture and developed rapidly, many achievements have been made and translation theories are perfected. The classical works of Marxism-Leninism, excellent foreign literature, scientific and technical literature and the like were systematically introduced by translators or the scholars. There are large-scale translation activities like the activities of translating the works of Marx and Lenin.

In the 1950s, scientific and technical works were translated in order to meet the demands of the national social and economic construction. In the 1970s, the United Nations documents were translated after China was restored to its rightful seat in the United Nations. Also, literary translators became a very important part of China's literature and arts personnel. Qian Zhongshu at this time put forward his "transmigration theory"(化境说) for literary translation. In 1978, two years after the end of disastrous "cultural revolution," China adopted its policy of reform and opening up, a new and dynamic atmosphere for translation thus came into being.

===4.The Comparative Study Among the Two Kinds of Translation Histories===

===4.1 The Similarities of the Western and Chinese Translation History===

We can easily notice that in the history of Chinese and Western translation, almost all the early translation activities were the translation of religious classics. The translation of religious classics had opened the curtain of Chinese and Western translation history. The spread of religion is always accompanied by the translation of religious classics. It is not difficult for us to understand the reason: after the emergence of religion, in order to absorb more believers, it is necessary to spread the religious beliefs widely across nations and countries. Therefore, from ancient times to the present, religion is always a kind of forms of various national beliefs and cultures, it keeps on influencing the spiritual belief and behavior of people in society.

The translation activities have made many contributions to the establishment and development of national languages in various countries. For example, in the history of Western translation, Martin Luther's translation of the Bible played an important role in the unification and development of the German language and the establishment of modern German.

What’s more, the English version of the Bible enriched the English vocabulary and benefited the modernization of English language a lot. The same in China, the translation of the Buddhist scripture also enriched the use of Chinese vocabulary. And in the ideological field, it not only laid the foundation for the establishment of Taoism, but also paved the way for the formation of "New Confucianism" in the Song Dynasty. And we also can not ignore the contribution of the literary translation made in the first half of the 20th century to the establishment and development of modern vernacular Chinese.

The translation activities help to transmit cultural values and promote cultural exchange. These activities make a close connection between nations and countries and introduceg the language and cultural habits of one nation to another. For example, Jesuits came to China in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, they translated Chinese classics and literary works into foreign languages, and became the middlemen of the exchange of Chinese and Western civilizations in a state of isolation between China and Europe.(Tan Zaixi 1999, 26)

===4.2 The Differences Between the Western and Chinese Translation History===

First, time is different. The history of Western translation predates Chinese translation jistory by over 200 years. It is said that the reason is the differences in topography and geomorphology of the two parts. We all know that China possesses a great number of mountains and lakes, and in ancient times, it would take quite a few days to send messages from one place to another, especially when people in remote areas, it would be a hard and long journey for them to head for thier destinations. So, there is a difficulty in communicating among the various peoples in different nations or different places because there would be a delay in their communications and connections.

As for the West, there are numerous plains, so, it was much convenient and easier for the Western people to communicate and exchange their ideas with each other, which set a ideal environment for the development of translation activities.

Also, the position of religion varies. China and the West have different concepts of religion, because different religious cultures have different forms of expression and vocabularies of their own. In the West, the Bible is not only a religious classic but also an important mainstay of Western culture and the foundation of Christian faith. Buddhism was introduced into China from India in a very early year and became a very important part of Chinese traditional culture, the rulers of that time controlled their people spiritually in order to consolidate his ruling position, and the doctrines of Buddhism satisfied to the ruler's appetite, so Buddhism was first spread among the ruling class and gradually gained its legal status.

The tradition of Western and Chinese translation differs. One of the differences is between the single system and poly system. “The simplicity of Chinese translation tradition is mainly in the narrow sense，though there are different kinds of translations of national languages in China, most of them are still dominated by the tradition of Chinese language and culture translation, because they all occurred in the same environment of the language culture since ancient times, that is , the environment of Chinese language culture.”(Tan Zaixi 2000, 15)

In contrast, in terms of space, the Western translation tradition did not always develop in the same region. In the later formation and development process, it spread throughout all ethnic regions in Europe；In terms of time, the Western translation tradition began in ancient Rome, and then evolved into the ancient Latin language and culture system. In the later period of the middle ages, the system expanded and evolved into many relatively independent ethnic systems. So the system of the West is more like a kind of poly system instead of a single system like China.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 15)

The focus of Chinese and Western translation is different. Chinese translation traditions are more practical rather than theoretical. Like professor Tan Zaixi once said: “What Chinese translators and translation theorists most concerned about is how to deal with the difficulties in translation.” However, Western translation pays more attention to systematicness and theory.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 16)

Secondly, the national characteristics of China and the West are also different. Relatively speaking, Western ideas are more open and Chinese more conservative. For a long time, the Chinese people advocate authority and afraid of challenging it. China's three cardinal principles and five constancies in religion are in sharp contrast to the religious reform in the West. Although the West also advocates authority and takes religion as its belief, it dares to break dogmatism, which brings a breakthrough to Western translation studies to a certain extent.

===Conclusion===

History is like a bridge connecting the past, present and future. Throughout the history of translation between China and the West, although the differences between them inevitably exist, the translation achievements made by both sides are remarkable: excellent translators, translation scholars, or translation theories, translation works, all of these guide the way for our future translation research, they are leading people to pursue knowledge and to explore into the unknown field.

Also, mastering the history of a discipline can help us see the direction of its development clearly, we then will be able to learn from the experience and lessons in the process and use this kind of method to guide the development of this subject. To know more about the history of translation is helpful for us to improve the level of our skills of translation and develop the translation career. The achievements of our predecessors have accumulated valuable cultural heritages for us, we should sum up our predecessors' translation experience and continue to make our efforts for our country's translation career.

===References===

*Li Xuan. 李璇. (2012). 中西翻译高潮之对比 [Comparison of Translation Climax Between China and the West]. ''青年文学家'' Youth Literator(3) 131.
*Liu Junping. 刘军平. (2009). ''西方翻译理论通史'' [A General History of Western Translation Theory]. Wuhan: Wuhan University Press 武汉大学出版社.
*Ma Zuyi. 马祖毅. (1998). ''中国翻译简史-“五四”以前部分（修订本）'' [A Brief History of Chinese Translation: The Part Before the May 4th Movement] . China Translation Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.
*Qi Jian. 戚健. (2017). 古罗马时期翻译思想新探 [A New Probe Into the Translation Thoughts in Ancient Rome]. ''南昌航空大学学报：社会科学版'' Journal of Nanchang Hangkong University: Social Science (3) 68-74.
*Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (2000). ''翻译学'' [A Series of Translation Studies in China]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.
*Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (1999). 中国翻译与西方翻译 [Chinese Translation and Western Translation].''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation Journal(5) 6-8.
*Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (2000). 中西译论的相异性 [The Differences Between the Chinese and Western Traditions of Translation Theories]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation Journal (1) 15-21.
*Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (1999). 中西译论的相似性 [The Similarities Between the Chinese and Western Traditions of Translation Theories]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation Journal (6) 25-28.
*Wang Yong. 汪勇. (2008). 翻译与宗教传播 [Translation and Religious Communication]. ''中国校外教育理论'' Education for Chinese After-school(26) 51-53.
*Xie Tianzhen. 谢天振. (2009). ''中西翻译简史'' [A Brief History of Translation in China and the West]. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社.--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 01:49, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Comparison and Translation Studies Between Chinese and Western Color Terms 方洁玲 Fang Jieling 外国语言学及应用语言学==

=== Abstract ===
Color terms are terms used to describe the external color characteristics of things, and are very common in our lives. We use them not only to describe the external image of an object, but also to express our inner psychological feelings. Color words contain rich cultural connotations, which should not be understood simply from their literal meanings when translated, but from the different cultural connotations and extended meanings contained in the color words to understand and choose the meanings of the words. This paper first introduces the composition of color words in Chinese and English and makes a comparative analysis of their characteristics, then discusses the different meanings given to the six colors in Chinese and English, and then provides different translation methods that should be used in different situations, providing a certain reference for the English-Chinese translation.

===Key words ===
color terms, cultural difference , reason ,translation methods

=== 摘要 ===
颜色词是用来描述事物外在颜色特征的词语，在我们生活中非常常见。我们不仅用它描绘物体的外在形象，也用它表达内在心理感受。颜色词包含了丰富的文化内涵，在翻译的时候不能简单地从字面意思上理解，应从颜色词所包含的不同文化内涵和引申意义来理解和选择词义。本文将首先介绍中英颜色词的构成并对其特点进行对比分析，然后具体论述六种颜色在中英文中被赋予的不同意义，接着提供了面对不同情况应该采用的不同翻译方法，为英汉互译提供了一定的参考。

=== 关键词 ===
颜色词文化差异原因翻译方法

=== 1.Introduction ===

Color is an indispensable part of human life,it is because of the colorfulness of colors that the world is much more varied and pleasant. Color words not only have an important impact on people's vision, but also have a great impact on people's inner feelings and emotional expression. As an important part of language, color words are frequently used by human beings in English, but due to different histories, cultures, customs and habits, in the long run, different people have given specific meanings to various colors.

Analyzing and comparing the different connotations of color words in Chinese and Western cultures and exploring the cultural differences between English and Chinese will be of great help to the translation work between English and Chinese. At the same time, translators will inevitably meet a lot of problems in the translation work. In this paper, we mainly discuss the composition and cultural connotation of color words between Chinese and English. In addition, we also propose some translation methods and make a brief conclusion.

=== 2.Characteristics of the Composition of Chinese and Western Color Words ===

Color words are words used to describe the color of different things. And they are the symbols that exist in human languages to record a large number of colors, which are generally considered to be adjectives in grammar.
In the historical development of Chinese color words, there are three types.(Cai Xiaomin2020,65)

(1) Basic words. These words are the most basic and objective, and are generally used to objectively describe the most direct external color state of an object. They are "white", "black", "red", "yellow", "blue ""Green" "Gray" "Purple" "Brown" and "orange".
(2) Reference words. Reference words means that people specifically distinguish basic words to show different colors. These words are more detailed and specific than the basic words. For example, we tend to divide "green" into "dark green" "grass green" and so on.
(3)Descriptive words. Descriptive words comes from people's perception of nature. These words can not only distinguish colors, but also describe what they look like. Such color words are more literary and subjective.(Cai Xiaomin2020,65)

Color words in English are mainly divided into basic color words and compound color words.
basic color words : (1) simple colors. For example, black, white. (2) Colors of plants. For example, orange, etc.
Compound color words : (1) the name of plant + simple color. For example, apple green. (2) Chemical name + simple color. For example, vermilion, etc(Cai Xiaomin2020,65)

=== 3.The Different Understanding and Perception of Colors in China and the West ===
Nature is colorful and can be described with many words. Generally speaking, black symbolizes oppression, white symbolizes purity and innocence, and green symbolizes life force. However, due to different histories and cultures, the same color may have different meanings. After a careful study of color words, it is easy to see that color words create various associations that have a great impact on a person's emotions and behavior. This is the main reason why people use color words to explain their moral character, emotions, and perceptions of things.(Wang Yu2012,151)

Different cultures and ways of thinking lead to different meanings of color words, and this disparity can affect people's understanding of the meaning of the same word. For example, in English-speaking countries, white symbolizes purity and beauty, which is why brides wear white wedding dresses in Western weddings. However, in China, white is often used to express grief, and a white funeral dress is worn at a funeral.(Du Tianyu2020,188) In this paper, we start with the six basic color words red, black, white, yellow, purple and blue, and compare their cultural connotations in English and Chinese, discussing the different understanding and cognition of colors in China and the West and the differences in cultural connotations between Chinese and Western cultures.

====3.1 红and Red ====

In traditional Chinese culture, "红" represents joy, happiness, good luck, and prosperity. "红" is a color that cannot be absent from important events in China, such as the red couplets(红包), red lanterns（红灯笼）, and red packets（红包） during Chinese New Year festivals, the red dress of the bride at weddings, and other festive ceremonies in China. Similarly, words combining the word "红" generally mean prosperity, such as “hongguangmanmian”（红光满面）、”dahongdazi”(大红大紫)、”honghuo”(红火)、”hongren”(红人)、”hongrun”(红润), etc. In addition, during the revolutionary era, the color red also symbolized the modern Chinese revolution and power, such as the“hongsezhengquan”(红色政权)、”hongjun”(红军)、”hongqi”(红旗)、”hongge”(红歌)、”hongsewenjian”(红头文件)、”hongseganglin”(红色纲领), etc.( Zhao Fenyan2019,232)

In the West, red refers to the color of blood, and when red is mentioned, it is generally associated with cruelty, violence, and bloodshed. For example, "red hands", "red battle", "the red rules" " red revenge", the color red also symbolizes radical and violent revolution, as in "red activities", but also danger and tension,such as "a red flag". "red alert" "a red adventure story",in addition to the above-mentioned symbolic meaning, the color red also has connotations of debauchery and obscenity.(Yan Wen2012,177)For example, red light district, a red waste of one's youth, and so on. The positive connotation of the color red in Western culture is due to the exchange and integration of different cultures, which is said to have been introduced to the West via Persia from the Far East. like red letter day、red envelope、the red carpet.

====3.2 黑 and Black ====

In Chinese history, “黑” is an honorable and dignified color, which had a high status in ancient times. During the Xia, Qin, and early Han dynasties, “黑” was the dress of emperors and officials, and the common people were only allowed to wear plain clothes, and then a restriction that was gradually relaxed after the Northern Song Dynasty. In China, the derivation of “黑” includes the positive meanings of stern, iron-faced, upright, and mysterious, such as in the art of theatrical masks, where the “黑脸” symbolizes the noble character of uprightness and selflessness. In addition to its positive connotations, “黑” sometimes symbolizes a derogatory meaning, indicating a counter-revolutionary, regressive, or stubborn party. For example, the ”阴曹地府” is said to be dark and sunless, and “黑”, as opposed to light, symbolizes darkness, death, terror, etc. (Wang Yu2012,150)

In the West, black is the color of death, symbolizing death, suffering, and grief, hence the black color of Western mourning garments. black tidings means "bad news"，Jesus was crucified on the Friday before Easter, The Black Friday is considered to be a "dangerous and ominous day". Black also symbolizes "anger" and "irritation", such as: black in the face,to look black at sb，Other words that express negative meanings，such as black sheep, black dog, black eye, black list, black and blue, black art, and other black symbols.(Wang Yu2012,151)In addition, black also represents seriousness, discretion, and pomp. Black suit and black dress have always been the most revered traditional clothing in the West. In solemn formal occasions, people like to wear black clothing. Symphony orchestra performers almost always wear black suits. The term "black-ball" refers to a costume ball. In business English, "a company in black" refers to a profitable business, where“ in black” means profitable, because on financial statements, profit figures are written in black ink.

====3.3 白 and White ====

In Chinese, “白” is often used to represent death, such as at funerals with white decorations, white flowers, and white mourning clothes, but there are also many words containing “白” that do not represent color at all, but rather the name of something or have another meaning,[8]such as”baicai”(白菜), “baixiong”（白熊）、 “baiyi”(白蚁)、”baijuan” (白卷)、 “baichi”(白痴), White" also means "pure, or unadulterated, such as”baikaishui”(白开水)、”baizhi”(白纸)、”baiqierou”(白切肉)etc. "White" also often means "in vain" or "without cost", such as”baifeishi”(白费事)、“baida”（白搭）、”baisong” (白送)、“baishouqijia” (白手起家) etc(Chen Yongye2005,425)

and The Chinese word “白” is also not the same as the English word "white", which we can say the white people (白人), but is better translated as: She has a fair skin. In addition, it is difficult to summarize the exact meaning of some of the“白” in Chinese, For example “baihua”(白话) vernacular, “tanbai”（坦白）: to confess, to make a clean breast of something, etc.(Yan Wen2012,176)
In the West, however, white is considered as a symbol of purity, and it is customary to wear white wedding dresses and gowns at weddings, hence there exist the expressions like white-handed，a white lie，a white day, they treated us white etc.

====3.4 黄 and Yellow ====

In traditional Chinese culture,”黄” is a symbol of power, honor, and nobility, in the Chinese feudal society, yellow is a symbol of imperial power and nobility, such as ”chonggao”(崇高)，”huangpao”(皇袍)、”huanggong”(皇宫)、”shengzhi”(圣旨) and so on. In modern Chinese, words such as “huangchengcheng”(黄澄澄),”huangcanvan”(黄灿灿)mean a good harvest and an auspicious day. ”黄” is a glorious color. And it is always associated with "honor", "brilliance", it is a symbol of "power" and "nobility". To this day, ”黄” is still the symbol of ancient China, which is its positive meaning. Similarly, ”黄” has negative connotations, such as ”huangseshukan”(黄色书刊) , “huangseluxiang”(黄色录像) etc.(Yan Wen2012,178)

but in the West, the term "the blue video", "the blue talk" is used to describe the pornographic nature of the country. It means ”huangsedianying”(黄色电影)and ”huangsexinxi”(黄色信息)(Du Tianyu2020,188). In addition, ”黄” also means failure, sickness, or old age, such as ”huangji”(黄髫). The word ”黄” also means youth and ignorance.In the West, in Western Christianity, yellow is a symbol of shame. Because in the Bible, Judas betrayed Jesus by wearing a yellow dress. Therefore, "yellow" has the connotation of betrayal .And it also means sadness, sickness, cowardice, etc.(Chen Yongye2005,425) For example, "a yellow streak" means cowardice. "yellow" also has mean and vulgar semantics. In the 18th century, Americans often printed pornographic books on yellow paper.

As a result, the low level of exaggeration and exaggerated distortion of facts used by newspapers and periodicals to attract readers was later extended to journalistic styles as well. For example, "yellow journalism" is a style of journalism that attempts to attract people in any way possible. In English, Yellow Pages is the "yellow phone book", and yellow boy is a slang term for "gold coin. The English words for Chinese ”黄” would be: pornographic, filthy, vulgar, obscene, etc. In English, blue is often used to mean ”黄”, such as blue jokes(下流的玩笑)、blue revolution (性解放)、blue films (黄色影片)、blue software (黄色软件)etc.(Chen Yongye2005,425) Some Chinese words have nothing to do with the English word yellow, such as blue jokes(下流的玩笑)、blue revolution (性解放)、blue films (黄色影片)、blue software (黄色软件)and so on.

====3.5 绿and Green ====

In Chinese culture, “绿”represents vitality, and phrases related to”绿”express hope and vitality of people, such as“lüzhou”（绿洲）、“lvyiangran”（绿意盎然）. In today's China, ”绿”has a new symbolic meaning, such as: “lvseshipin”(绿色食品),”lvsechanye”(绿色产业), all referring to the concept of health, safety and non-pollution. The green light is also a signal for safe passage. In Chinese, a "lvmao" （绿帽）means that a man's wife is in an illicit relationship with someone else.(Hu Zongkang, Zhang Jun2019,153) However, in ancient Chinese culture, ”绿”means humbleness, because humble people wore green clothes. Also,”lvlinhaohan” (绿林好汉)means a barbarian who occupies a mountain and becomes king.

In traditional British culture, "Green" is a symbol of youth and vitality. It reminds people of the harmony and tranquility of nature. The "Green Peace Organization" is an organization that protects animals and plants. A dove with a green olive branch in its beak is a symbol of peace, "green winter" refers to a warm winter, and "in a green wood" refers to when people are young and strong. Green also represents a sense of madness and despair, just as Satan's image in the Bible is green. In addition, green in English also has a derogatory meaning of jealousy, lack of training, and childishness, such as “as green as grass”，’a green eye”，”a green hand”.(Chen Yuan2020,49) In addition, greenback means U.S. currency in English, and since U.S. dollar bills are green in color, green also means "money," "bills," or "economic power" in the United States.

====3.6 蓝 and Blue ====

Blue is the color of the sea and clear skies, giving people a feeling of peace and tranquility. In Chinese, in addition to the color,”蓝” is often used together with other words to form phrases that have different meanings from the color.
For example, “蓝青官话 “the standard Chinese spoken by the people with accent、“蓝本”script on which the works are based； model
“蓝图”（blue print）building plan、“蓝田生玉”the noble people usually come from the good family、“青出于蓝而胜于蓝 “the new coming from the old is better than the old .(Chen Yuan2020,49)

But blue in English can be extended to depression, sadness, nervousness, immorality, obscenity, and pornography. For example :“feel blue“, ”be blue about future“,”Her mood is blue“,“be down with blues”,“sing the blues”,“blue devils”,“blue funk“,”blue revolution“, ”blue films“, ”blue jokes“, ”blue room” refers to a place in The White House where the president meets his friends and family. and the ”Blue Book“ refers to a book that contains the names of celebrities and important government officials.(Du Tianyu2020,187-188)

=== 4.Reasons for the Difference in the English-Chinese Translation of Color Words ===

Different countries and regions have different interpretations of color. The main reasons for this difference are geographical factors, historical factors, religious beliefs, and social systems.
====4.1 Geographic Factors ====

Chinese civilization originated in the Yellow River Basin. The rich water resources and flat land of the Yellow River Basin have nurtured several generations of Chinese people. This is the main reason why the Chinese people love yellow. For generations, we Chinese people are also known as the “yanhuangzisun”(炎黄子孙)(Cai Xiaomin2020,66).Western civilization originated in ancient Rome. The only way out for Greece was to expand abroad. Therefore, blue became the favorite color of the Greeks.

==== 4.2 Historical and Cultural Factors ====

A large number of color words have been created in different historical backgrounds and conditions. Therefore, it is important to understand the differences in the historical background and culture of different countries. For example, during the War of Resistance Against Japanese Aggression, our Party was called the”hongjun”(红军), which gave rise to expressions like “hongsezhengquan”(红色政权)、”hongjun”(红军)、”hongqi”(红旗)、”hongge”(红歌)、”hongsewenjian”(红头文件)、”hongseganglin”(红色纲领),etc.(Li Dan2018,132)

In addition to some basic meanings, the color “红” in China also has some special historical meanings, such as the heroic and fearless revolutionary spirit. This is also the main reason why our national flag adopts the color red. Also in ancient China, yellow was a symbol of power, a color reserved for the royal family, representing the supreme authority, which meant that yellow robes were added to the flag. In the West, purple is used as a metaphor for "throne" and "prominence," and the addition of a purple robe means rising to a position of prominence, because Western emperors and bishops have a tradition of wearing purple robes,(Li Dan2018,132) such as :be born in the purple(生于皇室), be raised to the purple.

In recent years, yellow has become more and more of a symbolic term in China for low taste, erotic vulgarity, and obscenity, such as”huangsedianying”(黄色电影)、”huangseshukan”(黄色书刊)、”huangseguangdie”(黄色光碟).etc. The "黄" in these names has nothing to do with the English "yellow", these words in English are expressed like this pornographic, vulgar, obscene. (Chen Yongye2005,425)It is very different from the associations in Chinese culture. The color vocabulary is visually and psychologically positive and derogatory for people of different nationalities.

In different historical backgrounds and conditions, a large number of color words have been produced.Therefore, it is important to understand the historical background and cultural differences of different countries.For example, during the Anti-Japanese War, our Party was called "Hongjun" (Red Army), which looks like "Hongsezhengquan" (red Government), "Hongjun" (Red Army), "Red Flag" (red Flag), "Red Song" (red song), "Hongsewenjian" (red document), "Hongseganglin" (Red program), and so on.(Dan2018 lee, 132)
In addition to some basic meanings, the color "red" in China also has some special historical meanings, such as heroism and fearless revolutionary spirit.That's the main reason our flag is red.Also in ancient China, yellow was a symbol of power, a color reserved for royalty that represented supreme power, which meant the yellow robes were added to the flag.In the West, purple is used metaphorically to "throne" and "stand out", and a purple robe means to rise to a prominent position, because western emperors and bishops have a tradition of wearing purple,(Dan2018, 132) e.g. : born in purple (born in royalty), raised in purple.

==== 4.3 Religious beliefs ====

In China, the Five Element Theory is widely spread. Since "gold" is at the core of the theory, yellow becomes noble. In contrast, in the West, because yellow is stigmatized in Christianity and most people are Christians, many people dislike yellow and often even use it to convey negative connotations, according to "the Gospels" in the Bible's, in which Jesus was willing to be crucified, bleed to death, and be sacrificed with the blood of the Gospels. The Bible has been a classic of Christianity, and most people in Europe and the United States believe in Christianity.(Chen Yongye2005,425) Since the Bible has always been a Christian classic, and most people in Europe and the United States are Christian, its influence on Western culture as a whole is immeasurable, and on English culture as well.

Therefore, people think that "red" is associated with bloodshed, martyrdom, and bad things, and "red" makes them think of horrible things, such a“ red hand”( 沾满血的手 ),“ a red battle”( 血战 ),“ to see the red light”(灾祸临头)."(Chen Yongye2005,425)In Chinese language, the color red is a symbol of honor, splendor, good fortune, and celebration. Such as: :“ 开门红”make/ get off to a good start,“ 满堂红”success in every field,“ 红榜 ”honor roll,“ 红运 ”goodluck,“ 红事 ”wedding,“ 红人 ”a favorite with someone in power etc.".

The theory of the Five Elements is widely spread in China.Because "gold" is the core of the theory, yellow becomes noble.On the contrary, in the West, because yellow is stigmatized by Christianity and most people are Christians, even many people do not like yellow and often use it to convey negative meanings, according to the "Gospels" in the Bible, Jesus was willing to be crucified, bleed to death, sacrifice with the blood of the Gospels.The Bible has always been a classic of Christianity, which is practiced by most people in Europe and the United States.(Chen yongye, 2005,425) since the bible has always been a classic of Christianity, and most people in Europe and America are christians, the influence of the bible on the whole western culture is inestimable, and the same is true for British culture.

Therefore, people think "red" is associated with blood, sacrifice, and bad things, and "red" makes them feel terrible things, such as "red hands" (stained with blood), "red battles" (bloody battles), "seeing red lights" (disaster coming).(Chen yongye 2005,425) in Chinese, red is the symbol of honor, splendor, wealth, auspiciousness and happiness.Such as :: "get off to a good start" make/get off to a good start, "full of red" success in every field, "red list" honor, "Red luck" Goodluck, "red thing" wedding, "red" people most like to be with someone in electricity, etc.

==== 4.4 Social System ====

The use of different colors to represent political affiliations or national identities has long been a common practice among peoples of different social systems in China and the West due to their political, economic, and religious differences. In English, the true blue refers to the loyal members of a political party, especially the die-hard conservative members of the British party; White Paper or Blue Paper refers to a report or diplomatic document with blue or white covers issued by the British and American governments on a particular topic; Yellow Paper refers to the French and other countries. A government report of a country; Green Paper is a draft report for discussion by various committees; the Chinese use the term "红" to symbolizes the proletarian revolution, the meaning of which is derived from the book "Red Star Over China"(“红星照耀下的中国”,and is also translated into”西行漫记”) by American writer Edward Snow.(Li Dan2018,132)

===5.Translation Methods of English-Chinese Color Words ===

From the above analysis, we can conclude that there are similarities and differences in the cultural connotations of Chinese and English color words. Therefore, in the translation of color words, it is impossible to generalize, so translators need to adapt to the local conditions and adopt an appropriate way to translate.

====5.1 Literal Translation ====

Literal translation means that every effort should be made to maintain the linguistic style of the original work. At the same time, it requires that the target language should be fluent and easy to understand. There are similarities between English and Chinese languages and cultures. In the translation of English-Chinese color words, some color words can be found in the target language, while others have similar extended cultural meanings. Sometimes there is no similar extended meaning, but only a literal translation meaning, so the literal translation can also be used for translation.(Hu Zongkang, Zhang Jun,153)

For example, when the word black remains in its original color in the corresponding language, i.e, it has the same connotation, a literal translation is usually used.black humor 黑色幽默 (an absurd, grotesque, or morbid humor in literature, especially in novels and plays)、
black Friday黑色的星期五 (the Friday on which any disaster occurs)、black hand黑手党 (a secret organization that originated in Sicily, Italy, and has spread to the United States to engage in criminal activities)black market 黑市、black- hearted 黑心的、blacklist 黑名单、black and white TV黑白电视, etc.(Chen Yuan2020,49）and red light district can be directly translated as“红灯区“, which refers to the neighborhoods where sex industries are concentrated in cities of certain countries and regions.(Hu Zongkang, Zhang Jun,152)

Similarly, some color words in Chinese can be directly translated into English, for example:” 白露”, one of the 24 solar terms, is a culturally specific term in Chinese, which is completely unfamiliar to Western countries. Due to cultural exchanges, "white dew" is becoming more and more familiar to foreigners, and it has the same cultural meaning in English as "白露" in China. As another example, "绿油油" is a Chinese adjective used to describe the color of vibrant green leaves.(Hu Zongkang, Zhang Jun,153) We can translate it into English as "green and shiny" because the color words here are only used to describe objective points of view, and they have the same meaning.

==== 5.2 Free Translation ====

Free translation. When the meaning of a color word in the original language is different from the meaning of the color word in the target language, the translator has to translate the meaning of the color word in the original language into the customary expression in the target language. In some cases, color words appear in both Chinese and English, but they do not have any color meaning; some are customary object names, while others give new meaning to them. In this case, the color itself cannot be focused on, so the colorless translation should be abandoned.This kind of translation based on the cultural background of two languages to correspond to the meaning is called "free translation".(Chen Yuan2020,49）

Take black as an example, for instance, black lie--恶意的谎言、black and blue--青一块紫一块、black tea-- 红茶、black guard--恶棍、black coffee --不加牛奶的咖啡、pain somebody black-- 把某人描写成坏人、黑帮can be translated into “reactionary gang”、黑钱--ill-gotten money、黑面包 brown bread, and so on. Another example is that we often say "他是老师面前的“红人", which is translated into English as "He is teacher's favourite student" ,”hongren”(红人)is an extended paraphrase of the Chinese, which does not mean literally, it means someone who is popular and be sought after by others,(Hu Zongkang, Zhang Jun,150) and the exact meaning needs to be contextualized. People from English-speaking countries will be confused if we translate it as "red people".

In English, the meaning of "one's favourite people" is somewhat similar to "红人", so the phrase "one's favorite people" is appropriate. Another example is "a white elephant," which is said to be a punishment given by the king of Thailand to his erring ministers in the past, as the cost of keeping white elephants is very high and would be a great financial burden. This word is very common in English, but a literal translation of "白象" would not have any connotation in Chinese, so it can be translated as "expensive and useless thing.（Jin Yan2012，130）

===6. Conclusion ===

This paper first discusses the construction of color words in Chinese and English, and then compares their compositional features. Secondly, six colors (red, black, yellow, white, green, blue) are taken as examples to analyze the cultural similarities and differences between Chinese and English color words. The reasons for the differences are divided into four main categories: geographical factors, historical factors, psychological factors, religious beliefs, and social systems,Finally, a solution to the problem is proposed, which provides a proper reference for translators when translating Chinese and English color words.(Hu Zongkang, Zhang Jun,153)

When doing translation, translators can mainly use two different translation methods, namely, literal translation and free translation. When the Chinese cultural connotation of a color word in a sentence is the same as the English one, the literal translation can be used. When it is different from English, a free translation is appropriate.(Bao Dongjiao2005,106) With the continuous penetration of globalization, people's languages and cultures are gradually interwoven, so does the meaning of color words, and also the similarities are expanding gradually.

However, each nation-state has its own unique culture and customs, so the color words have completely different meanings in different regions and different languages. Therefore, when translating color terms, in order to translate the meaning of the text more accurately, the translator must have a deeper understanding of the color words.(Bao Dongjiao2005,107).In addition, the translator should not only learn translation skills, but also the history, geography, and culture of the country where the source and target language are located, which will help the accuracy of the translation. In short, the key to a good color word translation is the combination of translation skills and a deep understanding of the culture, as well as an accurate analysis of the color word.

===7.Reference ===

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*Wang Yan, Zhang Bo.王艳,张博.(2012).谈中西文化对颜色的理解差异[Talking about the difference in the understanding of color between Chinese and Western cultures].教学实践[Teaching Practice],6-11.

*Chen Yongye.陈永烨.(2005).英汉颜色词所表现的中西文化差异[The Chinese and Western cultural differences expressed by English and Chinese color words].辽宁工程技术大学学报[Journal of Liaoning University of Engineering and Technology],424-427.

*Hu Zongkang, Zhang Jun.胡宗康,张军.(2019).英汉颜色词中“Green/绿”的对比与翻译方法研究[. Comparison and Translation of "Green/绿" in English and Chinese Color Words].文学教育[Literary Education],152-153.

*Bao Dongjiao.鲍冬娇.(2015).中西红白颜色认知差异及翻译取向[Differences between Chinese and Western red and white color perception and translation orientation].湖北经济学院学报[Journal of Hubei University of Economics],106-107.

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*Du Tianyu,杜恬雨.(2020).浅析文化差异对汉英颜色词翻译的影响[An analysis of the influence of cultural differences on the translation of Chinese-English color words].科教文汇[Science and Education],187-188.

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==Translation Manipulated by Ideology 许静Xu Jing, MTI 英语笔译==

<center> 许静 Xu Jing 202070080614 </center>
===摘要===
传统翻译理论将研究重点放在原文与译文的对比上，遵循翻译的最高原则“忠”。本文将根据勒菲费尔的翻译改写理论，从历史角度探讨中国建国初期翻译活动的过程及其制约因素，旨在揭示这一阶段中国翻译活动的基本特点，为新时期翻译活动的良性发展提供一点借鉴。

===关键词===
翻译；意识形态；操纵；赞助人

===Abstract===
Traditional translation theory focuses on the comparison between the original text and the translated text, following the strict principle of translation, "fidelity". This article will explore from a historical perspective the process of translation activities and its constraints in the early years of China's founding, based on Lefevere's theory of translation rewriting, with the aim of revealing the basic characteristics of Chinese translation activities at this stage and providing a little reference for the benign development of translation activities in the new era.

===Key words===
Translating; Ideology; Manipulation; Patronage

===Introduction===
Traditionally, translation studies have only focused on the linguistic level, confined to the conversion of two texts, and have not broken through the understanding of the "faithful" concept.
Since the 1970s, leading translators from various countries have abandoned their original narrow thinking and begun to emphasize that "translation does not take place in the vacuum of two languages, but in the context of two literary and cultural traditions." In the 1980s, the French translation studies scholar Antoine Berman stressed that the translation of literary works is driven by ideological choices. (Xu Baoqiang, Yuan Wei 2001,13)

In the 1990s, the contemporary American translation theorist Lefevere, in his Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulation of Literary Fame, argues that translation involves several factors such as ideology, patronage, poetics and literary scholarship. Translation is the rewriting of an original text; it is a form of creating a text. Whatever the rewriting or the intention, it reflects a certain ideology and poetics and responds to the dominant ideology of the period. As a result, the intercultural activity of translation inevitably bears the mark of ideology. (Xu Baoqiang, Yuan Wei 2001,13)

===Ideology===
The word “ideology”, derived from the Greek word “idea” and “logos”, literally means conceptual logos, i.e. the doctrine of ideas. It was a concept proposed by Destutt de Tracy at the end of the 18th century, initially as a world view and a body of philosophical thought, for a modern critique of religion, which encompassed the whole field of culture, including science, and was an essential intermediary between ourselves and the world. This is generally considered to be the positive use of this concept. (Jiang Xiaohua 2003, 28)

But there are also a number of scholars who recognise and use this concept in a negative or pejorative sense. In their view, ideology is a form of false-consciousness, a set of interconnected value judgements that guide social and political action but are not subject to rational scrutiny. These judgements, which contain prejudices and preconceptions, tend to distort our understanding of the world and are therefore necessarily unreliable. (Jiang Xiaohua 2003, 28)

Ideology, in this context, includes religion and all distorted forms of consciousness, is the antithesis of science and functions politically as a specific element of the social superstructure. Both meanings of ideology, positive and negative, have long been used in the field of philosophical and cultural studies. The Dictionary of Modern Chinese (2002) gives the following summary of ideology:

Ideology is a systematic view of the world and society, formed on the basis of a certain economic foundation. Ideology is a component of the superstructure and has a class character in a class society. It is also called conceptual form. (The Dictionary of Modern Chinese 2002, 455)

Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary defines:

1. especially the systematic sum of ideas about human life or culture; 2. the way of thinking or content specific to an individual, group, or culture; 3. the integrated claims, theories, and goals that shape a socio-political agenda. (Merriam Webster 2003, 507)

The two definitions are worded differently, but the substantive content is basically the same. The use of the concept of ideology in this paper will take its broad form, taking into account both positive and negative meanings, reflecting its narrow political connotation as well as covering its conceptual doctrine in its original sense. It is on this conceptual basis that our discussion will proceed. (Wang Dongfeng 2003, 20)

===Ideology and Translation===
Traditional translation theory has always measured all translations with a yardstick of loyalty and infidelity, as if questioning a young daughter-in-law in a family shrine about her disobedience. In this small-minded ritualistic vision, the self-appointed patriarchal status of the commentator gives himself an unwarranted authority, so much so that some conclusions seem to be drawn without even bothering to fetch the ritualistic ruler: translators are like women, beautiful ones are unfaithful, faithful ones are not beautiful. (Lu Jun 2002, 107)

Thus, we see in the clan shrine of translation Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Fu Donghua, etc., who were condemned with few sensible reasons; and Pound, the foreigner who did not know Chinese and dared to translate Tang poems. The crime exerted on them is infidelity. (Ma Zuyi 2006, 209)

Finally, in the 1980s, translation scholars began to pay attention to the pressure of ideology on the practice of translation. In the 1990s, the American translator Lefevere wrote a book entitled Translation, Rewriting, and the Manipulation of Literary Fame. In this book, he systematically described the two main factors that manipulate the translation process, namely ideology and poetics. According to his theories, it seems that we can offer another explanation for the 'infidelity'. (Lefevere 1992, 56)

According to Lefevere, there are two factors that control literary creation and translation: internal factors and external factors. The internal factor is the so-called 'professionals', made up of critics, teachers, translators, etc., while the external factor is the 'people, institutions' who have the 'power to promote or prevent' literary creation and translation. "The term he uses is patronage. Here, 'the patronage is usually interested in the ideology of literature', while 'the literary scholars are concerned with poetics'. Thus, the two main factors governing the translation process are ultimately ideology and poetics. (Lefevere 1992, 56)

Lefevere also points out that the endogenous factor (the literary person and his or her poetic conception) works within the parameters set by the exogenous factor (the patron and his or her ideology) (ibid). In other words, the patron representing the ideology of a culture or society establishes a set of decisive ideological value parameters within which literary scholars and translators accomplish their poetic pursuits. (Munday, J 2010, 127)

On the one hand, the patrons, as spokespersons of a certain ideology, use their discursive power to intervene directly in the translation process; on the other hand, the literary scholars and translators, who are familiar with this set of ideological value parameters, mostly consciously avoid violating the ideological tenets and manipulate their limited discursive power and poetic skills within the limits they deem permissible. Thus, when literary scholars and translators use discourse, both ideology and poetics come into play in their consciousness, influencing their compositions or 'rewriting' and 'determining the strategies of the translator'. (Munday, J 2010, 127)

The above distinction between ideology and poetics made by Lefevere has, in my view, some debatable points. In terms of the division of categories, poetics as a system of aesthetic ideas about literature and art still belongs to the realm of ideology, and therefore this paper will treat the poetic element as a category under ideology. It must be stated that the author only disagrees with the validity of the distinction between categories in Lefevere's theory, but agrees and admires his thesis on the influence of ideology and poetics on the translation process. (Bassnett, S & Ledever, A 2001, 48)

In my understanding, Lefevere's theory provides a justification for those "beautiful women" who have "lost their modesty". Of course, the task of defending "them" is now left to our descendants. Ideology is a product of a certain society and culture. As societies emerge and cultures emerge, so do ideologies. (Wu Xufei 2015, 57)

Translation, as an act of cross-language and cross-cultural communication, is inevitably marked by ideology from the very beginning. When a translator introduces the ideas contained in the discourse of a foreign culture into the local culture, he or she will inevitably make his or her own judgement on the values of the foreign culture, and then decide on the strategy to convey them: whether to be straightforward or to distort their meaning; whether to "pluck out the nose and cut the eyes" or to start a new one. (Wu Xufei 2015, 57)

Ideology is the expression of the will of patronage or power, and to go against this will is to be censured, sometimes either to lose the rules to translate, or even to lose one's head. Translators, as living human beings, are not willing to go against the will of power, except for those who are fighting for the 'truth'. To paraphrase the post-modern hipsterism of "Journey to the West", we are all "translators", so why take ourselves so seriously? This may sound ungrateful, but from a historical point of view, it's also very unhelpful. (Wu Xufei 2015, 57)

Lefevere quotes Foucault as saying:

What makes power unbreakable, what makes it acceptable, is in fact a simple fact: power not only makes us feel a pressure to say no, but also transcends and produces things, provokes pleasure, forms knowledge, produces discourse. (Lefevere, 1992, 15)

In short, it means "those who obey will prosper, those who disobey will perish". Every society has its own unique ideological system, with its own hidden or explicit ideological boundaries. Every thinking member of a society knows where that boundary is; and in general, is conscious of operating within it. You can go to the edge, but you must not go beyond it. This is the rule of the game in any society, and translators have to abide by it as well. Even the United States, which boasts freedom of speech, would not allow Bin Laden's writings (if he had them) to be translated and published in the United States, at least for now. For such an act would cross the line of the ideological "parameters" of the American power class. (Xu Baoqiang, Yuan Wei 2001,13)

Translation involves the exchange of two cultures, which is a common expression these days. On the surface, "exchange" is a pleasant-sounding term, as it seems to imply equality and friendship. However, what is really implied behind such an exchange is a confrontation between two ideologies. The apparently 'equal and friendly' 'exchange' is in fact often the result of a confrontation followed by a compromise. (Xu Baoqiang, Yuan Wei 2001,13)

Translation is the transfer of the ideology of the local culture to the ideology of the foreign culture. The ideology of the foreign culture. For the local value system, this is a foreign cultural penetration, which means destruction, subversion and therefore a test of the local culture. A strong superstructure will use its own power discourse to manipulate this foreign destructive force, just like Tai Chi, by using the force to its advantage; a weak superstructure will be helpless in the face of this foreign destructive force, and will either be assimilated or subverted by it. (Hu Fangyi 2014, 41)

Those cultures that refuse to interact with foreign cultures are condemned to primitiveness, backwardness and, ultimately, extinction. Translators, as elite members of the superstructure, are faced with a complex choice of strategies: either to be rebellious or submissive, to seek conformity in the midst of rebellion, or to seek rebellion in the midst of conformity. Thus, among the superficial translation methods, we see "literary" and "qualitative" translations, "direct" and "meaningful" translations ", "naturalization" and '"dissimilation", and the way of "the middle", which strives for impartiality. (Hu Fangyi 2014, 41)

Translation is always a purposeful act. In class society, when translation is inevitably related to the superstructure, it becomes part of elite culture. It is part of the culture of the elite. When the elites of society engage in translation activities, their aims are themselves strongly ideological. The translation activities in class society, including pseudo-translations, creative translations and forgeries, all came from the elite elements of society. It is no coincidence that their actions, either in line with the right path or deviating from it, are the result of a certain ideology. (Ma Zuyi 2006, 209)

Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theory has attached great importance to the influence of ideology on translation practice. The significance of ideology in determining a translator's translation strategy can be seen in Zhi Qian's Preface to the Dharma Sutra, which has been called the "opening chapter of translation theory" in the history of Chinese translation. In his preface, he 'dislikes' Zhu Zhongyan's translation as 'indecent' (Zhiqian, 1984:22), showing the importance he attached to the aesthetic perception of the target audience. Similarly, the influence of the target language and aesthetic values on translation can also be seen in Dao An's 'Five Losses of the Text and Three Difficulties': 'One, the Hu language is inverted and made to follow the Qin, a loss of the text. The second is that the Hu scriptures are still of good quality, while the Qin people are good at writing, and the transmission can be done with the hearts of all people, but not with the text. (Ma Zuyi 2006, 209)

Western translators have similarly valued the influence of ideology on translation. When the Roman poet and translator Horace spoke of the 'faithful translator', Lefevere argued that this already included an emphasis on ideology, but he did not say why. The famous French writer Victor Hugo also pointed out:

When you dedicate a translation to a country, that country almost always sees the translation as an act of violence against it... To translate the work of a foreign poet is to add his work to the poetry of your own country; but to open up in this way does not please those with vested interests, at least at first. Their first reaction is resistance." (Lefevere 1992, 56)

Different cultures have different ideologies. History teaches us that exchanges between cultures are often, first and foremost, ideological. As Hugo asserts, such exchanges always begin with confrontation. What comes after confrontation? Successful exchanges often involve confrontation leading to compromise, and compromise leading to prosperity, as in the case of Buddhism and the flourishing of Chinese culture in China's history. Unsuccessful exchanges often lead to hostility and even war, as in the case of the clash between Islamic and Christian civilisations. (Bassnett, S & Ledever, A 2001, 48)

In the case of translators, it was also often the case that those who obeyed me prospered, as in the case of the Chinese translator of the Buddhist scriptures Xuanzang, and those who disobeyed me died, as in the case of the English religious translator William Tyndale (1494-1536), who was burnt at the stake, and the French religious translator Etienne Dolet (1509- 1546). The literature shows that the influence of ideology on translation has long been of interest to translators and translation theorists, but they have not used the term 'ideology' when discussing this issue. (Wu Xufei 2015, 57)

===Translation activities under the control of power in the early stage of the PRC===
After the founding of the People's Republic of China, internationally, the Western powers tried their best to contain the new regime and obstructed other countries from establishing diplomatic relations with the new China, Mao Zedong put forward the three major diplomatic policies of "falling on one side", "starting a new cooker" and "cleaning up the house before inviting guests "From a domestic perspective, the new regime was in urgent need of purging reactionary forces and propagating socialist and communist ideas in order to consolidate the proletarian regime. (Wu Xufei 2015, 57)

Taking into account the domestic and international political situation, the CPC, as the ruling party, strengthened its ideological. control, i.e.:vigorously propagating socialist and communist ideology. The translation activities were influenced by this and showed obvious ideological tendencies in terms of the choice of texts and translation strategies and even the patrons. (Wu Xufei 2015, 57)

====Ideological manipulation of translation activities====
Ideology is a product of a particular society and culture, and it accompanies the emergence of society and culture. Translation, as an act of intercultural communication, involves the exchange of two cultures. The essence of translation is to introduce the culture and ideology of the "other" into the local culture, and to assimilate it into the local value system and ideology. (Ma Zuyi 2006, 209)

The translation activities in the seventeen years after the founding of the People's Republic of China have seen a phased peak in both Chinese to foreign and foreign to Chinese translation. From the perspective of Chinese to foreign translation, first of all, the new China set off a comprehensive wave of learning from the Soviet Union, as Zhou Yang pointed out in an article in the Soviet magazine Banner: "'Go the way of the Russians'. This is true in politics, but also in literature and art. (Li Hongxia 2010, 86)

Literary and artistic workers should study harder the creative experience and artistic techniques of Soviet writers, and in particular go deeper into their socialist realism which is the basis of their creativity." Influenced by this idea, and in terms of text selection, socialist and realist literature from Soviet Russia was translated in large numbers, and this peak occurred mainly in the early decade of the founding of the country; according to statistics, from October 1949 to December 1958, a total of 3,526 Soviet and Russian literary works were translated and published, accounting for two-thirds of the entire foreign literature in translation. (Mei Zhang 2012, 755)

However, from the late 1950s onwards, the Sino-Soviet relations began to fray, and the ideological confrontation between China and the Soviet Union severely affected Chinese translation and mediation activities into Soviet literature; between 1960 and 1966, a total of 11 single-volume translations of Soviet literature were publicly published in the first four years, and zero Soviet literary works were translated into Chinese in the latter three years. (Mei Zhang 2012, 755)

Secondly, scientific and technical works from the Soviet Union were translated in large numbers. Most of the scientific works translated in the early years of the founding of the state were originally from the Soviet Union, among which the most scientific works were translated from 1952 to 1960, reaching 911 titles in 1954 and the most in 1957, with a total of 2557 scientific works translated, more than two-thirds of which came from the Soviet Union. (Munday, J 2010, 127)

The Soviet Union unilaterally withdrew its experts from China from 1960 onwards, and when Sino-Soviet relations broke down, there was a downturn in translations from the Soviet Union, especially in 1961, when only 126 original Soviet scientific and technical works were translated. [Ind.] Finally, the translation of political works. In order to further propagate proletarian ideology, in January 1953 the Party Central Committee set up the Central Bureau of Compilation and Translation with the task of translating the works of Marx, Engels, Lenin and Stalin in a systematic and planned manner. (Zhou Dongyuan, Qi Wendong 1999, 399)

Thus, for seventeen years, the works of Marx, Engels, Lenin and Stalin were translated from Russian into Chinese in large numbers and contributed to the spread of socialist and communist ideology and political consciousness in China. (Zhou Dongyuan, Qi Wendong 1999, 399)

From 1956 to 1966, the Central Compilation Bureau of the Communist Party of China translated and published the first 22 volumes of the Complete Works of Marx and Engels (excluding volume 20) on the basis of the second Russian edition of the Complete Works of Marx and Engels; from 1955 to 1963, all 39 volumes of the Complete Works of Lenin were translated into Chinese from Russian, and all 13 volumes of the Complete Works of Stalin were translated from 1953 to 1956. The 13 volumes of Stalin's Complete Works were also translated between 1953 and 1956. [10] The translation and editing of Marx and Lenin's works was rapidly completed under the direction of the state, which provided a good political basis for the economic and cultural development of the new China. (Zhou Dongyuan, Qi Wendong 1999, 399)

In conclusion, the translation activities from foreign to Chinese in the early years of the founding of the state were subject to the constraints of various political, economic and cultural factors at the time and showed obvious characteristics: for one thing, Soviet works, both literary and scientific, were rapidly translated into Chinese and widely disseminated within a few short years, but at the same time, due to the influence of political consciousness, they fell from a high point to a low point within a very short time; for another, with the support of the state regime and the government, political classics were quickly translated into Chinese in large numbers via Russian, which to a certain extent contributed to the development of translation activities and the consolidation of the new regime. (Zhou Dongyuan, Qi Wendong 1999, 399

In terms of foreign translations into Chinese, very few Chinese books in Chinese history have been translated into foreign languages and widely disseminated in foreign countries. After the founding of New China, in order to let the world's proletarians know more about China and at the same time establish diplomatic relations with more countries, the Chinese Foreign Languages Bureau translated and published a large number of foreign language books under the name of Foreign Languages Publishing House. (Xu Baoqiang, Yuan Wei 2001,13)

Among them the translation of Mao Zedong's works was given top priority, especially the translation and publication of the fourth volume of the English edition of Mao Zedong's Selected Works. The Foreign Languages Publishing House decided to publish the forth volume, followed by the first, second and third volumes. (Xu Baoqiang, Yuan Wei 2001,13)

In 1961, the Ministry of Culture issued two written circulars on the publication and distribution of Mao's works, requiring local bookshops to consult the party and government leaders before starting distribution, and limiting the target audience and the number of copies to be distributed. This shows that the translation and publication of Mao's works was treated as a political task and drew a great deal of attention from all sectors of society. (Xu Baoqiang, Yuan Wei 2001,13)

According to statistics, between 1949 and 1965, more than 3,000 Chinese books were translated into more than 20 foreign languages and distributed abroad, of which 536 were Mao's writings.11 In addition, pamphlets introducing the leader's writings and the Chinese revolutionary experience were translated into several languages and distributed abroad, where they were well received and became an effective way for foreigners to learn about and study China. These pamphlets were well received abroad and became an effective way for foreigners to understand and study China. (Ma Zuyi 2006, 209)

In short, this phase of Chinese to foreign translation activities was dominated by translations of Mao's writings and pamphlets of political literature, which had a clear ideological orientation. In order to consolidate the new proletarian regime, the new China used translations to propagate its political ideas in order to gain more support, and its targets were countries in Asia, Africa and Latin America fighting for national independence, as well as some leftist organisations and progressive people in developed countries in Europe and America. As a result, this phase of Chinese to foreign translation activity focused on the text itself while giving greater consideration to the political and social factors it contained. (Ma Zuyi 2006, 209)

====Patron manipulation of translation activities====
The patron's sense of power was another important factor in the manipulation of translation, one of the fundamental forces driving the progress of early modern society, far more influential than the influence of literature on society. The word 'patron' in English comes from the Latin patronus, meaning a person who gives financial support to a client for the achievement of a specific purpose. (Hu Fangyi 2014, 41)

Patrons control all aspects of the translation, including the content of the translation, the choice of material and even the strategy of the translation and its promotion. The patron may be an authoritative individual, a publisher, a government agency, etc., whose aim is to ensure that the translation conforms to a particular social norm or the interests of a particular class of people by providing the translator or author with a certain amount of financial support, social status or political patronage, so that his or her creation and translation are in line with the prevailing ideology. (Wang Dongfeng 2003, 20)

After the founding of New China, the patronage of translation activities as a whole was divided into two phases. (Wang Dongfeng 2003, 20)

The first stage lasted from the founding of New China in 1949 to the completion of the Three Great Transformations in 1956. The role of publishers as patrons was changing during this phase. At the beginning of the founding of the country, the publishing industry developed unevenly in different parts of the country, and state-owned and private publishers coexisted. (Wang Dongfeng 2003, 20)

According to statistics from March 1950, there were 244 private bookshops operating in 11 major cities across the country, and publishing houses became the main patrons during this period, possessing a certain degree of financial independence and sponsoring translation activities through financial support for translators. By the end of 1956, the socialist transformation of private publishing houses had basically been achieved, with the withdrawal of the private sector from the publishing houses and a simultaneous change in the composition of the patrons. (Wang Dongfeng 2003, 20)

The second phase, from 1957 to 1966, saw the weakening of the power of publishing houses as independent sponsors, and the predominance of patronage by government agencies, such as the Ministry of Culture and the Central Propaganda Department, and by authoritative individuals, such as state leaders Mao Zedong and Zhou Enlai, in translation activities; the independence of publishing houses no longer existed, although they could decide what and how to translate in translation activities, when their ideology When their ideology contradicts that of government agencies or authoritative individuals, they must obey the latter. (Wang Dongfeng 2003, 20)

For example, in terms of the content of translations, some people advocated translating the foreign-language edition of People's Pictorial to introduce the experience of the Chinese revolution, but Chairman Mao disapproved of this, arguing that "it would be good to be able to introduce our lives in a realistic way. [12] For example, in the translation of the English version of the fourth volume of Mao Zedong's Selected Works, the Party Central Committee appointed Zhang Hanfu and Meng Yongqian to take charge of the specific leadership work. (Wang Dongfeng 2003, 20)

The sponsor's control over the translation activities was also reflected in the choice of translation strategies. Different types of texts have different translation strategies. The translation of political texts should aim to express the content of the original text accurately and completely, and the editorial processing of such texts should be strictly reported; the translation of literary and artistic works should try to appreciate the style of the original text and make appropriate text processing when necessary, but should not alter the content of the original text at will; general reports should be more adapted to the habits of foreign reports and take into account the receptiveness of foreign readers, so there can be greater flexibility in translation, but However, the relevant guidelines, policies and important facts should not be changed at will. (Wang Dongfeng 2003, 20)

As Yang Xian Yi said, "Unfortunately, we were only hired translators, and it was not up to us to decide what to translate. ...... The selected work had to suit the political climate and the taste of the time. the political climate and the taste of the moment." (Yang Xianyi, Xuehongshi 2001, 225)

===Insights from the Translation Activities in the Early Stage of the PRC===
The translation activities in the seventeen years after the founding of the state formed the fourth translation climax in China's history, and the key factor contributing to this climax was the government's unified leadership and planning of translation activities. In the early years of the founding of the country, the state strengthened its organisation and planning of the publishing industry and translation activities by convening a number of national conferences.

Firstly, in order to rectify the chaotic state of the publishing industry and lead the nation's publishing work, the State General Administration of Publications convened the First National Conference on Publishing in September 1950 and the First National Conference on Publication Administration in August 1951, both of which stressed the quality of publications, especially the second conference, which made improving the quality of publications the top priority of the publishing industry, and stressed the importance of book review and the importance of conducting book reviews. (He Mingxing 2014, 17)

Secondly, in order to improve the quality of translations and establish plans, the State General Administration of Publications convened the First National Conference on Translation Work in November 1951, at which the planning and institutionalisation of translation work was made a central task in the organisation of translation work, and emphasis was placed on the widespread development of criticism and self-criticism in the national academic and publishing community in order to improve and enhance the quality of translation work. (He Mingxing 2014, 17)

Once again, in August 1954, the Chinese Writers' Association held the first national conference on literary translation work. At the meeting, Mao Dun proposed that literary translation work must be carried out in an organised and planned manner, and that criticism and self-criticism in literary translation work should be strengthened in order to improve the level of artistic creation in literary translation. (Xu Baoqiang, Yuan Wei 2001,13)

After these conferences, translation activities, especially translation criticism, were widely carried out in China, and both the quantity and quality of translated works improved greatly. According to statistics, a total of 6,680 translated works were published in China in the 30 years from 1919 to 1949, and from October 1949 to the end of 1958, more than 5,300 foreign literary works were translated and published nationwide, of which 65.5 per cent were translated from the Soviet Union. And translations of popular science works during this period amounted to more than 3,600, most of which also came from the Soviet Union. (Ma Zuyi 2006, 209)

From 1950 to 1952, 74 articles were published in the Translation Bulletin alone, and many translators not only dared to criticize, but also took the initiative to criticize themselves for the errors in their own translations. For example, in May 1952, Wang Feibai published 'Review of Jiang's translation of "Star"' in the Translation Bulletin, criticising Jiang Lu's translation, followed by 'Review of the translation of "Star"', in which Jiang Lu self-criticised the errors in his translation. (Ma Zuyi 2006, 209)

Compared with the translation activities in the seventeen years after the founding of the state, the translation activities in China have become more prosperous and extensive since the 21st century, but at the same time, many problems have emerged. Firstly, the quality of translations has been low. (Ma Zuyi 2006, 209)

In order to expand sales and pursue lucrative profits, many publishing houses have been competing to buy the rights to foreign bestsellers and organise translators to translate them into Chinese as quickly as possible in order to make maximum profits. Secondly, piracy is rampant. Pirated books are not only available in many editions but also at low prices and in beautiful packaging. (Wang Dongfeng 2003, 20)

Many publishers have even misrepresented the names of the compilers in order to avoid charges of piracy. In the case of Mr. Ye Junjian's translation of Hans Christian Andersen's Fairy Tales, for example, there are about 40 pirated editions known to him alone. Another example is that almost all of the books translated and published by the People's Literature Publishing House in the past have been pirated. Similar examples abound, and piracy not only affects the rights of regular publishers, but also undermines the right of readers to enjoy fine translations. (Wang Dongfeng 2003, 20)

In response to these problems, from a historical perspective, it is, first of all, essential to strengthen the leadership and organisation of translation activities by the government. So far, there is no government department in China specifically in charge of translation activities. While the market economy has promoted the extensive development of translation activities, its blindness and the pursuit of profits have made it difficult for the spirituality and culture of translation products to be well reflected. Therefore, the overall planning and guidance of the relevant government departments play an important role in the effective development of translation activities. (Hu Fangyi 2014, 41)

Secondly, vigorously carrying out criticism and self-criticism is an effective way to improve the quality of translations. To a certain extent, the low quality of translated works can be attributed to the lack of translation criticism. On the whole, the number of articles published on translation criticism in China is still relatively small and there are more practical studies than theoretical studies, for example, in 2011, there were 14 articles on translation criticism, accounting for only 2.2% of the total. (Hu Fangyi 2014, 41)

In terms of content, literary criticism dominates and is mostly of the appreciation type, especially focusing on the analysis of famous writers, praising translators more than criticizing them, and the theoretical construction of translation criticism is insufficient, lacking real substantive criticism. This is the case with translation criticism, and there is even less self-critical writing from translators. In short, as an important area of translation activity, translation criticism is indispensable. (Hu Fangyi 2014, 41)

===Conclusion===
Ever since translation inevitably entered our culture, the social ideology that is also inevitably present in our culture has almost never ceased to manipulate the further development of the movement. In short, the ideological manipulation of translation activities in the early years of the founding of the state has been a constant and pivotal role in translation activities, especially the leading role of the government and the widespread activities of criticism and self-criticism in the translation community have provided a certain historical mirror for the benign development of translation activities in the new era.

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*張旭. 意識形態與近代英詩漢譯. 2005, 34(6):135-164.

*何明星.欧美翻译出版中国当代文学作品的现状及其特征[J].出版发行研究,2014(03):15-18.

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*马祖毅.中国翻译通史现当代部分（第三卷）[M].武汉﹔湖北教育出版社，2006: 207-225.

*蒋骁华.意识形态对翻译的影响:阐发与新思考[J].中国翻译,2003(05):26-31.

*王东风.一只看不见的手——论意识形态对翻译实践的操纵 [J]．中国翻译，2003，5 (24): 16-23.

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==Comparison between the History of Chinese and Western Translation 周书尧 Zhou Shuyao,Japenese Language and Literature==

<center> 周书尧 Zhou Shuyao 202020080672 </center>

===Abstract===
Translation has existed since historical records. Translation goes hand in hand with human history, even before historical records. Whether in China or in western countries, the long tradition of translation seems to be the most dazzling pearl in the process of human civilization. In addition, it plays an important role in promoting cross-cultural communication. This chapter first discusses the history of translation in China from the four translation climaxes in China, then discusses the history of translation in the West from the five translation climaxes in the west, and finally makes a comparative analysis of the similarities and differences between Chinese and western translation history, and puts forward some views of the author.

===Key words===
The history of Chinese,The history of Western,the stages of translation history,comparison

===摘要===
自历史记载以来，就存在翻译。翻译与人类的历史并道而驰，甚至先于历史记载。无论在我国，还是西方国家，悠久的翻译传统俨然成为人类文明进程中一颗最耀眼的明珠。此外，翻译在促进跨文化交流和文化传播上起着着不可忽视的作用。本文首先从中国的四次翻译高潮论述中国的翻译史，其次从西方的五次翻译高潮探讨西方的翻译史，最后对中西方翻译史的异同进行对比分析，提出一些笔者自己的看法。

===关键词===
中国翻译史，西方翻译史，翻译高潮，对比

===I.Introduction===
Since the 1980s, the Chinese translation studies community has made remarkable progress in the establishment of Chinese and Western translation history courses and the compilation of related works.In the 1980s and early 1990s,A Brief Introduction to the History of Translation in China from Ma Zuyi and other books of Chen Yugang and Tan Zaixi were published one after another,which raised the curtain for the compilation of Chinese and Western translation history works by the domestic translation scholars.The four stages in the history of Chinese translation have promoted the development of Chinese history, culture and society to varying degrees.(Xu 2018,5)

The same as China, Western translation has an age-old history.In a sense, the development of Western European civilization should first be attributed to the translators.The five stages in the history of European translation have promoted the exchanges of literature, art, science and trade between countries, and to a certain extent promoted the development of Chinese translation.In fact, when we examine the development trajectory of Chinese and Western translation activities and the evolution of translation concepts together, we find that there are some similarities between Chinese translation and Western translation.Especially in the evolution of Chinese and Western translation concepts, the two have very similar evolution laws.(Xie 2010,5)

===Ⅱ.The history of Chinese translation===
According to records, there have been four stages in China's long history of translation development, leaving behind many classic discussions.From these four translation climaxes, we can see the translators, translation theories and practices that emerged in different periods in China.Moreover, these translation stages have exerted different influences on China's history, culture, society, and literature, including the development of Chinese translation.(Li 2016,132)

====2.1 The first stage: Ancient Translation History====
The translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties (25-1279) can be regarded as the first important period in the history of Chinese translation, the initiation period of traditional Chinese translation theory, and the first large-scale, planned, Organized translation activities.A large number of Buddhist scriptures were introduced into our country from various countries in the Western Regions, which had a profound impact on our country's language, religious philosophy, painting, arts, etc.The Chinese translation of Buddhist scriptures with textual research should be translated by An Shigao（安室高） during the Eastern Han Dynasty (151 AD).(Liu 2016,147)

From 148 AD to 170 AD, he translated more than 30 Buddhist scriptures in Luoyang, making great contributions to Buddhist translation and the spread of Buddhist culture in China.The translation of Lokaksema（支娄迦谶）, who was at the same time as An Shigao, was basically a word-for-word translation, which was not easy to understand. The literal translation in the Chinese translation community probably started from this time.Zhi Loujiachen were the masters of the literal translation school. In addition to them, the major translators include Lokaksema and Dharmaraksha（竺法护）. And most of these translators were “foreigners”.(Liu 2016,147)

Shi Daoan (314-385), who was an eminent monk, set up a translation workshop, ushering in the period of translation on a large scale. And a State Translation School was founded for this purpose. Shi daoan put forward the famous "five instances of losing the source and three instances of difficulties", which had a great influence on later translation studies.(Li 2016,132)The Sui and Tang Dynasties were the prosperous period of Chinese Buddhist translation.Xuan Zang（玄奘）, Kumarajiva（鸠摩罗什）, and Zhen Di（真谛） of the Tang Dynasty are collectively known as the three major translators of Chinese Buddhism.（Li 2016,132）

In the translation of Buddhist scriptures, he fumbled and summed up the famous "Five do not flip"(五不翻原则）and “six methods of translation”. "Five do not flip"means translators should employ transliteration facing mysterious words, polyseme, culture-loaded words, conventional transliterating words and words showing respect. And the core of his translation theory can be concluded in one sentence. That is: it is necessary to seek truth and be straightforward.（既须求真又须喻俗)
The Buddhist translation of this period enriched the religious beliefs of the people, became the spiritual support of the people at that time, promoted the exchange between China and the world at that time, and made Buddhist scriptures an inseparable part of our traditional culture.（Li 2016,132）

====2.2 The stage two:Modern Translation History ====
During the Ming and Qing Dynasties (from the middle of the 14th century to the 19th century), the second stage of translation appeared in Chinese history. During this period, the translation was mainly scientific and technological translation.This major turn was also decided by the Chinese and Western countries at the time in order to seek their own interests and finally reached an agreement on mutual terms.Western missionaries wanted to spread religious thought and culture in China, while Chinese scholars at that time were eager for knowledge and were keen on Western advanced science and technology in order to maintain the regime.（Li 2016,132）

In this way, the mutual complementation of the two needs led to the gradual formation of the atmosphere of translation of Western science books, thus promoting the great development of science and technology translation at that time.In 1868, the official translation and publishing organization of the Qing Dynasty, referred to as the Translation Museum, used the translation method from Western to Chinese, which means that foreign scholars interpret and Chinese scholars write and polish.(Liu 2016,148)The main representatives of translation activities in this period include Xu Guangqi（徐光启）, Li Zhizao （李之藻）, etc.Especially Xu Guangqi, known as the "Father of Western Translation", does not understand foreign languages, and his translations are mainly through listening to people's dictation, co-translation and compilation with others.(Liu 2016,148)

He proposed that the translation of Western historical books should be prioritized and progressive，and put forward his own translation thought: "If you want to be superior, you must understand; before you can understand, you must translate first."Although there were many translation achievements during this period, there was no systematic translation theory.Although the later translation museum had clear translation principles, its main purpose was to maintain its own rule by learning advanced Western technology.(Liu 2016,148)

====2.3 The third stage: Contemporary Translation History ====
From the end of the 19th century to the beginning of the 20th century, China was in turmoil, internal and external troubles. Some rulers and intellectuals with capitalist thoughts demanded to unite to resist the invasion of western countries and proposed to strengthen through reform. Translation in this period is a watershed in the history of modern translation in China. Translation in the field of science and technology has gradually spread to the fields of literature, philosophy, economics, sociology and ethics. China has entered a new stage of translation, and the scale and influence of its translation activities have surpassed any other period in modern times.（Li 2016,132）

At the end of the 19th century, Western academic translation represented by Ma Jianzhong （马建忠）and Yan Fu（严复）was a translation act driven by "national anxiety", which promoted the expansion and deepening of foreign exchanges.(Liu 2016,148-149)In particular, Yan Fu's "faithfulness,expressiveness and elegance" translation standards have had a profound impact on translators' translation activities."faithfulness" means loyalty, and "expressiveness" means unobstructed. In Yan Fu's interpretation, "elegance" means the translation strives to be elegant.The representative translator at that time was Lin Shu（林纾）. He proposed to pay attention to the purpose and function of translation, which meant that the translation should be able to achieve the expected goals and effects.

In his translation, Lin Shu emphasizes the involvement of subjective feelings, and the translator needs to communicate with the original author and the characters in the original works. A large number of translators, represented by Lin Shu, mostly adopt the principle of domestication and advocate free translation, which reflects the flexibility and openness of translation to a certain extent. During the May 4th movement, New Youth magazine began to translate and introduce western cultural thoughts and literary works. Representative figures such as Chen Duxiu（陈独秀）, Hu Shi（胡适） and Zhou Zuoren（周作人） attached great importance to introducing foreign literature and foreign culture.(Liu 2016,149)

Translation activities during this period included the introduction of scientific and technological knowledge and the dissemination of advanced ideas. The scale and the number of works all showed its important position in the history of translation.Moreover, the audience in this period has also expanded from intellectuals to part of the people, broadening the horizons of the Chinese people, increasing their knowledge, and playing a good catalytic role in modern intellectual circles.(Liu 2016,149)

====2.4 The fourth stage: Present Translation====
Since the reform and opening up, China and the Western world have had a broader space for communication, and the translation industry has achieved prosperity and development.In an open China, from the initial learning from modern and contemporary Western translation theories, to actively conducting cultural exchanges with other countries, learning and exploring research methods, and focusing on cross-disciplinary comprehensive innovation, translation practices and theories have achieved unprecedented development.(Xu 2018,5)For example, cultural schools, structuralism, post-colonialism, and other translation theories have been translated into China in large numbers. Literary works involve politics, economy, culture, literature, art and other fields, and the quantity and variety greatly exceed the previous generations.

Representatives at this time include Liu Miqing（刘宓庆）, Tan Zaixi（谭载喜）, Huang Long（黄龙） and others. Among them, Tan Zaixi compiled the book "A Brief History of Western Translation". The whole book pays attention to absorb the relevant research results at home and abroad. It is important for various historical periods, especially since the 20th century. The representative tasks in the western translation field, translation works, schools of thought, etc. are described and commented, and the mutual promotion, evolution and development of translation practice and translation theory are analyzed and discussed in a simple way, which promotes the formation of a systematic translation theory in China.(Xu 2018,5)

During this period, our research is no longer limited to the summary of translation practices and abstract induction of translation principles, but from the generalization of subjective thoughts to the description and analysis of specific translation phenomena, translation events and processes.Translation studies have changed from a single-paradigm study to a multi-paradigm study. In short, the reform and opening up has created a new situation in China's translation industry, constantly expanding research fields, and effectively promoting the development of Chinese translation studies.

===Ⅲ.The history of western translation===
The same as China, Western translation has a long history.In a sense, the development of Western European civilization should first be attributed to the translators.From the ancient Roman Empire to the modern European Community, literary, artistic, scientific, and trade exchanges between countries are all carried out through the work of translators. Throughout the whole process, the history of Western translation can be divided into five major development stages.Broadly speaking, the earliest translation in the West is The Septuagint.Strictly speaking, the first translation is the Homer epic "Odyssey" translated in Latin by Andronicus .Both the former and the latter began in the third century BC, with a history of more than two thousand years, and are an important part of the entire European history of development.(Tan 1985,36)

====3.1 The first stage : Ancient====
Ancient translation mainly revolved around the Greek translation and Latin translation of the "The Bible·Old Testament" from the third century BC to the sixth century AD. Translation in this period can be divided into the first stage of ancient Greek literature translation and the second stage of religious translation.At the end of the fourth century BC, the Greek slave society began to decline, while the relatively backward Rome gradually became stronger.At this time, Greece has a certain cultural foundation and is still superior to Roman culture. Therefore, Greek culture has a greater attraction to Roman culture. (Tan 1985,36)

The translation and introduction of Greek culture may have begun in this period.It was not until the middle of the third century BC that recorded translations began to appear. Andronicus, Neveus, Ennius, and other excellent translators, who are known as the three ancestors of Roman literature, have translated a large number of Greek dramas in Latin.This large-scale translation first opened the situation of local translation in Europe. It spread Greek culture to Rome, promoted the development of Roman culture, and served as an important bridge for Rome and later generations to inherit ancient Greek literature.(Tan 1985,36)

The translation activities from the fourth century to the sixth century were mainly religious translation.In Europe, religious forces have always been strong and stubborn. From the very beginning, the Christian Church was hostile to secular literature, and tried to develop a religious culture that served its own interests.As the source of Christian thought and spiritual weapon, the "Bible" has naturally become the most concerned classic in the religious world.In 384 AD, Jerome was entrusted by the Roman Pope to compile a translation called "The New Testament", which marked that the translation of the "Bible" had achieved an important position on par with the translation of secular literature.As Europe entered feudal society, religious translation was popularized, and the Bible was translated into various languages .（Tan 2004,79）

====3.2 The second stage : Middle Ages====
In the middle ages, Latin translation was no longer limited to religious documents. Oriental literature was translated and introduced to the East. The achievements of Arabic academic research promoted the development of Western translation.At that time, Western translators gathered in Toledo, Spain, and translated a large number of works from Arabic to Latin. This is the rare closely contact between Christians and Muslims in history.(Tan 2004,64)In the ninth and tenth centuries, Syrian scholars went to Athens to translate a large number of Greek classics into Syrian and brought them back to Baghdad. Baghdad established an important translation center, and many Greek classical works were translated into Arabic.Later, in the eleventh century, a large number of Arabic works appeared in Toledo. Translators translated these works into Latin. Toledo gradually became an academic center and translation center, becoming a "Translation Museum" similar to Baghdad. His translation and academic activities lasted for a hundred years, and the impact was also great.

====3.3 The third stage :The Renaissance Period====
In the 14th to the 16th century, the Renaissance took place in Europe. It was a great movement of ideological and literary innovation, and a great development in the history of Western translation. The translation practice and theoretical research of Western countries did not make a real leap until the Renaissance.During the Renaissance, Western translators constantly discovered new literary fields, unearthed new cultural heritage, and transplanted new ideas to the mainland. Translation at this time went deep into various fields such as ideology, politics, philosophy, literature, and religion, and involved some major works in ancient, modern and contemporary times.Translation in this period played an important role in the formation of national languages, marking the consolidation of the status of national languages in translation.(Tan 1985,37)

In Germany, Martin Luther created a precedent for the Reformation. His translation of the "Bible" through the people's language laid the foundation for the later standardization and standardization of German and played an important role in the unification of German.In France, "Celebrity biography" translated by the writer Amyot became an immortal literary translation in the history of translation in France and the entire West.In the United Kingdom, the translation of Greco-Roman history and literary works provided important historical materials and new ideological resources for the formation of an autocratic monarchy in the United Kingdom, which promoted the occurrence of the British bourgeois revolution and promoted Britain to become a modern nationalized country earlier.(Tan 1985,37)

In a word, the Renaissance around 1500 AD had a profound and long-term impact on Europe, especially the Western European society. Cultural translation played an important role in the ideological liberation movement. At the same time, it also showed that translation played an important role in the formation and development of national language, literature and thought.(Tan 1985,37)

====3.4 The fourth stage :Since the end of the Second World War====
After the Second World War, the West entered a relatively stable period of peace, the economy was restored, production was secured, and science and technology developed rapidly. These are important material foundations for the development and progress of translation.(Tan 1985,37)Compared with the past, translation in the new period has undergone great changes. First, the scope of translation has been expanded. Traditional translation mainly focused on literary and religious works, while translation during this period expanded to the fields of technology and business.Second, the scale of translation is much larger than before. In the past, translation was mainly the work of a few high-level intellectuals.

Nowadays, translation has become a profession, and there is even a professional team that has been specially trained.Third, the role of translation has also been enhanced, especially with the establishment of the European Community and the European Union, the process of globalization has accelerated, and the communication activities between countries are realized through translation. Therefore, translation plays a very important role in the economy, culture, science and technology of western countries.(Tan 2004,80)

The form of translation during this period has also changed greatly, such as the strengthening of the professionalization of the translation business, the establishment of higher translation education and the training of professional translators.Especially the way of translation has broken the tradition, and machine translation has been developed and popularized.Since English and American scholars first discussed the possibility of using computers for translation in 1946, the development and application of translation machines have increasingly shown vitality after nearly 40 years of tortuous development.It is not only a challenge to the traditional manual translation for thousands of years, but also a revolution with far-reaching significance in the history of translation.(Tan 2004,80)

===Ⅳ.Comparison between the History of Chinese and Western Translation===
====4.1 Commonality====
Through the introduction of the Chinese translation history and the Western translation history in the above two chapters, it is not difficult to find that there are some similarities between the translation concepts and the evolution process of the two, especially the laws of evolution of the Chinese and Western translation concepts are very similar.
First of all, the initiation and development of large-scale Chinese and Western translation activities are closely related to the translation of religious documents.In the West it is the translation of the Bible, while in China it is the translation of Buddhist classics.(Xie 2010,5)

In my opinion, this commonality is the origin of translation concepts such as "original supremacy" and "faithful original text" that have dominated the Chinese and Western translation circles for two thousand years.(Xie 2010,5)Looking back at history, when Chinese and Western ancient translators were translating these religious documents, they must be pious and absolutely faithful to the original text to translate word by word, lest they would distort the will of God and the teachings of the Buddha.Until the 1950s, due to the advent of the era of professional translation, the target of translation has evolved from religious documents and literary masterpieces to non-literary practical documents such as economy, technology, business, and entertainment. Since then, translation Views have been greatly changed.(Xie 2010,5)

Secondly, both in China and in the West, translation has played an important role in disseminating knowledge.When we compare the contribution of Chinese and Western translation in spreading knowledge together, this effect is further demonstrated.In the West, backward Rome developed rapidly due to the absorption of advanced Greek culture and became the later Roman Empire.In the Middle Ages, after the Baghdad Translation Center, the translation activities of the "Translation Museum" in Toledo, Spain.The translators provided a source of learning for the Western world by translating ancient Greek and Roman natural science works, philosophy and other classics translated by the Arabs into Latin, as well as the Arabs' own academic works.(Xie 2009,47)

It is through these classical classics that Western talents began to come into contact with a large number of classical cultures and promoted the Renaissance. Its influence is reflected in all aspects of art, philosophy, literature, music, science and technology, politics, religion, and intellectual inquiry.For China, a large number of Buddhist scriptures from the Western Regions to China from the Han Dynasty to the Song Dynasty opened up the history of Chinese translation.The translation of science and technology at the end of the Ming Dynasty and the beginning of the Qing Dynasty was also influential in disseminating Western science and technology literature and promoting the development of China's natural science and engineering technology.(Xie 2009,47)

In particular, the literary translation from the Opium War to the "May 4th" period was the dividing line of modern translation history. The translation from the field of science and technology gradually spread to the fields of literature, philosophy, economics, sociology, ethics, etc. In the new stage of translation, the scale and influence of its translation activities have exceeded any period in modern times.Since China's reform and opening up, translation has played a role in promoting communication between China and various countries. The development of the globalization process cannot be separated from the bridge and hub of translation.(Xie 2010,5)

Thirdly, the role of translation in the establishment and development of national languages of different countries has some obvious similarities in the West and China. In the west, Martin Luther's Bible translation plays a very important role in the unification and development of German as well as modern German. The English translation of the Bible also contributes significantly to enriching English vocabulary and means of expression. As for China, Buddhist translation enriched Chinese vocabulary, especially literary translation during the May 4th movement, and promoted the establishment and development of modern Chinese vernacular. And now the new era of translation, to a certain extent, has enriched the vocabulary. For example, the Chinese word "人山人海" is translated into English as "people mountain people sea", even included in the English dictionary.(Xie 2010,5)

Finally, regardless of Chinese and Western, translation plays a vital role in conveying foreign social and cultural values.(Xie 2010,5)In the West, for example, the excavation, dissemination and development of the spirit of humanism during the Renaissance were largely due to the translation of ancient Greek and Roman classics.In China, Li Zhizao, Xu Guangqi and others' translations of Western social science masterpieces in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties broadened the horizons of the Chinese people and promoted the modernization of China.During the May Fourth Movement, Yan Fu, Lu Xun and others' translations of Western literature and dramas refreshed the Chinese worldview, increased the Chinese people's knowledge, and played a good catalytic role in modern intellectual circles.

====4.2 Difference====
The last section elaborated from four aspects that the evolutionary laws of Chinese and Western translation history are very similar. Of course, the development of Chinese and Western translation history has its own unique performance, not only in the development period and nodes, but also in certain These aspects are even far apart.
Although the initiation and development of large-scale Chinese and Western translation activities are closely related to the translation of religious documents, the status of Buddhism in Chinese and Western social and political life is different.Religion plays an extremely important role in Western society.(Xie 2009,51)

In Western Christian society, God is not only the creator and nurturer of the universe and mankind, but also the maker and arbitrator of the political and ethical order of the world. Is the primary source of Western moral standards.Therefore, the importance of "Bible" translation can be imagined.In China, imperial power is greater than divine power. Monarchs profess themselves to be the emperor, exercise power by the mandate of heaven, and enjoy supreme authority.Religion can only be spread and developed under the support and use of imperial power. Its essence is actually a tool to maintain rule, and it has never become a religious behavior for the whole people.(Xie 2009,51)

In Chinese history, religion was never allowed to harm the ethical principles of feudal rule. Once harm occurred, it would be banned and eliminated.The extermination of Buddhism in the history of Chinese Buddhism and the "Chinese Etiquette Controversy" in the history of modern Chinese Catholicism are typical features.Therefore, the influence of Chinese Buddhist scripture translation is more in folk culture, and the effect of its influence is more manifested in a subtle form.For example, the change of world outlook, the penetration of language, the borrowing of the plots of Buddhist classics in literary works, and so on.Moreover, Chinese society uses blood as a bond and family as a unit. It is the blood relationship that closely connects family members.Festivals and weddings and funerals are always carried out on a family or family basis, not under the auspices of the church as in the West.(Xie 2010,6)

On the other hand, due to the differences in national characteristics between China and the West, the Chinese nation is more pragmatic, focusing on physical and mental cultivation, ethics and morality, paying attention to whether translation theory has practical effects, whether it can guide translation practice and solve various problems encountered in the translation process.(Xie 2010,6)The Western Christian culture and my country's Confucianism have formed a sharp contrast in this respect.Westerners influenced by Christian thought have a strong pioneering and innovative national character. They advocate speculation and pay more attention to the abstract, systematic and systematic nature of translation theories.

They believe that the focus is on describing what kind of theory exists behind translation practice, and how to understand and interpret translation from a theoretical perspective.This makes the development path of the two translation theories different.If there were many similarities in the concepts and characteristics of Chinese and Western translation activities before the 1950s, then the differences in the development trends of the two translation theories in the later stages, especially from the end of the 19th century, became larger and larger.Western translation theories have been systematized earlier.(Xie 2010,6)

Any research is carried out under the guidance of a certain theory, and the results of related disciplines are fully used to make the connotation (translation standard itself) and extension (research method) of translation standards become truly pluralistic. Which embodies a strong scientific spirit.However, Chinese translation theories have remained at the level of translation practice experience perception for a long time, which is largely subjective.In particular, the proponents of traditional translation theory pay attention to the unspoken artistic conception, giving people more space for association and comprehension, but they cannot make precise regulations for translation practice, which is implicit.(Xie 2010,6)

===Ⅴ.conclusion===
Based on the above understanding of the history of Chinese and western translation from different aspects, I think it is possible to describe, analyze and sort out the history of Chinese and western translation in the same framework. By doing so, we can not only emphasize the common points in the development of Chinese and western translation, but also find out the rules of them. At the same time, we can show their own uniqueness in the process of development.

This chapter adopts the method of compiling parallel narratives based on synchronic presentation, supplemented by diachronic combing, combining two seemingly unrelated development contexts in the history of Chinese and Western translation, and analyzing and describing them as a whole.And the development stages of Chinese and Western translation history are divided into stages according to the mainstream translation objects of the specific era, and then the internal laws of the evolution of Chinese and Western translation concepts are explored and revealed.

Generally speaking, translation and culture are inseparable, whether religious, political, or literary, they all grow up in the soil of culture.(Chen 2016,1)In the process of understanding Chinese and Western translation history, people also feel the cultural collision.Not only in the long history of the past, but in the 21st century today, translation is a bridge and a link between countries, and an indispensable existence in people's social, political, and economic life. At the same time, translation is also an art. Through translating works, we not only understand the beauty of each country's culture, but also realize that translation is originally an art.

Translation is a rigorous and extensive academic science. Various forms of cultural exchanges between Chinese and Western languages, literature, philosophy, and religion require not only artistic performance, but also rigorous academic attitudes and systematic theories to support.Translators and scholars from different countries, languages and cultures have contributed their outstanding talents and wisdom in the field of translation. They have studied and published a wealth of academic theories and skills in translation studies from different perspectives, which have promoted the progress and development of society.

===References===
Chen Fang 陈芳.(2016).西方翻译史的文化演进——评《西方翻译简史》[The Cultural Evolution of Western Translation History——A Review of "A short history of translation in the West"].当代教育学(06)Contemporary Education(2).

Gong Yicai 龚亿财.(2020).论翻译在第三次翻译高潮中的特点及社会功能[On the features and social functions of translation in the third translation climax].吉林广播电视大学学报(Total No.217)Journal of Jilin Radio and TV University.

Li Yin 李颖.(2016).从翻译史上的几个重要时期看中国翻译理论与实践的发展[Viewing the development of Chinese translation theory and practice from several important periods in the history of translation].湖北经济学院学报(Vol13 No.10)Journal of Hubei University of Economics.

Liu Qiaoling 刘巧玲.(2016).从中国翻译史的四次高潮看主要译论及读者影响[Main translation theories and readers' influence from the four climaxes of Chinese translation history].黑龙江生态工程职业学院学报(Vol.29 No.5)Journal of Heilongjiang Vocational Institute of Ecological Engineering.

Ma Zuyi. 马祖毅. (1998). 中国翻译简史-“五四”以前部分（修订本） [A Brief History of Chinese Translation: The Part Before the May 4th Movement] . China Translation Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.

Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.(1985).西方翻译史浅谈[On the history of Western translation].中国翻译(07)Chinese Translation(36-39).

Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.(2004).西方翻译简史[A short history of translation in the West].商务印书馆The Commercial Press of Hongkong.

Xu Jun许钧.(2018.06)改革开放以来中国翻译研究的发展之路[The development of Chinese translation studies since reform and opening up].Chinese Traslation Journal.

Xie Tianzhen 谢天振.(2009)中西翻译简史[A brief history of Chinese and Western translation].外语教学与研究出版社Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.

Xie Tianzhen 谢天振.(2010)中西翻译史整体观探索[An exploration of the holistic view of Chinese and Western translation history].东方翻译(02)East Journal of Translation(4-8).
--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 15:01, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

='''Literal and Free Translation'''=

==Rethink Literal and Free Translation 彭永亮 Peng Yongliang==

<center> 彭永亮 Peng Yongliang 202020080634 </center>

===Abstract===

Literal translation and free translation are a pair of very important concepts in translation studies, which run through the development of translation theory. Starting from Chinese and Western translation theories, this manuscript clarifies the similarities and differences between literal translation and free translation, and compares the differences in translation methods and strategies. Literal translation and free translation in translation strategies are connected with the concept of domestication and foreignization. Here, this manuscript introduces how the concept of domestication and foreignization enters Chinese translation theory from Western translation theories, and compares them. The nature and characteristics of these two pairs of concepts. This manuscript believes that literal translation and free translation are not only a question of translation methods or translation strategies, but at a strategic level, they have risen to a question of domestication and foreignization. In essence, there is no distinction between good and bad.

=== Key Words===

Literal translation;Free translation;Domestication;Foreignization

===题目===

直译与意译，归化与异化

=== 摘要 ===

直译与意译是翻译学中非常重要的一对概念，贯穿翻译理论的发展过程。本稿从中西翻译理论出发，厘清直译与意译这对概念的异同，并比较了其在翻译方法和翻译策略中的区别。在翻译策略中的直译和意译又与归化和异化这一对概念产生了联系，在这里，本稿在介绍归化与异化这一对概念如何从西方翻译理论进入中国翻译理论的同时，比较了这两对概念的性质与特征。本稿认为，直译和意译不仅是翻译方法或翻译策略的问题，在战略层次上其上升为归化和异化的问题，它们本质上没有优劣之分。

=== 关键词 ===

直译；意译；归化；异化

===0. Introduction===

Literal translation and free translation are a pair of important terms in Chinese and Western translation theories. The discussion of literal translation and free translation is a common phenomenon in Chinese and Western translation theories, which runs through the entire process of translation theory. To a certain extent, literal translation and free translation seem to have become very natural categories, so there is no need to specifically define these two concepts in the discussion. Take the term "literal translation" used in Chinese translation theory as an example. From the "Six Examples of Scripture Translation" recorded in "Song Gaoseng Biography", it can be seen that the concept of "literal translation" in traditional translation theories was first opposed to "retranslation" , Refers to the translation method of translating the scriptures directly from the Sanskrit version. The concept of "literal translation" that frequently appears in modern and contemporary translation theories is at least related to the following three different western translation theory terms, namely "word-for-word translation", "literal translation" and "inter lineal translation". In this way, there is a fundamental difference between "literal translation" as the concept of "implantation" and the concept of literal translation in traditional Chinese translation theories. Therefore, there are different understandings of the term "literal translation".

In fact, the understanding of the concept often limits the scope of the discussion itself, so the different understanding of literal translation and free translation may make the disputes about these two concepts often carried out on different levels. Therefore, when using the two terms literal translation and free translation to participate in discussions, it is particularly important to clarify the concept of literal translation and free translation and re-examine the scope of discussion.

===1. Literal Translation and Free Translation===

===1.1 Literal Translation and Free Translation in Translation Methods===

From the perspective of etymology, "method" refers to the method of governance. It originally meant criminal law and regulations. Later it was used to refer to the sum of the ways, methods and procedures for people to understand and transform the objective world. It is a sign of wonderful deeds." Similar to the "method" in Chinese, the "method" in English is derived from the Greek word "μ＇εθοδοζ", which consists of two words "along" and "road", meaning to proceed along the right path. Therefore, whether it is "method" in Chinese or "method" in English, it refers to the correct way to recognize and understand objective objects, focusing on "action". Schleiermacher put forward in his far-reaching "On Two Methods of Translation", "Bring the author to the reader" and "Bring the reader to the author" are just to place the original text, translator and target reader in the same At the level, discuss the real task that the translator must complete-shorten the distance between the original author and the target reader, and highlight the relationship between language, understanding and thinking. Therefore, Schleiermacher's two translation methods are actually the choice of two paths, and they are the decisions and actions taken by the translator in language conversion. If translation is defined as a conversion of language signs, the translation method can be regarded as a specific way for the translator to recognize the source text and carry out the conversion of language signs.

British translation theorist Newmark summarized 13 different translation methods in Chapter 5 of the "Translation Tutorial", among which word-for-word translation, literal translation, faithful translation, semantic translation, etc. are all defined as one translation method. Examining his definitions of the different translation methods mentioned above, we can summarize the common points of these translation methods as “reproduce” based on determining a fixed translation unit (such as morphemes, grammatical structure, contextual meaning, etc.) The meaning of the original text. In other words, although Newmark uses a prescriptive research method to associate translation methods with "equivalence", and does not clearly define what translation methods are, the 13 translation methods he summarized illustrate the use of various Translation methods are all aimed at solving practical problems in the translation process. In this sense, "the translation method is related to the entire text" (Newmark, 2001:81). Translators will not be limited to a certain translation method in their translation process, but will adopt different translation methods according to actual problems. Both literal translation and free translation are one of them.

Western translation theorist Steiner believes-"The ideal situation for translation is to not suffer any loss during conversion" (Steiner, 2001:319). It can be found that although the original text and the translated text cannot be completely equivalent , But the ideal state required by the translator is still consistent in all aspects of the original text and the target text. To achieve such an ideal state, the translator needs to use the most appropriate translation method to solve the actual problems in the translation process on the basis of correct understanding. In the specific process of the translator, it is difficult to clearly distinguish the "degree" between literal translation and free translation as a specific translation method, such as the "most natural and most appropriate" translation. Therefore, in the discourse of most theorists, the opposite of literal translation and free translation should be hard translation, dead translation, Hu translation, etc. If we look at the controversy of "literal translation and free translation, which is better?" from this perspective, it seems to be said that literal translation and free translation, as two translation methods, do not have the advantages and disadvantages. The two are not completely different and opposed to each other. Translation methods are specific methods used by the translator for different issues. Therefore, the discussion about literal translation and free translation not only includes the discussion of "how to translate", but also involves the question of "what is the ideal state of translation".

In summary, in Chinese and Western translation theories, literal translation and free translation as translation methods are used to solve practical problems in translation, and these practical problems are closely related to the language structure of the source and target languages. Different issues have different levels of discussion. In this way, it is necessary to re-examine the actual translation issues behind the discussion to understand the dispute over literal translation and free translation. In any case, in Chinese translation theory, when literal translation and free translation are regarded as two translation methods, there is actually no so-called problem of which is better, and there is no substantial difference between the two, the difference is only the translator. The gap between its translation practice and its ideal translation target.

===1.2 Literal Translation and Free Translation in Translation Strategies===

From the perspective of etymology, strategy means "strategy and strategy" in Chinese. Like the word "strategy" in English, it is derived from military science and refers to specific methods, means, and methods used to achieve a certain goal. Sum. Translation strategy can be understood as the sum of specific methods, means and methods used by the translator to achieve a specific translation goal. Riitta Jaaskelainen, a researcher on the translation process of TAPs, defines translation strategy as "a process associated with ‘goal-oriented’ and ‘subjective optimality’, rather than a process of problem solving." The American translation theorist Venuti distinguishes between translation methods and translation strategies in the definition of "translation strategy" under the term "translation strategy"(Bassnett, 2004). His so-called domesticating and foreignizing are translation strategies. Susan Bassnett also deliberately distinguishes between strategies and methods when discussing poetry translation-"When analyzing the many different translation methods used by the English translators of Catullus’ 64 Poems, Andrew Le Pfeiffer summarized seven different translation strategies." (Bassnett, 2004:84) It should be said that in terms of the terms used by the above scholars, translation methods and translation strategies are not the same. Therefore, when literal translation is regarded as a translation method or strategy, the issues that the critics want to explain are not All the same.
It can be said that the translation method aims to solve the problems in translation practice and achieve the desired translation effect, and the translation strategy reflects how the translator strives to achieve its translation purpose under the constraints of various external factors. To some extent, when literal translation and free translation are used as two translation strategies, the understanding of literal translation and free translation cannot be separated from the investigation of the translation and the social and cultural context of the translator. The translation strategy adopted by the translator is not an abstract theoretical assumption that has nothing to do with the social context of the translator, but a decision made by the translator in the tension between language, history, and social culture. Hidden behind the decision are the various translation purposes of the initiators of translation activities. What needs special attention is that the translator’s translation goals are multiple, so the strategies adopted to achieve different translation goals are naturally different.

===2. Domestication and Foreignization in Chinese===

Domestication and foreignization can be regarded as the conceptual extension of literal translation and free translation, but they are not completely equivalent to literal translation and free translation. As the product of cultural shift, domestication and foreignization must contain profound cultural, literary and even political connotations. If literal translation and free translation are only discussions at the language level, domestication and foreignization are the continuation of the discussion at the language level to the cultural, poetic and political level. That is to say, the bullseye of the dispute between literal translation and free translation is the gain and loss of meaning and form, while the bullseye of the dispute between domestication and foreignization is the cultural identity in the vortex of the gain and loss of meaning and form, and literacy is the gain and loss of the power of pumping discourse. problem.

===2.1 Assimilation and Alienation===

Domestication and foreignization in Chinese correspond to two pairs of terms in English: the first pair is "assimilation, alienation", and the second pair is "domestication, foreignization".

The connotation of Assimilation in translation studies should regard the original language and culture as "different traditional individuals or groups", and try to make them "participate" in the target language and culture during translation. "Participate" here means to move closer to the other party, or even merge with it. The "language" mentioned here mainly refers to the way of expression of thoughts, sentence structure, and sometimes also includes style, text layout, etc. "Culture" refers to the national behavior and language expression (such as rhetoric, etc.), living environment, ideology and other things that reflect this national characteristic. In the process of translation, the original language and cultural characteristics disappear in the target language to satisfy the aesthetic and acceptance psychology of the target language readers. Alienation is the opposite. In the process of translation, it tries to maintain the characteristics of the original text, keep a distance from the target language and its culture, so that the target readers feel "unfamiliar" when reading and realize that they are reading a translation. The meaning of assimilation and alienation we are talking about here refers to how to treat the differences between the two languages and cultures on the basis of equal status, and how to make different strategic choices in translation.

The meanings of the terms Domestication and Foreignization are related to the background in which they were produced. In the 1990s, translation has been placed in a large system of culture and society for research. Venuti was inspired by a so-called "fluency tendency" that has existed in the Western translation industry, especially the English and American translation circles for more than 40 years This pair of terms is proposed for the unequal relationship of literature in different cultures. It mainly refers to the translation from other foreign languages to English. Compared with assimilation and alienation, this pair of terms not only reflects the difference in meaning between language and culture. You can also see the deeper meaning of cultural inequality behind this different background. In this way, translation is placed in the context of culture, society, politics, and ideology, and the choice of translation strategies reflects the different positions of different cultures in the world today. Translation is used as a tool of struggle, and it is not equal. To fight against the phenomenon. It should be said that this is an improvement, and it is also the main difference between these two pairs of terms, or it is the reason why Venuti put forward this new pair of terms under the premise of assimilation and alienation.

===2.2 Domestication and Foreignization===

Domestication and foreignization in Chinese are the same as assimilation and alienation. They both discuss the differences between languages and cultures, and they are all based on the equality of different languages and cultures. Chinese "domestication" also focuses on the process from different to similar and identical, but the meaning of "domestication" in domestication is not included in "domestication"; and "foreignization" in Chinese also maintains the "different" component, which is reserved Difference, no cultural inequality, as a means of struggle and resistance to cultural colonization. "Naturalization" and "alienation" are closer to assimilation and alienation in meaning. When and who the term "domestication" and "foreignization" in Chinese were first used in translation studies in my country has not been ascertained. According to the materials we see now, "domestication" was used in translation research earlier than "foreignization".

Through the above-mentioned comparative analysis of the origin, extension and connotation of the categories of “domestication” and “foreignization”, we can now define them as follows: Domestication and foreignization are the differences between the two languages and cultures that the translator faces in translation Two different translation strategies are adopted due to differences in the target text type, author's intention and target language readers, etc., and their purpose is to guide the choice and application of specific translation methods and techniques. Domestication pursues the translation to comply with the target language and culture norms, and better meets the reading needs of the target language readers with less odor; the pursuit of foreignization retains the characteristics of the original language and culture, so as to enrich the target language and culture. It satisfies the reader’s demand for the "stranger" of the target text. The choice of these two strategies sometimes also refers to social, cultural, political and ideological regulations. Regardless of the strategy chosen, it should focus on the needs of readers and society.

===3. Rethink===

The choice of the translation strategy of domestication or foreignization will have a great impact on the translation, and even some meanings will be lost. But in literal translation, no matter which one is selected, the content of the original text will be faithfully expressed. For example, the works translated by Lin Xian, we can only say that it is a domesticated translation, and cannot be called a free translation, because he has rewritten and created a lot of the original text. This is one of the differences between the two pairs of terms. The second difference is that literal translation and free translation are translation methods, while domestication and foreignization are translation strategies. The two are not at the same level, and the latter guides the former. "Modern Chinese Dictionary"says that "methods" are "methods, procedures, etc. for solving problems such as thinking, speaking, actions, etc."and "strategies" are "action policies and struggles formulated according to the development of the situation." Method.” There is a certain connection between method and strategy. Method is the specific method under the guidance of strategy, and strategy is the policy and goal of guiding method. Under the guidance of domestication and foreignization, the translator chooses the appropriate translation method. In addition to literal translation and free translation, there are also multiple methods such as clip translation, transliteration, and compilation. Although domestication and foreignization are related to literal translation and free translation, there are also obvious differences. The mixed use of the two pairs of terms is not conducive to the standardization of the category, not conducive to theoretical research, nor is it used in translation practice.

Liu Yingkai interpreted the concept of naturalization in this way: the so-called "naturalization", according to the interpretation of "Cihai", "is the old name of naturalization". The "domestication" of translation refers to the fact that the starting language of the guest "ji" is incorporated into the "ji" of the home language in the translation process: English-Chinese translation spares no effort to Sinicize; Chinese-English translation will make every possible effort to Englishize...and so on There are always the theorists of "Ning Shun but not believing" in the translation circle, and the translation of "Nation" is familiar to the ears; after seeing it familiar, there is no sense of discomfort or resistance,...... (Liu Yingkai, 1987).

According to the reality of the Chinese translation world, Liu Yingkai summarized the manifestations of naturalization into five types: 1. Abuse of four-character idioms; 2. Abuse of quaint words; 3. Abuse of "abstraction method"; 4. Abuse of "substitution method"; 5. To visualize or allusion without basis. Liu Yingkai has a negative attitude towards the translation method of domestication. He believes that domestication will "reform the objective facts of foreign countries, obliterate their national characteristics, force them to subdue, and assimilate them into the language of their destination, so it must be a distortion of the original text. ".

Venuti's definition of domesticated translation is: abiding by the current mainstream values of the target language and culture, and openly adopting conservative assimilation methods to the original text to cater to the local canon, publishing trends and political needs.The Dictionary of Translation Studies published by St Jerome Press, UK, based on Venuti's deconstructionist insights, and defines domestication as: the use of a transparent and smooth style in translation to minimize the strangeness of the original text. Strategy. And the application of the domestication translation method has six steps: l carefully choose the original work suitable for domestication translation; 2. consciously adopt a smooth and natural target language style; 3. make the translation work Adapt to the type of target utterance; 4. Add explanatory materials; 5. Eliminate the geographical and historical colors in the original language; 6. Make the translation consistent with the prejudices and preferences of the monthly language.

Venuti believes that fluent domestication translation not only conceals the translator’s work efforts and exposes the translator to the “invisible” unfair situation; it also conceals the differences between cultures and the sense of history of the original work, and integrates the contemporary values of mainstream culture. Impose on the original. Since the stylistic effect pursued by domestication translation is that the translation does not read like the translation, it is easy for readers to mistakenly believe that the translation that has been contaminated by the mainstream culture and language values of the target language is the original appearance of the original. A narcissistic experience that identifies with local culture". (Venuti, 1995:15) Aiming at the tradition of Anglo-American domestication translation, Venuti pointed out that domestication translation is "a ethnocentric decomposition of the original text according to the cultural values of the target language, bringing the original author home",Actual divination is a kind of imperialist cultural plunder. He also believes that the more domesticated the translation, the more invisible the translator; the more invisible the translator, the more concealed the fact that the original is maliciously naturalized, that is to say, the readers of the translation are more likely to be deceived. The post-colonial translation theory also makes a useful discussion on domestication and foreignization. In the discourse of post-colonial theory, domestication translation is related to the conquest and colonization of imperialism. Domestication is an indispensable content of conquest and colonization, and as a specific translation method, domestication is the violence, even rape, of the original text and the starting culture. (Robinson, 1997: 58)

Canadian translator Robinson discussed the issue of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of post-colonial theory. His definition of domestication is: domestication translation is a term used by foreignization translation scholars to describe the worst translation. This kind of translation adopts the method of assimilating the original work into the target culture and language values, and domesticating the original work. Traditionally, people call this concept "paraphrase"; also known as "assimilative translation" (Robinson, 1997: 116). With regard to domestication translation, Robinson's views and Venuti have a consensus, but also have differences. Robinson expressed difficulty in accepting the tendency of Venuti and other alienationists to over-politicize the issue of domestication and alienation, and raised a discussion. At the same time, he also questioned the view that some post-colonial scholars believe that naturalized translation helps the process of colonization. In fact, the political factors in Robinson's post-colonial translation theory are more than that in Venuti, which is mainly related to his post-colonial vision.

The concept of alienation has surpassed the linguistic level of literal translation and has risen to the level of culture, poetics and politics. Therefore, alienation cannot be simply equated with literal translation. Venuti's definition of alienation is summed up as deviating from the local mainstream values and retaining the language and cultural differences of the original text.Based on Venuti’s opinion, Dictionary of Translation Studies defines alienation as: To a certain extent, to preserve the foreignness of the original text and deliberately break the convention of the target language. Venuti suggests that foreignizing translation should be adopted in those "aggressive" monolingual cultures where domestication translation is prevalent (such as British and American cultures), which can carry out strategic cultural interventions in "current international affairs and challenge the hegemonic English-speaking countries and inequality." The cultural exchanges,... the use of English for foreignization translation can also be a form of resisting our ethnocentrism and racism, cultural narcissism and cultural imperialism". (Venuti, 1995:20) He believes that foreignization translation can impose "ethnodeviant pressure" on the cultural values of the target language, and has the effect of sending readers to a foreign land. He said: "Resistance translation can help preserve the language and cultural differences of the original text, and translate texts that have a sense of strangeness and alienation. These translations mark the limit of the mainstream values of the target language and culture, and prevent these values from affecting a certain culture. The other is the domestication of imperialism.”Specifically, the use of foreignized translation means that the translator can not only be free from the restriction of the target language and text habits, but also can use the non-fluency when appropriate. , Opaque speech style, deliberately retain the cultural color of the starting language, so as to give the target reader a different reading experience. However, because the preservation of the original text has to rely on local cultural materials, Venuti also admits that, just like domesticated translation, foreignized translation "is also one-sided when interpreting the original text, but it does not cover its one-sidedness, but instead Show off." (Venuti, 1995:34)

===4. Conclusion===

The result of literal translation and free translation is not just the gain and loss of semantics and form. From a cultural perspective, it involves issues such as the equal exchange of cultural identity and a sense of history loaded in language forms; from a poetic perspective, it involves literary issues loaded in language forms; from politics From the angle of view, it involves the issues of colonization and decolonization, hegemony and anti-hegemony. Therefore, the dispute between literal translation and free translation has evolved into a dispute between domestication and foreignization at a new level. In the context of globalization, this level of controversy can be regarded as a confrontation between nationalism and cosmopolitanism, a confrontation between a weak culture and a powerful culture, or a confrontation between Orientalism and Western centralism.

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==On the Chinese Translation of ''A Pale View of Hills'' from House's Translation Quality Assessment Model 宋建茹 Song Jianru 202020080639 ==

<center> 宋建茹 Song Jianru 202020080639 英美文学</center>

===Abstract===

Translation quality assessment is an integral part of translation criticism. The first TQA model with comprehensive theories and practices Juliane House represented provides a significant reference for translation exercises. ''A Pale View of Hills'', as the first work of Kazuo Ishiguro, possesses a great research value on its narrative styles by virtue of memory and topics about migrants. As of 2011 when its Chinese translation was published, no scholar has evaluated it. This study applies House's TQA model to assess the Chinese translation of ''A Pale View of Hills'' with qualitative and quantitative analysis from lexical, syntactic and textual aspects, in a bid to examine validity of the model on novel translation, which turns out that it is an overt and high-quality translation.

=== Key Words===

''A Pale View of Hills''; House's TQA model; Novel translation

===题目===

从豪斯翻译质量评估模式谈《远山淡影》中文翻译

=== 摘要 ===

翻译质量评估是翻译批评的核心课题。朱莉安·豪斯提出的第一个有完整的理论和实践的翻译质量评估模式，为翻译实践提供了重要参考。《远山淡影》是石黑一雄的处女作，其依托回忆的叙事风格和移民主题具有很高的研究价值。《远山淡影》中译本自2011年出版至今，尚未有学者对其进行评估研究。本文运用豪斯的翻译质量评估模式，采用定性与定量相结合的分析方式，从语场、语旨、语式等三个层面对原文和译文进行分析，开展《远山淡影》中译本的翻译质量评估研究，为豪斯翻译质量评估模式对小说翻译的运用进行进一步的探索和补充。通过分析，本文得出《远山淡影》中译本为显性翻译，翻译质量较高。

=== 关键词 ===

《远山淡影》；豪斯质量评估模式；小说翻译

===Introduction===

Translation criticism refers to the analysis and review of thoughts, activities and works of translation by virtue of relevant theories and views, in a bid to improve the overall quality of translators and translations. It is an integral part of translation studies. Translation quality assessment, as the integral and key part of translation criticism, plays a significant role in surveillance and promotion of translation quality. Among the extant translation quality assessment models, Juliane House's ''A Model for Translation Quality Assessment and Translation Quality Assessment: A Model Revised'', based on Halliday's systemic functional linguistics and discourse analysis, are systematic, scientific and rational with a relatively complete system of parameters, quantitative methods and steps adhering to specific procedures.(Wang Enmian 1999,7)

''A Pale View of Hills'', as Kazuo Ishiguro's first full-length novel, tells the life of the people in Nagasaki after WWII through the memory of protagonist Etsuko and explores recovery of trauma, collision between the old and new ideas, and kinship after war. The first person narrative, memory, humor and satire and international perspectives in the book became his major writing styles in the future. The novel won the Winifred Holtby Memorial Prize from the Royal Society. Its only Chinese translation at present, from Zhang Xiaoyi, is still not analyzed by the scholars(Wang Fei 2017, 152).

This paper uses House's translation quality assessment model, with combination of qualitative and quantitative analysis, from field, tenor and mode to analyze the mismatches between original and translation in an attempt to assess the Chinese translation quality of ''A Pale View of Hills'' and further explore the application of House's model in novel translation. The aim of the study is to promote scholars to regulate the behaviors of translation, to improve the quality of translation and translation evaluation, and to provide a reasonable way for establishing the interlingual conversion mechanism.

The thesis consists of five chapters.

After the Introduction, Chapter One gives a brief account of ''A Pale View of Hills'' and its research status, involving the author, background, content and influence. Chapter Two gives a brief introduction of House’s TQA model, including its theoretic basis, parameter setting, operation steps and feasibility. Chapter Three is a detailed analysis of original and translation of ''A Pale View of Hills'' based on House’s model. Chapter Four is the statement of translation quality assessment. Chapter Five draws a concise conclusion about this paper.

===I Overview and Research Status of ''A Pale View of Hills''===

''A Pale View of Hills'' is Kazuo Ishiguro's first novel, which laid a solid foundation for the formation of Ishiguro's writing style. The chapter mainly introduces the author, plot, theme and influence of the novel and analyzes its research status, in an attempt to master the material well and seek new perspectives for the paper.

'''1.1 Overview of ''A Pale View of Hills'''''

Kazuo Ishguro is a noble contemporary Japanese English writer, whose novels feature first person narrative, detailed depiction of loneliness, depression, self-deception and anxiety of characters' inner world and dual narrative strategy to deconstruct the narrator's self-identity, as well as discuss postwar trauma and migrant identity. He won Booker Prize, the British top literary prize, in 1989 and the Nobel Prize in literature in 2017. By virtue of his outstanding literary achievements, he is known as one of the Three Masters of English Migrant Literature together with Salman Rushdi and Naipaul(Liu Xiaoya 2015,5).

''A Pale View of Hills'', published in 1982, is Ishiguro's debut. The story, with postwar Nagasaki as its background, enjoys two clues: one is what happened when Niki (Etsuko's little daughter) visited her mother after her sister Keiko died; the other is Etsuko's memory about people and events in Nagasaki after the war. The two lines integrated together during the narrative, forming the illusory and imaginary impression(Liu Xiaoya 2015,5).

Many in-depth topics in this work are worth pondering: postwar trauma recovery, the collision between new and old ideas after war and discussion of family relations. Many marks in the work became his own styles: first-person narrative, memory, humor and satire, international perspectives. In addition, it won the Winifred Holtby Memorial Prize from the Royal Society and is still in print thirty years after its publication. This book, with its enormous emotion, unearths the abyss beneath the illusion of our connection to the world, whose artistic value and charm could be time-tested(Liu Xiaoya 2015,8).

'''1.2 Research Status of ''A Pale View of Hills'''''

There are 54 papers about A Pale View of Hills in domestic researches. According to the statistics from How Net, the number of studies on the work has been mounting, especially after Kazuo Ishiguro won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 2017. The perspectives of these researches are mainly from identity anxiety, unreliable narrative and post-war trauma.

In "Identity Anxiety in Kazuo Ishiguro's A Pale View of Hills", Wang Fei discusses the identity anxiety of migrants, exploring manifestations, causes and influence of such anxiety on the characters( Wang Fei 2017,152). In "Memory and Narrative Unreliability of ''A Pale View of Hills''", He Xiaobing combined with the classical narratology to analyze how unreliable narration method is presented in the work and discussed the inner world of the characters(He Xiaobing 2018,3). In "Trauma in Kazuo Ishiguro's A Pale View of Hills", Liu Xiaoya explores the protagonist's trauma by using Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalysis theory and trauma theory (including post-freudian psychological trauma theory), contemporary trauma culture theory along with rhetorical narrative theory(Liu Xiaoya 2015,3).

At abroad there are more perspectives about the studies of A Pale View of Hills. In addition to the main research directions of domestic scholars, such as identity anxiety of characters, unreliable narrative research and post-war trauma, cultural displacement, family relationship and the influence of region on personality presented in the works are also analyzed.

''The Impact of Place on Personality in Kazuo Ishiguro's A Pale View of Hills: An Eco-critical Study'' written by Awla, Y.N, from the perspective of ecocriticism, clarifies the fact that a place is able to define and guide the emotions and thoughts of characters, and analyzes the reasons why geography forms characters of people in order to draw people’s attention to the impact of surrounding environment on them. Ruth Forsythe's article ''Cultural Displacement and the Mother-daughter Relationship in Kazuo Ishiguro's A Pale View of Hills'' focuses more on the relationship between mother and daughter under cultural displacement. However, no scholars have analyzed the language itself from the perspective of systemic functional linguistics.( Awla,Y.N 2019,1)

The Chinese translation of A Pale View of Hills, Zhang Xiaoyi's version, was published by Shanghai Translation Publishing House in 2011, and the bilingual version in 2019. Up to now, there has no translation criticism or discussion about this translation. Since 2011 when it was translated, it came to draw the attention of scholars and readers. Translation is a direct factor that affects the integrity of author's thought, the reader's perception and the accuracy of the scholar’s study, thus it is indispensable to use the House’s Translation Quality Assessment model to analyze the Chinese translation of ''A Pale View of Hills''.

===II Introduction of House's Translation Quality Assessment Model===

Juliane House's model was described as the first translation quality assessment model with complete theories and practices by international translation criticism, which could provide an important reference for translation learners and scholars. By introducing the theoretical basis, parameter system and operation steps of House's model, this chapter will discuss the feasibility of House’s model in the evaluation of the Chinese translation of ''A Pale View of Hills'', in an effort to foster the application of House's model in the quality evaluation of full-length novels.(Zhou Fenfen 2018,784)

'''2.1 Theoretical Basis of House's Model'''

The assessment of translation quality draws upon different translation standards, which are then embodied by the recognition about essence of translation. House deemed that crunch of the translation quality assessment lies in recognition of the nature of translation, namely that "translation is the replacement of a text in the source language by a semantically and pragmatically equivalent text in the target language."(House 1977, 30)

In House's initial model in 1977, she drew upon language behavior theory, language and text function and context to divide the source language text into two situational dimensions: dimension of language user and dimension of language use. The former includes three aspects: geographical origin, social class and time. The latter includes five aspects: medium, participation, social role relationship, social attitude and province(House 1977, 30).

Based on myriad practice, House realized that the initial eight dimensions overlap in some parts. Therefore, in 1997, she revised the original model from the perspective of the context, unifying the previous eight parameters to field, tenor and mode. Field compares subject matter and social action of the original with that of translation. Tenor emphasizes the matching degree on the relationship of participants, time, region, position of author, social role relationship and social attitudes. Mode pays more attention to medium and participation. In addition, House incorporated "genre" into revision model in order to explain the deep structure of the text.(House 1977, 30)

'''2.2 Operation Steps of House's Model'''

When evaluating the translation quality of the text, House's model focuses on comparison between original text and translation from field, tenor, mode and genre, clarifies and summarizes mismatches found in the text, so as to obtain a quality report of the translation. The detailed steps presented as follows: (House 1997, 108)

1) Analyze the register and genre of the original text to get its textual functional profile. The original text is analyzed from four dimensions: field, tenor, mode and genre. According to the analysis, “functional statement”, involving ideational and interpersonal functions, needs to be deduced.(House 1997, 108)

2)Compare the target text and the source text to find differences or mismatches. Through the comparative analysis between original and translation along the dimensions on the model, mismatches or differences found in the comparison are sorted out by virtue of overt errors or covert errors and expounded in detail one by one.(House 1997, 108)

3)Summarize the differences and mismatches demonstrated from the above steps in lexical, syntactic and textual aspects. Based on above statistics and statement, make the quality statement. The fewer the mismatches are, the better the translation quality is. If readers clearly realize the text a translation work, it is overt translation; while if not, it is covert translation.(House 1997, 108)

'''2.3 Feasibility of the Model in Chinese Translation of ''A Pale View of Hills'''''

At present, there are 78 relevant studies on House’s Translation Assessment model, which are mainly divided into three directions: interpretation of House Translation Assessment model and its revision, evaluating translation of literary works along the model and evaluating translation of applied text along the model. Among them, evaluation of the translation of literary works accounts for 29, which enjoys the following two characteristics:

1)There are merely a few researches applying House model to Chinese translation of literary works. Among the 29 journals and papers evaluating translation of literary works, there are 25 studies that attach great importance to the English translation and 4 to Chinese translation, which signifies that we need more researches of Chinese translation to support the validity of the model on different languages. Therefore, the paper, with the Chinese translation of A Pale View of Hills as its corpus, intends to examine the feasibility of the application of House's model to Chinese translation.

2)There are merely a few researches applying House model to the translation of full-length novels. Among the 29 journals and papers on evaluating translation of literary works, most of which focus on the evaluation of poems and prose, merely 5 studies are analysis of translation of full-length novels. English translation accounts for 3 and Chinese translation for 2, which demonstrates that we need more researches with full-length novels as corpus to support the validity of the model in different genres. Therefore, the paper, with the full-length novel A Pale View of Hills as its corpus, intends to examine the feasibility of the application of House’s model to full-length novels.

In conclusion, given that the researches based on Chinese translation of full-length novels are insufficient, the paper will use the Chinese translation of A Pale View of Hills as its corpus to validate the feasibility of House's TQA model.

===III Comparison of Original and Translation of ''A Pale View of Hills'' Along House's Translation Quality Assessment Model===

''A Pale View of Hills'' is the debut of Kazuo Ishiguro, whose Chinese translation was published by Shanghai Translation Publishing House in 2011. House's Translation Quality Assessment model is the first objective model combining quantative analysis with qualitive analysis. The paper applies House's Translation Quality Assessment model to Chinese translation of ''A Pale View of Hill'', comparing the source text and target text in lexical, syntactic and textual aspects along the three dimensions of register and summarizing the mismatches on field, tenor and mode, in an effort to quantitatively assess the translation quality of ''A Pale View of Hills''.

'''3.1 Comparison on Field'''

Field refers to the content or the topic of the text. It is concerned with subject matter and social action which covers the specificity of lexical items. After comparison between the source text and target text on field, there are 18 mismatches, 12 of which are overt errors and 6 covert errors. Among them, there are 9 lexical errors, 1 textual error and 8 syntactic errors. The lexical and textual errors are mainly covert errors, so in general their translation is of high quality. Although most of syntactic errors are not in line with the grammar of target language system, they won’t influence the understanding of the text. Therefore, by and large, translation on field are high-quality.(Feng Yufang & Wang Feifei 2015,114)

'''3.1.1 Lexical Field'''

Lexical field means the immediate or possible scenes or events evoked in people's mind when they read or hear the words or lexical items. After the analysis of the original and target text, there are 9 mismatches, 4 of which are overt errors and 5 are covert ones. Most of them won't block readers to master the overall meanings. Therefore, the translation quality on lexical items are relatively high.(Feng Yufang & Wang Feifei 2015,115)

Example 1：

...and the soaked surfaces of brick and concrete were drying all around us.

湿透了的砖头和水泥开始变干。(P8)

Concrete refers to building material that is made by mixing together cement, sand, small stones and water according to Oxford Dictionary, which includes cement rather than equates it. So, it is not very accurate to translate in this way even if the two words are similar. It is obviously an overt error.

Example 2：

As far as I remember, that was the first occasion I spoke to Mariko.

我印象那是我第一次跟万里子说话。(P11)

In the translation, “印象” as a noun refers to a mental picture that you have of what somebody/something is like or looks like. In the light of the rules or grammar of Chinese, it is hardly used as a verb. Thus, it is an overt error.

Example 3：

It's such a shame.

真不像话。(P16)

A shame is used to say that somthing is a cause for feeling sad or disappointed. In the original, the sentence is to express Etsuko’s pity to the homeless dogs and cats around her community rather than her distaste or complaint. Here it is translated into its other meaning when ignoring the context, belonging to a covert error.

Example 4：

Why don't you go into the kitchen for a little while?

你为什么不到厨房去一会儿呢？(P26)

In the translation, “去” is not very appropriate on the basis of grammar of Chinese, since it is such an action verb that does not match with state phrases. In the course of translation, some prepositions in English need to be transferred into verb in Chinese, which are supposed to pay attention to the rules of target language. Here it is obviously an overt error.

Example 5：

It's not appreciated simply because the product disappears so quickly.

不能因为它的产品很快就消失了而不懂得欣赏。(P34)

According to the context, Ogata-San believes that cooking is “as noble as painting or poetry”. So here the product refers to food cooked. Given the concrete expression in Chinese, the product is supposed to be translated more concretely in accordance with the context. It is a covert error.

Example 6：

Perhaps it is just my fancy that I felt a cold touch of unease there on that bank, a feeling not unlike premonition.

这也许只是我的想象，但是那时我在河边觉得凉飕飕的，很不自在，像是感觉有事要发生。(P44)

“Unease” refers to the feeling of being worried or unhappy about something. Given the above-mentioned, Etsuko worried about the safety of Mariko when she was not at home. It differs from its translation that means the feeling of being ill at ease. It is an overt error.

Example 7：

You mustn't suppose, Etsuko, simply because you've seen her in these…in these present surroundings, that she's some peasant's child.

悦子，你不能因为……因为眼前的事物就认为她是什么贫农的孩子。(P51)

Sachiko is not rich according to the context, so “peasant” intimates the meaning of poverty. Its translation explicitly represents it, which is accessible and intelligible. However, “贫农” enjoys extra cultural meaning in China, which could date back to the Cultural Revolution when lands was apportioned based on people’s wealth, so it might mislead readers to its political implication. It is a covert error.

Example 8：

“I must have been such a burden to you in those days,” I said, quietly.

“我那时肯定成了您的负担，”我静静地说。(P68)

Here “quiet” refers to making very little noise, which coincides with the act of saying. According to the context, Etsuko lowered her noise out of guilt when she realized she bothered her family when she practiced violin before. However, its translation means the statement without any noise, which obviously contravenes the context, belonging to covert translation.

Example 9：

I could see something moving beside her in the shade.

我看见她身旁的影子里有什么东西在动。(P14)

“Shade” means an area that is dark and cool under or behind something, for example a tree or building, because the sun’s light does not get to it, rather than the shadow which the translator believed. As previously mentioned in the text, “Mariko was lying in the corner furthest from the sunlight”, which also signifies that it is impossible to exist dark shape under the light around Mariko. Thus, the translation of “shade” is not on a par with the context, belonging to a covert error.

'''3.1.2 Syntactic Field'''

Syntactic field means the immediate image appeared in people's mind when they read the sentences. The mismatches in syntactic field are usually for the violation of rules of target language or misinterpreting the source text. On syntactic field, there are 8 mismatches, seven of which are overt errors and one is covert. Among the overt errors, seven sentences are not in line with the rules of target language, which won't influence the ideational meaning. Therefore, the translation quality on syntactic field is high.(Feng Yufang & Wang Feifei 2015,116)

Example 1：

It did upset me, hearing about her.

我真的很难过，听到她的死讯。(P4)

Example 2：

But I was sad though, when I heard.

可是我真的很难过，听到她的消息。(P4)

Example 3：

It's certainly an amusing sort of experience, working in a noodle shop.

这真是很有趣的经历，在面包店里工作。(P26)

In English, the important or unknown information appeared firstly, and the second one follows. However, in Chinese, the second important presents at first, paving the foundation for the more pivotal or unknown one. In above three examples, their translation doesn't adjust the sequence in line with target language rules. These are overt errors.

Example 4：

…certain arrangements I made have not gone as planned.

一些事情没有照我计划的那样。(P17)

The translation is not complete as the predicate verb “have gone” is not translated, which does not conform with the grammar of Chinese. It is an overt error.

Example 5：

She appeared to know them, for as she walked across the forecourt, she gave them a familiar greeting.

看来她认识她们，边走过水泥地，边熟识地跟她们打招呼。(P26)

The original is a compound-complex sentence with "for" for causal relation and "as" for coordinate relation. In the translation, the former is represented but the later isn't, neither by conjunction words nor by clause sequence. It causes that the translation lacks of logic, belonging to an overt error.

Example 6：

It's an opportunity for a teacher to see the fruits of his work, and for the pupils to express their gratitude to him.

这是一个机会让老师看看他的劳动成果，让学生们向他表示感谢。(P30)

The translation adheres to the sequence of the original but ignores the fluency of the sentence. In English, attributives are at both ahead of and behind the objects; while in Chinese, they mostly are preceded. Therefore, the translation violates the grammar of the target language, belonging to an overt error.

Example 7：

There's nothing like a timely reminder of one's personal obligations.

及时地提醒个人的责任之类的东西也没有。(P71)

"There's nothing like" is a common sentence pattern in spoken English, meaning nothing else is able to match. The original would have expressed that "a timely reminder of one's personal obligations" is the most important. The translator misunderstood the meaning utterly, making an overt error.

Example 8：

It amazes me, how things have changed so much so quickly.

太让我吃惊了，世道变得如此之大，如此之快。(P195)

The translation, by and large, is in accordance with the original. Yet there is possibility for readers to be confused about the accuracy of words collocation. Although "so much" and "so quickly" modify the verb "change", we have to respectively choose the proper words to collocate. It is a covert error.

'''3.1.3 Textual Field'''

On textual field, there is only one error---overt error. It is caused by misconstruing what the pronoun refers to. By and large, the translation, through the comprehensive analysis on textual field, is high-quality. (Feng Yufang & Wang Feifei 2015,117)

Example 1：

That's just not how it was though.

但是我和她根本不是这样。(P4)

According to “Sisters are supposed to be people you're close to, aren't they. You may not like them much, but you're still close to them”, it refers to the whole view instead of certain relationship between me and my sister. The referential meaning does not accord with that of the original. It is an overt error.

'''3.2 Comparison on Tenor'''

Tenor refers to the nature of the participants, the addresser and the addressee, and the relationship between them in terms of social power and social distance. After comparing the original and the translation of A Pale View of Hills, there are 8 mismatches on social attitude and social role relationship, one of which is an overt error and the rest are covert. In general, the translation is highly in accordance with the original so the quality is high on tenor. (Feng Yufang & Wang Feifei 2015,118)

'''3.2.1 Social Attitude'''

Social attitude refers to the social distance between communicators and the degree of formality of discourse. The misunderstanding of social attitude in the translation process will affect the readers' understanding of the characters in the novel. Therefore, mistakes in representing social attitude of characters should be minimized and even avoided in the translation process. There are 4 mismatches on social attitude in the translation: one is an overt error and the rest are covert errors. By and large, the translation on displaying the social attitude of the original is great.(House 1997, 108)

Example 1：

The English are fond of their idea that our race has an instinct for suicide.

英国人有个奇特的想法，觉得我们这个民族天生爱自杀。(P4)

In the original text, the attitude of the character is relatively objective. However, in the translation, the attitude is represented overly by using an adjective, which might be translator's understanding on author's attitude. It limits different interpretation to the author's attitude from readers. It is an overt error.

Example 2:

“Which are you hoping for, Etsuko?” he asked, eventually. “A boy or a girl?”

“你想是男孩还是女孩呢，悦子？”过了一会儿他问道。(P35)

Ogata-San would like to know Etsuko's mind about the upcoming baby, but he is not sure if it is proper. At last, curiosity overpowers his hesitation. In the original text "eventually" signifies both time and emotion span. But the translation only manifests the time span. It is a covert error.

Example 3:

“Tell me, Etsuko,” he said, not looking up from his laces. “Have you met this Shigeo Matsuda?”

“告诉我，悦子，”他头也不抬地说。“你见过这个松田重夫吗？”(P36-P37)

Ogata-San, as Etsuko’s father-in-law and adopter after the war, gets along well with her. In the original text, Ogata-San is “not looking up” when speaking to Etsuko since he is lying his laces. The translation ignores the reason, which renders Ogata-San a cold man. It is a covert error.

Example 4:

I'm sure she'd be the first to agree with me about Kazuo mourning her like this.

我肯定她会第一个同意我的观点，和夫不应该再这样想着他了。(P94)

From the original, we can feel the love of Mrs. Fujiwara to her son. However, after reading its translation, we can feel nothing but her dominance. It signifies that the translation deviates from the original context. It is a covert error.

'''3.2.2 Social Role Relationship'''

Social role relationship refers to the social relation between the speaker and the receiver, that is, symmetry and asymmetry. The analysis on the social roles relationship in novels is generally from two aspects: relationship between the author and readers, and relationship between the various characters in the work. The former is remained utterly, while the latter is slightly different from that in the original. A total of 4 mismatches are found in the comparison, all of which are covert errors. In the full-text translation, the overall relationship between the characters is the same as that of the original text, and only a few mismatches are found. Therefore, on social role relationship, translation is of high quality.(Feng Yufang & Wang Feifei 2015,117)

Example 1：

She said it would be perfectly all right if you came and waited for her at my house.

她说你可以到我家来等她。(P13)

The translation omits "be perfectly all right if", which takes the edge off the amiability from Etsuko to Mariko. Given the whole plot of the novel, Mariko is a phantom of Etsuko's old daughter Keiko. The obscure feelings between Mariko and Etsuko are very important to implicate their special emotion. Therefore, the translation ignores to take a consideration of the context. It is a covert error.

Example 2：

As I say, this order came into the office the day you arrived. A real nuisance.

我说过了，订单刚好在您来的那天来了。真是讨厌。(P29)

On the basis of the context, Jiro (Etsuko's husband) is explaining to his father Ogata-San that he is so busy that he could not accompany him. He feels apologetic about that. However, the tone of speaking in translation is impatient and a bit furious, which runs against that of the original. So, it is a covert error.

Example 3：

I should warn you, perhaps. My daughter has been in a somewhat difficult mood these past few days.

也许我应该警告你。我女儿这几天情绪很不好。(P90)

Warn enjoys two major meanings: to tell somebody about something, especially something dangerous or unpleasant that is likely to happen, so that they can avoid it; to strongly advise somebody to do or not to do something in order to avoid danger or punishment. In the original, Sachiko entrusts Etsuko to look after her daughter so the former one is appropriate. However, in the translation the later one is adopted, which is absolutely improper. It is a covert error.

Example 4：

Now listen carefully, or else you'll never find the noodle shop.

现在您听好了，不然您永远也别想找到面馆。(P183)

The sentence is said when Etsuko intends to tell Ogata-San the route to the restaurant of Mrs Fujiwara. On the basis of the context, Etsuko is very reverent to Ogata-San. However, the manner of translation is tough, which is not of a piece with the original. It doesn't take account of the context, so it is a covert error.

'''3.3 Comparison on Mode'''

Mode can be divided into medium and participation. In the course of analyzing both the original and the translation, a total of 6 mismatches are found on the two dimensions and all of them are covert errors, which manifests the translation are generally of a piece with the original. The translation on mode is of high quality.(Zhou Fenfen 2018,784)

'''3.3.1 Language Medium'''

Language medium mainly refers to whether the form of language is spoken or written, simple or complex. The contrast between the model of the source text and the target text is mainly reflected in the linguistic features and diction features of text rather than language types used. The language of A Pale View of Hills is simple, delicate and easy to understand, with short sentence, plenty of dialogues between characters and a high degree of colloquialism. The overall style of the translation is similar with that of the original, with only 4 stylistic covert mismatches. Therefore, on language medium, the translation quality is great.(House 1997, 108)

Example 1：

…on one side of the tracks at the foot of the hill could be seen a cluster of roofs.

山脚下铁路的一侧是鳞次栉比的屋顶。(P8)

Cluster means a group of things of the same type that grow or appear close together, whose translation accords with it in the ideational meaning. Nonetheless, “鳞次栉比” in Chinese is a four-character phrase that usually appears in formal written text. It is more complex than the style of the text. It is a covert error.

Example 2：

We're just rabble, like your husband says.Please don’t make a fuss, please sit down.

正如您丈夫说的，我们只是两个混蛋。不用麻烦了，请坐下。(P74)

The situation happens when Jiro's colleagues come round. From the conversation between Jiro and his colleagues, it is found that they are very familiar and intimate. So, words such as "rabble" and "like" are of high colloquialism. Nevertheless, in the translation "正如" is a formal expression, which is not in line with the original. Thus, it is a covert error.

Example 3：

Blankets and laundry hung from many of the balconies.

很多阳台上挂着毯子啦、洗的衣服啦。(P181)

Example 4：

Young women these days are all so headstrong. And forever talking about washing-machines and American dresses.

现在女孩子任性得很。而且整天在讲什么洗衣机啦、洋裙啦。(P195)

The two sentences are the description of the street which Etsuko and Ogata-San pass by when they intend to visit Shigeo. Etsuko is a calm and composed Japanese woman, whose language style is the same. Modal particles used in translation render the language abrupt and frisky. So, it is a covert error.

'''3.3.2 Participation'''

Participation refers to whether the speech is a simple monologue or a complex form that prompts the listeners or readers to participate indirectly, for example, by the transition between statements and questions and the special use of pronouns. The whole plot of ''A Pale View of Hills'' is a soliloquy narrated in the first person, interleaved with dialogues between different characters. Readers hardly could participate indirectly in it. The translation is basically in the same style as the original, except for the two following examples. The two declarative sentences are translated into a rhetorical question, which does not require readers to answer as well. Therefore, the translation is of high quality in terms of participation.(House 1997, 108)

Example 1：

That’s no way to bring a child into the world, visiting the cemetery every week.

这样怎么能把孩子带到这个世上呢？(P24)

Example 2：

It seems very disloyal.

这不是忘恩负义吗？(P32)

In conclusion, the quality statement of the Chinese Translation of A Pale View of Hills focuses on whether it is an overt transaltion or a covert translation and its matching degree.

On the one hand, it is an overt translation. Accoring to above analysis, the translation is closely related to the culture of the sourse language text. From the translation, expressions with Japanese culture can be found clearly. On the other hand, it is of high quality. There are 32 mismatches in total, 18 mismatches on field, 8 on tenor and 6 on mode. Among them, there are 13 overt errors and 19 covert errors. Covert errors caused by ignoring the context and overt errors caused by violating the rules of target language inflict only a little ambiguity on ideational function, interpersonal function and the quality of the text.

===IV Quality Statement of Chinese Translation of ''A Pale View of Hills''===

The quality statement of the Chinese Translation of A Pale View of Hills focuses on its cultural participation degree and its matching degree. Based on the two aspects, this chapter will make a quality statement of the Chinese Translation of A Pale View of Hills.(House 1997, 108)

'''4.1 Overt Translation'''

Overt translation refers to the obvious translation rather than the second original. The translation is obviously not aimed at the readers with target language, because the original text, literary works, political speeches and religious sermons, is closely related to the culture it is rooted in. But covert translation can be used as the second text, that is, independent writing.

House deems that texts requiring overt translation have no special connection with their culture, and they are not unique to their culture, such as academic papers and travel brochures. She also believes that in overt translation, equivalence can only be established at the level of language/text, register and genre, but it is difficult to achieve equivalence in function. In contrast, the purpose of covert translation is to achieve functional equivalence, and there will be some deficiencies in language, register.(House 1997,108)

In the contrast reading between the original and the translation, the obvious traces of the original can be found, for example, “你想她们还在打吗？” and “呃，我想小孩子是会打架的。但是我想我应该告诉你一声。还有你看，我想你女儿不是要去上学。”. In English, words representing speculation, such as “suppose” and “think”, are used frequently, while in Chinese they are not. Thus, the target text which remains these words possesses obvious sighs of translation. Furthermore, other signs in the translation, such as “欠了欠身”，show the culture of Japan when greeting. In conclusion, the target text of A Pale View of Hills is overt translation.

'''4.2 High-quality Translation'''

This study applies House's TQA model to assess the Chinese translation of A Pale View of Hills on lexical, syntactic and textual aspects. On basis of analysis between the original and the translation, there are 18 mismatches on field, 8 on tenor and 6 on mode. Among them, there are 13 overt errors and 19 covert errors. Covert errors caused by ignoring the context and overt errors caused by violating the rules of target language inflict only a little ambiguity on ideational function, interpersonal function and the quality of the text.

Chinese translation of ''A Pale View of Hills'', by and large, consisting with the original, is of high quality. On the field, the translation, which transmits the subject matter and social action which covers the specificity of linguistic items, is in accordance with the original on lexical, syntactic and textual dimension in general; on the tenor, the representation of social attitude and social role relationship of the Chinese text is consistent with the English text; on the mode, the language of the translation is as simple and delicate as that of the original and the participation is of low level as well. Therefore, Zhang Xiaoyi's Chinese translation of ''A Pale View of Hills'' is of high quality.

===Conclusion===

''A Pale View of Hills'', as the debut of Kazuo Ishiguro, involves many in-depth subjects, which initiates the development of author's peculiar writing style. House's model is the first scientific and objective translation quality assessment mode with the integration of both theory and practice. This study applies House's TQA model to assess the Chinese translation of ''A Pale View of Hills'' on lexical, syntactic and textual aspects.

On basis of analysis between the original and the translation, there are 18 mismatches on field, 8 on tenor and 6 on mode. By and large, the Chinese translation of ''A Pale View of Hills'' is overt translation. Although a few mismatches can be found in the translation, they cause a little affect to the functions of the text and the presentation of the plot, role characters and role relationship of the whole novel. In conclusion, the translation is in line with the original on register and is of high quality.

Different from the traditional evaluation methods, House's model, based on micro and macro criteria, both quantitative analysis and qualitative analysis, is the first scientific and objective translation quality assessment model with a complete theory and empirical evidence. It can be used as an auxiliary tool to find problems in translation so as to make modifications, which to some extent promotes the development of translation activities.(House 1997, 180)

However, in the actual operation process, although the translation quality assessment can be carried out according to parameters, the comparison results still rely on subjective judgment, which cannot utterly guarantee the scientificity of the final evaluation results. In addition, due to the large number of parameters, it takes a lot of time to compare the differences in vocabulary, sentence structure and discourse between the original text and the translation in the evaluation of full-length novel, so the evaluation is not very efficient. Although there are still some shortcomings in the House's model, it is still worth applying in the practice of translation criticism as a relatively complete and objective theoretical model.(House 1997, 182)

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*Si Xianzhu 司显柱. (2005) 朱莉安·豪斯的“翻译质量评估模式”批评[Juliane House's Translation Quality Assessment Model:A Critique]. 外语教学[Foreign Language Education]. 79-84.

*Tang Jun & Wang Yan 唐军, 王燕. (2011) 豪斯翻译质量评估模式在汉译英翻译中的应用——以朱自清《背影》的英译为例[Application of House＇s Translation Quality Assessment Model in C-E Translation—A Case Study of ''The Sight of Father's Back'' by Zhu Ziqing]. 合肥工业大学学报(社会科学版)[Journal of Hefei University of Technology(Social Sciences)]. 129-135.

*Wang Lichuan 王丽川. (2019) 《远山淡影》中的反讽解读[A Study of the Irony in ''A Pale View of Hills'']. 河南: 郑州大学[Henan: Journal of Zhengzhou University].

*Wang Fei 王飞. (2017) 石黑一雄中的身份焦虑[Identity Anxiety in Kazuo Ishiguro's ''A Pale View of Hills'']. 中南大学学报(社会科学版)[Journal of Central South University(Social Science)]. 152-157.

*Zhou Fenfen 周芬芬. (2013) 豪斯翻译质量评估模式的实践应用——以《荷塘月色》英译本为例[The Application of Translation Quality Assessment Model by Julian House——A Case Study on Chinese-English Translation of ''Moonlight over the Lotus Pond'']. 山西农业大学学报(社会科学版)[Journal of Shanxi Agricultural University:Social Science Edition]. 782-786.

==On the Relationship among Literal Translation, Free Translation, Domestication and Foreignization--Wei Honglang 韦洪朗,国别区域研究，202020080647==

===Abstract===
Abstract
This paper makes a systematic discussion on the relationship among literal translation, free translation, domestication and foreignization,which have been always controversial in translation history. Based on the theories and contents of free translation, literal translation, domestication and foreignization, this paper analyzes the similarities and differences between literal translation and free translation, foreignization and foreignization respectively. After cross-contrast analysis between them, it comprehensively sorts out the relationship between translation methods of literal translation and free translation and translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and discusses their comprehensive application on the basis that domestication and foreignization are the extension of literal translation and free translation to cultural level, which has certain reference significance for further enriching translation practice.

===Key words===
Key Words: Literal Translation; Free Translation; Domestication; Foreignization

===摘要===
摘要
本文就翻译史上备受争论的归化、异化和意译、直译的关系问题进行了系统的讨论。基于意译、直译和归化、异化的理论及其内容，分别分析直译和意译、异化和归化两对概念之间的异同，在他们之间进行交叉对比分析后，综合整理直译、意译的翻译方法和归化、异化翻译策略的关系，在继承归化和异化是直译和意译向文化层面的延伸的基础关系上，具体讨论他们之间的综合运用，为进一步丰富翻译实践具有一定的借鉴意义。

===关键字===
关键词：意译；直译；归化；异化

===I.Introduction ===

In the history, argues between literal translation and free translation have been lasting for so long. Since there existed so many countries and nations on the continent of Europe, communicating frequently with different languages, the skill and cognition of language translation naturally developed and achieved a lot. During those time, two main methods of translation called literal translation and free translation came into being and accompanied by the problem on choosing which of them. The earliest opinion of translating methods can go back to the period of Roman Empire, when Cicero put forward that free translation should be used in translating Greek texts into Latin, on account of that literal translation , “word for word translation”at that time, couldn’t reflect Roman way of expression and couldn’t be easy-understanding and fluent as free translation, “sense for sense translation”. (Lu Shu, Wang Jintang 2005,115-116)

This view of point had a great and dominate influence at that time, which did not change until late Roman period, when Christianity was gradually in power and the necessity of spreading and translating Bible by the way “exactly what it is ” made literal translation become more popular. Then comes the renaissance, in which many linguisticians realized the importance of keeping the style and features of their own nations. Since then, the two translation methods have taken the lead and been debated endlessly in the translation field. By the 1960s and 1970s, when domesticating translation and foreignizing translation accordingly emerged with free translation and literal translation, reception theory, which upgraded the dominance of readers or we called receivers of translation, again made the domestic translating one-up. (Lu Shu, Wang Jintang 2005,115-116)

This kind of method was criticized by Venuti on its aggressivity of different cultures, based on which he officially put forward the two concepts of domestication and foreignization, which have been two central strategies in translation. So it’s vital to get a better understanding of those four concepts and make their relationships clear, which is of guiding significance to promote translation in practice.(Lu Shu, Wang Jintang 2005,115-116)

===II.Literal Translation and Free Translation===

When seeing translation as shift of linguistic sign, the method of translating could be regarded as the specific approach used by the translator shifting the ST(Source Text) into TT(Target Text), especially the two methods mentioned before--literal translation and free translation.Peter Newmark, in his "A Textbook of Translation", proposed that the only goal of translating should be repeating the meaning of ST, which means those translating methods exist for dealing with some problems happened during the process when translating.( Ma Shikui 2012,20)The meaning and structure of the ST might not be taken into account every time, so it’s important to search for a appropriate solution to deal with this kind of problem, that’s what literal translation and free translation do.

===2.1 Literal translation ===

Literal translation is the method chosen when the original structure and the meaning of ST could both be perfectly taken into account, by adhering to strict original meaning and style of the TT, including the structures of sentences and rhetorical devices. “Word for word translation” could be counted as the original way of literal translation, like the translation of "The Bible" in the middle Age I showed before. But as the argue and relevant theories developing till modern age, more and more experts realize and have a common sense that “word for word translation” can’t be equal to literal translation, since there always exist more or less differences among different languages. Personally speaking, the way Professor Fan Zhongying explains that literal translation means keeping the linguistic form of the SL, such as the words, the sentence structures and the rhetorical means, fluently and easily understood at the same time comprehensively interprets literal translation.(Joe Zeng Rui 2000,249)

===2.2 Free translation===

It’s better if we can have langugage forms and meanings achieved both ways, which cannot happened all the time. Thus, free translation might be better when translator can’t follow with the exact structure of SL. Free translation, “sense for sense translation”, refers to a kind of method used to translate the exact sense of the SL into the TL without retaining the sentence structures or the expression way of the SL. The supporters of free translation believe that the purpose of translation is to transform and convey the sense of the SL to the recipient of the TL, so it’s worthy to adopt an expression way closer to the TL, which is easier for the recipient to understand. Free translation has certain flexibility, which means the position of words and sentences can be adjusted. In order to facilitate readers' understanding, even some necessary supplements can be added.(Joe Zeng Rui 2000,249)

===2.3 Analysis with Examples of Literal translation and Free translation===

Here are some specific examples of the contrast between literal translation and free translation：

===2.3.1 On words===

ST:"Why do men have an Adam's Apple but women don't? "

Literal translating: 为什么男人有亚当的苹果而女人没有呢？

Free translating: 为什么男人有喉结而女人没有呢？

From above, the “Adam's apple” can be translated literally into "亚当的苹果", but it can't reflect the original sense of the ST, because in the western world, "Adam's apple" refers to "喉结" in Chinese instead of literally meaning "亚当的苹果", so free translation is more accurate here. In addition, it is worth mentioning that this example perfectly reflects the fit of sentence structure between Chinese and English. It also shows that translators should also be sure of the culture behind the SL.

===2.3.2 On sentence structures===

ST:"Here comes the bus!"

Literal translating: 这来了巴士!

Free translating: 巴士来了!

According to the literal translating way, if following with the source structure of the English sentence, which is a inverted sentence in English by the way, the translation result is “这来了巴士”, which is obviously both incoherent and hard to understand in Chinese and even twist the sense of the ST. According to the sentence meaning, it should be translated into “巴士来了 ”, which is totally different from the ST in grammar though.

===2.3.3 On rhetorical means===

ST: "If Main Street didn' t understand this , Wall Street did."(The Glory and the Dream, p .85)

Literal translating: 如果主街不能理解这一点，华尔街可以。

Free translating: 这一点, 一般人不理解, 华尔街那些大老板们却是明白的。(Professor Wang Zongyan, 1983 :10)

From this example, the key information is that Professor Wang Zongyan translates “Wall Street” into “华尔街的那些大老板们”. In Literature Translation, free translation is evidently more popular, because some literary images are difficult to express accurately through literal translation. In fact, the “Wall Street” here does not mean “Wall Street” itself, but people in power in Wall Street, so it is more appropriate for Professor Wang to translate it into “华尔街的那些老板们” by free translation. The reason of “Main Street”translating into “一般人”is the same.

===2.4 The Relationships between literal translation and free translation===

According to those demonstrations above, we can see that literal translation is more partial to SL(Source Language) and free translation considers more about TL(Target Language) users. The advantage of literal translation is to keep the style of the source language(show how other people talk), which plays a certain role in spreading the source language culture; the disadvantage is that sometimes it might be too long and difficult to understand, which hinders the communication and understanding between the two sides. Because free translation is biased towards the expression of the nation of the TL, its advantage is that it is more fluent and easy to understand, but its disadvantage is that it conceals the style of the source language and loses the role of translation as a cultural bridge, in which the translator's position seem not that important. All in all, I think it is best to combine the two translation methods organically in the process of translation. Just as professor Lu Dianyang proposed: “ Translate literally, if possible, or appeal to free translation.”(Zhao Jing 2011,61)

===III.Domestication and Foreignization===

Through the above introduction, we can know that with the change of historical environment, a period of political opposition and cultural exchange encountering a new period after World War II, the dispute between literal translation and free translation has reached a deeper level of development, which is the arrival of Foreignization and Domestication. Although Foreignization and Domestication were first formally proposed by Lawrence Venuti in "The Translator's Invisibility" in 1995, the translation strategy later called Domestication actually can be seen from Nida's translation theory of "dynamic equivalence"in 1964, which seeks for an expression whose meaning is closest to the SL and conforms to the habit of the TL expression way.（Chen Ying 2009,42）

Nida's theory has been strongly criticized by Venuti, who supports Deconstructivism, and holds that domesticating translation is an obliteration of the SL culture and a manifestation of cultural colonialism, which is manifested by its failure to comply with the expression of the source language culture. Based on this, on the contrary, Venuti shows strong support for foreignizating translation, and he thinks that this translation strategy of preserving the linguistic and cultural differences of the SL shows respect for the SL culture. The following part mainly clarifies the concepts and contents of these two translation strategies, which will helps to compare with literal translation and free translation mentioned above.（Chen Ying 2009,42）

===3.1 Domestication ===

Domestication refers to a translation strategy dealing with the language forms, customs and cultural traditions, such as proverbs, idioms and allusions when translating, which tends to serve the readers of the target language. According to Eugene A. Nida's concept of natural equivalence, the translation version should be close to the original sense and intention in a most natural expression, therefore, the behavior pattern of the source language should be brought into the cultural understanding category of the target language as much as possible, which means that the recipients of the target language can avoid accepting the cultural expression of the source language in order to better understand the original intention.(Zhu Yuanzhong 2013,54)

===3.2 Foreignization===

Venuti studies translation under the background of culture, society, politics and cultural consciousness, and reflects the different positions of different cultures in today's world through the choice of translation strategies, and regards translation as a tool to fight against inequality. From this, we can see the reason why he criticized domestication and vigorously advocated foreignization translation, which is used to advocate that the translation should adapt and consider more the culture of the source language and the original author's habit of choosing words as much as possible. Thus, foreignizing translation tends to serve the SL culture, because he thinks that the translation version should take the source language culture as its destination and guide the reader to approach the original author.(Jiang Cui 2015,71-71)

===3.3 Analysis with Examples of Domestication and Foreignization===

Examples for domesticating translation and foreignizing translation:

===3.3.1 On Politics===

Titles：동해 (donghae)& にほんかい(nihonkai)

Since the 19th century, the world has experienced terrible periods of two world wars and the Cold War . During this long period, independent nation-states gradually chose their own country's "roads" and directions, different ideologies and political positions having a strong sense of existence in international relations, among which there were many translation contradictions caused by geopolitics. (Pan Wenxiao 2020，https://weibo.com/ttarticle/p/show?id=2309404578145859666401)

For example, the title of the sea area between South Korea and Japan has caused controversy between those two countries. South Korea has always called the sea area "동해"(East Sea) in history, but Japan continues to use the European navigator's giving name "Japan Sea"(にほんかい) and gradually gained international recognition from the 19th century. However, South Korean believes that the title change was imposed on South Korea by Japan colonizing Korea, which is a title that violates South Korea's territorial waters and disrespects South Korea. Something similar has happened many times in the world, which is the political difference on domestication and foreignization.(Pan Wenxiao 2020，https://weibo.com/ttarticle/p/show?id=2309404578145859666401)

===3.3.2 On Culture===

ST:“情人眼里出西施。”

Domesticating translation: Love is blind.

Foreignizing translation: The beauty Xi Shi is in the eye of lovers.

This example shows relevantly how different it could be between two cultures: the ST and the domesticating one of TT express almost the same meaning in completely different ways, that is, lovers can only see each other's good thing. That is to say, if you want to convey the exact meaning of the original Chinese sentence to English speakers, then domesticating method is the best choice, although it will make the "translation results" look beyond recognition. However, if we choose foreignizing translation, especially retaining the word "Xi Shi", it will give English speakers a chance to understand Chinese traditional culture (Xi Shi is a beautiful woman in the Spring and Autumn Period of China, and "西施" in "情人眼里出西施" means "beauty"), although such translating way may be difficult to understand at first.

===3.4 The relationships between Domestication and Foreignization ===

Through the above analysis, it can be concluded that domestication and foreignization also have their own merits and reasonable existence. Although these two translation strategies were born in different historical backgrounds, their struggles to a certain extent reflect the struggle between the dominant position of stronger culture and weaker culture with different identities, which, of course is just one of those aspects, also reflect the problems of cultural communication: domesticating translation is conducive to conveying the meaning of the source language to the target language recipients without obstacles, especially in the case of great cultural differences existing, but this localization behavior will make it difficult for readers to learn what differences the two sides culture have, and in fact cultural diffusion will not be achieved.(Zhu Yuanzhong 2013,54)

On the contrary, foreignization translation conveys the target text to readers according to the discourse mode of the source language culture, which can not only make readers realize the charm of different cultures, but also increase the expression ways of their own nation, but it is very likely that the meaning of the target text is difficult to understand. This contradiction is particularly prominent in the political level. Therefore, in translation practice, we should decide which way to choose in different contexts and in the face of different groups of people, so that the two can complement each other and have unity of opposites under proper application.(Zhu Yuanzhong 2013,54)

===IV.The relationship among Literal Translation, Free Translation, Domestication and Foreignization===

Sun Zhili, a contemporary Chinese translator, said: "Historically, domestication and foreignization can be regarded as extensions of literal translation and free translation, but they are not completely equivalent to each other. The core issue of literal translation and free translation is how to deal with form and sense at the linguistic level, while domestication and foreignization break through the limitations of language factors and expand their horizons to language, culture and aesthetics.(Sun Zhili 2011,27) " Even after the above introduction, the boundary between literal translation, free translation, foreignization and domestication seems to be very vague. In order to better clarify the relationship between the two pairs of concepts, the following will distinguish and compare them.

===4.1 The comparison among Literal Translation and Free Translation, Domestication and Foreignization===

These two pairs of conceptss have some points in common. First of all, foreignization and domestication are extensions of literal translation and free translation, so the two pairs of relations are all methods put forward to guide translation practice; Secondly, relatively speaking, the roles of the two pairs of relations are very similar, especially in linguistic form: literal translation and foreignization both emphasize following the expression of the source text; Both free translation and domestication believe that in order to convey the sense of the source text accurately, the expression of the source text can be sacrificed. However，they are not the same in the following aspect. The first point is that the scope is different, which leads to different objects: literal translation and free translation are proposed according to the different structures and characteristics of the source language and the target language, and their discussion focuses on the relationship between form and content, which belongs to the level of language conversion. (Zhao Jing 2011,62)

Foreignization and domestication, as a product of cultural turn, is not only manifested in linguistic form, but also in cultural content. In other words, the emergence and development of foreignization and domestication raise the discussion of language level to the level of culture, poetics and politics. Obviously, the former is a micro translation method, while the latter is a macro translation strategy. Choosing specific translation methods under the guidance of the general direction of translation strategies can make good use of these two pairs of concepts when doing translation. Second, the condition is different: Because literal translation and free translation are aimed at figuring out the issue of the text itself and the language structure, those two translation methods rely heavily on the text on linguistics, and have little room for evolution, development and independence, which make them relatively being static; However, domestication and foreignization do not have such problems. Their appearances were largely influenced by external social factors and the background of times and history, moreover, they focus on the external factors of translation too. Therefore, these two translation strategies are actually unstable and present a relatively dynamic state.(Zhao Jing 2011,62)

===4.2 The connection among Literal Translation and Free Translation, Domestication and Foreignization===

It can be concluded that the basic relationship between these two pairs of concepts is that domestication and foreignization make the discussion of translation transition move from pure language level to cultural level, not only paying attention to the internal transformation of language, but also starting to study the political and cultural environment outside language and text, which makes the change of translation’s function happen--from micro-analysis of language to macro-control of the social function of translation.(Chen Ying 2009,42)

===4.2.1 Foreignization and Literal translation===

According to the comparative analysis in the previous section, we can conclude from their similarities that under normal circumstances, foreignization usually takes literal translation as method, or foreignizing translation usually includes literal translation methods, such as:(Lv Yinping 2007,138)

(1)Pandora’s box 潘多拉的盒子

(2)the forbidden fruit 禁果

The above two examples clearly show the way literal translation works out, which is also the result under the guidance of foreignizating translation strategy. "Pandora's box" comes from Greek mythology, which refers to the root of all evils, but the translation into Chinese, which is not “万恶之源”, has followed the European saying, and even be quoted in daily communication, which has played the purpose of "understanding other national cultures through translation"; Similarly, "forbidden fruit" comes from "The Bible", which means something forbidden, but Chinese translation also follows the expression of the original way.

===4.2.2 Domestication and Free translation===

Similarly, free translation is visible in domesticating translation. For example:(Lv Yinping 2007,137)

(1)drink like a fish 牛饮

(2)a fool’s paradise 黄粱美梦

As far as the first example is concerned, if literally translated into "像鱼一样喝水", it is extremely out of line with the Chinese expression habit, because there is no such statement way in China, which leads to misunderstanding or confusion.. However, if we translate "drink like a fish" into “牛饮” in Chinese, which does exists in China and has the same meaning as "drink like a fish" in English. Then the translation effect is not only interesting but also easy to understand.

However, in the process of actual translation practice, due to the variety and diversity of cultures, the methods and strategies used in text or language conversion are also comprehensive. We can find that the comprehensive and flexible use of literal translation and free translation, domestication and foreignization can make up for the regret of some traditional opposing ways(It is said that the two pairs of concepts are opposite and cannot coexist).

===4.2.3 Domestication and Literal translation===

Foreignizating translation is usually regarded as an extension of literal translation, which means that in general, literal translation methods are often used under the guidance of foreignization strategies, but in some special cases, literal translation can also coexist with domestication strategies. For instances:

(1) 什么时候都要谦虚谨慎，把尾巴夹紧一些。（Jia Wenbo 2000,11）

We must always be modest and prudent and must, so to speak, tuck our tail between our legs.

The meaning of "把尾巴夹紧" in Chinese coincides with "tuck tail between our legs" in English. In this example, it can be said that literal translation is the most suitable choice, which keeps the form and cultural connotation of the source language to the maximum extent, and at the same time coincides with the meaning and culture of the target language.

(2) 一石二鸟(Song Tianxi 2013,49)

Kill two birds with one stone.

Similarly, this is an example of having language structure and cultural meaning between China and Britain in both ways, which uses the method of literal translation but achieves the effect of domestication. But in Chinese, "一石二鸟" can also be synonymous with "一箭双雕" and "一举两得", which can be chosen when translating "kill two birds with one stone" if you want, however, this way of using the method of free translation is not literal translation anymore.

Domestication and literal translation can coexist under the situation when two sides of language structures and cultures can coincide at the same time, which exists by chance and cannot be forced; It is almost impossible to find examples of coexistence like foreignization and free translation. However, through the above argument, we can find that in translation practice, translators should practice the principle of "concrete analysis of specific problems", flexibly and dialectically combine free translation and literal translation with domestication and foreignization, and avoid rigid translation methods, so as to better assume the responsibility of cultural exchange.

===V.Conclusion===

Through the analysis above of the concepts and intensions of literal translation and free translation, domestication and foreignization, we further arrive at and even deepen our understanding of the relationship between the two pairs of concepts, which is helpful for translators to approach a better version of translation result and effect as much as possible on the basis of understanding the culture and language of both sides and combining with the practice through rational choice of translation strategies and translation methods under the guidance of the theories. After all, translation is not only a linguistic transformation, whose fundamental task is to reach communication and cultural exchange.

Therefore, to some extent, translation plays the role of cultural "fax". In order to coordinate the spread of the source language culture and the acceptance of the target language side, and it is necessary to avoid rigid use of a single translation method and translation strategy, or solidifying the idea of translation guiding theory. After comprehensive consideration of translation purpose, target and recipient, it is a translator's duty to use translation method flexibly and dialectically, as being a "cultural bridge".

===References===

Sun Zhili 孙致礼.(2011).新编英汉翻译教程[A New Coursebook on English-Chinese Translation].上海:上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press

Sun Zhili 孙致礼.(2002).中国的文学翻译:从归化趋向异化[China’s Literary Translation: from Domestication to Foreignization].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal(01):39-43.

Jia Wenbo 贾文波.(1999).汉英时文翻译-政治经济汉译英300句析[On Practical C-E Translation in Political & Economic Practice].北京:中国对外翻译出版公司Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Corporation.

Zhang Meifang 张美芳.(2004).翻译策略二分法透视[A dichotomous perspective in translation strategies].天津外国语学院学报Journal of Tianjin Foreign Studies University(03):1-6.

Zhao Jing 赵静.(2011).直译、意译与归化、异化之比较[Comparison between literal translation and free translation and Domestication and Foreignization].河南农业Henan agriculture(22):61-62.

Lv Yinping 吕银平.(2007).“直译与意译归化与异化”译法之我见[My Opinion on Literal Translation, Free Translation, Domestication and Foreignization].宁夏师范学院学报Journal of Ningxia Teachers Univercity( Social Science)(04):136-138.

Venuti Lawrence.(1995). The Translator’s Invisibility .London&New York: Routledge.
--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 05:54, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==On Chinese-to-English Translation of The Summer Palace from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches to Translation 魏亚菲 Wei Yafei 202020080648==
<center> 魏亚菲 Wei Yafei 202020080648 俄语语言文学</center>

===Abstract===
The Chinese-English translation of tourist texts, as a window for the external publicity of national history and culture, plays an important role in promoting the development of local tourism. The Summer Palace is well known for its large and priceless collection of cultural relics, which is among the first group of historical and cultural heritage sites in China to be placed under special state protection.

The Chinese-English translation of tourist texts, as a window for the external publicity of national history and culture, plays an important role in promoting the development of local tourism. The Summer Palace is well known for its abundant('''large 改成abundant适合一些)''' and priceless collection of cultural relics, which is among the first group of historical and cultural heritage sites in China to be under special state protection.

Based on the functionalist approach and the skopos rule, this paper discusses the problems existing in the translation of scenic spots in the Summer Palace from the perspectives of garden culture, historical culture and religious culture. Skopos theory holds that translation depends on communicative purpose. To achieve this goal, translators can choose different translation strategies. It is believed that the purpose of Chinese-English translation of scenic spots is to attract target readers and promote traditional culture. Therefore, when translating tourism materials, it is necessary not only to express the local cultural connotation, but also to consider the cross-cultural factors. The Chinese-English translation of the introduction of scenic spots guided by functionalist approach can make English readers have expectations of scenic spots and understand the cultural connotation of scenic spots. This paper aims to better promote the development and communication of Chinese culture and improve the level of tourism text translation in China by relying on the theory of functionalist approach.

Based on the functionalist approaches'''(add -es)'''and the skopos rule, this paper discusses the problems existing in the translation of scenic spots in the Summer Palace from the perspectives of garden culture, historical culture and religious culture. Skopos theory holds that translation depends on communicative purpose. To achieve this goal, translators can choose different translation strategies. It is believed that the purpose of Chinese-English translation of scenic spots is to attract target readers and promote traditional culture. Therefore, when translating tourism materials, it is necessary not only to express the local cultural connotation, but also to consider the cross-cultural factors. The Chinese-English translation of the introduction of scenic spots guided by functionalist approach'''(add -es)''' can make English readers have expectations of scenic spots and understand the cultural connotation of scenic spots. This paper aims to better promote the development and communication of Chinese culture and improve the level of tourism text translation in China by applying the theory of functionalist approach.

===Key words===
functionalist approach，the Summer Palace，translation strategies
===题目===
从功能派翻译理论视角看旅游文本英译—以北京景点颐和园为例
===摘要===
旅游资料的英译作为民族历史文化对外宣传的一道窗口,对地方旅游业的发展有着不可低估的促进作用。颐和园作为中国著名的皇家园林，具有浓厚的中国园林特色及优美的风景，同时也蕴涵着深厚文化内涵。
本篇旅游文本英译的分析以功能派翻译理论作为理论指导，以目的法则为主要原则，从颐和园的园林文化、历史文化和宗教文化三个角度出发对颐和园景点英译中存在的问题进行探讨。目的论认为译文取决于翻译目的，这个目的通常指的是交际目的。为达到这个目的，译者可以选择不同的翻译策略。也就是说，译者的翻译策略必须由译文的预期目的或功能决定，即所谓的“目的法则”。笔者认为景点介绍的汉英翻译的目的就是吸引译文读者以及弘扬传统文化，因此在翻译旅游资料的时候不仅要把当地的文化内涵表达出来，而且要考虑到跨文化的因素。而以功能派翻译理论为指导的景点介绍的汉英翻译，可以使英语读者通过译文产生对旅游景点的期盼，以及对景点文化内涵的理解。以颐和园景区内的翻译文本为例本，依托功能翻译理论，通过“发现问题，指出问题，解决问题”，以期更好地促进中国文化的传播与交流，提高我国现阶段旅游文本翻译的水平。
===关键字===
功能翻译；颐和园；翻译目的；翻译策略
===Contents===
1.Introduction
2. Studies on Functionalist Approach
2.1 The Viewpoint of Functionalist Approach
2.1.1 Reiss’s Text Typology
2.1.2 Vermeer’s Skopos Theory
2.1.3 Manttari’s Theory of Translational Action
2.1.4 Nord’s Theory of Function plus Loyalty
2.2 The Application of Functionalist Approach
3.C-E Translation of the Summer Palace under Functionalist Approach
3.1 Garden Culture
3.2 Historical Culture
3.3 Religious Culture
4. Conclusion
5.References
===Outline===

Thesis Statement: Based on the main viewpoints of functionalist approaches to translation, this paper aims to give an analysis to C-E translation of the Summer Palace from cultural, historical and religious aspects, hoping to provide some translation strategies for other cultural attractions.

1. Introduction
2. Studies on Functionalist Approaches
2.1 The Viewpoint of Functionalist Approach
2.1 Reiss’s Text Typology
2.2 Vermeer’s Skopos Theory
2.3 Manttari’s Theory of Translational Action
2.4 Nord’s Theory of Function plus Loyalty
2.2 The Application of Functionalist Approach
3. C-E Translation of the Summer Palace under Functionalist Approach
3.1 Garden Culture
3.2 Historical Culture
3.3 Religious Culture
4. Conclusion

===1. Introduction ===
The Chinese-English translation of tourist texts is a bridge to spread the culture of classical Chinese gardens, so the accuracy of it has a direct impact on foreigners' understanding of the specific history and culture.
Functionalist approach has made a pioneering contribution to the translation of non-literary genres. Functional translation theory emphasizes the function of discourse, and believes that different types of discourse have different functions, so translators should choose appropriate translation strategies according to the type of source text and corresponding functions. Functionalist approach is to take the "skopos rule" as the highest standard, and any translation activity is a purposeful behavior. The ultimate goal and main function of scenic spot translation is to help people understand the main content of the scenic spot.

As a window for the publicity of national history and culture, the Chinese-to-English translation of tourist texts plays an important role in promoting the development of local tourism. Well known for its large and priceless collection of cultural relics, the Summer Palace was among the first group of historical and cultural heritage sites in China to be placed under special state protection. Based on the viewpoints of functionalist approach to translation, this paper aims to analyze C-E translation of the Summer Palace from cultural, historical and religious aspects, hoping to provide some translation strategies for other cultural attractions.

As a window for the publicity of national history and culture, the Chinese-to-English translation of tourist texts plays an important role in promoting the development of local tourism. Well known for its rich and priceless collection of cultural relics, the Summer Palace was among the first group of historical and cultural heritage sites in China to be placed under special state protection. Based on the viewpoints of functionalist approach to translation, this paper aims to analyze C-E translation of the Summer Palace from cultural, historical and religious aspects, hoping to provide some translation strategies for other cultural attractions.
===2. Studies on Functionalist Approaches===
Functionalism is a theory that advocates reader-centered translation, emphasizing the functions of texts and highlighting the communicative effects. It is believed that many unnecessary mistakes can be avoided and better results can be achieved by applying functionalist approach in Chinese-English translation of tourist text.

===2.1 The Viewpoint of Functionalist Approaches===
Functionalist Translation Theory, also known as German Functionalist Translation Theory, was proposed by German scholars in the 1970s. It includes four main theories: Katharina Reiss’s Text Typology, Hans Vermeer’s Skopos Theory, Justa Holtz Manttari’s Theory of Translational Action and Christiane Nord’s Theory of Function plus Loyalty. This chapter aims to present the main ideas of this theory.

===2.1.1 Reiss’s Text Typology===
In 1971, Reiss in her book Possibilities and Limitation of Translation Criticism first made text function as a standard of translation criticism, namely evaluate the translated text from the relationship between the functions of the original and the translated text. She insists on the original-centered equivalence theory and holds the view that the ideal translation is to achieve the equivalence between the target text and the source text in terms of ideological content, linguistic form and communicative function. However, translation practice makes her realize that it’s difficult to achieve equivalence sometimes and that sometimes equivalence cannot be pursued. Because of the particularity of translation requirements, the function of the target text is not always the same as that of the source text. Therefore, the translator should give priority to the functional role of the target text rather than the principle of equivalence.

Reiss believes that in the normal situation the type of text decides the translator’s choice of a proper translation method (Reiss, 2004). Therefore, she divides text into four types: content-focused text, form-focused text, appeal-focused text and audio-media text. Content-focused text, also known as informative text, includes news reports, commercial correspondence, operating instructions, official documents, patent specifications, essays, treaties, etc. For this text, the main function is to convey information revealed in language itself to readers. The emphasis is on content and topic, so the choice of language and style should serve this function. If both the source text and target text belong to informative text, the translator should represent the content and information of source text accurately and completely (Reiss, 2004)

Form-focused text, also known as expressive text, refers to literary works such as novels, poems and so on. “Distinct from ‘content’, which deals with what the author says, ‘form’ is concerned with how an author expresses himself” (Reiss, 2004). For expressive texts, information is only a supplement. What is dominant is the aesthetic factor. When translating such texts, the translator should pay attention to the aesthetic and artistic forms of the original text and to the differences between two cultural habits, trying to achieve the same effect as the source text. In a word, in a form-focused text, the linguistic form of the source text determines the form in the target language (Reiss, 2004).

Appeal-focused text, also known as operative text, mainly includes notice, instruction manual, advertisement, publicity manual and so on. For operative texts, the primary task for the translator is to provoke a particular reaction on the hearers or readers to incite them to engage in specific actions, while content and form are subordinate. Therefore, to achieve the same effect, the translator need to change the content and stylistic features of the original text, try to keep the potential influential factors of the original text and seek functional equivalence (Reiss, 2004: 38-43). Audio-medial text, also known as multi-media text, refers to radio and television scripts, such as radio newscasts and reports, topical surveys and dramatic productions.

It is distinctive in its dependence on non-linguistic media and on graphic, acoustic, and visual kinds of expression. Only in combination with them can the whole complex literary form realize its full potential (Reiss, 2004). In conclusion, different texts determine different translation focuses and methods. In many cases, however, a text may have more than one function, which means that translators should integrate different translation strategies skillfully to achieve different functions of texts.

===2.1.2 Vermeer’s Skopos Theory===
Reiss’s student Vermeer, who broke the limitation of the theory of equivalent and took skopos to be the first criterion of translation process proposed the key theory: Skopostheorie. According to Skopos Theory, when translating a text, the translator needs to consider the purpose of translation first and then choose the translation method according to the purpose, which means “the end justifies the means” (Nord, 2001). Vermeer believes that translation, like other human actions, is also a purposeful act. Translation often takes place in cultural backgrounds with different customs and values, so translation is not a simple equivalent transformation between languages. Skopos Theory does not focus on achieving the equivalence between the target text and the original text or the perfection of the target text, but on choosing the best translation strategy based on the analysis of the source text and the intended function of the target text. In a word, translation methods and strategies are determined by the intended purpose or function of the target text.

According to Skopos Theory, the first rule that all translators must follow is the Skopos Rule. Translation purpose can be divided into three categories: (1) the purpose of the translator, such as earning a living; (2) the communicative purpose of the translation, such as instructing the reader; (3) the purpose of using a particular translation method, such as the literal translation according to its structure to illustrate the peculiarities of grammatical structure in a language (Nord, 2001). In general, the communicative purpose is more important than the other two. The communicative purpose is usually determined by the initiator of the translation act, but the translator can take part in deciding. The second rule is the Coherence Rule. Coherence Rule requires that the translation conform to the criterion of intratextual coherence, which means that the translation must be accessible to recipients and meaningful in the target culture and in the communicative environment (Nord, 2001). The third rule is the Fidelity Rule. It means that there should be intertextual coherence between the source text and the target text, which means being faithful to the source text. Nevertheless, the degree and form of faithfulness lie in the target text and the degree that the translator understands the original text. Normally “Intertexual coherence is considered subordinate to intratexual coherence and both are subordinate to the Skopos rule” (Nord, 2001).

===2.1.3 Manttari’s Theory of Translational Action===
Following Vermeer, Manttari develops Vermeer’s Skopos Theory and puts forward the Theory of Translational Action. He emphasizes three aspects: the behavior of the translation process, the role of the participants (the initiator, the translator and the target reader, etc.) and the environment (time, place and media) in which the translation process takes places. It views translation as “purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and construes the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds that involve intercultural transfer” (Mundy, 2001). According to Manttari, translation is “ a complex act to achieve a particular purpose”
(Nord, 2001). It is not about translating words, sentences or texts but is about guiding the intended cooperation over cultural barriers and promoting functional communication. Cooperation here means “transcultural communication” by Manttari.

The Theory of Translational Action attaches great importance to providing a functional communicative text for the recipient, a text suitable for the target culture in
form and style. Functional suitability is determined by the translator. The translator is an expert in translation, whose role is to ensure the successful completion of culturaltransformation. In producing the target text, the analysis of the source text is necessary so that the translator can find out its structural and functional characteristics, which can be described by content and form. The need of the recipient is the decisive factor for the target text.In short, “the value of Manttari’s work is the placing of translation (or at least the professional non-literary translation which she describes) within its sociocultural context, including the interplay between the translator and the initiating institution”(Mundy, 2001).

===2.1.4 Nord’s Theory of Function plus Loyalty===

Though skopos rule changes the focus of translation from the source language text to the target language text and the target receivers, it has some limitations. One is that different readers have different expectations, and the translation purpose cannot satisfy all the expectations of the target reader. Another is that the translation purpose may sometimes be against the intention of the source language. Therefore, based on the skopos rule, Nord introduces the loyalty principle. The principle of loyalty is a supplementary principle proposed by Nord to make up for the deficiency of skopos rule. According to the explanation of Nord, it is not the relationship between the original text and the target text, nor the equivalence between the original text and the form of the target text, but the consistency between the author of the original text, the initiator of the translation, the translator and the reader of the target text, which is the principle of loyalty. The proposal of the loyalty principle makes up for the mistakes that some radical skopos translators usually make, such as omitting and rewriting, which makes skopos theory more perfect and makes skopos theory more likely to guide the translation of literary works.

“Function” and “loyalty” are two pillars of Nord’s functionalist approach. “Function” refers to what a text means or is intended to mean from the receiver’s point of view”, while “loyalty” means that “target-text purpose should be compatible with the original author’s intention” (Nord,2001). It emphasizes the interpersonal relationship between the translator, the source-text sender, the target-text addresses and the initiator. Function plus loyalty enables the translator to avoid the limitations of skopos rule and try to achieve a balance between translation purpose and the source-text author’s intention”(Nord,2001). That is to say, when translating the original text, the translator should take into account the readers' cultural background, knowledge level and expectation of the translation, and choose the corresponding translation strategy according to the translation requirements. If the reader wants to read a word-for-word translation of the article, then the translator must meet the reader's requirements, otherwise he must explain to the reader why he chose his own translation method. The translator's job is to weigh two different cultures instead of imposing one culture on another.

===2.2The Application of Functionalist Approach to the Tourist Texts.===
In the 1990s, Functionalist Translation Theory was introduced to China, and since then it has been applied to translation studies by Chinese translation scholars. In his article published in 1995, Zhang Nanfeng briefly introduces Skopos theory to China for the first time, and considers that Skopos theory is referential (Zhang Nanfeng, 1995). German Functionalist Translation Theory, a paper released in1999, is the first article in China which systematically introduces German Functionalist Translation Theory (Zhong Weihe & Zhong Yu, 1999). Based on an overview of Functionalist Translation Theory, Zhang Meifang focuses on introducing Nord’s theory, especially on the detailed analysis of Nord’s principle of loyalty (Zhang Meifang, 2005). Famous domestic scholars, such as Liu Junping (2009), Liu Miqing (2012) and Li Wenge (2004), also introduce this theory in their books. With the rise of Functionalist Translation Theory in China, someone has compared it with other theories. Zhu Haotong compares Skopos Theory with Functional Equivalence Theory to analyze the similarities and differences between them, and further reveals that Functionalist Translation Theory inherits the reasonable part of Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory, which is an important breakthrough and supplement to solve the problems that Functional Equivalence Theory leaves (Zhu Haotong, 2006). Some scholars also combine theory with translation practice to explore the application of Functionalist Translation Theory to translation practice. Jia Yanli and Wang Hongjun point out that Skopos Theory has its limitations, but it is still of instruction and reference value for non-literary translation texts, such as advertisements and tourism materials (Jia Yanli & Wang Hongjun, 2012). Li Liangchen selects several famous tourist attractions in China to translate the on-site tour-guide commentary into English. Then he improves them under the guidance of Skopos Theory and sends out questionnaires to overseas tourists for further analysis. He argues that the translation of on-site tour-guide commentary which is guided by Skopos Theory is more favorable to conveying information to foreign visitors, to promoting cultural exchanges and to improving the image of China’s tourist destinations (Li Liangchen, 2013). In Pragmatic Translation: Theory & Practice, Wu Feng and He Qingji introduce Functionalist Translation Theory (Wu Feng & He Qingji, 2008) and the characteristics of tourism text and translation skills (Wu Feng & He Qingji, 2008). In this book, they also discuss the controversy over the Chinese name of Functionalist Translation Theory, and holds that “功能派翻译理论” is the most appropriate Chinese translation (Wu Feng & He Qingji, 2008).Based on his own translation practice and under the guidance of Functionalist Translation Theory, Wu Zixuan probes into some special phenomena in the English translation of CNN newsreels. The author believes that in the translation of external publicity, we should not stick to the standard of faithfulness to the original text, but should deal with the original text properly from the perspective of achieving the purpose of translation, such as rewriting, abridging. (Wu Zixuan, 2005).

Functionalist approach establishes a theoretical system of diversified translation standards dominated by skopos rule. From the definition of Functionalist approach, it can be seen that the advantage of it is that the translator can get rid of the bondage of the original text, study the translation process with "translation purpose" as the starting point, and determine the translation strategies and methods. This can give full play to the translator's own initiative, flexible processing of the original text, in order to achieve the translation of the communicative function. In addition, functionalist approach requires the translation to be examined in the cultural context of the reader. The reader can accept the translation and understand the meaning of the original text through the translation, so the translation can realize the communicative function. On the basis of such advantages, functionalist approach can be used to guide the English translation of garden scenic spots, and the translator can choose a wider range of translation strategies and break out of the constraints of the original text.

Only by clarifying the purpose of translation can we avoid these limitations in the English translation of garden attractions. When using functionalist approach to guide the English translation of Chinese classical garden scenic spots, it is necessary to flexibly choose translation strategies and methods, give full play to the advantages of skopos theory, and achieve the balance between "principle of purpose" and "principle of fidelity" as far as possible.

With the deepening of globalization and cross-cultural communication, tourismis becoming a major industry in the 21st century. The development of tourism can not only promote the economic development of a country but also promote the external dissemination of national culture. Therefore, tourism translation deserves attention. Tourism text is a typical informative and operational text, and the language is unique. It is full of gorgeous words, such as four-character expressions, verses, proper nouns and so on.

Tourism text materials include tourism advertising, tourism brochures, scenic spots signs and so on. In this paper, we focus on the introduction of Chinese gardens’ scenic spots, which is usually colorful in language and rich in literary style. Tourism text translation belongs to applied translation, which should play a series of practical functions to publicize the image and resources of the country or place and attract overseas tourists. Therefore, the translator of tourism text must be clear about the type and function of tourism text, and to grasp the ultimate purpose of the translation.

On tourism text translation, the communicative purpose of the translation should be placed in a central position. Furthermore, the tourism text has both the information function and the calling function. The information function and the calling function complement each other. Only when the target language readers acquire the expected tourism information and cultural knowledge can the calling function be realized and the purpose of tourism text translation be achieved. With different translation strategies, the translated version should both expressed contains basic information, and make the tourists feel the profound of the Chinese culture from the beautiful scenery.

Cultural tourism has long been the focus of international tourism, and understanding Chinese culture is the main purpose of inbound tourists, so the translation of tourism texts bears the mission of cultural transmission and cultural publicity. However, due to the great differences between Chinese and English culture and language, there are many difficulties in cultural transmission in tourism text translation. China has a long and splendid history and culture. When introducing the scenic spots of cultural relics and historic sites, we usually associate with many historical figures and stories. These terms are cultural blank for most foreign tourists, but this kind of cultural experience is also the most attractive place for foreign tourists. It is of great importance to pay attention to cultural differences in tourism translation and carry out cultural transmission effectively. Chinese and English languages have different logic views, and Chinese expressions in tourism texts value decoration. English expressions tend to be clear, concise and to the point. For example, Chinese tourism texts often use a four-character lattice, which is symmetrical, while there is no corresponding four-character lattice expression in English. Therefore, in Chinese-English translation of tourism texts with frequent use of four-character phrases, it is necessary to keep in mind the objective principle of functionalist approach and give priority to cultural communication instead of rigidly adhering to form.

===3. C-E Translation of the Summer Palace under Functionalist Approach===
By studying the specific translation strategies made by predecessors, the following steps are also adopted in this paper: first, the translation strategies are determined according to the text type, such as faithful reproduction of the original information or rewriting; Secondly, the translation strategies are determined according to the potential purpose of the translation, such as paraphrasing or deleting poems, generalizing specific expressions and transliterating proper nouns. Thirdly, the translation strategies are defined with the tourists as the center, such as adding logical words, adding explanatory information and using plain English.
The Summer Palace epitomizes the philosophy and practice of Chinese garden design, which played a key role in the development of this cultural form throughout the east. It is an outstanding expression of the creative art of Chinese landscape garden design, incorporating the works of humankind and nature in a harmonious whole, which was once the most important place of political and diplomatic activity for the supreme rulers of the late Qing dynasty. Based on three aspects of the Summer Palace, namely, garden culture, historical culture and religious culture, this paper discusses the problems existing in the English translation of the scenic spots of the Summer Palace and puts forward corresponding countermeasures under the guidance of the skopos rule of functionalist translation theory.
===Approach===
By studying the specific translation strategies made by predecessors, the following steps are also adopted in this paper: first, the translation strategies are determined according to the text type, such as faithful reproduction of the original information or rewriting; Secondly, the translation strategies are determined according to the potential purpose of the translation, such as paraphrasing or deleting poems, generalizing specific expressions and transliterating proper nouns. Thirdly, the translation strategies are defined with the tourists as the center, such as adding logical words, adding explanatory information and using plain English.
The Summer Palace epitomizes the philosophy and practice of Chinese garden design, which played a key role in the development of this cultural form throughout the east. It is an outstanding expression of the creative art of Chinese landscape garden design, incorporating the works of humankind and nature in a harmonious whole, which was once the most important place of political and diplomatic activity for the supreme rulers of the late Qing dynasty. Based on three aspects of the Summer Palace, namely, garden culture, historical culture and religious culture, this paper discusses the problems existing in the English translation of the scenic spots of the Summer Palace and puts forward corresponding countermeasures under the guidance of the skopos rule of functionalist translation theory.

===3.1 Garden culture.===
The Summer Palace is a classical garden famous for its magnificence and beauty. There are many temples in the garden, and the green waves of kunming lake ripple. Landscape and humanities complement each other, containing rich natural and cultural information, reflecting the characteristics of Chinese classical gardens. The garden cultural features of the three scenic spots, namely, the hall of clouds, the foxiang pavilion and the Wenchang courtyard, are particularly outstanding. Therefore, this paper takes these three scenic spots as examples to discuss the Chinese-English translation of the introduction of the Summer Palace.

(1)排云殿、佛香阁景区是颐和园内建筑布局最完整、建筑形式最丰富的中轴建筑群体，殿、阁、廊、亭、桥、坊、碑等建筑约两万平方米。从临水的云辉玉宇牌坊至排云门、排云殿、德辉殿、佛香阁、众香界、智慧海、层层升高，排列有序，气势巍峨，金碧辉煌，将园林、寺庙和宫殿融为一体。

Translation：This scenic spot covers an area of 20,000 square meters with an assortment of buildings such as palaces, towers, corridors, pavilions, walkways, bridges, archways and inscribed stone steles. It comprises a well-arranged group of structures, all diverse in style, located in the center of the Summer Palace garden. This complex of structures, ranging from the Glowing Clouds and Holy Land Archway on the waterside, the Gate that Dispels the Clouds, the Hall that Dispels the Clouds, the Hall of Moral Glory, and the Tower of the Fragrance of the Buddha, to the Realm of Popular Fragrance and the Sea of Wisdom Temple, were built in an orderly manner running from the foot of the hill to its top, with gardens, temples and palaces harmoniously integrated into the whole.

Analysis：As we all know, the design style of ancient Chinese buildings is beautiful with "symmetry". The "axis" in hall of clouds scenic spot refers to the layout of the Summer Palace from far to near and from top to bottom, which cannot be simply understood as the center. Simply translating "axis" as "center" cannot express accurately the meaning of "symmetry". Comparatively speaking, "axis" can better reflect the architectural style of the scenic spot.

(2)从临水的云辉玉宇牌坊至排云门、排云殿、德辉殿、佛香阁、众香界、智慧海，层层升高，排列有序，气势巍峨，金碧辉煌，将园林、寺庙和宫殿融为一体。

Translation：These structures，including Glowing Clouds and Holy Land Archway at lake side，the Gate of Dispelling Clouds，the Hall of Dispelling Clouds，the Hall of moral Glory，and the Tower of Buddhist Incense，the Realm of Multitudinous Fragrance and the Sea of Wisdom Temple，were built in an orderly manner ranging up the hill with gardens，temples and palaces harmoniously integrated. This manifests beauty，grace and splendor，reminiscent of the loftingness and grandeur of a once mighty empire.

Analysis：In terms of the characteristics of language, Chinese emphasizes parataxis and four-word antithesis. When describing and naming scenes, gorgeous words and poetic words are generally chosen in Chinese. But, English emphasizes hypotaxis, on the other hand, puts more emphasis on reproducing the original appearance of things, using simple and natural words and preferring direct description. In sign translation, the English translation pays more attention to accurate, concise and lively. In the above paragraph, "层层升高，排列有序，将园林、寺庙和宫殿融为一体" is an introduction to the architectural features of foxiang pavilion, in order to make tourists have a clear understanding of the overall layout and architectural features of the scenic spot. This information is essential and can be translated into detail. However, "气势巍峨，金碧辉煌" focuses on the subjective description, and its explicit translation needs more complicated words. If this paragraph is translated in detail, it is easy to drag the content and make the key information vague. Therefore, the deletion of the English translation of this sentence will not affect the basic information of the original text.

(3)主阁（文昌阁）两层，内供铜铸文昌帝君和仙童、铜骑。文昌阁与万寿山西供武圣的宿云檐象征“文武辅弼”。

Translation: A bronze statue of the God Wenchang, statues of gaeries, and a bronze steed were placed in the two-story pavilion. This tower is pared with the Tower of Cloud- Retaining Eaves, located to the west of the Longevity Hill, in which a statue of the Martial God was placed. The God Wenchang and the Martial God together symbolize reining of the emperor supported by scholars and warriors.

Analysis: Two questions arise in Chinese-English translation. First, there are two translations of wenchang pavilion in the translation: pavilion and tower, which appear in the same sign. Two different translations of the same scenic spot name tend to make foreign tourists think that it refers to different scenic spots, which may cause difficulty in understanding. Second, the translation of Wenchang pavilion into "Wenchang Tower" is against the actual architectural characteristics. In fact, the meanings of "pavilion" and "tower" have both similarities and differences. According to the Oxford dictionary, Tower means "a tall narrow building or part of a building, especially of a church or castle", mainly referring to the tower-shaped part of a building, usually a tall and slender structure, such as the Eiffel Tower. "Pavilion" means "a building that is meant to be more beautiful than usual, built as a shelter in a park or used for concerts and dances". The top structure of the pavilion usually has rectangles, triangles, hexagons, etc. The common feature of them is that the top is supported by columns without walls. From the external structure of Wenchang pavilion, its bottom is solid and its top is supported by columns. Therefore, the pavilion can accurately reflect the architectural characteristics of Wenchang pavilion, so I think it should be translated as Wenchang pavilion.

===3.2 Historical culture. ===
The accurate Chinese-English translation of the introduction of the Summer Palace not only enables foreign tourists to understand the characteristics of Chinese gardens, but also enables foreign tourists to understand the historical knowledge of a specific period of China. However, the Chinese-English translation of the Summer Palace still has problems in accurately conveying the historical background of the scenic spots, such as the English translation of Wenchang pavilion scenic spot:

(4)此景区始建于清乾隆十五年，一八六零年被英法联军烧毁，光绪时按原样重建。阁结构为八面三层四重檐，通高36.44米，耸立于20米高的石造台基上，气势雄伟，是颐和园全园的构图中心。阁内供奉有铜铸金裹千手观世音菩萨站像。像高五米，重万斤，为明代万历年间所造，在八根贯通全阁上下的承重铁梨木擎天柱的衬托下，美妙庄严，熠熠生辉，有极高的文物和艺术价值。

Translation: The Wenchang tower was first built in 1750 and rebuilt under Emperor Guangxu after the Anglo-French Allied Forces builted it down in 1860. The octahedral tower has three stories with four-layered eaves, altogether 36.44 meters high. Standing upright on a 20 meter-high stone foundation, it constitutes the center of the Summer Palace landscape and serves to accentuate its magnificence. A statue of the thousand-handed Guanshiyin Buddha, cast in bronze and gilded with gold, stands inside the tower. The statue, five meters high and five tons in weight, was cast during the reign of Emperor Wanli of the Ming Dynasty. Set off by the eight imposing pillars which support the tower, it glows with beauty, grandeur and brilliance. Its historical, cultural and artistic value can hardly be overstated.

Analysis: “始建于乾隆十五年”only was translated into “was first built in 1750” and the “光绪年间重建” was translated into “rebuilt under Emperor Guangxu”.The first sentence does not show that 1750 was the fifteenth year of the reign of emperor Qianlong, and the second sentence does not give foreign visitors the exact date of the reign of emperor Guangxu. The change of time concept and the disunity of expression easily make foreign tourists feel confused. Therefore, the translation of the time and the historical dynasties should be accurate and meticulous, and the supplementary method should be used to not only describe the dynasties clearly, but also supplement the corresponding years, so as to achieve the standardization of the translation. In this way, foreign tourists can not only be clear about the time of the event, but also understand the Chinese historical dynasties. Consider as follows: the Wenchang Pavilion was first built in 1750 during Emperor Qianlong’s reign（1735- 1795）and rebuilt in 1886 under Emperor Guangxu（1875- 1908）after the Anglo- French Allied Forces burned it down in 1860.

===3.3 Religious culture. ===
Many scenic spots in the Summer Palace have a strong buddhist atmosphere. While visiting the scenic spots, foreign tourists can understand the profound buddhist culture. Wenchang pavilion in the Summer Palace is the representative of Chinese religious culture.

(5)主阁两层，内供铜铸文昌帝君和仙童、铜特。文昌阁与万寿山西供武圣的宿云檐象征“文武辅弼”。

Translation: A bronze statue of the god，Wenchang，and statues of two followers，the celestial boy，and the bronze steed，were placed in the two- storey pavilion. This tower is pared with the tower of Cloud- Retaining Eaves，located to the west of the Longevity Hill，in which a statue of the Martial God was placed. The two towers symbolize the support by both scholars and warriors to the ruling emperor.

Analysis: It is well known that westerners believe in theism, which refers to god as supreme . In Chinese religious culture, people believe in atheism and do not believe in the existence of god. Therefore, it is inappropriate to translate "文昌帝军" and "武圣" into "the god, Wenchang" and "the Martial god" in the translation. In fact, the "文昌帝军" was Zhang yu, an emperor of Shu of Ning kang (374). And "武圣" refers to Guan yu in history. Therefore, the simple translation of "God" is not in line with the traditional Chinese culture, which will not only cause western tourists to misunderstand that Chinese religious tradition also believes in God, but also fail to convey Chinese historical allusions and relevant historical figures. In contrast, if "文昌帝军" is translated as "the emperor, Wenchang" and "武圣" is translated as "the Martial Master (Guanyu)", it can more faithfully convey the history and religious culture contained in the source language.

===4. Conclusion===
To sum up, Under the guidance of the skopos rule of functionalist translation theory, translators should have a cross-cultural awareness, fully understand the reading psychology and cultural appreciation needs of target language readers, and use effective translation strategies and methods to achieve the purpose of tourism text translation. Functionalist approach has made a pioneering contribution to the translation of non-literary genres. Functional translation effectively eliminates the disadvantages of traditional word-for-word translation, improves the efficiency of translation, and helps readers to grasp the meaning of the original text.

To sum up, Under the guidance of the skopos rule of functionalist translation theory, translators should '''have cross-cultural awareness''', fully understand the reading psychology and cultural appreciation needs of target language readers, and use effective translation strategies and methods to achieve the purpose of tourism text translation. Functionalist approach has made a pioneering contribution to the translation of non-literary genres. Functional translation effectively eliminates the disadvantages of traditional word-for-word translation, improves the efficiency of translation, and helps readers to grasp the meaning of the original text.--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 14:18, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The importance of the translation of the Summer Palace lies in the profound garden culture, historical culture and religious culture. The English translation is not only helpful for international friends to know more about the garden characteristics of the Summer Palace, but also helpful for spreading the long history and profound culture of China. In order to attract target readers and promote traditional Chinese culture, it is not only necessary to carefully explore Chinese culture and history, but also to use the fuctionalist approach appropriately.

Translation is a complicated process. Functionalist approach stresses the function of the discourse, the purpose of translation. In the practice of translation, if the translator can get rid of the bondage of the original equivalence, actively playing to subjective initiative, fully understanding the original text, depending on the purpose of discourse and adopting different translation strategies, the effect and readability of translation can be improved.

Translation is a complicated process. Functionalist approach stresses the function of the discourse '''and''' the purpose of translation. In the practice of translation, if the translator can get rid of the bondage of the original equivalence, actively playing to subjective initiative, fully understanding the original text, depending on the purpose of discourse and adopting different translation strategies, the effect and readability of translation can be improved.--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 14:18, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===References===
Hans Vermmer, “Skopos and Commission in Translation Action”, in the Translation Studies Reader,ed. Chesterman, London and Network:Routledge,p.221-232. 2000.

Munday, Jeremy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications. Routledge publishing.2001.

Mason, “Textual Practices and Audience Design: and Interactive View of the Tourist Brrochure”. In Navarro et al.(eds.). Pragmatics at Work: The Translation of Tourist Literature. Bern: Perter Lang. 157-176.2004.

Nord, Text Analysis in Translation: Theory, Methodology and Didactic Application of a Model for Translation-Oriented Text Analysis. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press. 2006.

Nord, Translating as a purposeful activity. Shanghai: SFLE PRESS, 2001:27,30,32,65,245.

Reiss, Katharina. Translation Criticism: The Potentials & Limitations. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. Shanghai. 2004.

Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator’s Invisibility: A History Translation. Routledge.1995.

方梦之、毛忠明，英汉—汉英应用翻译教程，上海: 上海外语教育出版社，2004.

金惠康，跨文化旅游翻译，中国对外翻译出版公司，2004.

贾文波，应用翻译功能论，北京：中国对外翻译出版公司，2004

孙艺风，文化翻译的困惑与挑战，中国翻译，2016年第3期.

王宏志，翻译与创作，北京大学出版社，2000.

吴自选，德国功能派翻译理论与 CNN 新闻短片英译，中国科技翻译, 2005.

谢天振，当代国外翻译理论，天津：南开大学出版社，2005.

张南峰，走出死胡同建立翻译学. 中国翻译, 1995.

仲伟合，钟钰. 德国的功能派翻译理论. 中国翻译, 1999.

张美芳，功能加忠诚—介评克里丝汀· 诺德的功能翻译理论.上海外国语大学学报, 2005.

==Contrast between Literal Translation and Free Translation 张雪仪 Zhang Xueyi 202020080668 Russian language and Literature ==
<center>张雪仪 202020080668</center>

=== Abstract ===

The contrast between literal translation and free translation has always been the most discussed issue in translation studies. The ultimate goal of translation is to help different cultures communicate better, so that people of different languages can understand each other's culture. Due to the differences of social, historical and cultural backgrounds between languages, translators need to compare the two methods and weigh their advantages and disadvantages. This chapter mainly analyzes the literal translation and free translation of Russian Idioms and proverbs in the process of Chinese translation, and explores the differences of different idioms translated by different methods, so as to help students and translators better carry out translation practice.

=== Key words ===

Translation strategies, Literal translation,Free translation

=== 摘要 ===

直译与意译间的对比一直是翻译学中讨论度最高的问题。翻译的最终目的在于帮助不同文化进行更好的交流，让使用不同语种的人相互理解彼此的文化。由于语种间社会历史文化背景的差异，需要译者对这两种方法进行比较，衡量利弊。本文主要分析俄语成语和谚语在汉译过程中的直译和意译，探寻不同成语用不同方法翻译所产生的差别在以帮助学生和译者更好地进行翻译实践。

=== 关键词 ===

翻译策略，直译，意译

=== Introduction ===
The former Soviet Union translation theorist Fedorov believes that “translation is an activity of expressing what has been used in one language as a unified whole of content and form, and accurately and completely expressed in another language.” Translation theorist Barhudaro The husband also wrote: "Translation is the process of changing the coherent discourse of one language into the coherent discourse of another language while maintaining its content and meaning." Mr. Lu Xun once advocated "literal translation." He said: "Translation must take both sides into consideration: (Cai Yi, Duan Jinghua 2000)

One is of course to be easy to understand, the other is to maintain the fullness of the original." The Chinese translator Zhang Peiji summed up the translation standard as "faithful and smooth." To some extent, translation is a process of thinking re-creation, so certain standards and principles must be followed when translating. Translation standard is a measure of the quality of translation, it can guide translation practice, and it is a principle that must be followed in translation activities. (Gong Linjing 2015,192)

Although each scholar has different opinions on the standard of translation, the final result he pursues is the same: the original text and the translated text express the same effect.In order to achieve the same effect, different translation methods have been derived from the translator's translation practice. The most basic and common ones are literal translation and free translation.(Gong Linjing 2015,192)

Russian Idioms and proverbs, as the crystallization of Russian national wisdom and immortal fossils in Russian, are one of the best materials for China to understand and learn Russian history, culture and society. Due to different geographical, historical and economic conditions, Russian and Chinese have formed different cultural backgrounds, which have caused great difficulties for Russian people to further understand Russia. This paper will take the Chinese translation of Russian Idioms and proverbs as an example to study the basic definitions of literal translation and free translation, their advantages and disadvantages, and their relationship, so as to help Russian students better understand literal translation and free translation.(Gong Linjing 2015,192)

=== Controversy between literal translation and free translation===

In different periods and countries, people's views on translation theory have changed a lot, but the debate on literal translation and free translation has always existed.

==== Controversy in Chinese Translation Community====

Which is better, literal translation or free translation, has always been divided in Chinese translation community. This kind of controversy first occurred during the translation of Buddhist scriptures written in Sanskrit into Chinese. During the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties, the famous monk Dao An was the earliest representative of the literal translation in China. Dao An himself did not understand Sanskrit and was afraid that paraphrase would lose the maxims in Buddhist scriptures, so he advocated strict literal translation. (Wang Zhuan 1996,55)

However, Kumarajiva from India, who was invited by Dao An, advocated free translation. On the basis of fully understanding the original thought content and artistic style, the translation was appropriately deleted. Although Dao An and Kumarajiva are also engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures, the translation methods they adhere to were very different. This divergence continued into the Tang Dynasty. Xuan Zang, as the most famous monk in the Tang Dynasty, proposed a translation method that was completely different from the previous two translation methods—a combination of literal translation and free translation.(Wang Zhuan 1996,55)

The contradiction between literal translation and free translation may be due to the different understanding of the two translation methods. Sun guiding, a translator, believes that literal translation is rigidly based on the structure of the original words and sentences, without considering whether the Chinese language is smooth or natural; while free translation is to use Chinese idioms and the most natural words and sentences as far as possible in addition to specialized subject nouns, so as to achieve the effect of transmitting the meaning of the original text.(Feng Shujian 1993,44)

Du zuozhou, former president of Wuhan University, believes that literal translation is to translate word for word according to the original text; free translation is to translate according to the original meaning, and the translation is more appropriate to the common grammar of the translated language. Meng Xiancheng, an educator, believes that literal translation is a translation with different technical correctness. Literal translation refers to faithful and correct translation according to the original text; free translation refers to the translation of the general idea of the original text.(Feng Shujian 1993,44)

Zhu Guangqian said, "literal translation" refers to the literal translation of the original text. Every word is translated one word at a time, and the order of each sentence is not changed. The so-called "free translation" is to express the meaning of the original text in Chinese, without having to follow the literal and sequential order of the original text. " Feng Shize thinks that "the relationship between translation and literal translation is up-down, while that between literal translation and free translation is left-right relationship. They are involved in each other and must become a system. If the word order is reversed as free translation, the definition of free translation is equal to translation, and there is no other translation to speak of except free translation. "

The principle of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" put forward by the modern Chinese translator Yan Fu has long been the basic principle guiding translation practice. A large number of beginners who learn foreign languages regard "faithfulness and expressiveness" as translations that are completely faithful to the original text when translating. In fact, Yan Fu's translation requirements are a guiding principle for translation based on semantics. When translating, if the structure and expression of the original text cannot be directly adopted, the sentence structure and expression must be changed according to the characteristics of the target language. (Feng Shujian 1993,44)

Moreover, in the process of translation, there are many differences between the source language and the target language in terms of word order, grammar, form change and rhetoric. In many cases, there is no direct corresponding word. Therefore, the translator should consider the actual semantic, background and other factors to convey the content of the original text and reproduce the language style of the original work in an appropriate way without losing the original meaning of the sentence.(Feng Shujian 1993,44)

==== Controversy in Soviet Translation Community====
In the Soviet Union, under the influence of ideology, Western translation theories could not be widely disseminated, but within the Soviet Union, translation theories similar to Western translation theories have been formed and developed, and two main schools of translation theory have been further differentiated — Linguistic Translation School and Literary Translation School. To a certain extent, the dispute between these two schools also reflects the debate on literal translation and free translation among translators' groups. (Xie Yuncai 2002,99)

In terms of the principles or standards of translation, the linguistic translation school believes that an ideal translation should be an equivalent translation, first of all linguistic correspondence, that is, the translation should have the same meaning as the corresponding language or discourse unit of the original; the literary translation school believes that translation pursues artistic correspondence, and linguistic correspondence must be subordinate to artistic correspondence. Therefore, it proposes that the aesthetic standards of translation should reproduce the artistic reality reflected by the unity of the original content and form. (Xie Yuncai 2002,99)

The characteristic is to use images to translate images, that is, to create the same image in different languages. In 1953, Andrei Venediktovich Fedorov, the leader of the linguistic translation school, published his work "Summary of Translation Theory", which was the first monograph of the Soviet Union to study translation theory from the perspective of linguistics. The author proposes that translation theory is a branch of linguistics. Since the translation of any genre work must rely on the comparison of two languages, translation problems can only be solved in the field of language. (Xie Yuncai 2002,99)

However, feodorov's view was refuted by the literary school represented by Kashin. The school of literature and art holds that aesthetics is the core of literary translation theory, and translation should be regarded as a form of language art, that is, translation should be studied from the perspective of literature and art. As a matter of fact, literature and art school emphasizes the translation of literary works, which belongs to the specific translation theory, while the study of language school focuses on the general translation theory, that is, the translation of works of all subjects including literary works. The debate between linguistic school and literary school provides another perspective for Chinese translators to explore the relationship between literal translation and free translation.(Xie Yuncai 2002,99)

=== The application of literal translation and free translation in the Chinese translation of Russian idioms ===

The idioms of different nationalities are the most dynamic and expressive units at the lexical level in different languages, and they are also the units that can best reflect the characteristics of national culture in languages. The number of Russian idioms is extremely rich, it records and reflects all aspects of Russian national life. (Feng Yongmei 1999,97)

Due to the great differences in geographical location and customs between China and Russia, the national culture reflected in Chinese and Russian must be quite different. One of the difficulties in idiom translation is its image. When translating idioms, both meaning and image should be considered. Although there are great cultural differences between China and Russia, many commonalities of human beings, such as emotion and natural environment, have created conditions for mutual communication, mutual understanding and idiom translation between different languages.(Feng Yongmei 1999,97)

==== Literal translation ====

In short, literal translation refers to a method of translating the original text directly without changing the language features and styles of the original text on the basis of fully respecting the meaning of the original text. The advantage of literal translation in Chinese translation of Russian idioms is that it can express the meaning of idioms intuitively and faithfully, and maintain the unique style and image of the original text. However, the disadvantage is that the translated idioms may not be understood by the Chinese people. This is because the historical and cultural background, grammatical structure and language world picture of Chinese and Russian are different, and it is easy to form obstacles in the process of understanding.(Zhou Changyu 2010,34)

Translating Russian idioms by literal translation is further divided into two methods — literal translation into Chinese idioms and literal translation into non-idiom sentences or words.(Zhou Changyu 2010,34)

Literal translation of Russian idioms into Chinese idioms is suitable for the translation of Russian and Chinese idioms that are completely equivalent in image, structure, and meaning. The advantage is that it is easy to understand, and the translation is simple and fast.(Feng Yongmei 1999,98) E.g:

домашнего (своего) вора не убережешься. 家贼难防

знать как свои пять пальцев (видно, как на ладони) 了如指掌

подлить масла в огонь 火上浇油

как рыба в воде 如鱼得水

как ножом по сердцу 心如刀割

как гром среди ясного неба 晴天霹雳

на добро отвечают добром 善有善报

копейка рубль бережет 财从细起

мечты сбываются 梦想成真

курица всегда следует за петухом 嫁鸡随鸡

чего мало, того и дорого (дорого то, что мало) 物以稀为贵(12)

изгонять яд с помощью яда 以毒攻毒

сидеть как на иголках 如坐针毡

действия громче слов 事实胜于雄辩

зарыть талант в землю 埋没人才

висеть на волоске 千钧一发

лить как из ведра 倾盆大雨(Wang Fuxiang, Wu Hanying 2014)

The idioms in the above examples are completely equivalent in image, structure or meaning in Russian and Chinese, so Chinese idioms can be used for literal translation.

In fact, in the two languages, idioms with the same image, structure, and meaning are still in the minority, so it is more common to translate Russian idioms into non-Chinese idiom sentences or vocabulary. E.g:

настоять на своем 坚持自己

камень с души свалился 心里的一块石头落地

связать свою судьбу 把自己的命运与……相连

быть на голову 高出一头

вбивать в голову 往脑子里灌

блеснуть метеором 像流星一样一闪而过

с мизинец 小拇指这么大(Wang Fuxiang, Wu Hanying 2014)

It is not difficult to find that the literal translation method can completely retain the original appearance of the idiom, show the common concept of human understanding of the world, and be beneficial to the cultural exchange between China and Russia.

==== Free translation ====

Another method commonly used in Chinese translation of Russian idioms is free translation. The lexical gap between languages is a common phenomenon, which causes many difficulties in translation. The causes of lexical vacancy are various, such as life experience, customs, religious beliefs and other cultural reasons, as well as linguistic reasons. There are generally two ways to fill the gaps in language: replacing images for free translation and abandoning images for free translation.(Feng Yongmei 1999,98)

Russian says "Два медведя в одной берлоге не уживутся (一个洞穴容不下两头熊).", while Chinese says "一山不容二虎". Another example is "Скатерть со стола, и дружба сплыла (桌布一收，友谊不再) " in Russian, and "人走茶凉" in Chinese. This method belongs to paraphrasing by replacing the image.(Wang Fuxiang, Wu Hanying 2014)

For the "harmony" of the translation, sometimes the translator has to choose to abandon the image for free translation. This is determined by both cultural and linguistic factors. Some linguistic features cannot be translated, and some idioms themselves are not strong enough. In this case, if Choosing a literal translation method will make readers confused.(Hu Guming, Shen Man 2011,18) E.g:

Как женился я на вашей матери да взял вот этот домишко в приданье, так думал, что богаче да лучше меня и людей нет, фертом ходил! (А. Островский)

我和你母亲一成亲，就得到了这栋作为陪嫁的屋子，当时我心想，再没有人比我更富足、更好的了。我那时可真是双手叉腰、得意洋洋的。

“Фертом” is the name of the letter “Ф” in ancient times.Its shape is like a person with hands on hips, and “фертом ходить” is an idiom evolved from body language. The cultural meaning of this idiom is "神气十足、得意洋洋、威武自负的样子" . The translation uses other idioms to complement the missing images in Chinese, clarify the meaning of the idiom, and convey the emotional color contained in the original idiom.(Hu Guming, Shen Man 2011,19)

The idioms in a certain language are fixed and unchanged after long-term use and tempering, but the frequency of each idiom is different. Some idioms are universally used by the whole people, spread and used in a wide range, while some idioms are only used in written styles. In Russian literature, there are improved precise and interesting idioms. For example, in the works of the famous Russian fable writer Krylov, there are reduced idioms, such as “ медвежья услуга”（直译：熊的帮忙；意译：帮倒忙）， “ сильнее кошки зверя нет”（直译：再没有比猫更厉害的野兽；意译：井底之蛙）， “зелен как виноград”（直译：葡萄还很青；意译：年轻人没经验). When translating literature, translators often need to learn cultural background knowledge, replace the image in the original idiom, and then convey it to Chinese readers.(Wang Fuxiang, Wu Hanying 2014)

Crows are a very common animal, usually black and gray. The description of crows in Chinese idioms is "the crows in the world are generally black（天下乌鸦一般黑）". It can be seen that white crows are rare. However, "белая ворона" often appears in Russian literary works, as a metaphor for people who are different from the masses in terms of external characteristics or ideological qualities. In the Chinese and Russian concepts, the crow is a nasty animal. (Wang Fuxiang, Wu Hanying 2014)

Although white crows are rare, this Russian idiom is usually derogatory, expressing disdain, contempt, or ridicule against the person. In Chinese, animal images are also used as a metaphor for "different people", such as idioms that stand out from the crowd and phoenix feathers are rare. "Crane" and "phoenix" have always been regarded as precious and noble animals in traditional Chinese culture, so they cannot be compared with " Corresponding to "White Crow", it is not suitable for translating "белая ворона".Examples are as follows:(Wang Fuxiang, Wu Hanying 2014)

Он замкнулся, не вдается в разговоры — вот вам и белая ворона.（Сталин)

直译：他不与人交往，不与人交流，真是一只白乌鸦。

意译：他不与人交往，不与人交流，真是与众不同。

Боишься, что они среди нас белой вороной окажется. Недосягаемым экземпляром.(Кожевников В “Корни и крона”)

直译：你是担心他们会变成我们中间的白乌鸦，一个无法达到的例子。

意译：你是担心他们会变成我们中间标新立异，望尘莫及的人。

Most Chinese who come into contact with Russian are students majoring in Russian. The Russian idioms we usually encounter appear in textbooks. These idioms are often used by the Russian public and are easily understood and accepted by the Chinese. E.g:(Wang Fuxiang, Wu Hanying 2014)

В Тулу со свим самоваром не ездят.
直译：去图拉不用带自己的茶炊。
意译：多此一举。

Честь лучше бесчестья.
直译：尊重比不尊重好。
意译：礼多人不怪。

словно горя с плеч
直译：把山从肩膀下卸下。
意译：如释重负。

выеденного яйца не стоит
直译：一个空蛋壳不值钱。
意译：鸡毛蒜皮，一文不值。

чужими руками жар загребать
直译：用别人的手将红炭火拨成一堆。
意译：坐享其成，不劳而获。

ни рыба, ни мясо
直译：没有鱼也没有肉。
意译：不三不四，不伦不类。

лучше синица в руках, чем журавль в небе
直译：天上的仙鹤不如手中的山雀。
意译：远亲不如近邻。

На языке мед, а под лед
直译：嘴上甜得像蜂蜜，心里冷得像冰。
意译：笑里藏刀。

И на солнце есть пятна
直译：太阳上也有黑点。
意译：人无完人。

семь раз отмерь, один раз отрежь
直译：测量了七次后再剪裁。
意译：三思而后行。(Wang Fuxiang, Wu Hanying 2014)

Using free translation to translate Russian idioms requires the translator to accurately understand the meaning of the original text, because cultural differences make it impossible to literally translate. Only through the translator can an unobstructed bridge between Russian idioms and Chinese idioms be built.(Wang Fuxiang, Wu Hanying 2014)

=== The application of literal translation and free translation in the Chinese translation of Russian proverbs ===

There are often multiple translations of the same Russian proverb in Russian-Chinese dictionaries. On the one hand, because the translator uses different translation methods; on the other hand, because Russian proverbs have very rich connotations, a translation cannot perfectly interpret the inner meaning of the proverb. According to the context and the connotation of the proverbs, the most commonly used methods of Chinese translation of Russian proverbs are literal translation and free translation.(Feng Yongmei 1999,98)

==== Literal translation ====

In Russian and Chinese, some proverbs not only have the same meaning or implied meaning, but also use the same or similar figurative images to express the same meaning, and they are completely consistent in content and form. In this case, the equivalent translation of Chinese proverbs with synonyms can convey the information contained in the image of the original language, which not only retains the rhetorical color of the original language, but also enables readers to understand the original text perfectly. The other is that the Russian people have summed up the experience in their long-term labor and life, which has evolved into a proverb. However, the Chinese have not summed up this experience. If the Russian proverbs are translated into Chinese, the Chinese can clearly understand it at a glance and increase their understanding of the world. E.g:(Feng Yongmei 1999,98)

Беда не приходит одна. 祸不单行。

Век живи, век учись. 活到老，学到老。

Выше встанешь, дальше увидишь. 站得高，看得远。

Лучше один раз увидеть, чем сто раз услышать. 百闻不如一见。

Береги платье снову, а честь смолоду. 衣服要从新的时候爱惜，荣誉要从年轻时珍惜。

Выше лба уши не растут. 耳朵高不过额头。

Для милого друга семь верст не околица. 为了好友，多绕七里也不嫌远。

Лучше умереть стоя, чем жить на коленях. 宁愿站着死，绝不站着生。

Не имей сто рублей, а имей сто друзей. 宁要一百个朋友，不要一百个卢布。

По одежке встречают, по уму провожают. 迎客时看衣，送客时看才智。(Jia Sufen 1996)

There is another situation where the literal translation method can be used. Although the image in Russian proverbs is different from the commonly used images in Chinese, it is also easy to understand. For example, "Молодец против овец, а против молодца — сам овца." In fact, this proverb can be paraphrased as "欺软怕硬 ", but in this way the translation discards the lively literal meaning of the original text. On the other hand, it is literally translated as "见到绵羊充好汉，碰到好汉成绵羊" , on the basis of retaining the original image, readers can easily understand the meaning of the original proverb.(Jia Sufen 1996)

Another example is "Заяц от лисицы, а лягушка от зайца бежит. " can be translated as "一物降一物", but the image in the original text was completely abandoned, if it is literally translated as "one thing drops one thing "狐惊兔，兔惊蛙", this kind of translation is not only simple and clear, but also in line with the aesthetics of Chinese proverbs. In general, the literal translation not only retains the symmetrical rhetorical techniques in the original sentence, but also retains the symmetrical beauty of the original sentence structure. It not only conforms to the aesthetic characteristics of the original Russian text, but also shows the beauty of phonology and structure in Chinese.(Jia Sufen 1996)

The literal translation of Russian proverbs not only keeps the style of the original language, but also transplants the unique figurative language of Russian proverbs into Chinese, which not only expands the vision of Chinese readers, but also enriches the expression of Chinese.(Jia Sufen 1996)

==== Free translation ====

Due to the influence of cultural factors, many Russian and Chinese proverbs with the same meaning use different figurative images. In the process of translating some Russian proverbs into Chinese, it is difficult to retain the image of the original text. If literal translation is made according to the original image, due to the different national and cultural backgrounds of China and Russia, the translated version is difficult to be accepted by Chinese people and even misread.(Jia Sufen 1996)

In order to convey the original meaning to readers accurately, we can explore the story behind the proverb. On the basis of correctly understanding the meaning of the original text, we can readjust the structure of the original text, and reproduce Russian proverbs with standard Chinese expression, so as to avoid ambiguity and misunderstanding.(Jia Sufen 1996)

There are some elements used in proverbs that foreigners cannot understand. For example, the Russian proverb "В огороде бузина, а в Киеве дядька." is literally translated as "菜园里长接骨木，而基辅里住叔叔", which cannot be understood by the Chinese. The four elements “огород” “бузина” “Киева” “дядька”, which contained in this proverb are completely unrelated. In fact, this proverb means that there is no logical relationship between what someone says, and the translator can directly paraphrase it as "胡说八道", "前言不搭后语" or more easily understood "满嘴跑火车". (Jia Sufen 1996)

Another example is "На воре шапка горит." literally means "the hat on the thief's head is on fire". In fact, this proverb originated from a short story in the Kievan Rus period: someone’s money bag disappeared and he shouted "Catch the thief", but no one knew where the thief was. This man had an idea and shouted, "The thief's hat is on fire." After hearing this, the thief touched his hat unconsciously and exposed himself. Therefore, "На воре шапка горит." can be paraphrased as "不打自招" or "做贼心虚."(Jia Sufen 1996)

There are some Russian proverbs that are more suitable for free translation:

От труда- радость, от безделья- усталость.
直译：快乐从劳动中来，疲劳从闲散中来。
意译：劳动使人快乐。

Баба с возу- кобыле легче.
直译：农妇下了车，马儿就轻松。
意译：求之不得

Герой не моего романа.
直译：不是我小说中的主人公。
意译：不是我的意中人。

Терпенье (ученье\уменье) и труд всё перетрут.
直译：耐心和勤劳能克服一切。
意译：锲而不舍，金石可镂（只要功夫深，铁杵磨成针）。

Чтобы узнать человека, надо с ним пуд соль съесть.
直译：想要了解一个人，应该和他吃一普特盐。
意译：日久见人心。

Посади свинью за стол — она и ноги на стол.
直译：让猪入席，它会把爪子也伸上来。
意译：得寸进尺。

Черного кобеля не отмоешь добела.
直译：黑色的狗洗不白。
意译：本性难改。

Конь о четырех ногах, да спотыкается.
直译：马有四条腿，也会摔倒。
意译：聪明一世，糊涂一时。

За что купил, за то и продаю.
直译：怎么买来，怎么卖出。
意译：人云亦云。

Обжегшись на молоке, дуешь на воду.
直译：一旦被牛奶烫，喝水也要吹一吹。
意译：一种被蛇咬，十年怕井绳。(Jia Sufen 1996)

=== Conclusion ===

In the process of translation, translators often feel that there are a lot of contradictions and differences between the two languages in terms of vocabulary composition, syntactic structure, expression and metaphor. Most of the time, the translator understands the original meaning but does not know how to express it in the target language, which leads to the debate about which is better, literal translation or free translation. When translators translate works with more contradictions between bilinguals, they tend to use free translation. When there are more similarities or similarities between bilinguals than contradictions or conflicts, translators will tend to literal translation in order to be faithful to the original text.

In fact, the relationship between literal translation and free translation is interdependent and inseparable. Therefore, when we translate an article or a book, it is not feasible to translate every sentence literally or freely. Only when the translator cleverly arranges the alternation of the two can it be possible to translate a better translation. When we comment on literal translation and free translation, we should consider the effects of the division of labor and cooperation between the two, and should not one-sidedly understand the advantages and disadvantages of literal translation and meaning.

=== References ===

*Cai Yi, Duan Jinghua. 蔡毅，段京华. (2000). 苏联翻译理论. [Soviet Translation Theory]. 武汉: 湖北教育出版社[Wuhan: Hubei Education Press].
*Feng Shize. 冯世则. (1981). 直译、意译、逐字译. [Literal Translation, Free Translation, Verbatim Translation]. 中国翻译[Chinese Translators Journal] 7-10.
*Feng Shujian. 冯树鉴. (1993). 意译与直译笔谈. [Written Free Translation and Literal Translation]. 外语学刊[Foreign Language Research] 43-47.
*Feng Yongmei. 冯咏梅. (1999). 浅谈俄语成语翻译中民族文化特色的保留. [On the Preservation of National Cultural Characteristics in Russian Idiom Translation]. 解放军外国语学院学报[Journal of PLA Foreign Languages University] 97-100.
*Gong Linjing. 宫琳菁. (2015). 直译与意译——中国近现代代表人物观点之概述. [Literal Translation and Free Translation: An Overview of the Viewpoints of Representatives in Modern China]. 赤峰学院学报（汉文哲学社会科学版）[Journal of Chifeng University (Soc.Sci)] 192-193.
*Hu Guming, Shen Man. 胡谷明, 沈曼. (2011). 汉俄翻译中文化空缺词汇的翻译策略.[The Translation Strategies of Cultural Vacancies in Chinese-Russian Translation]. 中国俄语教学[Russian in China] 17-21.
*Jia Shufen. 贾淑芬. (1996). 简明俄汉谚语词典. [Concise Russian-Chinese Proverbs Dictionary]. 沈阳: 辽宁大学出版社[Shenyang: Liaoning University Publishing House].
*Li Quan’an. 李全安. (1990). 直译与意译之争是一场什么样的争论. [What kind of controversy is the dispute between literal translation and free translation]. 中国翻译[Chinese Translators Journal] 18-22.
*Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (1999). 中西译论的相似性.[Similarities between Chinese and Western Translation Theories]. 中国翻译[Chinese Translators Journal] 25-28.
*Wang Fuxiang, Wu Hanying. 王福祥,吴汉樱. (2014). 东方大学俄语系列：迷你俄语成语词典. [Oriental University Russian Series: Mini Dictionary of Russian Idioms]. 外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press]
*Wang Zhuang. 王转. (1996). 直译与意译漫谈. [On Literal Translation and Free Translation]. 湖南教育学院学报[Journal of Educational Institute] 55-60.
*Xie Yuncai. 谢云才. (2002). 俄罗斯翻译理论的语言学派与文艺学派——两派文学翻译理论对比分析. [Linguistic Schools and Literary Schools of Russian Translation Theory: A Comparative Analysis of the Two Schools of Literary Translation Theories]. 外语学刊[Foreign Language Research] 97-101.
*Yang Shizhang. 杨仕章. (2002). 俄语现代翻译理论之概述. [An Overview of Russian Modern Translation Theory]. 解放军外国语学院学报[Journal of PLA Foreign Languages University] 62-65.
*Zhang Yi. 张艺. (2010). 从目的论看直译与意译之争. [The Controversy between Literal Translation and Free Translation from Skopos Theory]. 海外英语[Overseas English] 189-190.
*Zhou Changyu. 周长雨. (2010). 俄语谚语的翻译方法. [How to translate Russian proverbs]. 俄语学习[Russian Learning] 33-36.

--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 14:38, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Dialectical thinking in arguments between literal translation and free translation 甘奉玉 Gan Fengyu 202070080584 英语笔译==

===Abstract===
As two methods of translation, how to use literal translation and free translation has always been the focus of debate between Chinese and Western translation circles. Through the study of translation methods of literal translation and free translation at home and abroad, we can know that to some extent literal translation and free translation are two relative conceptions, so there will be word-for-word translation, that is, dead translation, and over free translation. However, these two are only two extremes of literal translation and free translation. In fact, although there are differences in definitions and application fields between literal translation and free translation, they are unified in common translation purpose, translation procedure and translation standard. Therefore, the two are contradictory and unified in translation activities. This is also a profound embodiment of the unity of opposites in materialist dialectics.

===Key words===
literal translation, free translation, word-for-word translation, over free translation, unity of opposites

===题目===
直译与意译之争中的辩证思维

===摘要===
作为翻译方法，怎样使用直译(literal translation)与意译(free translation)一直是中西方翻译界争论不休的一个焦点。通过对国内外直译与意译的翻译方法的研究，我们可以得知，从某种程度而言，直译与意译是两个相对的概念, 所以才会有逐字翻译，即死译，与过度意译这两个完全对立的概念。但是，这两者只不过是直译与意译的两个极端点。其实，直译和意译虽然在定义，适用范围上有所差异，但却又统一于共同的翻译目的、翻译过程和翻译标准中，所以两者在翻译活动中应该是既对立又统一的矛盾体。而这也正是唯物辩证法中的对立统一矛盾观的深刻体现。

===关键字===
直译；意译；死译；过度意译；对立统一

===Introduction===
Throughout the translation history at home and abroad, the literal translation and free translation have always sparked a heated discussion in the translation circles. Someone absolutely approve literal translation and demean free translation, even pursue dead translation, which creates an translated text difficult to understand. While some people absolutely agree with free translation even advocate random translation, which means a random deletion in the translation practices and creates another entirely different text. However, there are also a few of translators who have recognized that these two translation methods are not totally opposite. So they adopt a dialectical and flexible way. That means they will choose the most appropriate one depending on the text's demand. Therefore, we can deduce from it that this dialectical translation is consistent with the Contradiction View of Unity of Opposite in Materialist Dialectics. In fact, literal translation and free translation are a set of contradictions which are both opposite and unified. They complement each other into an integral one.

The dispute between free translation and literal translation in Chinese translation circle first appeared in the dispute of "text" and "quality" in the Eastern Han Dynasty. During this period, Shi Dao-an, a senior monk in the Eastern Jin Dynasty, advocated literal translation and put forward that the translation should not be added or deleted but only make some adjustments to the word order. In the post-Qin period opposed to the Eastern Jin Dynasty, the monk Hatoyama advocated that the Buddhist scriptures should be translated freely. He suggested the original text should be changed to adapt to the Chinese style. Subsequently, Xuanzang, a senior monk of the Tang Dynasty, drew lessons from former translation achievements and put forward that we should seek both loyalty and vulgarity.(Chen Fukang 2011, 14-38) In another word, literal translation should complement with free translation, not just using one method. At that time, some translators have noticed that literal translation and free translation are not completely opposite.

After that, in modern times from the Opium War to the May 4th Movement, since Yan Fu has put forward the translation standard of faithfulness, smoothness and elegance, Lu Xun and Qu Qiubai ignited the dispute on faith and smoothness. Lu Xun is a representative of literal translation school. He insists faithfulness first and smoothness second and even tolerates incoherence. He adopts the method of dead translation. While Qu Qiubai believes that faithfulness and smoothness are not opposite. From the New Culture Movement(1915-1923) to the 1980s, Mao Dun also put forward that literal translation doesn't mean word-for-word translation without any addition or deletion. Since the reform and opening up, Xu Yuanchong has said that literal translation should be faithful to the original content first then to the original form and last to the smooth translated text. On the other hand, free translation should be faithful to the original text first then to the smooth translated text and last to the original form. Therefore, although there are differences in translation methods between literal translation and free translation, their ultimate goal is to be faithful to the original content and express the original meaning.（Chen Fukang 2011, 288-333）

Since Cicero, the first translation theorist in the western world, has put forward that we should avoid word-by-word translation but perform as a speaker, the dispute between literal translation and free translation began to appear in the West. In ancient times, Perot insisted on dead translation in the translation of the Bible, which greatly affected the translation quality. Poitius in the Middle Ages also advocated word-by-word translation and strict formal correspondence. In modern times, French translator Abulangour aimed to cater to readers in a way of over free translation and arbitrary deletion.

Even so, there are many translation theorists in the western translation world who advocated dialectical and flexible translation. For example, in ancient times, Jerome advocated the flexible principle to apply in literary translation and religious translation differently. During the Renaissance, French Amyot emphasized the dialectical unity of content and form, free translation and literal translation. Moreover, some translators did not exercise their own translation ideas. During the Renaissance, Reichlin was one of them. Although he advocated word-by-word translation, he abandoned this method in his practice. This can also further explain that absolute promotion of literal translation or free translation is not desirable. In translation practice, we must take a suitable degree in the way of combining literal translation and free translation to better serve the target readers.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 5-15 )

The purpose of this paper is to explore the dialectical thinking contained in the dispute between literal translation and free translation, that is, the viewpoint of unity of opposites between them. The first chapter is about the word-for-word translation, and the second chapter is about the over free translation. From these two parts, we can draw a conclusion that it is not advisable to regard literal translation and free translation as absolute opposites. The third chapter is about the dialectical translation, which is the correct method for us to learn and adopt. It is also a method that follows the view of unity of opposites. The fourth chapter will analyze the differences between literal translation and free translation from the view of definitions and application fields. Then the fifth chapter focuses on the unity of literal translation and free translation in translation goals, translation procedures and translation standards. Through the discussion of the whole article, we can clearly see the unity of opposites between literal translation and free translation and draw a conclusion that we should apply dialectical translation in our translation practice and adopt the point of view of unity of opposites in translation theory. (He Lirong 2018, 40)

===1.Dialectical thinking of the Unity of opposites===
The theory of unity of opposites is the core content of materialist dialectics theory. (Xu Guoliang 2020, 75) In the history of philosophy, the German philosopher Hegel first expounded the basic thought of contradiction theory from the standpoint of objective idealism. Later, Marx, Engels and Lenin critically absorbed Hegel's theory and developed contradiction theory into the core content of materialist dialectics theory. The theory of contradiction contains two basic problems, and one is the relationship between unity and opposition, while the other is the universality and particularity of contradiction, which involves a series of basic concepts of contradiction theory, such as basic contradiction and non-basic contradiction, fundamental contradiction and non-fundamental contradiction, principal contradiction and non-principal contradiction. Understanding these basic concepts and their relationships is the key to understanding and grasping the contradiction theory completely and accurately and finally applying it to the practice of social life. (Yan Mengwei 2020, 41)

The problem of unity and opposition of contradiction is actually about the nature of contradiction. We always know things from comparison. The so-called comparison is to find the similarities and differences between two things. The former is called unity and the latter is called opposition. The unity is relative and the opposition is absolute. It is worth emphasizing that the opposition of contradictions plays a key and decisive role in development, because development comes from the unity of opposites. This means that unity and opposition are two indispensable elements in the process of development. They complement and interact with each other.

Literal translation and free translation are such a pair of contradictions. The opposition of the two is reflected in the absolute opposition between word-for-word translation and over free translation, while the unity is reflected in their commons. More clearly, there are differences in their definitions and applications and similarities in their translation goals, procedures and standards.(Yang Ying 2019,161)

===2.Word-for-word translation===

Literal translation is a method that not only maintains the original content, but also the original form.(Xu Yuanchong 1996,92) Fu Sinian and Zheng Zhenduo all advocate literal translation. In the history of modern Chinese translation, Lu Xun and his younger brother Zhou Zuoren's works of The Collection of Extraterritorial Fiction are regarded as the representatives of literal translation.

In particular, literal translation is neither dead translation nor a mechanical verbatim translation. Because English and Chinese have different structures, it is impossible to translate word by word. From the perspective of linguistics, the biggest difference between them is that Chinese focuses parataxis while English focuses hypotaxis.(Zhu Xiaojia 2008, 1) In another word, in Chinese, a sentence is usually short with few modifiers and connected words, while in English, several meanings can be expressed by use of complicated structure with assorted clauses and connected words only in a sentence.

Besides, the English is a more static language in which nouns and adjectives are always used, but the Chinese is the more dynamic one, and verbs are more active in it. Finally, the former has a systematic grammar but the latter seems free in its arrangement.(Cao Huoqun 2005, 40)

Therefore, when we do some translating exercise, we should focus on their grammar structures. When the structure of the original text is inconsistent with that of the target language, adopting word-for-word translation will lead to formalism. Such a translated text is also not intelligible for readers. Literal translation must be readable without any misunderstanding or violation of expression.

===3.Over free translation===

Free translation refers to the method that maintains original content rather than original form. In the process of translation, in order to make the language clear and persuasive, the translator must try to conform to the language customs of target texts rather than adhere to the expressive pattern of the original work. Zhao Jingshen put forward that it is better to be smooth with some disloyalty instead of absolute loyalty. Obviously, Mr. Zhao Jingshen is in favor of free translation, and so does Mr. Yan Fu. Many of Yan Fu's classical works have adopted free translation, the Theory of Heaven is a typical example of free translation.

When we translate English into Chinese, especially some idioms that are in closer ties with western culture, we have to move or change these cultural barriers so that Chinese readers could understand easily. It is also true when translating Chinese into English. Under this condition, free translation will be more suitable and effective.

However, free translation does not mean random translation. Random translation means making up sentences by subjective imagination without analyzing the structure of the original text. It is also known as over free translation.(Wu Shuang 2018, 107) In fact, when we translate, we must master the thought and style of the original and regard them as the correspondence of the target language. In addition, the theory, fact and logic of the original work should also be corresponding in the target language. We can not replace these features of the original with our personal thoughts, styles, facts, theories and logic. Only in this way can the contents not be changed after translation.

===4.Dialectical translation===

Feng Qinghua put forward in the book of A Practical Translation Course that the so-called literal translation is a kind of translation method to maintain both the original content and the original form. If there are the same language form and expressive effect between original and target text, we should adopt literal translation to deliver the same contents. While the so-called free translation is a method to keep the original content and style only. So if there are different language forms and expressive effects between the two texts, we should adopt free translation mostly. (Feng Qinghua 1997, 12)

Therefore, Literal translation and free translation have their own advantages and restrictions. The former is beneficial to the transplantation of culture, while the latter can avoid obscurity in literal translation.

In literal translation, we will translate the sentence “mashing a mirror is no way to make an ugly person beautiful, nor is it a way to make social problem evaporate” into "砸镜子不能使丑八怪变漂亮,也不能使社会问题烟消云散", while in free translation, we can turn it into "砸镜子并不能解决实际问题". (Fan Zhongying 1994, 22) We can see the latter one is more concise and comprehensive to express the connotative meaning. Although the former is totally literal translation, we still feel it terrible.

Therefore, a translator should use these two translation strategies according to the specific situation to express the surface structure and deep meaning of the original text. The use of literal or free translation depends on the rules of both English and Chinese. In translation, if we can not directly adopt the structure and expressive form of the original work, we must change the sentence structure and expressive way to convey the connotation of the original work. An excellent translated text is realized neither by simple literal translation nor by simple free translation but by the combination of two. We should adopt dialectical translation in our practice.

===5.Opposition and unity between literal translatiuon and free translation===

===5.1 Opposition===

===5.1.1 Opposition in definition===
Qiao Zengrui defines literal translation in Chapter 4 of Translation Theory as a method that deliberately retains the original form to maintain the content and style of the original. At the same time, He also defines free translation as a method that keeps the original content and style by use of the same or similar expressions as the original text in the target language regardless of the two different languages. The first one regards form as the only way, content and style as targets, while the second directly takes no account of form. With this regard, the two totally opposite in definition.(Qiao Zengrui 2000,78)

===5.1.2 Opposition in application fileld===

Generally speaking, literal translation is used to translate some political books, laws, treaties, scientific and technological documents, terms, idioms, and some simple sentences. (Wu Shuang 2018,178) The early translation of Buddhist scriptures of early Chinese generally followed this theory. So do the Marxism-Leninism works and Mao Zedong's works. For example, "纸老虎" can only be translated as "paper tiger" but not "scarecrow". The latter one was corrected by Mao Zedong when the interpreter translated it into "scarecrow". Chairman Mao emphasized that this word had two characteristics and if it was translated into "scarecrow", it will lose duality. Because "纸老虎" in China means imperialism and reactionary, which seems scary but no great power in it. Since it is made of paper, this tiger becomes soft in the damp and finally was washed away when it was rained. While scarecrow can scare away children and birds. So paper tiger is better than scarecrow.

In the process of translation, there are many situations that literal translation can not be applied, so we must adopt the method of free translation, especially the translation of literary works.(Wu Shuang, 2018, 178) On the one hand, there are many common traditional Chinese words that reflect the unique cultural concepts and cultural phenomena of our country, which can't be translated directly into corresponding words in English. For instance, if we translate"初生牛犊不怕虎" into "A new born calf is not afraid of a tiger", then our target readers in English-speaking countries will find it difficult to understand the substance of the literal meaning.(Yang Yin 2019, 161) So here "The more wit, the less courage" will be better. On the other hand, some certain maxims, idioms and puns in English have no choice but to use free translation.(He Lirong 2018,43) For example, "have a wolf in the stomach" means "饥肠辘辘" 饥饿难忍" rather than "肚子里有个豺狼". Moreover, some exclusive English nouns should be freely translated such as "the heel of Achilles" into "致命的弱点" instead of "阿克琉斯的脚后跟".

===5.2 Unity===
===5.2.1 Unity in translation goal===
In literal translation, loyalty to the original form should be put first, followed by loyalty to the original content and last pursuit of fluency and popularity in target language. In free translation, loyalty to the original content should be put first, then the fluency and popularity of the translation language second, and the original form comes last. It is clear that loyalty to the original content is the common purpose of literal translation and free translation.(Wu Shuang 2018, 108)

The unity of literal translation and free translation is also reflected in the fact that the translation must be smooth and fluent and conform to the expressive habits of target language. If the translated text is obscure and unreadable without conforming to the habits of the target language and culture, the two translation strategies have not achieved the true unity, so the purpose of communication has not been realized.

Therefore, literal translation and free translation are two different translation methods used in translation. They are unified in the translation goal to accurately and faithfully convey the original meaning and intention.(He Lirong 2018, 41)

===5.2.2 Unity in translation procedure===
The literal translation and free translation are unified in translation procedures. Both of them should conform to the following translation steps of understanding, expressing and verifying.

Understanding is the first stage of translation process. It includes not only the understanding of language and cultural phenomena, but also logical relations. A translator should be good at analyzing ambiguous sentences and make correct judgments before translating. Expression is the process by which the translator reproduces the content of the original text into target language. Expressing is the result of understanding, but understanding correctly does not mean expressing right. Therefore, we must learn many specific methods and techniques, such as literal translation, free translation, literal translation plus free translation, literal translation plus annotation, and so on. The third stage is verifying. In this stage, we must check the translation at least twice. In the first time, we should check whether there is any missing translation or wrong translation. And in the second time, we should check whether it's smooth and intelligible out of the original text.

Whether literal translation or free translation, we must follow the three steps of understanding, expressing and verifying in translation practice. Understanding is the premise of expression, but understanding and expressing are usually complementary and unified, which can not be separated completely. To understand the original text, the translator also chooses proper expression and further deepen his or her understanding.

===5.2.3 Unity in translation standard===
On the establishment of translation standards, Chinese and foreign translation theorists in different historical periods put forward different views. In China, there are Ma Jianzhong's view of "good translation" on the basis of modern linguistic theory, Yan Fu's translation standards of "faithfulness, smoothness, and elegance", Chen Xiying's theory of "similarities in shape, meaning and spirit", Lin Yutang's translation standards of "loyalty, smoothness and beauty". In the West, there are Twelve Translation Principles of Bart, Three Principles of Tettler, Seven principles of Luther, functional equivalence of Nida and so on. All these translation standards are based on different social needs, translation contents, translation objects and translation purposes.(He Lirong 2018, 42)

No matter which translation standard we use, it is impossible to meet it only by literal translation or free translation. Therefore, the two translation methods are unified in any translation standard. Therefore, they are inseparable unity of opposites.

===6.Conclusion===
Literal translation and free translation are two different translation methods. Although they are different in conceptual definitions and applicable fields, in order to achieve a unified translation standard and a common translation goal, they both follow the same three procedures of understanding, expressing and verifying.

In the process of translation, if the target text has the same form and style as the original text, it can be translated literally. If there are different forms and styles, it should be translated freely. When the structure of the original text is inconsistent with that of the target language, sticking to word-for-word translation will cause stiff translation difficult to understand. In the same way, making up sentences through subjective assumption according to the literal meaning without analyzing original text will cause random translation disloyalty to the original one.

Therefore, we can conclude that we should treat literal translation and free translation with a dialectical way and use these two translation methods flexibly to create wonderful translations in our concrete translation practice.

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== Peter Newmark’s Improved Views on Literal Translation and Free Translation 赵茜 Zhao Xi 202070080627 MTI 英语笔译==
<center> 赵茜, 202070080627 </center>
===Abstract===
The dispute over the two basic translation methods, literal translation and free translation, has never stopped since ancient times. In view of the basic problem of his argument, Peter Newmark, an English translation theorist divides the various translation methods into eight, points out that different translation methods should be taken according to different text characteristics and puts forward with semantic translation and communicative translation based on years of translation researches. Semantic translation focuses on maintaining the content of the original text, while communicative translation emphasizes the effect of the translation. The author of this paper expresses some views on literal translation and free translation. Peter Newmark's theory has taken a big step forward from the fragmented and one-sided view of literal translation and free translation in the past, which has brought people out of the struggle between them and made people see the direction of further development of translation research.

===Key words===
Free translation, Literal translation, Peter Newmark, Semantic translation, Communicative translation

===标题===
彼得·纽马克对直译和意译的改进观点

===摘要===
直译与意译这两种翻译基本方法之争从古至今从未停止过。针对其争论的基本问题，英国翻译理论家彼得·纽马克把各种翻译方法分成了八种，指出应根据不同的文本特点釆取不同的翻译方法，并在多年翻译研究的基础上提出了语义翻译和交际翻译。语义翻译重点在强调保持原文的内容，而交际翻译更多强调的是译文的效果。本文作者也提出了对直译和意译的一些看法。彼得·纽马克的理论把人们以往对直译、意译的零散的、片面的观点向前推进了一大步，使人们从直译、意译之争中走出来并看到翻译研究进一步发展的方向。

===关键词===
直译, 意译, 彼得·纽马克, 语义翻译, 交际翻译

===Introduction===
According to Chinese and western translation history, no matter in China or in western countries, studies on translation theories and practice have been performed over two thousand years. Translation, as an ancient and extremely significant human thinking activity, is closely related to the development of language itself. And translation after more than two thousand years of development, has developed prosperously, appearing quantities of translation theories, translation schools and translators. However, the dispute between two translation methods, literal translation and free translation has been lasting from throughout history. The fundamental problem between literal translation and free translation is based on the relationship between content and form. To solve this fundamental problem of the dispute, Peter Newmark first points out that translation studies have been long beset by the time-honored theoretical debate over free and literal translation. A range of wider aspects of translation related to the contribution to the development of languages, its relation to meaning, the intention of translation, the readers' background, the type of discourse and the language universals have been long neglected. Therefore, according to Newmark's own translation practice, he puts forward right translation methods, word-for-word translation, literal translation, faithful translation, semantic translation, adaption, free translation, idiomatic translation and communicative translation, which provide to translators to consider and use. Although in the actual translation practice, translators have no necessity to distinguish such translation methods and even to use these methods, this proposal may help translators open their horizons and translate more appropriately. Among the eight translation methods, semantic translation and communicative translation proposed by Newmark own the advantages of other six methods, becoming the most ideal translation methods. Peter Newmark's semantic translation and communicative translation are highly valued and influence the practice of translation in general. (Li Minghan 2014, 3)

===Literal Translation and Free Translation===

====Brief Introduction of Literal Translation and Free Translation====

From ancient times, translators hold various attitudes toward such two translation methods, literal translation and free translation.

=====Literal Translation=====

Literal translation is a translation method which not only keeps the substance of the original, but also keeps the form of the original. This definition implies that the translation version is expressing the content of the original and should spare no efforts to make every part of the translation version corresponding to every part in the original text, including construction of sentence, meaning of the original words, metaphor of the original and so on.

According to Liu Zhongde, literal translation can be summarized into "to reproduce both the ideological content and style of the entire literary work and retain as much as possible the figures of speech". (Liu Zhongde 1991, 52)

Xu Yuanchong defines literal translation as "the kind of translation which is faithful not only to the content but also to the form of the original." (Xu Yuanchong 1984, 45)

Newmark suggests that literal translation is like, "sometimes it is very difficult to define what is literal translation, it is believed that a translation can be regarded as the literal translation when the translator is not influenced but the foreign flavors."(Newmark 2001, 46)

Mr. Yang Xianyi holds that the translators should be as faithful as possible to the original image and too much explanation and creativity should be avoided. This means translators should try to use literal translation method to introduce imagery in the source language to the target language readers. The reason why those translators who insist on literal translation are that they think literal translation is the only way to keep faithful to the original. They endeavor to adopt from as similarly as possible to the original to show the original meaning, thinking that it's the truest reflection of the original. (Wang Zuoliang 1989, 43)

=====Free Translation=====

Free translation is a translation method which only keeps the substance of the original, but not keeps the form the original. Target language and source language have different forms to show the same substance, and they could not produce the same result. Free translation does not mean to delete or add content to the original, though it does not pay much attention to the form of the original. Otherwise, the translation would not be faithful to the original. Translators always discover the meaning behind the forms in the source language and dose their best to produce the same meaning in the target language, using the forms and structures in the target language. Consequently, what is supposed to change is the form and the code, and what should remain unchanged is the meaning and the message.

Shuttle worth and Cowie define free translation as "a type of translation in which more attention is paid to producing a natural target language than to preserving the source language wording intact." (Shuttle worth&Cowie 2004, 62)

Free translation is the conveying of the discourse meaning of the speaker is not restricted by the structure and linguistic and rhetoric styles of the original text. (Ren Wen 2012, 18)

Liu Zhongde has given his definition to free translation. According to his definition, free translation aims at transmitting the meaning regardless of the sentence forms and rhetorical devices. If translators are not able to make the translated text faithful to the original text through literal translation, they may use their own words to explain the meaning of the text without considering the words and forms in original text. (Liu Zhongde 1991, 53-54)

====Disputes over Free Translation and Literal Translation====

In the past, translators generally believed that language and thought were unified, and language was form while thought was content. However, it was impossible to realize the consistence between language forms and ideological content, producing the contradiction between form and content, which is the problem between literal translation and free translation. Modern science has proved that language and thought are not a unity and constitutes a relationship between form and content. Language is only a symbolic system to express thoughts. Translation expresses the same idea by using two different language signals.

Marcus Tullius Cicero is generously acknowledged to be the first person to put forward a systematic description of the practice of translation and he said "I did not translate them as an interpreter, but as an orator... I did not hold it necessary to render word for word, but I preserve the general style and force of language." (Tan Zaixi 2018, 20) He puts forward the following two viewpoints.

Firstly, the translation should be as close as possible to the language habits of the target language. At that time, namely, the translation should correspond with Roman habits as much as possible to touch and resonate with the readers. What's more, he advocates free translation and opposes literal translation as he believes that free translation is superior to literal translation. The most important thing in translation is not the corresponding in form, but the meaning and thought in the source language. Cecero's thoughts have provided a guide for other translators and produced an effect on them. Since Cicero came up with his opinion, the disputes over literal translation and free translation has never been stopped. (Tan Zaixi 2018, 20)

Eugene Nida holds that if all languages differ in form, then quite naturally the forms must be changed if one is to preserve the content. He is in favor of dynamic equivalence instead of formal correspondence, maintaining the original meanings. In this sense, Nida agrees with free translation, just as he expresses that translating means translating meaning. (Nida 1985, 119-125)

Zhai Qiubai insists literal translation and claims that the correct translation is based on Chinese syntax and rhetoric and has its specific intentions. First of all, he regards translation as a part of Proletarian literature. Translation should systematically introduce proletarian revolution thoughts to Chinese readers. Furthermore, translation should help create modern Chinese language and literal translation is an approach. To preserve the spirit in the original text, some non-smoothness can be tolerated. (Cheng Yongsheng 2002, 65)

Lu Xun defines clearly that translation must take into account of two sides: one is easy to understand, the other maintains the style of the original. This explanation refers that the translators must translate according to the original text rather than their own world view and aesthetic taste. The translators must try their best to maintain the style of the original author and inherit historic and national characters rather than imposing extrinsic aesthetic and social background culture of other people on the translation. (Chen Fukang 2000, 301)

Mao Dun has pointed out that due to different language families of Chinese and English and different structures, word-by-word translation is almost impossible actually. Because word-by-word translation is difficult to achieve its ideal effect, any discussion related with literal translation and free translation is inevitably involved with the problem "what is the boundary between them?" He also holds that the so-called literal translation, superficially speaking, means not to alter the original words and sentences. (Xu Haiyan & Sun Weihong 2012, 80)

In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, the criteria to judge literal translation and free translation is whether the translation is faithful to the original. If a translation is faithful to both meaning and form of the original text, it is literal translation. If a translation is only faithful to meaning rather than form, it is free translation. If a translation is only faithful to form rather than content, it is mechanical translation. And the standard to judge faithfulness are form and content. For translation, content is more significant than form. Besides, translators should use both literal translation and free translation. However, sometimes it is difficult to use literal translation or free translation in a translation, so it is not necessary to define literal translation or free translation in those situations. (Cheng Yongsheng 2002, 66)

Xu argues that literal translation is not only being faithful to the content of the original text but also being close to its form. When Xu discusses the situations using literal translation or free translation, he often mentions readers and contexts, among which readers are more important. No matter literal translation or free translation, translators should put faithfulness to the content of the original text first, smoothness of target text form second, faithfulness to the form of the source text third. In other words, on the premise of faithfulness to the source language, translation should strive for smoothness of form. On the premise of smoothness of translation, translators should try their best to realize faithfulness to form of the original. If there is a contradiction between the smoothness and faithfulness of the original form, it is of no necessity to stick to the original form. These are the relationships between content and form, and literal translation and free translation. (Cheng Yongsheng 2002, 66)

Whether in Chinese translation circle or in western translation circle, the contradiction between content and form, and literal translation and free translation exists and arouses heated discussion.

===Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation===

To solve the fundamental problem of free translation and literal translation, Peter Newmark, a renowned western translation theorist, linguist and professor of translation at the University of Surrey, combining with years of translation experience, has concluded and summarized a corresponding theory, semantic translation and communicative translation, whose core is the problem of literal translation and free translation. Semantic translation and communicative translation have been put forward against the background that the majority of scholars have argued for a long time whether to translate literally or freely. The concepts of communicative and semantic translation represent Newmark’s main contribution to general translation theory. (Newmark 1991, 10)

====Semantic Translation====

Newmark puts the definition of semantic translation as "Semantic translation, attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. " As this version of definition indicates, communicative translation focuses essentially upon the comprehension and response of TL receptors. Semantic translation severs for the source language author and gives a high priority to reflecting his thought patterns and stylistics. (Shuttleworth and Cowie 2004, 22)

Here is an example.

E.g. 谋事在人，成事在天。

Yang Hsien-yi and Gladys Yang's Version: Man Proposes, Heaven disposes.

In this example, the Chinese idiom means that a man has done his or her best to do something and as to whether he or she can achieve the goal, it depends on the fortune. “天” refers to the master of nature in ancient Chinese culture. This word is semantically translated into “heaven” as the translation emphasizes the original information and tries to preserve the favor, style and culture maintained in the source language.

====Communicative Translation====

Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. As this version of definition indicates, communicative translation centers around the semantic aspects of the source language texts. To be specific, in communicative translation, the emphasis should be on conveying the message of the original in a form, which conforms to the linguistic, cultural and pragmatic conventions of target language. Both content and language are readily acceptable and comprehensible to the readership. (Chen Boyu 2003, 4)

Communicative translation intends to present the main idea of the original text and emphasize the social value generated by the translation. Communicative translation highlights on conveying the message expressed in the original and form of the the source language. Due to different textual functions, content and form should have different focuses. Texts of informative function emphasize on the information beyond the language, while texts of vocative function center on readers. The primary intention of translators is to convey the message to the target readers, without paying much attention to the style of the original. If it is necessary, translators can adjust grammar and words to better transmit the information. The change of forms is not only allowed, but also encouraged. (Zhang Linlin 2010, 17)

E.g. 谋事在人，成事在天。

Hawkes's Version: Man Proposes, God disposes.

This translation is communicative translation. Different from the version of Yang, Hawkes translated "天" into "God". In western culture, people believe that "God" is the master of nature. It renders the contextual meaning of the original in such a way that both content and language are readily acceptable and comprehensible to the readers.

====Comparison Between Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation====

The fundamental difference between semantic translation and communicative translation is that semantic translation attaches more importance to the content rather than effect and communicative translation is just opposite.

Firstly, semantic translation is more objective, stresses accuracy and is submitted to the author, culture and meaning of the original. Communicative translation is more subjective, pays much attention to the readers' responses, and is submitted to the target language and its culture. Semantic translation and communicative translation have difference in expression form. (Wei Mengfen 2010, 132)

Second, semantic translation make the translated text more close to the original form and retain the vocative effect as much as possible. If there is no much difference between the source and target language specifications, translation should maintain the length of sentences in the original text as well. Communicative translation will reorganize the syntax and utilize more common collocations or words to make translation more fluent, idiomatic and understandable. In the communicative translation, to make the translation brief and emphasize key information, translators should get rid of the bondage of the source language structure and make appropriate adjustments which are not allowed in the semantic translation, such as adjusting the logic relations in the original, making obscure concepts distinct, deleting repeated unnecessary details or redundant information, normalizing some peculiar expressions, and even correcting factual or writing mistakes. (Wei Mengfen 2010, 132-133)

Thus, they have different functions. Semantic translation, performing expressive function, tries to preserve the language characteristics and unique expression forms of the source language to present thinking process of the author. Its translation judged by the target readers is likely to be smoother, simpler, clearer and more direct. While communicative translation is to convey message, performing vocative function. (Wei Mengfen 2010, 133)

In addition, the key of communicative translation is immediacy which means the success of translation depends on the readers' responses. Semantic translation lays stress on faithfulness to the source text, but cannot neglect to convey the message contained in the source text. (Lin Xiaoqin 1987, 50)

Here are some examples to better present the differences between semantic translation and communicative translation.

E.g. 世人都晓神仙好。

Yang Hsien-yi and Gladys Yang's Version: All men long to immortals.

David Hawkes’s Version: All men knew that salvation should be won.

In this example, “神仙” is the difficult point because there is no corresponding expression in English. In Chinese culture, “神仙” refers to transcendence and is a life with “supernatural forces” in human beings. Yang directly translated “神仙” as “immortals” because being an immortal is the highest ideal of Taoism. His translation is semantic translation. While Hawkes used “salvation” which is a concept in the Christianity. The creed of Christianity is to be saved from sins. And his translation is communicative translation. Yang chose to be faithful to the original text to preserve the concept in the Taoism. While Hawkes decided to pay more attention to religious background and mentality of the target readers.

E.g. 真是“天有不测风云，人有旦夕祸福”。

Yang Hsien-yi and Gladys Yang's Version: Truly, “storms gather without warning in nature, and had luck befalls men overnight.”

David Hawkes’s Version: I know “the weather and human life are both unpredictable.”

In this sentence, “天有不测风云，人有旦夕祸福” is a challenge in translation. It is a Chinese idiom which means the occurrences of some disasters are unpredictable in advance. According to antithesis habit in Chinese, Yang translated these two idioms into the corresponding English compound sentence, which adopted semantic translation. While Hawkes briefly translated into a single sentence, which adopted communicative translation. The former sentence may be appreciated by Chinese readers, and the simplified processing of the latter is easier for native English speakers to understand and accept because it conforms to the British and American expressions, especially in line with the habits of daily expression.

E.g. Wet Paint!

Version 1: 湿油漆

Version 2: 油漆未干

Version 3: 小心油漆

Version 4: 勿触油漆

This sentence is an official notice. From the four versions of the source text, there are differences among them. Version 1 is word-by-word translation, conveying an obscure message and not involving in any receptors. Version 2 just describes a fact that the paint is not dry but wet and does not present the informative function of the original. This notice aims to warn people not to do something and keep away from the paint. Version 3 and version 4 are free translations because they emphasize more on the content instead of form. The first and second version are semantic translation because they only describe the fact and tell readers the information that the paint is not dry. However, the third and fourth version are communicative translation which not only tell people the information but also play the warning function to notify readers not to touch the wet paint.

However, semantic translation and communicative translation are not opposite. Newmark points out that the two should be viewed as a whole, instead of isolated or opposite parts. And a problem should be emphasized. Corresponding text-types can overlap. Semantic translation pays more attention to a mainly expressive text and communicative translation is more popular in mainly informative or vocative texts. In brief, translators should think the type of text over and ensure a good balance between them. (Wei Mengfen 2010, 134)

====Text Typology====

Language is a unique symbolic system, which has its own most important semantic system, as well as a functional system involving context.

Newmark's text tppology theory is influenced by Reiss, Jacobson and other translators. In the book of Approaches to Translation, Newmark put forward three functional texts, including expressive text, informational text and vocative text. In accordance with these types of classification, Newmark summarized semantic translation and communicative translation. (Newmark 2001, 39)

Expressive text mainly talks about the author's subjective emotions and his or her standpoints, which centers on the source language and the author regardless of the target readers' responses. Newmark points out that the expressive text includes three literary styles: "(1)serious imaginative literature such as poem, novels and dramas, (2) authoritative statements such as speech or statements from government officials or party's officials or party's leaders, documents and regulations and laws from government, and academic works from authorities, (3) autobiography, prose and personal correspondence without target readers." (Newmark 2001, 55) Semantic translation is applicable to the expressive text, with a particular emphasis on the language features and language structure of the original language which is similar to literal translation.

As for informative text, Newmark proposes that "typical informative texts are concerned with any topic of knowledge". (Newmark 1988, 40) The informative text focuses on the information or the content provided in the text. According to Newmark, informative text includes textbooks, papers, reports, and minutes about science, industry, technology, economy, commerce and other areas of knowledge or events, which are mainly used to deliver information and reflect truth. In light of translation of informative text, Newmark proposes that communicative translation can be adopted to convey accurate meaning or the content of the source text to the target readers. (Newmark 2001, 67)

"The function of vocative text is to call upon readers to act, to think, to feel and to react in the way intended by the text." (Newmark 2001, 41) The vocative text includes all kinds of specifications, publicity materials, advertisements, notices and other persuasive words. Two factors must be emphasized in vocative text: one is the relationship between the author of the source text and readers of the source text and another is that translation is easy to be understood by the target readers, therefore, translators should take the source language and its cultural background into consideration in the course of translation practice. And communicative translation should also be used in the vocative text which means much attention should be paid on the target readers' understanding and reaction.

===Newmark's Improved Views on Literal Translation and Free Translation===

It can be said that literal translation and free translation in the past were had their own disadvantages. Newmark agrees with literal translation and he holds that "translation means filling the blank between two languages and even explaining is translating." (Newmark 1999, 33) This indicates that he does not neglect the importance of free translation. If the language and grammar structure of the original are not that important, the fidelity of the translation can be lowered, creating more room for translation. This situation can mainly adopts free translation. He even believes that translators can create better translation than the original one. Communicative translation and free translation resemble when it comes to the preference for the message to the manner, and the content to the form of the original. In his masterpiece ''Approaches To Translation'', he analyzes and discusses the loss of meaning. As long as the loss of meaning in the translation is inevitable, content cannot separate from form. And complete faithfulness to the original is almost impossible because the so-called preserving the original meaning is relative.

What's more, the content of a text should not be equal to referent in language, but include referent, rhyme, genre, style and so on. As the slogan, being faithful to the original, was too empty, some translators advocating literal translation did free translation and even paraphrased the original in the practice. Newmark holds that translators need to notice the content in four layers, the original text level, referred level, coherent language level and natural tone level. In this way, he transforms the empty slogan into concrete requirements in the translation practice and meanwhile criticized the disadvantages of literal translation. (Newmark 1999, 33)

Likewise, the viewpoints of free translation are not advisable as well. Newmark criticizes the basis of free translation school, making the target readers obtain feelings similar to that of the original readers. He thinks the goal is too difficult to achieve because translators had problem in completely knowing the feelings and responses of the original readers. He further puts forward some reasons why this goal cannot be realized. As long as the same feelings cannot be obtained by the source and target readers, there exists no reason or judging basis of great amending or creative rewriting. Free translation produces the matter rather than the manner, or the content rather than the form. Newmark regards it as usually a paraphrase much longer than the original, often prolix and pretentious, and not translation at all. In free translation, "more translation is paid to producing a natural reading TL text than to preserving the ST wording intact." (Shuttleworth and Cowie 2004, 62)

Newmark criticizes that the argument is theoretical without taking other important facets of translator's purpose, the nature of readership and text typology into consideration. Newmark claims the argument could come to a compromise if translators deal with two sides with another visual angle. In 1981, he proposed semantic translation and communicative translation to replace the old terms. (Newmark 1988, 45)

"(a) communicative translation, where the translator attempts to produce the same effect of the target language readers as produced by the original on the source language readers, and (b) semantic translation, where the translator attempts, with the bare syntactic and semantic constraints of the TL, to reproduce the precise contextual meaning of the author." (Newmark 1981, 22) In order to better explain these two methods, he designed the form of a flattened diagram. (Newmark 1988, 45)

SL emphasis TL emphasis
word for word translation Adaption
Literal translation Free translation
Faithful translation Idiomatic translation
Semantic translation Communicative translation

The diagram indicates that there is a hugest gap between the translation guided by word for word translation and the translation guided by adaption, then between literal translation and free translation, faithful translation and idiomatic translation and semantic translation and communicative translation last. These eight translation methods are a continuity, and they complement each other and cannot be completely separated. In Newmark's opinion, adaption is the freest translation method, and suitable for drama and poem translation. Free translation reproduces the main content of the original and pay more attention to interpret and expound. Target texts guided by idiomatic translation are more natural, more fluent and more coherent. But due to adopt some unknown expressions, the original meaning may be distorted.

Communicative translation possesses the advantages of adaption, free translation, idiomatic translation and semantic translation maintains the advantages of word for word translation, literal translation and faithful translation. Newmark maintains only by combining semantic translation and communicative translation can achieve two aims of translation-accuracy and conciseness. By distinguishing these right methods, he gives further refinements to the above definition of semantic translation and communicative translation. He adds one more element "aesthetic value". Meanwhile, he gives up emphasizing the "effect", and refines communicative translation to be more specific, "communicative translation attempts to render the exact contextual meaning of the original in such a way that both content an language are readily acceptable and comprehensible to the readership." (Newmark 1988, 47)

===My Thoughts on Literal Translation and Free Translation===

The two translation methods, literal translation and free translation, are useful in the translation practice. Taking English-Chinese translation for example, in the translating process, translators can use the method of literal translation when the pattern of sentence in original text is similar with the Chinese one, and we can find some Chinese words being equivalent in meaning to the words used in the sentence of original text. In some cases there are some complex sentences that can be translated with the method of literal translation as well. As long as these sentences are short and the pattern of these sentences is relatively simple compared with other complex sentences, they can be translated by literal translation method. In English, the using of some metaphors and similes is almost similar to the way that they are used by in Chinese. For instance, "time flies" in English can be directly translated into Chinese as "时间飞逝", as the Chinese people also describe time passing very fast in this way, which accords with the expression habit of Chinese.

As English and Chinese are two kinds of different languages, there are many differences in various aspects, such as different grammar and language habits. In English there are some words or phrases we cannot find the relative words or phrases in Chinese. In this cases, using using literal translation method would not be proper. Under this condition, if the translator insists on using literal translation, the translation text will be difficult to be understood by the target readers. So in order to make the translation text readable, translators should adopt free translation. Under the direction of literal translation, translators will try their best to keep the flavor of original work, no matter on the material or the form. Literal translation is the effective method to keep the cultural flavor of original language. Therefore, when there are some cultural differences affecting the translation of culture-loaded words between the source language and the target language, free translation can become one of the translation strategies which provide possibility in reducing or even removing the restrictive factors in translation process.

In the process of translation, it is an ideal way to combine literal translation and free translation because they mutually complement in many cases. When literal translation cannot express the original and basic content of the author and hinder readers to understand, it is crucial for the translator to use free translation to express the author's meaning. When free translation cannot meet the requirement of being faithful to the content of the original text, it is significant for the translation to use literal translation to show features ad the structure of the author's language.

===Conclusion===

The dispute between two translation methods, literal translation and free translation has been lasting from throughout history. The argument of them is based on the relationship between content and form. This paper attempts to introduce Peter Newmark's improved views on the literal translation and free translation. Newmark criticizes some disadvantages and proposes semantic translation and communicative translation. Semantic translation focuses on maintaining the content of the original text, while communicative translation emphasizes more on the effect of the translation. The author also shows opinions on literal translation and free translation. Peter Newmark's theory has taken a big step forward from one-sided view of literal translation and free translation in the past, which has provided the direction of further development of translation research.

===References===
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*Chen Fukang 陈福康.(2000).《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[''Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory (Revised)'']. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000.

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*Liu Zhongde 刘重德.(1991).文学翻译十讲[Ten Lectures on Literary Translation]. 北京：对外翻译出版社[Foreign Translation Press].

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*Newmark, Peter 彼得·纽马克.(1991). ''About Translation''《关于翻译》. North Somerset: Multilingual Matters

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='''Document Translation'''=

==On translation of official documents of CangNan County 吴恺 Wu Kai==

On Translation of Official Documents of Cangnan County

Japanese Language and Literature, School of Foreign Languages, Hunan Normal University, Wu Kai--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 04:45, 2 December 2020 (UTC)

==='''Abstract'''===
As one of the forefronts of Zhejiang’s opening-up cause, Cangnan County in Zhejiang Province has been enjoying a rapid development and an ever-growing degree of opening-up with lasting vitality as it’s supported by national policies and nourished by the dividends of economic globalization since China's reform and opening-up. As China has ushered in a period of major changes rarely seen in a century, Cangnan County is also facing new opportunities and challenges. Under the background of this era, Cangnan County is expected to make good use of its own advantages, especially the geographical ones—it is close to countries and regions including Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan—and should spare no efforts to achieve a higher level of opening-up, and, in turn, further promote its development. As an embodiment of the collective will of the people of Cangnan County, the official document is one of the best manifestations of its governance and stability control capabilities. For this reason, the research on how to translate official documents is of great significance for that it offers a great opportunity for Cangnan County to re-examine itself and to show the rest of the world its achievement in building a culture-enriched county.

==='''Key words'''===
official document translation, Cangnan County, opening-up, Japan, South Korea

==='''摘要'''===
自中国改革开放以来，浙江省苍南县作为全浙江对外开放的前沿阵地之一，得到了国家政策支持和经济全球化红利的滋润，苍南县发展水平与对外开放程度日新月异，全县活力持久带劲。随着中国迎来“百年未有之大变局”，苍南县也面临着新的机遇和挑战，在此时代背景下，苍南县应该利用好自身优势，特别是临近日本、韩国、台湾等国家与地区的地理优势，努力开展更高层次、更高水平的对外开放事业，促进苍南更好的发展。为此，作为苍南县人民集体意志的体现，苍南县的公文就是对外展示其治理水平、稳控能力的最好的体现之一。而对于苍南县公文的如何翻译的研究，是促使苍南县重新审视自己、推进苍南人文县情传播海外的良机，意义重大。

==='''关键词'''===
公文翻译苍南县对外开放日本韩国

==='''I. System and Translation of Official Documents of Cangnan County'''===

The unique official document system adopted by Chinese government agencies is a special integration of the thousands-of-years excellent political traditions in China and the essence of the organizational structure of the socialist regime. As a county-level unit in China's local administrative structure, Cangnan County has an official document system that is consistent with the national ones in general while has its own features. Official documents of Cangnan County can be basically divided into the following types of writing: resolutions, decisions, orders, bulletins, announcements, notifications, opinions, notices, reports, requests for instructions, approvals, proposals, letters, and minutes. Above-mentioned categories are collectively known as official documents. Besides, there are also some types of practical writing, including summaries, plans, notes, memos, briefings, speeches, manuals and so on, that are often used in our day-to-day work.

In addition to those characteristics of the official documents that are commonly seen in China, official documents of Cangnan County also have its own features, which is mainly reflected in the aspect of proprietary terminology. Cangnan County, which used to be a part of Pingyang County in Zhejiang Province, was officially designated as a county in 1981 with the approval of the Central Government. It takes its name Cangnan, which means “on the south of the Yucang Mountain”, from its geographical location. As a relatively young county-level administrative unit in China’s administrative divisions, Cangnan County has a complex natural endowment and cultural environment, which is the reason why there are many special proprietary terms used in the official documents of Cangnan County, such as “Beautiful South Gate of Zhejiang Province”, “Southern Ouyue (an ancient kingdom in modern Wenzhou and Taizhou)” , “South Gate of Jiangsu-Zhejiang Region” and so on. Moreover, Cangnan is also the birthplace of the “Wenzhou Model”. Since the implementation of policy for the exchange of production materials and commercial grains in 1984, Cangnan has become an important base for the experiments and development of Wenzhou's private economy and market economy, and, thus, has made a significant contribution to the great cause of China's reform and opening-up.

To conclude, the unity of the official document system viewed from the national scope of China and the uniqueness of the official document system viewed from the local scope of Cangnan area are both reflections of the integration of economic, political, and cultural elements. Therefore, when translating the terms and sentences in these official documents, obviously, it is almost impossible to follow general translation theories, such as Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” theory which applies to literature translation, and Christiane Nord’ Skopos theory which emphasizes schematic analysis. Due to the features of the official documents of Cangnan County, it is hard to imagine the consequence it will cause if those Cangnan and Chinese elements they contain are missed when translating them. Therefore, the starting point for the translation and research of Cangnan official documents should be analyzing the official document itself, but not choosing which translation theory to apply.

The translation method focusing on the official documents themselves is undoubtably the one that emphasizes the content while manages to achieve a similarity in form. Thus, the translation theory that meets the requirements of official document translation in Cangnan County shall be the functional equivalence theory of the American linguist Eugene A. Nida. Eugene A. Nida argued in his theory that translation is to use the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language to reproduce the informational function of the source language both semantically and stylistically. Nida’s definition of translation specified that translation is seeking equivalence not only in lexical meaning, but also in semantics, style and literary form. Translation should convey both the denotative and connotative meaning of a message. Regarding the equivalence of translation, he believed that the equivalence consists of four parts: lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence, and stylistic equivalence. Among the four aspects, he emphasized that the meaning the core and most important part, followed by the form. The form of a text is likely to conceal the cultural connotation of the source language and may, therefore, hinder cultural exchanges. Based on the above, the reasons why the functional equivalence theory is applicable to official document translation in Cangnan County can be concluded as follows:

First, the functional equivalence theory advocates that the target text should be equivalent to the source text both semantically and culturally. Official documents of Cangnan County are carriers of profound political culture with Chinese characteristics and the cultural environment in Cangnan. When translating them, in addition to showing the political consciousness and judicial authority of Cangnan government agencies, the local culture of Cangnan must also be reflected in the translations.

Second, the functional equivalence theory suggests that if the lexical meanings and cultural elements cannot be taken into account at the same time, the translator then may give up the equivalence in form and try to reproduce the semantic and cultural meaning of the source text by changing the form of the sentence. There are many specialized terms with Chinese characteristics and Cangnan’s characteristics in official documents of Cangnan County. When translating them, once there is no corresponding expression in the target language, other forms of expression must be adopted to retain the meanings of those specialized terms as much as possible.

Third, the functional equivalence theory proposes that if the change in form is still not enough to express the semantic and cultural meaning of the expression in the source language, the translation technique of “heavy damage” can be adopted to resolve cultural differences , so that the source language and the target language can achieve equivalence in semantic meaning. “Heavy damage” refers to the transformation of the deep structure of the source language into the surface structure of the target language, that is, expressing the cultural connotation of the source text with expressions of the target language. It cannot be ruled out that there are words and sentences in the official document of Cangnan County that cannot be translated, and when this happens, the translator can only rely on his translation techniques and understanding ability to process them creatively.
Above are simply macro analyses of the official document system in Cangnan County, and when it comes to specific analyses, challenges we face will only be severer.

==='''II. Stylistic Features and Translation of Official Documents in Cangnan County'''===

Looking at the official documents of Cangnan County from the micro level, we can work on the study of its translation based on the following characteristics.

'''1. Details and Accurate'''

As an officially-written document geared for the needs of our people, wording of the official documents of Cangnan County has a very specific orientation. Almost all content words have very clear meanings and connotations.

For example, the sentence “经研究，县政府决定召开市对县安全生产巡查反馈会暨突出问题集中教育警示会，现将有关事宜通知如下。(As discussed, the county government decided to convene a feedback meeting on city-to-county inspections of production safety and a meeting for education and warning on outstanding issues. The relevant matters are hereby notified as follows.)” in the document 《苍南县人民政府办公室关于召开市对县安全生产巡查反馈会暨突出问题集中教育警示会的通知》(“Notice of the Office of the People's Government of Cangnan County on Convening a Feedback Meeting on City-to-County Inspections of Production Safety and A Meeting For Education and Warning On Outstanding Issues”) (the office of the People's Government of Cangnan County on June 8th, 2020) conveys several points very accurately and clearly, including the decision maker, the type, content and theme of the meeting. Therefore, special attention must be paid to the integrity of the information delivered when translating this sentence. For example, it is translated into Japanese as “討議を通じて、県政府は県の安全生産状況に対する市政府の巡査結果反映会及び顕著問題教育警告会を開催することが決定した。関連事項を以下のようにお知らせする。”

'''2. Precise and Compact'''

The role of official documents is to exchange formal information between the upper and the lower, the people and the officials, and the relevant departments. Therefore, the wording of the official documents must be rigorous. No slang and loose sentences should be used, and excessive use of parentheses and descriptive modifiers should be avoided. Official documents of Cangnan County follow this rule as well, in which there will never be informal expressions like daily spoken words.

For example, the expression “三、决策目录施行动态管理，因工作需要增减或变更重大行政决策事项的，承办单位应按照相关规定程序提请调整。(Third, the decision catalogue shall be managed in a dynamic way, the undertaker shall submit application for adjustments in accordance with the relevant regulations if any increase/decrease or change shall be made to the major administrative decision-making matters because of the need of actual work.)” in the document《关于公布苍南县2020年度重大行政决策事项目录的通知》(“Notice on Issuing the 2020 Annual Catalogue of Major Administrative Decision-Making Matters of Cangnan County”) (the office of the People's Government of Cangnan County on Sept. 20th, 2020) When translating this sentence into Japanese, the translator shall fully considers the preciseness of the original expression, and translate it as “三つ目、戦略目録動的管理施行、仕事需要によっての増減または変更が必要な場合、請負機構は関連規定の手順に従って調整を提出しなければならない。”

'''3. Programmed and Standardized'''

The purpose of official documents requires a stable and routine writing program so that the official business can be conducted in an orderly manner. It is essential that the document writing is reasonably programmed. It allows the officer to know what it is and what to do at a glance if a standardized official document program is followed. The standardization of the official documents of Cangnan County can be regarded as a tricky feature in their translation.

For example, the expression “各乡镇人民政府，县政府直属各单位 (the people's government of all townships and towns and all directly affiliated institutions of the people’s government of Cangnan County)” in the document《关于公布苍南县2020年度重大行政决策事项目录的通知》(“Notice on Issuing the 2020 Annual Catalogue of Major Administrative Decision-Making Matters of Cangnan County”) (the Office of the People's Government of Cangnan County on Sept. 20th, 2020) is obviously a standardized addressing of the receiving units of an official document, and it should be translated into Japanese as “各郷鎮人民政府、県政府直属の各部門”.
Viewing from a micro perspective, we may find that special attention should be paid to many precise details when translating those official documents. It is of great significance that, during the cause of reform and opening-up, we strike a balance between the macro level and the micro level in official document translation, which will serve as a stage for Cangnan County to show itself to Japan, South Korea and other East Asian countries and regions.

==='''III. Translation of Official Documents of Cangnan County under the Context of the Japanese Language'''===

Cangnan County is one of the nearest administrative units to Japan in China, and Okinawa Prefecture in Japan and Cangnan County are neighbors facing each other across the sea. Furthermore, Cangnan County itself has ports in Xiaguan, Pacao, Yanting, Dayu and other places, and has the basic conditions for conducting small transactions of freights with Okinawa. However, due to the inadequacy policies, laws and regulations, a large portion of Japan’s trade with China, especially with Zhejiang Province, is still conducted in the three port cities, namely Ningbo, Zhoushan, and Hangzhou. Cangnan’s geographical advantages have never been given to full play. To Japan, Cangnan is not a total stranger. Wenzhou City has a great influence upon Japanese culture and history. Special local products such as Wenzhou green tea and Wenzhou satsuma orange are very attractive to Japanese people. Many of the business exchanges during the Kamakura Bakufu in Japan were happened between Hakata merchants and Wenzhou people. As an important subordinate region of Wenzhou City, Cangnan County naturally has left an impression on Japanese people when it comes to China.

If Cangnan hopes to lay a foundation for the future cooperation with Japan through its cause of opening up to the outside world, it is of great importance that we study the methods and techniques to make the translation of Cangnan’s official documents to meet the specific context of the Japanese language, which is also a part of the cultural exchanges that will facilitate economic and trade cooperation between Japan and China. The political status of Cangnan County is equivalent to the one of regular cities and special wards in Japan, but this does not mean that the official documents of Cangnan County can be regarded as equivalents to the official documents released by the governments of the regular cities and special wards in Japan, and there are huge differences between their respective official documents in form, wording, Cultural connotation and etc. To better translate Cangnan official documents under the context of Japanese language, the following aspects must be paid attention to:

1. Detailed Comparison of Types

In the Japanese official document system, the word “公文” is different in meaning from the word “公文” in Chinese official document system. In Chinese “公文” means government official documents, while in Japanese “公文” generally refer to legal documents that have the force of law and the term “公文書” is the one that refers to government official documents, which roughly includes “外交文書” and “起案文”, “通達” , “命令”, “許可”, “通知書” and so on . When translating official documents of Cangnan County into Japanese, attention should be paid to the transformation of the types of the official documents. The classifications of official documents in China and Japan are different from each other.
For example, when translating documents such as “proposal letter”, “report” and the like into Japanese, the title should be translated as “建言書” and “報告書”, while “命令(order)”, “通知(notice)”, “提案(Proposal)” and etc. need no translation and can be titled with the original characters directly as “命令”, “通知”, “提案”, and can also be further translated into “命令状”, “通知書”, “提案書”. Those reflect the characteristics of the division of the types of the official document system in Japan.

2. Careful Consideration of the Translation of Chinese Characters

There are a large number of Chinese characters in Japanese. This will for sure be an advantage when translating official documents of Cangnan County into Japanese, however, at the same time, this is also a huge disadvantage. After all, those Chinese characters are Japanized Chinese characters, and their meanings and usages are more or less different from the original ones in Chinese.

For example, the expression “设定全县森林防火期(setting the season of forest fire prevention)” in the document 《苍南县应急管理局局长王再忠关于<苍南县人民政府关于做好森林防火期护林防火工作的通告>的政策解读》(“Policy Interpretation Of ‘Notice of Doing Forest Protection and Fire Prevention during the Season of Forest Fire Prevention by the People's Government Of Cangnan County’ by the Director of Cangnan Emergency Management Agency Wang Zaizhong”) in could be translated character by character into Japanese as “全県域森林防火期間設定”. However, expressions such as “野外火源如何管理” cannot be translated in the same way, and must be processed accordingly and translated into Japanese as “野外の火の元が如何に処理すること”. When translating official documents of Cangnan County into Japanese, the translators must reject the preconceived thinking and native Chinese thinking, or it will lead to irreversible misunderstandings and mistakes.

3. Mastery of the Equivalence of Semantic Meaning

Chinese is an isolating language, in which the grammatical meaning is reflected by the order of words, while Japanese is an agglutinative language, in which auxiliary words and flexible usages of vocabulary are adopted to reflect the grammatical meaning. This requires the translators to have mastery of the equivalence of semantic meanings when translating official documents of Cangnan County into Japanese and try to achieve perfect equivalence in official document translation.

For example, there is a expression as “全体公民必须认真贯彻‘以人为本、预防为主、积极扑救、有效消灾’的森林防灭火工作方针，一旦发现森林火灾，要立即向当地人民政府或森林防灭火指挥部办公室报告(all citizens must seriously implement the working policy of forest fire prevention and firefighting ‘people-oriented, prevention-focused, active in firefighting, effective in disaster relief’, once a forest fire is detected, it must be reported to the local people’s government or the forest fire prevention and firefighting headquarters office immediately)” in the document 《苍南县应急管理局局长王再忠关于<苍南县人民政府关于做好森林防火期护林防火工作的通告>的政策解读》(“Policy Interpretation Of ‘Notice of Doing Forest Protection and Fire Prevention during the Season of Forest Fire Prevention by the People's Government Of Cangnan County’ by the Director of Cangnan Emergency Management Agency Wang Zaizhong”). When dealing with long and complex sentences, the translator must be flexible in using translation techniques to decompose the sentences and translate them step by step, focusing on the balance between the form of the sentence and its semantic meaning. Based on this principle, the abovementioned sentence could be translated into Japanese as “人間本位、予防軸化、積極救助、有効消災という森林防火作業方針は全県民が必ず強固に守らなければならない。林に火事が発見された際、直ちに所轄人民政府や森林防火指揮部執務室に報告すること。”

There is no doubt that, in terms of four-character idioms, allusions, new words of the era and etc., the translation of official documents of Cangnan County under the context of the Japanese language still has a long way to go, but the part that we should pay most attention to in translation is always the differences in culture between the source language and the target language. Only by keeping this basic point in mind at all times, will there be no huge mistakes being made when translating official documents of Cangnan County into Japanese.

==='''Ⅳ. Translation of Official Documents of Cangnan County under the Context of the Korean Language'''===

Zhejiang Province and South Korea have laid a good foundation for economic and trade cooperation projects, and a framework that is comprehensive, wide-ranging, and multi-level has been established for Zhejiang-South Korea cooperation. The advantages of the two regions are obviously complementary and the development potential for both sides and in between is huge. In September 2016, the Zhejiang China-Korea (Quzhou) Industrial Cooperation Park was approved as the first batch of “Zhejiang International Industrial Cooperation Parks” in Zhejiang Province. The total planned area is about 3,000 acres and the total planned investment is 12 billion yuan. Represented by the Zhejiang China-Korea Industrial Cooperation Park, a large number of economic and trade cooperation projects has been carried out with South Korea by Zhejiang Province. As an indispensable part of Zhejiang Province, Cangnan County is facing a huge gap in the cultural exchanges and economic cooperation with South Korea. How to elevate the level of Cangnan’s opening up to the outside world and advancing Cangnan’s economic, trade and cultural cooperation with South Korea is a question that is well worth exploring. Although Cangnan is further away from South Korea compared with regions in the north of Zhejiang, geographic location should never be a factor that hindering Cangnan’s economic, trade and cultural cooperation with South Korea. In an era of ever-deepening globalization, it is of great significance that we think about how to develop and promote the economic and trade and cultural cooperation between Cangnan and South Korea.

Northern Zhejiang is a key area for economic, trade and cultural cooperation with South Korea. As the south gate of Zhejiang Province, if Cangnan County could open the door of economic, trade and cultural cooperation to South Korea, then this will inevitably bring extraordinary development opportunities to southern Zhejiang and make the pattern of Zhejiang and South Korea’s economic and cultural cooperation more balanced and healthy. The political status of Cangnan County is equivalent to the one of si(city), gu (district), and gun(county) in South Korea. Because of some historical reasons, South Korea is greatly influenced by Chinese culture. From the Three Kingdoms era of Joseon, to the Unified Silla Dynasty, the Wang’s Goryeo Dynasty, and the Yi’s Joseon Dynasty, the basic system of administrative divisions in South Korea is almost the same as the one in China, so the official document system of cities, districts, and counties in South Korea can be regarded as basically equivalent to the official document system of Cangnan County with only slight differences originated from the localized political and cultural traditions and the basic social condition of South Korea. Therefore, there are relatively fewer difficulties of translation when translating official documents of Cangnan County into Korean, aside from the barriers caused by Korean Hangul words. The translation of official documents of Cangnan County under the context Korean language requires attention to the following aspects:

1. The Combination of Chinese characters and Hangul

Modern Korean uses Hangul as the main written characters, but this does not mean that there is no place for Chinese characters in the Korean system. Since the launch of the abolition of Chinese characters movement in South Korea in the 1970s, Hangul did exactly achieved an overall penetration of every aspect of their daily life, but when it comes to important documents, Chinese characters still reserve a seat in the arena of South Korea’s history. Furthermore, a higher level of talent training is required now to meet the need of South Korea’s economic and social development, and the mastery of sinology has become, among all the necessary skills, one of the most straightforward evaluation criteria to access the qualified personnel. Thus, South Korea has restarted the Chinese character teaching movement. Nowadays, the official document system in South Korea has become one in which Hangul serves as the main language and the mixed use of Chinese characters and Hangul serves as a supplement. Just as how the mixed use of kana and Chinese characters in Japanese official documents may help in its translation, the mixed use of Chinese characters and Hangul also greatly facilitate the translation of official documents of Cangnan County into Korean. However, because Chinese characters used in Korea are composed of traditional Chinese characters and a small number of Korean self-made Chinese characters, we can not take it for granted that it is advisable to translate them word by word.

For example, the title of the document《苍干任〔2020〕18号王再忠等同志的任命》(“Cangnan Cadre Appointment [2020] No. 18: Appointment of Wang Zaizhong and etc.”) (the Office of CPC Cangnan Party Committee on March 27th, 2020) can be translated with the mixed use of Chinese characters and Hangul into Korean as《蒼南縣의 幹部任命〔2020〕18號王再忠등 同志의任命》. Also, it be translated into Korean with Hangul alone as《참남현의 간부임명〔2020〕18호 왕재충등 동지의임명》.

2. The Usage of Refined Language

In recent years, South Korea has carried out reforms of the official document system, urging that the South Korean government agencies at all levels should use “refined(or purified) language”, that is, to write and publish official documents with words that are easy for the public to understand and have explicit meanings, reducing the cost of communication between the government and the public and, in this way, building a closer relationship between the government and the people, so that civil servants can communicate with the people more effectively. Refined language is a kind of common vernacular that differs from the official language. Although this trend of the wording of Korean official documents is not unconditional, but when compared with official documents of Cangnan County, which emphasize the solemnity and formality of official documents, this trend is the part that the translator has to pay his attention to.

For example, when translating the expression “为加强行政规范性文件管理，切实推进依法行政，加快法治政府建设 (To strengthen the management of administrative normative documents, promote the administration in accordance with law, and accelerate the construction of a government ruled by law)” in the document《苍南县人民政府关于公布县政府及县政府办公室行政规范性文件清理结果的通知（有效）》(“Notice of the Office of the People's Government of Cangnan County on the Announcement of the Results of the Cleanup of the Administrative Normative Documents of the County Government and the County Government Offices (Effective)”) (the Office of the People's Government of Cangnan County on October 23th, 2020) , blunt expressions may not be that applicable and this expression translated into Korean in a more public-friendly way as “행정 규범적인 문서관리를 강화하기 위해, 법에따라 행정을 철저히 추진하고 법치정부의 건설을 가속화시킨다.”

3. Mastery of the Equivalence of Semantic Meaning

Like Japanese, Korean is also a typical agglutinative language. A sentence is formed by connecting independent words with various auxiliary words, and with a subordinating conjunction at the end of the sentence. Auxiliary words are just like glues, they exist after every subject, predicate, and object component of a Korean sentence to them together. For that these auxiliary words have no substantial meaning themselves, they must stay close to the main body in front, and a space must be put after. Therefore, when translating Chinese, which is an isolated language, into Korean, which is an agglutinative language, it is necessary to have mastery of the equivalence of the semantic meaning of the expression.

For example, when translating the expression “全面实施全民参保计划，做好参保情况清查，提升参保信息质量，清理重复参保，稳定持续参保，减少漏保断保，实现应保尽保。(Fully implement the national social security plan, do a good job in checking the coverage of the social security, improve the quality of the collection of the information of the insured, clean up repeated insureds, stabilize the renewal of the social security, reduce the interruption of the social security, and achieve full social security coverage.)” in the document《关于做好2021年度城乡居民基本医疗保障工作的通知》(“Notice on Doing a Good Job in Basic Medical Security for Urban and Rural Residents in 2021”)( the Office of Medical Security Bureau of Cangnan County on November 5th, 2020), the translator should pay attention to the equivalence of semantic meaning of this long sentence and translated it into Korean as “전국민기본의료보험가입계획을 전면적으로 실시하고 기본의료보험가입상황을 철저히 조사하며 기본의료보험가입 정보의 질을 향상시키고 중복기본의료보험가입을 청산하며 안정적이고 지속적인 기본의료보험가입을 하며 보험누락을 줄이고 기본의료보험가입 을 실현해야 한다.”

==='''Ⅴ. Studies of Official Document Translation and the Cause of Opening-up in Cangnan County'''===

Based on the abovementioned basic characteristics of the official document system of Cangnan County, the notes for official documents translation under the context of the Japanese language and the notes for official documents translation under the context of the Korean language, we can see that official documents of Cangnan County is not as difficult to handle as something untranslatable. Cangnan County enjoys a good geographic location: it is located in the coast of the East China Sea, and is close to both Japan and South Korea, two strong economies in East Asia. However, Cangnan County has not yet made use of these favorable conditions to the fullest to promote cultural cooperation and trade with the two countries. Cangnan’s opening up to the outside world requires innovative thinking and an elaborate layout. Studies on the translation of official documents of Cangnan County, especially the translation of official documents under the context of the Japanese and Korean language, will help to explore the cultural spirit of the government institutions, and play an important role in building a good image of Cangnan County in East Asia and laying a foundation for Cangnan's cooperation with major countries and regions in East Asia .

The world today is undergoing profound changes rarely in a century, and so is China. The tide of history moves on and Cangnan shall not stay out of the matter, but must follow it courageously and strive to open new doors for Cangnan's opening up to the outside world through the study of the official document translation of its own.

===References===

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[2]Mu Dan. Discussion on Translation Activities Under the Guidance of Functional Equivalence Theory[J]. International Journal of Education and Management,2018,3(2).

[3]李琳琳. 功能对等翻译理论与关联翻译理论比较研究[D].辽宁师范大学,2006.

[4]赵娟廷. 汉韩公文语体对比研究[D].复旦大学,2003.

[5]周萱. 《中国共产党怎样解决民族问题》（节选）中韩翻译报告[D].青岛大学,2017.

[6]张利军. 《教学的游戏性研究》的汉日翻译实践报告[D].广西师范大学,2019.

[7]栾亚琼. 《2015年山东省政府工作报告》汉日翻译实践报告[D].曲阜师范大学,2016.

[8]占丽华. 源流与演变—日本地方公文书馆发展路径研究[D].山东大学,2020.

[9]任清萍. 功能翻译理论视角下政府工作报告日译研究[D].外交学院,2020.

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--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 04:45, 2 December 2020 (UTC)

==The Translation Process and Methods of Translating English Long Sentences - Zhou Yiwen 周艺文 202070080629 MTI 英语笔译==

<center>Zhou Yiwen 周艺文, 202070080629.</center>

===Abstract===

The translation of long English sentences is a difficult point in English-Chinese translation. It is very important to understand the features of sentence structure and the translation process and methods of long English sentences. This paper studies the translation process and methods of English long sentences through the comparative study of English and Chinese language characteristics and specific English-Chinese translation analysis. This paper is divided into five parts. The first part introduces the characteristics of English long sentences. The second part illustrates translation difficulties of English long sentences by making contrasts the language features of English with that of Chinese, which can be divided into three aspects: English sentences emphasize hypotaxis, Chinese sentences emphasize parataxis; English is a static language, while Chinese is a dynamic language; English prefers passive voice while Chinese prefers active voice. The third part expounds the translation principles for English long sentences from the perspective of Skopos theory, which are skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule. The fourth part mainly analyzes the process of translating English long sentences through some examples. In the end, five translation methods are discussed, which are liner translation, reorganization translation, division, embedding and synthesis.

===Key words===

English long sentences; language characteristics; translation process; translation methods

===英语长句翻译过程及翻译策略===

===摘要===

英语长句翻译是英汉翻译的难点，了解英语长句的句子结构特点和翻译过程及方法在英汉翻译中十分重要。本文通过对比研究英汉语言特点及具体英汉译本分析对英语长句翻译过程和方法进行研究。本文分为五个部分，第一部分介绍了英语长句的特点。第二部分分析了造成翻译英语长句困难的原因，即英汉两种语言在句子结构上的差异，即英语句子重形合，汉语句子重意合; 英语是静态语言，汉语是动态语言; 英语喜用被动语态，汉语喜用主动语态。第三部分运用目的论阐述了翻译英语长句的原则，即目的原则，连贯原则和忠实原则三个方面。第四部分主要通过具体的句子分析英语长句的翻译步骤及过程。最后探讨了英语长句汉译时采用的五种翻译方法，即顺序法、变序法、分译法、包孕法和综合法。

===关键词===

英语长句子；语言特点；翻译过程；翻译方法

===1.Characteristics of English Long Sentences===

The existence of long English sentences are usually caused by three elements. The first one is postmodifier, the second is the large number of joint components, the third one is the complex structure of long sentences. In general, long English sentences are more common in the literary text, discussion text and technical text (Wang 2010, 124).English and Chinese have many similarities in basic sentence structure. The main elements of sentence structure mainly include subject, predicate, object, predicative, attribute, adverbial modifier, and complement. In English, the sentence emphasizes the form and the sentence has a tree structure, and the Chinese sentence emphasizes the parataxis, and the sentence has a bamboo structure.(Wang 2010, 124)

The main characteristics of English long and difficult sentences are as follows:

(1) There are much more words, more complex sentence patterns, and more modifiers in these sense.

(2) Compared with simple sentences, long and difficult sentences often use inversion structure, and there are phenomena of omission and word order inversion.

(3) The reason for the formation of long and difficult sentences is that there are many long and difficult sentences with coordinate components, phrases, additional components, clauses, and coordinate sentences.

(4) The language structure of long and difficult sentences is relatively complex and has a strong sense of hierarchy.

===2.Translation difficulties of English long sentences===

The difficulties of translation are mainly caused by the differences between the source language and target language. English and Chinese belong to different language systems, the former belongs to Indo-European language family, the latter belongs to Sino-Tibetan language family, so there are significant differences in syntax between them. In addition, the different cultures of English and Chinese will inevitably lead to the difference in sentence structure between the two languages, because language is the carrier and medium of culture. (Jiang 2019, 62-65)

===2.1Hypotaxis vs. parataxis===

English syntactic structure is hypotaxis while Chinese syntactic structure is parataxis (Lian, 2010 73). Hypotaxis is that the words or clauses in a sentence are connected together by means of linguistic formal means (such as using related words) to express grammatical meaning and logical relations(Jia 2002, 101). English emphasizes explicit connection, emphasizes form and structure, and often helps with various means of connection. As a result, the sentence structure is rigorous and lacks elasticity. English sentences are often made with relatives (who, whom, whose, which, that, where, when, etc.), conjunctions (but, however, unless, because, since, so, and, if, etc. ), preposition (in, about, without, throughout, according to, along with, etc.), and other connective means. Parataxis means that words and clauses are not connected by means of linguistic forms, and the grammatical meaning and logical relation in a sentence are expressed by the meaning of words and clauses (Jia 2002, 101). Chinese sentences are made with little or no means of formal connection, with emphasis on invisible coherence, function and meaning, so the sentence structure is loose and flexible (Jia 2002, 101).

Example 1:

ST: Individuals develop within themselves an ability to persevere and tolerate things that are unexpected or bad, difficult to get through.

TT: 人们在内心修炼一种能力，在面对意外、不幸或者挑战时也能继续坚持和忍耐。

Analysis: In this sentence, “that...to get through” is a attributive clause to modify “things”, which is a kind of hypotaxis. The translation is not limited to the original sentence structure but follows Chinese expression habit, so the language is very smooth.

===2.2Static language vs. dynamic language===

English is static language and Chinese is dynamic language. The reason why English is a static language is that nouns and prepositions are frequently used and predominate in English. In English sentences, there can only be one predicate verb and other action words can only be nominal verbs. Therefore, nominalization has become a common phenomenon in English. (Wang 2004, 5) Prepositions are used to before nouns and noun phrases. They have no morphological changes and are very flexible in use. Therefore, the frequency of using prepositions in English is very high and the number of prepositions far exceeds that in Chinese. When translating Chinese to English, an important way to make the target text conform to the expression of English is to pay attention to the application of English prepositions. Since Chinese is parataxis language, verbs have no morphological changes, and the use of verbs makes the language more vivid, so verbs are frequently used in Chinese. In addition to a large number of verb-object structures, Chinese sentences can be more dynamic by using a series of verbs. In English-Chinese translation, we must pay attention to the conversion between static and dynamic. (Jiang 2019, 62-65)

Example 2:

ST:This month, when earthquakes rocked Southern California on back-to-back days, it was a visceral reminder that we may one day experience the “Big One”, a quake with the power to kill and destroy.

TT:本月南加州连遭地震，人们本能地联想到，我们某天可能会经历“一次大的”具有杀伤力和破坏力的地震。

Analysis: The noun “reminder” is translated into a verb “联想”, which is a transformation from static language to dynamic language.

===2.3Passive voice vs. active voice===

Although both English and Chinese have active voice and passive voice, the frequency of English passive voice is much higher than that of Chinese, which is also one of the characteristics that distinguishes English from Chinese. Especially in English scientific technical text, the passive voice is much more used, almost becoming a expression habit, because the passive sentence does not have to point out the actor but highlight the target, which is more objective(Zhu 2004, 94). In English-Chinese translation, we must grasp this difference in language, so as to make the translation conform to the expression habit of the target language. (Zhu 2004, 94)

Example 3:

ST: At the heart of the system--known as the multi-lateral trading system--are the WTO’s agreements, negotiated and signed by a large majority of the world’s trading nations, and ratified in their parliaments.

TT: 世界贸易组织的核心--多边贸易体系--是世界上大多数贸易国经协商谈判并签署的多个协议, 这些协议同时也经过成员国议会批准。

Analysis: The sentence of the source text is passive, “negotiated”, “signed” and “ratified” are passive in meaning, while Chinese sentence was translated into active, “协商”, “谈判”, “签署” are verbs in active verb.

===3.Translation principles for English long sentences===

Skopos theory was put forward by Hans Vermeer, an outstanding contributor to the translation theory of the German functional school. Different from the traditional equivalence theory, Skopos theory is based on behaviorism and proposes that translation is a purposeful activity(Zhang 2004, 35). The purpose of translation determines the translation method(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984). According to teleology, translators should follow three general principles in the process of translation: skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule(Liu 2009, 378).

Of the three principles, the skopos rule is the most important. The “skopos” can be the translatorss purpose, the communicative purpose of the target text or the purpose to be achieved by using a particular translation method. It usually refers to the communicative purpose of the target text, that is, the communicative function of the target text for the target reader in the socio-cultural context of the target text (Venuti, 2001). Vermeer emphasizes that translation occurs in a cultural context, and translation is not a corresponding conversion of language due to the differences between cultures. The translator should not only accurately understand and interpret the author’s intention, but also make the translation acceptable to readers(Vermeer, 1989).

Coherence rule refers to the fact that the target text must achieve intratextual coherence, making readers to understand and make sense in the communicative context of the target culture and target text. The fidelity rule means that the original text should be intertextually coherent, which is equivalent to being faithful to the original text in other translation theories. And the degree and form of fidelity to the original text depend on the purpose of the translation and the translator’s understanding of the original text. According to Skopos theory, the first one that all translations should follow is skopos rule, coherence and fidelity are subordinate to it. And fidelity is subordinate to coherence (Nord 2001, 32). There are many differences between English and Chinese in thinking and expression, and translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication behavior. Therefore, translators must not ignore the communicative purpose of translation. Guided by skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule, and based on the full analysis of the original text, the most appropriate strategies can be chosen to deal with specific long English sentences with the communicative purpose of the target text (Nord 2001, 32).

===4. Translation process of English long sentences===

Bell divided the cognitive process of translation into 3steps: first, analyze the semantic meaning and grammar of the source language as a universal representation, and then synthesize and reconstruct it to form a translation (Bell 1991, 5). This is also the case with the translation of long sentences, and the analysis of English long sentences is the first step. Since English long sentences focus on the expression of form, the basic methods of analyzing Long sentences based on characteristics are as follows: first understand the meaning of the sentence, analyze the grammatical structure of the long sentence, extract the main sentence, and then analyze the branches of the sentence. Finally, dividing long sentences according to the meaning group. (Bell 1991, 5)

As for the translation process from a macro point of view, first, the translator used some translation tools to look up new words and polysemous words. Then the translator began to translate for the first time, aiming to get a faithful text, and did not add any subjective guess to prevent the misunderstanding and inaccurate translation. In the second translation, the translator began to check the wrong words, as well as inappropriate points, and combined the language features of the text, which aimed to achieve coherent and intelligible. Finally, in the third translation, the translator got rid of the source language, and only read the target language to check whether it conformed to the reading habits and thinking modes of Chinese readers. If not, the translator would revise inappropriate sentences from the perspective of the target readers.

As for the translation steps from micro point of view, it can be divided into five steps: Find the main body of the sentence; Make clear the relationship between each modifier and the main sentence; Divide long sentences into several parts according to the expression requirements; Translate each part one by one; Adjust and polish the translation according to the Chinese expression habits.

Example 4:

ST: It has a mobile payments system that has been widely adopted in China, which allows people to shop，play games，pay utility bills and order meal deliveries all from within the app.

To analyze and translate this sentence, the most important is to find the main structure. It's easy to find the main body of this sentence is “It has a mobile payments system”. And second it is necessary to analyze the relationship between the modifiers and the main components of the sentence. “That has been widely adopted in China” is a post-positive attributive clause to modify the object “mobile payments system”, and “which allows…within the app” is a non-restrictive attributive clause to further explain the “system”, making readers know more about the target. Third, divide it into several parts according to the meaning and expression requirements. So this sentence can be divided three parts: the main body “It has a mobile payments system” is one part; and the two modifiers “that has been widely adopted in China” and “which allows … within the app” are the other two parts. Forth, translate every part: “它有一个移动支付系统”; “在中国得到广泛应用”; “让人们在该应用内购物、玩游戏、支付水电费和订餐”. Finally, adjust and polish the translation according to the Chinese expression habits. So the original sentence could be translated into: “它的移动支付系统在中国得到了下广泛应用，人们可以在该应用内购物、玩游戏、支付水电费和订餐”.

===5.Translation strategies for English long sentences===

===5.1Liner translation===

When the narrative level of English long sentences is basically the same as that of Chinese, that is, the sentences are narrated according to the time sequence or internal logic of the action, which is consistent with the expression habit of Chinese, and can be translated into Chinese in the same order as the original English. (Zeng 2010, 149-150)

Example 5:

ST: They learned with stupefaction that there is another aspect from which human action might be viewed than that of good and bad, of fair and unfair, of just and unjust. In the course of social events there prevails a regularity of phenomena to which man must adjust his actions if he wishes to succeed.

TT: 另一方面，他们茫然地想要了解到人类的哪些行为可以被看作是好的和坏的，公平的和不公平的，公正的和不公正的。在社会事件的过程中普遍存在着规律的现象，如果他希望成功，必须调整他的行动。

Analysis: There is an object clause in the first sentence. In the process of translation, the sentence can be simply translated in accordance with the order of the composition of the sentence. The translation is natural to read and can express the meaning of the original text by using liner translation.

Example 6:

ST: The joy and the tedium of labor are psychological phenomena which influence neither the individual’s subjective valuation of the disutility and the mediate gratification of labor nor the price paid for labor on the market.

TT: 劳动的快乐或厌恶都是心理现象，既不影响个人对于劳动负效用和报酬的主观评价也不影响市场上的劳动力价格。

Analysis: Although this sentence has both an attributive clause and “neither... nor...” structure with a large number of vocabulary, but its logical thinking, sentence structure and temporal and spatial order are consistent with Chinese habits. Therefore, we can translate it by using the liner translation method.

===5.2 Reorganization translation===

Reorganization is a way of changing the order of the original text, pushing forward from behind or from the middle. English is hypotaxis language, while Chinese is parataxis language(Lian 2010, 73). In terms of word order, English pays attention to the use of various conjunctions, such as relation words, conjunctions, prepositions, etc., to express the logical relations among them. Chinese, on the other hand, is used to connecting words with logical relations. The logic of long sentences in Scientific English is often quite different from that in Chinese, sometimes even the opposite. According to the expression habits of Chinese, the word order can be adjusted by means of reverse translation, so as to make the translation expression standard and easy to be understood and accepted by readers. (Lian 2010, 73)

Example 7:

ST: No technological improvement would have been possible if the additional capital goods required for the practical utilization of new inventions had not previously been made available by saving.

TT: 实际利用新发明需要额外资本，如果以前没有通过储蓄获得这些额外资本, 就不可能有技术改进。

Analysis: The “if-” clause contains a post-positive attributive “required for the practical utilization of new inventions”, which makes the clause look very complicated, if translated according to the word order, it would be misunderstood. Therefore, in order to better translate the sentence, the translator can reorganize the structure of the clause in the process of translation, and then translate the main sentence after a clear explanation, so that the meaning of the translated sentence is relatively clear.

Example 8:

ST: It may be useful to compare the doctrine of Marxism and the Prussian Historical School, according to which wage rates are a historical datum and not a catallactic phenomenon, with the regression theorem of money’s purchasing power.

TT: 用货币的购买力的回归定理对马克思主义理论和普鲁士历史学派进行比较可能是比较有用的。普鲁士历史学派认为工资率是历史数据而不是交换现象。

Analysis: In this sentence, “It” is the formal subject, and the real subject is “to compare the doctrine of Marxism and the Prussian Historical School”. Therefore, we should follow the Chinese expression habit and reorganize the sentences before translating them.

===5.3Division===

The so-called division in translation means separating the different parts of English sentences into a single component of Chinese, such as word group, phrases, sentences and even independent sentences (Wang 2009, 144). There are great differences between English and Chinese in syntax. English sentences are long, verbs are few, and balance is stressed, while Chinese is short, verbs are more, and symmetry is stressed. Therefore, when translating long English sentences, it is impossible to translate every sentence into a Chinese sentence, otherwise, the translation will appear bloated and stiff. In English, long sentences are mainly composed of compound and subordinate clauses. According to the habit of using short sentences in Chinese, sometimes the clauses or phrases in the original sentence can be translated separately, and the original sentence can be divided into two or more sentences, so as to make the translation clear and accurately. (Wang 2009, 144)

Example 9:

ST: It may be useful to compare the doctrine of Marxism and the Prussian Historical School, according to which wage rates are a historical datum and not a catallactic phenomenon, with the regression theorem of money’s purchasing power.

TT: 用货币的购买力的回归定理对马克思主义理论和普鲁士历史学派进行比较可能是比较有用的。普鲁士历史学派认为工资率是历史数据而不是交换现象。

Analysis: In this sentence, “according to which ... money’s purchasing power” is not a independent sentence, but for the easy understanding to the meaning this part was translated into another complete sentence by adding and deleting some words.

===5.4 Embedding===

Embedding means transforming the post modifiers of the center word in the source text into the premodifiers in the target text, which is suitable for the translation of long sentences with many post-modifiers and strong sense of sentence compactness(Liu 1998, 191).

Example 10:

ST: What brings us together is that we have common interests which transcend those differences.

TT: 使我们走到一起的，是我们有超越这些分歧的共同利益。

Analysis: In this sentence, “which transcend those differences” is a attributive clause to modify the antecedent “common interests”. If we translate it according to the English word order, it must be tedious and difficult to understand. Therefore, we can use insertion to put the clause before the main word, which will be simple and easy to understand.

Example 11:

ST: This refined playing must not be confused with the simple games of children which are merely pleasure-producing.

TT: 这细化的游戏一定不要和儿童仅仅为了快乐的简单游戏混淆。

Analysis: The post-positive attributive “which..” is a modifier used to explain “the simple games of children”. In order to make the sentence structure more compact, smooth and coherent, the modifier needs to be put before the noun “game”. This method is often used in the translation of attributive clauses or post-positive attributives in English.

===5.5 Synthesis===

Synthesis means to use the above methods to translate long English sentences. In fact, when translating long English sentences, it is rare to adopt only one translation method, and it is often necessary to combine several translation methods. The key to the synthesis method is to adjust the structure of the original text flexibly on the basis of accurate understanding of the original text, and to pursue the spirit likeness rather than the appearance likeness when expressing in Chinese (Jiang 2019, 62-65).

Example12:

ST: For all of our complaints about contemporary air- ports and flying, it might be a comfort to remember that thanks to the little Pacific island nation of Fiji, we are actually getting to our destinations faster and more safely than ever before.

TT: 对于如今的机场和乘机体验，尽管我们有诸多抱怨，但也多亏了斐济这个太平洋岛国，我们飞抵目的地已变得更快更安全，想到这一点，或许会让我们心里又感宽慰不少.

Analysis: The main body of this sentence is “it might be a comfort”, among which “it”, is the formal subject, and “to remember that…ever before” is the real subject. We can not find such a sentence structure in Chinese. So in order to make the translation more authentic, the sentence order must be changed. Based on the understanding of the source text, it is appropriate to adopt both liner method and reorganization method to translate.

===Conclusion===

In the practice of the translation of long and difficult sentences, there is a higher requirement for translators’ English comprehension and expression ability. For the translation of long and difficult sentences in English, the translator should be familiar with the sentence structure and main ideas of long and difficult sentences in English, and make clear the main logical relationship with the content of the original text, so as to effectively analyze the structure of long and difficult sentences in English and choose the correct way of translation. In the specific translation practice, translators should, on the basis of understanding the grammatical features of English, choose reasonable translation methods and skills so as to achieve the accurate translation of long and difficult Sentences. Translation activities require a high level of English reading and comprehension, and the effective translation of long and difficult sentences requires translators to constantly improve their ability to summarize, update their English translation skills, and realize the summary and innovation of long and difficult sentences.

===References===

*Bell, R.T. (1991). ''Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice''. London and New York: Longman.

*Nord, C. (2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity--Functionalist Approaches Explained'' . Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

*Reiss, Katharina & Vermeer, Hans J. (1984). ''Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation'' . Tubingen: Walter de Gruyter Press.

*Venuti, L. (2001). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' . London: London and New York Routledge.

*Vermeer, Hans J. (1989). ''Didactics of Translation. in Baker, Routledge Encyclopedia of Translation Studies'' . London: London and New York Routledge.

*Jia Dejiang贾德江. (2002). 英汉语对比研究与翻译 [Contrastive Study and Translation of English and Chinese].''国防科技大学出版社'' Changsha: NUDT Press.

*Jiang Yuqin蒋玉琴. (2019). 从英汉对比角度解析英语长句的翻译 [Translation of English Long Sentences into Chinese: a Contrastive Study]. ''宜春学院学报'' Journal of Yichun University (11) 62-65.

*Lian Shuneng连淑能. (2010). 英汉对比研究 [Contrastive Studies of English and Chinese]. ''高等教育出版社'' Beijing Higher Education Press.

*Liu Miqing刘宓庆. (1998). 文体与翻译 [English Varieties and Translation]. ''中国对外翻译出版公司'' Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.

*Liu Junping刘军平. (2009). 西方翻译理论通史 [A General History of Western Translation Theory]. ''武汉大学出版社'' Wuhan: Wuhan University Press.

*Wang Enmian王恩冕. (2009). 大学英汉翻译教程 [A College Textbook on English-Chinese Translation]. ''对外经济贸易大学出版社'' Beijing: University of International Business and Economics Press.

*Wang Shuwen王述文. (2010). 综合汉英翻译教程 [A Comprehensive Coursebook on Chinese-English Translation]. Beijing: National Defence Industry Press国防工业出版社.

*Wang Wuxing王武兴. (2004). 英汉互译指导与篇章翻译 [A Guide to Essay Translation from Chinese into English and Vise Versa]. ''朝华出版社'' Beijing: Morning Glory Publishers.

*Zhang Jinlan张锦兰. (2004).目的论与翻译方法 [Skopos Theory and Translation Methods]. ''中国科技翻译'' Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal (1) 35-37.

*Zhu Wei朱微. (2004). 汉英翻译教程 [A Textbook of Chinese-English Translation]. ''重庆大学出版社'' Chongqing: Chongqing University Press.
--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 14:28, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==3.2Static language vs. dynamic language==

==3.3 Passive voice vs. active voice==

==4.1Cross-cultural communication==

==4.2Attaching great importance to form==

==4.3Clearing language logic==

===5.The process of translating long English sentences===

===6.Methods of translating English long sentences===

==6.1Liner translation==

==6.2Reorganization translation=

==6.3Splitting translation==

==6.4Synthesis==

==6.5Insertion==

===Conclusion===

In the practice of the translation of long and difficult sentences, there is a higher requirement for translators’ English comprehension and expression ability. For the translation of long and difficult sentences in English, the translator should be familiar with the sentence structure and main ideas of long and difficult sentences in English, and make clear the main logical relationship with the content of the original text, so as to effectively analyze the structure of long and difficult sentences in English and choose the correct way of translation. In the specific translation practice, translators should, on the basis of understanding the grammatical features of English, choose reasonable translation methods and skills so as to achieve the accurate translation of long and difficult Sentences. Translation activities require a high level of English reading and comprehension, and the effective translation of long and difficult sentences requires translators to constantly improve their ability to summarize, update their English translation skills, and realize the summary and innovation of long and difficult sentences.

===Bibliography===

==Chinese-English Translation of News Headlines From the Perspective of Skopos Theory 张维虹 Zhang Weihong No.202070080648 MTI 英语口译 ==

===Abstract===
In recent years, with the rapid development of the society and economy, the exchanges between China and the rest of the world are increasingly frequent. In this process, massive information is transmitted through the translation of news reports. The translation quality of news headlines that serve as the eye of news, directly affects the effectiveness of its dissemination. Under the guidance of Skopos Theory of German Functionalist Translation School, this paper analyzes the characteristics of Chinese and English news headlines, illustrates the functions and translation criteria of news headlines, and puts forward corresponding translation strategies, aiming at retaining the conciseness of news and realizing dissemination and social value of news.

===key words===
News headlines translation; Skopos theory; Translation strategies

===题目===
目的论视角下中英新闻标题翻译研究
===摘要===
近年来，中国社会经济飞速发展，与外界交流日趋频繁，在此过程中大量信息传递需通过新闻报道翻译完成。而新闻标题作为新闻的眼睛，其翻译质量直接影响新闻传播的有效性。本文以德国功能翻译学派目的论为指导，分析中英新闻标题的特点，阐述新闻标题功能以及新闻标题翻译准则，并提出汉译英翻译策略，旨在还原新闻简明本色从而实现新闻传播目的和社会价值。

===关键字===
新闻标题翻译；目的论；翻译策略

===I. Introduction===
With the continuous development of culture and economy, news reporting is playing an increasingly important role in people's lives. We read news through TV, the Internet, or newspapers and magazines to keep abreast of current events. But thousands of pieces of news and the information they carry may confuse us, because we are in a world where massive information is flowing nonstop. There is no doubt that some news has been omitted or even ignored. Therefore, a clear-cut and intriguing headline is of great importance and can be considered as the only way to attract the target readers. (Chen Lizhao, 2002: 3-4)

Headlines are compared to the eyes of news reports, in which clear, concise information must be contained to generate interests. (Hu Shuzhong, 2012: 199) That is to say, headlines are expected to be vivid and eye-catching in order to attract readers and provide reading guidance. So, translators must learn how to effectively extract and reconstruct the information in the Chinese-English translation of news headlines, so as to make it cater to the target language readers.

In addition, news translation is playing a significant role in the promotion of cross-cultural communication and mutual understanding as China is having more and more exchanges with the rest of the world with the rapid development of society and economy brought about by the reform and opening-up policy and “go global” strategy. As the soul of news, headlines and their translation are what translators should pay attention to. (Liu Yunxi 2018(11):123-125.)

There are many studies about E-C news translation and news headline translation. However, research on Chinese-English news headlines translation is very few. According to statistics from CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure), there are only two pages of discussion on Chinese-English news headlines translation. Therefore, this paper is designed to provide further exploration and reference in the area.

As functions for headlines are obvious, this paper takes Skopos as the theory guide to conduct the research. First, the paper illustrates the development and three rules of Skopos theory. Then it discusses the features and functions of news headlines. Later, the paper tells some translation methods of Chinese-English news headlines from a perspective of Skopos Theory. At last, it draws a conclusion.

===II. Overview of the Skopos Theory ===
====2.1 Development of the Skopos Theory====
Skopos Theory was initially proposed by Katherina Reiss in her 1971 book ''Possibilities and Limits of Translation Criticism'', which formed the early theory. According to Reiss, the ideal translation would be “one in which the aim in the target language is equivalence as regards the conceptual content, linguistic form and communicative function of a source-language text” (Reiss 1977, translated in 1989: 112). Even though Reiss took the concept of equivalence as the main focus of her analysis, she realized that in some cases, equivalence is impossible and, in some situations, not even desired. Therefore, she indicated that the function of texts should be considered when translating.

The idea of text typology including content-focused, form-focused and appeal-focused text put forward by Reiss, is another contribution of her to the Skopos theory. It is supposed to be the starting point for Skopos theory.

Later, Hans Vermeer, the student of Reiss, made a major breakthrough in the limitations of equivalent theory and laid the theoretical foundation for it. He first mentioned the basic principles of Skopos Theory in 1978. He and Reiss jointly published ''Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation'' in 1984. In this book, Vermeer argued that translation should be seen as a fundamental action of the transformation of the source text. As all actions are generally purposeful, translation also has its own purposes which could have influences over the culture of the target language. (Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation, 1984)

For Vermeer, translation cannot be treated as a one-to-one transfer between the source language and the target language. In his research, on the basis of the source text, translation is a form of action to which some of the other forms of translational action may relate. Every translation is directed at an intended audience since to translate means “to produce a text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addresses in target circumstances” (Vermeer, 1987a: 29). Vermeer’s Skopos Theory serves as the foundation for his general theory of translation.

Later, two other German translators, Christiane Nord and Justa Holz Manttari, enriched and refined the Skopos theory. Mantarri’s theory is based on the rules of action theory and is intended to contain all forms of intercultural transmission, as well as those source or target texts which do not involve. (Nord, 2001: 12-13) Her theory reflects the role of the participants in the process of translation and the environment in which the process takes place. Nord, as the latest batch of German researchers, summarized the “Fidelity rule” and applied the Skopos theory extensively in the study of translation from multiple perspectives and related fields.

In conclusion, Reiss laid the foundation of Skopos theory. Vermeer, who summarized and outlined the rules to be followed in the process of Skopos theory in practice, became the founding father of the theory. Manttari focused on the specific issues of translation behavior and context in the translation process, while Nord made many contributions to the refinement of the theory and greatly expanded the practical application of this theory.

==== 2.2 Three Rules of Skopos theory ====
There are three significant rules of Skopos theory including Skopos rule, coherence rule, and fidelity rule, which will be discussed respectively as follows.

===== 2.2.1 Skopos Rule=====
The Skopos rule is the top-ranking rule for translation. That is to say, Skopos determines any translation action. “The translators should finish the task in a way that enables your translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function. All in all, the end justifies the means.” (Nord, 2001:29).

Translating is an international interaction as it is just said, and the Skopos rule has a stable position after it appeared. In Vermeer’s term, intention is thought of as an “aim-oriented plan of action” (Vermeer, 1983:41).

According to Vermeer, Skopos rule is that “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The Skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate in a way that enables your text to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.” (Vermeer, 1989a: 20, translated by Luo Dan) Skopos theory is the foundation for Chinese-English news headlines translation. All efforts made are meant to achieve the Skopos of news headline translation because “the end justifies the means".

=====2.2.2 Coherence Rule=====
The coherence rule, another important rule of the Skpos theory indicates that “the target text must be interpretable as coherent with the target text receiver’s situation”. (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 113) It implies that the target text must be translated in a way that it is clearly understood by the target readers, taking into consideration of their existing knowledge and situation.

===== 2.2.3 Fidelity Rule =====
Apart from the "intratextual coherence", there is another intertextual coherence which refers to the relationship between the target text and the source text. It is presumed as a further principle, fidelity rule. The fidelity rule by Vermeer indicates that there has to be coherence between the target text and the source text. That means that the target text should be faithful to its source text in a certain level of features, such as grammatical features, special collocations, and rhetorical devices, or to some degree between a complete imitation and deviation. (Nord 2001: 31)

In accordance with the Skopos theory, the source text is no longer considered as the “sacred original”, and it is up to the translator to determine the aspect and the degree of the fidelity. In Vermeer’s opinion, any text is just an offer of information, and that any target text is an offer of information formulated by a translator in a target culture and language about an offer of information formulated by someone else in the source culture and language. (Nord 2001: 32)

Three principal rules of Skopos theory have been illustrated as above. As for the relationships between the three rules, Reiss and Vermeer believe that the fidelity rule is subordinate to the coherence rule and is included to the Skopos rule. If the skopos of the target text demands a change of function, the fidelity of the source text will no longer be taken as the only standard, but adequacy and appropriateness will be supplemented as the standard with regard to the skopos (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 139).

====2.3 Summary ====
This chapter introduced the development of Skopos theory and its three main principles, laying a theoretical foundation for Chinese-English news headlines translation. The function and skopos of news headlines are to intrigue readers and convey information to them. Therefore, C-E news headlines translation, guided by Skopos theory, is a faithful re-creation.（Wang Chi, 2013: 33-34）

===III. Overview of News Headlines===
A headline is an essential part of news. So, it is important for translators to know the features and functions of news headlines. (Liu Yunxi, 2018: 123-125) The previous chapter introduces the theoretical framework of Skopos theory, which lay a foundation for the practical translation of Chinese news headlines. In this chapter, the author will discuss features and functions of news headlines, in order to search for some strategies for the Chinese-English translation of news headlines.

==== 3.1 Definition of News and News Headlines====
News refers to the timeliest report of events that have just happened, are happening, or are going to happen. It is born to meet the need for propagation and communication of information in human society. (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 4) This definition prescribes the features and functions of news. News should be timely and share ideas and information.

News headlines are compared to the “eye” of news. According to the dictionary, “A head of a newspaper story or article, usually printed in large type and devised to summarize, gives essential information about, or interests readers in reading the story or article that follows.” (Webster’s Third New International Dictionary, 1961: 1042) From the definition, we can see that news headlines tell the essence of the news; the function is to attract readers’ interests. The paper will discuss the features and functions of news headlines in detail in the following part.

====3.2 Features of News Headlines====
As a text genre, news headlines have their own features. Chinese and English news headlines share much in common, though they differ from each other in certain areas. Understandings about the differences and similarities of Chinese and English news headlines are important for translators. （Luo Dan, 2012: 30-31）So, this chapter will analyze the features of news headlines from the following aspects: grammar, rhetoric, culture, and structure.

===== 3.2.1 Grammatical Features=====

3.2.1.1 Lexical Feature

a. Midget words

A good headline must be clear to attract readers and be strong to save space. In other words, the headline should convey the intends of the news without confusion or ambiguity; the words should be powerful to persuade the headline consumer to read on. These two requirements determine the prevalence of powerful, or strong worlds – mostly verbs and nouns – in headlines. (Shen Jinbo, 1989:52) That is to say, powerful words are short, simple and concrete, for extensive or abstractive words can only lead to dullness and confusion. There are no such powerful words in Chinese, but Chinese headlines, on the premise of conveying the exact meanings also put emphasis on the shortness of words.

[1]: Dancing '''gets''' Olympic status (China Daily Dec 9, 2020)

[2]: 霹雳舞'''成'''巴黎奥运项目 (China Daily Dec 9, 2020)

b. Numeral words

Numbers are used in news headlines to highlight the key information, especially in economic and sports news.

[3]: Pink diamond sold for '''$26.6M''' (China Daily Nov 23, 2020)

[4]: 外储余额创'''4'''年多新高(China Daily Dec 9, 2020)

c. Abbreviations

The limitation of page space leads to the frequent use of abbreviations in headlines. English abbreviations, according to Lu Guoqiang (陆国强, 1984), consist of two major types: lipped words and initialisms or acronyms. The common types of abbreviations found in Chinese headlines, nevertheless, are mostly number-assisted summarizing, blending and substituting. (Chen Lizhao, 2002:36)

[5]: '''Intl''' student enrollment falls (China Daily, Nov 19, 2020)

[6]: 第二届'''“一带一路”'''国际合作高峰论坛举行圆桌峰会 (People’s Daily, April 28, 2019)

d. Vogue words

“Freshness” is the life of news, which lies in the contents of the report. As the gist of the news, headlines would certainly reveal some of the new ideas or hot topics in order to catch the reader’s attention. Therefore, vogue words are frequently seen in headlines. (Chen Lizhao, 2002: 4-5)

[7]: ''''Cooling-off period'''' added (China Daily Dec 8, 2020)

[8]: '''“离婚冷静期”'''新规将施行 (China Daily Dec 8, 2020)

3.2.1.2 Syntactical features

a. Omission

Omission appears in almost every headline. Eliminating meaningless words can shorten the length of a headline and highlight the core information. In English headlines, all articles and some auxiliary verbs, lexical verbs, pronouns, and the subject and the predicate are often omitted, as they weigh little in giving information. Chinese headlines also omit those unimportant words, including conjunctions, and auxiliary words as well. (Chen Lizhao, 2002: 4-5)

[9] Biden declares victory (China Daily, Nov 10, 2020)

[10] 研究：医患“互粉”对治疗不利 (China Daily, Nov 25, 2014)

b. Voice

Active voice is frequently adopted in news headlines.

[11] UK '''approves''' Pfizer vaccine (China Daily Dec 4, 2020)

[12]英国'''批准'''辉瑞新冠疫苗 (China Daily Dec 4, 2020)

[13] Biden '''unveils''' economic team (China Daily Dec 2, 2020)

[14]拜登'''拟'''提名耶伦任财长 (China Daily Dec 2, 2020)

c. Tense

One of the distinct features of news headlines, particularly in English news headlines, is the wide use of present tense, which saves the space of “-ed” in the past tense. But sometimes past tense is used to indicate the timeline. While Chinese news headlines use different tenses, as they are not revealed by the different forms of verbs as in English. So, the auxiliary verbs or adverbs in Chinese news headlines tell the time of happening form. (Chen Lizhao, 2002: 4-5)

[15] COVID vaccine distribution (China Daily Dec 1, 2020)

[16] 英美'''即将'''启动疫苗分配 (China Daily Dec 1, 2020)

=====3.2.2 Rhetorical Features =====
The figures of speech found in headlines, English and Chinese alike, include metaphor, simile, pun, alliteration and rhyme, repetition, allusion, etc. They are aimed at creating musical sound as well as vivid images to provide spiritual enjoyment to the readers. (Chen Lizhao, 2002: 4-5)

[1] 苹果发新机加入5G'''战局''' (metaphor) (China Daily Oct 16, 2020)

[2] 美国加州火灾蔓延居民'''仿佛置身火星'''(simile)

===== 3.2.3 Cultural Features=====
Language is the carrier of culture. News, as a practical genre, also bears cultural characteristics of a certain country or region. These cultural elements also appear in news headlines. (Fan Tengteng, 2006: 44-45)

=====3.2.4 Structural Features =====
To achieve the headline’s distinctiveness and simplicity, certain punctuation marks are used in English news headlines, which are not often seen in Chinese news headlines. However, the pursuit of using punctuation marks shares a common destination—to make the news headlines clear and easily perceptible. The rule for headlines is that the fewer punctuation marks are, the better. (Fan Tengteng, 2006: 45-46)

[1] 世界精神卫生日：超半数英国员工最担心就业问题 (China Daily Oct 16, 2020)

[2] World Mental Health Day: More than half of UK workers worry about finding a job (China Daily Oct 16, 2020)

====3.3 Functions of News Headlines ====
According to the theory of text-style function by Peter Newmark, new headlines fulfill the following four functions: informative function, expressive function, aesthetic function and vocative function, which will be illustrated in this section. (Newmark 2001: 40)

=====3.3.1 Informative Function =====
“The core of the informative function of language is external situation, the facts of a topic, reality outside language, including ideas or theories” (Newmark 2001: 40) That is to say, news headline tells readers the basic information and facts of the news.

=====3.3.2 Expressive Function =====
“The core of the expressive function is the mind of the speaker, the writer, the originator of the utterance. He uses the utterance to express his feelings irrespective of any response” (Newmark 2001: 39) The expressive function of a news headline is to reveal the writer’s or the editor’s attitude toward the news by using commentary words or rhetoric devices.

=====3.3.3 Aesthetic Function=====
“This is a language designed to please the sense, firstly through its actual or imagined sound, and secondly through its metaphors. The rhythm, balance, and contrast of sentences, clauses, and words also play their part.” (Newmark 2001: 42) As the eye of the news, headlines use elegant words, abbreviations, punctuations, and so on to strengthen their aesthetic function.

=====3.3.4 Vocative Function=====
The vocative function is reader-oriented. Here, the term “vocative” is interpreted as “calling upon” the readers to act, think or feel, in fact, to “react” in the way intended by the text. (Newmark 2001: 41) Vocative words in news headlines can attract the readers to read the whole article, and in certain circumstances call upon the readers to take some actions after finishing the news.

====3.3 Summary ====
This chapter discussed the features and functions of news headlines as well as differences between Chinese and English news headlines. It helps the author to seek for certain translation strategies and methods to retain the features and achieve the purposes of news headlines, which will be mentioned in the following chapter.

===IV. Application of Skopos theory in Chinese-English Translation===
Many translation strategies and techniques can be adopted under the guidance of the Skopos theory. Based on the dominant informative function of news headlines, new information should be transferred with fidelity and clarity. Moreover, considering the aesthetical function of headlines, the source text should be aesthetically handled to the target readers. This chapter will explain how the Skopos theory is applied in the translation of Chinese-English news headlines. Before that, the criteria for C-E news headlines translation will be discussed. (Luo Dan, 2012）

====4.1 Criteria of News Headline Translation ====
According to the basis of translation criteria, the author discussed four criteria for Chinese news headline translation, including fidelity, readability, adaptability, and rapidity.

===== 4.1.1Fidelity =====
Fidelity means to accurately convey the message of the source text. The translation of news headlines from Chinese to English is a kind of intercultural communication in which messages should be transferred objectively and accurately by reflecting reality. Considering this point of view, fidelity can be acted as the main rule for translating news headlines. （Luo Dan, 2012: 45-46）

=====4.1.2 Readability =====
Readability means the translation version is smooth as much as possible so that it is easier for readers or audiences to read and understand. According to a survey on ''Beijing citizens’ newspaper reading and willingness'' by Chinese People’s University, vividness and readability are the first to be considered while consumers buying and reading a newspaper. Therefore, the translation of news headlines should value readability. If the rule of fidelity concerns the content, then the rule of readability aims at the form. （Luo Dan, 2012: 46-47）

=====4.1.3Adaptability =====
Adaptability means that the translated headline should be in an appropriate writing pattern in line with the features of news language. In other words, the style of the target language should be consistent with the source language. Style-maintaining is considered to be essential and important in translation, which is also true in the translation of news headlines. So, translators must deal with the grammar and diction of English seriously, and make sure the style of the original is mostly intact when translating a Chinese news headline. (Tang Ting, 2010: 35-36)

===== 4.1.4Rapidity =====
Rapidity, as the fourth request of news headline translation, is the most indispensable one. It requires that the translation of a news headline should be completed at a given period of time without any delay. The news is more valuable if the time between happening and reporting is shorter. So, the timeliness of news decides the rapidity of news translation, especially the headlines. (Tang Ting, 2010: 36-37)

====4.2 Strategies and Methods of Chinese-English News Headlines Translation ====
News headlines are considered to be the soul of the news. Since Chinese and English readers are different in thinking patterns, education systems, and cultural backgrounds, some proper translation strategies and methods should be taken into consideration to enable the readers to understand the news headlines easily. Under the guidance of Skopos theory, translation methods including literal translation, free translation, amplification, omission, amplification, restructuring, and adaptation are applied in news headlines translation. (Wang Jun, Chen Shiyue, 2017: 102-103)

=====4.2.1 Literal Translation=====
Literal translation, also called word-for-word translation, is the basic approach used in Chinese news headline translation, since it can retain both the form and contents of the original to the maximum. Here are some examples: (Wang Jun, Chen Shiyue, 2017: 102-103)

[1] 疫情致牛仔裤销量骤减

Pandemic leads to jeans sales slump
(China Daily Aug 10, 2020)

The headline introduces that Covid-19 pandemic has led to jeans sales slump. “疫情”was translated into “Pandemic”, “牛仔裤销量” was “jeans sales”, and “骤减” “slump”, which is exactly an example of literal translation. There’s no change in the form or style between the source text and the target text. It conforms to the fidelity rule of the Skopos Theory.

[2] 新冠抗原检测试剂获批

COVID antigen tests approved
(China Daily Nov 10, 2020)

This example is a typical word-for-word translation. “新冠”, an abbreviation for “新冠病毒”, was translated into “COVID”, short for coronavirus. “抗原检测”was translated into “antigen tests”and“获批”,“approved”. We can see that in this example, literal translation was used so that the form, style, and even the tense and voice of the source text are all retained. It is royal to the source text.

[3] 成都将建首个大熊猫主题公园

Chengdu Set to Get Unique Panda-themed Park
(China Daily, Jan 17, 2018)

This is an example of literal translation, remaining the original form and style of the Chinese version. It uses midget words “set” and “get”, taking into consideration the style of English news headlines, in order to attract readers from different walks of life. At the same time, the Chinese noun “大熊猫主题” is converted to the English adjective “Panda-themed”, which is very concise and accurate.

=====4.2.2 Free Translation =====
Free translation is applied when the news headline of the source text is obscure and difficult to understand or there are no equivalent words in the target language. Sometimes it is preferred because it adapts the original headlines to the target language. (Wang Jun, Chen Shiyue, 2017: 102-103)

[4] 不要人夸颜色好，只留清气满乾坤

Xi: China Welcomes Constructive Suggestions
(China Daily, Oct 25, 2017)

The source text is a poem, cited by President Xi at the press conference of 19th CPC Central Committee Political Bureau to hear constructive suggestions from people both at home and abroad. The poem, Ink Plum written by a famous Chinese ancient poet, Wang Mian, carries rich cultural connotations. If it is directly translated as “Not angling for compliments, we should be content that integrity fills the universe”, it will cause confusion to the target readers. Obviously, such a mechanical translation will discourage the reader from understanding the meaning of the poem. Therefore, the translation of this news headline should be based on the content of the news – Xi: Welcomes Constructive Suggestions. So, it is a typical example of free translation.

[5]姜瑜：外资应凭实力在华竞争

Foreign investors told to sharpen edge

This example takes into consideration of the reading habits and backgrounds of the target readers. “凭实力竞争” is translated to “sharpen one’s edge”, which is more understandable. “姜瑜”(Jiang Yu”, a heroic character in Chinese history is omitted. So, it is a free translation, which serves the informative function of the news and conforms to the Skopos rule.

=====4.2.3 Amplification =====
Most news headlines contain certain backgrounds that are familiar to the source language readers, but alien to those who read the target language. So, translators have the responsibility to turn information that is rich in cultural connotation into something understandable to target readers. This is particularly significant in translating news headlines from the perspective of Skopos theory because the purpose is to convey effective information to target readers. As mentioned in the chapter before, Chinese news headlines usually are culture-loaded. Therefore, amplification is frequently used in Chinese-English news headlines translation. （Fan Tengteng, 2006: 50-51）

[6] 水陆两栖飞机AG600首飞成功

China’s First Large Amphibious Aircraft Makes a Successful Maiden Flight
(China Daily, Dec 25, 2018)

Amplification is used in this translation. AG600, as called Kun Lun600, is the world’s largest amphibious aircraft developed by China. The translator adds a modifier “China’s first large” as a supplement of background to better inform the targe readers. Here, coherence rule of Skopos theory is considered.

[7] 共享单车来到“世界屋脊”

Shared Bikes Climb to the “Roof of the World” (Tibet)

“Roof of the World” is confusing for some target readers, so the translator adds “(Tibet)” at the end of the sentence to avoid ambiguity. This example obeyed the Skopos rule.

=====4.2.4 Omission =====
Omission is a translation method to make the news headline simple and concise by eliminating the redundant verbs, pronouns, and other words in the source text. As Chinese usually use unnecessary modifiers, this method can highlight the main point of the news. (Wang Jun, Chen Shiyue, 2017: 102-103)

[8] 对外汉语专家齐聚京城共议国际汉语教师缺口问题

Beijing forum addresses Chinese teacher shortage
(China.org.cn, Jul 21, 2021)

In this example, the first sentence is translated into a phrase, so as to shorten the length of the news headline and more it more concise. What’s more, redundant words like “齐聚”, “共议” “问题” are omitted to point out the main contents of the news.

[9] '大流行病'当选年度词汇

Word of the year: pandemic

(China Daily, Dec 12, 2020)

In the example, the verb “当选”(elected) in the source text is eliminated to save space.

=====4.2.5 Restructuring =====
Restructuring refers to the rearranging of the words in logical order to make the translation more consistent and coherent. The target text should be acceptable and meaningful in a sense that it is coherent with the situation in which it is received. Once translated, the translator revises the order and rearranges all words into a perfect sentence. In doing so, the news is more logical and tuned with the habit of native readers’ thinking and reading. It is frequently used in translating news headlines from Chinese into English. (Tang Ting, 2010: 25-26)
[10] 疫情期间夫妻关系改善

Marriages benefit from lockdown
(China Daily, Nov 23, 2020)

The English version changes the structure of the Chinese news headline, and adds a preposition to show the logic of this sentence. By restructuring, English readers can better understand this news headline.

=====4.2.6 Adaptation =====
Adaptation is a translation method, which refers to selecting, adding, deleting, and constructing cautiously instead of simply translating one word to another word. In order to make the translated version more proper to certain readers or audiences, adaptation always makes some essential changes for a special aim. Specific to C-E news headlines translation, the translator can take the Chinese news headlines as the basis and refer to the key news facts of the report, in order to offer as much information as possible to the target readers. (Wang Chi, 2013: 42-42)

[11] 高考将不再是 “一考定终身”

Changes to Uni Eligibility
（People’s Daily, 2014）

In this example, “高考” refers to the National College Entrance Examination in China, which is an expression with Chinese characteristics. Therefore, based on the main idea of the news, the translator translated it into “Uni Eligibility”

[12] 中国女性主导财务决策

'She' to power wealth management
(China Daily, Nov 23, 2020)

Adaptation is used in this translation. According to the contents of the news, women in different countries are mentioned. So, instead of translating “中国女性” into Chinese women, the English version adapted it into “she”, which adds interest and fun to the headline and thus can attract more readers. So, the functions of news headlines are performed by taking into consideration the Skopos rule.

====4.3 Summary====
This chapter introduces criteria, and strategies and methods of Chinese-English news headlines translation. It is the main body of the paper, which can serve as guidelines for translators who translate Chinese news headlines into English ones.

===V. Conclusion===
Based on Skopos theory, this paper discussed the features and functions of news headlines and their relevance to translation, summarized translation criteria, and strategies and methods adopted in actual C-E news headlines translation.

News translation is a cultural transformation with certain purposes(skopos). While conveying the connotation of the information, news translation must also take into account the habits of target readers. The purpose-oriented approach helps translators to break the language barriers and helps to convey cultural connotations and facilitate communication. The purposes and functions of translation determine the translation methods. In translation, the standard of translation should not be how to be faithful to the source text, to highlight the main points of the news and attract English readers. Therefore, the paper, applying the Skopos theory to Chinese-English news headlines, is of significance.

However, there are also limitations in the paper. The first problem is the complexity of the theoretical basis. The second one is that few data have been collected. And the last one is the capability of the author herself. So, there is still room for improvement.

--[[User:Zhang Weihong|Zhang Weihong]] ([[User talk:Zhang Weihong|talk]]) 02:27, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Zhang Weihong

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==On Chinese-English Translation of Public Service Advertisements From the Perspective of Text-type Theory 司妤 Si Yu Student No.202070080606==
<center> 司妤 Si Yu Student No.202070080606</center>

===Abstract===

Public-service advertising is an advertising activity that provides free services to the community without the purpose of making profit. Since the founding of the People's Republic of China, public-service advertising activities have increased and played an important role in the moral and ideological education of society as a whole, such as fire and burglary prevention, forest protection, birth control, maintenance of public order, no spitting and so on, all of which are in the nature of public-service advertising.

With the improvement of China's status in the international society, the accuracy of the translation of PSAs, as a medium to convey Chinese culture, is attracting more and more attention. Accurate translations help to showcase Chinese culture to foreigners and promote communication, while incorrect translations can be laughable.

In some public occasions, I have noticed that there are many excellent PSAs, but there are also some "Chinglish" PSAs. This paper analyzes the text of PSAs by using the Text-type theory, gives suggestions to improve the messy translation phenomenon, and summarizes several translation methods, hoping to provide reference for the translators of PSAs.

===key words===

Public-service advertisement;Text typeTheory;Translation methods

===文本理论视角下公益广告的中英翻译===

===摘要===

公益广告是不以营利为目的而为社会提供免费服务的广告活动。我国建国以后，公益性的广告活动日益增多，对全社会进行道德和思想教育发挥了重要作用，例如有关部门进行的防火防盗、保护森林、节制生育、维护公共秩序、不要随地吐痰等广告宣传，均属公益广告的性质。

随着中国在国际社会地位的提高，公益广告作为一种传递中国文化的媒介，其翻译的准确性日益受到人们的关注，翻译准确有利于向外国友人展示中国文化，促进交流。而翻译错误则容易贻笑大方。

笔者注意到在一些公众场合不乏优秀的公益广告翻译，同时也仍有一些“中式英语”公益广告存在。本文运用文本类型理论对公益广告文本进行分析，对乱译现象提出改进建议，总结了几点翻译方法，希望能够为公益文本译者提供借鉴。

===关键字===

公益广告；文本类型理论；翻译方法

===Introduction===

====Research Background====

Economic and social development and the improvement of people's living standards have brought many unprecedented changes to people, making their lives more convenient and colorful. But along with it comes a series of social problems such as indiscriminate dumping of urban garbage, neglect of wildlife protection, lack of care for public property, smoking in public places, etc.These social problems have also been magnified by the advance of urbanization. At this time, public service advertisement (PSA)can offer help if we want to activate more people to solve them.

There are many forms of public service advertisements, such as public service advertisement (PSA) clips, public service messages, and public service slogans. Each of these PSAs has its own textual characteristics, such as the PSA short film in the form of a short video, using a fascinating plot to illustrate the concept of public welfare; public service messages are simple but informative; public service slogans are neat and thought-provoking. The translation of these texts should be done according to the characteristics of the text in order to achieve the public service effect of the text.

With China playing an increasingly important role in the international community, a large number of international conferences are being held in China, and the number of foreign travelers arriving in the country is on the rise. The accuracy of the translation of public service advertisements is especially important at this time, not only to help foreigners in their travel work in China, but also to promote Chinese culture and to enhance their understanding of China.

It is worth mentioning that the overall quality of the Chinese people has been significantly improved compared to a few years ago, and the appearance of more and more elites has made the society think more deeply about the accuracy of translation, which is conducive to building a good city image and improving the aesthetic level of city residents and tourists.

Advertisements can be divided into commercial advertisements and public service advertisements according to content and purpose. Commercial advertisements are mostly published by enterprises, and their main purpose is to stimulate consumers and arouse their desire to consume, and their content is mostly product information.(Liu Xiaofang 2014)

There are some definitions from different people. Berkowitz, a famous scholar, who makes a thorough study of advertisement for more than 25 years, states that PSA is generally sponsored by a non-profitable institution, civic group, religious organization, trade association, or political group with a central focus on public welfare (Berkowitz, 2004). In China, according to Zhang Minxin’s definition, PSA is a sub-branch of non-commercial advertisement whose purposes are to serve the public interests. This kind of advertisement can push the public to change their attitudes and behaviors (Zhang Mingxin, 2004). There are some researchers at home and abroad trying to discover how public service advertisements work, such as: Judie Lannon (2008), Nancy Lee (2006), Josephson (2005) and other scholars hoping to discover the secrets behind public service advertisements and society, such as Charles Atkin (2001) and Pan Zehong (2001).

====Research Significance and Objectives====

As the influence of Chinese culture increases internationally, more and more foreigners want to learn about China. Some want to learn Chinese, and others want to know more about the social situation. Public service advertisements (PSAs) provide such an opportunity for them to learn and better understand China.

At the same time, some social problems, such as the Cov-19 epidemic, SARS, and AIDS, may not only be a problem for China, but also for the whole world, and the PSAs can provide a Chinese perspective and Chinese wisdom to solve these problems. In addition, when a disaster occurs, such as the Wenchuan earthquake, which aroused the attention and sympathy of the international community, and some friendly countries want to provide assistance, PSAs are extremely important. In this paper, the writer will analyze different public service advertisements from the perspective of text type theory and provide translation suggestions.

Public service advertisement texts are common texts in daily life, and many scholars have discussed them from various perspectives, including the theory of purpose, aesthetic perspective, semantic translation and communicative translation perspective. However, no scholars have analyzed them from the perspective of text type theory. The writer boldly proposes to look at public-interest text translation from such a perspective, which may lead to new insights.

====Methodology====

The texts in this paper are mostly from public service advertisements released by CCTV, publicservice text messages received by the public, and public service slogans around them. This paper adopts a descriptive approach to analyze the content and purpose of the texts in detail, and also gives its own suggestions on how to translate the public service texts.

====Framework of this paper====

This paper is divided into seven chapters.

Chapter 1 introduces the background, significance and purpose of the research, methodology, and general framework of this thesis.

Chapter 2 introduces the theoretical perspective used in this paper.

Chapter 3 analyzes the characteristics of public service texts from the perspective of content and text.

Chapter 4 gives examples of texts according to the three categories of text type theory and analyzes the more appropriate translations.

Chapter 5 lists the obvious mistranslations in PSAs and gives suggested versions of the translations.

Chapter 6 summarizes the methods that can be used to translate PSA texts.

Chapter 7 summarizes what has been discussed throughout the essay and reflects on the limitations of the essay.

===Overview of Theoretical Foundation and Comparisons===

====Reiss’s View of Text Type Theory====

Katharina Reiss is the founder of the German functional school of translation, and in her book Possibilities and Limitations in Translation Criticism she presented the prototype of the functional school's theoretical ideas. Reiss's text types are divided into four main categories. She points out that content texts emphasize the depictive function, formal texts emphasize the expressive function, operative texts emphasize the persuasive function, and audio-visual texts emphasize the audio-visual function. function). Therefore, these text categories can also be referred to as informative text, expressive text, operative text, and audio-visual text, respectively. Correspondingly, there are four types of functions.(Reiss 1972)

1. Content-based text

This type of text is content-based, and the text can be used to convey information and so on. When translating, the content should be restored to the greatest extent possible. These texts mainly include news reports and commentaries, business letters, cargo lists, instructions for use, operating instructions, and other professional works in technical fields.

2. Formal texts

The focus of formal texts is on their aesthetic significance. When translating such texts, the translator should aim to create a similar text effect in the form. Formal texts include literary prose (short essays, biographies, pure literature), imaginative prose (anecdotes, short stories, novels, romances), and all forms of poetry (from didactic poetry to narrative poetry to purely emotional poetry).
If the form is not preserved in translation, the content of the text may be lost as a result.

3. Operative texts

Operative texts are concerned with the response of the recipient of the text. This type of text clearly appeals to the recipient of the text through a certain point of view and with a certain purpose, expecting to receive the desired response. The representative texts are all operative texts in which the appealing element predominates, using advertisements, propaganda, sermons, debates, agitation or satirical texts that have an expressive purpose or linguistic expression.

4. Audiovisual texts

Generally speaking, any text that requires some degree of non-verbal communication with the audience is an audio-visual text. This includes mainly radio and television scripts, such as radio news and reports, overviews of hot topics, and theater productions. In these texts, not only grammar and narration techniques, but also sound effects and visual devices (in television and film) play an important role.

====Peter Newmark’s View of Text Type Theory====

Peter Newmark is one of the leading figures in the linguistic school of British translation theory. Newmark also made a detailed classification of texts, and he summarized them into the following three types according to their contents.(Peter Newmark 2001)

1. Expressive texts

This type of text focuses on the content of the text and the author's own point of view. Newmark divides them into three types of texts. (1) serious and imaginative literature, including lyric poetry, short stories, long novels, and plays; (2) authoritative texts, including a variety of texts whose authority comes from the author's status or linguistic ability, such as speeches and statements by senior government officials and political party leaders, legal regulations, documents, and literary and academic works written by authorities; (3) autobiographies, essays, and private letters that are straightforward and have no direct readership.(Jia Heping 2015)

2. Informative texts

The text often contains some content that does not involve the emotional and opinion part, and this part of the content can have its practicality, which is the information function of the text. Typical informative texts include textbooks, technical reports, newspaper articles, scientific papers, conference proceedings, etc.

3. Operative text

The function focuses on the response of the text receiver, and the text is set to get the desired response from the receiver, to produce certain influence on them or even change their concepts and behaviors. Typical vocative texts include notices, advertising campaigns, instructions, and persuasive texts (such as requests, appeals, etc.).

He classifies language functions into six categories, based on what the philosophers of language Bühler and Jacobson have said about language functions. He believes that a text may have one function or several functions, but that one of these functions is the main one, as explained below.

1. Expressive function

Expression is a fundamental property of language. Expression is the process by which people use language to express their feelings, attitudes, and opinions. Expression focuses on output of the writer, not on the other person's reaction and feelings.

2. Informative function

The content of the text is mainly fixed, not with emotion, can be used by people in certain situations.

3. Operative function

This function focuses on the reaction of the recipient of the text, and the writer envisages the reaction of the recipient of the text when writing, in order to achieve the corresponding purpose.

4. Aesthetic function

Language contains traces of history, which represents a certain aesthetic of people. The first means used for this function is sound, and the second is metaphor. In addition, the rhythm, balance and contrast of sentences and words also have a role. The aesthetic function is present in most of the text categories, moreover, it is indispensable for poems, nursery rhymes and some advertising campaigns.

5. Interpersonal function

The interpersonal function is reflected in people's daily interactions and conversations. That is, language helps people establish relationships with each other.

6..Meta-linguistic function

Meta-linguistic function is a special function of language, refers to the language of the language itself to explain, name, analyze, comment on the function. Some expressions in the text, such as “strictly speaking, literally, so called, so to speak, by definition, etc.”, are manifestations of the meta-linguistic function.

Of the above six functions, the first three are the main ones, but within a text, there may be multiple functions, but the text itself has a focus, and rarely does textual knowledge contain purely one function.(Li Zhi 2008)

====Similarities and Differences Between Reiss's and Newmark's View of Text Type Theory====

=====Similarities=====
Both theories are based on Bühler's triadic approach to language function.

Both have the same understanding of the division and characteristics of different kinds of texts.

=====Differences=====
First of all, language used in lived interaction is the main basis for Rice's definition of text types, and these are classified as text types that value content. Newmark, on the other hand, regards such lived language as a special linguistic function, and many experts consider this understanding by Newmark problematic.

Second, there is a significant difference in their views of instructions, with Rice classifying them as informative texts because of their ability to provide certain information to readers. Newmark, on the other hand, classifies it as a operative text because of its ability to guide people and thus change their behaviors. In my opinion, the text of instruction manuals is due to the nature of the product itself, and the readers have the will to act before reading the text, and the manuals only provide them with certain information, so they should belong to the information category.

Furthermore, the language used in living interactions is the main basis for Rice's definition of text types, and these are classified as text types that value content. Newmark, however, regards this lived language as a special language function, and many experts think that this understanding of Newmark is problematic.(Jia Heping 2015)

===Features of Public Service Advertisements===

As an advertising method, public service advertisements have their own characteristics in many aspects. By analyzing the characteristics, we can accurately convey the idea that the PSA is trying to convey.

====Content Features====

1. Public welfare. The public welfare nature of PSAs is their essential feature, which is concerned with the common interests of the entire society. By observing the theme and content of the PSAs in both China and abroad, it can be seen that the topics of PSAs cover ecological protection, care for the earth, quality birth and education, opposing cults, advocating science, opposing war, advocating polite social mores, patriotism, and so on.

2. Non-Profit. Public service advertisements are non-profit in nature. It does not exist for an organization or a business entity, but rather to draw people’s attention to and activate action on social issues. Commercial advertising, on the other hand, exists for financial gain.

3. Popularity. The public service advertisements are made for the general public. As the audience's cultural level, the ability to understand different, so public service advertisements must be easy to understand. It not only requires the spread of advertising content to have universal significance, but also the form of popular, concise, accessible language, easy to understand. Only in this way, the public service advertisement can really serve the purpose of the public.

4. Creativity. The advertising market is so diverse that the only way to make advertisements spread to the public is to design them in a creative and meaningful way that will make them known to
more people.

====The Features of Text Forms====

1.Advertising texts that we see in our daily lives include slogans, public service messages and public service videos, and so on. Advertising slogans are usually short and meaningful, with simple counterpoint sentences, and are operative texts. On the other hand,public service messages are mostly preventive messages issued by social organizations to help disseminate precautions and draw people’s attention to an unexpected situation in order to maintain social order. They are mostly informative texts. Most PSAs have a complete storyline, thought-provoking dialogue, and a short slogan that summarizes the message of the ad.

2. Public service advertisements are often designed with certain rhetorical techniques to enhance the aesthetics of the ad, make it catchy to read, and ultimately leave a deep impression on the public.

====Similarities and Differences Between Chinese and English PSA texts====

=====Similarities=====

1. Public service texts in both languages often use certain rhetorical techniques, such as personification, alliteration, and end-rhyme, in order to evoke a call to action.

2. Public service texts in both languages often use short sentences, especially in public service slogans, which are easy to remember and achieve the desired effect.

3. Both languages use idioms and sayings that have been around for a long time.

=====Differences=====

1. Chinese public service texts are good at using strong words such as "forbidden", while English texts use more euphemistic words such as "Please". When translating, we should respect the habits of the translating countries in order to better play the role of public welfare texts.

2. Chinese public service texts tend to use poetry-like forms, with seven or five characters in order to be neatly matched. In English, they mostly use phrases of the same number of words to match each other.

3.The translation of advertising slogans also needs to respect certain cultural differences, as Western societies emphasize the individual while the Chinese value collectivism. For example:

Example 1：保护生态环境，造福子孙后代。

Translation 1:Leave a sound ecological environment to your children.

Such a slogan in Chinese emphasizes the impact on future generations without specifying whose children and grandchildren it is, but in the translation, the translator translates it as "Leave a sound ecological environment to your children.” to call on people to protect the environment.

4. Westerners focus on direct expressions, while Chinese expressions are more subtle. For example:

Example 2: 司机一滴酒，亲人两行泪。

Translation:Drink and drive costs your life.

The sentence contrasts the words "酒" and "泪" without directly pointing out the possible serious consequences, leaving the reader to think about them and take actions. Instead, the translator simply translates it as "Drink and drive costs your life.”(Li Qingxue, Wang Huaiwang 2019)

===Examples of C-E Translation of Public Service Advertisements===

====Operative Text====

Most of the PSAs are operative texts, and the pupose of operative texts in PSAs is to affect the public in order to attain the desired response from the advertisers. PSAs are created to publicize something of common social interest in order to attract attention and action, so the creative design of the advertisement should take this into account and retain the appealing elements of the original text when designing the advertisement.

Example 3: 爱心播散希望萌芽

Translation: Spread love Sow hope

The public service advertisement slogan is from a public service advertisement released by CCTV in 2016, which tells the story of Zhao Xiaoting, a student from Wuhan University, who volunteered to go to Guizhou to teach in the mountains. It was her selfless love that sowed hope for the children in the mountains. The ad reflects the great power of ordinary people and promotes the core values of socialism. It shows the power that volunteering can bring.

The ad is very short, with a neat counterpoint, and the verb and noun have been swapped in the translation, with the verb being in front of the noun, indicating a dynamic process that can arouse the public's recognition of the act and inspire them to join in and contribute to the poor areas. The second verb in the original text is "萌芽", but the translation uses "sow" to indicate the growth of hope, which is similar to the original text.(Jin Haibing 2005)
In addition, the translation version capitalize these two verbs to emphasize these selfless behavior. Learning from this, we can also adopt this translation skill which originates from the difference between Chinese and English.

Example 4: 有你在，就是家。

Translation：You bring me warmth of home.

In this short film, a father in a rural area has never been away from home, and because he misses his son, who has not been home for a long time, he sets out on his own to visit him. The father has to change various means of transportation to get to the city, and encounters many difficulties because his being unable to speak mandarin well. The helpless father finally gets help from the staff, through whom he contacts his son. Eventually they both cry, and the short film ends with the father sitting on his son's motorcycleand going home together.

The short film is very touching, and through the process of going into the city to look for his son, it shows us how brave and gentle people can be for love. If we translate the text word by word in the original order, we can't express this meaning, so we use phrases like "bringing sb warmth" to express the meaning of the original Chinese.(Ye Qiuling 2020)

====Informative Text====

Public service messages are informatiive texts, mainly used to convey certain information, with straightforward and concise text content, and the translator only needs to express its literal meaning directly when translating.

Example 5：请您收到来自境外、国内新冠疫情中高风险地区的邮件、包裹，先对物品表面进行消毒，或在阳台等室外空旷处放置一段时间再打开。处理完包裹、邮件后，应立即用肥皂或洗手液清洗双手，或用免洗手消毒剂进行消毒。洗手前双手不触碰口、鼻、眼等部位。疫情防控有您的参与才能胜利！

Translation: If you receive mail or parcels from overseas or domestic areas at high risk of Cov-19 outbreak, please disinfect the suface of the items first, and leave them on the balcony or other outdoor open space for a period of time before opening them. Immediately after handling parcels and mail, wash your hands with soap and hand sanitizer, or disinfect them with hand sanitizer. Do not touch your mouth, nose, eyes or other parts of your body before washing your hands. Outbreak prevention and control can only be won with your participation!

Example 6：应急公益短信:为严防新型冠状病毒感染的肺炎疫情，山东省严禁任何形式的野生动物交易活动，严禁野生动物对外扩散和转运贩卖。对于违反规定的经营者、经营场所将予以停业整顿、查封，涉嫌犯罪的，将移送公安机关。社会各界如有发现违法违规交易野生动物的，欢迎拔打12345等投诉举报。

Translation: In order to prevent the outbreak of pneumonia due to new coronavirus infection, any form of wildlife trade is strictly prohibited in Shandong Province, and the proliferation and trafficking of wildlife is strictly prohibited. The company's main goal is to provide the best service to the public.
If you are suspected of committing a crime, you will be transferred to the public security organs. If any
illegal trade of wild animals is found, the community is welcome to call 12345 to report complaints.

====Expressive Text====

The purpose of an expressive text is to express emotions and attitudes, the language focuses on aesthetics, and the focus of the text is on the form of expression, which requires attention to equity in translation. With the development of the economy and society and the improvement of people's living standards, the aesthetic level of the masses is also improving, and accordingly, the translation of advertising slogans should also change to adapt to the improvement of people's aesthetics.

Example 7：善行无痕一种习惯的美丽

Translation: Kindness is traceless. A habit of beauty.

The slogan is from a public service advertisement by CCTV in 2016. In the short film, a wife walks into a room to rest after stopping on the balcony for a long time, and her husband comes back and intends to tum off the balcony light to save electricity. The wife stops the husband, and the camera turns to two elderly sanitation workers who are finishing their meal by the light of the lamp she left for them, which the young couple lit for them in the night.

Such kindness is obviously not accidental,but has been a habit of the wife in the short film, and is therefore natural and touching. The ad is intended to call attention to good deeds and habit formation through a story like this one. The ad's slogan is a literal translation, with "善行" translated as "Kindness" and "无痕" as "traceless"."The use of end-rhyme rhetoric, which pursues equivalence of expressions and enhances the rhythmic beauty of the language, impresses readers and influences their perceptions and habits of good deeds, serving as a public service advertisement.(LiQingxue, Wang Huaiwang 2019)

Example 8：保护肺脏，珍爱生命。（禁烟广告）

Translation: Save your lung, save your life.

The slogan comes from an anti-smoking advertisement that uses the alliteration, “lung” and “life”, to emphasize that quitting smoking is about protecting your lungs and your life. The two “saves” remind people that smoking is harmful to their health and that they should quit smoking as soon as possible to save themselves.

===Misinterpretation of Public Service Advertisments===

====Chinglish====
Chinglish refers to word-for- word translations that do not consider translation strategies from the perspective of the receiving language and cultural differences, and often cause difficulties in comprehension for the receiving readers.

Example 9：小心地滑

Misinterpretation: Foot Care.

Suggested translation: Mind your step.

The above misinterpretation is translated word-for-word, which not only makes it difficult for the recipient readers to read, but also affects the image of the city as a whole, so more citizens are taking notice and taking action to reject "dead translation" and "Chinglish".

====Grammatical errors====
Most grammatical errors are caused by the translator's own incompetence, mainly in the use of articles, subject- predicate inconsistencies, mis-matching of verb phrases, and word confusion.

Example 10：珍爱生命远离毒品。

Mistranslation: Yes to life, no to drugs.

Suggested translation: Cherish life and avoid drugs.

The public service advertisement came from an anti-drug advertisement, obviously the mistranslated structure of the translation does not fit English conventions.

====Inappropriate Use of Words====
There are some words in English that are very similar to each other, and improper use of words means that the translator uses words haphazardly without clearly distinguishing between similar words, resulting in a misinterpretation.

Example 11：关爱残障人士

Improper translation: Care for the handicapped.

Suggested translation: Care for the disabled.

The slogan is from a public service advertisement in which the word "handicapped," which translates to "the handicapped," is now somewhat outdated and contains a certain amount of offensive language that sometimes causes people to be It would make more sense to change it to "the disabled", relatively speaking.

====Redundancy====
The redundancy is due to the fact that the translators do not fully understand the differences between Chinese and foreign cultures and the purpose of the text.

Example12：一花一草皆生命一枝一叶总关情

Improper Translation: Alive as all living things each flower and leaf of grasses require our care.

Suggested Translation: Please give me a chance to grow.

The original translator intended to present a vivid description of the original slogan in front of people, but failed to consider that the slogan was intended to arouse people's love for flowers and plants. We suggest that the translation should start from the operative textual features of the slogan and combine it with the straightforward expression habits of foreigners to call on people to take care of flowers and plants in a more euphemistic way.

===Methods of C-E Translation of Public Service Advertising===

====Literal Translation====

The main characteristics of literal translation are twofold: in the treatment of word meanings and rhetoric (e. g., metaphors), it does not use transitive techniques (this distinguishes "literal translation"from "free translation"); in the treatment of linguistic forms (i.e., lexical-syntactic structure), it allows appropriate changes and shifts (This distinguishes "literal translation" from "word- for-word translation").(Xiong Bing 2013) For example.

Example 13: 我的盛开需要你的关爱

Translation : Luxuriant flowers need your care.

The translation retains the personification of the original, treating flowers as species with emotions, but directly specifies that "I" means "flower", which is in line with the habit of expression of the target audience and serves as a reminder.

Example 14: 节约用水就是珍爱生命

Translation : To save water is to save life

The original text translates "conserve water" and "cherish life" into a neat pairing, and the translation also translates them into a neat pairing, and the expression is in line with the habits of expression of the people in the receive language. Both the original text and the translation equate "conserve water" with "cherish life" to arouse the attention of the masses and advertise the importance of saving water.

====Paraphrase====

A paraphrase translation is one in which the translator does not stick to the details of the meaning of the original text, much less to its vocabulary and syntactic structure, but "uses the original text as a reference model" and either translates only the general meaning, gist or key information (or selectively some of it) by condensing it, or translates it into a text with more information compared to the original article. (Xiong Bing 2013) For example.

Example 15:爱我,追我,千万别吻我。

Translation: Drive carefully!

The original text is from a public service advertisement advocating cautious driving. The translation does not follow the literal meaning, but rather the translator uses a paraphrasing technique after understanding the meaning of the sentence and chooses two words to express the meaning. It is short and serves as a warning to motorists.

Example 16：手下留情花自香，脚下留意草如茵。

Translation: Take care of grass and flowers, please.

The original text is a public service slogan with Chinese cultural characteristics, but it is difficult to find a corresponding expression in English when translating. Here the translator uses an invocation to remind the masses.

====Borrowing Translation====

A borrowing Translation is an explanation that replaces the original word or phrase by borrowing the idiom of the target language. For example.

Example 17: 爱心传递你我，文明就在身边。

Translation: Where there is a love, there is a virtue.

The original is a slogan from an advertisement for the Olympic Games, which is a medium for promoting the spirit of the Games and the country's outlook. The translator chose a well-known proverb from the translated country, "Where there is a will, there is a way," to expand the publicity effect.

Example 18: 让世界倾听我们的声音

Translation : Let our voice be heard in the world.

The original text was a slogan from a CCTV public service advertisement, which was based on the lyrics "Let our voice be heard.

===Conclusion===

In this paper, the writer divides and analyzes different texts and explain the approaches they take in translation. This perspective of using text type theory to analyze and discuss how to translate public service texts may be of some help to scholars.

According to different texts, the text type theory has its own emphasis in translation, and different PSA texts are mostly operative texts, and sometimes one text has multiple textual characteristics, which translators can take into full consideration when choosing the emphasis and translation methods.
Public service translation is very different from commercial advertising translation, which is mainly used to educate the public, convey correct and positive values, encourage people to take actions to help others, and create a good social environment to resist bad behaviors. Generally speaking, it is necessary to consider the actual situation when translating the PSAs.

Through analyzing the texts of PSAs, the author has made the following discoveries, and the translation of PSAs can be done according to the text type theory. Although there are some cultural differences between the two languages, the differences do not make translation difficult to achieve. If literal translation cannot translate the meaning of the source text, then paraphrase,borrowing translation and other translation methods can also be used.

===Limitation===

In this paper, I put forward some personal ideas, but in the final version, I can still find my own shortcomings. First of all, there is still a lack of richness of information due to the limitation of space. Secondly, the depth of my ideas is still insufficient, and I only hope that this article can provide some research ideas for researchers and contribute to the translation of public service texts.

===References===

Newmark .(2001).P.A Textbook of Translation .Shanghai :Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

Reiss,Katherina.(2004).Translation Criticism: the potential & limitation . trans .by Erroll F.Rhodes .Shanghai :Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

Chen Yanhong 陈燕红. (2012). 文化视角中汉英公益广告的翻译策略 [Translation Strategies of Chinese-English Public Service Advertisements in Cultural Perspective].

Jin Haibing 金海兵. (2005). 试谈公益广告标语及其翻译 [On Analyzing Public Service Advertisements and Their Translation].

Jia Heping 贾和平. (2019). 论纽马克与赖斯的文本分类比较研究 [A Comparative Study on Newmark’s and Reiss’s Text Type Classification ].

Li Zhi 李治. (2008). 论纽马克与赖斯的文本分类比较研究 [Newmark’s and Reiss’s Text Type Classification and A Comparative Analysis of Translation Methodology ].

Li Qingxue, Wang Huaiwang 李庆学王怀望. (2019). 接受美学视角下的公益广告翻译 [A Study of English Translation of Public Service Advertisements from the Perspective of Reception Aesthetics].

Liu Xiaofang 刘晓芳. (2015). 目的论视角下《中国日报》公益广告英译的探析 [The English Translation of PSAs in China Daily from the Perspective of Skopos theorie].

Xiong Bing 熊兵. (2013). 翻译研究中的概念混淆 [Conceptual Confusion in Translation Studies].

Ye Qiuling 叶秋伶. (2020). 语义翻译和交际翻译理论视角下中文公益广告英译——以央视公益广告为例 [English Translation of Chinese Public Service Advertisements from the Perspective of Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation Theory - Taking CCTV Public Service Advertisements as an Example].

History of Translation Studies 8

2021-01-03T09:10:16Z

Weiyafei: /* On Chinese-to-English Translation of The Summer Palace from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches to Translation 魏亚菲 Wei Yafei 202020080648 */

这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第八部分(Part 8)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。

学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。

*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]
*Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].

='''History of Translation'''=

==A Comparative Study on the Translation History in Western Countries and China, 王煜 Wang Yu, MTI 英美文学==
<center>Wang Yu 王煜，202020080645.</center>
===Abstract===
Translation is an intercultural communication activity. Translation activities have accelerated the development of human civilization and broken through the language barriers. As time goes by, things are in a state of flux and both the Western and Eastern countries have gradually formed their own histories of translation, the study of translation history is a basic project of discipline construction. Although there are many differences between the translation histories of the Western countries and of China, the two kinds of translation histories are still shining their own bright and unique lights and have a lasting influence and they contribute indelibly to translation activities. This chapter intends to make a brief comparison between the translation histories of Western countries and of China. It includes the origins, the stages, the representatives of the stages, the significance and influence as well as the differences of the two translation histories.

===Key words===
translation history of the West; translation history of China; comparative study

===中西翻译史对比研究===

===摘要===
翻译是一种跨文化交流活动，翻译活动加快了人类文明发展步伐，减少了人们之间的沟通障碍。随着时代的变迁，中国和西方国家逐渐形成了各自的翻译史，翻译史的研究是学科建设的一项基础工程。尽管中西方翻译史在某些方面有所差异，但却都有着各自的独特性，并对人类的翻译活动产生了巨大的影响与贡献。文章将以中国和西方国家为主要对象，从二者翻译史起始，包含阶段和各阶段代表人物，影响意义，差异性出发，对二者的翻译史进行简略的对比研究。

===关键词===
西方翻译史；中国翻译史；对比研究

===1. Introduction===

No matter where, in China or in the West, translation plays an important role in knowledge-spreading. As an indispensable part of translatology, the study of translation history had a huge impact on translation activities, it has gradually become the focus of literary and historical circles in recent years. Translation activities can be traced back to the origin of languages. The history of translation is almost as old as language itself, which is closely related to the changes in today's society.

Since the 1980s, the translation studies in mainland China have made remarkable progress in the design of curricula of Chinese and Western translation history courses and the compilation of related works. In the early 1980s and 1990s, many related works appeared, one after the other, including ''A Brief History of Chinese Translation. Vol. "Until the May 4th Movement"''（《中国翻译简史-“五四”运动以前部分》） written by Ma Zuyi , ''A Historical Manuscript of Chinese Translated Literature'' （《中国翻译文学史稿》）edited by Chen Yugang, and also ''A Short History of Translation in the West''（《西方翻译简史》）, authored by Tan Zaixi. Thus, it opens the door for the compilation of works on Chinese and Western translation history. (Xie Tianzhen 2009, Ⅴ)

The history of Western translation can be divided into five stages while the Chinese study of translation has a history of more than two thousand years and has experienced five climaxes in respect of volume. The comparative study of Chinese and Western translation history will help us to get a deeper understanding of Chinese and Western translation activities, thus to gather a general full view of it, which is a meaningful attempt.

===2. The Translation History of Western Countries===

Western translation activities have a rich and long history. The history of Western translation can be roughly divided into three stages: traditional, modern and contemporary. There are five peaks during the three stages: the ancient times, the middle ages, the Renaissance period and the time after WWⅡ.

===2.1 The First Stage: Translation in Ancient Times===
In literature we often find wrong assessments. An example is Tan Zaixi's book about translation history: According to him, the translation history of Western countries began in the 3rd century BCE. In a broad sense, as Tan argues, the earliest translation in the West is the Old Testament translated by 72 Jewish scholars in Alexandria, ancient Egypt, between the 3rd and 2nd centuries BCE. Strictly speaking, in Tan's understanding, the first Western translation is the Greek Homer Epic ''Odyssey'' translated by Andronicus in Rome in the middle of the third century BCE. (Tan Zaixi 2000, 88-89) However, we know, the first evidences of translations date back 5000 years, i.e. 3000 BCE, e.g. the Gilgamesh Epos, the Rosetta Stone etc.

At the end of the 4th century BCE, Greek cities began to collapse and the Romans became stronger and stronger with their military expansion. With the expansion of the Roman Empire, it came into contact with the rich Greek culture. After conquering Greek cities, the Romans inherited and developed the highest achievements of ancient Greek culture, and then their culture dominated the region after the Greek epoch. Thus, large scale translation activities of translating and introducing Greek classical works began in this period. (Liu Junping 2009, 8)

At that time, many famous translation theorists began to make their presences, namely Cicero, Quentin, Jerome and so on, also the Roman litterateurs like Andronicus, Naevius, Ennius, these great writers used Latin language to translate Homer’s epic or other Greece dramas. It started the translation tradition of Rome and promoted the development of Roman literature. (Tan Zaixi 2000, 89)

===2.2 The Second Stage: Translation in the Middle Ages (4th-6th)===

According to Tan's view, the second culmination occurred in the late Roman Empire in the early Middle Ages. In this period, translation was mainly related to the religious stuff. Religious forces have a broad-ranging influence in the West. Christianity strived to promote its own religion, thus, ''the Bible'', as a source and psychological weapon of the Christianism, naturally meant a lot to the people in religious world. Because the Old Testament of the Bible was written in Hebrew and Greek, it needed to be translated into Latin for effective circulation in Rome.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 89)

Jerome was a Latin Christian priest, he translated the Bible into Latin(Vulgute) according to the Hebrew version of the Bible. This version he translated had made impact on medieval theology and was the most widely circulated and authoritative translation in the Middle Ages, marking an unprecedented level of the development of the Western translation."(Tan Zaixi 2000, 89)

===2.3 The Third Stage: Translation in the Middle Ages (11th-12th)===

This period can also be called "the period of the Arab Centennial Translation Movement",(Liu Junping 2009, 9) which lasted over two hundred years. In order to consolidate the rule and promote socio-economic and cultural development, the medieval Arab Empire undertook a massive, organized academic activity to translate and introduce the scientific and cultural classics of ancient Greece and the East. Translators of this period actively translated some important works of Greek literature in all disciplines with an open mind and a strong desire for knowledge.

Between the 11th and 12th centuries, Toledo became Europe’s academic center for its prosperous translation activities, the Western translators who gathered here translated many works from Arabic into Latin. Cultural patterns and religious ideas gradually converged here.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 90)

Until nowadays, the positive influence of this movement still plays an inherent role: numerous proprietary names such as ‘concept’, ‘category' are gradually established in Arabic. This movement not only facilitated the integration of the inner Arab world, but also, in fact, promoted the integration of the Western and Persian worlds.

===2.4 The Fourth Stage: Translation in the Renaissance Period===

The Renaissance movement is a European ideological and cultural movement that took place from the 14th century to the 16th century, and reached its peak in the 16th century and inspired a cascade of the development of science, art and literature. A large number of famous translators shown up and a series of translation works had been produced. During this time, a quantity of ancient Greek and Roman classics had been rediscovered and translated into various European languages, which had brought about an impact on the European nation states.

Leonardo Buruni, who was one of the most influential cultural translation practitioners in the Renaissance period, and he was also one of the earliest representatives of humanistic translators in the history of Western translation. He was famous for his translation of Plato's and Aristotle's works. Also, some humanists began to study the Bible with the method of studying classical literature, and translated the Bible into theie national language, which led to the rise of the religious reform movement. In Germany, Martin Luther, a religious reformer, translated the first mass Bible, which ushered in a new era in the development of modern German. In Britain, Chapman, a writer and translator, translated Homer's ''Iliad'' and ''Odyssey'' from 1958 to 1616, and the translation and publication of the King James Bible in 1611 marked the formation of modern English.(Liu Junping 2009, 9)

From above examples we can see that the Renaissance movement played a very important role in the Western history of the development of translation, it marked the status of national language in the field of literature. Simultaneously, it showed that translation is playing a role in the formation and development of the national language, literature and thought.(Liu Junping 2009, 9)

During the three hundred years lasted from the 17th century to the 19th century, translation activities at this time continued to move forward. Although the scale and influence of these activities could not be compared with that of the Renaissance movement, there were still many excellent translators and works they translated. The biggest feature of this period was that translators not only continued to translate classical works, but also became interested in modern and contemporary works. The works of Cervantes, Shakespeare, Balzac, Goethe and other great writers had been repeatedly translated into various languages, and translations of Eastern literature have also been published.(Liu Junping 2009, 9)

===2.5 The Fifth Stage: Translation after WWⅡ===

World War II has brought different degrees of blows to many Western countries, after the end of the war, some Western countries have used a large amount of capital to actively resume the production, developed various social fields and attached great importance to the person with ability. Western science and technology are changing with each passing day, driven by cybernetics, information theory and system theory. The world of knowledge and experience has been greatly expanded, and the social and cultural exchanges have become increasingly closee, all of these changes have provided a solid material foundation and ideological guarantee for the prosperity of the translation at this time.

With the growth in number of translation activities, translation theory continues to develop, and the number of translation talents in various countries keeps on increasing. Translation has gradually expanded from traditional literary and religious translation to other fields, such as scientific and technical translation and business translation. Some professional translators appeared in international conferences which has shown that the influence of translation in international communication has become more and more obvious. (Liu Junping 2009, 9)

===3. The Translation History of China===

China has a long history with 5000 years of civilization. we know that China is a multi-ethnic country, we can not ignore the irreplaceable role of translation in the communication between different ethnic groups. There is no reference to the history of translation in China, although there are some documents in the Xia and Shang Dynasties, we still can not discern the translation activities at that time from the existing records. According to Ma' saying, "The song of the Yue Boatman can be regarded as the first poetry translation in Chinese history."(Ma Zuyi1998,5) However, it was only an isolated translation activity and did not trigger a large-scale translation movement in China.

===3.1 The First Stage：Translation of Ancient Buddhist Scriptures===

The first stage of the Chinese translation history was the time of the translation of ancient Buddhist scriptures. Some said that ''The Potala Sutra'' should be the earliest translation of Buddhist scriptures in China. It was also said that the ''Forty-Two Chapters Sutra'' is the earliest Chinese translation of the Buddha's sutras. However, the one that was proven to be reliable should be the book ''The Fifty Books of the Mingdu'' translated by An Shigao during the reign of Emperor Huan of the Eastern Han Dynasty.(Ma Zuyi 1998, 17)

From the book of Ma we konw that the history of the translation of ancient Buddhist scriptures has experienced four phases, each of which had its own features: the first was the starting period from the last year of emperor Huan in the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Western Jin Dynasty. Translators in this period were mainly Buddhist monks.(Ma Zuyi 1998, 33) However, the quality of the translated works depends on the ability of the translators’ understanding of Chinese, so the classics of the translated works are varied. Also, due to the shortage of learners' knowledge of language, they usually used literal translation to translate the works.

The second was the developing time of the translation of ancient Buddhist scriptures, from the Eastern Jin Dynasty to the Sui Dynasty. The Buddhist scriptures continued to prevail under the rulers' advocacy and people began to translated Buddhist scriptures in an organized way but still translated the works literally. During this period, Shi Daoan put forward the his famous theory of ‘Five losses of source texts and three difficulties in translation’.

Meanwhile, through the translation and interpretation of nearly 400 volumes of Buddhist classics, Kumarajiva first introduced Indian Buddhism to Chinese people, which played an important role in the prosperity of Chinese Buddhism at that time.(Ma Zuyi 1998, 40) The translation in this time had changed from individual translation into group translation which had improved the quality of translation and as well made some progress in translation theories and skills.(Ma Zuyi 1998, 55)

The third was the heyday of the translation history which took place in Tang Dynasty.(Ma Zuyi 1998, 58) Xuanzang was an important figure in promoting Sino-Indian friendship and cultural exchanges in China's history，he was a great translator and organizer of translation activities, and he was also a great translation theorist whose contribution to translation studies still remains an impact today.

The last phase was the Northern Song Dynasty, the activities of studing the translation of Buddhist scriptures gradually withered, and during this period, the translation activities mainly focused on the esoteric classics translations.(Ma Zuyi 1998, 82)

===3.2 The Second Stage：Technical Translation during the Yuan and Ming Dynasties===

The activities of the translation of Buddhist scriptures gradually declined during the two hundred years of the Ming Dynasty. With the arrival of the Western Christian missionaries, China came into contact with Europe. In order to facilitate their relations with Chinese officials and intellectuals, the missionaries translated the works of Western science and technology as well as Christian texts assisted by Chinese officials. They also introduced the Chinese classics to the West.(Ma Zuyi 1998, 263)

Matteo Ricci came to China on a mission to introduce Western scientific and technological knowledge. He pioneered the history of combining the Chinese and Western translation to introduce Western scientific and technical literature, and he was the first to translate the ''Four Books'' into Latin and introduced Chinese texts to the West.(Ma Zuyi 1998, 263)

From the Wanli period of the Ming Dynasty to the "new learning" period of the Qing Dynasty, translators who introduced science, literature and philosophy of Western Europe, represented by Xu Guangqi, Lin Shu and Yan Fu appeared. Xu Guangqi was a patriotic scientist and organizer of the scientific and cultural movement in China at the end of the Ming Dynasty, he made outstanding achievements in introducing Western natural sciences and promoted the development of science in China.

===3.3 The Third Stage：Literary Translation in Late Qing Dynasty===

After the Opium War, the Qing government organized a large number of scholars to translate books of Western natural science. Under the influence of the refroming thought, a large number of translations introducing Western political thoughts, scientific methods and some literary works appeared. ''The Records of Four Continents'', translated by Liang Jinde, asked by Lin Zexu, was the first systematic introduction to the geographical knowledge of Western countries in modern China.（Ma Zuyi 1998, 329）

After the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895, Yan Fu translated the theory of evolution and put forward the three criterias of ‘faithfulness, fluency and elegance’, which has played a guiding role in the translation practice of later generations. His translation promoted the development of "new learning" and enlightened the Chinese nation at that time.（Ma Zuyi 1998, 377）

Another scholar Liang Qichao, who was a politician, thinker and encyclopedia scholar of that time, advocated that China needs to develop the translation career and cultivate translation talents at a full stretch. He had done fruitful researches on the translation of Buddhist scriptures and the translation of science and technology between the Ming and Qing Dynasties.（Ma Zuyi 1998, 384）

===3.4 The Fourth Stage：The Translation of Socialist and Communist Works===

The May 4th Movement was a watershed in China's modern translation history, which made a significant contribution to the introduction of foreign literature to China and the development of literature in China. After the May 4th movement, China's translation industry has ushered in a new historical period. Translators in this period, compared with those during the late Qing dynasty, were more selective in source texts. Chinese translation scholars began to introduce the classic works of Marxism-Leninism and the literature of the proletariat. The translation of the Manifesto of the Communist Party was published during the May 4th movement.

During this period, great changes have taken place in the content and form of translation work: vernacular began to replace classical Chinese, as a result, popular language becomes easy to understand and the excellent literary works of western countries have attracted more and more Chinese readers.

Famous translators like Lu Xun, Mao Dun, Zheng Zhenduo, Guo Moruo, Zhu Shenghao, Lin Yutang had translated a large number of foreign masterpieces, which enriched the inner world of the Chinese people. Lu Xun once advocated that there should be an exotic atmosphere in the translated works which would familiarize the readers with the foreign cultures. He also believed that the literal translation of culturally loaded words was one of the important means of enriching the mother tongue. These scholars helped the Chinese people to know more about the outside world and laid a good foundation for the systematization and scientification of translation theory in China.

===3.5 The Fifth Stage：The Translation after 1949===

The founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949 enabled translation to enter a new era. With the founding of the new China, China's translation industry was also liberated. Translation became a very important part of the national, cultural and educational cause. National organizations for translators were established in order to protect the interests and benefits of translators, as a result, the quantity and quality of translated works have grown by leaps and bounds.

Since then, translation work has been an important part of the new socialist culture and developed rapidly, many achievements have been made and translation theories are perfected. The classical works of Marxism-Leninism, excellent foreign literature, scientific and technical literature and the like were systematically introduced by translators or the scholars. There are large-scale translation activities like the activities of translating the works of Marx and Lenin.

In the 1950s, scientific and technical works were translated in order to meet the demands of the national social and economic construction. In the 1970s, the United Nations documents were translated after China was restored to its rightful seat in the United Nations. Also, literary translators became a very important part of China's literature and arts personnel. Qian Zhongshu at this time put forward his "transmigration theory"(化境说) for literary translation. In 1978, two years after the end of disastrous "cultural revolution," China adopted its policy of reform and opening up, a new and dynamic atmosphere for translation thus came into being.

===4.The Comparative Study Among the Two Kinds of Translation Histories===

===4.1 The Similarities of the Western and Chinese Translation History===

We can easily notice that in the history of Chinese and Western translation, almost all the early translation activities were the translation of religious classics. The translation of religious classics had opened the curtain of Chinese and Western translation history. The spread of religion is always accompanied by the translation of religious classics. It is not difficult for us to understand the reason: after the emergence of religion, in order to absorb more believers, it is necessary to spread the religious beliefs widely across nations and countries. Therefore, from ancient times to the present, religion is always a kind of forms of various national beliefs and cultures, it keeps on influencing the spiritual belief and behavior of people in society.

The translation activities have made many contributions to the establishment and development of national languages in various countries. For example, in the history of Western translation, Martin Luther's translation of the Bible played an important role in the unification and development of the German language and the establishment of modern German.

What’s more, the English version of the Bible enriched the English vocabulary and benefited the modernization of English language a lot. The same in China, the translation of the Buddhist scripture also enriched the use of Chinese vocabulary. And in the ideological field, it not only laid the foundation for the establishment of Taoism, but also paved the way for the formation of "New Confucianism" in the Song Dynasty. And we also can not ignore the contribution of the literary translation made in the first half of the 20th century to the establishment and development of modern vernacular Chinese.

The translation activities help to transmit cultural values and promote cultural exchange. These activities make a close connection between nations and countries and introduceg the language and cultural habits of one nation to another. For example, Jesuits came to China in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, they translated Chinese classics and literary works into foreign languages, and became the middlemen of the exchange of Chinese and Western civilizations in a state of isolation between China and Europe.(Tan Zaixi 1999, 26)

===4.2 The Differences Between the Western and Chinese Translation History===

First, time is different. The history of Western translation predates Chinese translation jistory by over 200 years. It is said that the reason is the differences in topography and geomorphology of the two parts. We all know that China possesses a great number of mountains and lakes, and in ancient times, it would take quite a few days to send messages from one place to another, especially when people in remote areas, it would be a hard and long journey for them to head for thier destinations. So, there is a difficulty in communicating among the various peoples in different nations or different places because there would be a delay in their communications and connections.

As for the West, there are numerous plains, so, it was much convenient and easier for the Western people to communicate and exchange their ideas with each other, which set a ideal environment for the development of translation activities.

Also, the position of religion varies. China and the West have different concepts of religion, because different religious cultures have different forms of expression and vocabularies of their own. In the West, the Bible is not only a religious classic but also an important mainstay of Western culture and the foundation of Christian faith. Buddhism was introduced into China from India in a very early year and became a very important part of Chinese traditional culture, the rulers of that time controlled their people spiritually in order to consolidate his ruling position, and the doctrines of Buddhism satisfied to the ruler's appetite, so Buddhism was first spread among the ruling class and gradually gained its legal status.

The tradition of Western and Chinese translation differs. One of the differences is between the single system and poly system. “The simplicity of Chinese translation tradition is mainly in the narrow sense，though there are different kinds of translations of national languages in China, most of them are still dominated by the tradition of Chinese language and culture translation, because they all occurred in the same environment of the language culture since ancient times, that is , the environment of Chinese language culture.”(Tan Zaixi 2000, 15)

In contrast, in terms of space, the Western translation tradition did not always develop in the same region. In the later formation and development process, it spread throughout all ethnic regions in Europe；In terms of time, the Western translation tradition began in ancient Rome, and then evolved into the ancient Latin language and culture system. In the later period of the middle ages, the system expanded and evolved into many relatively independent ethnic systems. So the system of the West is more like a kind of poly system instead of a single system like China.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 15)

The focus of Chinese and Western translation is different. Chinese translation traditions are more practical rather than theoretical. Like professor Tan Zaixi once said: “What Chinese translators and translation theorists most concerned about is how to deal with the difficulties in translation.” However, Western translation pays more attention to systematicness and theory.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 16)

Secondly, the national characteristics of China and the West are also different. Relatively speaking, Western ideas are more open and Chinese more conservative. For a long time, the Chinese people advocate authority and afraid of challenging it. China's three cardinal principles and five constancies in religion are in sharp contrast to the religious reform in the West. Although the West also advocates authority and takes religion as its belief, it dares to break dogmatism, which brings a breakthrough to Western translation studies to a certain extent.

===Conclusion===

History is like a bridge connecting the past, present and future. Throughout the history of translation between China and the West, although the differences between them inevitably exist, the translation achievements made by both sides are remarkable: excellent translators, translation scholars, or translation theories, translation works, all of these guide the way for our future translation research, they are leading people to pursue knowledge and to explore into the unknown field.

Also, mastering the history of a discipline can help us see the direction of its development clearly, we then will be able to learn from the experience and lessons in the process and use this kind of method to guide the development of this subject. To know more about the history of translation is helpful for us to improve the level of our skills of translation and develop the translation career. The achievements of our predecessors have accumulated valuable cultural heritages for us, we should sum up our predecessors' translation experience and continue to make our efforts for our country's translation career.

===References===

*Li Xuan. 李璇. (2012). 中西翻译高潮之对比 [Comparison of Translation Climax Between China and the West]. ''青年文学家'' Youth Literator(3) 131.
*Liu Junping. 刘军平. (2009). ''西方翻译理论通史'' [A General History of Western Translation Theory]. Wuhan: Wuhan University Press 武汉大学出版社.
*Ma Zuyi. 马祖毅. (1998). ''中国翻译简史-“五四”以前部分（修订本）'' [A Brief History of Chinese Translation: The Part Before the May 4th Movement] . China Translation Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.
*Qi Jian. 戚健. (2017). 古罗马时期翻译思想新探 [A New Probe Into the Translation Thoughts in Ancient Rome]. ''南昌航空大学学报：社会科学版'' Journal of Nanchang Hangkong University: Social Science (3) 68-74.
*Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (2000). ''翻译学'' [A Series of Translation Studies in China]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.
*Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (1999). 中国翻译与西方翻译 [Chinese Translation and Western Translation].''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation Journal(5) 6-8.
*Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (2000). 中西译论的相异性 [The Differences Between the Chinese and Western Traditions of Translation Theories]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation Journal (1) 15-21.
*Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (1999). 中西译论的相似性 [The Similarities Between the Chinese and Western Traditions of Translation Theories]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation Journal (6) 25-28.
*Wang Yong. 汪勇. (2008). 翻译与宗教传播 [Translation and Religious Communication]. ''中国校外教育理论'' Education for Chinese After-school(26) 51-53.
*Xie Tianzhen. 谢天振. (2009). ''中西翻译简史'' [A Brief History of Translation in China and the West]. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社.--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 01:49, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Comparison and Translation Studies Between Chinese and Western Color Terms 方洁玲 Fang Jieling 外国语言学及应用语言学==

=== Abstract ===
Color terms are terms used to describe the external color characteristics of things, and are very common in our lives. We use them not only to describe the external image of an object, but also to express our inner psychological feelings. Color words contain rich cultural connotations, which should not be understood simply from their literal meanings when translated, but from the different cultural connotations and extended meanings contained in the color words to understand and choose the meanings of the words. This paper first introduces the composition of color words in Chinese and English and makes a comparative analysis of their characteristics, then discusses the different meanings given to the six colors in Chinese and English, and then provides different translation methods that should be used in different situations, providing a certain reference for the English-Chinese translation.

===Key words ===
color terms, cultural difference , reason ,translation methods

=== 摘要 ===
颜色词是用来描述事物外在颜色特征的词语，在我们生活中非常常见。我们不仅用它描绘物体的外在形象，也用它表达内在心理感受。颜色词包含了丰富的文化内涵，在翻译的时候不能简单地从字面意思上理解，应从颜色词所包含的不同文化内涵和引申意义来理解和选择词义。本文将首先介绍中英颜色词的构成并对其特点进行对比分析，然后具体论述六种颜色在中英文中被赋予的不同意义，接着提供了面对不同情况应该采用的不同翻译方法，为英汉互译提供了一定的参考。

=== 关键词 ===
颜色词文化差异原因翻译方法

=== 1.Introduction ===

Color is an indispensable part of human life,it is because of the colorfulness of colors that the world is much more varied and pleasant. Color words not only have an important impact on people's vision, but also have a great impact on people's inner feelings and emotional expression. As an important part of language, color words are frequently used by human beings in English, but due to different histories, cultures, customs and habits, in the long run, different people have given specific meanings to various colors.

Analyzing and comparing the different connotations of color words in Chinese and Western cultures and exploring the cultural differences between English and Chinese will be of great help to the translation work between English and Chinese. At the same time, translators will inevitably meet a lot of problems in the translation work. In this paper, we mainly discuss the composition and cultural connotation of color words between Chinese and English. In addition, we also propose some translation methods and make a brief conclusion.

=== 2.Characteristics of the Composition of Chinese and Western Color Words ===

Color words are words used to describe the color of different things. And they are the symbols that exist in human languages to record a large number of colors, which are generally considered to be adjectives in grammar.
In the historical development of Chinese color words, there are three types.(Cai Xiaomin2020,65)

(1) Basic words. These words are the most basic and objective, and are generally used to objectively describe the most direct external color state of an object. They are "white", "black", "red", "yellow", "blue ""Green" "Gray" "Purple" "Brown" and "orange".
(2) Reference words. Reference words means that people specifically distinguish basic words to show different colors. These words are more detailed and specific than the basic words. For example, we tend to divide "green" into "dark green" "grass green" and so on.
(3)Descriptive words. Descriptive words comes from people's perception of nature. These words can not only distinguish colors, but also describe what they look like. Such color words are more literary and subjective.(Cai Xiaomin2020,65)

Color words in English are mainly divided into basic color words and compound color words.
basic color words : (1) simple colors. For example, black, white. (2) Colors of plants. For example, orange, etc.
Compound color words : (1) the name of plant + simple color. For example, apple green. (2) Chemical name + simple color. For example, vermilion, etc(Cai Xiaomin2020,65)

=== 3.The Different Understanding and Perception of Colors in China and the West ===
Nature is colorful and can be described with many words. Generally speaking, black symbolizes oppression, white symbolizes purity and innocence, and green symbolizes life force. However, due to different histories and cultures, the same color may have different meanings. After a careful study of color words, it is easy to see that color words create various associations that have a great impact on a person's emotions and behavior. This is the main reason why people use color words to explain their moral character, emotions, and perceptions of things.(Wang Yu2012,151)

Different cultures and ways of thinking lead to different meanings of color words, and this disparity can affect people's understanding of the meaning of the same word. For example, in English-speaking countries, white symbolizes purity and beauty, which is why brides wear white wedding dresses in Western weddings. However, in China, white is often used to express grief, and a white funeral dress is worn at a funeral.(Du Tianyu2020,188) In this paper, we start with the six basic color words red, black, white, yellow, purple and blue, and compare their cultural connotations in English and Chinese, discussing the different understanding and cognition of colors in China and the West and the differences in cultural connotations between Chinese and Western cultures.

====3.1 红and Red ====

In traditional Chinese culture, "红" represents joy, happiness, good luck, and prosperity. "红" is a color that cannot be absent from important events in China, such as the red couplets(红包), red lanterns（红灯笼）, and red packets（红包） during Chinese New Year festivals, the red dress of the bride at weddings, and other festive ceremonies in China. Similarly, words combining the word "红" generally mean prosperity, such as “hongguangmanmian”（红光满面）、”dahongdazi”(大红大紫)、”honghuo”(红火)、”hongren”(红人)、”hongrun”(红润), etc. In addition, during the revolutionary era, the color red also symbolized the modern Chinese revolution and power, such as the“hongsezhengquan”(红色政权)、”hongjun”(红军)、”hongqi”(红旗)、”hongge”(红歌)、”hongsewenjian”(红头文件)、”hongseganglin”(红色纲领), etc.( Zhao Fenyan2019,232)

In the West, red refers to the color of blood, and when red is mentioned, it is generally associated with cruelty, violence, and bloodshed. For example, "red hands", "red battle", "the red rules" " red revenge", the color red also symbolizes radical and violent revolution, as in "red activities", but also danger and tension,such as "a red flag". "red alert" "a red adventure story",in addition to the above-mentioned symbolic meaning, the color red also has connotations of debauchery and obscenity.(Yan Wen2012,177)For example, red light district, a red waste of one's youth, and so on. The positive connotation of the color red in Western culture is due to the exchange and integration of different cultures, which is said to have been introduced to the West via Persia from the Far East. like red letter day、red envelope、the red carpet.

====3.2 黑 and Black ====

In Chinese history, “黑” is an honorable and dignified color, which had a high status in ancient times. During the Xia, Qin, and early Han dynasties, “黑” was the dress of emperors and officials, and the common people were only allowed to wear plain clothes, and then a restriction that was gradually relaxed after the Northern Song Dynasty. In China, the derivation of “黑” includes the positive meanings of stern, iron-faced, upright, and mysterious, such as in the art of theatrical masks, where the “黑脸” symbolizes the noble character of uprightness and selflessness. In addition to its positive connotations, “黑” sometimes symbolizes a derogatory meaning, indicating a counter-revolutionary, regressive, or stubborn party. For example, the ”阴曹地府” is said to be dark and sunless, and “黑”, as opposed to light, symbolizes darkness, death, terror, etc. (Wang Yu2012,150)

In the West, black is the color of death, symbolizing death, suffering, and grief, hence the black color of Western mourning garments. black tidings means "bad news"，Jesus was crucified on the Friday before Easter, The Black Friday is considered to be a "dangerous and ominous day". Black also symbolizes "anger" and "irritation", such as: black in the face,to look black at sb，Other words that express negative meanings，such as black sheep, black dog, black eye, black list, black and blue, black art, and other black symbols.(Wang Yu2012,151)In addition, black also represents seriousness, discretion, and pomp. Black suit and black dress have always been the most revered traditional clothing in the West. In solemn formal occasions, people like to wear black clothing. Symphony orchestra performers almost always wear black suits. The term "black-ball" refers to a costume ball. In business English, "a company in black" refers to a profitable business, where“ in black” means profitable, because on financial statements, profit figures are written in black ink.

====3.3 白 and White ====

In Chinese, “白” is often used to represent death, such as at funerals with white decorations, white flowers, and white mourning clothes, but there are also many words containing “白” that do not represent color at all, but rather the name of something or have another meaning,[8]such as”baicai”(白菜), “baixiong”（白熊）、 “baiyi”(白蚁)、”baijuan” (白卷)、 “baichi”(白痴), White" also means "pure, or unadulterated, such as”baikaishui”(白开水)、”baizhi”(白纸)、”baiqierou”(白切肉)etc. "White" also often means "in vain" or "without cost", such as”baifeishi”(白费事)、“baida”（白搭）、”baisong” (白送)、“baishouqijia” (白手起家) etc(Chen Yongye2005,425)

and The Chinese word “白” is also not the same as the English word "white", which we can say the white people (白人), but is better translated as: She has a fair skin. In addition, it is difficult to summarize the exact meaning of some of the“白” in Chinese, For example “baihua”(白话) vernacular, “tanbai”（坦白）: to confess, to make a clean breast of something, etc.(Yan Wen2012,176)
In the West, however, white is considered as a symbol of purity, and it is customary to wear white wedding dresses and gowns at weddings, hence there exist the expressions like white-handed，a white lie，a white day, they treated us white etc.

====3.4 黄 and Yellow ====

In traditional Chinese culture,”黄” is a symbol of power, honor, and nobility, in the Chinese feudal society, yellow is a symbol of imperial power and nobility, such as ”chonggao”(崇高)，”huangpao”(皇袍)、”huanggong”(皇宫)、”shengzhi”(圣旨) and so on. In modern Chinese, words such as “huangchengcheng”(黄澄澄),”huangcanvan”(黄灿灿)mean a good harvest and an auspicious day. ”黄” is a glorious color. And it is always associated with "honor", "brilliance", it is a symbol of "power" and "nobility". To this day, ”黄” is still the symbol of ancient China, which is its positive meaning. Similarly, ”黄” has negative connotations, such as ”huangseshukan”(黄色书刊) , “huangseluxiang”(黄色录像) etc.(Yan Wen2012,178)

but in the West, the term "the blue video", "the blue talk" is used to describe the pornographic nature of the country. It means ”huangsedianying”(黄色电影)and ”huangsexinxi”(黄色信息)(Du Tianyu2020,188). In addition, ”黄” also means failure, sickness, or old age, such as ”huangji”(黄髫). The word ”黄” also means youth and ignorance.In the West, in Western Christianity, yellow is a symbol of shame. Because in the Bible, Judas betrayed Jesus by wearing a yellow dress. Therefore, "yellow" has the connotation of betrayal .And it also means sadness, sickness, cowardice, etc.(Chen Yongye2005,425) For example, "a yellow streak" means cowardice. "yellow" also has mean and vulgar semantics. In the 18th century, Americans often printed pornographic books on yellow paper.

As a result, the low level of exaggeration and exaggerated distortion of facts used by newspapers and periodicals to attract readers was later extended to journalistic styles as well. For example, "yellow journalism" is a style of journalism that attempts to attract people in any way possible. In English, Yellow Pages is the "yellow phone book", and yellow boy is a slang term for "gold coin. The English words for Chinese ”黄” would be: pornographic, filthy, vulgar, obscene, etc. In English, blue is often used to mean ”黄”, such as blue jokes(下流的玩笑)、blue revolution (性解放)、blue films (黄色影片)、blue software (黄色软件)etc.(Chen Yongye2005,425) Some Chinese words have nothing to do with the English word yellow, such as blue jokes(下流的玩笑)、blue revolution (性解放)、blue films (黄色影片)、blue software (黄色软件)and so on.

====3.5 绿and Green ====

In Chinese culture, “绿”represents vitality, and phrases related to”绿”express hope and vitality of people, such as“lüzhou”（绿洲）、“lvyiangran”（绿意盎然）. In today's China, ”绿”has a new symbolic meaning, such as: “lvseshipin”(绿色食品),”lvsechanye”(绿色产业), all referring to the concept of health, safety and non-pollution. The green light is also a signal for safe passage. In Chinese, a "lvmao" （绿帽）means that a man's wife is in an illicit relationship with someone else.(Hu Zongkang, Zhang Jun2019,153) However, in ancient Chinese culture, ”绿”means humbleness, because humble people wore green clothes. Also,”lvlinhaohan” (绿林好汉)means a barbarian who occupies a mountain and becomes king.

In traditional British culture, "Green" is a symbol of youth and vitality. It reminds people of the harmony and tranquility of nature. The "Green Peace Organization" is an organization that protects animals and plants. A dove with a green olive branch in its beak is a symbol of peace, "green winter" refers to a warm winter, and "in a green wood" refers to when people are young and strong. Green also represents a sense of madness and despair, just as Satan's image in the Bible is green. In addition, green in English also has a derogatory meaning of jealousy, lack of training, and childishness, such as “as green as grass”，’a green eye”，”a green hand”.(Chen Yuan2020,49) In addition, greenback means U.S. currency in English, and since U.S. dollar bills are green in color, green also means "money," "bills," or "economic power" in the United States.

====3.6 蓝 and Blue ====

Blue is the color of the sea and clear skies, giving people a feeling of peace and tranquility. In Chinese, in addition to the color,”蓝” is often used together with other words to form phrases that have different meanings from the color.
For example, “蓝青官话 “the standard Chinese spoken by the people with accent、“蓝本”script on which the works are based； model
“蓝图”（blue print）building plan、“蓝田生玉”the noble people usually come from the good family、“青出于蓝而胜于蓝 “the new coming from the old is better than the old .(Chen Yuan2020,49)

But blue in English can be extended to depression, sadness, nervousness, immorality, obscenity, and pornography. For example :“feel blue“, ”be blue about future“,”Her mood is blue“,“be down with blues”,“sing the blues”,“blue devils”,“blue funk“,”blue revolution“, ”blue films“, ”blue jokes“, ”blue room” refers to a place in The White House where the president meets his friends and family. and the ”Blue Book“ refers to a book that contains the names of celebrities and important government officials.(Du Tianyu2020,187-188)

=== 4.Reasons for the Difference in the English-Chinese Translation of Color Words ===

Different countries and regions have different interpretations of color. The main reasons for this difference are geographical factors, historical factors, religious beliefs, and social systems.
====4.1 Geographic Factors ====

Chinese civilization originated in the Yellow River Basin. The rich water resources and flat land of the Yellow River Basin have nurtured several generations of Chinese people. This is the main reason why the Chinese people love yellow. For generations, we Chinese people are also known as the “yanhuangzisun”(炎黄子孙)(Cai Xiaomin2020,66).Western civilization originated in ancient Rome. The only way out for Greece was to expand abroad. Therefore, blue became the favorite color of the Greeks.

==== 4.2 Historical and Cultural Factors ====

A large number of color words have been created in different historical backgrounds and conditions. Therefore, it is important to understand the differences in the historical background and culture of different countries. For example, during the War of Resistance Against Japanese Aggression, our Party was called the”hongjun”(红军), which gave rise to expressions like “hongsezhengquan”(红色政权)、”hongjun”(红军)、”hongqi”(红旗)、”hongge”(红歌)、”hongsewenjian”(红头文件)、”hongseganglin”(红色纲领),etc.(Li Dan2018,132)

In addition to some basic meanings, the color “红” in China also has some special historical meanings, such as the heroic and fearless revolutionary spirit. This is also the main reason why our national flag adopts the color red. Also in ancient China, yellow was a symbol of power, a color reserved for the royal family, representing the supreme authority, which meant that yellow robes were added to the flag. In the West, purple is used as a metaphor for "throne" and "prominence," and the addition of a purple robe means rising to a position of prominence, because Western emperors and bishops have a tradition of wearing purple robes,(Li Dan2018,132) such as :be born in the purple(生于皇室), be raised to the purple.

In recent years, yellow has become more and more of a symbolic term in China for low taste, erotic vulgarity, and obscenity, such as”huangsedianying”(黄色电影)、”huangseshukan”(黄色书刊)、”huangseguangdie”(黄色光碟).etc. The "黄" in these names has nothing to do with the English "yellow", these words in English are expressed like this pornographic, vulgar, obscene. (Chen Yongye2005,425)It is very different from the associations in Chinese culture. The color vocabulary is visually and psychologically positive and derogatory for people of different nationalities.

In different historical backgrounds and conditions, a large number of color words have been produced.Therefore, it is important to understand the historical background and cultural differences of different countries.For example, during the Anti-Japanese War, our Party was called "Hongjun" (Red Army), which looks like "Hongsezhengquan" (red Government), "Hongjun" (Red Army), "Red Flag" (red Flag), "Red Song" (red song), "Hongsewenjian" (red document), "Hongseganglin" (Red program), and so on.(Dan2018 lee, 132)
In addition to some basic meanings, the color "red" in China also has some special historical meanings, such as heroism and fearless revolutionary spirit.That's the main reason our flag is red.Also in ancient China, yellow was a symbol of power, a color reserved for royalty that represented supreme power, which meant the yellow robes were added to the flag.In the West, purple is used metaphorically to "throne" and "stand out", and a purple robe means to rise to a prominent position, because western emperors and bishops have a tradition of wearing purple,(Dan2018, 132) e.g. : born in purple (born in royalty), raised in purple.

==== 4.3 Religious beliefs ====

In China, the Five Element Theory is widely spread. Since "gold" is at the core of the theory, yellow becomes noble. In contrast, in the West, because yellow is stigmatized in Christianity and most people are Christians, many people dislike yellow and often even use it to convey negative connotations, according to "the Gospels" in the Bible's, in which Jesus was willing to be crucified, bleed to death, and be sacrificed with the blood of the Gospels. The Bible has been a classic of Christianity, and most people in Europe and the United States believe in Christianity.(Chen Yongye2005,425) Since the Bible has always been a Christian classic, and most people in Europe and the United States are Christian, its influence on Western culture as a whole is immeasurable, and on English culture as well.

Therefore, people think that "red" is associated with bloodshed, martyrdom, and bad things, and "red" makes them think of horrible things, such a“ red hand”( 沾满血的手 ),“ a red battle”( 血战 ),“ to see the red light”(灾祸临头)."(Chen Yongye2005,425)In Chinese language, the color red is a symbol of honor, splendor, good fortune, and celebration. Such as: :“ 开门红”make/ get off to a good start,“ 满堂红”success in every field,“ 红榜 ”honor roll,“ 红运 ”goodluck,“ 红事 ”wedding,“ 红人 ”a favorite with someone in power etc.".

The theory of the Five Elements is widely spread in China.Because "gold" is the core of the theory, yellow becomes noble.On the contrary, in the West, because yellow is stigmatized by Christianity and most people are Christians, even many people do not like yellow and often use it to convey negative meanings, according to the "Gospels" in the Bible, Jesus was willing to be crucified, bleed to death, sacrifice with the blood of the Gospels.The Bible has always been a classic of Christianity, which is practiced by most people in Europe and the United States.(Chen yongye, 2005,425) since the bible has always been a classic of Christianity, and most people in Europe and America are christians, the influence of the bible on the whole western culture is inestimable, and the same is true for British culture.

Therefore, people think "red" is associated with blood, sacrifice, and bad things, and "red" makes them feel terrible things, such as "red hands" (stained with blood), "red battles" (bloody battles), "seeing red lights" (disaster coming).(Chen yongye 2005,425) in Chinese, red is the symbol of honor, splendor, wealth, auspiciousness and happiness.Such as :: "get off to a good start" make/get off to a good start, "full of red" success in every field, "red list" honor, "Red luck" Goodluck, "red thing" wedding, "red" people most like to be with someone in electricity, etc.

==== 4.4 Social System ====

The use of different colors to represent political affiliations or national identities has long been a common practice among peoples of different social systems in China and the West due to their political, economic, and religious differences. In English, the true blue refers to the loyal members of a political party, especially the die-hard conservative members of the British party; White Paper or Blue Paper refers to a report or diplomatic document with blue or white covers issued by the British and American governments on a particular topic; Yellow Paper refers to the French and other countries. A government report of a country; Green Paper is a draft report for discussion by various committees; the Chinese use the term "红" to symbolizes the proletarian revolution, the meaning of which is derived from the book "Red Star Over China"(“红星照耀下的中国”,and is also translated into”西行漫记”) by American writer Edward Snow.(Li Dan2018,132)

===5.Translation Methods of English-Chinese Color Words ===

From the above analysis, we can conclude that there are similarities and differences in the cultural connotations of Chinese and English color words. Therefore, in the translation of color words, it is impossible to generalize, so translators need to adapt to the local conditions and adopt an appropriate way to translate.

====5.1 Literal Translation ====

Literal translation means that every effort should be made to maintain the linguistic style of the original work. At the same time, it requires that the target language should be fluent and easy to understand. There are similarities between English and Chinese languages and cultures. In the translation of English-Chinese color words, some color words can be found in the target language, while others have similar extended cultural meanings. Sometimes there is no similar extended meaning, but only a literal translation meaning, so the literal translation can also be used for translation.(Hu Zongkang, Zhang Jun,153)

For example, when the word black remains in its original color in the corresponding language, i.e, it has the same connotation, a literal translation is usually used.black humor 黑色幽默 (an absurd, grotesque, or morbid humor in literature, especially in novels and plays)、
black Friday黑色的星期五 (the Friday on which any disaster occurs)、black hand黑手党 (a secret organization that originated in Sicily, Italy, and has spread to the United States to engage in criminal activities)black market 黑市、black- hearted 黑心的、blacklist 黑名单、black and white TV黑白电视, etc.(Chen Yuan2020,49）and red light district can be directly translated as“红灯区“, which refers to the neighborhoods where sex industries are concentrated in cities of certain countries and regions.(Hu Zongkang, Zhang Jun,152)

Similarly, some color words in Chinese can be directly translated into English, for example:” 白露”, one of the 24 solar terms, is a culturally specific term in Chinese, which is completely unfamiliar to Western countries. Due to cultural exchanges, "white dew" is becoming more and more familiar to foreigners, and it has the same cultural meaning in English as "白露" in China. As another example, "绿油油" is a Chinese adjective used to describe the color of vibrant green leaves.(Hu Zongkang, Zhang Jun,153) We can translate it into English as "green and shiny" because the color words here are only used to describe objective points of view, and they have the same meaning.

==== 5.2 Free Translation ====

Free translation. When the meaning of a color word in the original language is different from the meaning of the color word in the target language, the translator has to translate the meaning of the color word in the original language into the customary expression in the target language. In some cases, color words appear in both Chinese and English, but they do not have any color meaning; some are customary object names, while others give new meaning to them. In this case, the color itself cannot be focused on, so the colorless translation should be abandoned.This kind of translation based on the cultural background of two languages to correspond to the meaning is called "free translation".(Chen Yuan2020,49）

Take black as an example, for instance, black lie--恶意的谎言、black and blue--青一块紫一块、black tea-- 红茶、black guard--恶棍、black coffee --不加牛奶的咖啡、pain somebody black-- 把某人描写成坏人、黑帮can be translated into “reactionary gang”、黑钱--ill-gotten money、黑面包 brown bread, and so on. Another example is that we often say "他是老师面前的“红人", which is translated into English as "He is teacher's favourite student" ,”hongren”(红人)is an extended paraphrase of the Chinese, which does not mean literally, it means someone who is popular and be sought after by others,(Hu Zongkang, Zhang Jun,150) and the exact meaning needs to be contextualized. People from English-speaking countries will be confused if we translate it as "red people".

In English, the meaning of "one's favourite people" is somewhat similar to "红人", so the phrase "one's favorite people" is appropriate. Another example is "a white elephant," which is said to be a punishment given by the king of Thailand to his erring ministers in the past, as the cost of keeping white elephants is very high and would be a great financial burden. This word is very common in English, but a literal translation of "白象" would not have any connotation in Chinese, so it can be translated as "expensive and useless thing.（Jin Yan2012，130）

===6. Conclusion ===

This paper first discusses the construction of color words in Chinese and English, and then compares their compositional features. Secondly, six colors (red, black, yellow, white, green, blue) are taken as examples to analyze the cultural similarities and differences between Chinese and English color words. The reasons for the differences are divided into four main categories: geographical factors, historical factors, psychological factors, religious beliefs, and social systems,Finally, a solution to the problem is proposed, which provides a proper reference for translators when translating Chinese and English color words.(Hu Zongkang, Zhang Jun,153)

When doing translation, translators can mainly use two different translation methods, namely, literal translation and free translation. When the Chinese cultural connotation of a color word in a sentence is the same as the English one, the literal translation can be used. When it is different from English, a free translation is appropriate.(Bao Dongjiao2005,106) With the continuous penetration of globalization, people's languages and cultures are gradually interwoven, so does the meaning of color words, and also the similarities are expanding gradually.

However, each nation-state has its own unique culture and customs, so the color words have completely different meanings in different regions and different languages. Therefore, when translating color terms, in order to translate the meaning of the text more accurately, the translator must have a deeper understanding of the color words.(Bao Dongjiao2005,107).In addition, the translator should not only learn translation skills, but also the history, geography, and culture of the country where the source and target language are located, which will help the accuracy of the translation. In short, the key to a good color word translation is the combination of translation skills and a deep understanding of the culture, as well as an accurate analysis of the color word.

===7.Reference ===

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*Jin Yan.金燕.(2012).浅析颜色词在中西文化下的翻译对比差异[An analysis of the contrasting differences in the translation of color words in Chinese and Western cultures].海外英语[Overseas English].

*Zhao Fenyan.赵芬艳.(2019).试论中西颜色词的文化内涵及翻译策略[The cultural connotation of Chinese and Western color words and translation strategies].师资校企经验[Faculty school-enterprise experience],232-234.

*Wang Yan, Zhang Bo.王艳,张博.(2012).谈中西文化对颜色的理解差异[Talking about the difference in the understanding of color between Chinese and Western cultures].教学实践[Teaching Practice],6-11.

*Chen Yongye.陈永烨.(2005).英汉颜色词所表现的中西文化差异[The Chinese and Western cultural differences expressed by English and Chinese color words].辽宁工程技术大学学报[Journal of Liaoning University of Engineering and Technology],424-427.

*Hu Zongkang, Zhang Jun.胡宗康,张军.(2019).英汉颜色词中“Green/绿”的对比与翻译方法研究[. Comparison and Translation of "Green/绿" in English and Chinese Color Words].文学教育[Literary Education],152-153.

*Bao Dongjiao.鲍冬娇.(2015).中西红白颜色认知差异及翻译取向[Differences between Chinese and Western red and white color perception and translation orientation].湖北经济学院学报[Journal of Hubei University of Economics],106-107.

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*Du Tianyu,杜恬雨.(2020).浅析文化差异对汉英颜色词翻译的影响[An analysis of the influence of cultural differences on the translation of Chinese-English color words].科教文汇[Science and Education],187-188.

*Xu Yanping.许雁萍.(2009).中西文化中颜色词语的差异及其翻译[The Difference of Color Words in Chinese and Western Culture and Their Translation].文学语言学研究[Literary Linguistics Research],212-213.

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==Translation Manipulated by Ideology 许静Xu Jing, MTI 英语笔译==

<center> 许静 Xu Jing 202070080614 </center>
===摘要===
传统翻译理论将研究重点放在原文与译文的对比上，遵循翻译的最高原则“忠”。本文将根据勒菲费尔的翻译改写理论，从历史角度探讨中国建国初期翻译活动的过程及其制约因素，旨在揭示这一阶段中国翻译活动的基本特点，为新时期翻译活动的良性发展提供一点借鉴。

===关键词===
翻译；意识形态；操纵；赞助人

===Abstract===
Traditional translation theory focuses on the comparison between the original text and the translated text, following the strict principle of translation, "fidelity". This article will explore from a historical perspective the process of translation activities and its constraints in the early years of China's founding, based on Lefevere's theory of translation rewriting, with the aim of revealing the basic characteristics of Chinese translation activities at this stage and providing a little reference for the benign development of translation activities in the new era.

===Key words===
Translating; Ideology; Manipulation; Patronage

===Introduction===
Traditionally, translation studies have only focused on the linguistic level, confined to the conversion of two texts, and have not broken through the understanding of the "faithful" concept.
Since the 1970s, leading translators from various countries have abandoned their original narrow thinking and begun to emphasize that "translation does not take place in the vacuum of two languages, but in the context of two literary and cultural traditions." In the 1980s, the French translation studies scholar Antoine Berman stressed that the translation of literary works is driven by ideological choices. (Xu Baoqiang, Yuan Wei 2001,13)

In the 1990s, the contemporary American translation theorist Lefevere, in his Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulation of Literary Fame, argues that translation involves several factors such as ideology, patronage, poetics and literary scholarship. Translation is the rewriting of an original text; it is a form of creating a text. Whatever the rewriting or the intention, it reflects a certain ideology and poetics and responds to the dominant ideology of the period. As a result, the intercultural activity of translation inevitably bears the mark of ideology. (Xu Baoqiang, Yuan Wei 2001,13)

===Ideology===
The word “ideology”, derived from the Greek word “idea” and “logos”, literally means conceptual logos, i.e. the doctrine of ideas. It was a concept proposed by Destutt de Tracy at the end of the 18th century, initially as a world view and a body of philosophical thought, for a modern critique of religion, which encompassed the whole field of culture, including science, and was an essential intermediary between ourselves and the world. This is generally considered to be the positive use of this concept. (Jiang Xiaohua 2003, 28)

But there are also a number of scholars who recognise and use this concept in a negative or pejorative sense. In their view, ideology is a form of false-consciousness, a set of interconnected value judgements that guide social and political action but are not subject to rational scrutiny. These judgements, which contain prejudices and preconceptions, tend to distort our understanding of the world and are therefore necessarily unreliable. (Jiang Xiaohua 2003, 28)

Ideology, in this context, includes religion and all distorted forms of consciousness, is the antithesis of science and functions politically as a specific element of the social superstructure. Both meanings of ideology, positive and negative, have long been used in the field of philosophical and cultural studies. The Dictionary of Modern Chinese (2002) gives the following summary of ideology:

Ideology is a systematic view of the world and society, formed on the basis of a certain economic foundation. Ideology is a component of the superstructure and has a class character in a class society. It is also called conceptual form. (The Dictionary of Modern Chinese 2002, 455)

Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary defines:

1. especially the systematic sum of ideas about human life or culture; 2. the way of thinking or content specific to an individual, group, or culture; 3. the integrated claims, theories, and goals that shape a socio-political agenda. (Merriam Webster 2003, 507)

The two definitions are worded differently, but the substantive content is basically the same. The use of the concept of ideology in this paper will take its broad form, taking into account both positive and negative meanings, reflecting its narrow political connotation as well as covering its conceptual doctrine in its original sense. It is on this conceptual basis that our discussion will proceed. (Wang Dongfeng 2003, 20)

===Ideology and Translation===
Traditional translation theory has always measured all translations with a yardstick of loyalty and infidelity, as if questioning a young daughter-in-law in a family shrine about her disobedience. In this small-minded ritualistic vision, the self-appointed patriarchal status of the commentator gives himself an unwarranted authority, so much so that some conclusions seem to be drawn without even bothering to fetch the ritualistic ruler: translators are like women, beautiful ones are unfaithful, faithful ones are not beautiful. (Lu Jun 2002, 107)

Thus, we see in the clan shrine of translation Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Fu Donghua, etc., who were condemned with few sensible reasons; and Pound, the foreigner who did not know Chinese and dared to translate Tang poems. The crime exerted on them is infidelity. (Ma Zuyi 2006, 209)

Finally, in the 1980s, translation scholars began to pay attention to the pressure of ideology on the practice of translation. In the 1990s, the American translator Lefevere wrote a book entitled Translation, Rewriting, and the Manipulation of Literary Fame. In this book, he systematically described the two main factors that manipulate the translation process, namely ideology and poetics. According to his theories, it seems that we can offer another explanation for the 'infidelity'. (Lefevere 1992, 56)

According to Lefevere, there are two factors that control literary creation and translation: internal factors and external factors. The internal factor is the so-called 'professionals', made up of critics, teachers, translators, etc., while the external factor is the 'people, institutions' who have the 'power to promote or prevent' literary creation and translation. "The term he uses is patronage. Here, 'the patronage is usually interested in the ideology of literature', while 'the literary scholars are concerned with poetics'. Thus, the two main factors governing the translation process are ultimately ideology and poetics. (Lefevere 1992, 56)

Lefevere also points out that the endogenous factor (the literary person and his or her poetic conception) works within the parameters set by the exogenous factor (the patron and his or her ideology) (ibid). In other words, the patron representing the ideology of a culture or society establishes a set of decisive ideological value parameters within which literary scholars and translators accomplish their poetic pursuits. (Munday, J 2010, 127)

On the one hand, the patrons, as spokespersons of a certain ideology, use their discursive power to intervene directly in the translation process; on the other hand, the literary scholars and translators, who are familiar with this set of ideological value parameters, mostly consciously avoid violating the ideological tenets and manipulate their limited discursive power and poetic skills within the limits they deem permissible. Thus, when literary scholars and translators use discourse, both ideology and poetics come into play in their consciousness, influencing their compositions or 'rewriting' and 'determining the strategies of the translator'. (Munday, J 2010, 127)

The above distinction between ideology and poetics made by Lefevere has, in my view, some debatable points. In terms of the division of categories, poetics as a system of aesthetic ideas about literature and art still belongs to the realm of ideology, and therefore this paper will treat the poetic element as a category under ideology. It must be stated that the author only disagrees with the validity of the distinction between categories in Lefevere's theory, but agrees and admires his thesis on the influence of ideology and poetics on the translation process. (Bassnett, S & Ledever, A 2001, 48)

In my understanding, Lefevere's theory provides a justification for those "beautiful women" who have "lost their modesty". Of course, the task of defending "them" is now left to our descendants. Ideology is a product of a certain society and culture. As societies emerge and cultures emerge, so do ideologies. (Wu Xufei 2015, 57)

Translation, as an act of cross-language and cross-cultural communication, is inevitably marked by ideology from the very beginning. When a translator introduces the ideas contained in the discourse of a foreign culture into the local culture, he or she will inevitably make his or her own judgement on the values of the foreign culture, and then decide on the strategy to convey them: whether to be straightforward or to distort their meaning; whether to "pluck out the nose and cut the eyes" or to start a new one. (Wu Xufei 2015, 57)

Ideology is the expression of the will of patronage or power, and to go against this will is to be censured, sometimes either to lose the rules to translate, or even to lose one's head. Translators, as living human beings, are not willing to go against the will of power, except for those who are fighting for the 'truth'. To paraphrase the post-modern hipsterism of "Journey to the West", we are all "translators", so why take ourselves so seriously? This may sound ungrateful, but from a historical point of view, it's also very unhelpful. (Wu Xufei 2015, 57)

Lefevere quotes Foucault as saying:

What makes power unbreakable, what makes it acceptable, is in fact a simple fact: power not only makes us feel a pressure to say no, but also transcends and produces things, provokes pleasure, forms knowledge, produces discourse. (Lefevere, 1992, 15)

In short, it means "those who obey will prosper, those who disobey will perish". Every society has its own unique ideological system, with its own hidden or explicit ideological boundaries. Every thinking member of a society knows where that boundary is; and in general, is conscious of operating within it. You can go to the edge, but you must not go beyond it. This is the rule of the game in any society, and translators have to abide by it as well. Even the United States, which boasts freedom of speech, would not allow Bin Laden's writings (if he had them) to be translated and published in the United States, at least for now. For such an act would cross the line of the ideological "parameters" of the American power class. (Xu Baoqiang, Yuan Wei 2001,13)

Translation involves the exchange of two cultures, which is a common expression these days. On the surface, "exchange" is a pleasant-sounding term, as it seems to imply equality and friendship. However, what is really implied behind such an exchange is a confrontation between two ideologies. The apparently 'equal and friendly' 'exchange' is in fact often the result of a confrontation followed by a compromise. (Xu Baoqiang, Yuan Wei 2001,13)

Translation is the transfer of the ideology of the local culture to the ideology of the foreign culture. The ideology of the foreign culture. For the local value system, this is a foreign cultural penetration, which means destruction, subversion and therefore a test of the local culture. A strong superstructure will use its own power discourse to manipulate this foreign destructive force, just like Tai Chi, by using the force to its advantage; a weak superstructure will be helpless in the face of this foreign destructive force, and will either be assimilated or subverted by it. (Hu Fangyi 2014, 41)

Those cultures that refuse to interact with foreign cultures are condemned to primitiveness, backwardness and, ultimately, extinction. Translators, as elite members of the superstructure, are faced with a complex choice of strategies: either to be rebellious or submissive, to seek conformity in the midst of rebellion, or to seek rebellion in the midst of conformity. Thus, among the superficial translation methods, we see "literary" and "qualitative" translations, "direct" and "meaningful" translations ", "naturalization" and '"dissimilation", and the way of "the middle", which strives for impartiality. (Hu Fangyi 2014, 41)

Translation is always a purposeful act. In class society, when translation is inevitably related to the superstructure, it becomes part of elite culture. It is part of the culture of the elite. When the elites of society engage in translation activities, their aims are themselves strongly ideological. The translation activities in class society, including pseudo-translations, creative translations and forgeries, all came from the elite elements of society. It is no coincidence that their actions, either in line with the right path or deviating from it, are the result of a certain ideology. (Ma Zuyi 2006, 209)

Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theory has attached great importance to the influence of ideology on translation practice. The significance of ideology in determining a translator's translation strategy can be seen in Zhi Qian's Preface to the Dharma Sutra, which has been called the "opening chapter of translation theory" in the history of Chinese translation. In his preface, he 'dislikes' Zhu Zhongyan's translation as 'indecent' (Zhiqian, 1984:22), showing the importance he attached to the aesthetic perception of the target audience. Similarly, the influence of the target language and aesthetic values on translation can also be seen in Dao An's 'Five Losses of the Text and Three Difficulties': 'One, the Hu language is inverted and made to follow the Qin, a loss of the text. The second is that the Hu scriptures are still of good quality, while the Qin people are good at writing, and the transmission can be done with the hearts of all people, but not with the text. (Ma Zuyi 2006, 209)

Western translators have similarly valued the influence of ideology on translation. When the Roman poet and translator Horace spoke of the 'faithful translator', Lefevere argued that this already included an emphasis on ideology, but he did not say why. The famous French writer Victor Hugo also pointed out:

When you dedicate a translation to a country, that country almost always sees the translation as an act of violence against it... To translate the work of a foreign poet is to add his work to the poetry of your own country; but to open up in this way does not please those with vested interests, at least at first. Their first reaction is resistance." (Lefevere 1992, 56)

Different cultures have different ideologies. History teaches us that exchanges between cultures are often, first and foremost, ideological. As Hugo asserts, such exchanges always begin with confrontation. What comes after confrontation? Successful exchanges often involve confrontation leading to compromise, and compromise leading to prosperity, as in the case of Buddhism and the flourishing of Chinese culture in China's history. Unsuccessful exchanges often lead to hostility and even war, as in the case of the clash between Islamic and Christian civilisations. (Bassnett, S & Ledever, A 2001, 48)

In the case of translators, it was also often the case that those who obeyed me prospered, as in the case of the Chinese translator of the Buddhist scriptures Xuanzang, and those who disobeyed me died, as in the case of the English religious translator William Tyndale (1494-1536), who was burnt at the stake, and the French religious translator Etienne Dolet (1509- 1546). The literature shows that the influence of ideology on translation has long been of interest to translators and translation theorists, but they have not used the term 'ideology' when discussing this issue. (Wu Xufei 2015, 57)

===Translation activities under the control of power in the early stage of the PRC===
After the founding of the People's Republic of China, internationally, the Western powers tried their best to contain the new regime and obstructed other countries from establishing diplomatic relations with the new China, Mao Zedong put forward the three major diplomatic policies of "falling on one side", "starting a new cooker" and "cleaning up the house before inviting guests "From a domestic perspective, the new regime was in urgent need of purging reactionary forces and propagating socialist and communist ideas in order to consolidate the proletarian regime. (Wu Xufei 2015, 57)

Taking into account the domestic and international political situation, the CPC, as the ruling party, strengthened its ideological. control, i.e.:vigorously propagating socialist and communist ideology. The translation activities were influenced by this and showed obvious ideological tendencies in terms of the choice of texts and translation strategies and even the patrons. (Wu Xufei 2015, 57)

====Ideological manipulation of translation activities====
Ideology is a product of a particular society and culture, and it accompanies the emergence of society and culture. Translation, as an act of intercultural communication, involves the exchange of two cultures. The essence of translation is to introduce the culture and ideology of the "other" into the local culture, and to assimilate it into the local value system and ideology. (Ma Zuyi 2006, 209)

The translation activities in the seventeen years after the founding of the People's Republic of China have seen a phased peak in both Chinese to foreign and foreign to Chinese translation. From the perspective of Chinese to foreign translation, first of all, the new China set off a comprehensive wave of learning from the Soviet Union, as Zhou Yang pointed out in an article in the Soviet magazine Banner: "'Go the way of the Russians'. This is true in politics, but also in literature and art. (Li Hongxia 2010, 86)

Literary and artistic workers should study harder the creative experience and artistic techniques of Soviet writers, and in particular go deeper into their socialist realism which is the basis of their creativity." Influenced by this idea, and in terms of text selection, socialist and realist literature from Soviet Russia was translated in large numbers, and this peak occurred mainly in the early decade of the founding of the country; according to statistics, from October 1949 to December 1958, a total of 3,526 Soviet and Russian literary works were translated and published, accounting for two-thirds of the entire foreign literature in translation. (Mei Zhang 2012, 755)

However, from the late 1950s onwards, the Sino-Soviet relations began to fray, and the ideological confrontation between China and the Soviet Union severely affected Chinese translation and mediation activities into Soviet literature; between 1960 and 1966, a total of 11 single-volume translations of Soviet literature were publicly published in the first four years, and zero Soviet literary works were translated into Chinese in the latter three years. (Mei Zhang 2012, 755)

Secondly, scientific and technical works from the Soviet Union were translated in large numbers. Most of the scientific works translated in the early years of the founding of the state were originally from the Soviet Union, among which the most scientific works were translated from 1952 to 1960, reaching 911 titles in 1954 and the most in 1957, with a total of 2557 scientific works translated, more than two-thirds of which came from the Soviet Union. (Munday, J 2010, 127)

The Soviet Union unilaterally withdrew its experts from China from 1960 onwards, and when Sino-Soviet relations broke down, there was a downturn in translations from the Soviet Union, especially in 1961, when only 126 original Soviet scientific and technical works were translated. [Ind.] Finally, the translation of political works. In order to further propagate proletarian ideology, in January 1953 the Party Central Committee set up the Central Bureau of Compilation and Translation with the task of translating the works of Marx, Engels, Lenin and Stalin in a systematic and planned manner. (Zhou Dongyuan, Qi Wendong 1999, 399)

Thus, for seventeen years, the works of Marx, Engels, Lenin and Stalin were translated from Russian into Chinese in large numbers and contributed to the spread of socialist and communist ideology and political consciousness in China. (Zhou Dongyuan, Qi Wendong 1999, 399)

From 1956 to 1966, the Central Compilation Bureau of the Communist Party of China translated and published the first 22 volumes of the Complete Works of Marx and Engels (excluding volume 20) on the basis of the second Russian edition of the Complete Works of Marx and Engels; from 1955 to 1963, all 39 volumes of the Complete Works of Lenin were translated into Chinese from Russian, and all 13 volumes of the Complete Works of Stalin were translated from 1953 to 1956. The 13 volumes of Stalin's Complete Works were also translated between 1953 and 1956. [10] The translation and editing of Marx and Lenin's works was rapidly completed under the direction of the state, which provided a good political basis for the economic and cultural development of the new China. (Zhou Dongyuan, Qi Wendong 1999, 399)

In conclusion, the translation activities from foreign to Chinese in the early years of the founding of the state were subject to the constraints of various political, economic and cultural factors at the time and showed obvious characteristics: for one thing, Soviet works, both literary and scientific, were rapidly translated into Chinese and widely disseminated within a few short years, but at the same time, due to the influence of political consciousness, they fell from a high point to a low point within a very short time; for another, with the support of the state regime and the government, political classics were quickly translated into Chinese in large numbers via Russian, which to a certain extent contributed to the development of translation activities and the consolidation of the new regime. (Zhou Dongyuan, Qi Wendong 1999, 399

In terms of foreign translations into Chinese, very few Chinese books in Chinese history have been translated into foreign languages and widely disseminated in foreign countries. After the founding of New China, in order to let the world's proletarians know more about China and at the same time establish diplomatic relations with more countries, the Chinese Foreign Languages Bureau translated and published a large number of foreign language books under the name of Foreign Languages Publishing House. (Xu Baoqiang, Yuan Wei 2001,13)

Among them the translation of Mao Zedong's works was given top priority, especially the translation and publication of the fourth volume of the English edition of Mao Zedong's Selected Works. The Foreign Languages Publishing House decided to publish the forth volume, followed by the first, second and third volumes. (Xu Baoqiang, Yuan Wei 2001,13)

In 1961, the Ministry of Culture issued two written circulars on the publication and distribution of Mao's works, requiring local bookshops to consult the party and government leaders before starting distribution, and limiting the target audience and the number of copies to be distributed. This shows that the translation and publication of Mao's works was treated as a political task and drew a great deal of attention from all sectors of society. (Xu Baoqiang, Yuan Wei 2001,13)

According to statistics, between 1949 and 1965, more than 3,000 Chinese books were translated into more than 20 foreign languages and distributed abroad, of which 536 were Mao's writings.11 In addition, pamphlets introducing the leader's writings and the Chinese revolutionary experience were translated into several languages and distributed abroad, where they were well received and became an effective way for foreigners to learn about and study China. These pamphlets were well received abroad and became an effective way for foreigners to understand and study China. (Ma Zuyi 2006, 209)

In short, this phase of Chinese to foreign translation activities was dominated by translations of Mao's writings and pamphlets of political literature, which had a clear ideological orientation. In order to consolidate the new proletarian regime, the new China used translations to propagate its political ideas in order to gain more support, and its targets were countries in Asia, Africa and Latin America fighting for national independence, as well as some leftist organisations and progressive people in developed countries in Europe and America. As a result, this phase of Chinese to foreign translation activity focused on the text itself while giving greater consideration to the political and social factors it contained. (Ma Zuyi 2006, 209)

====Patron manipulation of translation activities====
The patron's sense of power was another important factor in the manipulation of translation, one of the fundamental forces driving the progress of early modern society, far more influential than the influence of literature on society. The word 'patron' in English comes from the Latin patronus, meaning a person who gives financial support to a client for the achievement of a specific purpose. (Hu Fangyi 2014, 41)

Patrons control all aspects of the translation, including the content of the translation, the choice of material and even the strategy of the translation and its promotion. The patron may be an authoritative individual, a publisher, a government agency, etc., whose aim is to ensure that the translation conforms to a particular social norm or the interests of a particular class of people by providing the translator or author with a certain amount of financial support, social status or political patronage, so that his or her creation and translation are in line with the prevailing ideology. (Wang Dongfeng 2003, 20)

After the founding of New China, the patronage of translation activities as a whole was divided into two phases. (Wang Dongfeng 2003, 20)

The first stage lasted from the founding of New China in 1949 to the completion of the Three Great Transformations in 1956. The role of publishers as patrons was changing during this phase. At the beginning of the founding of the country, the publishing industry developed unevenly in different parts of the country, and state-owned and private publishers coexisted. (Wang Dongfeng 2003, 20)

According to statistics from March 1950, there were 244 private bookshops operating in 11 major cities across the country, and publishing houses became the main patrons during this period, possessing a certain degree of financial independence and sponsoring translation activities through financial support for translators. By the end of 1956, the socialist transformation of private publishing houses had basically been achieved, with the withdrawal of the private sector from the publishing houses and a simultaneous change in the composition of the patrons. (Wang Dongfeng 2003, 20)

The second phase, from 1957 to 1966, saw the weakening of the power of publishing houses as independent sponsors, and the predominance of patronage by government agencies, such as the Ministry of Culture and the Central Propaganda Department, and by authoritative individuals, such as state leaders Mao Zedong and Zhou Enlai, in translation activities; the independence of publishing houses no longer existed, although they could decide what and how to translate in translation activities, when their ideology When their ideology contradicts that of government agencies or authoritative individuals, they must obey the latter. (Wang Dongfeng 2003, 20)

For example, in terms of the content of translations, some people advocated translating the foreign-language edition of People's Pictorial to introduce the experience of the Chinese revolution, but Chairman Mao disapproved of this, arguing that "it would be good to be able to introduce our lives in a realistic way. [12] For example, in the translation of the English version of the fourth volume of Mao Zedong's Selected Works, the Party Central Committee appointed Zhang Hanfu and Meng Yongqian to take charge of the specific leadership work. (Wang Dongfeng 2003, 20)

The sponsor's control over the translation activities was also reflected in the choice of translation strategies. Different types of texts have different translation strategies. The translation of political texts should aim to express the content of the original text accurately and completely, and the editorial processing of such texts should be strictly reported; the translation of literary and artistic works should try to appreciate the style of the original text and make appropriate text processing when necessary, but should not alter the content of the original text at will; general reports should be more adapted to the habits of foreign reports and take into account the receptiveness of foreign readers, so there can be greater flexibility in translation, but However, the relevant guidelines, policies and important facts should not be changed at will. (Wang Dongfeng 2003, 20)

As Yang Xian Yi said, "Unfortunately, we were only hired translators, and it was not up to us to decide what to translate. ...... The selected work had to suit the political climate and the taste of the time. the political climate and the taste of the moment." (Yang Xianyi, Xuehongshi 2001, 225)

===Insights from the Translation Activities in the Early Stage of the PRC===
The translation activities in the seventeen years after the founding of the state formed the fourth translation climax in China's history, and the key factor contributing to this climax was the government's unified leadership and planning of translation activities. In the early years of the founding of the country, the state strengthened its organisation and planning of the publishing industry and translation activities by convening a number of national conferences.

Firstly, in order to rectify the chaotic state of the publishing industry and lead the nation's publishing work, the State General Administration of Publications convened the First National Conference on Publishing in September 1950 and the First National Conference on Publication Administration in August 1951, both of which stressed the quality of publications, especially the second conference, which made improving the quality of publications the top priority of the publishing industry, and stressed the importance of book review and the importance of conducting book reviews. (He Mingxing 2014, 17)

Secondly, in order to improve the quality of translations and establish plans, the State General Administration of Publications convened the First National Conference on Translation Work in November 1951, at which the planning and institutionalisation of translation work was made a central task in the organisation of translation work, and emphasis was placed on the widespread development of criticism and self-criticism in the national academic and publishing community in order to improve and enhance the quality of translation work. (He Mingxing 2014, 17)

Once again, in August 1954, the Chinese Writers' Association held the first national conference on literary translation work. At the meeting, Mao Dun proposed that literary translation work must be carried out in an organised and planned manner, and that criticism and self-criticism in literary translation work should be strengthened in order to improve the level of artistic creation in literary translation. (Xu Baoqiang, Yuan Wei 2001,13)

After these conferences, translation activities, especially translation criticism, were widely carried out in China, and both the quantity and quality of translated works improved greatly. According to statistics, a total of 6,680 translated works were published in China in the 30 years from 1919 to 1949, and from October 1949 to the end of 1958, more than 5,300 foreign literary works were translated and published nationwide, of which 65.5 per cent were translated from the Soviet Union. And translations of popular science works during this period amounted to more than 3,600, most of which also came from the Soviet Union. (Ma Zuyi 2006, 209)

From 1950 to 1952, 74 articles were published in the Translation Bulletin alone, and many translators not only dared to criticize, but also took the initiative to criticize themselves for the errors in their own translations. For example, in May 1952, Wang Feibai published 'Review of Jiang's translation of "Star"' in the Translation Bulletin, criticising Jiang Lu's translation, followed by 'Review of the translation of "Star"', in which Jiang Lu self-criticised the errors in his translation. (Ma Zuyi 2006, 209)

Compared with the translation activities in the seventeen years after the founding of the state, the translation activities in China have become more prosperous and extensive since the 21st century, but at the same time, many problems have emerged. Firstly, the quality of translations has been low. (Ma Zuyi 2006, 209)

In order to expand sales and pursue lucrative profits, many publishing houses have been competing to buy the rights to foreign bestsellers and organise translators to translate them into Chinese as quickly as possible in order to make maximum profits. Secondly, piracy is rampant. Pirated books are not only available in many editions but also at low prices and in beautiful packaging. (Wang Dongfeng 2003, 20)

Many publishers have even misrepresented the names of the compilers in order to avoid charges of piracy. In the case of Mr. Ye Junjian's translation of Hans Christian Andersen's Fairy Tales, for example, there are about 40 pirated editions known to him alone. Another example is that almost all of the books translated and published by the People's Literature Publishing House in the past have been pirated. Similar examples abound, and piracy not only affects the rights of regular publishers, but also undermines the right of readers to enjoy fine translations. (Wang Dongfeng 2003, 20)

In response to these problems, from a historical perspective, it is, first of all, essential to strengthen the leadership and organisation of translation activities by the government. So far, there is no government department in China specifically in charge of translation activities. While the market economy has promoted the extensive development of translation activities, its blindness and the pursuit of profits have made it difficult for the spirituality and culture of translation products to be well reflected. Therefore, the overall planning and guidance of the relevant government departments play an important role in the effective development of translation activities. (Hu Fangyi 2014, 41)

Secondly, vigorously carrying out criticism and self-criticism is an effective way to improve the quality of translations. To a certain extent, the low quality of translated works can be attributed to the lack of translation criticism. On the whole, the number of articles published on translation criticism in China is still relatively small and there are more practical studies than theoretical studies, for example, in 2011, there were 14 articles on translation criticism, accounting for only 2.2% of the total. (Hu Fangyi 2014, 41)

In terms of content, literary criticism dominates and is mostly of the appreciation type, especially focusing on the analysis of famous writers, praising translators more than criticizing them, and the theoretical construction of translation criticism is insufficient, lacking real substantive criticism. This is the case with translation criticism, and there is even less self-critical writing from translators. In short, as an important area of translation activity, translation criticism is indispensable. (Hu Fangyi 2014, 41)

===Conclusion===
Ever since translation inevitably entered our culture, the social ideology that is also inevitably present in our culture has almost never ceased to manipulate the further development of the movement. In short, the ideological manipulation of translation activities in the early years of the founding of the state has been a constant and pivotal role in translation activities, especially the leading role of the government and the widespread activities of criticism and self-criticism in the translation community have provided a certain historical mirror for the benign development of translation activities in the new era.

===Reference books===
*许宝强，袁伟．语言与翻译的政治[C]．北京:中央编译出社，2001:1-20.

*吕俊．翻译研究:从文本理论到权利话语[J]．四川外语学院学报，2002，1 (18): 106-109.

*胡芳毅.操纵理论视角下的外宣翻译——政治文本翻译的改写[J].中国科技翻译,2014,27(02):40-42+39.

*張旭. 意識形態與近代英詩漢譯. 2005, 34(6):135-164.

*何明星.欧美翻译出版中国当代文学作品的现状及其特征[J].出版发行研究,2014(03):15-18.

*文记东. 1949~1966年的中苏文化交流[M]，哈尔滨:黑龙江大学出版社，2011: 101, 144.

*马祖毅.中国翻译通史现当代部分（第三卷）[M].武汉﹔湖北教育出版社，2006: 207-225.

*蒋骁华.意识形态对翻译的影响:阐发与新思考[J].中国翻译,2003(05):26-31.

*王东风.一只看不见的手——论意识形态对翻译实践的操纵 [J]．中国翻译，2003，5 (24): 16-23.

*周东元，亓文公.中国外文局五十年史料选编（1）[M]. 北京:新星出版社，1999: 399.

*新星出版社编辑部.中国外文局五十年回忆录[M]. 北京:新星出版社，1999: 37, 420-421.

*杨宪益，薛鸿时.漏船载酒译当年[M]. 北京:人民日报出版社，2001: 225.

*李红霞.目的论视域下的政论文英译策略研究——以2010年《政府工作报告》为例[J].外国语文,2010,26(05):85-88.

*吴旭飞. Extra-textual Factors in The Translation of Government Work Report 2014 under Manipulation Theory[D].西安外国语大学,2015: 56-58

*Mei Zhang. Translation Manipulated by Ideology and Poetics—A Case Study of The Jade Mountain. 2012, 2(4):754-758.

*Bassnett, S & Ledever, A. Constructing Cultures: Essays on Literary Translation [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001: 48.

*Munday, J. Introducing Translation Studies Theories and Applications [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2010: 127-129.

*Lefevere, A. Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulation of Literary Fame [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press，2010: 1-70.

==Comparison between the History of Chinese and Western Translation 周书尧 Zhou Shuyao,Japenese Language and Literature==

<center> 周书尧 Zhou Shuyao 202020080672 </center>

===Abstract===
Translation has existed since historical records. Translation goes hand in hand with human history, even before historical records. Whether in China or in western countries, the long tradition of translation seems to be the most dazzling pearl in the process of human civilization. In addition, it plays an important role in promoting cross-cultural communication. This chapter first discusses the history of translation in China from the four translation climaxes in China, then discusses the history of translation in the West from the five translation climaxes in the west, and finally makes a comparative analysis of the similarities and differences between Chinese and western translation history, and puts forward some views of the author.

===Key words===
The history of Chinese,The history of Western,the stages of translation history,comparison

===摘要===
自历史记载以来，就存在翻译。翻译与人类的历史并道而驰，甚至先于历史记载。无论在我国，还是西方国家，悠久的翻译传统俨然成为人类文明进程中一颗最耀眼的明珠。此外，翻译在促进跨文化交流和文化传播上起着着不可忽视的作用。本文首先从中国的四次翻译高潮论述中国的翻译史，其次从西方的五次翻译高潮探讨西方的翻译史，最后对中西方翻译史的异同进行对比分析，提出一些笔者自己的看法。

===关键词===
中国翻译史，西方翻译史，翻译高潮，对比

===I.Introduction===
Since the 1980s, the Chinese translation studies community has made remarkable progress in the establishment of Chinese and Western translation history courses and the compilation of related works.In the 1980s and early 1990s,A Brief Introduction to the History of Translation in China from Ma Zuyi and other books of Chen Yugang and Tan Zaixi were published one after another,which raised the curtain for the compilation of Chinese and Western translation history works by the domestic translation scholars.The four stages in the history of Chinese translation have promoted the development of Chinese history, culture and society to varying degrees.(Xu 2018,5)

The same as China, Western translation has an age-old history.In a sense, the development of Western European civilization should first be attributed to the translators.The five stages in the history of European translation have promoted the exchanges of literature, art, science and trade between countries, and to a certain extent promoted the development of Chinese translation.In fact, when we examine the development trajectory of Chinese and Western translation activities and the evolution of translation concepts together, we find that there are some similarities between Chinese translation and Western translation.Especially in the evolution of Chinese and Western translation concepts, the two have very similar evolution laws.(Xie 2010,5)

===Ⅱ.The history of Chinese translation===
According to records, there have been four stages in China's long history of translation development, leaving behind many classic discussions.From these four translation climaxes, we can see the translators, translation theories and practices that emerged in different periods in China.Moreover, these translation stages have exerted different influences on China's history, culture, society, and literature, including the development of Chinese translation.(Li 2016,132)

====2.1 The first stage: Ancient Translation History====
The translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties (25-1279) can be regarded as the first important period in the history of Chinese translation, the initiation period of traditional Chinese translation theory, and the first large-scale, planned, Organized translation activities.A large number of Buddhist scriptures were introduced into our country from various countries in the Western Regions, which had a profound impact on our country's language, religious philosophy, painting, arts, etc.The Chinese translation of Buddhist scriptures with textual research should be translated by An Shigao（安室高） during the Eastern Han Dynasty (151 AD).(Liu 2016,147)

From 148 AD to 170 AD, he translated more than 30 Buddhist scriptures in Luoyang, making great contributions to Buddhist translation and the spread of Buddhist culture in China.The translation of Lokaksema（支娄迦谶）, who was at the same time as An Shigao, was basically a word-for-word translation, which was not easy to understand. The literal translation in the Chinese translation community probably started from this time.Zhi Loujiachen were the masters of the literal translation school. In addition to them, the major translators include Lokaksema and Dharmaraksha（竺法护）. And most of these translators were “foreigners”.(Liu 2016,147)

Shi Daoan (314-385), who was an eminent monk, set up a translation workshop, ushering in the period of translation on a large scale. And a State Translation School was founded for this purpose. Shi daoan put forward the famous "five instances of losing the source and three instances of difficulties", which had a great influence on later translation studies.(Li 2016,132)The Sui and Tang Dynasties were the prosperous period of Chinese Buddhist translation.Xuan Zang（玄奘）, Kumarajiva（鸠摩罗什）, and Zhen Di（真谛） of the Tang Dynasty are collectively known as the three major translators of Chinese Buddhism.（Li 2016,132）

In the translation of Buddhist scriptures, he fumbled and summed up the famous "Five do not flip"(五不翻原则）and “six methods of translation”. "Five do not flip"means translators should employ transliteration facing mysterious words, polyseme, culture-loaded words, conventional transliterating words and words showing respect. And the core of his translation theory can be concluded in one sentence. That is: it is necessary to seek truth and be straightforward.（既须求真又须喻俗)
The Buddhist translation of this period enriched the religious beliefs of the people, became the spiritual support of the people at that time, promoted the exchange between China and the world at that time, and made Buddhist scriptures an inseparable part of our traditional culture.（Li 2016,132）

====2.2 The stage two:Modern Translation History ====
During the Ming and Qing Dynasties (from the middle of the 14th century to the 19th century), the second stage of translation appeared in Chinese history. During this period, the translation was mainly scientific and technological translation.This major turn was also decided by the Chinese and Western countries at the time in order to seek their own interests and finally reached an agreement on mutual terms.Western missionaries wanted to spread religious thought and culture in China, while Chinese scholars at that time were eager for knowledge and were keen on Western advanced science and technology in order to maintain the regime.（Li 2016,132）

In this way, the mutual complementation of the two needs led to the gradual formation of the atmosphere of translation of Western science books, thus promoting the great development of science and technology translation at that time.In 1868, the official translation and publishing organization of the Qing Dynasty, referred to as the Translation Museum, used the translation method from Western to Chinese, which means that foreign scholars interpret and Chinese scholars write and polish.(Liu 2016,148)The main representatives of translation activities in this period include Xu Guangqi（徐光启）, Li Zhizao （李之藻）, etc.Especially Xu Guangqi, known as the "Father of Western Translation", does not understand foreign languages, and his translations are mainly through listening to people's dictation, co-translation and compilation with others.(Liu 2016,148)

He proposed that the translation of Western historical books should be prioritized and progressive，and put forward his own translation thought: "If you want to be superior, you must understand; before you can understand, you must translate first."Although there were many translation achievements during this period, there was no systematic translation theory.Although the later translation museum had clear translation principles, its main purpose was to maintain its own rule by learning advanced Western technology.(Liu 2016,148)

====2.3 The third stage: Contemporary Translation History ====
From the end of the 19th century to the beginning of the 20th century, China was in turmoil, internal and external troubles. Some rulers and intellectuals with capitalist thoughts demanded to unite to resist the invasion of western countries and proposed to strengthen through reform. Translation in this period is a watershed in the history of modern translation in China. Translation in the field of science and technology has gradually spread to the fields of literature, philosophy, economics, sociology and ethics. China has entered a new stage of translation, and the scale and influence of its translation activities have surpassed any other period in modern times.（Li 2016,132）

At the end of the 19th century, Western academic translation represented by Ma Jianzhong （马建忠）and Yan Fu（严复）was a translation act driven by "national anxiety", which promoted the expansion and deepening of foreign exchanges.(Liu 2016,148-149)In particular, Yan Fu's "faithfulness,expressiveness and elegance" translation standards have had a profound impact on translators' translation activities."faithfulness" means loyalty, and "expressiveness" means unobstructed. In Yan Fu's interpretation, "elegance" means the translation strives to be elegant.The representative translator at that time was Lin Shu（林纾）. He proposed to pay attention to the purpose and function of translation, which meant that the translation should be able to achieve the expected goals and effects.

In his translation, Lin Shu emphasizes the involvement of subjective feelings, and the translator needs to communicate with the original author and the characters in the original works. A large number of translators, represented by Lin Shu, mostly adopt the principle of domestication and advocate free translation, which reflects the flexibility and openness of translation to a certain extent. During the May 4th movement, New Youth magazine began to translate and introduce western cultural thoughts and literary works. Representative figures such as Chen Duxiu（陈独秀）, Hu Shi（胡适） and Zhou Zuoren（周作人） attached great importance to introducing foreign literature and foreign culture.(Liu 2016,149)

Translation activities during this period included the introduction of scientific and technological knowledge and the dissemination of advanced ideas. The scale and the number of works all showed its important position in the history of translation.Moreover, the audience in this period has also expanded from intellectuals to part of the people, broadening the horizons of the Chinese people, increasing their knowledge, and playing a good catalytic role in modern intellectual circles.(Liu 2016,149)

====2.4 The fourth stage: Present Translation====
Since the reform and opening up, China and the Western world have had a broader space for communication, and the translation industry has achieved prosperity and development.In an open China, from the initial learning from modern and contemporary Western translation theories, to actively conducting cultural exchanges with other countries, learning and exploring research methods, and focusing on cross-disciplinary comprehensive innovation, translation practices and theories have achieved unprecedented development.(Xu 2018,5)For example, cultural schools, structuralism, post-colonialism, and other translation theories have been translated into China in large numbers. Literary works involve politics, economy, culture, literature, art and other fields, and the quantity and variety greatly exceed the previous generations.

Representatives at this time include Liu Miqing（刘宓庆）, Tan Zaixi（谭载喜）, Huang Long（黄龙） and others. Among them, Tan Zaixi compiled the book "A Brief History of Western Translation". The whole book pays attention to absorb the relevant research results at home and abroad. It is important for various historical periods, especially since the 20th century. The representative tasks in the western translation field, translation works, schools of thought, etc. are described and commented, and the mutual promotion, evolution and development of translation practice and translation theory are analyzed and discussed in a simple way, which promotes the formation of a systematic translation theory in China.(Xu 2018,5)

During this period, our research is no longer limited to the summary of translation practices and abstract induction of translation principles, but from the generalization of subjective thoughts to the description and analysis of specific translation phenomena, translation events and processes.Translation studies have changed from a single-paradigm study to a multi-paradigm study. In short, the reform and opening up has created a new situation in China's translation industry, constantly expanding research fields, and effectively promoting the development of Chinese translation studies.

===Ⅲ.The history of western translation===
The same as China, Western translation has a long history.In a sense, the development of Western European civilization should first be attributed to the translators.From the ancient Roman Empire to the modern European Community, literary, artistic, scientific, and trade exchanges between countries are all carried out through the work of translators. Throughout the whole process, the history of Western translation can be divided into five major development stages.Broadly speaking, the earliest translation in the West is The Septuagint.Strictly speaking, the first translation is the Homer epic "Odyssey" translated in Latin by Andronicus .Both the former and the latter began in the third century BC, with a history of more than two thousand years, and are an important part of the entire European history of development.(Tan 1985,36)

====3.1 The first stage : Ancient====
Ancient translation mainly revolved around the Greek translation and Latin translation of the "The Bible·Old Testament" from the third century BC to the sixth century AD. Translation in this period can be divided into the first stage of ancient Greek literature translation and the second stage of religious translation.At the end of the fourth century BC, the Greek slave society began to decline, while the relatively backward Rome gradually became stronger.At this time, Greece has a certain cultural foundation and is still superior to Roman culture. Therefore, Greek culture has a greater attraction to Roman culture. (Tan 1985,36)

The translation and introduction of Greek culture may have begun in this period.It was not until the middle of the third century BC that recorded translations began to appear. Andronicus, Neveus, Ennius, and other excellent translators, who are known as the three ancestors of Roman literature, have translated a large number of Greek dramas in Latin.This large-scale translation first opened the situation of local translation in Europe. It spread Greek culture to Rome, promoted the development of Roman culture, and served as an important bridge for Rome and later generations to inherit ancient Greek literature.(Tan 1985,36)

The translation activities from the fourth century to the sixth century were mainly religious translation.In Europe, religious forces have always been strong and stubborn. From the very beginning, the Christian Church was hostile to secular literature, and tried to develop a religious culture that served its own interests.As the source of Christian thought and spiritual weapon, the "Bible" has naturally become the most concerned classic in the religious world.In 384 AD, Jerome was entrusted by the Roman Pope to compile a translation called "The New Testament", which marked that the translation of the "Bible" had achieved an important position on par with the translation of secular literature.As Europe entered feudal society, religious translation was popularized, and the Bible was translated into various languages .（Tan 2004,79）

====3.2 The second stage : Middle Ages====
In the middle ages, Latin translation was no longer limited to religious documents. Oriental literature was translated and introduced to the East. The achievements of Arabic academic research promoted the development of Western translation.At that time, Western translators gathered in Toledo, Spain, and translated a large number of works from Arabic to Latin. This is the rare closely contact between Christians and Muslims in history.(Tan 2004,64)In the ninth and tenth centuries, Syrian scholars went to Athens to translate a large number of Greek classics into Syrian and brought them back to Baghdad. Baghdad established an important translation center, and many Greek classical works were translated into Arabic.Later, in the eleventh century, a large number of Arabic works appeared in Toledo. Translators translated these works into Latin. Toledo gradually became an academic center and translation center, becoming a "Translation Museum" similar to Baghdad. His translation and academic activities lasted for a hundred years, and the impact was also great.

====3.3 The third stage :The Renaissance Period====
In the 14th to the 16th century, the Renaissance took place in Europe. It was a great movement of ideological and literary innovation, and a great development in the history of Western translation. The translation practice and theoretical research of Western countries did not make a real leap until the Renaissance.During the Renaissance, Western translators constantly discovered new literary fields, unearthed new cultural heritage, and transplanted new ideas to the mainland. Translation at this time went deep into various fields such as ideology, politics, philosophy, literature, and religion, and involved some major works in ancient, modern and contemporary times.Translation in this period played an important role in the formation of national languages, marking the consolidation of the status of national languages in translation.(Tan 1985,37)

In Germany, Martin Luther created a precedent for the Reformation. His translation of the "Bible" through the people's language laid the foundation for the later standardization and standardization of German and played an important role in the unification of German.In France, "Celebrity biography" translated by the writer Amyot became an immortal literary translation in the history of translation in France and the entire West.In the United Kingdom, the translation of Greco-Roman history and literary works provided important historical materials and new ideological resources for the formation of an autocratic monarchy in the United Kingdom, which promoted the occurrence of the British bourgeois revolution and promoted Britain to become a modern nationalized country earlier.(Tan 1985,37)

In a word, the Renaissance around 1500 AD had a profound and long-term impact on Europe, especially the Western European society. Cultural translation played an important role in the ideological liberation movement. At the same time, it also showed that translation played an important role in the formation and development of national language, literature and thought.(Tan 1985,37)

====3.4 The fourth stage :Since the end of the Second World War====
After the Second World War, the West entered a relatively stable period of peace, the economy was restored, production was secured, and science and technology developed rapidly. These are important material foundations for the development and progress of translation.(Tan 1985,37)Compared with the past, translation in the new period has undergone great changes. First, the scope of translation has been expanded. Traditional translation mainly focused on literary and religious works, while translation during this period expanded to the fields of technology and business.Second, the scale of translation is much larger than before. In the past, translation was mainly the work of a few high-level intellectuals.

Nowadays, translation has become a profession, and there is even a professional team that has been specially trained.Third, the role of translation has also been enhanced, especially with the establishment of the European Community and the European Union, the process of globalization has accelerated, and the communication activities between countries are realized through translation. Therefore, translation plays a very important role in the economy, culture, science and technology of western countries.(Tan 2004,80)

The form of translation during this period has also changed greatly, such as the strengthening of the professionalization of the translation business, the establishment of higher translation education and the training of professional translators.Especially the way of translation has broken the tradition, and machine translation has been developed and popularized.Since English and American scholars first discussed the possibility of using computers for translation in 1946, the development and application of translation machines have increasingly shown vitality after nearly 40 years of tortuous development.It is not only a challenge to the traditional manual translation for thousands of years, but also a revolution with far-reaching significance in the history of translation.(Tan 2004,80)

===Ⅳ.Comparison between the History of Chinese and Western Translation===
====4.1 Commonality====
Through the introduction of the Chinese translation history and the Western translation history in the above two chapters, it is not difficult to find that there are some similarities between the translation concepts and the evolution process of the two, especially the laws of evolution of the Chinese and Western translation concepts are very similar.
First of all, the initiation and development of large-scale Chinese and Western translation activities are closely related to the translation of religious documents.In the West it is the translation of the Bible, while in China it is the translation of Buddhist classics.(Xie 2010,5)

In my opinion, this commonality is the origin of translation concepts such as "original supremacy" and "faithful original text" that have dominated the Chinese and Western translation circles for two thousand years.(Xie 2010,5)Looking back at history, when Chinese and Western ancient translators were translating these religious documents, they must be pious and absolutely faithful to the original text to translate word by word, lest they would distort the will of God and the teachings of the Buddha.Until the 1950s, due to the advent of the era of professional translation, the target of translation has evolved from religious documents and literary masterpieces to non-literary practical documents such as economy, technology, business, and entertainment. Since then, translation Views have been greatly changed.(Xie 2010,5)

Secondly, both in China and in the West, translation has played an important role in disseminating knowledge.When we compare the contribution of Chinese and Western translation in spreading knowledge together, this effect is further demonstrated.In the West, backward Rome developed rapidly due to the absorption of advanced Greek culture and became the later Roman Empire.In the Middle Ages, after the Baghdad Translation Center, the translation activities of the "Translation Museum" in Toledo, Spain.The translators provided a source of learning for the Western world by translating ancient Greek and Roman natural science works, philosophy and other classics translated by the Arabs into Latin, as well as the Arabs' own academic works.(Xie 2009,47)

It is through these classical classics that Western talents began to come into contact with a large number of classical cultures and promoted the Renaissance. Its influence is reflected in all aspects of art, philosophy, literature, music, science and technology, politics, religion, and intellectual inquiry.For China, a large number of Buddhist scriptures from the Western Regions to China from the Han Dynasty to the Song Dynasty opened up the history of Chinese translation.The translation of science and technology at the end of the Ming Dynasty and the beginning of the Qing Dynasty was also influential in disseminating Western science and technology literature and promoting the development of China's natural science and engineering technology.(Xie 2009,47)

In particular, the literary translation from the Opium War to the "May 4th" period was the dividing line of modern translation history. The translation from the field of science and technology gradually spread to the fields of literature, philosophy, economics, sociology, ethics, etc. In the new stage of translation, the scale and influence of its translation activities have exceeded any period in modern times.Since China's reform and opening up, translation has played a role in promoting communication between China and various countries. The development of the globalization process cannot be separated from the bridge and hub of translation.(Xie 2010,5)

Thirdly, the role of translation in the establishment and development of national languages of different countries has some obvious similarities in the West and China. In the west, Martin Luther's Bible translation plays a very important role in the unification and development of German as well as modern German. The English translation of the Bible also contributes significantly to enriching English vocabulary and means of expression. As for China, Buddhist translation enriched Chinese vocabulary, especially literary translation during the May 4th movement, and promoted the establishment and development of modern Chinese vernacular. And now the new era of translation, to a certain extent, has enriched the vocabulary. For example, the Chinese word "人山人海" is translated into English as "people mountain people sea", even included in the English dictionary.(Xie 2010,5)

Finally, regardless of Chinese and Western, translation plays a vital role in conveying foreign social and cultural values.(Xie 2010,5)In the West, for example, the excavation, dissemination and development of the spirit of humanism during the Renaissance were largely due to the translation of ancient Greek and Roman classics.In China, Li Zhizao, Xu Guangqi and others' translations of Western social science masterpieces in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties broadened the horizons of the Chinese people and promoted the modernization of China.During the May Fourth Movement, Yan Fu, Lu Xun and others' translations of Western literature and dramas refreshed the Chinese worldview, increased the Chinese people's knowledge, and played a good catalytic role in modern intellectual circles.

====4.2 Difference====
The last section elaborated from four aspects that the evolutionary laws of Chinese and Western translation history are very similar. Of course, the development of Chinese and Western translation history has its own unique performance, not only in the development period and nodes, but also in certain These aspects are even far apart.
Although the initiation and development of large-scale Chinese and Western translation activities are closely related to the translation of religious documents, the status of Buddhism in Chinese and Western social and political life is different.Religion plays an extremely important role in Western society.(Xie 2009,51)

In Western Christian society, God is not only the creator and nurturer of the universe and mankind, but also the maker and arbitrator of the political and ethical order of the world. Is the primary source of Western moral standards.Therefore, the importance of "Bible" translation can be imagined.In China, imperial power is greater than divine power. Monarchs profess themselves to be the emperor, exercise power by the mandate of heaven, and enjoy supreme authority.Religion can only be spread and developed under the support and use of imperial power. Its essence is actually a tool to maintain rule, and it has never become a religious behavior for the whole people.(Xie 2009,51)

In Chinese history, religion was never allowed to harm the ethical principles of feudal rule. Once harm occurred, it would be banned and eliminated.The extermination of Buddhism in the history of Chinese Buddhism and the "Chinese Etiquette Controversy" in the history of modern Chinese Catholicism are typical features.Therefore, the influence of Chinese Buddhist scripture translation is more in folk culture, and the effect of its influence is more manifested in a subtle form.For example, the change of world outlook, the penetration of language, the borrowing of the plots of Buddhist classics in literary works, and so on.Moreover, Chinese society uses blood as a bond and family as a unit. It is the blood relationship that closely connects family members.Festivals and weddings and funerals are always carried out on a family or family basis, not under the auspices of the church as in the West.(Xie 2010,6)

On the other hand, due to the differences in national characteristics between China and the West, the Chinese nation is more pragmatic, focusing on physical and mental cultivation, ethics and morality, paying attention to whether translation theory has practical effects, whether it can guide translation practice and solve various problems encountered in the translation process.(Xie 2010,6)The Western Christian culture and my country's Confucianism have formed a sharp contrast in this respect.Westerners influenced by Christian thought have a strong pioneering and innovative national character. They advocate speculation and pay more attention to the abstract, systematic and systematic nature of translation theories.

They believe that the focus is on describing what kind of theory exists behind translation practice, and how to understand and interpret translation from a theoretical perspective.This makes the development path of the two translation theories different.If there were many similarities in the concepts and characteristics of Chinese and Western translation activities before the 1950s, then the differences in the development trends of the two translation theories in the later stages, especially from the end of the 19th century, became larger and larger.Western translation theories have been systematized earlier.(Xie 2010,6)

Any research is carried out under the guidance of a certain theory, and the results of related disciplines are fully used to make the connotation (translation standard itself) and extension (research method) of translation standards become truly pluralistic. Which embodies a strong scientific spirit.However, Chinese translation theories have remained at the level of translation practice experience perception for a long time, which is largely subjective.In particular, the proponents of traditional translation theory pay attention to the unspoken artistic conception, giving people more space for association and comprehension, but they cannot make precise regulations for translation practice, which is implicit.(Xie 2010,6)

===Ⅴ.conclusion===
Based on the above understanding of the history of Chinese and western translation from different aspects, I think it is possible to describe, analyze and sort out the history of Chinese and western translation in the same framework. By doing so, we can not only emphasize the common points in the development of Chinese and western translation, but also find out the rules of them. At the same time, we can show their own uniqueness in the process of development.

This chapter adopts the method of compiling parallel narratives based on synchronic presentation, supplemented by diachronic combing, combining two seemingly unrelated development contexts in the history of Chinese and Western translation, and analyzing and describing them as a whole.And the development stages of Chinese and Western translation history are divided into stages according to the mainstream translation objects of the specific era, and then the internal laws of the evolution of Chinese and Western translation concepts are explored and revealed.

Generally speaking, translation and culture are inseparable, whether religious, political, or literary, they all grow up in the soil of culture.(Chen 2016,1)In the process of understanding Chinese and Western translation history, people also feel the cultural collision.Not only in the long history of the past, but in the 21st century today, translation is a bridge and a link between countries, and an indispensable existence in people's social, political, and economic life. At the same time, translation is also an art. Through translating works, we not only understand the beauty of each country's culture, but also realize that translation is originally an art.

Translation is a rigorous and extensive academic science. Various forms of cultural exchanges between Chinese and Western languages, literature, philosophy, and religion require not only artistic performance, but also rigorous academic attitudes and systematic theories to support.Translators and scholars from different countries, languages and cultures have contributed their outstanding talents and wisdom in the field of translation. They have studied and published a wealth of academic theories and skills in translation studies from different perspectives, which have promoted the progress and development of society.

===References===
Chen Fang 陈芳.(2016).西方翻译史的文化演进——评《西方翻译简史》[The Cultural Evolution of Western Translation History——A Review of "A short history of translation in the West"].当代教育学(06)Contemporary Education(2).

Gong Yicai 龚亿财.(2020).论翻译在第三次翻译高潮中的特点及社会功能[On the features and social functions of translation in the third translation climax].吉林广播电视大学学报(Total No.217)Journal of Jilin Radio and TV University.

Li Yin 李颖.(2016).从翻译史上的几个重要时期看中国翻译理论与实践的发展[Viewing the development of Chinese translation theory and practice from several important periods in the history of translation].湖北经济学院学报(Vol13 No.10)Journal of Hubei University of Economics.

Liu Qiaoling 刘巧玲.(2016).从中国翻译史的四次高潮看主要译论及读者影响[Main translation theories and readers' influence from the four climaxes of Chinese translation history].黑龙江生态工程职业学院学报(Vol.29 No.5)Journal of Heilongjiang Vocational Institute of Ecological Engineering.

Ma Zuyi. 马祖毅. (1998). 中国翻译简史-“五四”以前部分（修订本） [A Brief History of Chinese Translation: The Part Before the May 4th Movement] . China Translation Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.

Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.(1985).西方翻译史浅谈[On the history of Western translation].中国翻译(07)Chinese Translation(36-39).

Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.(2004).西方翻译简史[A short history of translation in the West].商务印书馆The Commercial Press of Hongkong.

Xu Jun许钧.(2018.06)改革开放以来中国翻译研究的发展之路[The development of Chinese translation studies since reform and opening up].Chinese Traslation Journal.

Xie Tianzhen 谢天振.(2009)中西翻译简史[A brief history of Chinese and Western translation].外语教学与研究出版社Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.

Xie Tianzhen 谢天振.(2010)中西翻译史整体观探索[An exploration of the holistic view of Chinese and Western translation history].东方翻译(02)East Journal of Translation(4-8).
--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 15:01, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

='''Literal and Free Translation'''=

==Rethink Literal and Free Translation 彭永亮 Peng Yongliang==

<center> 彭永亮 Peng Yongliang 202020080634 </center>

===Abstract===

Literal translation and free translation are a pair of very important concepts in translation studies, which run through the development of translation theory. Starting from Chinese and Western translation theories, this manuscript clarifies the similarities and differences between literal translation and free translation, and compares the differences in translation methods and strategies. Literal translation and free translation in translation strategies are connected with the concept of domestication and foreignization. Here, this manuscript introduces how the concept of domestication and foreignization enters Chinese translation theory from Western translation theories, and compares them. The nature and characteristics of these two pairs of concepts. This manuscript believes that literal translation and free translation are not only a question of translation methods or translation strategies, but at a strategic level, they have risen to a question of domestication and foreignization. In essence, there is no distinction between good and bad.

=== Key Words===

Literal translation;Free translation;Domestication;Foreignization

===题目===

直译与意译，归化与异化

=== 摘要 ===

直译与意译是翻译学中非常重要的一对概念，贯穿翻译理论的发展过程。本稿从中西翻译理论出发，厘清直译与意译这对概念的异同，并比较了其在翻译方法和翻译策略中的区别。在翻译策略中的直译和意译又与归化和异化这一对概念产生了联系，在这里，本稿在介绍归化与异化这一对概念如何从西方翻译理论进入中国翻译理论的同时，比较了这两对概念的性质与特征。本稿认为，直译和意译不仅是翻译方法或翻译策略的问题，在战略层次上其上升为归化和异化的问题，它们本质上没有优劣之分。

=== 关键词 ===

直译；意译；归化；异化

===0. Introduction===

Literal translation and free translation are a pair of important terms in Chinese and Western translation theories. The discussion of literal translation and free translation is a common phenomenon in Chinese and Western translation theories, which runs through the entire process of translation theory. To a certain extent, literal translation and free translation seem to have become very natural categories, so there is no need to specifically define these two concepts in the discussion. Take the term "literal translation" used in Chinese translation theory as an example. From the "Six Examples of Scripture Translation" recorded in "Song Gaoseng Biography", it can be seen that the concept of "literal translation" in traditional translation theories was first opposed to "retranslation" , Refers to the translation method of translating the scriptures directly from the Sanskrit version. The concept of "literal translation" that frequently appears in modern and contemporary translation theories is at least related to the following three different western translation theory terms, namely "word-for-word translation", "literal translation" and "inter lineal translation". In this way, there is a fundamental difference between "literal translation" as the concept of "implantation" and the concept of literal translation in traditional Chinese translation theories. Therefore, there are different understandings of the term "literal translation".

In fact, the understanding of the concept often limits the scope of the discussion itself, so the different understanding of literal translation and free translation may make the disputes about these two concepts often carried out on different levels. Therefore, when using the two terms literal translation and free translation to participate in discussions, it is particularly important to clarify the concept of literal translation and free translation and re-examine the scope of discussion.

===1. Literal Translation and Free Translation===

===1.1 Literal Translation and Free Translation in Translation Methods===

From the perspective of etymology, "method" refers to the method of governance. It originally meant criminal law and regulations. Later it was used to refer to the sum of the ways, methods and procedures for people to understand and transform the objective world. It is a sign of wonderful deeds." Similar to the "method" in Chinese, the "method" in English is derived from the Greek word "μ＇εθοδοζ", which consists of two words "along" and "road", meaning to proceed along the right path. Therefore, whether it is "method" in Chinese or "method" in English, it refers to the correct way to recognize and understand objective objects, focusing on "action". Schleiermacher put forward in his far-reaching "On Two Methods of Translation", "Bring the author to the reader" and "Bring the reader to the author" are just to place the original text, translator and target reader in the same At the level, discuss the real task that the translator must complete-shorten the distance between the original author and the target reader, and highlight the relationship between language, understanding and thinking. Therefore, Schleiermacher's two translation methods are actually the choice of two paths, and they are the decisions and actions taken by the translator in language conversion. If translation is defined as a conversion of language signs, the translation method can be regarded as a specific way for the translator to recognize the source text and carry out the conversion of language signs.

British translation theorist Newmark summarized 13 different translation methods in Chapter 5 of the "Translation Tutorial", among which word-for-word translation, literal translation, faithful translation, semantic translation, etc. are all defined as one translation method. Examining his definitions of the different translation methods mentioned above, we can summarize the common points of these translation methods as “reproduce” based on determining a fixed translation unit (such as morphemes, grammatical structure, contextual meaning, etc.) The meaning of the original text. In other words, although Newmark uses a prescriptive research method to associate translation methods with "equivalence", and does not clearly define what translation methods are, the 13 translation methods he summarized illustrate the use of various Translation methods are all aimed at solving practical problems in the translation process. In this sense, "the translation method is related to the entire text" (Newmark, 2001:81). Translators will not be limited to a certain translation method in their translation process, but will adopt different translation methods according to actual problems. Both literal translation and free translation are one of them.

Western translation theorist Steiner believes-"The ideal situation for translation is to not suffer any loss during conversion" (Steiner, 2001:319). It can be found that although the original text and the translated text cannot be completely equivalent , But the ideal state required by the translator is still consistent in all aspects of the original text and the target text. To achieve such an ideal state, the translator needs to use the most appropriate translation method to solve the actual problems in the translation process on the basis of correct understanding. In the specific process of the translator, it is difficult to clearly distinguish the "degree" between literal translation and free translation as a specific translation method, such as the "most natural and most appropriate" translation. Therefore, in the discourse of most theorists, the opposite of literal translation and free translation should be hard translation, dead translation, Hu translation, etc. If we look at the controversy of "literal translation and free translation, which is better?" from this perspective, it seems to be said that literal translation and free translation, as two translation methods, do not have the advantages and disadvantages. The two are not completely different and opposed to each other. Translation methods are specific methods used by the translator for different issues. Therefore, the discussion about literal translation and free translation not only includes the discussion of "how to translate", but also involves the question of "what is the ideal state of translation".

In summary, in Chinese and Western translation theories, literal translation and free translation as translation methods are used to solve practical problems in translation, and these practical problems are closely related to the language structure of the source and target languages. Different issues have different levels of discussion. In this way, it is necessary to re-examine the actual translation issues behind the discussion to understand the dispute over literal translation and free translation. In any case, in Chinese translation theory, when literal translation and free translation are regarded as two translation methods, there is actually no so-called problem of which is better, and there is no substantial difference between the two, the difference is only the translator. The gap between its translation practice and its ideal translation target.

===1.2 Literal Translation and Free Translation in Translation Strategies===

From the perspective of etymology, strategy means "strategy and strategy" in Chinese. Like the word "strategy" in English, it is derived from military science and refers to specific methods, means, and methods used to achieve a certain goal. Sum. Translation strategy can be understood as the sum of specific methods, means and methods used by the translator to achieve a specific translation goal. Riitta Jaaskelainen, a researcher on the translation process of TAPs, defines translation strategy as "a process associated with ‘goal-oriented’ and ‘subjective optimality’, rather than a process of problem solving." The American translation theorist Venuti distinguishes between translation methods and translation strategies in the definition of "translation strategy" under the term "translation strategy"(Bassnett, 2004). His so-called domesticating and foreignizing are translation strategies. Susan Bassnett also deliberately distinguishes between strategies and methods when discussing poetry translation-"When analyzing the many different translation methods used by the English translators of Catullus’ 64 Poems, Andrew Le Pfeiffer summarized seven different translation strategies." (Bassnett, 2004:84) It should be said that in terms of the terms used by the above scholars, translation methods and translation strategies are not the same. Therefore, when literal translation is regarded as a translation method or strategy, the issues that the critics want to explain are not All the same.
It can be said that the translation method aims to solve the problems in translation practice and achieve the desired translation effect, and the translation strategy reflects how the translator strives to achieve its translation purpose under the constraints of various external factors. To some extent, when literal translation and free translation are used as two translation strategies, the understanding of literal translation and free translation cannot be separated from the investigation of the translation and the social and cultural context of the translator. The translation strategy adopted by the translator is not an abstract theoretical assumption that has nothing to do with the social context of the translator, but a decision made by the translator in the tension between language, history, and social culture. Hidden behind the decision are the various translation purposes of the initiators of translation activities. What needs special attention is that the translator’s translation goals are multiple, so the strategies adopted to achieve different translation goals are naturally different.

===2. Domestication and Foreignization in Chinese===

Domestication and foreignization can be regarded as the conceptual extension of literal translation and free translation, but they are not completely equivalent to literal translation and free translation. As the product of cultural shift, domestication and foreignization must contain profound cultural, literary and even political connotations. If literal translation and free translation are only discussions at the language level, domestication and foreignization are the continuation of the discussion at the language level to the cultural, poetic and political level. That is to say, the bullseye of the dispute between literal translation and free translation is the gain and loss of meaning and form, while the bullseye of the dispute between domestication and foreignization is the cultural identity in the vortex of the gain and loss of meaning and form, and literacy is the gain and loss of the power of pumping discourse. problem.

===2.1 Assimilation and Alienation===

Domestication and foreignization in Chinese correspond to two pairs of terms in English: the first pair is "assimilation, alienation", and the second pair is "domestication, foreignization".

The connotation of Assimilation in translation studies should regard the original language and culture as "different traditional individuals or groups", and try to make them "participate" in the target language and culture during translation. "Participate" here means to move closer to the other party, or even merge with it. The "language" mentioned here mainly refers to the way of expression of thoughts, sentence structure, and sometimes also includes style, text layout, etc. "Culture" refers to the national behavior and language expression (such as rhetoric, etc.), living environment, ideology and other things that reflect this national characteristic. In the process of translation, the original language and cultural characteristics disappear in the target language to satisfy the aesthetic and acceptance psychology of the target language readers. Alienation is the opposite. In the process of translation, it tries to maintain the characteristics of the original text, keep a distance from the target language and its culture, so that the target readers feel "unfamiliar" when reading and realize that they are reading a translation. The meaning of assimilation and alienation we are talking about here refers to how to treat the differences between the two languages and cultures on the basis of equal status, and how to make different strategic choices in translation.

The meanings of the terms Domestication and Foreignization are related to the background in which they were produced. In the 1990s, translation has been placed in a large system of culture and society for research. Venuti was inspired by a so-called "fluency tendency" that has existed in the Western translation industry, especially the English and American translation circles for more than 40 years This pair of terms is proposed for the unequal relationship of literature in different cultures. It mainly refers to the translation from other foreign languages to English. Compared with assimilation and alienation, this pair of terms not only reflects the difference in meaning between language and culture. You can also see the deeper meaning of cultural inequality behind this different background. In this way, translation is placed in the context of culture, society, politics, and ideology, and the choice of translation strategies reflects the different positions of different cultures in the world today. Translation is used as a tool of struggle, and it is not equal. To fight against the phenomenon. It should be said that this is an improvement, and it is also the main difference between these two pairs of terms, or it is the reason why Venuti put forward this new pair of terms under the premise of assimilation and alienation.

===2.2 Domestication and Foreignization===

Domestication and foreignization in Chinese are the same as assimilation and alienation. They both discuss the differences between languages and cultures, and they are all based on the equality of different languages and cultures. Chinese "domestication" also focuses on the process from different to similar and identical, but the meaning of "domestication" in domestication is not included in "domestication"; and "foreignization" in Chinese also maintains the "different" component, which is reserved Difference, no cultural inequality, as a means of struggle and resistance to cultural colonization. "Naturalization" and "alienation" are closer to assimilation and alienation in meaning. When and who the term "domestication" and "foreignization" in Chinese were first used in translation studies in my country has not been ascertained. According to the materials we see now, "domestication" was used in translation research earlier than "foreignization".

Through the above-mentioned comparative analysis of the origin, extension and connotation of the categories of “domestication” and “foreignization”, we can now define them as follows: Domestication and foreignization are the differences between the two languages and cultures that the translator faces in translation Two different translation strategies are adopted due to differences in the target text type, author's intention and target language readers, etc., and their purpose is to guide the choice and application of specific translation methods and techniques. Domestication pursues the translation to comply with the target language and culture norms, and better meets the reading needs of the target language readers with less odor; the pursuit of foreignization retains the characteristics of the original language and culture, so as to enrich the target language and culture. It satisfies the reader’s demand for the "stranger" of the target text. The choice of these two strategies sometimes also refers to social, cultural, political and ideological regulations. Regardless of the strategy chosen, it should focus on the needs of readers and society.

===3. Rethink===

The choice of the translation strategy of domestication or foreignization will have a great impact on the translation, and even some meanings will be lost. But in literal translation, no matter which one is selected, the content of the original text will be faithfully expressed. For example, the works translated by Lin Xian, we can only say that it is a domesticated translation, and cannot be called a free translation, because he has rewritten and created a lot of the original text. This is one of the differences between the two pairs of terms. The second difference is that literal translation and free translation are translation methods, while domestication and foreignization are translation strategies. The two are not at the same level, and the latter guides the former. "Modern Chinese Dictionary"says that "methods" are "methods, procedures, etc. for solving problems such as thinking, speaking, actions, etc."and "strategies" are "action policies and struggles formulated according to the development of the situation." Method.” There is a certain connection between method and strategy. Method is the specific method under the guidance of strategy, and strategy is the policy and goal of guiding method. Under the guidance of domestication and foreignization, the translator chooses the appropriate translation method. In addition to literal translation and free translation, there are also multiple methods such as clip translation, transliteration, and compilation. Although domestication and foreignization are related to literal translation and free translation, there are also obvious differences. The mixed use of the two pairs of terms is not conducive to the standardization of the category, not conducive to theoretical research, nor is it used in translation practice.

Liu Yingkai interpreted the concept of naturalization in this way: the so-called "naturalization", according to the interpretation of "Cihai", "is the old name of naturalization". The "domestication" of translation refers to the fact that the starting language of the guest "ji" is incorporated into the "ji" of the home language in the translation process: English-Chinese translation spares no effort to Sinicize; Chinese-English translation will make every possible effort to Englishize...and so on There are always the theorists of "Ning Shun but not believing" in the translation circle, and the translation of "Nation" is familiar to the ears; after seeing it familiar, there is no sense of discomfort or resistance,...... (Liu Yingkai, 1987).

According to the reality of the Chinese translation world, Liu Yingkai summarized the manifestations of naturalization into five types: 1. Abuse of four-character idioms; 2. Abuse of quaint words; 3. Abuse of "abstraction method"; 4. Abuse of "substitution method"; 5. To visualize or allusion without basis. Liu Yingkai has a negative attitude towards the translation method of domestication. He believes that domestication will "reform the objective facts of foreign countries, obliterate their national characteristics, force them to subdue, and assimilate them into the language of their destination, so it must be a distortion of the original text. ".

Venuti's definition of domesticated translation is: abiding by the current mainstream values of the target language and culture, and openly adopting conservative assimilation methods to the original text to cater to the local canon, publishing trends and political needs.The Dictionary of Translation Studies published by St Jerome Press, UK, based on Venuti's deconstructionist insights, and defines domestication as: the use of a transparent and smooth style in translation to minimize the strangeness of the original text. Strategy. And the application of the domestication translation method has six steps: l carefully choose the original work suitable for domestication translation; 2. consciously adopt a smooth and natural target language style; 3. make the translation work Adapt to the type of target utterance; 4. Add explanatory materials; 5. Eliminate the geographical and historical colors in the original language; 6. Make the translation consistent with the prejudices and preferences of the monthly language.

Venuti believes that fluent domestication translation not only conceals the translator’s work efforts and exposes the translator to the “invisible” unfair situation; it also conceals the differences between cultures and the sense of history of the original work, and integrates the contemporary values of mainstream culture. Impose on the original. Since the stylistic effect pursued by domestication translation is that the translation does not read like the translation, it is easy for readers to mistakenly believe that the translation that has been contaminated by the mainstream culture and language values of the target language is the original appearance of the original. A narcissistic experience that identifies with local culture". (Venuti, 1995:15) Aiming at the tradition of Anglo-American domestication translation, Venuti pointed out that domestication translation is "a ethnocentric decomposition of the original text according to the cultural values of the target language, bringing the original author home",Actual divination is a kind of imperialist cultural plunder. He also believes that the more domesticated the translation, the more invisible the translator; the more invisible the translator, the more concealed the fact that the original is maliciously naturalized, that is to say, the readers of the translation are more likely to be deceived. The post-colonial translation theory also makes a useful discussion on domestication and foreignization. In the discourse of post-colonial theory, domestication translation is related to the conquest and colonization of imperialism. Domestication is an indispensable content of conquest and colonization, and as a specific translation method, domestication is the violence, even rape, of the original text and the starting culture. (Robinson, 1997: 58)

Canadian translator Robinson discussed the issue of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of post-colonial theory. His definition of domestication is: domestication translation is a term used by foreignization translation scholars to describe the worst translation. This kind of translation adopts the method of assimilating the original work into the target culture and language values, and domesticating the original work. Traditionally, people call this concept "paraphrase"; also known as "assimilative translation" (Robinson, 1997: 116). With regard to domestication translation, Robinson's views and Venuti have a consensus, but also have differences. Robinson expressed difficulty in accepting the tendency of Venuti and other alienationists to over-politicize the issue of domestication and alienation, and raised a discussion. At the same time, he also questioned the view that some post-colonial scholars believe that naturalized translation helps the process of colonization. In fact, the political factors in Robinson's post-colonial translation theory are more than that in Venuti, which is mainly related to his post-colonial vision.

The concept of alienation has surpassed the linguistic level of literal translation and has risen to the level of culture, poetics and politics. Therefore, alienation cannot be simply equated with literal translation. Venuti's definition of alienation is summed up as deviating from the local mainstream values and retaining the language and cultural differences of the original text.Based on Venuti’s opinion, Dictionary of Translation Studies defines alienation as: To a certain extent, to preserve the foreignness of the original text and deliberately break the convention of the target language. Venuti suggests that foreignizing translation should be adopted in those "aggressive" monolingual cultures where domestication translation is prevalent (such as British and American cultures), which can carry out strategic cultural interventions in "current international affairs and challenge the hegemonic English-speaking countries and inequality." The cultural exchanges,... the use of English for foreignization translation can also be a form of resisting our ethnocentrism and racism, cultural narcissism and cultural imperialism". (Venuti, 1995:20) He believes that foreignization translation can impose "ethnodeviant pressure" on the cultural values of the target language, and has the effect of sending readers to a foreign land. He said: "Resistance translation can help preserve the language and cultural differences of the original text, and translate texts that have a sense of strangeness and alienation. These translations mark the limit of the mainstream values of the target language and culture, and prevent these values from affecting a certain culture. The other is the domestication of imperialism.”Specifically, the use of foreignized translation means that the translator can not only be free from the restriction of the target language and text habits, but also can use the non-fluency when appropriate. , Opaque speech style, deliberately retain the cultural color of the starting language, so as to give the target reader a different reading experience. However, because the preservation of the original text has to rely on local cultural materials, Venuti also admits that, just like domesticated translation, foreignized translation "is also one-sided when interpreting the original text, but it does not cover its one-sidedness, but instead Show off." (Venuti, 1995:34)

===4. Conclusion===

The result of literal translation and free translation is not just the gain and loss of semantics and form. From a cultural perspective, it involves issues such as the equal exchange of cultural identity and a sense of history loaded in language forms; from a poetic perspective, it involves literary issues loaded in language forms; from politics From the angle of view, it involves the issues of colonization and decolonization, hegemony and anti-hegemony. Therefore, the dispute between literal translation and free translation has evolved into a dispute between domestication and foreignization at a new level. In the context of globalization, this level of controversy can be regarded as a confrontation between nationalism and cosmopolitanism, a confrontation between a weak culture and a powerful culture, or a confrontation between Orientalism and Western centralism.

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==On the Chinese Translation of ''A Pale View of Hills'' from House's Translation Quality Assessment Model 宋建茹 Song Jianru 202020080639 ==

<center> 宋建茹 Song Jianru 202020080639 英美文学</center>

===Abstract===

Translation quality assessment is an integral part of translation criticism. The first TQA model with comprehensive theories and practices Juliane House represented provides a significant reference for translation exercises. ''A Pale View of Hills'', as the first work of Kazuo Ishiguro, possesses a great research value on its narrative styles by virtue of memory and topics about migrants. As of 2011 when its Chinese translation was published, no scholar has evaluated it. This study applies House's TQA model to assess the Chinese translation of ''A Pale View of Hills'' with qualitative and quantitative analysis from lexical, syntactic and textual aspects, in a bid to examine validity of the model on novel translation, which turns out that it is an overt and high-quality translation.

=== Key Words===

''A Pale View of Hills''; House's TQA model; Novel translation

===题目===

从豪斯翻译质量评估模式谈《远山淡影》中文翻译

=== 摘要 ===

翻译质量评估是翻译批评的核心课题。朱莉安·豪斯提出的第一个有完整的理论和实践的翻译质量评估模式，为翻译实践提供了重要参考。《远山淡影》是石黑一雄的处女作，其依托回忆的叙事风格和移民主题具有很高的研究价值。《远山淡影》中译本自2011年出版至今，尚未有学者对其进行评估研究。本文运用豪斯的翻译质量评估模式，采用定性与定量相结合的分析方式，从语场、语旨、语式等三个层面对原文和译文进行分析，开展《远山淡影》中译本的翻译质量评估研究，为豪斯翻译质量评估模式对小说翻译的运用进行进一步的探索和补充。通过分析，本文得出《远山淡影》中译本为显性翻译，翻译质量较高。

=== 关键词 ===

《远山淡影》；豪斯质量评估模式；小说翻译

===Introduction===

Translation criticism refers to the analysis and review of thoughts, activities and works of translation by virtue of relevant theories and views, in a bid to improve the overall quality of translators and translations. It is an integral part of translation studies. Translation quality assessment, as the integral and key part of translation criticism, plays a significant role in surveillance and promotion of translation quality. Among the extant translation quality assessment models, Juliane House's ''A Model for Translation Quality Assessment and Translation Quality Assessment: A Model Revised'', based on Halliday's systemic functional linguistics and discourse analysis, are systematic, scientific and rational with a relatively complete system of parameters, quantitative methods and steps adhering to specific procedures.(Wang Enmian 1999,7)

''A Pale View of Hills'', as Kazuo Ishiguro's first full-length novel, tells the life of the people in Nagasaki after WWII through the memory of protagonist Etsuko and explores recovery of trauma, collision between the old and new ideas, and kinship after war. The first person narrative, memory, humor and satire and international perspectives in the book became his major writing styles in the future. The novel won the Winifred Holtby Memorial Prize from the Royal Society. Its only Chinese translation at present, from Zhang Xiaoyi, is still not analyzed by the scholars(Wang Fei 2017, 152).

This paper uses House's translation quality assessment model, with combination of qualitative and quantitative analysis, from field, tenor and mode to analyze the mismatches between original and translation in an attempt to assess the Chinese translation quality of ''A Pale View of Hills'' and further explore the application of House's model in novel translation. The aim of the study is to promote scholars to regulate the behaviors of translation, to improve the quality of translation and translation evaluation, and to provide a reasonable way for establishing the interlingual conversion mechanism.

The thesis consists of five chapters.

After the Introduction, Chapter One gives a brief account of ''A Pale View of Hills'' and its research status, involving the author, background, content and influence. Chapter Two gives a brief introduction of House’s TQA model, including its theoretic basis, parameter setting, operation steps and feasibility. Chapter Three is a detailed analysis of original and translation of ''A Pale View of Hills'' based on House’s model. Chapter Four is the statement of translation quality assessment. Chapter Five draws a concise conclusion about this paper.

===I Overview and Research Status of ''A Pale View of Hills''===

''A Pale View of Hills'' is Kazuo Ishiguro's first novel, which laid a solid foundation for the formation of Ishiguro's writing style. The chapter mainly introduces the author, plot, theme and influence of the novel and analyzes its research status, in an attempt to master the material well and seek new perspectives for the paper.

'''1.1 Overview of ''A Pale View of Hills'''''

Kazuo Ishguro is a noble contemporary Japanese English writer, whose novels feature first person narrative, detailed depiction of loneliness, depression, self-deception and anxiety of characters' inner world and dual narrative strategy to deconstruct the narrator's self-identity, as well as discuss postwar trauma and migrant identity. He won Booker Prize, the British top literary prize, in 1989 and the Nobel Prize in literature in 2017. By virtue of his outstanding literary achievements, he is known as one of the Three Masters of English Migrant Literature together with Salman Rushdi and Naipaul(Liu Xiaoya 2015,5).

''A Pale View of Hills'', published in 1982, is Ishiguro's debut. The story, with postwar Nagasaki as its background, enjoys two clues: one is what happened when Niki (Etsuko's little daughter) visited her mother after her sister Keiko died; the other is Etsuko's memory about people and events in Nagasaki after the war. The two lines integrated together during the narrative, forming the illusory and imaginary impression(Liu Xiaoya 2015,5).

Many in-depth topics in this work are worth pondering: postwar trauma recovery, the collision between new and old ideas after war and discussion of family relations. Many marks in the work became his own styles: first-person narrative, memory, humor and satire, international perspectives. In addition, it won the Winifred Holtby Memorial Prize from the Royal Society and is still in print thirty years after its publication. This book, with its enormous emotion, unearths the abyss beneath the illusion of our connection to the world, whose artistic value and charm could be time-tested(Liu Xiaoya 2015,8).

'''1.2 Research Status of ''A Pale View of Hills'''''

There are 54 papers about A Pale View of Hills in domestic researches. According to the statistics from How Net, the number of studies on the work has been mounting, especially after Kazuo Ishiguro won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 2017. The perspectives of these researches are mainly from identity anxiety, unreliable narrative and post-war trauma.

In "Identity Anxiety in Kazuo Ishiguro's A Pale View of Hills", Wang Fei discusses the identity anxiety of migrants, exploring manifestations, causes and influence of such anxiety on the characters( Wang Fei 2017,152). In "Memory and Narrative Unreliability of ''A Pale View of Hills''", He Xiaobing combined with the classical narratology to analyze how unreliable narration method is presented in the work and discussed the inner world of the characters(He Xiaobing 2018,3). In "Trauma in Kazuo Ishiguro's A Pale View of Hills", Liu Xiaoya explores the protagonist's trauma by using Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalysis theory and trauma theory (including post-freudian psychological trauma theory), contemporary trauma culture theory along with rhetorical narrative theory(Liu Xiaoya 2015,3).

At abroad there are more perspectives about the studies of A Pale View of Hills. In addition to the main research directions of domestic scholars, such as identity anxiety of characters, unreliable narrative research and post-war trauma, cultural displacement, family relationship and the influence of region on personality presented in the works are also analyzed.

''The Impact of Place on Personality in Kazuo Ishiguro's A Pale View of Hills: An Eco-critical Study'' written by Awla, Y.N, from the perspective of ecocriticism, clarifies the fact that a place is able to define and guide the emotions and thoughts of characters, and analyzes the reasons why geography forms characters of people in order to draw people’s attention to the impact of surrounding environment on them. Ruth Forsythe's article ''Cultural Displacement and the Mother-daughter Relationship in Kazuo Ishiguro's A Pale View of Hills'' focuses more on the relationship between mother and daughter under cultural displacement. However, no scholars have analyzed the language itself from the perspective of systemic functional linguistics.( Awla,Y.N 2019,1)

The Chinese translation of A Pale View of Hills, Zhang Xiaoyi's version, was published by Shanghai Translation Publishing House in 2011, and the bilingual version in 2019. Up to now, there has no translation criticism or discussion about this translation. Since 2011 when it was translated, it came to draw the attention of scholars and readers. Translation is a direct factor that affects the integrity of author's thought, the reader's perception and the accuracy of the scholar’s study, thus it is indispensable to use the House’s Translation Quality Assessment model to analyze the Chinese translation of ''A Pale View of Hills''.

===II Introduction of House's Translation Quality Assessment Model===

Juliane House's model was described as the first translation quality assessment model with complete theories and practices by international translation criticism, which could provide an important reference for translation learners and scholars. By introducing the theoretical basis, parameter system and operation steps of House's model, this chapter will discuss the feasibility of House’s model in the evaluation of the Chinese translation of ''A Pale View of Hills'', in an effort to foster the application of House's model in the quality evaluation of full-length novels.(Zhou Fenfen 2018,784)

'''2.1 Theoretical Basis of House's Model'''

The assessment of translation quality draws upon different translation standards, which are then embodied by the recognition about essence of translation. House deemed that crunch of the translation quality assessment lies in recognition of the nature of translation, namely that "translation is the replacement of a text in the source language by a semantically and pragmatically equivalent text in the target language."(House 1977, 30)

In House's initial model in 1977, she drew upon language behavior theory, language and text function and context to divide the source language text into two situational dimensions: dimension of language user and dimension of language use. The former includes three aspects: geographical origin, social class and time. The latter includes five aspects: medium, participation, social role relationship, social attitude and province(House 1977, 30).

Based on myriad practice, House realized that the initial eight dimensions overlap in some parts. Therefore, in 1997, she revised the original model from the perspective of the context, unifying the previous eight parameters to field, tenor and mode. Field compares subject matter and social action of the original with that of translation. Tenor emphasizes the matching degree on the relationship of participants, time, region, position of author, social role relationship and social attitudes. Mode pays more attention to medium and participation. In addition, House incorporated "genre" into revision model in order to explain the deep structure of the text.(House 1977, 30)

'''2.2 Operation Steps of House's Model'''

When evaluating the translation quality of the text, House's model focuses on comparison between original text and translation from field, tenor, mode and genre, clarifies and summarizes mismatches found in the text, so as to obtain a quality report of the translation. The detailed steps presented as follows: (House 1997, 108)

1) Analyze the register and genre of the original text to get its textual functional profile. The original text is analyzed from four dimensions: field, tenor, mode and genre. According to the analysis, “functional statement”, involving ideational and interpersonal functions, needs to be deduced.(House 1997, 108)

2)Compare the target text and the source text to find differences or mismatches. Through the comparative analysis between original and translation along the dimensions on the model, mismatches or differences found in the comparison are sorted out by virtue of overt errors or covert errors and expounded in detail one by one.(House 1997, 108)

3)Summarize the differences and mismatches demonstrated from the above steps in lexical, syntactic and textual aspects. Based on above statistics and statement, make the quality statement. The fewer the mismatches are, the better the translation quality is. If readers clearly realize the text a translation work, it is overt translation; while if not, it is covert translation.(House 1997, 108)

'''2.3 Feasibility of the Model in Chinese Translation of ''A Pale View of Hills'''''

At present, there are 78 relevant studies on House’s Translation Assessment model, which are mainly divided into three directions: interpretation of House Translation Assessment model and its revision, evaluating translation of literary works along the model and evaluating translation of applied text along the model. Among them, evaluation of the translation of literary works accounts for 29, which enjoys the following two characteristics:

1)There are merely a few researches applying House model to Chinese translation of literary works. Among the 29 journals and papers evaluating translation of literary works, there are 25 studies that attach great importance to the English translation and 4 to Chinese translation, which signifies that we need more researches of Chinese translation to support the validity of the model on different languages. Therefore, the paper, with the Chinese translation of A Pale View of Hills as its corpus, intends to examine the feasibility of the application of House's model to Chinese translation.

2)There are merely a few researches applying House model to the translation of full-length novels. Among the 29 journals and papers on evaluating translation of literary works, most of which focus on the evaluation of poems and prose, merely 5 studies are analysis of translation of full-length novels. English translation accounts for 3 and Chinese translation for 2, which demonstrates that we need more researches with full-length novels as corpus to support the validity of the model in different genres. Therefore, the paper, with the full-length novel A Pale View of Hills as its corpus, intends to examine the feasibility of the application of House’s model to full-length novels.

In conclusion, given that the researches based on Chinese translation of full-length novels are insufficient, the paper will use the Chinese translation of A Pale View of Hills as its corpus to validate the feasibility of House's TQA model.

===III Comparison of Original and Translation of ''A Pale View of Hills'' Along House's Translation Quality Assessment Model===

''A Pale View of Hills'' is the debut of Kazuo Ishiguro, whose Chinese translation was published by Shanghai Translation Publishing House in 2011. House's Translation Quality Assessment model is the first objective model combining quantative analysis with qualitive analysis. The paper applies House's Translation Quality Assessment model to Chinese translation of ''A Pale View of Hill'', comparing the source text and target text in lexical, syntactic and textual aspects along the three dimensions of register and summarizing the mismatches on field, tenor and mode, in an effort to quantitatively assess the translation quality of ''A Pale View of Hills''.

'''3.1 Comparison on Field'''

Field refers to the content or the topic of the text. It is concerned with subject matter and social action which covers the specificity of lexical items. After comparison between the source text and target text on field, there are 18 mismatches, 12 of which are overt errors and 6 covert errors. Among them, there are 9 lexical errors, 1 textual error and 8 syntactic errors. The lexical and textual errors are mainly covert errors, so in general their translation is of high quality. Although most of syntactic errors are not in line with the grammar of target language system, they won’t influence the understanding of the text. Therefore, by and large, translation on field are high-quality.(Feng Yufang & Wang Feifei 2015,114)

'''3.1.1 Lexical Field'''

Lexical field means the immediate or possible scenes or events evoked in people's mind when they read or hear the words or lexical items. After the analysis of the original and target text, there are 9 mismatches, 4 of which are overt errors and 5 are covert ones. Most of them won't block readers to master the overall meanings. Therefore, the translation quality on lexical items are relatively high.(Feng Yufang & Wang Feifei 2015,115)

Example 1：

...and the soaked surfaces of brick and concrete were drying all around us.

湿透了的砖头和水泥开始变干。(P8)

Concrete refers to building material that is made by mixing together cement, sand, small stones and water according to Oxford Dictionary, which includes cement rather than equates it. So, it is not very accurate to translate in this way even if the two words are similar. It is obviously an overt error.

Example 2：

As far as I remember, that was the first occasion I spoke to Mariko.

我印象那是我第一次跟万里子说话。(P11)

In the translation, “印象” as a noun refers to a mental picture that you have of what somebody/something is like or looks like. In the light of the rules or grammar of Chinese, it is hardly used as a verb. Thus, it is an overt error.

Example 3：

It's such a shame.

真不像话。(P16)

A shame is used to say that somthing is a cause for feeling sad or disappointed. In the original, the sentence is to express Etsuko’s pity to the homeless dogs and cats around her community rather than her distaste or complaint. Here it is translated into its other meaning when ignoring the context, belonging to a covert error.

Example 4：

Why don't you go into the kitchen for a little while?

你为什么不到厨房去一会儿呢？(P26)

In the translation, “去” is not very appropriate on the basis of grammar of Chinese, since it is such an action verb that does not match with state phrases. In the course of translation, some prepositions in English need to be transferred into verb in Chinese, which are supposed to pay attention to the rules of target language. Here it is obviously an overt error.

Example 5：

It's not appreciated simply because the product disappears so quickly.

不能因为它的产品很快就消失了而不懂得欣赏。(P34)

According to the context, Ogata-San believes that cooking is “as noble as painting or poetry”. So here the product refers to food cooked. Given the concrete expression in Chinese, the product is supposed to be translated more concretely in accordance with the context. It is a covert error.

Example 6：

Perhaps it is just my fancy that I felt a cold touch of unease there on that bank, a feeling not unlike premonition.

这也许只是我的想象，但是那时我在河边觉得凉飕飕的，很不自在，像是感觉有事要发生。(P44)

“Unease” refers to the feeling of being worried or unhappy about something. Given the above-mentioned, Etsuko worried about the safety of Mariko when she was not at home. It differs from its translation that means the feeling of being ill at ease. It is an overt error.

Example 7：

You mustn't suppose, Etsuko, simply because you've seen her in these…in these present surroundings, that she's some peasant's child.

悦子，你不能因为……因为眼前的事物就认为她是什么贫农的孩子。(P51)

Sachiko is not rich according to the context, so “peasant” intimates the meaning of poverty. Its translation explicitly represents it, which is accessible and intelligible. However, “贫农” enjoys extra cultural meaning in China, which could date back to the Cultural Revolution when lands was apportioned based on people’s wealth, so it might mislead readers to its political implication. It is a covert error.

Example 8：

“I must have been such a burden to you in those days,” I said, quietly.

“我那时肯定成了您的负担，”我静静地说。(P68)

Here “quiet” refers to making very little noise, which coincides with the act of saying. According to the context, Etsuko lowered her noise out of guilt when she realized she bothered her family when she practiced violin before. However, its translation means the statement without any noise, which obviously contravenes the context, belonging to covert translation.

Example 9：

I could see something moving beside her in the shade.

我看见她身旁的影子里有什么东西在动。(P14)

“Shade” means an area that is dark and cool under or behind something, for example a tree or building, because the sun’s light does not get to it, rather than the shadow which the translator believed. As previously mentioned in the text, “Mariko was lying in the corner furthest from the sunlight”, which also signifies that it is impossible to exist dark shape under the light around Mariko. Thus, the translation of “shade” is not on a par with the context, belonging to a covert error.

'''3.1.2 Syntactic Field'''

Syntactic field means the immediate image appeared in people's mind when they read the sentences. The mismatches in syntactic field are usually for the violation of rules of target language or misinterpreting the source text. On syntactic field, there are 8 mismatches, seven of which are overt errors and one is covert. Among the overt errors, seven sentences are not in line with the rules of target language, which won't influence the ideational meaning. Therefore, the translation quality on syntactic field is high.(Feng Yufang & Wang Feifei 2015,116)

Example 1：

It did upset me, hearing about her.

我真的很难过，听到她的死讯。(P4)

Example 2：

But I was sad though, when I heard.

可是我真的很难过，听到她的消息。(P4)

Example 3：

It's certainly an amusing sort of experience, working in a noodle shop.

这真是很有趣的经历，在面包店里工作。(P26)

In English, the important or unknown information appeared firstly, and the second one follows. However, in Chinese, the second important presents at first, paving the foundation for the more pivotal or unknown one. In above three examples, their translation doesn't adjust the sequence in line with target language rules. These are overt errors.

Example 4：

…certain arrangements I made have not gone as planned.

一些事情没有照我计划的那样。(P17)

The translation is not complete as the predicate verb “have gone” is not translated, which does not conform with the grammar of Chinese. It is an overt error.

Example 5：

She appeared to know them, for as she walked across the forecourt, she gave them a familiar greeting.

看来她认识她们，边走过水泥地，边熟识地跟她们打招呼。(P26)

The original is a compound-complex sentence with "for" for causal relation and "as" for coordinate relation. In the translation, the former is represented but the later isn't, neither by conjunction words nor by clause sequence. It causes that the translation lacks of logic, belonging to an overt error.

Example 6：

It's an opportunity for a teacher to see the fruits of his work, and for the pupils to express their gratitude to him.

这是一个机会让老师看看他的劳动成果，让学生们向他表示感谢。(P30)

The translation adheres to the sequence of the original but ignores the fluency of the sentence. In English, attributives are at both ahead of and behind the objects; while in Chinese, they mostly are preceded. Therefore, the translation violates the grammar of the target language, belonging to an overt error.

Example 7：

There's nothing like a timely reminder of one's personal obligations.

及时地提醒个人的责任之类的东西也没有。(P71)

"There's nothing like" is a common sentence pattern in spoken English, meaning nothing else is able to match. The original would have expressed that "a timely reminder of one's personal obligations" is the most important. The translator misunderstood the meaning utterly, making an overt error.

Example 8：

It amazes me, how things have changed so much so quickly.

太让我吃惊了，世道变得如此之大，如此之快。(P195)

The translation, by and large, is in accordance with the original. Yet there is possibility for readers to be confused about the accuracy of words collocation. Although "so much" and "so quickly" modify the verb "change", we have to respectively choose the proper words to collocate. It is a covert error.

'''3.1.3 Textual Field'''

On textual field, there is only one error---overt error. It is caused by misconstruing what the pronoun refers to. By and large, the translation, through the comprehensive analysis on textual field, is high-quality. (Feng Yufang & Wang Feifei 2015,117)

Example 1：

That's just not how it was though.

但是我和她根本不是这样。(P4)

According to “Sisters are supposed to be people you're close to, aren't they. You may not like them much, but you're still close to them”, it refers to the whole view instead of certain relationship between me and my sister. The referential meaning does not accord with that of the original. It is an overt error.

'''3.2 Comparison on Tenor'''

Tenor refers to the nature of the participants, the addresser and the addressee, and the relationship between them in terms of social power and social distance. After comparing the original and the translation of A Pale View of Hills, there are 8 mismatches on social attitude and social role relationship, one of which is an overt error and the rest are covert. In general, the translation is highly in accordance with the original so the quality is high on tenor. (Feng Yufang & Wang Feifei 2015,118)

'''3.2.1 Social Attitude'''

Social attitude refers to the social distance between communicators and the degree of formality of discourse. The misunderstanding of social attitude in the translation process will affect the readers' understanding of the characters in the novel. Therefore, mistakes in representing social attitude of characters should be minimized and even avoided in the translation process. There are 4 mismatches on social attitude in the translation: one is an overt error and the rest are covert errors. By and large, the translation on displaying the social attitude of the original is great.(House 1997, 108)

Example 1：

The English are fond of their idea that our race has an instinct for suicide.

英国人有个奇特的想法，觉得我们这个民族天生爱自杀。(P4)

In the original text, the attitude of the character is relatively objective. However, in the translation, the attitude is represented overly by using an adjective, which might be translator's understanding on author's attitude. It limits different interpretation to the author's attitude from readers. It is an overt error.

Example 2:

“Which are you hoping for, Etsuko?” he asked, eventually. “A boy or a girl?”

“你想是男孩还是女孩呢，悦子？”过了一会儿他问道。(P35)

Ogata-San would like to know Etsuko's mind about the upcoming baby, but he is not sure if it is proper. At last, curiosity overpowers his hesitation. In the original text "eventually" signifies both time and emotion span. But the translation only manifests the time span. It is a covert error.

Example 3:

“Tell me, Etsuko,” he said, not looking up from his laces. “Have you met this Shigeo Matsuda?”

“告诉我，悦子，”他头也不抬地说。“你见过这个松田重夫吗？”(P36-P37)

Ogata-San, as Etsuko’s father-in-law and adopter after the war, gets along well with her. In the original text, Ogata-San is “not looking up” when speaking to Etsuko since he is lying his laces. The translation ignores the reason, which renders Ogata-San a cold man. It is a covert error.

Example 4:

I'm sure she'd be the first to agree with me about Kazuo mourning her like this.

我肯定她会第一个同意我的观点，和夫不应该再这样想着他了。(P94)

From the original, we can feel the love of Mrs. Fujiwara to her son. However, after reading its translation, we can feel nothing but her dominance. It signifies that the translation deviates from the original context. It is a covert error.

'''3.2.2 Social Role Relationship'''

Social role relationship refers to the social relation between the speaker and the receiver, that is, symmetry and asymmetry. The analysis on the social roles relationship in novels is generally from two aspects: relationship between the author and readers, and relationship between the various characters in the work. The former is remained utterly, while the latter is slightly different from that in the original. A total of 4 mismatches are found in the comparison, all of which are covert errors. In the full-text translation, the overall relationship between the characters is the same as that of the original text, and only a few mismatches are found. Therefore, on social role relationship, translation is of high quality.(Feng Yufang & Wang Feifei 2015,117)

Example 1：

She said it would be perfectly all right if you came and waited for her at my house.

她说你可以到我家来等她。(P13)

The translation omits "be perfectly all right if", which takes the edge off the amiability from Etsuko to Mariko. Given the whole plot of the novel, Mariko is a phantom of Etsuko's old daughter Keiko. The obscure feelings between Mariko and Etsuko are very important to implicate their special emotion. Therefore, the translation ignores to take a consideration of the context. It is a covert error.

Example 2：

As I say, this order came into the office the day you arrived. A real nuisance.

我说过了，订单刚好在您来的那天来了。真是讨厌。(P29)

On the basis of the context, Jiro (Etsuko's husband) is explaining to his father Ogata-San that he is so busy that he could not accompany him. He feels apologetic about that. However, the tone of speaking in translation is impatient and a bit furious, which runs against that of the original. So, it is a covert error.

Example 3：

I should warn you, perhaps. My daughter has been in a somewhat difficult mood these past few days.

也许我应该警告你。我女儿这几天情绪很不好。(P90)

Warn enjoys two major meanings: to tell somebody about something, especially something dangerous or unpleasant that is likely to happen, so that they can avoid it; to strongly advise somebody to do or not to do something in order to avoid danger or punishment. In the original, Sachiko entrusts Etsuko to look after her daughter so the former one is appropriate. However, in the translation the later one is adopted, which is absolutely improper. It is a covert error.

Example 4：

Now listen carefully, or else you'll never find the noodle shop.

现在您听好了，不然您永远也别想找到面馆。(P183)

The sentence is said when Etsuko intends to tell Ogata-San the route to the restaurant of Mrs Fujiwara. On the basis of the context, Etsuko is very reverent to Ogata-San. However, the manner of translation is tough, which is not of a piece with the original. It doesn't take account of the context, so it is a covert error.

'''3.3 Comparison on Mode'''

Mode can be divided into medium and participation. In the course of analyzing both the original and the translation, a total of 6 mismatches are found on the two dimensions and all of them are covert errors, which manifests the translation are generally of a piece with the original. The translation on mode is of high quality.(Zhou Fenfen 2018,784)

'''3.3.1 Language Medium'''

Language medium mainly refers to whether the form of language is spoken or written, simple or complex. The contrast between the model of the source text and the target text is mainly reflected in the linguistic features and diction features of text rather than language types used. The language of A Pale View of Hills is simple, delicate and easy to understand, with short sentence, plenty of dialogues between characters and a high degree of colloquialism. The overall style of the translation is similar with that of the original, with only 4 stylistic covert mismatches. Therefore, on language medium, the translation quality is great.(House 1997, 108)

Example 1：

…on one side of the tracks at the foot of the hill could be seen a cluster of roofs.

山脚下铁路的一侧是鳞次栉比的屋顶。(P8)

Cluster means a group of things of the same type that grow or appear close together, whose translation accords with it in the ideational meaning. Nonetheless, “鳞次栉比” in Chinese is a four-character phrase that usually appears in formal written text. It is more complex than the style of the text. It is a covert error.

Example 2：

We're just rabble, like your husband says.Please don’t make a fuss, please sit down.

正如您丈夫说的，我们只是两个混蛋。不用麻烦了，请坐下。(P74)

The situation happens when Jiro's colleagues come round. From the conversation between Jiro and his colleagues, it is found that they are very familiar and intimate. So, words such as "rabble" and "like" are of high colloquialism. Nevertheless, in the translation "正如" is a formal expression, which is not in line with the original. Thus, it is a covert error.

Example 3：

Blankets and laundry hung from many of the balconies.

很多阳台上挂着毯子啦、洗的衣服啦。(P181)

Example 4：

Young women these days are all so headstrong. And forever talking about washing-machines and American dresses.

现在女孩子任性得很。而且整天在讲什么洗衣机啦、洋裙啦。(P195)

The two sentences are the description of the street which Etsuko and Ogata-San pass by when they intend to visit Shigeo. Etsuko is a calm and composed Japanese woman, whose language style is the same. Modal particles used in translation render the language abrupt and frisky. So, it is a covert error.

'''3.3.2 Participation'''

Participation refers to whether the speech is a simple monologue or a complex form that prompts the listeners or readers to participate indirectly, for example, by the transition between statements and questions and the special use of pronouns. The whole plot of ''A Pale View of Hills'' is a soliloquy narrated in the first person, interleaved with dialogues between different characters. Readers hardly could participate indirectly in it. The translation is basically in the same style as the original, except for the two following examples. The two declarative sentences are translated into a rhetorical question, which does not require readers to answer as well. Therefore, the translation is of high quality in terms of participation.(House 1997, 108)

Example 1：

That’s no way to bring a child into the world, visiting the cemetery every week.

这样怎么能把孩子带到这个世上呢？(P24)

Example 2：

It seems very disloyal.

这不是忘恩负义吗？(P32)

In conclusion, the quality statement of the Chinese Translation of A Pale View of Hills focuses on whether it is an overt transaltion or a covert translation and its matching degree.

On the one hand, it is an overt translation. Accoring to above analysis, the translation is closely related to the culture of the sourse language text. From the translation, expressions with Japanese culture can be found clearly. On the other hand, it is of high quality. There are 32 mismatches in total, 18 mismatches on field, 8 on tenor and 6 on mode. Among them, there are 13 overt errors and 19 covert errors. Covert errors caused by ignoring the context and overt errors caused by violating the rules of target language inflict only a little ambiguity on ideational function, interpersonal function and the quality of the text.

===IV Quality Statement of Chinese Translation of ''A Pale View of Hills''===

The quality statement of the Chinese Translation of A Pale View of Hills focuses on its cultural participation degree and its matching degree. Based on the two aspects, this chapter will make a quality statement of the Chinese Translation of A Pale View of Hills.(House 1997, 108)

'''4.1 Overt Translation'''

Overt translation refers to the obvious translation rather than the second original. The translation is obviously not aimed at the readers with target language, because the original text, literary works, political speeches and religious sermons, is closely related to the culture it is rooted in. But covert translation can be used as the second text, that is, independent writing.

House deems that texts requiring overt translation have no special connection with their culture, and they are not unique to their culture, such as academic papers and travel brochures. She also believes that in overt translation, equivalence can only be established at the level of language/text, register and genre, but it is difficult to achieve equivalence in function. In contrast, the purpose of covert translation is to achieve functional equivalence, and there will be some deficiencies in language, register.(House 1997,108)

In the contrast reading between the original and the translation, the obvious traces of the original can be found, for example, “你想她们还在打吗？” and “呃，我想小孩子是会打架的。但是我想我应该告诉你一声。还有你看，我想你女儿不是要去上学。”. In English, words representing speculation, such as “suppose” and “think”, are used frequently, while in Chinese they are not. Thus, the target text which remains these words possesses obvious sighs of translation. Furthermore, other signs in the translation, such as “欠了欠身”，show the culture of Japan when greeting. In conclusion, the target text of A Pale View of Hills is overt translation.

'''4.2 High-quality Translation'''

This study applies House's TQA model to assess the Chinese translation of A Pale View of Hills on lexical, syntactic and textual aspects. On basis of analysis between the original and the translation, there are 18 mismatches on field, 8 on tenor and 6 on mode. Among them, there are 13 overt errors and 19 covert errors. Covert errors caused by ignoring the context and overt errors caused by violating the rules of target language inflict only a little ambiguity on ideational function, interpersonal function and the quality of the text.

Chinese translation of ''A Pale View of Hills'', by and large, consisting with the original, is of high quality. On the field, the translation, which transmits the subject matter and social action which covers the specificity of linguistic items, is in accordance with the original on lexical, syntactic and textual dimension in general; on the tenor, the representation of social attitude and social role relationship of the Chinese text is consistent with the English text; on the mode, the language of the translation is as simple and delicate as that of the original and the participation is of low level as well. Therefore, Zhang Xiaoyi's Chinese translation of ''A Pale View of Hills'' is of high quality.

===Conclusion===

''A Pale View of Hills'', as the debut of Kazuo Ishiguro, involves many in-depth subjects, which initiates the development of author's peculiar writing style. House's model is the first scientific and objective translation quality assessment mode with the integration of both theory and practice. This study applies House's TQA model to assess the Chinese translation of ''A Pale View of Hills'' on lexical, syntactic and textual aspects.

On basis of analysis between the original and the translation, there are 18 mismatches on field, 8 on tenor and 6 on mode. By and large, the Chinese translation of ''A Pale View of Hills'' is overt translation. Although a few mismatches can be found in the translation, they cause a little affect to the functions of the text and the presentation of the plot, role characters and role relationship of the whole novel. In conclusion, the translation is in line with the original on register and is of high quality.

Different from the traditional evaluation methods, House's model, based on micro and macro criteria, both quantitative analysis and qualitative analysis, is the first scientific and objective translation quality assessment model with a complete theory and empirical evidence. It can be used as an auxiliary tool to find problems in translation so as to make modifications, which to some extent promotes the development of translation activities.(House 1997, 180)

However, in the actual operation process, although the translation quality assessment can be carried out according to parameters, the comparison results still rely on subjective judgment, which cannot utterly guarantee the scientificity of the final evaluation results. In addition, due to the large number of parameters, it takes a lot of time to compare the differences in vocabulary, sentence structure and discourse between the original text and the translation in the evaluation of full-length novel, so the evaluation is not very efficient. Although there are still some shortcomings in the House's model, it is still worth applying in the practice of translation criticism as a relatively complete and objective theoretical model.(House 1997, 182)

===References===

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*House, J. (1997) ''Translation Quality Assessment: A Model Revised''. German: Gunter Narr Verlag Tubingen.

*Newmark, P. (2001) ''A Textbook of Translation''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

*Reiss, L. (2000) ''Translation Criticism, the potentials & Limitations''. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing.

*Forsythe, R. (2005) Cultural Displacement and the Mother-Daughter Relationship in Kazuo Ishiguro's ''A Pale View of Hills''. ''West Virginia University Philological Papers''.

*Jeremy M. (2001) ''Introduction Translation Studies: Theory and Applications''. London and New York: Routledge.

*Feng Yufang & Wang Feifei丰玉芳, 王菲菲. (2015) 从豪斯的翻译质量评估模式看宋词翻译——以宋词《声声慢》和许渊冲英译本为例[Translation of Ci-poetry Based on J.House's TQA Model——A case study of ''Sheng Sheng Man'' and its English translation by Xu Yuanchong]. 扬州大学学报(人文社会科学版)[Journal of Yangzhou University(Humanities and Social Sciences Edition)]. 114-121.

*He Xiaobing 贺晓冰. (2018) 论《远山淡影》的不可靠叙述与记忆[Memory and Narrative Unreliability in ''A Pale View of Hills'']. 西安外国语大学[Xi'an International Studies University].

*Jiang Ruiping 姜睿萍. (2007) 豪斯翻译质量评估模式在英汉互译中的可行性分析[An Analysis on the Feasibility of House s TQA Model in CE Translation]. 哈尔滨工程大学[Harbin Engineering University].

*Li Xiaolin & He Shaobin 李晓林, 何绍斌. (2010) 朱莉安·豪斯的“翻译质量评估模式”运作过程可行性浅评[The Feasibility of House's Model of Translation Quality Assessment]. 哈尔滨学院学报[Journal of Harbin University]. 127-1.

*Liu Xiaoya 刘晓亚. (2015) 《远山淡影》中的创伤研究[Trauma in Kazuo Ishiguro's ''A Pale View of Hills'']. 四川师范大学[Journal of Sichuan Normal University(Social Sciences Edition)].

*Si Xianzhu 司显柱. (2005) 朱莉安·豪斯的“翻译质量评估模式”批评[Juliane House's Translation Quality Assessment Model:A Critique]. 外语教学[Foreign Language Education]. 79-84.

*Tang Jun & Wang Yan 唐军, 王燕. (2011) 豪斯翻译质量评估模式在汉译英翻译中的应用——以朱自清《背影》的英译为例[Application of House＇s Translation Quality Assessment Model in C-E Translation—A Case Study of ''The Sight of Father's Back'' by Zhu Ziqing]. 合肥工业大学学报(社会科学版)[Journal of Hefei University of Technology(Social Sciences)]. 129-135.

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==On the Relationship among Literal Translation, Free Translation, Domestication and Foreignization--Wei Honglang 韦洪朗,国别区域研究，202020080647==

===Abstract===
Abstract
This paper makes a systematic discussion on the relationship among literal translation, free translation, domestication and foreignization,which have been always controversial in translation history. Based on the theories and contents of free translation, literal translation, domestication and foreignization, this paper analyzes the similarities and differences between literal translation and free translation, foreignization and foreignization respectively. After cross-contrast analysis between them, it comprehensively sorts out the relationship between translation methods of literal translation and free translation and translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and discusses their comprehensive application on the basis that domestication and foreignization are the extension of literal translation and free translation to cultural level, which has certain reference significance for further enriching translation practice.

===Key words===
Key Words: Literal Translation; Free Translation; Domestication; Foreignization

===摘要===
摘要
本文就翻译史上备受争论的归化、异化和意译、直译的关系问题进行了系统的讨论。基于意译、直译和归化、异化的理论及其内容，分别分析直译和意译、异化和归化两对概念之间的异同，在他们之间进行交叉对比分析后，综合整理直译、意译的翻译方法和归化、异化翻译策略的关系，在继承归化和异化是直译和意译向文化层面的延伸的基础关系上，具体讨论他们之间的综合运用，为进一步丰富翻译实践具有一定的借鉴意义。

===关键字===
关键词：意译；直译；归化；异化

===I.Introduction ===

In the history, argues between literal translation and free translation have been lasting for so long. Since there existed so many countries and nations on the continent of Europe, communicating frequently with different languages, the skill and cognition of language translation naturally developed and achieved a lot. During those time, two main methods of translation called literal translation and free translation came into being and accompanied by the problem on choosing which of them. The earliest opinion of translating methods can go back to the period of Roman Empire, when Cicero put forward that free translation should be used in translating Greek texts into Latin, on account of that literal translation , “word for word translation”at that time, couldn’t reflect Roman way of expression and couldn’t be easy-understanding and fluent as free translation, “sense for sense translation”. (Lu Shu, Wang Jintang 2005,115-116)

This view of point had a great and dominate influence at that time, which did not change until late Roman period, when Christianity was gradually in power and the necessity of spreading and translating Bible by the way “exactly what it is ” made literal translation become more popular. Then comes the renaissance, in which many linguisticians realized the importance of keeping the style and features of their own nations. Since then, the two translation methods have taken the lead and been debated endlessly in the translation field. By the 1960s and 1970s, when domesticating translation and foreignizing translation accordingly emerged with free translation and literal translation, reception theory, which upgraded the dominance of readers or we called receivers of translation, again made the domestic translating one-up. (Lu Shu, Wang Jintang 2005,115-116)

This kind of method was criticized by Venuti on its aggressivity of different cultures, based on which he officially put forward the two concepts of domestication and foreignization, which have been two central strategies in translation. So it’s vital to get a better understanding of those four concepts and make their relationships clear, which is of guiding significance to promote translation in practice.(Lu Shu, Wang Jintang 2005,115-116)

===II.Literal Translation and Free Translation===

When seeing translation as shift of linguistic sign, the method of translating could be regarded as the specific approach used by the translator shifting the ST(Source Text) into TT(Target Text), especially the two methods mentioned before--literal translation and free translation.Peter Newmark, in his "A Textbook of Translation", proposed that the only goal of translating should be repeating the meaning of ST, which means those translating methods exist for dealing with some problems happened during the process when translating.( Ma Shikui 2012,20)The meaning and structure of the ST might not be taken into account every time, so it’s important to search for a appropriate solution to deal with this kind of problem, that’s what literal translation and free translation do.

===2.1 Literal translation ===

Literal translation is the method chosen when the original structure and the meaning of ST could both be perfectly taken into account, by adhering to strict original meaning and style of the TT, including the structures of sentences and rhetorical devices. “Word for word translation” could be counted as the original way of literal translation, like the translation of "The Bible" in the middle Age I showed before. But as the argue and relevant theories developing till modern age, more and more experts realize and have a common sense that “word for word translation” can’t be equal to literal translation, since there always exist more or less differences among different languages. Personally speaking, the way Professor Fan Zhongying explains that literal translation means keeping the linguistic form of the SL, such as the words, the sentence structures and the rhetorical means, fluently and easily understood at the same time comprehensively interprets literal translation.(Joe Zeng Rui 2000,249)

===2.2 Free translation===

It’s better if we can have langugage forms and meanings achieved both ways, which cannot happened all the time. Thus, free translation might be better when translator can’t follow with the exact structure of SL. Free translation, “sense for sense translation”, refers to a kind of method used to translate the exact sense of the SL into the TL without retaining the sentence structures or the expression way of the SL. The supporters of free translation believe that the purpose of translation is to transform and convey the sense of the SL to the recipient of the TL, so it’s worthy to adopt an expression way closer to the TL, which is easier for the recipient to understand. Free translation has certain flexibility, which means the position of words and sentences can be adjusted. In order to facilitate readers' understanding, even some necessary supplements can be added.(Joe Zeng Rui 2000,249)

===2.3 Analysis with Examples of Literal translation and Free translation===

Here are some specific examples of the contrast between literal translation and free translation：

===2.3.1 On words===

ST:"Why do men have an Adam's Apple but women don't? "

Literal translating: 为什么男人有亚当的苹果而女人没有呢？

Free translating: 为什么男人有喉结而女人没有呢？

From above, the “Adam's apple” can be translated literally into "亚当的苹果", but it can't reflect the original sense of the ST, because in the western world, "Adam's apple" refers to "喉结" in Chinese instead of literally meaning "亚当的苹果", so free translation is more accurate here. In addition, it is worth mentioning that this example perfectly reflects the fit of sentence structure between Chinese and English. It also shows that translators should also be sure of the culture behind the SL.

===2.3.2 On sentence structures===

ST:"Here comes the bus!"

Literal translating: 这来了巴士!

Free translating: 巴士来了!

According to the literal translating way, if following with the source structure of the English sentence, which is a inverted sentence in English by the way, the translation result is “这来了巴士”, which is obviously both incoherent and hard to understand in Chinese and even twist the sense of the ST. According to the sentence meaning, it should be translated into “巴士来了 ”, which is totally different from the ST in grammar though.

===2.3.3 On rhetorical means===

ST: "If Main Street didn' t understand this , Wall Street did."(The Glory and the Dream, p .85)

Literal translating: 如果主街不能理解这一点，华尔街可以。

Free translating: 这一点, 一般人不理解, 华尔街那些大老板们却是明白的。(Professor Wang Zongyan, 1983 :10)

From this example, the key information is that Professor Wang Zongyan translates “Wall Street” into “华尔街的那些大老板们”. In Literature Translation, free translation is evidently more popular, because some literary images are difficult to express accurately through literal translation. In fact, the “Wall Street” here does not mean “Wall Street” itself, but people in power in Wall Street, so it is more appropriate for Professor Wang to translate it into “华尔街的那些老板们” by free translation. The reason of “Main Street”translating into “一般人”is the same.

===2.4 The Relationships between literal translation and free translation===

According to those demonstrations above, we can see that literal translation is more partial to SL(Source Language) and free translation considers more about TL(Target Language) users. The advantage of literal translation is to keep the style of the source language(show how other people talk), which plays a certain role in spreading the source language culture; the disadvantage is that sometimes it might be too long and difficult to understand, which hinders the communication and understanding between the two sides. Because free translation is biased towards the expression of the nation of the TL, its advantage is that it is more fluent and easy to understand, but its disadvantage is that it conceals the style of the source language and loses the role of translation as a cultural bridge, in which the translator's position seem not that important. All in all, I think it is best to combine the two translation methods organically in the process of translation. Just as professor Lu Dianyang proposed: “ Translate literally, if possible, or appeal to free translation.”(Zhao Jing 2011,61)

===III.Domestication and Foreignization===

Through the above introduction, we can know that with the change of historical environment, a period of political opposition and cultural exchange encountering a new period after World War II, the dispute between literal translation and free translation has reached a deeper level of development, which is the arrival of Foreignization and Domestication. Although Foreignization and Domestication were first formally proposed by Lawrence Venuti in "The Translator's Invisibility" in 1995, the translation strategy later called Domestication actually can be seen from Nida's translation theory of "dynamic equivalence"in 1964, which seeks for an expression whose meaning is closest to the SL and conforms to the habit of the TL expression way.（Chen Ying 2009,42）

Nida's theory has been strongly criticized by Venuti, who supports Deconstructivism, and holds that domesticating translation is an obliteration of the SL culture and a manifestation of cultural colonialism, which is manifested by its failure to comply with the expression of the source language culture. Based on this, on the contrary, Venuti shows strong support for foreignizating translation, and he thinks that this translation strategy of preserving the linguistic and cultural differences of the SL shows respect for the SL culture. The following part mainly clarifies the concepts and contents of these two translation strategies, which will helps to compare with literal translation and free translation mentioned above.（Chen Ying 2009,42）

===3.1 Domestication ===

Domestication refers to a translation strategy dealing with the language forms, customs and cultural traditions, such as proverbs, idioms and allusions when translating, which tends to serve the readers of the target language. According to Eugene A. Nida's concept of natural equivalence, the translation version should be close to the original sense and intention in a most natural expression, therefore, the behavior pattern of the source language should be brought into the cultural understanding category of the target language as much as possible, which means that the recipients of the target language can avoid accepting the cultural expression of the source language in order to better understand the original intention.(Zhu Yuanzhong 2013,54)

===3.2 Foreignization===

Venuti studies translation under the background of culture, society, politics and cultural consciousness, and reflects the different positions of different cultures in today's world through the choice of translation strategies, and regards translation as a tool to fight against inequality. From this, we can see the reason why he criticized domestication and vigorously advocated foreignization translation, which is used to advocate that the translation should adapt and consider more the culture of the source language and the original author's habit of choosing words as much as possible. Thus, foreignizing translation tends to serve the SL culture, because he thinks that the translation version should take the source language culture as its destination and guide the reader to approach the original author.(Jiang Cui 2015,71-71)

===3.3 Analysis with Examples of Domestication and Foreignization===

Examples for domesticating translation and foreignizing translation:

===3.3.1 On Politics===

Titles：동해 (donghae)& にほんかい(nihonkai)

Since the 19th century, the world has experienced terrible periods of two world wars and the Cold War . During this long period, independent nation-states gradually chose their own country's "roads" and directions, different ideologies and political positions having a strong sense of existence in international relations, among which there were many translation contradictions caused by geopolitics. (Pan Wenxiao 2020，https://weibo.com/ttarticle/p/show?id=2309404578145859666401)

For example, the title of the sea area between South Korea and Japan has caused controversy between those two countries. South Korea has always called the sea area "동해"(East Sea) in history, but Japan continues to use the European navigator's giving name "Japan Sea"(にほんかい) and gradually gained international recognition from the 19th century. However, South Korean believes that the title change was imposed on South Korea by Japan colonizing Korea, which is a title that violates South Korea's territorial waters and disrespects South Korea. Something similar has happened many times in the world, which is the political difference on domestication and foreignization.(Pan Wenxiao 2020，https://weibo.com/ttarticle/p/show?id=2309404578145859666401)

===3.3.2 On Culture===

ST:“情人眼里出西施。”

Domesticating translation: Love is blind.

Foreignizing translation: The beauty Xi Shi is in the eye of lovers.

This example shows relevantly how different it could be between two cultures: the ST and the domesticating one of TT express almost the same meaning in completely different ways, that is, lovers can only see each other's good thing. That is to say, if you want to convey the exact meaning of the original Chinese sentence to English speakers, then domesticating method is the best choice, although it will make the "translation results" look beyond recognition. However, if we choose foreignizing translation, especially retaining the word "Xi Shi", it will give English speakers a chance to understand Chinese traditional culture (Xi Shi is a beautiful woman in the Spring and Autumn Period of China, and "西施" in "情人眼里出西施" means "beauty"), although such translating way may be difficult to understand at first.

===3.4 The relationships between Domestication and Foreignization ===

Through the above analysis, it can be concluded that domestication and foreignization also have their own merits and reasonable existence. Although these two translation strategies were born in different historical backgrounds, their struggles to a certain extent reflect the struggle between the dominant position of stronger culture and weaker culture with different identities, which, of course is just one of those aspects, also reflect the problems of cultural communication: domesticating translation is conducive to conveying the meaning of the source language to the target language recipients without obstacles, especially in the case of great cultural differences existing, but this localization behavior will make it difficult for readers to learn what differences the two sides culture have, and in fact cultural diffusion will not be achieved.(Zhu Yuanzhong 2013,54)

On the contrary, foreignization translation conveys the target text to readers according to the discourse mode of the source language culture, which can not only make readers realize the charm of different cultures, but also increase the expression ways of their own nation, but it is very likely that the meaning of the target text is difficult to understand. This contradiction is particularly prominent in the political level. Therefore, in translation practice, we should decide which way to choose in different contexts and in the face of different groups of people, so that the two can complement each other and have unity of opposites under proper application.(Zhu Yuanzhong 2013,54)

===IV.The relationship among Literal Translation, Free Translation, Domestication and Foreignization===

Sun Zhili, a contemporary Chinese translator, said: "Historically, domestication and foreignization can be regarded as extensions of literal translation and free translation, but they are not completely equivalent to each other. The core issue of literal translation and free translation is how to deal with form and sense at the linguistic level, while domestication and foreignization break through the limitations of language factors and expand their horizons to language, culture and aesthetics.(Sun Zhili 2011,27) " Even after the above introduction, the boundary between literal translation, free translation, foreignization and domestication seems to be very vague. In order to better clarify the relationship between the two pairs of concepts, the following will distinguish and compare them.

===4.1 The comparison among Literal Translation and Free Translation, Domestication and Foreignization===

These two pairs of conceptss have some points in common. First of all, foreignization and domestication are extensions of literal translation and free translation, so the two pairs of relations are all methods put forward to guide translation practice; Secondly, relatively speaking, the roles of the two pairs of relations are very similar, especially in linguistic form: literal translation and foreignization both emphasize following the expression of the source text; Both free translation and domestication believe that in order to convey the sense of the source text accurately, the expression of the source text can be sacrificed. However，they are not the same in the following aspect. The first point is that the scope is different, which leads to different objects: literal translation and free translation are proposed according to the different structures and characteristics of the source language and the target language, and their discussion focuses on the relationship between form and content, which belongs to the level of language conversion. (Zhao Jing 2011,62)

Foreignization and domestication, as a product of cultural turn, is not only manifested in linguistic form, but also in cultural content. In other words, the emergence and development of foreignization and domestication raise the discussion of language level to the level of culture, poetics and politics. Obviously, the former is a micro translation method, while the latter is a macro translation strategy. Choosing specific translation methods under the guidance of the general direction of translation strategies can make good use of these two pairs of concepts when doing translation. Second, the condition is different: Because literal translation and free translation are aimed at figuring out the issue of the text itself and the language structure, those two translation methods rely heavily on the text on linguistics, and have little room for evolution, development and independence, which make them relatively being static; However, domestication and foreignization do not have such problems. Their appearances were largely influenced by external social factors and the background of times and history, moreover, they focus on the external factors of translation too. Therefore, these two translation strategies are actually unstable and present a relatively dynamic state.(Zhao Jing 2011,62)

===4.2 The connection among Literal Translation and Free Translation, Domestication and Foreignization===

It can be concluded that the basic relationship between these two pairs of concepts is that domestication and foreignization make the discussion of translation transition move from pure language level to cultural level, not only paying attention to the internal transformation of language, but also starting to study the political and cultural environment outside language and text, which makes the change of translation’s function happen--from micro-analysis of language to macro-control of the social function of translation.(Chen Ying 2009,42)

===4.2.1 Foreignization and Literal translation===

According to the comparative analysis in the previous section, we can conclude from their similarities that under normal circumstances, foreignization usually takes literal translation as method, or foreignizing translation usually includes literal translation methods, such as:(Lv Yinping 2007,138)

(1)Pandora’s box 潘多拉的盒子

(2)the forbidden fruit 禁果

The above two examples clearly show the way literal translation works out, which is also the result under the guidance of foreignizating translation strategy. "Pandora's box" comes from Greek mythology, which refers to the root of all evils, but the translation into Chinese, which is not “万恶之源”, has followed the European saying, and even be quoted in daily communication, which has played the purpose of "understanding other national cultures through translation"; Similarly, "forbidden fruit" comes from "The Bible", which means something forbidden, but Chinese translation also follows the expression of the original way.

===4.2.2 Domestication and Free translation===

Similarly, free translation is visible in domesticating translation. For example:(Lv Yinping 2007,137)

(1)drink like a fish 牛饮

(2)a fool’s paradise 黄粱美梦

As far as the first example is concerned, if literally translated into "像鱼一样喝水", it is extremely out of line with the Chinese expression habit, because there is no such statement way in China, which leads to misunderstanding or confusion.. However, if we translate "drink like a fish" into “牛饮” in Chinese, which does exists in China and has the same meaning as "drink like a fish" in English. Then the translation effect is not only interesting but also easy to understand.

However, in the process of actual translation practice, due to the variety and diversity of cultures, the methods and strategies used in text or language conversion are also comprehensive. We can find that the comprehensive and flexible use of literal translation and free translation, domestication and foreignization can make up for the regret of some traditional opposing ways(It is said that the two pairs of concepts are opposite and cannot coexist).

===4.2.3 Domestication and Literal translation===

Foreignizating translation is usually regarded as an extension of literal translation, which means that in general, literal translation methods are often used under the guidance of foreignization strategies, but in some special cases, literal translation can also coexist with domestication strategies. For instances:

(1) 什么时候都要谦虚谨慎，把尾巴夹紧一些。（Jia Wenbo 2000,11）

We must always be modest and prudent and must, so to speak, tuck our tail between our legs.

The meaning of "把尾巴夹紧" in Chinese coincides with "tuck tail between our legs" in English. In this example, it can be said that literal translation is the most suitable choice, which keeps the form and cultural connotation of the source language to the maximum extent, and at the same time coincides with the meaning and culture of the target language.

(2) 一石二鸟(Song Tianxi 2013,49)

Kill two birds with one stone.

Similarly, this is an example of having language structure and cultural meaning between China and Britain in both ways, which uses the method of literal translation but achieves the effect of domestication. But in Chinese, "一石二鸟" can also be synonymous with "一箭双雕" and "一举两得", which can be chosen when translating "kill two birds with one stone" if you want, however, this way of using the method of free translation is not literal translation anymore.

Domestication and literal translation can coexist under the situation when two sides of language structures and cultures can coincide at the same time, which exists by chance and cannot be forced; It is almost impossible to find examples of coexistence like foreignization and free translation. However, through the above argument, we can find that in translation practice, translators should practice the principle of "concrete analysis of specific problems", flexibly and dialectically combine free translation and literal translation with domestication and foreignization, and avoid rigid translation methods, so as to better assume the responsibility of cultural exchange.

===V.Conclusion===

Through the analysis above of the concepts and intensions of literal translation and free translation, domestication and foreignization, we further arrive at and even deepen our understanding of the relationship between the two pairs of concepts, which is helpful for translators to approach a better version of translation result and effect as much as possible on the basis of understanding the culture and language of both sides and combining with the practice through rational choice of translation strategies and translation methods under the guidance of the theories. After all, translation is not only a linguistic transformation, whose fundamental task is to reach communication and cultural exchange.

Therefore, to some extent, translation plays the role of cultural "fax". In order to coordinate the spread of the source language culture and the acceptance of the target language side, and it is necessary to avoid rigid use of a single translation method and translation strategy, or solidifying the idea of translation guiding theory. After comprehensive consideration of translation purpose, target and recipient, it is a translator's duty to use translation method flexibly and dialectically, as being a "cultural bridge".

===References===

Sun Zhili 孙致礼.(2011).新编英汉翻译教程[A New Coursebook on English-Chinese Translation].上海:上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press

Sun Zhili 孙致礼.(2002).中国的文学翻译:从归化趋向异化[China’s Literary Translation: from Domestication to Foreignization].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal(01):39-43.

Jia Wenbo 贾文波.(1999).汉英时文翻译-政治经济汉译英300句析[On Practical C-E Translation in Political & Economic Practice].北京:中国对外翻译出版公司Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Corporation.

Zhang Meifang 张美芳.(2004).翻译策略二分法透视[A dichotomous perspective in translation strategies].天津外国语学院学报Journal of Tianjin Foreign Studies University(03):1-6.

Zhao Jing 赵静.(2011).直译、意译与归化、异化之比较[Comparison between literal translation and free translation and Domestication and Foreignization].河南农业Henan agriculture(22):61-62.

Lv Yinping 吕银平.(2007).“直译与意译归化与异化”译法之我见[My Opinion on Literal Translation, Free Translation, Domestication and Foreignization].宁夏师范学院学报Journal of Ningxia Teachers Univercity( Social Science)(04):136-138.

Venuti Lawrence.(1995). The Translator’s Invisibility .London&New York: Routledge.
--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 05:54, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==On Chinese-to-English Translation of The Summer Palace from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches to Translation 魏亚菲 Wei Yafei 202020080648==
<center> 魏亚菲 Wei Yafei 202020080648 俄语语言文学</center>

魏亚菲 Wei Yafei
===Abstract===
The Chinese-English translation of tourist texts, as a window for the external publicity of national history and culture, plays an important role in promoting the development of local tourism. The Summer Palace is well known for its large and priceless collection of cultural relics, which is among the first group of historical and cultural heritage sites in China to be placed under special state protection.

The Chinese-English translation of tourist texts, as a window for the external publicity of national history and culture, plays an important role in promoting the development of local tourism. The Summer Palace is well known for its abundant('''large 改成abundant适合一些)''' and priceless collection of cultural relics, which is among the first group of historical and cultural heritage sites in China to be under special state protection.

Based on the functionalist approach and the skopos rule, this paper discusses the problems existing in the translation of scenic spots in the Summer Palace from the perspectives of garden culture, historical culture and religious culture. Skopos theory holds that translation depends on communicative purpose. To achieve this goal, translators can choose different translation strategies. It is believed that the purpose of Chinese-English translation of scenic spots is to attract target readers and promote traditional culture. Therefore, when translating tourism materials, it is necessary not only to express the local cultural connotation, but also to consider the cross-cultural factors. The Chinese-English translation of the introduction of scenic spots guided by functionalist approach can make English readers have expectations of scenic spots and understand the cultural connotation of scenic spots. This paper aims to better promote the development and communication of Chinese culture and improve the level of tourism text translation in China by relying on the theory of functionalist approach.

Based on the functionalist approaches'''(add -es)'''and the skopos rule, this paper discusses the problems existing in the translation of scenic spots in the Summer Palace from the perspectives of garden culture, historical culture and religious culture. Skopos theory holds that translation depends on communicative purpose. To achieve this goal, translators can choose different translation strategies. It is believed that the purpose of Chinese-English translation of scenic spots is to attract target readers and promote traditional culture. Therefore, when translating tourism materials, it is necessary not only to express the local cultural connotation, but also to consider the cross-cultural factors. The Chinese-English translation of the introduction of scenic spots guided by functionalist approach'''(add -es)''' can make English readers have expectations of scenic spots and understand the cultural connotation of scenic spots. This paper aims to better promote the development and communication of Chinese culture and improve the level of tourism text translation in China by applying the theory of functionalist approach.

===Key words===
functionalist approach，the Summer Palace，translation strategies
===题目===
从功能派翻译理论视角看旅游文本英译—以北京景点颐和园为例
===摘要===
旅游资料的英译作为民族历史文化对外宣传的一道窗口,对地方旅游业的发展有着不可低估的促进作用。颐和园作为中国著名的皇家园林，具有浓厚的中国园林特色及优美的风景，同时也蕴涵着深厚文化内涵。
本篇旅游文本英译的分析以功能派翻译理论作为理论指导，以目的法则为主要原则，从颐和园的园林文化、历史文化和宗教文化三个角度出发对颐和园景点英译中存在的问题进行探讨。目的论认为译文取决于翻译目的，这个目的通常指的是交际目的。为达到这个目的，译者可以选择不同的翻译策略。也就是说，译者的翻译策略必须由译文的预期目的或功能决定，即所谓的“目的法则”。笔者认为景点介绍的汉英翻译的目的就是吸引译文读者以及弘扬传统文化，因此在翻译旅游资料的时候不仅要把当地的文化内涵表达出来，而且要考虑到跨文化的因素。而以功能派翻译理论为指导的景点介绍的汉英翻译，可以使英语读者通过译文产生对旅游景点的期盼，以及对景点文化内涵的理解。以颐和园景区内的翻译文本为例本，依托功能翻译理论，通过“发现问题，指出问题，解决问题”，以期更好地促进中国文化的传播与交流，提高我国现阶段旅游文本翻译的水平。
===关键字===
功能翻译；颐和园；翻译目的；翻译策略
===Contents===
1.Introduction
2. Studies on Functionalist Approach
2.1 The Viewpoint of Functionalist Approach
2.1.1 Reiss’s Text Typology
2.1.2 Vermeer’s Skopos Theory
2.1.3 Manttari’s Theory of Translational Action
2.1.4 Nord’s Theory of Function plus Loyalty
2.2 The Application of Functionalist Approach
3.C-E Translation of the Summer Palace under Functionalist Approach
3.1 Garden Culture
3.2 Historical Culture
3.3 Religious Culture
4. Conclusion
5.References
===Outline===

Thesis Statement: Based on the main viewpoints of functionalist approaches to translation, this paper aims to give an analysis to C-E translation of the Summer Palace from cultural, historical and religious aspects, hoping to provide some translation strategies for other cultural attractions.

1. Introduction
2. Studies on Functionalist Approaches
2.1 The Viewpoint of Functionalist Approach
2.1 Reiss’s Text Typology
2.2 Vermeer’s Skopos Theory
2.3 Manttari’s Theory of Translational Action
2.4 Nord’s Theory of Function plus Loyalty
2.2 The Application of Functionalist Approach
3. C-E Translation of the Summer Palace under Functionalist Approach
3.1 Garden Culture
3.2 Historical Culture
3.3 Religious Culture
4. Conclusion

===1. Introduction ===
The Chinese-English translation of tourist texts is a bridge to spread the culture of classical Chinese gardens, so the accuracy of it has a direct impact on foreigners' understanding of the specific history and culture.
Functionalist approach has made a pioneering contribution to the translation of non-literary genres. Functional translation theory emphasizes the function of discourse, and believes that different types of discourse have different functions, so translators should choose appropriate translation strategies according to the type of source text and corresponding functions. Functionalist approach is to take the "skopos rule" as the highest standard, and any translation activity is a purposeful behavior. The ultimate goal and main function of scenic spot translation is to help people understand the main content of the scenic spot.

As a window for the publicity of national history and culture, the Chinese-to-English translation of tourist texts plays an important role in promoting the development of local tourism. Well known for its large and priceless collection of cultural relics, the Summer Palace was among the first group of historical and cultural heritage sites in China to be placed under special state protection. Based on the viewpoints of functionalist approach to translation, this paper aims to analyze C-E translation of the Summer Palace from cultural, historical and religious aspects, hoping to provide some translation strategies for other cultural attractions.

As a window for the publicity of national history and culture, the Chinese-to-English translation of tourist texts plays an important role in promoting the development of local tourism. Well known for its rich and priceless collection of cultural relics, the Summer Palace was among the first group of historical and cultural heritage sites in China to be placed under special state protection. Based on the viewpoints of functionalist approach to translation, this paper aims to analyze C-E translation of the Summer Palace from cultural, historical and religious aspects, hoping to provide some translation strategies for other cultural attractions.
===2. Studies on Functionalist Approaches===
Functionalism is a theory that advocates reader-centered translation, emphasizing the functions of texts and highlighting the communicative effects. It is believed that many unnecessary mistakes can be avoided and better results can be achieved by applying functionalist approach in Chinese-English translation of tourist text.

===2.1 The Viewpoint of Functionalist Approaches===
Functionalist Translation Theory, also known as German Functionalist Translation Theory, was proposed by German scholars in the 1970s. It includes four main theories: Katharina Reiss’s Text Typology, Hans Vermeer’s Skopos Theory, Justa Holtz Manttari’s Theory of Translational Action and Christiane Nord’s Theory of Function plus Loyalty. This chapter aims to present the main ideas of this theory.

===2.1.1 Reiss’s Text Typology===
In 1971, Reiss in her book Possibilities and Limitation of Translation Criticism first made text function as a standard of translation criticism, namely evaluate the translated text from the relationship between the functions of the original and the translated text. She insists on the original-centered equivalence theory and holds the view that the ideal translation is to achieve the equivalence between the target text and the source text in terms of ideological content, linguistic form and communicative function. However, translation practice makes her realize that it’s difficult to achieve equivalence sometimes and that sometimes equivalence cannot be pursued. Because of the particularity of translation requirements, the function of the target text is not always the same as that of the source text. Therefore, the translator should give priority to the functional role of the target text rather than the principle of equivalence.

Reiss believes that in the normal situation the type of text decides the translator’s choice of a proper translation method (Reiss, 2004). Therefore, she divides text into four types: content-focused text, form-focused text, appeal-focused text and audio-media text. Content-focused text, also known as informative text, includes news reports, commercial correspondence, operating instructions, official documents, patent specifications, essays, treaties, etc. For this text, the main function is to convey information revealed in language itself to readers. The emphasis is on content and topic, so the choice of language and style should serve this function. If both the source text and target text belong to informative text, the translator should represent the content and information of source text accurately and completely (Reiss, 2004)

Form-focused text, also known as expressive text, refers to literary works such as novels, poems and so on. “Distinct from ‘content’, which deals with what the author says, ‘form’ is concerned with how an author expresses himself” (Reiss, 2004). For expressive texts, information is only a supplement. What is dominant is the aesthetic factor. When translating such texts, the translator should pay attention to the aesthetic and artistic forms of the original text and to the differences between two cultural habits, trying to achieve the same effect as the source text. In a word, in a form-focused text, the linguistic form of the source text determines the form in the target language (Reiss, 2004).

Appeal-focused text, also known as operative text, mainly includes notice, instruction manual, advertisement, publicity manual and so on. For operative texts, the primary task for the translator is to provoke a particular reaction on the hearers or readers to incite them to engage in specific actions, while content and form are subordinate. Therefore, to achieve the same effect, the translator need to change the content and stylistic features of the original text, try to keep the potential influential factors of the original text and seek functional equivalence (Reiss, 2004: 38-43). Audio-medial text, also known as multi-media text, refers to radio and television scripts, such as radio newscasts and reports, topical surveys and dramatic productions.

It is distinctive in its dependence on non-linguistic media and on graphic, acoustic, and visual kinds of expression. Only in combination with them can the whole complex literary form realize its full potential (Reiss, 2004). In conclusion, different texts determine different translation focuses and methods. In many cases, however, a text may have more than one function, which means that translators should integrate different translation strategies skillfully to achieve different functions of texts.

===2.1.2 Vermeer’s Skopos Theory===
Reiss’s student Vermeer, who broke the limitation of the theory of equivalent and took skopos to be the first criterion of translation process proposed the key theory: Skopostheorie. According to Skopos Theory, when translating a text, the translator needs to consider the purpose of translation first and then choose the translation method according to the purpose, which means “the end justifies the means” (Nord, 2001). Vermeer believes that translation, like other human actions, is also a purposeful act. Translation often takes place in cultural backgrounds with different customs and values, so translation is not a simple equivalent transformation between languages. Skopos Theory does not focus on achieving the equivalence between the target text and the original text or the perfection of the target text, but on choosing the best translation strategy based on the analysis of the source text and the intended function of the target text. In a word, translation methods and strategies are determined by the intended purpose or function of the target text.

According to Skopos Theory, the first rule that all translators must follow is the Skopos Rule. Translation purpose can be divided into three categories: (1) the purpose of the translator, such as earning a living; (2) the communicative purpose of the translation, such as instructing the reader; (3) the purpose of using a particular translation method, such as the literal translation according to its structure to illustrate the peculiarities of grammatical structure in a language (Nord, 2001). In general, the communicative purpose is more important than the other two. The communicative purpose is usually determined by the initiator of the translation act, but the translator can take part in deciding. The second rule is the Coherence Rule. Coherence Rule requires that the translation conform to the criterion of intratextual coherence, which means that the translation must be accessible to recipients and meaningful in the target culture and in the communicative environment (Nord, 2001). The third rule is the Fidelity Rule. It means that there should be intertextual coherence between the source text and the target text, which means being faithful to the source text. Nevertheless, the degree and form of faithfulness lie in the target text and the degree that the translator understands the original text. Normally “Intertexual coherence is considered subordinate to intratexual coherence and both are subordinate to the Skopos rule” (Nord, 2001).

===2.1.3 Manttari’s Theory of Translational Action===
Following Vermeer, Manttari develops Vermeer’s Skopos Theory and puts forward the Theory of Translational Action. He emphasizes three aspects: the behavior of the translation process, the role of the participants (the initiator, the translator and the target reader, etc.) and the environment (time, place and media) in which the translation process takes places. It views translation as “purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and construes the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds that involve intercultural transfer” (Mundy, 2001). According to Manttari, translation is “ a complex act to achieve a particular purpose”
(Nord, 2001). It is not about translating words, sentences or texts but is about guiding the intended cooperation over cultural barriers and promoting functional communication. Cooperation here means “transcultural communication” by Manttari.

The Theory of Translational Action attaches great importance to providing a functional communicative text for the recipient, a text suitable for the target culture in
form and style. Functional suitability is determined by the translator. The translator is an expert in translation, whose role is to ensure the successful completion of culturaltransformation. In producing the target text, the analysis of the source text is necessary so that the translator can find out its structural and functional characteristics, which can be described by content and form. The need of the recipient is the decisive factor for the target text.In short, “the value of Manttari’s work is the placing of translation (or at least the professional non-literary translation which she describes) within its sociocultural context, including the interplay between the translator and the initiating institution”(Mundy, 2001).

===2.1.4 Nord’s Theory of Function plus Loyalty===

Though skopos rule changes the focus of translation from the source language text to the target language text and the target receivers, it has some limitations. One is that different readers have different expectations, and the translation purpose cannot satisfy all the expectations of the target reader. Another is that the translation purpose may sometimes be against the intention of the source language. Therefore, based on the skopos rule, Nord introduces the loyalty principle. The principle of loyalty is a supplementary principle proposed by Nord to make up for the deficiency of skopos rule. According to the explanation of Nord, it is not the relationship between the original text and the target text, nor the equivalence between the original text and the form of the target text, but the consistency between the author of the original text, the initiator of the translation, the translator and the reader of the target text, which is the principle of loyalty. The proposal of the loyalty principle makes up for the mistakes that some radical skopos translators usually make, such as omitting and rewriting, which makes skopos theory more perfect and makes skopos theory more likely to guide the translation of literary works.

“Function” and “loyalty” are two pillars of Nord’s functionalist approach. “Function” refers to what a text means or is intended to mean from the receiver’s point of view”, while “loyalty” means that “target-text purpose should be compatible with the original author’s intention” (Nord,2001). It emphasizes the interpersonal relationship between the translator, the source-text sender, the target-text addresses and the initiator. Function plus loyalty enables the translator to avoid the limitations of skopos rule and try to achieve a balance between translation purpose and the source-text author’s intention”(Nord,2001). That is to say, when translating the original text, the translator should take into account the readers' cultural background, knowledge level and expectation of the translation, and choose the corresponding translation strategy according to the translation requirements. If the reader wants to read a word-for-word translation of the article, then the translator must meet the reader's requirements, otherwise he must explain to the reader why he chose his own translation method. The translator's job is to weigh two different cultures instead of imposing one culture on another.

===2.2The Application of Functionalist Approach to the Tourist Texts.===
In the 1990s, Functionalist Translation Theory was introduced to China, and since then it has been applied to translation studies by Chinese translation scholars. In his article published in 1995, Zhang Nanfeng briefly introduces Skopos theory to China for the first time, and considers that Skopos theory is referential (Zhang Nanfeng, 1995). German Functionalist Translation Theory, a paper released in1999, is the first article in China which systematically introduces German Functionalist Translation Theory (Zhong Weihe & Zhong Yu, 1999). Based on an overview of Functionalist Translation Theory, Zhang Meifang focuses on introducing Nord’s theory, especially on the detailed analysis of Nord’s principle of loyalty (Zhang Meifang, 2005). Famous domestic scholars, such as Liu Junping (2009), Liu Miqing (2012) and Li Wenge (2004), also introduce this theory in their books. With the rise of Functionalist Translation Theory in China, someone has compared it with other theories. Zhu Haotong compares Skopos Theory with Functional Equivalence Theory to analyze the similarities and differences between them, and further reveals that Functionalist Translation Theory inherits the reasonable part of Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory, which is an important breakthrough and supplement to solve the problems that Functional Equivalence Theory leaves (Zhu Haotong, 2006). Some scholars also combine theory with translation practice to explore the application of Functionalist Translation Theory to translation practice. Jia Yanli and Wang Hongjun point out that Skopos Theory has its limitations, but it is still of instruction and reference value for non-literary translation texts, such as advertisements and tourism materials (Jia Yanli & Wang Hongjun, 2012). Li Liangchen selects several famous tourist attractions in China to translate the on-site tour-guide commentary into English. Then he improves them under the guidance of Skopos Theory and sends out questionnaires to overseas tourists for further analysis. He argues that the translation of on-site tour-guide commentary which is guided by Skopos Theory is more favorable to conveying information to foreign visitors, to promoting cultural exchanges and to improving the image of China’s tourist destinations (Li Liangchen, 2013). In Pragmatic Translation: Theory & Practice, Wu Feng and He Qingji introduce Functionalist Translation Theory (Wu Feng & He Qingji, 2008) and the characteristics of tourism text and translation skills (Wu Feng & He Qingji, 2008). In this book, they also discuss the controversy over the Chinese name of Functionalist Translation Theory, and holds that “功能派翻译理论” is the most appropriate Chinese translation (Wu Feng & He Qingji, 2008).Based on his own translation practice and under the guidance of Functionalist Translation Theory, Wu Zixuan probes into some special phenomena in the English translation of CNN newsreels. The author believes that in the translation of external publicity, we should not stick to the standard of faithfulness to the original text, but should deal with the original text properly from the perspective of achieving the purpose of translation, such as rewriting, abridging. (Wu Zixuan, 2005).

Functionalist approach establishes a theoretical system of diversified translation standards dominated by skopos rule. From the definition of Functionalist approach, it can be seen that the advantage of it is that the translator can get rid of the bondage of the original text, study the translation process with "translation purpose" as the starting point, and determine the translation strategies and methods. This can give full play to the translator's own initiative, flexible processing of the original text, in order to achieve the translation of the communicative function. In addition, functionalist approach requires the translation to be examined in the cultural context of the reader. The reader can accept the translation and understand the meaning of the original text through the translation, so the translation can realize the communicative function. On the basis of such advantages, functionalist approach can be used to guide the English translation of garden scenic spots, and the translator can choose a wider range of translation strategies and break out of the constraints of the original text.

Only by clarifying the purpose of translation can we avoid these limitations in the English translation of garden attractions. When using functionalist approach to guide the English translation of Chinese classical garden scenic spots, it is necessary to flexibly choose translation strategies and methods, give full play to the advantages of skopos theory, and achieve the balance between "principle of purpose" and "principle of fidelity" as far as possible.

With the deepening of globalization and cross-cultural communication, tourismis becoming a major industry in the 21st century. The development of tourism can not only promote the economic development of a country but also promote the external dissemination of national culture. Therefore, tourism translation deserves attention. Tourism text is a typical informative and operational text, and the language is unique. It is full of gorgeous words, such as four-character expressions, verses, proper nouns and so on.

Tourism text materials include tourism advertising, tourism brochures, scenic spots signs and so on. In this paper, we focus on the introduction of Chinese gardens’ scenic spots, which is usually colorful in language and rich in literary style. Tourism text translation belongs to applied translation, which should play a series of practical functions to publicize the image and resources of the country or place and attract overseas tourists. Therefore, the translator of tourism text must be clear about the type and function of tourism text, and to grasp the ultimate purpose of the translation.

On tourism text translation, the communicative purpose of the translation should be placed in a central position. Furthermore, the tourism text has both the information function and the calling function. The information function and the calling function complement each other. Only when the target language readers acquire the expected tourism information and cultural knowledge can the calling function be realized and the purpose of tourism text translation be achieved. With different translation strategies, the translated version should both expressed contains basic information, and make the tourists feel the profound of the Chinese culture from the beautiful scenery.

Cultural tourism has long been the focus of international tourism, and understanding Chinese culture is the main purpose of inbound tourists, so the translation of tourism texts bears the mission of cultural transmission and cultural publicity. However, due to the great differences between Chinese and English culture and language, there are many difficulties in cultural transmission in tourism text translation. China has a long and splendid history and culture. When introducing the scenic spots of cultural relics and historic sites, we usually associate with many historical figures and stories. These terms are cultural blank for most foreign tourists, but this kind of cultural experience is also the most attractive place for foreign tourists. It is of great importance to pay attention to cultural differences in tourism translation and carry out cultural transmission effectively. Chinese and English languages have different logic views, and Chinese expressions in tourism texts value decoration. English expressions tend to be clear, concise and to the point. For example, Chinese tourism texts often use a four-character lattice, which is symmetrical, while there is no corresponding four-character lattice expression in English. Therefore, in Chinese-English translation of tourism texts with frequent use of four-character phrases, it is necessary to keep in mind the objective principle of functionalist approach and give priority to cultural communication instead of rigidly adhering to form.

===3. C-E Translation of the Summer Palace under Functionalist Approach===
By studying the specific translation strategies made by predecessors, the following steps are also adopted in this paper: first, the translation strategies are determined according to the text type, such as faithful reproduction of the original information or rewriting; Secondly, the translation strategies are determined according to the potential purpose of the translation, such as paraphrasing or deleting poems, generalizing specific expressions and transliterating proper nouns. Thirdly, the translation strategies are defined with the tourists as the center, such as adding logical words, adding explanatory information and using plain English.
The Summer Palace epitomizes the philosophy and practice of Chinese garden design, which played a key role in the development of this cultural form throughout the east. It is an outstanding expression of the creative art of Chinese landscape garden design, incorporating the works of humankind and nature in a harmonious whole, which was once the most important place of political and diplomatic activity for the supreme rulers of the late Qing dynasty. Based on three aspects of the Summer Palace, namely, garden culture, historical culture and religious culture, this paper discusses the problems existing in the English translation of the scenic spots of the Summer Palace and puts forward corresponding countermeasures under the guidance of the skopos rule of functionalist translation theory.
===Approach===
By studying the specific translation strategies made by predecessors, the following steps are also adopted in this paper: first, the translation strategies are determined according to the text type, such as faithful reproduction of the original information or rewriting; Secondly, the translation strategies are determined according to the potential purpose of the translation, such as paraphrasing or deleting poems, generalizing specific expressions and transliterating proper nouns. Thirdly, the translation strategies are defined with the tourists as the center, such as adding logical words, adding explanatory information and using plain English.
The Summer Palace epitomizes the philosophy and practice of Chinese garden design, which played a key role in the development of this cultural form throughout the east. It is an outstanding expression of the creative art of Chinese landscape garden design, incorporating the works of humankind and nature in a harmonious whole, which was once the most important place of political and diplomatic activity for the supreme rulers of the late Qing dynasty. Based on three aspects of the Summer Palace, namely, garden culture, historical culture and religious culture, this paper discusses the problems existing in the English translation of the scenic spots of the Summer Palace and puts forward corresponding countermeasures under the guidance of the skopos rule of functionalist translation theory.

===3.1 Garden culture.===
The Summer Palace is a classical garden famous for its magnificence and beauty. There are many temples in the garden, and the green waves of kunming lake ripple. Landscape and humanities complement each other, containing rich natural and cultural information, reflecting the characteristics of Chinese classical gardens. The garden cultural features of the three scenic spots, namely, the hall of clouds, the foxiang pavilion and the Wenchang courtyard, are particularly outstanding. Therefore, this paper takes these three scenic spots as examples to discuss the Chinese-English translation of the introduction of the Summer Palace.

(1)排云殿、佛香阁景区是颐和园内建筑布局最完整、建筑形式最丰富的中轴建筑群体，殿、阁、廊、亭、桥、坊、碑等建筑约两万平方米。从临水的云辉玉宇牌坊至排云门、排云殿、德辉殿、佛香阁、众香界、智慧海、层层升高，排列有序，气势巍峨，金碧辉煌，将园林、寺庙和宫殿融为一体。

Translation：This scenic spot covers an area of 20,000 square meters with an assortment of buildings such as palaces, towers, corridors, pavilions, walkways, bridges, archways and inscribed stone steles. It comprises a well-arranged group of structures, all diverse in style, located in the center of the Summer Palace garden. This complex of structures, ranging from the Glowing Clouds and Holy Land Archway on the waterside, the Gate that Dispels the Clouds, the Hall that Dispels the Clouds, the Hall of Moral Glory, and the Tower of the Fragrance of the Buddha, to the Realm of Popular Fragrance and the Sea of Wisdom Temple, were built in an orderly manner running from the foot of the hill to its top, with gardens, temples and palaces harmoniously integrated into the whole.

Analysis：As we all know, the design style of ancient Chinese buildings is beautiful with "symmetry". The "axis" in hall of clouds scenic spot refers to the layout of the Summer Palace from far to near and from top to bottom, which cannot be simply understood as the center. Simply translating "axis" as "center" cannot express accurately the meaning of "symmetry". Comparatively speaking, "axis" can better reflect the architectural style of the scenic spot.

(2)从临水的云辉玉宇牌坊至排云门、排云殿、德辉殿、佛香阁、众香界、智慧海，层层升高，排列有序，气势巍峨，金碧辉煌，将园林、寺庙和宫殿融为一体。

Translation：These structures，including Glowing Clouds and Holy Land Archway at lake side，the Gate of Dispelling Clouds，the Hall of Dispelling Clouds，the Hall of moral Glory，and the Tower of Buddhist Incense，the Realm of Multitudinous Fragrance and the Sea of Wisdom Temple，were built in an orderly manner ranging up the hill with gardens，temples and palaces harmoniously integrated. This manifests beauty，grace and splendor，reminiscent of the loftingness and grandeur of a once mighty empire.

Analysis：In terms of the characteristics of language, Chinese emphasizes parataxis and four-word antithesis. When describing and naming scenes, gorgeous words and poetic words are generally chosen in Chinese. But, English emphasizes hypotaxis, on the other hand, puts more emphasis on reproducing the original appearance of things, using simple and natural words and preferring direct description. In sign translation, the English translation pays more attention to accurate, concise and lively. In the above paragraph, "层层升高，排列有序，将园林、寺庙和宫殿融为一体" is an introduction to the architectural features of foxiang pavilion, in order to make tourists have a clear understanding of the overall layout and architectural features of the scenic spot. This information is essential and can be translated into detail. However, "气势巍峨，金碧辉煌" focuses on the subjective description, and its explicit translation needs more complicated words. If this paragraph is translated in detail, it is easy to drag the content and make the key information vague. Therefore, the deletion of the English translation of this sentence will not affect the basic information of the original text.

(3)主阁（文昌阁）两层，内供铜铸文昌帝君和仙童、铜骑。文昌阁与万寿山西供武圣的宿云檐象征“文武辅弼”。

Translation: A bronze statue of the God Wenchang, statues of gaeries, and a bronze steed were placed in the two-story pavilion. This tower is pared with the Tower of Cloud- Retaining Eaves, located to the west of the Longevity Hill, in which a statue of the Martial God was placed. The God Wenchang and the Martial God together symbolize reining of the emperor supported by scholars and warriors.

Analysis: Two questions arise in Chinese-English translation. First, there are two translations of wenchang pavilion in the translation: pavilion and tower, which appear in the same sign. Two different translations of the same scenic spot name tend to make foreign tourists think that it refers to different scenic spots, which may cause difficulty in understanding. Second, the translation of Wenchang pavilion into "Wenchang Tower" is against the actual architectural characteristics. In fact, the meanings of "pavilion" and "tower" have both similarities and differences. According to the Oxford dictionary, Tower means "a tall narrow building or part of a building, especially of a church or castle", mainly referring to the tower-shaped part of a building, usually a tall and slender structure, such as the Eiffel Tower. "Pavilion" means "a building that is meant to be more beautiful than usual, built as a shelter in a park or used for concerts and dances". The top structure of the pavilion usually has rectangles, triangles, hexagons, etc. The common feature of them is that the top is supported by columns without walls. From the external structure of Wenchang pavilion, its bottom is solid and its top is supported by columns. Therefore, the pavilion can accurately reflect the architectural characteristics of Wenchang pavilion, so I think it should be translated as Wenchang pavilion.

===3.2 Historical culture. ===
The accurate Chinese-English translation of the introduction of the Summer Palace not only enables foreign tourists to understand the characteristics of Chinese gardens, but also enables foreign tourists to understand the historical knowledge of a specific period of China. However, the Chinese-English translation of the Summer Palace still has problems in accurately conveying the historical background of the scenic spots, such as the English translation of Wenchang pavilion scenic spot:

(4)此景区始建于清乾隆十五年，一八六零年被英法联军烧毁，光绪时按原样重建。阁结构为八面三层四重檐，通高36.44米，耸立于20米高的石造台基上，气势雄伟，是颐和园全园的构图中心。阁内供奉有铜铸金裹千手观世音菩萨站像。像高五米，重万斤，为明代万历年间所造，在八根贯通全阁上下的承重铁梨木擎天柱的衬托下，美妙庄严，熠熠生辉，有极高的文物和艺术价值。

Translation: The Wenchang tower was first built in 1750 and rebuilt under Emperor Guangxu after the Anglo-French Allied Forces builted it down in 1860. The octahedral tower has three stories with four-layered eaves, altogether 36.44 meters high. Standing upright on a 20 meter-high stone foundation, it constitutes the center of the Summer Palace landscape and serves to accentuate its magnificence. A statue of the thousand-handed Guanshiyin Buddha, cast in bronze and gilded with gold, stands inside the tower. The statue, five meters high and five tons in weight, was cast during the reign of Emperor Wanli of the Ming Dynasty. Set off by the eight imposing pillars which support the tower, it glows with beauty, grandeur and brilliance. Its historical, cultural and artistic value can hardly be overstated.

Analysis: “始建于乾隆十五年”only was translated into “was first built in 1750” and the “光绪年间重建” was translated into “rebuilt under Emperor Guangxu”.The first sentence does not show that 1750 was the fifteenth year of the reign of emperor Qianlong, and the second sentence does not give foreign visitors the exact date of the reign of emperor Guangxu. The change of time concept and the disunity of expression easily make foreign tourists feel confused. Therefore, the translation of the time and the historical dynasties should be accurate and meticulous, and the supplementary method should be used to not only describe the dynasties clearly, but also supplement the corresponding years, so as to achieve the standardization of the translation. In this way, foreign tourists can not only be clear about the time of the event, but also understand the Chinese historical dynasties. Consider as follows: the Wenchang Pavilion was first built in 1750 during Emperor Qianlong’s reign（1735- 1795）and rebuilt in 1886 under Emperor Guangxu（1875- 1908）after the Anglo- French Allied Forces burned it down in 1860.

===3.3 Religious culture. ===
Many scenic spots in the Summer Palace have a strong buddhist atmosphere. While visiting the scenic spots, foreign tourists can understand the profound buddhist culture. Wenchang pavilion in the Summer Palace is the representative of Chinese religious culture.

(5)主阁两层，内供铜铸文昌帝君和仙童、铜特。文昌阁与万寿山西供武圣的宿云檐象征“文武辅弼”。

Translation: A bronze statue of the god，Wenchang，and statues of two followers，the celestial boy，and the bronze steed，were placed in the two- storey pavilion. This tower is pared with the tower of Cloud- Retaining Eaves，located to the west of the Longevity Hill，in which a statue of the Martial God was placed. The two towers symbolize the support by both scholars and warriors to the ruling emperor.

Analysis: It is well known that westerners believe in theism, which refers to god as supreme . In Chinese religious culture, people believe in atheism and do not believe in the existence of god. Therefore, it is inappropriate to translate "文昌帝军" and "武圣" into "the god, Wenchang" and "the Martial god" in the translation. In fact, the "文昌帝军" was Zhang yu, an emperor of Shu of Ning kang (374). And "武圣" refers to Guan yu in history. Therefore, the simple translation of "God" is not in line with the traditional Chinese culture, which will not only cause western tourists to misunderstand that Chinese religious tradition also believes in God, but also fail to convey Chinese historical allusions and relevant historical figures. In contrast, if "文昌帝军" is translated as "the emperor, Wenchang" and "武圣" is translated as "the Martial Master (Guanyu)", it can more faithfully convey the history and religious culture contained in the source language.

===4. Conclusion===
To sum up, Under the guidance of the skopos rule of functionalist translation theory, translators should have a cross-cultural awareness, fully understand the reading psychology and cultural appreciation needs of target language readers, and use effective translation strategies and methods to achieve the purpose of tourism text translation. Functionalist approach has made a pioneering contribution to the translation of non-literary genres. Functional translation effectively eliminates the disadvantages of traditional word-for-word translation, improves the efficiency of translation, and helps readers to grasp the meaning of the original text.

To sum up, Under the guidance of the skopos rule of functionalist translation theory, translators should '''have cross-cultural awareness''', fully understand the reading psychology and cultural appreciation needs of target language readers, and use effective translation strategies and methods to achieve the purpose of tourism text translation. Functionalist approach has made a pioneering contribution to the translation of non-literary genres. Functional translation effectively eliminates the disadvantages of traditional word-for-word translation, improves the efficiency of translation, and helps readers to grasp the meaning of the original text.--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 14:18, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The importance of the translation of the Summer Palace lies in the profound garden culture, historical culture and religious culture. The English translation is not only helpful for international friends to know more about the garden characteristics of the Summer Palace, but also helpful for spreading the long history and profound culture of China. In order to attract target readers and promote traditional Chinese culture, it is not only necessary to carefully explore Chinese culture and history, but also to use the fuctionalist approach appropriately.

Translation is a complicated process. Functionalist approach stresses the function of the discourse, the purpose of translation. In the practice of translation, if the translator can get rid of the bondage of the original equivalence, actively playing to subjective initiative, fully understanding the original text, depending on the purpose of discourse and adopting different translation strategies, the effect and readability of translation can be improved.

Translation is a complicated process. Functionalist approach stresses the function of the discourse '''and''' the purpose of translation. In the practice of translation, if the translator can get rid of the bondage of the original equivalence, actively playing to subjective initiative, fully understanding the original text, depending on the purpose of discourse and adopting different translation strategies, the effect and readability of translation can be improved.--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 14:18, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

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张南峰，走出死胡同建立翻译学. 中国翻译, 1995.

仲伟合，钟钰. 德国的功能派翻译理论. 中国翻译, 1999.

张美芳，功能加忠诚—介评克里丝汀· 诺德的功能翻译理论.上海外国语大学学报, 2005.

==Contrast between Literal Translation and Free Translation 张雪仪 Zhang Xueyi 202020080668 Russian language and Literature ==
<center>张雪仪 202020080668</center>

=== Abstract ===

The contrast between literal translation and free translation has always been the most discussed issue in translation studies. The ultimate goal of translation is to help different cultures communicate better, so that people of different languages can understand each other's culture. Due to the differences of social, historical and cultural backgrounds between languages, translators need to compare the two methods and weigh their advantages and disadvantages. This chapter mainly analyzes the literal translation and free translation of Russian Idioms and proverbs in the process of Chinese translation, and explores the differences of different idioms translated by different methods, so as to help students and translators better carry out translation practice.

=== Key words ===

Translation strategies, Literal translation,Free translation

=== 摘要 ===

直译与意译间的对比一直是翻译学中讨论度最高的问题。翻译的最终目的在于帮助不同文化进行更好的交流，让使用不同语种的人相互理解彼此的文化。由于语种间社会历史文化背景的差异，需要译者对这两种方法进行比较，衡量利弊。本文主要分析俄语成语和谚语在汉译过程中的直译和意译，探寻不同成语用不同方法翻译所产生的差别在以帮助学生和译者更好地进行翻译实践。

=== 关键词 ===

翻译策略，直译，意译

=== Introduction ===
The former Soviet Union translation theorist Fedorov believes that “translation is an activity of expressing what has been used in one language as a unified whole of content and form, and accurately and completely expressed in another language.” Translation theorist Barhudaro The husband also wrote: "Translation is the process of changing the coherent discourse of one language into the coherent discourse of another language while maintaining its content and meaning." Mr. Lu Xun once advocated "literal translation." He said: "Translation must take both sides into consideration: (Cai Yi, Duan Jinghua 2000)

One is of course to be easy to understand, the other is to maintain the fullness of the original." The Chinese translator Zhang Peiji summed up the translation standard as "faithful and smooth." To some extent, translation is a process of thinking re-creation, so certain standards and principles must be followed when translating. Translation standard is a measure of the quality of translation, it can guide translation practice, and it is a principle that must be followed in translation activities. (Gong Linjing 2015,192)

Although each scholar has different opinions on the standard of translation, the final result he pursues is the same: the original text and the translated text express the same effect.In order to achieve the same effect, different translation methods have been derived from the translator's translation practice. The most basic and common ones are literal translation and free translation.(Gong Linjing 2015,192)

Russian Idioms and proverbs, as the crystallization of Russian national wisdom and immortal fossils in Russian, are one of the best materials for China to understand and learn Russian history, culture and society. Due to different geographical, historical and economic conditions, Russian and Chinese have formed different cultural backgrounds, which have caused great difficulties for Russian people to further understand Russia. This paper will take the Chinese translation of Russian Idioms and proverbs as an example to study the basic definitions of literal translation and free translation, their advantages and disadvantages, and their relationship, so as to help Russian students better understand literal translation and free translation.(Gong Linjing 2015,192)

=== Controversy between literal translation and free translation===

In different periods and countries, people's views on translation theory have changed a lot, but the debate on literal translation and free translation has always existed.

==== Controversy in Chinese Translation Community====

Which is better, literal translation or free translation, has always been divided in Chinese translation community. This kind of controversy first occurred during the translation of Buddhist scriptures written in Sanskrit into Chinese. During the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties, the famous monk Dao An was the earliest representative of the literal translation in China. Dao An himself did not understand Sanskrit and was afraid that paraphrase would lose the maxims in Buddhist scriptures, so he advocated strict literal translation. (Wang Zhuan 1996,55)

However, Kumarajiva from India, who was invited by Dao An, advocated free translation. On the basis of fully understanding the original thought content and artistic style, the translation was appropriately deleted. Although Dao An and Kumarajiva are also engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures, the translation methods they adhere to were very different. This divergence continued into the Tang Dynasty. Xuan Zang, as the most famous monk in the Tang Dynasty, proposed a translation method that was completely different from the previous two translation methods—a combination of literal translation and free translation.(Wang Zhuan 1996,55)

The contradiction between literal translation and free translation may be due to the different understanding of the two translation methods. Sun guiding, a translator, believes that literal translation is rigidly based on the structure of the original words and sentences, without considering whether the Chinese language is smooth or natural; while free translation is to use Chinese idioms and the most natural words and sentences as far as possible in addition to specialized subject nouns, so as to achieve the effect of transmitting the meaning of the original text.(Feng Shujian 1993,44)

Du zuozhou, former president of Wuhan University, believes that literal translation is to translate word for word according to the original text; free translation is to translate according to the original meaning, and the translation is more appropriate to the common grammar of the translated language. Meng Xiancheng, an educator, believes that literal translation is a translation with different technical correctness. Literal translation refers to faithful and correct translation according to the original text; free translation refers to the translation of the general idea of the original text.(Feng Shujian 1993,44)

Zhu Guangqian said, "literal translation" refers to the literal translation of the original text. Every word is translated one word at a time, and the order of each sentence is not changed. The so-called "free translation" is to express the meaning of the original text in Chinese, without having to follow the literal and sequential order of the original text. " Feng Shize thinks that "the relationship between translation and literal translation is up-down, while that between literal translation and free translation is left-right relationship. They are involved in each other and must become a system. If the word order is reversed as free translation, the definition of free translation is equal to translation, and there is no other translation to speak of except free translation. "

The principle of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" put forward by the modern Chinese translator Yan Fu has long been the basic principle guiding translation practice. A large number of beginners who learn foreign languages regard "faithfulness and expressiveness" as translations that are completely faithful to the original text when translating. In fact, Yan Fu's translation requirements are a guiding principle for translation based on semantics. When translating, if the structure and expression of the original text cannot be directly adopted, the sentence structure and expression must be changed according to the characteristics of the target language. (Feng Shujian 1993,44)

Moreover, in the process of translation, there are many differences between the source language and the target language in terms of word order, grammar, form change and rhetoric. In many cases, there is no direct corresponding word. Therefore, the translator should consider the actual semantic, background and other factors to convey the content of the original text and reproduce the language style of the original work in an appropriate way without losing the original meaning of the sentence.(Feng Shujian 1993,44)

==== Controversy in Soviet Translation Community====
In the Soviet Union, under the influence of ideology, Western translation theories could not be widely disseminated, but within the Soviet Union, translation theories similar to Western translation theories have been formed and developed, and two main schools of translation theory have been further differentiated — Linguistic Translation School and Literary Translation School. To a certain extent, the dispute between these two schools also reflects the debate on literal translation and free translation among translators' groups. (Xie Yuncai 2002,99)

In terms of the principles or standards of translation, the linguistic translation school believes that an ideal translation should be an equivalent translation, first of all linguistic correspondence, that is, the translation should have the same meaning as the corresponding language or discourse unit of the original; the literary translation school believes that translation pursues artistic correspondence, and linguistic correspondence must be subordinate to artistic correspondence. Therefore, it proposes that the aesthetic standards of translation should reproduce the artistic reality reflected by the unity of the original content and form. (Xie Yuncai 2002,99)

The characteristic is to use images to translate images, that is, to create the same image in different languages. In 1953, Andrei Venediktovich Fedorov, the leader of the linguistic translation school, published his work "Summary of Translation Theory", which was the first monograph of the Soviet Union to study translation theory from the perspective of linguistics. The author proposes that translation theory is a branch of linguistics. Since the translation of any genre work must rely on the comparison of two languages, translation problems can only be solved in the field of language. (Xie Yuncai 2002,99)

However, feodorov's view was refuted by the literary school represented by Kashin. The school of literature and art holds that aesthetics is the core of literary translation theory, and translation should be regarded as a form of language art, that is, translation should be studied from the perspective of literature and art. As a matter of fact, literature and art school emphasizes the translation of literary works, which belongs to the specific translation theory, while the study of language school focuses on the general translation theory, that is, the translation of works of all subjects including literary works. The debate between linguistic school and literary school provides another perspective for Chinese translators to explore the relationship between literal translation and free translation.(Xie Yuncai 2002,99)

=== The application of literal translation and free translation in the Chinese translation of Russian idioms ===

The idioms of different nationalities are the most dynamic and expressive units at the lexical level in different languages, and they are also the units that can best reflect the characteristics of national culture in languages. The number of Russian idioms is extremely rich, it records and reflects all aspects of Russian national life. (Feng Yongmei 1999,97)

Due to the great differences in geographical location and customs between China and Russia, the national culture reflected in Chinese and Russian must be quite different. One of the difficulties in idiom translation is its image. When translating idioms, both meaning and image should be considered. Although there are great cultural differences between China and Russia, many commonalities of human beings, such as emotion and natural environment, have created conditions for mutual communication, mutual understanding and idiom translation between different languages.(Feng Yongmei 1999,97)

==== Literal translation ====

In short, literal translation refers to a method of translating the original text directly without changing the language features and styles of the original text on the basis of fully respecting the meaning of the original text. The advantage of literal translation in Chinese translation of Russian idioms is that it can express the meaning of idioms intuitively and faithfully, and maintain the unique style and image of the original text. However, the disadvantage is that the translated idioms may not be understood by the Chinese people. This is because the historical and cultural background, grammatical structure and language world picture of Chinese and Russian are different, and it is easy to form obstacles in the process of understanding.(Zhou Changyu 2010,34)

Translating Russian idioms by literal translation is further divided into two methods — literal translation into Chinese idioms and literal translation into non-idiom sentences or words.(Zhou Changyu 2010,34)

Literal translation of Russian idioms into Chinese idioms is suitable for the translation of Russian and Chinese idioms that are completely equivalent in image, structure, and meaning. The advantage is that it is easy to understand, and the translation is simple and fast.(Feng Yongmei 1999,98) E.g:

домашнего (своего) вора не убережешься. 家贼难防

знать как свои пять пальцев (видно, как на ладони) 了如指掌

подлить масла в огонь 火上浇油

как рыба в воде 如鱼得水

как ножом по сердцу 心如刀割

как гром среди ясного неба 晴天霹雳

на добро отвечают добром 善有善报

копейка рубль бережет 财从细起

мечты сбываются 梦想成真

курица всегда следует за петухом 嫁鸡随鸡

чего мало, того и дорого (дорого то, что мало) 物以稀为贵(12)

изгонять яд с помощью яда 以毒攻毒

сидеть как на иголках 如坐针毡

действия громче слов 事实胜于雄辩

зарыть талант в землю 埋没人才

висеть на волоске 千钧一发

лить как из ведра 倾盆大雨(Wang Fuxiang, Wu Hanying 2014)

The idioms in the above examples are completely equivalent in image, structure or meaning in Russian and Chinese, so Chinese idioms can be used for literal translation.

In fact, in the two languages, idioms with the same image, structure, and meaning are still in the minority, so it is more common to translate Russian idioms into non-Chinese idiom sentences or vocabulary. E.g:

настоять на своем 坚持自己

камень с души свалился 心里的一块石头落地

связать свою судьбу 把自己的命运与……相连

быть на голову 高出一头

вбивать в голову 往脑子里灌

блеснуть метеором 像流星一样一闪而过

с мизинец 小拇指这么大(Wang Fuxiang, Wu Hanying 2014)

It is not difficult to find that the literal translation method can completely retain the original appearance of the idiom, show the common concept of human understanding of the world, and be beneficial to the cultural exchange between China and Russia.

==== Free translation ====

Another method commonly used in Chinese translation of Russian idioms is free translation. The lexical gap between languages is a common phenomenon, which causes many difficulties in translation. The causes of lexical vacancy are various, such as life experience, customs, religious beliefs and other cultural reasons, as well as linguistic reasons. There are generally two ways to fill the gaps in language: replacing images for free translation and abandoning images for free translation.(Feng Yongmei 1999,98)

Russian says "Два медведя в одной берлоге не уживутся (一个洞穴容不下两头熊).", while Chinese says "一山不容二虎". Another example is "Скатерть со стола, и дружба сплыла (桌布一收，友谊不再) " in Russian, and "人走茶凉" in Chinese. This method belongs to paraphrasing by replacing the image.(Wang Fuxiang, Wu Hanying 2014)

For the "harmony" of the translation, sometimes the translator has to choose to abandon the image for free translation. This is determined by both cultural and linguistic factors. Some linguistic features cannot be translated, and some idioms themselves are not strong enough. In this case, if Choosing a literal translation method will make readers confused.(Hu Guming, Shen Man 2011,18) E.g:

Как женился я на вашей матери да взял вот этот домишко в приданье, так думал, что богаче да лучше меня и людей нет, фертом ходил! (А. Островский)

我和你母亲一成亲，就得到了这栋作为陪嫁的屋子，当时我心想，再没有人比我更富足、更好的了。我那时可真是双手叉腰、得意洋洋的。

“Фертом” is the name of the letter “Ф” in ancient times.Its shape is like a person with hands on hips, and “фертом ходить” is an idiom evolved from body language. The cultural meaning of this idiom is "神气十足、得意洋洋、威武自负的样子" . The translation uses other idioms to complement the missing images in Chinese, clarify the meaning of the idiom, and convey the emotional color contained in the original idiom.(Hu Guming, Shen Man 2011,19)

The idioms in a certain language are fixed and unchanged after long-term use and tempering, but the frequency of each idiom is different. Some idioms are universally used by the whole people, spread and used in a wide range, while some idioms are only used in written styles. In Russian literature, there are improved precise and interesting idioms. For example, in the works of the famous Russian fable writer Krylov, there are reduced idioms, such as “ медвежья услуга”（直译：熊的帮忙；意译：帮倒忙）， “ сильнее кошки зверя нет”（直译：再没有比猫更厉害的野兽；意译：井底之蛙）， “зелен как виноград”（直译：葡萄还很青；意译：年轻人没经验). When translating literature, translators often need to learn cultural background knowledge, replace the image in the original idiom, and then convey it to Chinese readers.(Wang Fuxiang, Wu Hanying 2014)

Crows are a very common animal, usually black and gray. The description of crows in Chinese idioms is "the crows in the world are generally black（天下乌鸦一般黑）". It can be seen that white crows are rare. However, "белая ворона" often appears in Russian literary works, as a metaphor for people who are different from the masses in terms of external characteristics or ideological qualities. In the Chinese and Russian concepts, the crow is a nasty animal. (Wang Fuxiang, Wu Hanying 2014)

Although white crows are rare, this Russian idiom is usually derogatory, expressing disdain, contempt, or ridicule against the person. In Chinese, animal images are also used as a metaphor for "different people", such as idioms that stand out from the crowd and phoenix feathers are rare. "Crane" and "phoenix" have always been regarded as precious and noble animals in traditional Chinese culture, so they cannot be compared with " Corresponding to "White Crow", it is not suitable for translating "белая ворона".Examples are as follows:(Wang Fuxiang, Wu Hanying 2014)

Он замкнулся, не вдается в разговоры — вот вам и белая ворона.（Сталин)

直译：他不与人交往，不与人交流，真是一只白乌鸦。

意译：他不与人交往，不与人交流，真是与众不同。

Боишься, что они среди нас белой вороной окажется. Недосягаемым экземпляром.(Кожевников В “Корни и крона”)

直译：你是担心他们会变成我们中间的白乌鸦，一个无法达到的例子。

意译：你是担心他们会变成我们中间标新立异，望尘莫及的人。

Most Chinese who come into contact with Russian are students majoring in Russian. The Russian idioms we usually encounter appear in textbooks. These idioms are often used by the Russian public and are easily understood and accepted by the Chinese. E.g:(Wang Fuxiang, Wu Hanying 2014)

В Тулу со свим самоваром не ездят.
直译：去图拉不用带自己的茶炊。
意译：多此一举。

Честь лучше бесчестья.
直译：尊重比不尊重好。
意译：礼多人不怪。

словно горя с плеч
直译：把山从肩膀下卸下。
意译：如释重负。

выеденного яйца не стоит
直译：一个空蛋壳不值钱。
意译：鸡毛蒜皮，一文不值。

чужими руками жар загребать
直译：用别人的手将红炭火拨成一堆。
意译：坐享其成，不劳而获。

ни рыба, ни мясо
直译：没有鱼也没有肉。
意译：不三不四，不伦不类。

лучше синица в руках, чем журавль в небе
直译：天上的仙鹤不如手中的山雀。
意译：远亲不如近邻。

На языке мед, а под лед
直译：嘴上甜得像蜂蜜，心里冷得像冰。
意译：笑里藏刀。

И на солнце есть пятна
直译：太阳上也有黑点。
意译：人无完人。

семь раз отмерь, один раз отрежь
直译：测量了七次后再剪裁。
意译：三思而后行。(Wang Fuxiang, Wu Hanying 2014)

Using free translation to translate Russian idioms requires the translator to accurately understand the meaning of the original text, because cultural differences make it impossible to literally translate. Only through the translator can an unobstructed bridge between Russian idioms and Chinese idioms be built.(Wang Fuxiang, Wu Hanying 2014)

=== The application of literal translation and free translation in the Chinese translation of Russian proverbs ===

There are often multiple translations of the same Russian proverb in Russian-Chinese dictionaries. On the one hand, because the translator uses different translation methods; on the other hand, because Russian proverbs have very rich connotations, a translation cannot perfectly interpret the inner meaning of the proverb. According to the context and the connotation of the proverbs, the most commonly used methods of Chinese translation of Russian proverbs are literal translation and free translation.(Feng Yongmei 1999,98)

==== Literal translation ====

In Russian and Chinese, some proverbs not only have the same meaning or implied meaning, but also use the same or similar figurative images to express the same meaning, and they are completely consistent in content and form. In this case, the equivalent translation of Chinese proverbs with synonyms can convey the information contained in the image of the original language, which not only retains the rhetorical color of the original language, but also enables readers to understand the original text perfectly. The other is that the Russian people have summed up the experience in their long-term labor and life, which has evolved into a proverb. However, the Chinese have not summed up this experience. If the Russian proverbs are translated into Chinese, the Chinese can clearly understand it at a glance and increase their understanding of the world. E.g:(Feng Yongmei 1999,98)

Беда не приходит одна. 祸不单行。

Век живи, век учись. 活到老，学到老。

Выше встанешь, дальше увидишь. 站得高，看得远。

Лучше один раз увидеть, чем сто раз услышать. 百闻不如一见。

Береги платье снову, а честь смолоду. 衣服要从新的时候爱惜，荣誉要从年轻时珍惜。

Выше лба уши не растут. 耳朵高不过额头。

Для милого друга семь верст не околица. 为了好友，多绕七里也不嫌远。

Лучше умереть стоя, чем жить на коленях. 宁愿站着死，绝不站着生。

Не имей сто рублей, а имей сто друзей. 宁要一百个朋友，不要一百个卢布。

По одежке встречают, по уму провожают. 迎客时看衣，送客时看才智。(Jia Sufen 1996)

There is another situation where the literal translation method can be used. Although the image in Russian proverbs is different from the commonly used images in Chinese, it is also easy to understand. For example, "Молодец против овец, а против молодца — сам овца." In fact, this proverb can be paraphrased as "欺软怕硬 ", but in this way the translation discards the lively literal meaning of the original text. On the other hand, it is literally translated as "见到绵羊充好汉，碰到好汉成绵羊" , on the basis of retaining the original image, readers can easily understand the meaning of the original proverb.(Jia Sufen 1996)

Another example is "Заяц от лисицы, а лягушка от зайца бежит. " can be translated as "一物降一物", but the image in the original text was completely abandoned, if it is literally translated as "one thing drops one thing "狐惊兔，兔惊蛙", this kind of translation is not only simple and clear, but also in line with the aesthetics of Chinese proverbs. In general, the literal translation not only retains the symmetrical rhetorical techniques in the original sentence, but also retains the symmetrical beauty of the original sentence structure. It not only conforms to the aesthetic characteristics of the original Russian text, but also shows the beauty of phonology and structure in Chinese.(Jia Sufen 1996)

The literal translation of Russian proverbs not only keeps the style of the original language, but also transplants the unique figurative language of Russian proverbs into Chinese, which not only expands the vision of Chinese readers, but also enriches the expression of Chinese.(Jia Sufen 1996)

==== Free translation ====

Due to the influence of cultural factors, many Russian and Chinese proverbs with the same meaning use different figurative images. In the process of translating some Russian proverbs into Chinese, it is difficult to retain the image of the original text. If literal translation is made according to the original image, due to the different national and cultural backgrounds of China and Russia, the translated version is difficult to be accepted by Chinese people and even misread.(Jia Sufen 1996)

In order to convey the original meaning to readers accurately, we can explore the story behind the proverb. On the basis of correctly understanding the meaning of the original text, we can readjust the structure of the original text, and reproduce Russian proverbs with standard Chinese expression, so as to avoid ambiguity and misunderstanding.(Jia Sufen 1996)

There are some elements used in proverbs that foreigners cannot understand. For example, the Russian proverb "В огороде бузина, а в Киеве дядька." is literally translated as "菜园里长接骨木，而基辅里住叔叔", which cannot be understood by the Chinese. The four elements “огород” “бузина” “Киева” “дядька”, which contained in this proverb are completely unrelated. In fact, this proverb means that there is no logical relationship between what someone says, and the translator can directly paraphrase it as "胡说八道", "前言不搭后语" or more easily understood "满嘴跑火车". (Jia Sufen 1996)

Another example is "На воре шапка горит." literally means "the hat on the thief's head is on fire". In fact, this proverb originated from a short story in the Kievan Rus period: someone’s money bag disappeared and he shouted "Catch the thief", but no one knew where the thief was. This man had an idea and shouted, "The thief's hat is on fire." After hearing this, the thief touched his hat unconsciously and exposed himself. Therefore, "На воре шапка горит." can be paraphrased as "不打自招" or "做贼心虚."(Jia Sufen 1996)

There are some Russian proverbs that are more suitable for free translation:

От труда- радость, от безделья- усталость.
直译：快乐从劳动中来，疲劳从闲散中来。
意译：劳动使人快乐。

Баба с возу- кобыле легче.
直译：农妇下了车，马儿就轻松。
意译：求之不得

Герой не моего романа.
直译：不是我小说中的主人公。
意译：不是我的意中人。

Терпенье (ученье\уменье) и труд всё перетрут.
直译：耐心和勤劳能克服一切。
意译：锲而不舍，金石可镂（只要功夫深，铁杵磨成针）。

Чтобы узнать человека, надо с ним пуд соль съесть.
直译：想要了解一个人，应该和他吃一普特盐。
意译：日久见人心。

Посади свинью за стол — она и ноги на стол.
直译：让猪入席，它会把爪子也伸上来。
意译：得寸进尺。

Черного кобеля не отмоешь добела.
直译：黑色的狗洗不白。
意译：本性难改。

Конь о четырех ногах, да спотыкается.
直译：马有四条腿，也会摔倒。
意译：聪明一世，糊涂一时。

За что купил, за то и продаю.
直译：怎么买来，怎么卖出。
意译：人云亦云。

Обжегшись на молоке, дуешь на воду.
直译：一旦被牛奶烫，喝水也要吹一吹。
意译：一种被蛇咬，十年怕井绳。(Jia Sufen 1996)

=== Conclusion ===

In the process of translation, translators often feel that there are a lot of contradictions and differences between the two languages in terms of vocabulary composition, syntactic structure, expression and metaphor. Most of the time, the translator understands the original meaning but does not know how to express it in the target language, which leads to the debate about which is better, literal translation or free translation. When translators translate works with more contradictions between bilinguals, they tend to use free translation. When there are more similarities or similarities between bilinguals than contradictions or conflicts, translators will tend to literal translation in order to be faithful to the original text.

In fact, the relationship between literal translation and free translation is interdependent and inseparable. Therefore, when we translate an article or a book, it is not feasible to translate every sentence literally or freely. Only when the translator cleverly arranges the alternation of the two can it be possible to translate a better translation. When we comment on literal translation and free translation, we should consider the effects of the division of labor and cooperation between the two, and should not one-sidedly understand the advantages and disadvantages of literal translation and meaning.

=== References ===

*Cai Yi, Duan Jinghua. 蔡毅，段京华. (2000). 苏联翻译理论. [Soviet Translation Theory]. 武汉: 湖北教育出版社[Wuhan: Hubei Education Press].
*Feng Shize. 冯世则. (1981). 直译、意译、逐字译. [Literal Translation, Free Translation, Verbatim Translation]. 中国翻译[Chinese Translators Journal] 7-10.
*Feng Shujian. 冯树鉴. (1993). 意译与直译笔谈. [Written Free Translation and Literal Translation]. 外语学刊[Foreign Language Research] 43-47.
*Feng Yongmei. 冯咏梅. (1999). 浅谈俄语成语翻译中民族文化特色的保留. [On the Preservation of National Cultural Characteristics in Russian Idiom Translation]. 解放军外国语学院学报[Journal of PLA Foreign Languages University] 97-100.
*Gong Linjing. 宫琳菁. (2015). 直译与意译——中国近现代代表人物观点之概述. [Literal Translation and Free Translation: An Overview of the Viewpoints of Representatives in Modern China]. 赤峰学院学报（汉文哲学社会科学版）[Journal of Chifeng University (Soc.Sci)] 192-193.
*Hu Guming, Shen Man. 胡谷明, 沈曼. (2011). 汉俄翻译中文化空缺词汇的翻译策略.[The Translation Strategies of Cultural Vacancies in Chinese-Russian Translation]. 中国俄语教学[Russian in China] 17-21.
*Jia Shufen. 贾淑芬. (1996). 简明俄汉谚语词典. [Concise Russian-Chinese Proverbs Dictionary]. 沈阳: 辽宁大学出版社[Shenyang: Liaoning University Publishing House].
*Li Quan’an. 李全安. (1990). 直译与意译之争是一场什么样的争论. [What kind of controversy is the dispute between literal translation and free translation]. 中国翻译[Chinese Translators Journal] 18-22.
*Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (1999). 中西译论的相似性.[Similarities between Chinese and Western Translation Theories]. 中国翻译[Chinese Translators Journal] 25-28.
*Wang Fuxiang, Wu Hanying. 王福祥,吴汉樱. (2014). 东方大学俄语系列：迷你俄语成语词典. [Oriental University Russian Series: Mini Dictionary of Russian Idioms]. 外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press]
*Wang Zhuang. 王转. (1996). 直译与意译漫谈. [On Literal Translation and Free Translation]. 湖南教育学院学报[Journal of Educational Institute] 55-60.
*Xie Yuncai. 谢云才. (2002). 俄罗斯翻译理论的语言学派与文艺学派——两派文学翻译理论对比分析. [Linguistic Schools and Literary Schools of Russian Translation Theory: A Comparative Analysis of the Two Schools of Literary Translation Theories]. 外语学刊[Foreign Language Research] 97-101.
*Yang Shizhang. 杨仕章. (2002). 俄语现代翻译理论之概述. [An Overview of Russian Modern Translation Theory]. 解放军外国语学院学报[Journal of PLA Foreign Languages University] 62-65.
*Zhang Yi. 张艺. (2010). 从目的论看直译与意译之争. [The Controversy between Literal Translation and Free Translation from Skopos Theory]. 海外英语[Overseas English] 189-190.
*Zhou Changyu. 周长雨. (2010). 俄语谚语的翻译方法. [How to translate Russian proverbs]. 俄语学习[Russian Learning] 33-36.

--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 14:38, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Dialectical thinking in arguments between literal translation and free translation 甘奉玉 Gan Fengyu 202070080584 英语笔译==

===Abstract===
As two methods of translation, how to use literal translation and free translation has always been the focus of debate between Chinese and Western translation circles. Through the study of translation methods of literal translation and free translation at home and abroad, we can know that to some extent literal translation and free translation are two relative conceptions, so there will be word-for-word translation, that is, dead translation, and over free translation. However, these two are only two extremes of literal translation and free translation. In fact, although there are differences in definitions and application fields between literal translation and free translation, they are unified in common translation purpose, translation procedure and translation standard. Therefore, the two are contradictory and unified in translation activities. This is also a profound embodiment of the unity of opposites in materialist dialectics.

===Key words===
literal translation, free translation, word-for-word translation, over free translation, unity of opposites

===题目===
直译与意译之争中的辩证思维

===摘要===
作为翻译方法，怎样使用直译(literal translation)与意译(free translation)一直是中西方翻译界争论不休的一个焦点。通过对国内外直译与意译的翻译方法的研究，我们可以得知，从某种程度而言，直译与意译是两个相对的概念, 所以才会有逐字翻译，即死译，与过度意译这两个完全对立的概念。但是，这两者只不过是直译与意译的两个极端点。其实，直译和意译虽然在定义，适用范围上有所差异，但却又统一于共同的翻译目的、翻译过程和翻译标准中，所以两者在翻译活动中应该是既对立又统一的矛盾体。而这也正是唯物辩证法中的对立统一矛盾观的深刻体现。

===关键字===
直译；意译；死译；过度意译；对立统一

===Introduction===
Throughout the translation history at home and abroad, the literal translation and free translation have always sparked a heated discussion in the translation circles. Someone absolutely approve literal translation and demean free translation, even pursue dead translation, which creates an translated text difficult to understand. While some people absolutely agree with free translation even advocate random translation, which means a random deletion in the translation practices and creates another entirely different text. However, there are also a few of translators who have recognized that these two translation methods are not totally opposite. So they adopt a dialectical and flexible way. That means they will choose the most appropriate one depending on the text's demand. Therefore, we can deduce from it that this dialectical translation is consistent with the Contradiction View of Unity of Opposite in Materialist Dialectics. In fact, literal translation and free translation are a set of contradictions which are both opposite and unified. They complement each other into an integral one.

The dispute between free translation and literal translation in Chinese translation circle first appeared in the dispute of "text" and "quality" in the Eastern Han Dynasty. During this period, Shi Dao-an, a senior monk in the Eastern Jin Dynasty, advocated literal translation and put forward that the translation should not be added or deleted but only make some adjustments to the word order. In the post-Qin period opposed to the Eastern Jin Dynasty, the monk Hatoyama advocated that the Buddhist scriptures should be translated freely. He suggested the original text should be changed to adapt to the Chinese style. Subsequently, Xuanzang, a senior monk of the Tang Dynasty, drew lessons from former translation achievements and put forward that we should seek both loyalty and vulgarity.(Chen Fukang 2011, 14-38) In another word, literal translation should complement with free translation, not just using one method. At that time, some translators have noticed that literal translation and free translation are not completely opposite.

After that, in modern times from the Opium War to the May 4th Movement, since Yan Fu has put forward the translation standard of faithfulness, smoothness and elegance, Lu Xun and Qu Qiubai ignited the dispute on faith and smoothness. Lu Xun is a representative of literal translation school. He insists faithfulness first and smoothness second and even tolerates incoherence. He adopts the method of dead translation. While Qu Qiubai believes that faithfulness and smoothness are not opposite. From the New Culture Movement(1915-1923) to the 1980s, Mao Dun also put forward that literal translation doesn't mean word-for-word translation without any addition or deletion. Since the reform and opening up, Xu Yuanchong has said that literal translation should be faithful to the original content first then to the original form and last to the smooth translated text. On the other hand, free translation should be faithful to the original text first then to the smooth translated text and last to the original form. Therefore, although there are differences in translation methods between literal translation and free translation, their ultimate goal is to be faithful to the original content and express the original meaning.（Chen Fukang 2011, 288-333）

Since Cicero, the first translation theorist in the western world, has put forward that we should avoid word-by-word translation but perform as a speaker, the dispute between literal translation and free translation began to appear in the West. In ancient times, Perot insisted on dead translation in the translation of the Bible, which greatly affected the translation quality. Poitius in the Middle Ages also advocated word-by-word translation and strict formal correspondence. In modern times, French translator Abulangour aimed to cater to readers in a way of over free translation and arbitrary deletion.

Even so, there are many translation theorists in the western translation world who advocated dialectical and flexible translation. For example, in ancient times, Jerome advocated the flexible principle to apply in literary translation and religious translation differently. During the Renaissance, French Amyot emphasized the dialectical unity of content and form, free translation and literal translation. Moreover, some translators did not exercise their own translation ideas. During the Renaissance, Reichlin was one of them. Although he advocated word-by-word translation, he abandoned this method in his practice. This can also further explain that absolute promotion of literal translation or free translation is not desirable. In translation practice, we must take a suitable degree in the way of combining literal translation and free translation to better serve the target readers.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 5-15 )

The purpose of this paper is to explore the dialectical thinking contained in the dispute between literal translation and free translation, that is, the viewpoint of unity of opposites between them. The first chapter is about the word-for-word translation, and the second chapter is about the over free translation. From these two parts, we can draw a conclusion that it is not advisable to regard literal translation and free translation as absolute opposites. The third chapter is about the dialectical translation, which is the correct method for us to learn and adopt. It is also a method that follows the view of unity of opposites. The fourth chapter will analyze the differences between literal translation and free translation from the view of definitions and application fields. Then the fifth chapter focuses on the unity of literal translation and free translation in translation goals, translation procedures and translation standards. Through the discussion of the whole article, we can clearly see the unity of opposites between literal translation and free translation and draw a conclusion that we should apply dialectical translation in our translation practice and adopt the point of view of unity of opposites in translation theory. (He Lirong 2018, 40)

===1.Dialectical thinking of the Unity of opposites===
The theory of unity of opposites is the core content of materialist dialectics theory. (Xu Guoliang 2020, 75) In the history of philosophy, the German philosopher Hegel first expounded the basic thought of contradiction theory from the standpoint of objective idealism. Later, Marx, Engels and Lenin critically absorbed Hegel's theory and developed contradiction theory into the core content of materialist dialectics theory. The theory of contradiction contains two basic problems, and one is the relationship between unity and opposition, while the other is the universality and particularity of contradiction, which involves a series of basic concepts of contradiction theory, such as basic contradiction and non-basic contradiction, fundamental contradiction and non-fundamental contradiction, principal contradiction and non-principal contradiction. Understanding these basic concepts and their relationships is the key to understanding and grasping the contradiction theory completely and accurately and finally applying it to the practice of social life. (Yan Mengwei 2020, 41)

The problem of unity and opposition of contradiction is actually about the nature of contradiction. We always know things from comparison. The so-called comparison is to find the similarities and differences between two things. The former is called unity and the latter is called opposition. The unity is relative and the opposition is absolute. It is worth emphasizing that the opposition of contradictions plays a key and decisive role in development, because development comes from the unity of opposites. This means that unity and opposition are two indispensable elements in the process of development. They complement and interact with each other.

Literal translation and free translation are such a pair of contradictions. The opposition of the two is reflected in the absolute opposition between word-for-word translation and over free translation, while the unity is reflected in their commons. More clearly, there are differences in their definitions and applications and similarities in their translation goals, procedures and standards.(Yang Ying 2019,161)

===2.Word-for-word translation===

Literal translation is a method that not only maintains the original content, but also the original form.(Xu Yuanchong 1996,92) Fu Sinian and Zheng Zhenduo all advocate literal translation. In the history of modern Chinese translation, Lu Xun and his younger brother Zhou Zuoren's works of The Collection of Extraterritorial Fiction are regarded as the representatives of literal translation.

In particular, literal translation is neither dead translation nor a mechanical verbatim translation. Because English and Chinese have different structures, it is impossible to translate word by word. From the perspective of linguistics, the biggest difference between them is that Chinese focuses parataxis while English focuses hypotaxis.(Zhu Xiaojia 2008, 1) In another word, in Chinese, a sentence is usually short with few modifiers and connected words, while in English, several meanings can be expressed by use of complicated structure with assorted clauses and connected words only in a sentence.

Besides, the English is a more static language in which nouns and adjectives are always used, but the Chinese is the more dynamic one, and verbs are more active in it. Finally, the former has a systematic grammar but the latter seems free in its arrangement.(Cao Huoqun 2005, 40)

Therefore, when we do some translating exercise, we should focus on their grammar structures. When the structure of the original text is inconsistent with that of the target language, adopting word-for-word translation will lead to formalism. Such a translated text is also not intelligible for readers. Literal translation must be readable without any misunderstanding or violation of expression.

===3.Over free translation===

Free translation refers to the method that maintains original content rather than original form. In the process of translation, in order to make the language clear and persuasive, the translator must try to conform to the language customs of target texts rather than adhere to the expressive pattern of the original work. Zhao Jingshen put forward that it is better to be smooth with some disloyalty instead of absolute loyalty. Obviously, Mr. Zhao Jingshen is in favor of free translation, and so does Mr. Yan Fu. Many of Yan Fu's classical works have adopted free translation, the Theory of Heaven is a typical example of free translation.

When we translate English into Chinese, especially some idioms that are in closer ties with western culture, we have to move or change these cultural barriers so that Chinese readers could understand easily. It is also true when translating Chinese into English. Under this condition, free translation will be more suitable and effective.

However, free translation does not mean random translation. Random translation means making up sentences by subjective imagination without analyzing the structure of the original text. It is also known as over free translation.(Wu Shuang 2018, 107) In fact, when we translate, we must master the thought and style of the original and regard them as the correspondence of the target language. In addition, the theory, fact and logic of the original work should also be corresponding in the target language. We can not replace these features of the original with our personal thoughts, styles, facts, theories and logic. Only in this way can the contents not be changed after translation.

===4.Dialectical translation===

Feng Qinghua put forward in the book of A Practical Translation Course that the so-called literal translation is a kind of translation method to maintain both the original content and the original form. If there are the same language form and expressive effect between original and target text, we should adopt literal translation to deliver the same contents. While the so-called free translation is a method to keep the original content and style only. So if there are different language forms and expressive effects between the two texts, we should adopt free translation mostly. (Feng Qinghua 1997, 12)

Therefore, Literal translation and free translation have their own advantages and restrictions. The former is beneficial to the transplantation of culture, while the latter can avoid obscurity in literal translation.

In literal translation, we will translate the sentence “mashing a mirror is no way to make an ugly person beautiful, nor is it a way to make social problem evaporate” into "砸镜子不能使丑八怪变漂亮,也不能使社会问题烟消云散", while in free translation, we can turn it into "砸镜子并不能解决实际问题". (Fan Zhongying 1994, 22) We can see the latter one is more concise and comprehensive to express the connotative meaning. Although the former is totally literal translation, we still feel it terrible.

Therefore, a translator should use these two translation strategies according to the specific situation to express the surface structure and deep meaning of the original text. The use of literal or free translation depends on the rules of both English and Chinese. In translation, if we can not directly adopt the structure and expressive form of the original work, we must change the sentence structure and expressive way to convey the connotation of the original work. An excellent translated text is realized neither by simple literal translation nor by simple free translation but by the combination of two. We should adopt dialectical translation in our practice.

===5.Opposition and unity between literal translatiuon and free translation===

===5.1 Opposition===

===5.1.1 Opposition in definition===
Qiao Zengrui defines literal translation in Chapter 4 of Translation Theory as a method that deliberately retains the original form to maintain the content and style of the original. At the same time, He also defines free translation as a method that keeps the original content and style by use of the same or similar expressions as the original text in the target language regardless of the two different languages. The first one regards form as the only way, content and style as targets, while the second directly takes no account of form. With this regard, the two totally opposite in definition.(Qiao Zengrui 2000,78)

===5.1.2 Opposition in application fileld===

Generally speaking, literal translation is used to translate some political books, laws, treaties, scientific and technological documents, terms, idioms, and some simple sentences. (Wu Shuang 2018,178) The early translation of Buddhist scriptures of early Chinese generally followed this theory. So do the Marxism-Leninism works and Mao Zedong's works. For example, "纸老虎" can only be translated as "paper tiger" but not "scarecrow". The latter one was corrected by Mao Zedong when the interpreter translated it into "scarecrow". Chairman Mao emphasized that this word had two characteristics and if it was translated into "scarecrow", it will lose duality. Because "纸老虎" in China means imperialism and reactionary, which seems scary but no great power in it. Since it is made of paper, this tiger becomes soft in the damp and finally was washed away when it was rained. While scarecrow can scare away children and birds. So paper tiger is better than scarecrow.

In the process of translation, there are many situations that literal translation can not be applied, so we must adopt the method of free translation, especially the translation of literary works.(Wu Shuang, 2018, 178) On the one hand, there are many common traditional Chinese words that reflect the unique cultural concepts and cultural phenomena of our country, which can't be translated directly into corresponding words in English. For instance, if we translate"初生牛犊不怕虎" into "A new born calf is not afraid of a tiger", then our target readers in English-speaking countries will find it difficult to understand the substance of the literal meaning.(Yang Yin 2019, 161) So here "The more wit, the less courage" will be better. On the other hand, some certain maxims, idioms and puns in English have no choice but to use free translation.(He Lirong 2018,43) For example, "have a wolf in the stomach" means "饥肠辘辘" 饥饿难忍" rather than "肚子里有个豺狼". Moreover, some exclusive English nouns should be freely translated such as "the heel of Achilles" into "致命的弱点" instead of "阿克琉斯的脚后跟".

===5.2 Unity===
===5.2.1 Unity in translation goal===
In literal translation, loyalty to the original form should be put first, followed by loyalty to the original content and last pursuit of fluency and popularity in target language. In free translation, loyalty to the original content should be put first, then the fluency and popularity of the translation language second, and the original form comes last. It is clear that loyalty to the original content is the common purpose of literal translation and free translation.(Wu Shuang 2018, 108)

The unity of literal translation and free translation is also reflected in the fact that the translation must be smooth and fluent and conform to the expressive habits of target language. If the translated text is obscure and unreadable without conforming to the habits of the target language and culture, the two translation strategies have not achieved the true unity, so the purpose of communication has not been realized.

Therefore, literal translation and free translation are two different translation methods used in translation. They are unified in the translation goal to accurately and faithfully convey the original meaning and intention.(He Lirong 2018, 41)

===5.2.2 Unity in translation procedure===
The literal translation and free translation are unified in translation procedures. Both of them should conform to the following translation steps of understanding, expressing and verifying.

Understanding is the first stage of translation process. It includes not only the understanding of language and cultural phenomena, but also logical relations. A translator should be good at analyzing ambiguous sentences and make correct judgments before translating. Expression is the process by which the translator reproduces the content of the original text into target language. Expressing is the result of understanding, but understanding correctly does not mean expressing right. Therefore, we must learn many specific methods and techniques, such as literal translation, free translation, literal translation plus free translation, literal translation plus annotation, and so on. The third stage is verifying. In this stage, we must check the translation at least twice. In the first time, we should check whether there is any missing translation or wrong translation. And in the second time, we should check whether it's smooth and intelligible out of the original text.

Whether literal translation or free translation, we must follow the three steps of understanding, expressing and verifying in translation practice. Understanding is the premise of expression, but understanding and expressing are usually complementary and unified, which can not be separated completely. To understand the original text, the translator also chooses proper expression and further deepen his or her understanding.

===5.2.3 Unity in translation standard===
On the establishment of translation standards, Chinese and foreign translation theorists in different historical periods put forward different views. In China, there are Ma Jianzhong's view of "good translation" on the basis of modern linguistic theory, Yan Fu's translation standards of "faithfulness, smoothness, and elegance", Chen Xiying's theory of "similarities in shape, meaning and spirit", Lin Yutang's translation standards of "loyalty, smoothness and beauty". In the West, there are Twelve Translation Principles of Bart, Three Principles of Tettler, Seven principles of Luther, functional equivalence of Nida and so on. All these translation standards are based on different social needs, translation contents, translation objects and translation purposes.(He Lirong 2018, 42)

No matter which translation standard we use, it is impossible to meet it only by literal translation or free translation. Therefore, the two translation methods are unified in any translation standard. Therefore, they are inseparable unity of opposites.

===6.Conclusion===
Literal translation and free translation are two different translation methods. Although they are different in conceptual definitions and applicable fields, in order to achieve a unified translation standard and a common translation goal, they both follow the same three procedures of understanding, expressing and verifying.

In the process of translation, if the target text has the same form and style as the original text, it can be translated literally. If there are different forms and styles, it should be translated freely. When the structure of the original text is inconsistent with that of the target language, sticking to word-for-word translation will cause stiff translation difficult to understand. In the same way, making up sentences through subjective assumption according to the literal meaning without analyzing original text will cause random translation disloyalty to the original one.

Therefore, we can conclude that we should treat literal translation and free translation with a dialectical way and use these two translation methods flexibly to create wonderful translations in our concrete translation practice.

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== Peter Newmark’s Improved Views on Literal Translation and Free Translation 赵茜 Zhao Xi 202070080627 MTI 英语笔译==
<center> 赵茜, 202070080627 </center>
===Abstract===
The dispute over the two basic translation methods, literal translation and free translation, has never stopped since ancient times. In view of the basic problem of his argument, Peter Newmark, an English translation theorist divides the various translation methods into eight, points out that different translation methods should be taken according to different text characteristics and puts forward with semantic translation and communicative translation based on years of translation researches. Semantic translation focuses on maintaining the content of the original text, while communicative translation emphasizes the effect of the translation. The author of this paper expresses some views on literal translation and free translation. Peter Newmark's theory has taken a big step forward from the fragmented and one-sided view of literal translation and free translation in the past, which has brought people out of the struggle between them and made people see the direction of further development of translation research.

===Key words===
Free translation, Literal translation, Peter Newmark, Semantic translation, Communicative translation

===标题===
彼得·纽马克对直译和意译的改进观点

===摘要===
直译与意译这两种翻译基本方法之争从古至今从未停止过。针对其争论的基本问题，英国翻译理论家彼得·纽马克把各种翻译方法分成了八种，指出应根据不同的文本特点釆取不同的翻译方法，并在多年翻译研究的基础上提出了语义翻译和交际翻译。语义翻译重点在强调保持原文的内容，而交际翻译更多强调的是译文的效果。本文作者也提出了对直译和意译的一些看法。彼得·纽马克的理论把人们以往对直译、意译的零散的、片面的观点向前推进了一大步，使人们从直译、意译之争中走出来并看到翻译研究进一步发展的方向。

===关键词===
直译, 意译, 彼得·纽马克, 语义翻译, 交际翻译

===Introduction===
According to Chinese and western translation history, no matter in China or in western countries, studies on translation theories and practice have been performed over two thousand years. Translation, as an ancient and extremely significant human thinking activity, is closely related to the development of language itself. And translation after more than two thousand years of development, has developed prosperously, appearing quantities of translation theories, translation schools and translators. However, the dispute between two translation methods, literal translation and free translation has been lasting from throughout history. The fundamental problem between literal translation and free translation is based on the relationship between content and form. To solve this fundamental problem of the dispute, Peter Newmark first points out that translation studies have been long beset by the time-honored theoretical debate over free and literal translation. A range of wider aspects of translation related to the contribution to the development of languages, its relation to meaning, the intention of translation, the readers' background, the type of discourse and the language universals have been long neglected. Therefore, according to Newmark's own translation practice, he puts forward right translation methods, word-for-word translation, literal translation, faithful translation, semantic translation, adaption, free translation, idiomatic translation and communicative translation, which provide to translators to consider and use. Although in the actual translation practice, translators have no necessity to distinguish such translation methods and even to use these methods, this proposal may help translators open their horizons and translate more appropriately. Among the eight translation methods, semantic translation and communicative translation proposed by Newmark own the advantages of other six methods, becoming the most ideal translation methods. Peter Newmark's semantic translation and communicative translation are highly valued and influence the practice of translation in general. (Li Minghan 2014, 3)

===Literal Translation and Free Translation===

====Brief Introduction of Literal Translation and Free Translation====

From ancient times, translators hold various attitudes toward such two translation methods, literal translation and free translation.

=====Literal Translation=====

Literal translation is a translation method which not only keeps the substance of the original, but also keeps the form of the original. This definition implies that the translation version is expressing the content of the original and should spare no efforts to make every part of the translation version corresponding to every part in the original text, including construction of sentence, meaning of the original words, metaphor of the original and so on.

According to Liu Zhongde, literal translation can be summarized into "to reproduce both the ideological content and style of the entire literary work and retain as much as possible the figures of speech". (Liu Zhongde 1991, 52)

Xu Yuanchong defines literal translation as "the kind of translation which is faithful not only to the content but also to the form of the original." (Xu Yuanchong 1984, 45)

Newmark suggests that literal translation is like, "sometimes it is very difficult to define what is literal translation, it is believed that a translation can be regarded as the literal translation when the translator is not influenced but the foreign flavors."(Newmark 2001, 46)

Mr. Yang Xianyi holds that the translators should be as faithful as possible to the original image and too much explanation and creativity should be avoided. This means translators should try to use literal translation method to introduce imagery in the source language to the target language readers. The reason why those translators who insist on literal translation are that they think literal translation is the only way to keep faithful to the original. They endeavor to adopt from as similarly as possible to the original to show the original meaning, thinking that it's the truest reflection of the original. (Wang Zuoliang 1989, 43)

=====Free Translation=====

Free translation is a translation method which only keeps the substance of the original, but not keeps the form the original. Target language and source language have different forms to show the same substance, and they could not produce the same result. Free translation does not mean to delete or add content to the original, though it does not pay much attention to the form of the original. Otherwise, the translation would not be faithful to the original. Translators always discover the meaning behind the forms in the source language and dose their best to produce the same meaning in the target language, using the forms and structures in the target language. Consequently, what is supposed to change is the form and the code, and what should remain unchanged is the meaning and the message.

Shuttle worth and Cowie define free translation as "a type of translation in which more attention is paid to producing a natural target language than to preserving the source language wording intact." (Shuttle worth&Cowie 2004, 62)

Free translation is the conveying of the discourse meaning of the speaker is not restricted by the structure and linguistic and rhetoric styles of the original text. (Ren Wen 2012, 18)

Liu Zhongde has given his definition to free translation. According to his definition, free translation aims at transmitting the meaning regardless of the sentence forms and rhetorical devices. If translators are not able to make the translated text faithful to the original text through literal translation, they may use their own words to explain the meaning of the text without considering the words and forms in original text. (Liu Zhongde 1991, 53-54)

====Disputes over Free Translation and Literal Translation====

In the past, translators generally believed that language and thought were unified, and language was form while thought was content. However, it was impossible to realize the consistence between language forms and ideological content, producing the contradiction between form and content, which is the problem between literal translation and free translation. Modern science has proved that language and thought are not a unity and constitutes a relationship between form and content. Language is only a symbolic system to express thoughts. Translation expresses the same idea by using two different language signals.

Marcus Tullius Cicero is generously acknowledged to be the first person to put forward a systematic description of the practice of translation and he said "I did not translate them as an interpreter, but as an orator... I did not hold it necessary to render word for word, but I preserve the general style and force of language." (Tan Zaixi 2018, 20) He puts forward the following two viewpoints.

Firstly, the translation should be as close as possible to the language habits of the target language. At that time, namely, the translation should correspond with Roman habits as much as possible to touch and resonate with the readers. What's more, he advocates free translation and opposes literal translation as he believes that free translation is superior to literal translation. The most important thing in translation is not the corresponding in form, but the meaning and thought in the source language. Cecero's thoughts have provided a guide for other translators and produced an effect on them. Since Cicero came up with his opinion, the disputes over literal translation and free translation has never been stopped. (Tan Zaixi 2018, 20)

Eugene Nida holds that if all languages differ in form, then quite naturally the forms must be changed if one is to preserve the content. He is in favor of dynamic equivalence instead of formal correspondence, maintaining the original meanings. In this sense, Nida agrees with free translation, just as he expresses that translating means translating meaning. (Nida 1985, 119-125)

Zhai Qiubai insists literal translation and claims that the correct translation is based on Chinese syntax and rhetoric and has its specific intentions. First of all, he regards translation as a part of Proletarian literature. Translation should systematically introduce proletarian revolution thoughts to Chinese readers. Furthermore, translation should help create modern Chinese language and literal translation is an approach. To preserve the spirit in the original text, some non-smoothness can be tolerated. (Cheng Yongsheng 2002, 65)

Lu Xun defines clearly that translation must take into account of two sides: one is easy to understand, the other maintains the style of the original. This explanation refers that the translators must translate according to the original text rather than their own world view and aesthetic taste. The translators must try their best to maintain the style of the original author and inherit historic and national characters rather than imposing extrinsic aesthetic and social background culture of other people on the translation. (Chen Fukang 2000, 301)

Mao Dun has pointed out that due to different language families of Chinese and English and different structures, word-by-word translation is almost impossible actually. Because word-by-word translation is difficult to achieve its ideal effect, any discussion related with literal translation and free translation is inevitably involved with the problem "what is the boundary between them?" He also holds that the so-called literal translation, superficially speaking, means not to alter the original words and sentences. (Xu Haiyan & Sun Weihong 2012, 80)

In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, the criteria to judge literal translation and free translation is whether the translation is faithful to the original. If a translation is faithful to both meaning and form of the original text, it is literal translation. If a translation is only faithful to meaning rather than form, it is free translation. If a translation is only faithful to form rather than content, it is mechanical translation. And the standard to judge faithfulness are form and content. For translation, content is more significant than form. Besides, translators should use both literal translation and free translation. However, sometimes it is difficult to use literal translation or free translation in a translation, so it is not necessary to define literal translation or free translation in those situations. (Cheng Yongsheng 2002, 66)

Xu argues that literal translation is not only being faithful to the content of the original text but also being close to its form. When Xu discusses the situations using literal translation or free translation, he often mentions readers and contexts, among which readers are more important. No matter literal translation or free translation, translators should put faithfulness to the content of the original text first, smoothness of target text form second, faithfulness to the form of the source text third. In other words, on the premise of faithfulness to the source language, translation should strive for smoothness of form. On the premise of smoothness of translation, translators should try their best to realize faithfulness to form of the original. If there is a contradiction between the smoothness and faithfulness of the original form, it is of no necessity to stick to the original form. These are the relationships between content and form, and literal translation and free translation. (Cheng Yongsheng 2002, 66)

Whether in Chinese translation circle or in western translation circle, the contradiction between content and form, and literal translation and free translation exists and arouses heated discussion.

===Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation===

To solve the fundamental problem of free translation and literal translation, Peter Newmark, a renowned western translation theorist, linguist and professor of translation at the University of Surrey, combining with years of translation experience, has concluded and summarized a corresponding theory, semantic translation and communicative translation, whose core is the problem of literal translation and free translation. Semantic translation and communicative translation have been put forward against the background that the majority of scholars have argued for a long time whether to translate literally or freely. The concepts of communicative and semantic translation represent Newmark’s main contribution to general translation theory. (Newmark 1991, 10)

====Semantic Translation====

Newmark puts the definition of semantic translation as "Semantic translation, attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. " As this version of definition indicates, communicative translation focuses essentially upon the comprehension and response of TL receptors. Semantic translation severs for the source language author and gives a high priority to reflecting his thought patterns and stylistics. (Shuttleworth and Cowie 2004, 22)

Here is an example.

E.g. 谋事在人，成事在天。

Yang Hsien-yi and Gladys Yang's Version: Man Proposes, Heaven disposes.

In this example, the Chinese idiom means that a man has done his or her best to do something and as to whether he or she can achieve the goal, it depends on the fortune. “天” refers to the master of nature in ancient Chinese culture. This word is semantically translated into “heaven” as the translation emphasizes the original information and tries to preserve the favor, style and culture maintained in the source language.

====Communicative Translation====

Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. As this version of definition indicates, communicative translation centers around the semantic aspects of the source language texts. To be specific, in communicative translation, the emphasis should be on conveying the message of the original in a form, which conforms to the linguistic, cultural and pragmatic conventions of target language. Both content and language are readily acceptable and comprehensible to the readership. (Chen Boyu 2003, 4)

Communicative translation intends to present the main idea of the original text and emphasize the social value generated by the translation. Communicative translation highlights on conveying the message expressed in the original and form of the the source language. Due to different textual functions, content and form should have different focuses. Texts of informative function emphasize on the information beyond the language, while texts of vocative function center on readers. The primary intention of translators is to convey the message to the target readers, without paying much attention to the style of the original. If it is necessary, translators can adjust grammar and words to better transmit the information. The change of forms is not only allowed, but also encouraged. (Zhang Linlin 2010, 17)

E.g. 谋事在人，成事在天。

Hawkes's Version: Man Proposes, God disposes.

This translation is communicative translation. Different from the version of Yang, Hawkes translated "天" into "God". In western culture, people believe that "God" is the master of nature. It renders the contextual meaning of the original in such a way that both content and language are readily acceptable and comprehensible to the readers.

====Comparison Between Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation====

The fundamental difference between semantic translation and communicative translation is that semantic translation attaches more importance to the content rather than effect and communicative translation is just opposite.

Firstly, semantic translation is more objective, stresses accuracy and is submitted to the author, culture and meaning of the original. Communicative translation is more subjective, pays much attention to the readers' responses, and is submitted to the target language and its culture. Semantic translation and communicative translation have difference in expression form. (Wei Mengfen 2010, 132)

Second, semantic translation make the translated text more close to the original form and retain the vocative effect as much as possible. If there is no much difference between the source and target language specifications, translation should maintain the length of sentences in the original text as well. Communicative translation will reorganize the syntax and utilize more common collocations or words to make translation more fluent, idiomatic and understandable. In the communicative translation, to make the translation brief and emphasize key information, translators should get rid of the bondage of the source language structure and make appropriate adjustments which are not allowed in the semantic translation, such as adjusting the logic relations in the original, making obscure concepts distinct, deleting repeated unnecessary details or redundant information, normalizing some peculiar expressions, and even correcting factual or writing mistakes. (Wei Mengfen 2010, 132-133)

Thus, they have different functions. Semantic translation, performing expressive function, tries to preserve the language characteristics and unique expression forms of the source language to present thinking process of the author. Its translation judged by the target readers is likely to be smoother, simpler, clearer and more direct. While communicative translation is to convey message, performing vocative function. (Wei Mengfen 2010, 133)

In addition, the key of communicative translation is immediacy which means the success of translation depends on the readers' responses. Semantic translation lays stress on faithfulness to the source text, but cannot neglect to convey the message contained in the source text. (Lin Xiaoqin 1987, 50)

Here are some examples to better present the differences between semantic translation and communicative translation.

E.g. 世人都晓神仙好。

Yang Hsien-yi and Gladys Yang's Version: All men long to immortals.

David Hawkes’s Version: All men knew that salvation should be won.

In this example, “神仙” is the difficult point because there is no corresponding expression in English. In Chinese culture, “神仙” refers to transcendence and is a life with “supernatural forces” in human beings. Yang directly translated “神仙” as “immortals” because being an immortal is the highest ideal of Taoism. His translation is semantic translation. While Hawkes used “salvation” which is a concept in the Christianity. The creed of Christianity is to be saved from sins. And his translation is communicative translation. Yang chose to be faithful to the original text to preserve the concept in the Taoism. While Hawkes decided to pay more attention to religious background and mentality of the target readers.

E.g. 真是“天有不测风云，人有旦夕祸福”。

Yang Hsien-yi and Gladys Yang's Version: Truly, “storms gather without warning in nature, and had luck befalls men overnight.”

David Hawkes’s Version: I know “the weather and human life are both unpredictable.”

In this sentence, “天有不测风云，人有旦夕祸福” is a challenge in translation. It is a Chinese idiom which means the occurrences of some disasters are unpredictable in advance. According to antithesis habit in Chinese, Yang translated these two idioms into the corresponding English compound sentence, which adopted semantic translation. While Hawkes briefly translated into a single sentence, which adopted communicative translation. The former sentence may be appreciated by Chinese readers, and the simplified processing of the latter is easier for native English speakers to understand and accept because it conforms to the British and American expressions, especially in line with the habits of daily expression.

E.g. Wet Paint!

Version 1: 湿油漆

Version 2: 油漆未干

Version 3: 小心油漆

Version 4: 勿触油漆

This sentence is an official notice. From the four versions of the source text, there are differences among them. Version 1 is word-by-word translation, conveying an obscure message and not involving in any receptors. Version 2 just describes a fact that the paint is not dry but wet and does not present the informative function of the original. This notice aims to warn people not to do something and keep away from the paint. Version 3 and version 4 are free translations because they emphasize more on the content instead of form. The first and second version are semantic translation because they only describe the fact and tell readers the information that the paint is not dry. However, the third and fourth version are communicative translation which not only tell people the information but also play the warning function to notify readers not to touch the wet paint.

However, semantic translation and communicative translation are not opposite. Newmark points out that the two should be viewed as a whole, instead of isolated or opposite parts. And a problem should be emphasized. Corresponding text-types can overlap. Semantic translation pays more attention to a mainly expressive text and communicative translation is more popular in mainly informative or vocative texts. In brief, translators should think the type of text over and ensure a good balance between them. (Wei Mengfen 2010, 134)

====Text Typology====

Language is a unique symbolic system, which has its own most important semantic system, as well as a functional system involving context.

Newmark's text tppology theory is influenced by Reiss, Jacobson and other translators. In the book of Approaches to Translation, Newmark put forward three functional texts, including expressive text, informational text and vocative text. In accordance with these types of classification, Newmark summarized semantic translation and communicative translation. (Newmark 2001, 39)

Expressive text mainly talks about the author's subjective emotions and his or her standpoints, which centers on the source language and the author regardless of the target readers' responses. Newmark points out that the expressive text includes three literary styles: "(1)serious imaginative literature such as poem, novels and dramas, (2) authoritative statements such as speech or statements from government officials or party's officials or party's leaders, documents and regulations and laws from government, and academic works from authorities, (3) autobiography, prose and personal correspondence without target readers." (Newmark 2001, 55) Semantic translation is applicable to the expressive text, with a particular emphasis on the language features and language structure of the original language which is similar to literal translation.

As for informative text, Newmark proposes that "typical informative texts are concerned with any topic of knowledge". (Newmark 1988, 40) The informative text focuses on the information or the content provided in the text. According to Newmark, informative text includes textbooks, papers, reports, and minutes about science, industry, technology, economy, commerce and other areas of knowledge or events, which are mainly used to deliver information and reflect truth. In light of translation of informative text, Newmark proposes that communicative translation can be adopted to convey accurate meaning or the content of the source text to the target readers. (Newmark 2001, 67)

"The function of vocative text is to call upon readers to act, to think, to feel and to react in the way intended by the text." (Newmark 2001, 41) The vocative text includes all kinds of specifications, publicity materials, advertisements, notices and other persuasive words. Two factors must be emphasized in vocative text: one is the relationship between the author of the source text and readers of the source text and another is that translation is easy to be understood by the target readers, therefore, translators should take the source language and its cultural background into consideration in the course of translation practice. And communicative translation should also be used in the vocative text which means much attention should be paid on the target readers' understanding and reaction.

===Newmark's Improved Views on Literal Translation and Free Translation===

It can be said that literal translation and free translation in the past were had their own disadvantages. Newmark agrees with literal translation and he holds that "translation means filling the blank between two languages and even explaining is translating." (Newmark 1999, 33) This indicates that he does not neglect the importance of free translation. If the language and grammar structure of the original are not that important, the fidelity of the translation can be lowered, creating more room for translation. This situation can mainly adopts free translation. He even believes that translators can create better translation than the original one. Communicative translation and free translation resemble when it comes to the preference for the message to the manner, and the content to the form of the original. In his masterpiece ''Approaches To Translation'', he analyzes and discusses the loss of meaning. As long as the loss of meaning in the translation is inevitable, content cannot separate from form. And complete faithfulness to the original is almost impossible because the so-called preserving the original meaning is relative.

What's more, the content of a text should not be equal to referent in language, but include referent, rhyme, genre, style and so on. As the slogan, being faithful to the original, was too empty, some translators advocating literal translation did free translation and even paraphrased the original in the practice. Newmark holds that translators need to notice the content in four layers, the original text level, referred level, coherent language level and natural tone level. In this way, he transforms the empty slogan into concrete requirements in the translation practice and meanwhile criticized the disadvantages of literal translation. (Newmark 1999, 33)

Likewise, the viewpoints of free translation are not advisable as well. Newmark criticizes the basis of free translation school, making the target readers obtain feelings similar to that of the original readers. He thinks the goal is too difficult to achieve because translators had problem in completely knowing the feelings and responses of the original readers. He further puts forward some reasons why this goal cannot be realized. As long as the same feelings cannot be obtained by the source and target readers, there exists no reason or judging basis of great amending or creative rewriting. Free translation produces the matter rather than the manner, or the content rather than the form. Newmark regards it as usually a paraphrase much longer than the original, often prolix and pretentious, and not translation at all. In free translation, "more translation is paid to producing a natural reading TL text than to preserving the ST wording intact." (Shuttleworth and Cowie 2004, 62)

Newmark criticizes that the argument is theoretical without taking other important facets of translator's purpose, the nature of readership and text typology into consideration. Newmark claims the argument could come to a compromise if translators deal with two sides with another visual angle. In 1981, he proposed semantic translation and communicative translation to replace the old terms. (Newmark 1988, 45)

"(a) communicative translation, where the translator attempts to produce the same effect of the target language readers as produced by the original on the source language readers, and (b) semantic translation, where the translator attempts, with the bare syntactic and semantic constraints of the TL, to reproduce the precise contextual meaning of the author." (Newmark 1981, 22) In order to better explain these two methods, he designed the form of a flattened diagram. (Newmark 1988, 45)

SL emphasis TL emphasis
word for word translation Adaption
Literal translation Free translation
Faithful translation Idiomatic translation
Semantic translation Communicative translation

The diagram indicates that there is a hugest gap between the translation guided by word for word translation and the translation guided by adaption, then between literal translation and free translation, faithful translation and idiomatic translation and semantic translation and communicative translation last. These eight translation methods are a continuity, and they complement each other and cannot be completely separated. In Newmark's opinion, adaption is the freest translation method, and suitable for drama and poem translation. Free translation reproduces the main content of the original and pay more attention to interpret and expound. Target texts guided by idiomatic translation are more natural, more fluent and more coherent. But due to adopt some unknown expressions, the original meaning may be distorted.

Communicative translation possesses the advantages of adaption, free translation, idiomatic translation and semantic translation maintains the advantages of word for word translation, literal translation and faithful translation. Newmark maintains only by combining semantic translation and communicative translation can achieve two aims of translation-accuracy and conciseness. By distinguishing these right methods, he gives further refinements to the above definition of semantic translation and communicative translation. He adds one more element "aesthetic value". Meanwhile, he gives up emphasizing the "effect", and refines communicative translation to be more specific, "communicative translation attempts to render the exact contextual meaning of the original in such a way that both content an language are readily acceptable and comprehensible to the readership." (Newmark 1988, 47)

===My Thoughts on Literal Translation and Free Translation===

The two translation methods, literal translation and free translation, are useful in the translation practice. Taking English-Chinese translation for example, in the translating process, translators can use the method of literal translation when the pattern of sentence in original text is similar with the Chinese one, and we can find some Chinese words being equivalent in meaning to the words used in the sentence of original text. In some cases there are some complex sentences that can be translated with the method of literal translation as well. As long as these sentences are short and the pattern of these sentences is relatively simple compared with other complex sentences, they can be translated by literal translation method. In English, the using of some metaphors and similes is almost similar to the way that they are used by in Chinese. For instance, "time flies" in English can be directly translated into Chinese as "时间飞逝", as the Chinese people also describe time passing very fast in this way, which accords with the expression habit of Chinese.

As English and Chinese are two kinds of different languages, there are many differences in various aspects, such as different grammar and language habits. In English there are some words or phrases we cannot find the relative words or phrases in Chinese. In this cases, using using literal translation method would not be proper. Under this condition, if the translator insists on using literal translation, the translation text will be difficult to be understood by the target readers. So in order to make the translation text readable, translators should adopt free translation. Under the direction of literal translation, translators will try their best to keep the flavor of original work, no matter on the material or the form. Literal translation is the effective method to keep the cultural flavor of original language. Therefore, when there are some cultural differences affecting the translation of culture-loaded words between the source language and the target language, free translation can become one of the translation strategies which provide possibility in reducing or even removing the restrictive factors in translation process.

In the process of translation, it is an ideal way to combine literal translation and free translation because they mutually complement in many cases. When literal translation cannot express the original and basic content of the author and hinder readers to understand, it is crucial for the translator to use free translation to express the author's meaning. When free translation cannot meet the requirement of being faithful to the content of the original text, it is significant for the translation to use literal translation to show features ad the structure of the author's language.

===Conclusion===

The dispute between two translation methods, literal translation and free translation has been lasting from throughout history. The argument of them is based on the relationship between content and form. This paper attempts to introduce Peter Newmark's improved views on the literal translation and free translation. Newmark criticizes some disadvantages and proposes semantic translation and communicative translation. Semantic translation focuses on maintaining the content of the original text, while communicative translation emphasizes more on the effect of the translation. The author also shows opinions on literal translation and free translation. Peter Newmark's theory has taken a big step forward from one-sided view of literal translation and free translation in the past, which has provided the direction of further development of translation research.

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*Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲.(1980).直译与意译[Literal Translation and Free Translation]. 上海外国语学院学报[Journal of Shanghai Institute of Foreign Languages].

='''Document Translation'''=

==On translation of official documents of CangNan County 吴恺 Wu Kai==

On Translation of Official Documents of Cangnan County

Japanese Language and Literature, School of Foreign Languages, Hunan Normal University, Wu Kai--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 04:45, 2 December 2020 (UTC)

==='''Abstract'''===
As one of the forefronts of Zhejiang’s opening-up cause, Cangnan County in Zhejiang Province has been enjoying a rapid development and an ever-growing degree of opening-up with lasting vitality as it’s supported by national policies and nourished by the dividends of economic globalization since China's reform and opening-up. As China has ushered in a period of major changes rarely seen in a century, Cangnan County is also facing new opportunities and challenges. Under the background of this era, Cangnan County is expected to make good use of its own advantages, especially the geographical ones—it is close to countries and regions including Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan—and should spare no efforts to achieve a higher level of opening-up, and, in turn, further promote its development. As an embodiment of the collective will of the people of Cangnan County, the official document is one of the best manifestations of its governance and stability control capabilities. For this reason, the research on how to translate official documents is of great significance for that it offers a great opportunity for Cangnan County to re-examine itself and to show the rest of the world its achievement in building a culture-enriched county.

==='''Key words'''===
official document translation, Cangnan County, opening-up, Japan, South Korea

==='''摘要'''===
自中国改革开放以来，浙江省苍南县作为全浙江对外开放的前沿阵地之一，得到了国家政策支持和经济全球化红利的滋润，苍南县发展水平与对外开放程度日新月异，全县活力持久带劲。随着中国迎来“百年未有之大变局”，苍南县也面临着新的机遇和挑战，在此时代背景下，苍南县应该利用好自身优势，特别是临近日本、韩国、台湾等国家与地区的地理优势，努力开展更高层次、更高水平的对外开放事业，促进苍南更好的发展。为此，作为苍南县人民集体意志的体现，苍南县的公文就是对外展示其治理水平、稳控能力的最好的体现之一。而对于苍南县公文的如何翻译的研究，是促使苍南县重新审视自己、推进苍南人文县情传播海外的良机，意义重大。

==='''关键词'''===
公文翻译苍南县对外开放日本韩国

==='''I. System and Translation of Official Documents of Cangnan County'''===

The unique official document system adopted by Chinese government agencies is a special integration of the thousands-of-years excellent political traditions in China and the essence of the organizational structure of the socialist regime. As a county-level unit in China's local administrative structure, Cangnan County has an official document system that is consistent with the national ones in general while has its own features. Official documents of Cangnan County can be basically divided into the following types of writing: resolutions, decisions, orders, bulletins, announcements, notifications, opinions, notices, reports, requests for instructions, approvals, proposals, letters, and minutes. Above-mentioned categories are collectively known as official documents. Besides, there are also some types of practical writing, including summaries, plans, notes, memos, briefings, speeches, manuals and so on, that are often used in our day-to-day work.

In addition to those characteristics of the official documents that are commonly seen in China, official documents of Cangnan County also have its own features, which is mainly reflected in the aspect of proprietary terminology. Cangnan County, which used to be a part of Pingyang County in Zhejiang Province, was officially designated as a county in 1981 with the approval of the Central Government. It takes its name Cangnan, which means “on the south of the Yucang Mountain”, from its geographical location. As a relatively young county-level administrative unit in China’s administrative divisions, Cangnan County has a complex natural endowment and cultural environment, which is the reason why there are many special proprietary terms used in the official documents of Cangnan County, such as “Beautiful South Gate of Zhejiang Province”, “Southern Ouyue (an ancient kingdom in modern Wenzhou and Taizhou)” , “South Gate of Jiangsu-Zhejiang Region” and so on. Moreover, Cangnan is also the birthplace of the “Wenzhou Model”. Since the implementation of policy for the exchange of production materials and commercial grains in 1984, Cangnan has become an important base for the experiments and development of Wenzhou's private economy and market economy, and, thus, has made a significant contribution to the great cause of China's reform and opening-up.

To conclude, the unity of the official document system viewed from the national scope of China and the uniqueness of the official document system viewed from the local scope of Cangnan area are both reflections of the integration of economic, political, and cultural elements. Therefore, when translating the terms and sentences in these official documents, obviously, it is almost impossible to follow general translation theories, such as Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” theory which applies to literature translation, and Christiane Nord’ Skopos theory which emphasizes schematic analysis. Due to the features of the official documents of Cangnan County, it is hard to imagine the consequence it will cause if those Cangnan and Chinese elements they contain are missed when translating them. Therefore, the starting point for the translation and research of Cangnan official documents should be analyzing the official document itself, but not choosing which translation theory to apply.

The translation method focusing on the official documents themselves is undoubtably the one that emphasizes the content while manages to achieve a similarity in form. Thus, the translation theory that meets the requirements of official document translation in Cangnan County shall be the functional equivalence theory of the American linguist Eugene A. Nida. Eugene A. Nida argued in his theory that translation is to use the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language to reproduce the informational function of the source language both semantically and stylistically. Nida’s definition of translation specified that translation is seeking equivalence not only in lexical meaning, but also in semantics, style and literary form. Translation should convey both the denotative and connotative meaning of a message. Regarding the equivalence of translation, he believed that the equivalence consists of four parts: lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence, and stylistic equivalence. Among the four aspects, he emphasized that the meaning the core and most important part, followed by the form. The form of a text is likely to conceal the cultural connotation of the source language and may, therefore, hinder cultural exchanges. Based on the above, the reasons why the functional equivalence theory is applicable to official document translation in Cangnan County can be concluded as follows:

First, the functional equivalence theory advocates that the target text should be equivalent to the source text both semantically and culturally. Official documents of Cangnan County are carriers of profound political culture with Chinese characteristics and the cultural environment in Cangnan. When translating them, in addition to showing the political consciousness and judicial authority of Cangnan government agencies, the local culture of Cangnan must also be reflected in the translations.

Second, the functional equivalence theory suggests that if the lexical meanings and cultural elements cannot be taken into account at the same time, the translator then may give up the equivalence in form and try to reproduce the semantic and cultural meaning of the source text by changing the form of the sentence. There are many specialized terms with Chinese characteristics and Cangnan’s characteristics in official documents of Cangnan County. When translating them, once there is no corresponding expression in the target language, other forms of expression must be adopted to retain the meanings of those specialized terms as much as possible.

Third, the functional equivalence theory proposes that if the change in form is still not enough to express the semantic and cultural meaning of the expression in the source language, the translation technique of “heavy damage” can be adopted to resolve cultural differences , so that the source language and the target language can achieve equivalence in semantic meaning. “Heavy damage” refers to the transformation of the deep structure of the source language into the surface structure of the target language, that is, expressing the cultural connotation of the source text with expressions of the target language. It cannot be ruled out that there are words and sentences in the official document of Cangnan County that cannot be translated, and when this happens, the translator can only rely on his translation techniques and understanding ability to process them creatively.
Above are simply macro analyses of the official document system in Cangnan County, and when it comes to specific analyses, challenges we face will only be severer.

==='''II. Stylistic Features and Translation of Official Documents in Cangnan County'''===

Looking at the official documents of Cangnan County from the micro level, we can work on the study of its translation based on the following characteristics.

'''1. Details and Accurate'''

As an officially-written document geared for the needs of our people, wording of the official documents of Cangnan County has a very specific orientation. Almost all content words have very clear meanings and connotations.

For example, the sentence “经研究，县政府决定召开市对县安全生产巡查反馈会暨突出问题集中教育警示会，现将有关事宜通知如下。(As discussed, the county government decided to convene a feedback meeting on city-to-county inspections of production safety and a meeting for education and warning on outstanding issues. The relevant matters are hereby notified as follows.)” in the document 《苍南县人民政府办公室关于召开市对县安全生产巡查反馈会暨突出问题集中教育警示会的通知》(“Notice of the Office of the People's Government of Cangnan County on Convening a Feedback Meeting on City-to-County Inspections of Production Safety and A Meeting For Education and Warning On Outstanding Issues”) (the office of the People's Government of Cangnan County on June 8th, 2020) conveys several points very accurately and clearly, including the decision maker, the type, content and theme of the meeting. Therefore, special attention must be paid to the integrity of the information delivered when translating this sentence. For example, it is translated into Japanese as “討議を通じて、県政府は県の安全生産状況に対する市政府の巡査結果反映会及び顕著問題教育警告会を開催することが決定した。関連事項を以下のようにお知らせする。”

'''2. Precise and Compact'''

The role of official documents is to exchange formal information between the upper and the lower, the people and the officials, and the relevant departments. Therefore, the wording of the official documents must be rigorous. No slang and loose sentences should be used, and excessive use of parentheses and descriptive modifiers should be avoided. Official documents of Cangnan County follow this rule as well, in which there will never be informal expressions like daily spoken words.

For example, the expression “三、决策目录施行动态管理，因工作需要增减或变更重大行政决策事项的，承办单位应按照相关规定程序提请调整。(Third, the decision catalogue shall be managed in a dynamic way, the undertaker shall submit application for adjustments in accordance with the relevant regulations if any increase/decrease or change shall be made to the major administrative decision-making matters because of the need of actual work.)” in the document《关于公布苍南县2020年度重大行政决策事项目录的通知》(“Notice on Issuing the 2020 Annual Catalogue of Major Administrative Decision-Making Matters of Cangnan County”) (the office of the People's Government of Cangnan County on Sept. 20th, 2020) When translating this sentence into Japanese, the translator shall fully considers the preciseness of the original expression, and translate it as “三つ目、戦略目録動的管理施行、仕事需要によっての増減または変更が必要な場合、請負機構は関連規定の手順に従って調整を提出しなければならない。”

'''3. Programmed and Standardized'''

The purpose of official documents requires a stable and routine writing program so that the official business can be conducted in an orderly manner. It is essential that the document writing is reasonably programmed. It allows the officer to know what it is and what to do at a glance if a standardized official document program is followed. The standardization of the official documents of Cangnan County can be regarded as a tricky feature in their translation.

For example, the expression “各乡镇人民政府，县政府直属各单位 (the people's government of all townships and towns and all directly affiliated institutions of the people’s government of Cangnan County)” in the document《关于公布苍南县2020年度重大行政决策事项目录的通知》(“Notice on Issuing the 2020 Annual Catalogue of Major Administrative Decision-Making Matters of Cangnan County”) (the Office of the People's Government of Cangnan County on Sept. 20th, 2020) is obviously a standardized addressing of the receiving units of an official document, and it should be translated into Japanese as “各郷鎮人民政府、県政府直属の各部門”.
Viewing from a micro perspective, we may find that special attention should be paid to many precise details when translating those official documents. It is of great significance that, during the cause of reform and opening-up, we strike a balance between the macro level and the micro level in official document translation, which will serve as a stage for Cangnan County to show itself to Japan, South Korea and other East Asian countries and regions.

==='''III. Translation of Official Documents of Cangnan County under the Context of the Japanese Language'''===

Cangnan County is one of the nearest administrative units to Japan in China, and Okinawa Prefecture in Japan and Cangnan County are neighbors facing each other across the sea. Furthermore, Cangnan County itself has ports in Xiaguan, Pacao, Yanting, Dayu and other places, and has the basic conditions for conducting small transactions of freights with Okinawa. However, due to the inadequacy policies, laws and regulations, a large portion of Japan’s trade with China, especially with Zhejiang Province, is still conducted in the three port cities, namely Ningbo, Zhoushan, and Hangzhou. Cangnan’s geographical advantages have never been given to full play. To Japan, Cangnan is not a total stranger. Wenzhou City has a great influence upon Japanese culture and history. Special local products such as Wenzhou green tea and Wenzhou satsuma orange are very attractive to Japanese people. Many of the business exchanges during the Kamakura Bakufu in Japan were happened between Hakata merchants and Wenzhou people. As an important subordinate region of Wenzhou City, Cangnan County naturally has left an impression on Japanese people when it comes to China.

If Cangnan hopes to lay a foundation for the future cooperation with Japan through its cause of opening up to the outside world, it is of great importance that we study the methods and techniques to make the translation of Cangnan’s official documents to meet the specific context of the Japanese language, which is also a part of the cultural exchanges that will facilitate economic and trade cooperation between Japan and China. The political status of Cangnan County is equivalent to the one of regular cities and special wards in Japan, but this does not mean that the official documents of Cangnan County can be regarded as equivalents to the official documents released by the governments of the regular cities and special wards in Japan, and there are huge differences between their respective official documents in form, wording, Cultural connotation and etc. To better translate Cangnan official documents under the context of Japanese language, the following aspects must be paid attention to:

1. Detailed Comparison of Types

In the Japanese official document system, the word “公文” is different in meaning from the word “公文” in Chinese official document system. In Chinese “公文” means government official documents, while in Japanese “公文” generally refer to legal documents that have the force of law and the term “公文書” is the one that refers to government official documents, which roughly includes “外交文書” and “起案文”, “通達” , “命令”, “許可”, “通知書” and so on . When translating official documents of Cangnan County into Japanese, attention should be paid to the transformation of the types of the official documents. The classifications of official documents in China and Japan are different from each other.
For example, when translating documents such as “proposal letter”, “report” and the like into Japanese, the title should be translated as “建言書” and “報告書”, while “命令(order)”, “通知(notice)”, “提案(Proposal)” and etc. need no translation and can be titled with the original characters directly as “命令”, “通知”, “提案”, and can also be further translated into “命令状”, “通知書”, “提案書”. Those reflect the characteristics of the division of the types of the official document system in Japan.

2. Careful Consideration of the Translation of Chinese Characters

There are a large number of Chinese characters in Japanese. This will for sure be an advantage when translating official documents of Cangnan County into Japanese, however, at the same time, this is also a huge disadvantage. After all, those Chinese characters are Japanized Chinese characters, and their meanings and usages are more or less different from the original ones in Chinese.

For example, the expression “设定全县森林防火期(setting the season of forest fire prevention)” in the document 《苍南县应急管理局局长王再忠关于<苍南县人民政府关于做好森林防火期护林防火工作的通告>的政策解读》(“Policy Interpretation Of ‘Notice of Doing Forest Protection and Fire Prevention during the Season of Forest Fire Prevention by the People's Government Of Cangnan County’ by the Director of Cangnan Emergency Management Agency Wang Zaizhong”) in could be translated character by character into Japanese as “全県域森林防火期間設定”. However, expressions such as “野外火源如何管理” cannot be translated in the same way, and must be processed accordingly and translated into Japanese as “野外の火の元が如何に処理すること”. When translating official documents of Cangnan County into Japanese, the translators must reject the preconceived thinking and native Chinese thinking, or it will lead to irreversible misunderstandings and mistakes.

3. Mastery of the Equivalence of Semantic Meaning

Chinese is an isolating language, in which the grammatical meaning is reflected by the order of words, while Japanese is an agglutinative language, in which auxiliary words and flexible usages of vocabulary are adopted to reflect the grammatical meaning. This requires the translators to have mastery of the equivalence of semantic meanings when translating official documents of Cangnan County into Japanese and try to achieve perfect equivalence in official document translation.

For example, there is a expression as “全体公民必须认真贯彻‘以人为本、预防为主、积极扑救、有效消灾’的森林防灭火工作方针，一旦发现森林火灾，要立即向当地人民政府或森林防灭火指挥部办公室报告(all citizens must seriously implement the working policy of forest fire prevention and firefighting ‘people-oriented, prevention-focused, active in firefighting, effective in disaster relief’, once a forest fire is detected, it must be reported to the local people’s government or the forest fire prevention and firefighting headquarters office immediately)” in the document 《苍南县应急管理局局长王再忠关于<苍南县人民政府关于做好森林防火期护林防火工作的通告>的政策解读》(“Policy Interpretation Of ‘Notice of Doing Forest Protection and Fire Prevention during the Season of Forest Fire Prevention by the People's Government Of Cangnan County’ by the Director of Cangnan Emergency Management Agency Wang Zaizhong”). When dealing with long and complex sentences, the translator must be flexible in using translation techniques to decompose the sentences and translate them step by step, focusing on the balance between the form of the sentence and its semantic meaning. Based on this principle, the abovementioned sentence could be translated into Japanese as “人間本位、予防軸化、積極救助、有効消災という森林防火作業方針は全県民が必ず強固に守らなければならない。林に火事が発見された際、直ちに所轄人民政府や森林防火指揮部執務室に報告すること。”

There is no doubt that, in terms of four-character idioms, allusions, new words of the era and etc., the translation of official documents of Cangnan County under the context of the Japanese language still has a long way to go, but the part that we should pay most attention to in translation is always the differences in culture between the source language and the target language. Only by keeping this basic point in mind at all times, will there be no huge mistakes being made when translating official documents of Cangnan County into Japanese.

==='''Ⅳ. Translation of Official Documents of Cangnan County under the Context of the Korean Language'''===

Zhejiang Province and South Korea have laid a good foundation for economic and trade cooperation projects, and a framework that is comprehensive, wide-ranging, and multi-level has been established for Zhejiang-South Korea cooperation. The advantages of the two regions are obviously complementary and the development potential for both sides and in between is huge. In September 2016, the Zhejiang China-Korea (Quzhou) Industrial Cooperation Park was approved as the first batch of “Zhejiang International Industrial Cooperation Parks” in Zhejiang Province. The total planned area is about 3,000 acres and the total planned investment is 12 billion yuan. Represented by the Zhejiang China-Korea Industrial Cooperation Park, a large number of economic and trade cooperation projects has been carried out with South Korea by Zhejiang Province. As an indispensable part of Zhejiang Province, Cangnan County is facing a huge gap in the cultural exchanges and economic cooperation with South Korea. How to elevate the level of Cangnan’s opening up to the outside world and advancing Cangnan’s economic, trade and cultural cooperation with South Korea is a question that is well worth exploring. Although Cangnan is further away from South Korea compared with regions in the north of Zhejiang, geographic location should never be a factor that hindering Cangnan’s economic, trade and cultural cooperation with South Korea. In an era of ever-deepening globalization, it is of great significance that we think about how to develop and promote the economic and trade and cultural cooperation between Cangnan and South Korea.

Northern Zhejiang is a key area for economic, trade and cultural cooperation with South Korea. As the south gate of Zhejiang Province, if Cangnan County could open the door of economic, trade and cultural cooperation to South Korea, then this will inevitably bring extraordinary development opportunities to southern Zhejiang and make the pattern of Zhejiang and South Korea’s economic and cultural cooperation more balanced and healthy. The political status of Cangnan County is equivalent to the one of si(city), gu (district), and gun(county) in South Korea. Because of some historical reasons, South Korea is greatly influenced by Chinese culture. From the Three Kingdoms era of Joseon, to the Unified Silla Dynasty, the Wang’s Goryeo Dynasty, and the Yi’s Joseon Dynasty, the basic system of administrative divisions in South Korea is almost the same as the one in China, so the official document system of cities, districts, and counties in South Korea can be regarded as basically equivalent to the official document system of Cangnan County with only slight differences originated from the localized political and cultural traditions and the basic social condition of South Korea. Therefore, there are relatively fewer difficulties of translation when translating official documents of Cangnan County into Korean, aside from the barriers caused by Korean Hangul words. The translation of official documents of Cangnan County under the context Korean language requires attention to the following aspects:

1. The Combination of Chinese characters and Hangul

Modern Korean uses Hangul as the main written characters, but this does not mean that there is no place for Chinese characters in the Korean system. Since the launch of the abolition of Chinese characters movement in South Korea in the 1970s, Hangul did exactly achieved an overall penetration of every aspect of their daily life, but when it comes to important documents, Chinese characters still reserve a seat in the arena of South Korea’s history. Furthermore, a higher level of talent training is required now to meet the need of South Korea’s economic and social development, and the mastery of sinology has become, among all the necessary skills, one of the most straightforward evaluation criteria to access the qualified personnel. Thus, South Korea has restarted the Chinese character teaching movement. Nowadays, the official document system in South Korea has become one in which Hangul serves as the main language and the mixed use of Chinese characters and Hangul serves as a supplement. Just as how the mixed use of kana and Chinese characters in Japanese official documents may help in its translation, the mixed use of Chinese characters and Hangul also greatly facilitate the translation of official documents of Cangnan County into Korean. However, because Chinese characters used in Korea are composed of traditional Chinese characters and a small number of Korean self-made Chinese characters, we can not take it for granted that it is advisable to translate them word by word.

For example, the title of the document《苍干任〔2020〕18号王再忠等同志的任命》(“Cangnan Cadre Appointment [2020] No. 18: Appointment of Wang Zaizhong and etc.”) (the Office of CPC Cangnan Party Committee on March 27th, 2020) can be translated with the mixed use of Chinese characters and Hangul into Korean as《蒼南縣의 幹部任命〔2020〕18號王再忠등 同志의任命》. Also, it be translated into Korean with Hangul alone as《참남현의 간부임명〔2020〕18호 왕재충등 동지의임명》.

2. The Usage of Refined Language

In recent years, South Korea has carried out reforms of the official document system, urging that the South Korean government agencies at all levels should use “refined(or purified) language”, that is, to write and publish official documents with words that are easy for the public to understand and have explicit meanings, reducing the cost of communication between the government and the public and, in this way, building a closer relationship between the government and the people, so that civil servants can communicate with the people more effectively. Refined language is a kind of common vernacular that differs from the official language. Although this trend of the wording of Korean official documents is not unconditional, but when compared with official documents of Cangnan County, which emphasize the solemnity and formality of official documents, this trend is the part that the translator has to pay his attention to.

For example, when translating the expression “为加强行政规范性文件管理，切实推进依法行政，加快法治政府建设 (To strengthen the management of administrative normative documents, promote the administration in accordance with law, and accelerate the construction of a government ruled by law)” in the document《苍南县人民政府关于公布县政府及县政府办公室行政规范性文件清理结果的通知（有效）》(“Notice of the Office of the People's Government of Cangnan County on the Announcement of the Results of the Cleanup of the Administrative Normative Documents of the County Government and the County Government Offices (Effective)”) (the Office of the People's Government of Cangnan County on October 23th, 2020) , blunt expressions may not be that applicable and this expression translated into Korean in a more public-friendly way as “행정 규범적인 문서관리를 강화하기 위해, 법에따라 행정을 철저히 추진하고 법치정부의 건설을 가속화시킨다.”

3. Mastery of the Equivalence of Semantic Meaning

Like Japanese, Korean is also a typical agglutinative language. A sentence is formed by connecting independent words with various auxiliary words, and with a subordinating conjunction at the end of the sentence. Auxiliary words are just like glues, they exist after every subject, predicate, and object component of a Korean sentence to them together. For that these auxiliary words have no substantial meaning themselves, they must stay close to the main body in front, and a space must be put after. Therefore, when translating Chinese, which is an isolated language, into Korean, which is an agglutinative language, it is necessary to have mastery of the equivalence of the semantic meaning of the expression.

For example, when translating the expression “全面实施全民参保计划，做好参保情况清查，提升参保信息质量，清理重复参保，稳定持续参保，减少漏保断保，实现应保尽保。(Fully implement the national social security plan, do a good job in checking the coverage of the social security, improve the quality of the collection of the information of the insured, clean up repeated insureds, stabilize the renewal of the social security, reduce the interruption of the social security, and achieve full social security coverage.)” in the document《关于做好2021年度城乡居民基本医疗保障工作的通知》(“Notice on Doing a Good Job in Basic Medical Security for Urban and Rural Residents in 2021”)( the Office of Medical Security Bureau of Cangnan County on November 5th, 2020), the translator should pay attention to the equivalence of semantic meaning of this long sentence and translated it into Korean as “전국민기본의료보험가입계획을 전면적으로 실시하고 기본의료보험가입상황을 철저히 조사하며 기본의료보험가입 정보의 질을 향상시키고 중복기본의료보험가입을 청산하며 안정적이고 지속적인 기본의료보험가입을 하며 보험누락을 줄이고 기본의료보험가입 을 실현해야 한다.”

==='''Ⅴ. Studies of Official Document Translation and the Cause of Opening-up in Cangnan County'''===

Based on the abovementioned basic characteristics of the official document system of Cangnan County, the notes for official documents translation under the context of the Japanese language and the notes for official documents translation under the context of the Korean language, we can see that official documents of Cangnan County is not as difficult to handle as something untranslatable. Cangnan County enjoys a good geographic location: it is located in the coast of the East China Sea, and is close to both Japan and South Korea, two strong economies in East Asia. However, Cangnan County has not yet made use of these favorable conditions to the fullest to promote cultural cooperation and trade with the two countries. Cangnan’s opening up to the outside world requires innovative thinking and an elaborate layout. Studies on the translation of official documents of Cangnan County, especially the translation of official documents under the context of the Japanese and Korean language, will help to explore the cultural spirit of the government institutions, and play an important role in building a good image of Cangnan County in East Asia and laying a foundation for Cangnan's cooperation with major countries and regions in East Asia .

The world today is undergoing profound changes rarely in a century, and so is China. The tide of history moves on and Cangnan shall not stay out of the matter, but must follow it courageously and strive to open new doors for Cangnan's opening up to the outside world through the study of the official document translation of its own.

===References===

[1]Ziqi LIU. The Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in Scientific Translation：A Case Study of the Translation of Shipbuilding English[J]. CREATIVITY AND INNOVATION,2019,1(3).

[2]Mu Dan. Discussion on Translation Activities Under the Guidance of Functional Equivalence Theory[J]. International Journal of Education and Management,2018,3(2).

[3]李琳琳. 功能对等翻译理论与关联翻译理论比较研究[D].辽宁师范大学,2006.

[4]赵娟廷. 汉韩公文语体对比研究[D].复旦大学,2003.

[5]周萱. 《中国共产党怎样解决民族问题》（节选）中韩翻译报告[D].青岛大学,2017.

[6]张利军. 《教学的游戏性研究》的汉日翻译实践报告[D].广西师范大学,2019.

[7]栾亚琼. 《2015年山东省政府工作报告》汉日翻译实践报告[D].曲阜师范大学,2016.

[8]占丽华. 源流与演变—日本地方公文书馆发展路径研究[D].山东大学,2020.

[9]任清萍. 功能翻译理论视角下政府工作报告日译研究[D].外交学院,2020.

[10]孙慧. 产业竞争力与区域经济增长[D].苏州大学,2006.

--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 04:45, 2 December 2020 (UTC)

==The Translation Process and Methods of Translating English Long Sentences - Zhou Yiwen 周艺文 202070080629 MTI 英语笔译==

<center>Zhou Yiwen 周艺文, 202070080629.</center>

===Abstract===

The translation of long English sentences is a difficult point in English-Chinese translation. It is very important to understand the features of sentence structure and the translation process and methods of long English sentences. This paper studies the translation process and methods of English long sentences through the comparative study of English and Chinese language characteristics and specific English-Chinese translation analysis. This paper is divided into five parts. The first part introduces the characteristics of English long sentences. The second part illustrates translation difficulties of English long sentences by making contrasts the language features of English with that of Chinese, which can be divided into three aspects: English sentences emphasize hypotaxis, Chinese sentences emphasize parataxis; English is a static language, while Chinese is a dynamic language; English prefers passive voice while Chinese prefers active voice. The third part expounds the translation principles for English long sentences from the perspective of Skopos theory, which are skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule. The fourth part mainly analyzes the process of translating English long sentences through some examples. In the end, five translation methods are discussed, which are liner translation, reorganization translation, division, embedding and synthesis.

===Key words===

English long sentences; language characteristics; translation process; translation methods

===英语长句翻译过程及翻译策略===

===摘要===

英语长句翻译是英汉翻译的难点，了解英语长句的句子结构特点和翻译过程及方法在英汉翻译中十分重要。本文通过对比研究英汉语言特点及具体英汉译本分析对英语长句翻译过程和方法进行研究。本文分为五个部分，第一部分介绍了英语长句的特点。第二部分分析了造成翻译英语长句困难的原因，即英汉两种语言在句子结构上的差异，即英语句子重形合，汉语句子重意合; 英语是静态语言，汉语是动态语言; 英语喜用被动语态，汉语喜用主动语态。第三部分运用目的论阐述了翻译英语长句的原则，即目的原则，连贯原则和忠实原则三个方面。第四部分主要通过具体的句子分析英语长句的翻译步骤及过程。最后探讨了英语长句汉译时采用的五种翻译方法，即顺序法、变序法、分译法、包孕法和综合法。

===关键词===

英语长句子；语言特点；翻译过程；翻译方法

===1.Characteristics of English Long Sentences===

The existence of long English sentences are usually caused by three elements. The first one is postmodifier, the second is the large number of joint components, the third one is the complex structure of long sentences. In general, long English sentences are more common in the literary text, discussion text and technical text (Wang 2010, 124).English and Chinese have many similarities in basic sentence structure. The main elements of sentence structure mainly include subject, predicate, object, predicative, attribute, adverbial modifier, and complement. In English, the sentence emphasizes the form and the sentence has a tree structure, and the Chinese sentence emphasizes the parataxis, and the sentence has a bamboo structure.(Wang 2010, 124)

The main characteristics of English long and difficult sentences are as follows:

(1) There are much more words, more complex sentence patterns, and more modifiers in these sense.

(2) Compared with simple sentences, long and difficult sentences often use inversion structure, and there are phenomena of omission and word order inversion.

(3) The reason for the formation of long and difficult sentences is that there are many long and difficult sentences with coordinate components, phrases, additional components, clauses, and coordinate sentences.

(4) The language structure of long and difficult sentences is relatively complex and has a strong sense of hierarchy.

===2.Translation difficulties of English long sentences===

The difficulties of translation are mainly caused by the differences between the source language and target language. English and Chinese belong to different language systems, the former belongs to Indo-European language family, the latter belongs to Sino-Tibetan language family, so there are significant differences in syntax between them. In addition, the different cultures of English and Chinese will inevitably lead to the difference in sentence structure between the two languages, because language is the carrier and medium of culture. (Jiang 2019, 62-65)

===2.1Hypotaxis vs. parataxis===

English syntactic structure is hypotaxis while Chinese syntactic structure is parataxis (Lian, 2010 73). Hypotaxis is that the words or clauses in a sentence are connected together by means of linguistic formal means (such as using related words) to express grammatical meaning and logical relations(Jia 2002, 101). English emphasizes explicit connection, emphasizes form and structure, and often helps with various means of connection. As a result, the sentence structure is rigorous and lacks elasticity. English sentences are often made with relatives (who, whom, whose, which, that, where, when, etc.), conjunctions (but, however, unless, because, since, so, and, if, etc. ), preposition (in, about, without, throughout, according to, along with, etc.), and other connective means. Parataxis means that words and clauses are not connected by means of linguistic forms, and the grammatical meaning and logical relation in a sentence are expressed by the meaning of words and clauses (Jia 2002, 101). Chinese sentences are made with little or no means of formal connection, with emphasis on invisible coherence, function and meaning, so the sentence structure is loose and flexible (Jia 2002, 101).

Example 1:

ST: Individuals develop within themselves an ability to persevere and tolerate things that are unexpected or bad, difficult to get through.

TT: 人们在内心修炼一种能力，在面对意外、不幸或者挑战时也能继续坚持和忍耐。

Analysis: In this sentence, “that...to get through” is a attributive clause to modify “things”, which is a kind of hypotaxis. The translation is not limited to the original sentence structure but follows Chinese expression habit, so the language is very smooth.

===2.2Static language vs. dynamic language===

English is static language and Chinese is dynamic language. The reason why English is a static language is that nouns and prepositions are frequently used and predominate in English. In English sentences, there can only be one predicate verb and other action words can only be nominal verbs. Therefore, nominalization has become a common phenomenon in English. (Wang 2004, 5) Prepositions are used to before nouns and noun phrases. They have no morphological changes and are very flexible in use. Therefore, the frequency of using prepositions in English is very high and the number of prepositions far exceeds that in Chinese. When translating Chinese to English, an important way to make the target text conform to the expression of English is to pay attention to the application of English prepositions. Since Chinese is parataxis language, verbs have no morphological changes, and the use of verbs makes the language more vivid, so verbs are frequently used in Chinese. In addition to a large number of verb-object structures, Chinese sentences can be more dynamic by using a series of verbs. In English-Chinese translation, we must pay attention to the conversion between static and dynamic. (Jiang 2019, 62-65)

Example 2:

ST:This month, when earthquakes rocked Southern California on back-to-back days, it was a visceral reminder that we may one day experience the “Big One”, a quake with the power to kill and destroy.

TT:本月南加州连遭地震，人们本能地联想到，我们某天可能会经历“一次大的”具有杀伤力和破坏力的地震。

Analysis: The noun “reminder” is translated into a verb “联想”, which is a transformation from static language to dynamic language.

===2.3Passive voice vs. active voice===

Although both English and Chinese have active voice and passive voice, the frequency of English passive voice is much higher than that of Chinese, which is also one of the characteristics that distinguishes English from Chinese. Especially in English scientific technical text, the passive voice is much more used, almost becoming a expression habit, because the passive sentence does not have to point out the actor but highlight the target, which is more objective(Zhu 2004, 94). In English-Chinese translation, we must grasp this difference in language, so as to make the translation conform to the expression habit of the target language. (Zhu 2004, 94)

Example 3:

ST: At the heart of the system--known as the multi-lateral trading system--are the WTO’s agreements, negotiated and signed by a large majority of the world’s trading nations, and ratified in their parliaments.

TT: 世界贸易组织的核心--多边贸易体系--是世界上大多数贸易国经协商谈判并签署的多个协议, 这些协议同时也经过成员国议会批准。

Analysis: The sentence of the source text is passive, “negotiated”, “signed” and “ratified” are passive in meaning, while Chinese sentence was translated into active, “协商”, “谈判”, “签署” are verbs in active verb.

===3.Translation principles for English long sentences===

Skopos theory was put forward by Hans Vermeer, an outstanding contributor to the translation theory of the German functional school. Different from the traditional equivalence theory, Skopos theory is based on behaviorism and proposes that translation is a purposeful activity(Zhang 2004, 35). The purpose of translation determines the translation method(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984). According to teleology, translators should follow three general principles in the process of translation: skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule(Liu 2009, 378).

Of the three principles, the skopos rule is the most important. The “skopos” can be the translatorss purpose, the communicative purpose of the target text or the purpose to be achieved by using a particular translation method. It usually refers to the communicative purpose of the target text, that is, the communicative function of the target text for the target reader in the socio-cultural context of the target text (Venuti, 2001). Vermeer emphasizes that translation occurs in a cultural context, and translation is not a corresponding conversion of language due to the differences between cultures. The translator should not only accurately understand and interpret the author’s intention, but also make the translation acceptable to readers(Vermeer, 1989).

Coherence rule refers to the fact that the target text must achieve intratextual coherence, making readers to understand and make sense in the communicative context of the target culture and target text. The fidelity rule means that the original text should be intertextually coherent, which is equivalent to being faithful to the original text in other translation theories. And the degree and form of fidelity to the original text depend on the purpose of the translation and the translator’s understanding of the original text. According to Skopos theory, the first one that all translations should follow is skopos rule, coherence and fidelity are subordinate to it. And fidelity is subordinate to coherence (Nord 2001, 32). There are many differences between English and Chinese in thinking and expression, and translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication behavior. Therefore, translators must not ignore the communicative purpose of translation. Guided by skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule, and based on the full analysis of the original text, the most appropriate strategies can be chosen to deal with specific long English sentences with the communicative purpose of the target text (Nord 2001, 32).

===4. Translation process of English long sentences===

Bell divided the cognitive process of translation into 3steps: first, analyze the semantic meaning and grammar of the source language as a universal representation, and then synthesize and reconstruct it to form a translation (Bell 1991, 5). This is also the case with the translation of long sentences, and the analysis of English long sentences is the first step. Since English long sentences focus on the expression of form, the basic methods of analyzing Long sentences based on characteristics are as follows: first understand the meaning of the sentence, analyze the grammatical structure of the long sentence, extract the main sentence, and then analyze the branches of the sentence. Finally, dividing long sentences according to the meaning group. (Bell 1991, 5)

As for the translation process from a macro point of view, first, the translator used some translation tools to look up new words and polysemous words. Then the translator began to translate for the first time, aiming to get a faithful text, and did not add any subjective guess to prevent the misunderstanding and inaccurate translation. In the second translation, the translator began to check the wrong words, as well as inappropriate points, and combined the language features of the text, which aimed to achieve coherent and intelligible. Finally, in the third translation, the translator got rid of the source language, and only read the target language to check whether it conformed to the reading habits and thinking modes of Chinese readers. If not, the translator would revise inappropriate sentences from the perspective of the target readers.

As for the translation steps from micro point of view, it can be divided into five steps: Find the main body of the sentence; Make clear the relationship between each modifier and the main sentence; Divide long sentences into several parts according to the expression requirements; Translate each part one by one; Adjust and polish the translation according to the Chinese expression habits.

Example 4:

ST: It has a mobile payments system that has been widely adopted in China, which allows people to shop，play games，pay utility bills and order meal deliveries all from within the app.

To analyze and translate this sentence, the most important is to find the main structure. It's easy to find the main body of this sentence is “It has a mobile payments system”. And second it is necessary to analyze the relationship between the modifiers and the main components of the sentence. “That has been widely adopted in China” is a post-positive attributive clause to modify the object “mobile payments system”, and “which allows…within the app” is a non-restrictive attributive clause to further explain the “system”, making readers know more about the target. Third, divide it into several parts according to the meaning and expression requirements. So this sentence can be divided three parts: the main body “It has a mobile payments system” is one part; and the two modifiers “that has been widely adopted in China” and “which allows … within the app” are the other two parts. Forth, translate every part: “它有一个移动支付系统”; “在中国得到广泛应用”; “让人们在该应用内购物、玩游戏、支付水电费和订餐”. Finally, adjust and polish the translation according to the Chinese expression habits. So the original sentence could be translated into: “它的移动支付系统在中国得到了下广泛应用，人们可以在该应用内购物、玩游戏、支付水电费和订餐”.

===5.Translation strategies for English long sentences===

===5.1Liner translation===

When the narrative level of English long sentences is basically the same as that of Chinese, that is, the sentences are narrated according to the time sequence or internal logic of the action, which is consistent with the expression habit of Chinese, and can be translated into Chinese in the same order as the original English. (Zeng 2010, 149-150)

Example 5:

ST: They learned with stupefaction that there is another aspect from which human action might be viewed than that of good and bad, of fair and unfair, of just and unjust. In the course of social events there prevails a regularity of phenomena to which man must adjust his actions if he wishes to succeed.

TT: 另一方面，他们茫然地想要了解到人类的哪些行为可以被看作是好的和坏的，公平的和不公平的，公正的和不公正的。在社会事件的过程中普遍存在着规律的现象，如果他希望成功，必须调整他的行动。

Analysis: There is an object clause in the first sentence. In the process of translation, the sentence can be simply translated in accordance with the order of the composition of the sentence. The translation is natural to read and can express the meaning of the original text by using liner translation.

Example 6:

ST: The joy and the tedium of labor are psychological phenomena which influence neither the individual’s subjective valuation of the disutility and the mediate gratification of labor nor the price paid for labor on the market.

TT: 劳动的快乐或厌恶都是心理现象，既不影响个人对于劳动负效用和报酬的主观评价也不影响市场上的劳动力价格。

Analysis: Although this sentence has both an attributive clause and “neither... nor...” structure with a large number of vocabulary, but its logical thinking, sentence structure and temporal and spatial order are consistent with Chinese habits. Therefore, we can translate it by using the liner translation method.

===5.2 Reorganization translation===

Reorganization is a way of changing the order of the original text, pushing forward from behind or from the middle. English is hypotaxis language, while Chinese is parataxis language(Lian 2010, 73). In terms of word order, English pays attention to the use of various conjunctions, such as relation words, conjunctions, prepositions, etc., to express the logical relations among them. Chinese, on the other hand, is used to connecting words with logical relations. The logic of long sentences in Scientific English is often quite different from that in Chinese, sometimes even the opposite. According to the expression habits of Chinese, the word order can be adjusted by means of reverse translation, so as to make the translation expression standard and easy to be understood and accepted by readers. (Lian 2010, 73)

Example 7:

ST: No technological improvement would have been possible if the additional capital goods required for the practical utilization of new inventions had not previously been made available by saving.

TT: 实际利用新发明需要额外资本，如果以前没有通过储蓄获得这些额外资本, 就不可能有技术改进。

Analysis: The “if-” clause contains a post-positive attributive “required for the practical utilization of new inventions”, which makes the clause look very complicated, if translated according to the word order, it would be misunderstood. Therefore, in order to better translate the sentence, the translator can reorganize the structure of the clause in the process of translation, and then translate the main sentence after a clear explanation, so that the meaning of the translated sentence is relatively clear.

Example 8:

ST: It may be useful to compare the doctrine of Marxism and the Prussian Historical School, according to which wage rates are a historical datum and not a catallactic phenomenon, with the regression theorem of money’s purchasing power.

TT: 用货币的购买力的回归定理对马克思主义理论和普鲁士历史学派进行比较可能是比较有用的。普鲁士历史学派认为工资率是历史数据而不是交换现象。

Analysis: In this sentence, “It” is the formal subject, and the real subject is “to compare the doctrine of Marxism and the Prussian Historical School”. Therefore, we should follow the Chinese expression habit and reorganize the sentences before translating them.

===5.3Division===

The so-called division in translation means separating the different parts of English sentences into a single component of Chinese, such as word group, phrases, sentences and even independent sentences (Wang 2009, 144). There are great differences between English and Chinese in syntax. English sentences are long, verbs are few, and balance is stressed, while Chinese is short, verbs are more, and symmetry is stressed. Therefore, when translating long English sentences, it is impossible to translate every sentence into a Chinese sentence, otherwise, the translation will appear bloated and stiff. In English, long sentences are mainly composed of compound and subordinate clauses. According to the habit of using short sentences in Chinese, sometimes the clauses or phrases in the original sentence can be translated separately, and the original sentence can be divided into two or more sentences, so as to make the translation clear and accurately. (Wang 2009, 144)

Example 9:

ST: It may be useful to compare the doctrine of Marxism and the Prussian Historical School, according to which wage rates are a historical datum and not a catallactic phenomenon, with the regression theorem of money’s purchasing power.

TT: 用货币的购买力的回归定理对马克思主义理论和普鲁士历史学派进行比较可能是比较有用的。普鲁士历史学派认为工资率是历史数据而不是交换现象。

Analysis: In this sentence, “according to which ... money’s purchasing power” is not a independent sentence, but for the easy understanding to the meaning this part was translated into another complete sentence by adding and deleting some words.

===5.4 Embedding===

Embedding means transforming the post modifiers of the center word in the source text into the premodifiers in the target text, which is suitable for the translation of long sentences with many post-modifiers and strong sense of sentence compactness(Liu 1998, 191).

Example 10:

ST: What brings us together is that we have common interests which transcend those differences.

TT: 使我们走到一起的，是我们有超越这些分歧的共同利益。

Analysis: In this sentence, “which transcend those differences” is a attributive clause to modify the antecedent “common interests”. If we translate it according to the English word order, it must be tedious and difficult to understand. Therefore, we can use insertion to put the clause before the main word, which will be simple and easy to understand.

Example 11:

ST: This refined playing must not be confused with the simple games of children which are merely pleasure-producing.

TT: 这细化的游戏一定不要和儿童仅仅为了快乐的简单游戏混淆。

Analysis: The post-positive attributive “which..” is a modifier used to explain “the simple games of children”. In order to make the sentence structure more compact, smooth and coherent, the modifier needs to be put before the noun “game”. This method is often used in the translation of attributive clauses or post-positive attributives in English.

===5.5 Synthesis===

Synthesis means to use the above methods to translate long English sentences. In fact, when translating long English sentences, it is rare to adopt only one translation method, and it is often necessary to combine several translation methods. The key to the synthesis method is to adjust the structure of the original text flexibly on the basis of accurate understanding of the original text, and to pursue the spirit likeness rather than the appearance likeness when expressing in Chinese (Jiang 2019, 62-65).

Example12:

ST: For all of our complaints about contemporary air- ports and flying, it might be a comfort to remember that thanks to the little Pacific island nation of Fiji, we are actually getting to our destinations faster and more safely than ever before.

TT: 对于如今的机场和乘机体验，尽管我们有诸多抱怨，但也多亏了斐济这个太平洋岛国，我们飞抵目的地已变得更快更安全，想到这一点，或许会让我们心里又感宽慰不少.

Analysis: The main body of this sentence is “it might be a comfort”, among which “it”, is the formal subject, and “to remember that…ever before” is the real subject. We can not find such a sentence structure in Chinese. So in order to make the translation more authentic, the sentence order must be changed. Based on the understanding of the source text, it is appropriate to adopt both liner method and reorganization method to translate.

===Conclusion===

In the practice of the translation of long and difficult sentences, there is a higher requirement for translators’ English comprehension and expression ability. For the translation of long and difficult sentences in English, the translator should be familiar with the sentence structure and main ideas of long and difficult sentences in English, and make clear the main logical relationship with the content of the original text, so as to effectively analyze the structure of long and difficult sentences in English and choose the correct way of translation. In the specific translation practice, translators should, on the basis of understanding the grammatical features of English, choose reasonable translation methods and skills so as to achieve the accurate translation of long and difficult Sentences. Translation activities require a high level of English reading and comprehension, and the effective translation of long and difficult sentences requires translators to constantly improve their ability to summarize, update their English translation skills, and realize the summary and innovation of long and difficult sentences.

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*Wang Wuxing王武兴. (2004). 英汉互译指导与篇章翻译 [A Guide to Essay Translation from Chinese into English and Vise Versa]. ''朝华出版社'' Beijing: Morning Glory Publishers.

*Zhang Jinlan张锦兰. (2004).目的论与翻译方法 [Skopos Theory and Translation Methods]. ''中国科技翻译'' Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal (1) 35-37.

*Zhu Wei朱微. (2004). 汉英翻译教程 [A Textbook of Chinese-English Translation]. ''重庆大学出版社'' Chongqing: Chongqing University Press.
--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 14:28, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==3.2Static language vs. dynamic language==

==3.3 Passive voice vs. active voice==

==4.1Cross-cultural communication==

==4.2Attaching great importance to form==

==4.3Clearing language logic==

===5.The process of translating long English sentences===

===6.Methods of translating English long sentences===

==6.1Liner translation==

==6.2Reorganization translation=

==6.3Splitting translation==

==6.4Synthesis==

==6.5Insertion==

===Conclusion===

In the practice of the translation of long and difficult sentences, there is a higher requirement for translators’ English comprehension and expression ability. For the translation of long and difficult sentences in English, the translator should be familiar with the sentence structure and main ideas of long and difficult sentences in English, and make clear the main logical relationship with the content of the original text, so as to effectively analyze the structure of long and difficult sentences in English and choose the correct way of translation. In the specific translation practice, translators should, on the basis of understanding the grammatical features of English, choose reasonable translation methods and skills so as to achieve the accurate translation of long and difficult Sentences. Translation activities require a high level of English reading and comprehension, and the effective translation of long and difficult sentences requires translators to constantly improve their ability to summarize, update their English translation skills, and realize the summary and innovation of long and difficult sentences.

===Bibliography===

==Chinese-English Translation of News Headlines From the Perspective of Skopos Theory 张维虹 Zhang Weihong No.202070080648 MTI 英语口译 ==

===Abstract===
In recent years, with the rapid development of the society and economy, the exchanges between China and the rest of the world are increasingly frequent. In this process, massive information is transmitted through the translation of news reports. The translation quality of news headlines that serve as the eye of news, directly affects the effectiveness of its dissemination. Under the guidance of Skopos Theory of German Functionalist Translation School, this paper analyzes the characteristics of Chinese and English news headlines, illustrates the functions and translation criteria of news headlines, and puts forward corresponding translation strategies, aiming at retaining the conciseness of news and realizing dissemination and social value of news.

===key words===
News headlines translation; Skopos theory; Translation strategies

===题目===
目的论视角下中英新闻标题翻译研究
===摘要===
近年来，中国社会经济飞速发展，与外界交流日趋频繁，在此过程中大量信息传递需通过新闻报道翻译完成。而新闻标题作为新闻的眼睛，其翻译质量直接影响新闻传播的有效性。本文以德国功能翻译学派目的论为指导，分析中英新闻标题的特点，阐述新闻标题功能以及新闻标题翻译准则，并提出汉译英翻译策略，旨在还原新闻简明本色从而实现新闻传播目的和社会价值。

===关键字===
新闻标题翻译；目的论；翻译策略

===I. Introduction===
With the continuous development of culture and economy, news reporting is playing an increasingly important role in people's lives. We read news through TV, the Internet, or newspapers and magazines to keep abreast of current events. But thousands of pieces of news and the information they carry may confuse us, because we are in a world where massive information is flowing nonstop. There is no doubt that some news has been omitted or even ignored. Therefore, a clear-cut and intriguing headline is of great importance and can be considered as the only way to attract the target readers. (Chen Lizhao, 2002: 3-4)

Headlines are compared to the eyes of news reports, in which clear, concise information must be contained to generate interests. (Hu Shuzhong, 2012: 199) That is to say, headlines are expected to be vivid and eye-catching in order to attract readers and provide reading guidance. So, translators must learn how to effectively extract and reconstruct the information in the Chinese-English translation of news headlines, so as to make it cater to the target language readers.

In addition, news translation is playing a significant role in the promotion of cross-cultural communication and mutual understanding as China is having more and more exchanges with the rest of the world with the rapid development of society and economy brought about by the reform and opening-up policy and “go global” strategy. As the soul of news, headlines and their translation are what translators should pay attention to. (Liu Yunxi 2018(11):123-125.)

There are many studies about E-C news translation and news headline translation. However, research on Chinese-English news headlines translation is very few. According to statistics from CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure), there are only two pages of discussion on Chinese-English news headlines translation. Therefore, this paper is designed to provide further exploration and reference in the area.

As functions for headlines are obvious, this paper takes Skopos as the theory guide to conduct the research. First, the paper illustrates the development and three rules of Skopos theory. Then it discusses the features and functions of news headlines. Later, the paper tells some translation methods of Chinese-English news headlines from a perspective of Skopos Theory. At last, it draws a conclusion.

===II. Overview of the Skopos Theory ===
====2.1 Development of the Skopos Theory====
Skopos Theory was initially proposed by Katherina Reiss in her 1971 book ''Possibilities and Limits of Translation Criticism'', which formed the early theory. According to Reiss, the ideal translation would be “one in which the aim in the target language is equivalence as regards the conceptual content, linguistic form and communicative function of a source-language text” (Reiss 1977, translated in 1989: 112). Even though Reiss took the concept of equivalence as the main focus of her analysis, she realized that in some cases, equivalence is impossible and, in some situations, not even desired. Therefore, she indicated that the function of texts should be considered when translating.

The idea of text typology including content-focused, form-focused and appeal-focused text put forward by Reiss, is another contribution of her to the Skopos theory. It is supposed to be the starting point for Skopos theory.

Later, Hans Vermeer, the student of Reiss, made a major breakthrough in the limitations of equivalent theory and laid the theoretical foundation for it. He first mentioned the basic principles of Skopos Theory in 1978. He and Reiss jointly published ''Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation'' in 1984. In this book, Vermeer argued that translation should be seen as a fundamental action of the transformation of the source text. As all actions are generally purposeful, translation also has its own purposes which could have influences over the culture of the target language. (Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation, 1984)

For Vermeer, translation cannot be treated as a one-to-one transfer between the source language and the target language. In his research, on the basis of the source text, translation is a form of action to which some of the other forms of translational action may relate. Every translation is directed at an intended audience since to translate means “to produce a text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addresses in target circumstances” (Vermeer, 1987a: 29). Vermeer’s Skopos Theory serves as the foundation for his general theory of translation.

Later, two other German translators, Christiane Nord and Justa Holz Manttari, enriched and refined the Skopos theory. Mantarri’s theory is based on the rules of action theory and is intended to contain all forms of intercultural transmission, as well as those source or target texts which do not involve. (Nord, 2001: 12-13) Her theory reflects the role of the participants in the process of translation and the environment in which the process takes place. Nord, as the latest batch of German researchers, summarized the “Fidelity rule” and applied the Skopos theory extensively in the study of translation from multiple perspectives and related fields.

In conclusion, Reiss laid the foundation of Skopos theory. Vermeer, who summarized and outlined the rules to be followed in the process of Skopos theory in practice, became the founding father of the theory. Manttari focused on the specific issues of translation behavior and context in the translation process, while Nord made many contributions to the refinement of the theory and greatly expanded the practical application of this theory.

==== 2.2 Three Rules of Skopos theory ====
There are three significant rules of Skopos theory including Skopos rule, coherence rule, and fidelity rule, which will be discussed respectively as follows.

===== 2.2.1 Skopos Rule=====
The Skopos rule is the top-ranking rule for translation. That is to say, Skopos determines any translation action. “The translators should finish the task in a way that enables your translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function. All in all, the end justifies the means.” (Nord, 2001:29).

Translating is an international interaction as it is just said, and the Skopos rule has a stable position after it appeared. In Vermeer’s term, intention is thought of as an “aim-oriented plan of action” (Vermeer, 1983:41).

According to Vermeer, Skopos rule is that “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The Skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate in a way that enables your text to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.” (Vermeer, 1989a: 20, translated by Luo Dan) Skopos theory is the foundation for Chinese-English news headlines translation. All efforts made are meant to achieve the Skopos of news headline translation because “the end justifies the means".

=====2.2.2 Coherence Rule=====
The coherence rule, another important rule of the Skpos theory indicates that “the target text must be interpretable as coherent with the target text receiver’s situation”. (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 113) It implies that the target text must be translated in a way that it is clearly understood by the target readers, taking into consideration of their existing knowledge and situation.

===== 2.2.3 Fidelity Rule =====
Apart from the "intratextual coherence", there is another intertextual coherence which refers to the relationship between the target text and the source text. It is presumed as a further principle, fidelity rule. The fidelity rule by Vermeer indicates that there has to be coherence between the target text and the source text. That means that the target text should be faithful to its source text in a certain level of features, such as grammatical features, special collocations, and rhetorical devices, or to some degree between a complete imitation and deviation. (Nord 2001: 31)

In accordance with the Skopos theory, the source text is no longer considered as the “sacred original”, and it is up to the translator to determine the aspect and the degree of the fidelity. In Vermeer’s opinion, any text is just an offer of information, and that any target text is an offer of information formulated by a translator in a target culture and language about an offer of information formulated by someone else in the source culture and language. (Nord 2001: 32)

Three principal rules of Skopos theory have been illustrated as above. As for the relationships between the three rules, Reiss and Vermeer believe that the fidelity rule is subordinate to the coherence rule and is included to the Skopos rule. If the skopos of the target text demands a change of function, the fidelity of the source text will no longer be taken as the only standard, but adequacy and appropriateness will be supplemented as the standard with regard to the skopos (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 139).

====2.3 Summary ====
This chapter introduced the development of Skopos theory and its three main principles, laying a theoretical foundation for Chinese-English news headlines translation. The function and skopos of news headlines are to intrigue readers and convey information to them. Therefore, C-E news headlines translation, guided by Skopos theory, is a faithful re-creation.（Wang Chi, 2013: 33-34）

===III. Overview of News Headlines===
A headline is an essential part of news. So, it is important for translators to know the features and functions of news headlines. (Liu Yunxi, 2018: 123-125) The previous chapter introduces the theoretical framework of Skopos theory, which lay a foundation for the practical translation of Chinese news headlines. In this chapter, the author will discuss features and functions of news headlines, in order to search for some strategies for the Chinese-English translation of news headlines.

==== 3.1 Definition of News and News Headlines====
News refers to the timeliest report of events that have just happened, are happening, or are going to happen. It is born to meet the need for propagation and communication of information in human society. (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 4) This definition prescribes the features and functions of news. News should be timely and share ideas and information.

News headlines are compared to the “eye” of news. According to the dictionary, “A head of a newspaper story or article, usually printed in large type and devised to summarize, gives essential information about, or interests readers in reading the story or article that follows.” (Webster’s Third New International Dictionary, 1961: 1042) From the definition, we can see that news headlines tell the essence of the news; the function is to attract readers’ interests. The paper will discuss the features and functions of news headlines in detail in the following part.

====3.2 Features of News Headlines====
As a text genre, news headlines have their own features. Chinese and English news headlines share much in common, though they differ from each other in certain areas. Understandings about the differences and similarities of Chinese and English news headlines are important for translators. （Luo Dan, 2012: 30-31）So, this chapter will analyze the features of news headlines from the following aspects: grammar, rhetoric, culture, and structure.

===== 3.2.1 Grammatical Features=====

3.2.1.1 Lexical Feature

a. Midget words

A good headline must be clear to attract readers and be strong to save space. In other words, the headline should convey the intends of the news without confusion or ambiguity; the words should be powerful to persuade the headline consumer to read on. These two requirements determine the prevalence of powerful, or strong worlds – mostly verbs and nouns – in headlines. (Shen Jinbo, 1989:52) That is to say, powerful words are short, simple and concrete, for extensive or abstractive words can only lead to dullness and confusion. There are no such powerful words in Chinese, but Chinese headlines, on the premise of conveying the exact meanings also put emphasis on the shortness of words.

[1]: Dancing '''gets''' Olympic status (China Daily Dec 9, 2020)

[2]: 霹雳舞'''成'''巴黎奥运项目 (China Daily Dec 9, 2020)

b. Numeral words

Numbers are used in news headlines to highlight the key information, especially in economic and sports news.

[3]: Pink diamond sold for '''$26.6M''' (China Daily Nov 23, 2020)

[4]: 外储余额创'''4'''年多新高(China Daily Dec 9, 2020)

c. Abbreviations

The limitation of page space leads to the frequent use of abbreviations in headlines. English abbreviations, according to Lu Guoqiang (陆国强, 1984), consist of two major types: lipped words and initialisms or acronyms. The common types of abbreviations found in Chinese headlines, nevertheless, are mostly number-assisted summarizing, blending and substituting. (Chen Lizhao, 2002:36)

[5]: '''Intl''' student enrollment falls (China Daily, Nov 19, 2020)

[6]: 第二届'''“一带一路”'''国际合作高峰论坛举行圆桌峰会 (People’s Daily, April 28, 2019)

d. Vogue words

“Freshness” is the life of news, which lies in the contents of the report. As the gist of the news, headlines would certainly reveal some of the new ideas or hot topics in order to catch the reader’s attention. Therefore, vogue words are frequently seen in headlines. (Chen Lizhao, 2002: 4-5)

[7]: ''''Cooling-off period'''' added (China Daily Dec 8, 2020)

[8]: '''“离婚冷静期”'''新规将施行 (China Daily Dec 8, 2020)

3.2.1.2 Syntactical features

a. Omission

Omission appears in almost every headline. Eliminating meaningless words can shorten the length of a headline and highlight the core information. In English headlines, all articles and some auxiliary verbs, lexical verbs, pronouns, and the subject and the predicate are often omitted, as they weigh little in giving information. Chinese headlines also omit those unimportant words, including conjunctions, and auxiliary words as well. (Chen Lizhao, 2002: 4-5)

[9] Biden declares victory (China Daily, Nov 10, 2020)

[10] 研究：医患“互粉”对治疗不利 (China Daily, Nov 25, 2014)

b. Voice

Active voice is frequently adopted in news headlines.

[11] UK '''approves''' Pfizer vaccine (China Daily Dec 4, 2020)

[12]英国'''批准'''辉瑞新冠疫苗 (China Daily Dec 4, 2020)

[13] Biden '''unveils''' economic team (China Daily Dec 2, 2020)

[14]拜登'''拟'''提名耶伦任财长 (China Daily Dec 2, 2020)

c. Tense

One of the distinct features of news headlines, particularly in English news headlines, is the wide use of present tense, which saves the space of “-ed” in the past tense. But sometimes past tense is used to indicate the timeline. While Chinese news headlines use different tenses, as they are not revealed by the different forms of verbs as in English. So, the auxiliary verbs or adverbs in Chinese news headlines tell the time of happening form. (Chen Lizhao, 2002: 4-5)

[15] COVID vaccine distribution (China Daily Dec 1, 2020)

[16] 英美'''即将'''启动疫苗分配 (China Daily Dec 1, 2020)

=====3.2.2 Rhetorical Features =====
The figures of speech found in headlines, English and Chinese alike, include metaphor, simile, pun, alliteration and rhyme, repetition, allusion, etc. They are aimed at creating musical sound as well as vivid images to provide spiritual enjoyment to the readers. (Chen Lizhao, 2002: 4-5)

[1] 苹果发新机加入5G'''战局''' (metaphor) (China Daily Oct 16, 2020)

[2] 美国加州火灾蔓延居民'''仿佛置身火星'''(simile)

===== 3.2.3 Cultural Features=====
Language is the carrier of culture. News, as a practical genre, also bears cultural characteristics of a certain country or region. These cultural elements also appear in news headlines. (Fan Tengteng, 2006: 44-45)

=====3.2.4 Structural Features =====
To achieve the headline’s distinctiveness and simplicity, certain punctuation marks are used in English news headlines, which are not often seen in Chinese news headlines. However, the pursuit of using punctuation marks shares a common destination—to make the news headlines clear and easily perceptible. The rule for headlines is that the fewer punctuation marks are, the better. (Fan Tengteng, 2006: 45-46)

[1] 世界精神卫生日：超半数英国员工最担心就业问题 (China Daily Oct 16, 2020)

[2] World Mental Health Day: More than half of UK workers worry about finding a job (China Daily Oct 16, 2020)

====3.3 Functions of News Headlines ====
According to the theory of text-style function by Peter Newmark, new headlines fulfill the following four functions: informative function, expressive function, aesthetic function and vocative function, which will be illustrated in this section. (Newmark 2001: 40)

=====3.3.1 Informative Function =====
“The core of the informative function of language is external situation, the facts of a topic, reality outside language, including ideas or theories” (Newmark 2001: 40) That is to say, news headline tells readers the basic information and facts of the news.

=====3.3.2 Expressive Function =====
“The core of the expressive function is the mind of the speaker, the writer, the originator of the utterance. He uses the utterance to express his feelings irrespective of any response” (Newmark 2001: 39) The expressive function of a news headline is to reveal the writer’s or the editor’s attitude toward the news by using commentary words or rhetoric devices.

=====3.3.3 Aesthetic Function=====
“This is a language designed to please the sense, firstly through its actual or imagined sound, and secondly through its metaphors. The rhythm, balance, and contrast of sentences, clauses, and words also play their part.” (Newmark 2001: 42) As the eye of the news, headlines use elegant words, abbreviations, punctuations, and so on to strengthen their aesthetic function.

=====3.3.4 Vocative Function=====
The vocative function is reader-oriented. Here, the term “vocative” is interpreted as “calling upon” the readers to act, think or feel, in fact, to “react” in the way intended by the text. (Newmark 2001: 41) Vocative words in news headlines can attract the readers to read the whole article, and in certain circumstances call upon the readers to take some actions after finishing the news.

====3.3 Summary ====
This chapter discussed the features and functions of news headlines as well as differences between Chinese and English news headlines. It helps the author to seek for certain translation strategies and methods to retain the features and achieve the purposes of news headlines, which will be mentioned in the following chapter.

===IV. Application of Skopos theory in Chinese-English Translation===
Many translation strategies and techniques can be adopted under the guidance of the Skopos theory. Based on the dominant informative function of news headlines, new information should be transferred with fidelity and clarity. Moreover, considering the aesthetical function of headlines, the source text should be aesthetically handled to the target readers. This chapter will explain how the Skopos theory is applied in the translation of Chinese-English news headlines. Before that, the criteria for C-E news headlines translation will be discussed. (Luo Dan, 2012）

====4.1 Criteria of News Headline Translation ====
According to the basis of translation criteria, the author discussed four criteria for Chinese news headline translation, including fidelity, readability, adaptability, and rapidity.

===== 4.1.1Fidelity =====
Fidelity means to accurately convey the message of the source text. The translation of news headlines from Chinese to English is a kind of intercultural communication in which messages should be transferred objectively and accurately by reflecting reality. Considering this point of view, fidelity can be acted as the main rule for translating news headlines. （Luo Dan, 2012: 45-46）

=====4.1.2 Readability =====
Readability means the translation version is smooth as much as possible so that it is easier for readers or audiences to read and understand. According to a survey on ''Beijing citizens’ newspaper reading and willingness'' by Chinese People’s University, vividness and readability are the first to be considered while consumers buying and reading a newspaper. Therefore, the translation of news headlines should value readability. If the rule of fidelity concerns the content, then the rule of readability aims at the form. （Luo Dan, 2012: 46-47）

=====4.1.3Adaptability =====
Adaptability means that the translated headline should be in an appropriate writing pattern in line with the features of news language. In other words, the style of the target language should be consistent with the source language. Style-maintaining is considered to be essential and important in translation, which is also true in the translation of news headlines. So, translators must deal with the grammar and diction of English seriously, and make sure the style of the original is mostly intact when translating a Chinese news headline. (Tang Ting, 2010: 35-36)

===== 4.1.4Rapidity =====
Rapidity, as the fourth request of news headline translation, is the most indispensable one. It requires that the translation of a news headline should be completed at a given period of time without any delay. The news is more valuable if the time between happening and reporting is shorter. So, the timeliness of news decides the rapidity of news translation, especially the headlines. (Tang Ting, 2010: 36-37)

====4.2 Strategies and Methods of Chinese-English News Headlines Translation ====
News headlines are considered to be the soul of the news. Since Chinese and English readers are different in thinking patterns, education systems, and cultural backgrounds, some proper translation strategies and methods should be taken into consideration to enable the readers to understand the news headlines easily. Under the guidance of Skopos theory, translation methods including literal translation, free translation, amplification, omission, amplification, restructuring, and adaptation are applied in news headlines translation. (Wang Jun, Chen Shiyue, 2017: 102-103)

=====4.2.1 Literal Translation=====
Literal translation, also called word-for-word translation, is the basic approach used in Chinese news headline translation, since it can retain both the form and contents of the original to the maximum. Here are some examples: (Wang Jun, Chen Shiyue, 2017: 102-103)

[1] 疫情致牛仔裤销量骤减

Pandemic leads to jeans sales slump
(China Daily Aug 10, 2020)

The headline introduces that Covid-19 pandemic has led to jeans sales slump. “疫情”was translated into “Pandemic”, “牛仔裤销量” was “jeans sales”, and “骤减” “slump”, which is exactly an example of literal translation. There’s no change in the form or style between the source text and the target text. It conforms to the fidelity rule of the Skopos Theory.

[2] 新冠抗原检测试剂获批

COVID antigen tests approved
(China Daily Nov 10, 2020)

This example is a typical word-for-word translation. “新冠”, an abbreviation for “新冠病毒”, was translated into “COVID”, short for coronavirus. “抗原检测”was translated into “antigen tests”and“获批”,“approved”. We can see that in this example, literal translation was used so that the form, style, and even the tense and voice of the source text are all retained. It is royal to the source text.

[3] 成都将建首个大熊猫主题公园

Chengdu Set to Get Unique Panda-themed Park
(China Daily, Jan 17, 2018)

This is an example of literal translation, remaining the original form and style of the Chinese version. It uses midget words “set” and “get”, taking into consideration the style of English news headlines, in order to attract readers from different walks of life. At the same time, the Chinese noun “大熊猫主题” is converted to the English adjective “Panda-themed”, which is very concise and accurate.

=====4.2.2 Free Translation =====
Free translation is applied when the news headline of the source text is obscure and difficult to understand or there are no equivalent words in the target language. Sometimes it is preferred because it adapts the original headlines to the target language. (Wang Jun, Chen Shiyue, 2017: 102-103)

[4] 不要人夸颜色好，只留清气满乾坤

Xi: China Welcomes Constructive Suggestions
(China Daily, Oct 25, 2017)

The source text is a poem, cited by President Xi at the press conference of 19th CPC Central Committee Political Bureau to hear constructive suggestions from people both at home and abroad. The poem, Ink Plum written by a famous Chinese ancient poet, Wang Mian, carries rich cultural connotations. If it is directly translated as “Not angling for compliments, we should be content that integrity fills the universe”, it will cause confusion to the target readers. Obviously, such a mechanical translation will discourage the reader from understanding the meaning of the poem. Therefore, the translation of this news headline should be based on the content of the news – Xi: Welcomes Constructive Suggestions. So, it is a typical example of free translation.

[5]姜瑜：外资应凭实力在华竞争

Foreign investors told to sharpen edge

This example takes into consideration of the reading habits and backgrounds of the target readers. “凭实力竞争” is translated to “sharpen one’s edge”, which is more understandable. “姜瑜”(Jiang Yu”, a heroic character in Chinese history is omitted. So, it is a free translation, which serves the informative function of the news and conforms to the Skopos rule.

=====4.2.3 Amplification =====
Most news headlines contain certain backgrounds that are familiar to the source language readers, but alien to those who read the target language. So, translators have the responsibility to turn information that is rich in cultural connotation into something understandable to target readers. This is particularly significant in translating news headlines from the perspective of Skopos theory because the purpose is to convey effective information to target readers. As mentioned in the chapter before, Chinese news headlines usually are culture-loaded. Therefore, amplification is frequently used in Chinese-English news headlines translation. （Fan Tengteng, 2006: 50-51）

[6] 水陆两栖飞机AG600首飞成功

China’s First Large Amphibious Aircraft Makes a Successful Maiden Flight
(China Daily, Dec 25, 2018)

Amplification is used in this translation. AG600, as called Kun Lun600, is the world’s largest amphibious aircraft developed by China. The translator adds a modifier “China’s first large” as a supplement of background to better inform the targe readers. Here, coherence rule of Skopos theory is considered.

[7] 共享单车来到“世界屋脊”

Shared Bikes Climb to the “Roof of the World” (Tibet)

“Roof of the World” is confusing for some target readers, so the translator adds “(Tibet)” at the end of the sentence to avoid ambiguity. This example obeyed the Skopos rule.

=====4.2.4 Omission =====
Omission is a translation method to make the news headline simple and concise by eliminating the redundant verbs, pronouns, and other words in the source text. As Chinese usually use unnecessary modifiers, this method can highlight the main point of the news. (Wang Jun, Chen Shiyue, 2017: 102-103)

[8] 对外汉语专家齐聚京城共议国际汉语教师缺口问题

Beijing forum addresses Chinese teacher shortage
(China.org.cn, Jul 21, 2021)

In this example, the first sentence is translated into a phrase, so as to shorten the length of the news headline and more it more concise. What’s more, redundant words like “齐聚”, “共议” “问题” are omitted to point out the main contents of the news.

[9] '大流行病'当选年度词汇

Word of the year: pandemic

(China Daily, Dec 12, 2020)

In the example, the verb “当选”(elected) in the source text is eliminated to save space.

=====4.2.5 Restructuring =====
Restructuring refers to the rearranging of the words in logical order to make the translation more consistent and coherent. The target text should be acceptable and meaningful in a sense that it is coherent with the situation in which it is received. Once translated, the translator revises the order and rearranges all words into a perfect sentence. In doing so, the news is more logical and tuned with the habit of native readers’ thinking and reading. It is frequently used in translating news headlines from Chinese into English. (Tang Ting, 2010: 25-26)
[10] 疫情期间夫妻关系改善

Marriages benefit from lockdown
(China Daily, Nov 23, 2020)

The English version changes the structure of the Chinese news headline, and adds a preposition to show the logic of this sentence. By restructuring, English readers can better understand this news headline.

=====4.2.6 Adaptation =====
Adaptation is a translation method, which refers to selecting, adding, deleting, and constructing cautiously instead of simply translating one word to another word. In order to make the translated version more proper to certain readers or audiences, adaptation always makes some essential changes for a special aim. Specific to C-E news headlines translation, the translator can take the Chinese news headlines as the basis and refer to the key news facts of the report, in order to offer as much information as possible to the target readers. (Wang Chi, 2013: 42-42)

[11] 高考将不再是 “一考定终身”

Changes to Uni Eligibility
（People’s Daily, 2014）

In this example, “高考” refers to the National College Entrance Examination in China, which is an expression with Chinese characteristics. Therefore, based on the main idea of the news, the translator translated it into “Uni Eligibility”

[12] 中国女性主导财务决策

'She' to power wealth management
(China Daily, Nov 23, 2020)

Adaptation is used in this translation. According to the contents of the news, women in different countries are mentioned. So, instead of translating “中国女性” into Chinese women, the English version adapted it into “she”, which adds interest and fun to the headline and thus can attract more readers. So, the functions of news headlines are performed by taking into consideration the Skopos rule.

====4.3 Summary====
This chapter introduces criteria, and strategies and methods of Chinese-English news headlines translation. It is the main body of the paper, which can serve as guidelines for translators who translate Chinese news headlines into English ones.

===V. Conclusion===
Based on Skopos theory, this paper discussed the features and functions of news headlines and their relevance to translation, summarized translation criteria, and strategies and methods adopted in actual C-E news headlines translation.

News translation is a cultural transformation with certain purposes(skopos). While conveying the connotation of the information, news translation must also take into account the habits of target readers. The purpose-oriented approach helps translators to break the language barriers and helps to convey cultural connotations and facilitate communication. The purposes and functions of translation determine the translation methods. In translation, the standard of translation should not be how to be faithful to the source text, to highlight the main points of the news and attract English readers. Therefore, the paper, applying the Skopos theory to Chinese-English news headlines, is of significance.

However, there are also limitations in the paper. The first problem is the complexity of the theoretical basis. The second one is that few data have been collected. And the last one is the capability of the author herself. So, there is still room for improvement.

--[[User:Zhang Weihong|Zhang Weihong]] ([[User talk:Zhang Weihong|talk]]) 02:27, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Zhang Weihong

===References===
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==On Chinese-English Translation of Public Service Advertisements From the Perspective of Text-type Theory 司妤 Si Yu Student No.202070080606==
<center> 司妤 Si Yu Student No.202070080606</center>

===Abstract===

Public-service advertising is an advertising activity that provides free services to the community without the purpose of making profit. Since the founding of the People's Republic of China, public-service advertising activities have increased and played an important role in the moral and ideological education of society as a whole, such as fire and burglary prevention, forest protection, birth control, maintenance of public order, no spitting and so on, all of which are in the nature of public-service advertising.

With the improvement of China's status in the international society, the accuracy of the translation of PSAs, as a medium to convey Chinese culture, is attracting more and more attention. Accurate translations help to showcase Chinese culture to foreigners and promote communication, while incorrect translations can be laughable.

In some public occasions, I have noticed that there are many excellent PSAs, but there are also some "Chinglish" PSAs. This paper analyzes the text of PSAs by using the Text-type theory, gives suggestions to improve the messy translation phenomenon, and summarizes several translation methods, hoping to provide reference for the translators of PSAs.

===key words===

Public-service advertisement;Text typeTheory;Translation methods

===文本理论视角下公益广告的中英翻译===

===摘要===

公益广告是不以营利为目的而为社会提供免费服务的广告活动。我国建国以后，公益性的广告活动日益增多，对全社会进行道德和思想教育发挥了重要作用，例如有关部门进行的防火防盗、保护森林、节制生育、维护公共秩序、不要随地吐痰等广告宣传，均属公益广告的性质。

随着中国在国际社会地位的提高，公益广告作为一种传递中国文化的媒介，其翻译的准确性日益受到人们的关注，翻译准确有利于向外国友人展示中国文化，促进交流。而翻译错误则容易贻笑大方。

笔者注意到在一些公众场合不乏优秀的公益广告翻译，同时也仍有一些“中式英语”公益广告存在。本文运用文本类型理论对公益广告文本进行分析，对乱译现象提出改进建议，总结了几点翻译方法，希望能够为公益文本译者提供借鉴。

===关键字===

公益广告；文本类型理论；翻译方法

===Introduction===

====Research Background====

Economic and social development and the improvement of people's living standards have brought many unprecedented changes to people, making their lives more convenient and colorful. But along with it comes a series of social problems such as indiscriminate dumping of urban garbage, neglect of wildlife protection, lack of care for public property, smoking in public places, etc.These social problems have also been magnified by the advance of urbanization. At this time, public service advertisement (PSA)can offer help if we want to activate more people to solve them.

There are many forms of public service advertisements, such as public service advertisement (PSA) clips, public service messages, and public service slogans. Each of these PSAs has its own textual characteristics, such as the PSA short film in the form of a short video, using a fascinating plot to illustrate the concept of public welfare; public service messages are simple but informative; public service slogans are neat and thought-provoking. The translation of these texts should be done according to the characteristics of the text in order to achieve the public service effect of the text.

With China playing an increasingly important role in the international community, a large number of international conferences are being held in China, and the number of foreign travelers arriving in the country is on the rise. The accuracy of the translation of public service advertisements is especially important at this time, not only to help foreigners in their travel work in China, but also to promote Chinese culture and to enhance their understanding of China.

It is worth mentioning that the overall quality of the Chinese people has been significantly improved compared to a few years ago, and the appearance of more and more elites has made the society think more deeply about the accuracy of translation, which is conducive to building a good city image and improving the aesthetic level of city residents and tourists.

Advertisements can be divided into commercial advertisements and public service advertisements according to content and purpose. Commercial advertisements are mostly published by enterprises, and their main purpose is to stimulate consumers and arouse their desire to consume, and their content is mostly product information.(Liu Xiaofang 2014)

There are some definitions from different people. Berkowitz, a famous scholar, who makes a thorough study of advertisement for more than 25 years, states that PSA is generally sponsored by a non-profitable institution, civic group, religious organization, trade association, or political group with a central focus on public welfare (Berkowitz, 2004). In China, according to Zhang Minxin’s definition, PSA is a sub-branch of non-commercial advertisement whose purposes are to serve the public interests. This kind of advertisement can push the public to change their attitudes and behaviors (Zhang Mingxin, 2004). There are some researchers at home and abroad trying to discover how public service advertisements work, such as: Judie Lannon (2008), Nancy Lee (2006), Josephson (2005) and other scholars hoping to discover the secrets behind public service advertisements and society, such as Charles Atkin (2001) and Pan Zehong (2001).

====Research Significance and Objectives====

As the influence of Chinese culture increases internationally, more and more foreigners want to learn about China. Some want to learn Chinese, and others want to know more about the social situation. Public service advertisements (PSAs) provide such an opportunity for them to learn and better understand China.

At the same time, some social problems, such as the Cov-19 epidemic, SARS, and AIDS, may not only be a problem for China, but also for the whole world, and the PSAs can provide a Chinese perspective and Chinese wisdom to solve these problems. In addition, when a disaster occurs, such as the Wenchuan earthquake, which aroused the attention and sympathy of the international community, and some friendly countries want to provide assistance, PSAs are extremely important. In this paper, the writer will analyze different public service advertisements from the perspective of text type theory and provide translation suggestions.

Public service advertisement texts are common texts in daily life, and many scholars have discussed them from various perspectives, including the theory of purpose, aesthetic perspective, semantic translation and communicative translation perspective. However, no scholars have analyzed them from the perspective of text type theory. The writer boldly proposes to look at public-interest text translation from such a perspective, which may lead to new insights.

====Methodology====

The texts in this paper are mostly from public service advertisements released by CCTV, publicservice text messages received by the public, and public service slogans around them. This paper adopts a descriptive approach to analyze the content and purpose of the texts in detail, and also gives its own suggestions on how to translate the public service texts.

====Framework of this paper====

This paper is divided into seven chapters.

Chapter 1 introduces the background, significance and purpose of the research, methodology, and general framework of this thesis.

Chapter 2 introduces the theoretical perspective used in this paper.

Chapter 3 analyzes the characteristics of public service texts from the perspective of content and text.

Chapter 4 gives examples of texts according to the three categories of text type theory and analyzes the more appropriate translations.

Chapter 5 lists the obvious mistranslations in PSAs and gives suggested versions of the translations.

Chapter 6 summarizes the methods that can be used to translate PSA texts.

Chapter 7 summarizes what has been discussed throughout the essay and reflects on the limitations of the essay.

===Overview of Theoretical Foundation and Comparisons===

====Reiss’s View of Text Type Theory====

Katharina Reiss is the founder of the German functional school of translation, and in her book Possibilities and Limitations in Translation Criticism she presented the prototype of the functional school's theoretical ideas. Reiss's text types are divided into four main categories. She points out that content texts emphasize the depictive function, formal texts emphasize the expressive function, operative texts emphasize the persuasive function, and audio-visual texts emphasize the audio-visual function. function). Therefore, these text categories can also be referred to as informative text, expressive text, operative text, and audio-visual text, respectively. Correspondingly, there are four types of functions.(Reiss 1972)

1. Content-based text

This type of text is content-based, and the text can be used to convey information and so on. When translating, the content should be restored to the greatest extent possible. These texts mainly include news reports and commentaries, business letters, cargo lists, instructions for use, operating instructions, and other professional works in technical fields.

2. Formal texts

The focus of formal texts is on their aesthetic significance. When translating such texts, the translator should aim to create a similar text effect in the form. Formal texts include literary prose (short essays, biographies, pure literature), imaginative prose (anecdotes, short stories, novels, romances), and all forms of poetry (from didactic poetry to narrative poetry to purely emotional poetry).
If the form is not preserved in translation, the content of the text may be lost as a result.

3. Operative texts

Operative texts are concerned with the response of the recipient of the text. This type of text clearly appeals to the recipient of the text through a certain point of view and with a certain purpose, expecting to receive the desired response. The representative texts are all operative texts in which the appealing element predominates, using advertisements, propaganda, sermons, debates, agitation or satirical texts that have an expressive purpose or linguistic expression.

4. Audiovisual texts

Generally speaking, any text that requires some degree of non-verbal communication with the audience is an audio-visual text. This includes mainly radio and television scripts, such as radio news and reports, overviews of hot topics, and theater productions. In these texts, not only grammar and narration techniques, but also sound effects and visual devices (in television and film) play an important role.

====Peter Newmark’s View of Text Type Theory====

Peter Newmark is one of the leading figures in the linguistic school of British translation theory. Newmark also made a detailed classification of texts, and he summarized them into the following three types according to their contents.(Peter Newmark 2001)

1. Expressive texts

This type of text focuses on the content of the text and the author's own point of view. Newmark divides them into three types of texts. (1) serious and imaginative literature, including lyric poetry, short stories, long novels, and plays; (2) authoritative texts, including a variety of texts whose authority comes from the author's status or linguistic ability, such as speeches and statements by senior government officials and political party leaders, legal regulations, documents, and literary and academic works written by authorities; (3) autobiographies, essays, and private letters that are straightforward and have no direct readership.(Jia Heping 2015)

2. Informative texts

The text often contains some content that does not involve the emotional and opinion part, and this part of the content can have its practicality, which is the information function of the text. Typical informative texts include textbooks, technical reports, newspaper articles, scientific papers, conference proceedings, etc.

3. Operative text

The function focuses on the response of the text receiver, and the text is set to get the desired response from the receiver, to produce certain influence on them or even change their concepts and behaviors. Typical vocative texts include notices, advertising campaigns, instructions, and persuasive texts (such as requests, appeals, etc.).

He classifies language functions into six categories, based on what the philosophers of language Bühler and Jacobson have said about language functions. He believes that a text may have one function or several functions, but that one of these functions is the main one, as explained below.

1. Expressive function

Expression is a fundamental property of language. Expression is the process by which people use language to express their feelings, attitudes, and opinions. Expression focuses on output of the writer, not on the other person's reaction and feelings.

2. Informative function

The content of the text is mainly fixed, not with emotion, can be used by people in certain situations.

3. Operative function

This function focuses on the reaction of the recipient of the text, and the writer envisages the reaction of the recipient of the text when writing, in order to achieve the corresponding purpose.

4. Aesthetic function

Language contains traces of history, which represents a certain aesthetic of people. The first means used for this function is sound, and the second is metaphor. In addition, the rhythm, balance and contrast of sentences and words also have a role. The aesthetic function is present in most of the text categories, moreover, it is indispensable for poems, nursery rhymes and some advertising campaigns.

5. Interpersonal function

The interpersonal function is reflected in people's daily interactions and conversations. That is, language helps people establish relationships with each other.

6..Meta-linguistic function

Meta-linguistic function is a special function of language, refers to the language of the language itself to explain, name, analyze, comment on the function. Some expressions in the text, such as “strictly speaking, literally, so called, so to speak, by definition, etc.”, are manifestations of the meta-linguistic function.

Of the above six functions, the first three are the main ones, but within a text, there may be multiple functions, but the text itself has a focus, and rarely does textual knowledge contain purely one function.(Li Zhi 2008)

====Similarities and Differences Between Reiss's and Newmark's View of Text Type Theory====

=====Similarities=====
Both theories are based on Bühler's triadic approach to language function.

Both have the same understanding of the division and characteristics of different kinds of texts.

=====Differences=====
First of all, language used in lived interaction is the main basis for Rice's definition of text types, and these are classified as text types that value content. Newmark, on the other hand, regards such lived language as a special linguistic function, and many experts consider this understanding by Newmark problematic.

Second, there is a significant difference in their views of instructions, with Rice classifying them as informative texts because of their ability to provide certain information to readers. Newmark, on the other hand, classifies it as a operative text because of its ability to guide people and thus change their behaviors. In my opinion, the text of instruction manuals is due to the nature of the product itself, and the readers have the will to act before reading the text, and the manuals only provide them with certain information, so they should belong to the information category.

Furthermore, the language used in living interactions is the main basis for Rice's definition of text types, and these are classified as text types that value content. Newmark, however, regards this lived language as a special language function, and many experts think that this understanding of Newmark is problematic.(Jia Heping 2015)

===Features of Public Service Advertisements===

As an advertising method, public service advertisements have their own characteristics in many aspects. By analyzing the characteristics, we can accurately convey the idea that the PSA is trying to convey.

====Content Features====

1. Public welfare. The public welfare nature of PSAs is their essential feature, which is concerned with the common interests of the entire society. By observing the theme and content of the PSAs in both China and abroad, it can be seen that the topics of PSAs cover ecological protection, care for the earth, quality birth and education, opposing cults, advocating science, opposing war, advocating polite social mores, patriotism, and so on.

2. Non-Profit. Public service advertisements are non-profit in nature. It does not exist for an organization or a business entity, but rather to draw people’s attention to and activate action on social issues. Commercial advertising, on the other hand, exists for financial gain.

3. Popularity. The public service advertisements are made for the general public. As the audience's cultural level, the ability to understand different, so public service advertisements must be easy to understand. It not only requires the spread of advertising content to have universal significance, but also the form of popular, concise, accessible language, easy to understand. Only in this way, the public service advertisement can really serve the purpose of the public.

4. Creativity. The advertising market is so diverse that the only way to make advertisements spread to the public is to design them in a creative and meaningful way that will make them known to
more people.

====The Features of Text Forms====

1.Advertising texts that we see in our daily lives include slogans, public service messages and public service videos, and so on. Advertising slogans are usually short and meaningful, with simple counterpoint sentences, and are operative texts. On the other hand,public service messages are mostly preventive messages issued by social organizations to help disseminate precautions and draw people’s attention to an unexpected situation in order to maintain social order. They are mostly informative texts. Most PSAs have a complete storyline, thought-provoking dialogue, and a short slogan that summarizes the message of the ad.

2. Public service advertisements are often designed with certain rhetorical techniques to enhance the aesthetics of the ad, make it catchy to read, and ultimately leave a deep impression on the public.

====Similarities and Differences Between Chinese and English PSA texts====

=====Similarities=====

1. Public service texts in both languages often use certain rhetorical techniques, such as personification, alliteration, and end-rhyme, in order to evoke a call to action.

2. Public service texts in both languages often use short sentences, especially in public service slogans, which are easy to remember and achieve the desired effect.

3. Both languages use idioms and sayings that have been around for a long time.

=====Differences=====

1. Chinese public service texts are good at using strong words such as "forbidden", while English texts use more euphemistic words such as "Please". When translating, we should respect the habits of the translating countries in order to better play the role of public welfare texts.

2. Chinese public service texts tend to use poetry-like forms, with seven or five characters in order to be neatly matched. In English, they mostly use phrases of the same number of words to match each other.

3.The translation of advertising slogans also needs to respect certain cultural differences, as Western societies emphasize the individual while the Chinese value collectivism. For example:

Example 1：保护生态环境，造福子孙后代。

Translation 1:Leave a sound ecological environment to your children.

Such a slogan in Chinese emphasizes the impact on future generations without specifying whose children and grandchildren it is, but in the translation, the translator translates it as "Leave a sound ecological environment to your children.” to call on people to protect the environment.

4. Westerners focus on direct expressions, while Chinese expressions are more subtle. For example:

Example 2: 司机一滴酒，亲人两行泪。

Translation:Drink and drive costs your life.

The sentence contrasts the words "酒" and "泪" without directly pointing out the possible serious consequences, leaving the reader to think about them and take actions. Instead, the translator simply translates it as "Drink and drive costs your life.”(Li Qingxue, Wang Huaiwang 2019)

===Examples of C-E Translation of Public Service Advertisements===

====Operative Text====

Most of the PSAs are operative texts, and the pupose of operative texts in PSAs is to affect the public in order to attain the desired response from the advertisers. PSAs are created to publicize something of common social interest in order to attract attention and action, so the creative design of the advertisement should take this into account and retain the appealing elements of the original text when designing the advertisement.

Example 3: 爱心播散希望萌芽

Translation: Spread love Sow hope

The public service advertisement slogan is from a public service advertisement released by CCTV in 2016, which tells the story of Zhao Xiaoting, a student from Wuhan University, who volunteered to go to Guizhou to teach in the mountains. It was her selfless love that sowed hope for the children in the mountains. The ad reflects the great power of ordinary people and promotes the core values of socialism. It shows the power that volunteering can bring.

The ad is very short, with a neat counterpoint, and the verb and noun have been swapped in the translation, with the verb being in front of the noun, indicating a dynamic process that can arouse the public's recognition of the act and inspire them to join in and contribute to the poor areas. The second verb in the original text is "萌芽", but the translation uses "sow" to indicate the growth of hope, which is similar to the original text.(Jin Haibing 2005)
In addition, the translation version capitalize these two verbs to emphasize these selfless behavior. Learning from this, we can also adopt this translation skill which originates from the difference between Chinese and English.

Example 4: 有你在，就是家。

Translation：You bring me warmth of home.

In this short film, a father in a rural area has never been away from home, and because he misses his son, who has not been home for a long time, he sets out on his own to visit him. The father has to change various means of transportation to get to the city, and encounters many difficulties because his being unable to speak mandarin well. The helpless father finally gets help from the staff, through whom he contacts his son. Eventually they both cry, and the short film ends with the father sitting on his son's motorcycleand going home together.

The short film is very touching, and through the process of going into the city to look for his son, it shows us how brave and gentle people can be for love. If we translate the text word by word in the original order, we can't express this meaning, so we use phrases like "bringing sb warmth" to express the meaning of the original Chinese.(Ye Qiuling 2020)

====Informative Text====

Public service messages are informatiive texts, mainly used to convey certain information, with straightforward and concise text content, and the translator only needs to express its literal meaning directly when translating.

Example 5：请您收到来自境外、国内新冠疫情中高风险地区的邮件、包裹，先对物品表面进行消毒，或在阳台等室外空旷处放置一段时间再打开。处理完包裹、邮件后，应立即用肥皂或洗手液清洗双手，或用免洗手消毒剂进行消毒。洗手前双手不触碰口、鼻、眼等部位。疫情防控有您的参与才能胜利！

Translation: If you receive mail or parcels from overseas or domestic areas at high risk of Cov-19 outbreak, please disinfect the suface of the items first, and leave them on the balcony or other outdoor open space for a period of time before opening them. Immediately after handling parcels and mail, wash your hands with soap and hand sanitizer, or disinfect them with hand sanitizer. Do not touch your mouth, nose, eyes or other parts of your body before washing your hands. Outbreak prevention and control can only be won with your participation!

Example 6：应急公益短信:为严防新型冠状病毒感染的肺炎疫情，山东省严禁任何形式的野生动物交易活动，严禁野生动物对外扩散和转运贩卖。对于违反规定的经营者、经营场所将予以停业整顿、查封，涉嫌犯罪的，将移送公安机关。社会各界如有发现违法违规交易野生动物的，欢迎拔打12345等投诉举报。

Translation: In order to prevent the outbreak of pneumonia due to new coronavirus infection, any form of wildlife trade is strictly prohibited in Shandong Province, and the proliferation and trafficking of wildlife is strictly prohibited. The company's main goal is to provide the best service to the public.
If you are suspected of committing a crime, you will be transferred to the public security organs. If any
illegal trade of wild animals is found, the community is welcome to call 12345 to report complaints.

====Expressive Text====

The purpose of an expressive text is to express emotions and attitudes, the language focuses on aesthetics, and the focus of the text is on the form of expression, which requires attention to equity in translation. With the development of the economy and society and the improvement of people's living standards, the aesthetic level of the masses is also improving, and accordingly, the translation of advertising slogans should also change to adapt to the improvement of people's aesthetics.

Example 7：善行无痕一种习惯的美丽

Translation: Kindness is traceless. A habit of beauty.

The slogan is from a public service advertisement by CCTV in 2016. In the short film, a wife walks into a room to rest after stopping on the balcony for a long time, and her husband comes back and intends to tum off the balcony light to save electricity. The wife stops the husband, and the camera turns to two elderly sanitation workers who are finishing their meal by the light of the lamp she left for them, which the young couple lit for them in the night.

Such kindness is obviously not accidental,but has been a habit of the wife in the short film, and is therefore natural and touching. The ad is intended to call attention to good deeds and habit formation through a story like this one. The ad's slogan is a literal translation, with "善行" translated as "Kindness" and "无痕" as "traceless"."The use of end-rhyme rhetoric, which pursues equivalence of expressions and enhances the rhythmic beauty of the language, impresses readers and influences their perceptions and habits of good deeds, serving as a public service advertisement.(LiQingxue, Wang Huaiwang 2019)

Example 8：保护肺脏，珍爱生命。（禁烟广告）

Translation: Save your lung, save your life.

The slogan comes from an anti-smoking advertisement that uses the alliteration, “lung” and “life”, to emphasize that quitting smoking is about protecting your lungs and your life. The two “saves” remind people that smoking is harmful to their health and that they should quit smoking as soon as possible to save themselves.

===Misinterpretation of Public Service Advertisments===

====Chinglish====
Chinglish refers to word-for- word translations that do not consider translation strategies from the perspective of the receiving language and cultural differences, and often cause difficulties in comprehension for the receiving readers.

Example 9：小心地滑

Misinterpretation: Foot Care.

Suggested translation: Mind your step.

The above misinterpretation is translated word-for-word, which not only makes it difficult for the recipient readers to read, but also affects the image of the city as a whole, so more citizens are taking notice and taking action to reject "dead translation" and "Chinglish".

====Grammatical errors====
Most grammatical errors are caused by the translator's own incompetence, mainly in the use of articles, subject- predicate inconsistencies, mis-matching of verb phrases, and word confusion.

Example 10：珍爱生命远离毒品。

Mistranslation: Yes to life, no to drugs.

Suggested translation: Cherish life and avoid drugs.

The public service advertisement came from an anti-drug advertisement, obviously the mistranslated structure of the translation does not fit English conventions.

====Inappropriate Use of Words====
There are some words in English that are very similar to each other, and improper use of words means that the translator uses words haphazardly without clearly distinguishing between similar words, resulting in a misinterpretation.

Example 11：关爱残障人士

Improper translation: Care for the handicapped.

Suggested translation: Care for the disabled.

The slogan is from a public service advertisement in which the word "handicapped," which translates to "the handicapped," is now somewhat outdated and contains a certain amount of offensive language that sometimes causes people to be It would make more sense to change it to "the disabled", relatively speaking.

====Redundancy====
The redundancy is due to the fact that the translators do not fully understand the differences between Chinese and foreign cultures and the purpose of the text.

Example12：一花一草皆生命一枝一叶总关情

Improper Translation: Alive as all living things each flower and leaf of grasses require our care.

Suggested Translation: Please give me a chance to grow.

The original translator intended to present a vivid description of the original slogan in front of people, but failed to consider that the slogan was intended to arouse people's love for flowers and plants. We suggest that the translation should start from the operative textual features of the slogan and combine it with the straightforward expression habits of foreigners to call on people to take care of flowers and plants in a more euphemistic way.

===Methods of C-E Translation of Public Service Advertising===

====Literal Translation====

The main characteristics of literal translation are twofold: in the treatment of word meanings and rhetoric (e. g., metaphors), it does not use transitive techniques (this distinguishes "literal translation"from "free translation"); in the treatment of linguistic forms (i.e., lexical-syntactic structure), it allows appropriate changes and shifts (This distinguishes "literal translation" from "word- for-word translation").(Xiong Bing 2013) For example.

Example 13: 我的盛开需要你的关爱

Translation : Luxuriant flowers need your care.

The translation retains the personification of the original, treating flowers as species with emotions, but directly specifies that "I" means "flower", which is in line with the habit of expression of the target audience and serves as a reminder.

Example 14: 节约用水就是珍爱生命

Translation : To save water is to save life

The original text translates "conserve water" and "cherish life" into a neat pairing, and the translation also translates them into a neat pairing, and the expression is in line with the habits of expression of the people in the receive language. Both the original text and the translation equate "conserve water" with "cherish life" to arouse the attention of the masses and advertise the importance of saving water.

====Paraphrase====

A paraphrase translation is one in which the translator does not stick to the details of the meaning of the original text, much less to its vocabulary and syntactic structure, but "uses the original text as a reference model" and either translates only the general meaning, gist or key information (or selectively some of it) by condensing it, or translates it into a text with more information compared to the original article. (Xiong Bing 2013) For example.

Example 15:爱我,追我,千万别吻我。

Translation: Drive carefully!

The original text is from a public service advertisement advocating cautious driving. The translation does not follow the literal meaning, but rather the translator uses a paraphrasing technique after understanding the meaning of the sentence and chooses two words to express the meaning. It is short and serves as a warning to motorists.

Example 16：手下留情花自香，脚下留意草如茵。

Translation: Take care of grass and flowers, please.

The original text is a public service slogan with Chinese cultural characteristics, but it is difficult to find a corresponding expression in English when translating. Here the translator uses an invocation to remind the masses.

====Borrowing Translation====

A borrowing Translation is an explanation that replaces the original word or phrase by borrowing the idiom of the target language. For example.

Example 17: 爱心传递你我，文明就在身边。

Translation: Where there is a love, there is a virtue.

The original is a slogan from an advertisement for the Olympic Games, which is a medium for promoting the spirit of the Games and the country's outlook. The translator chose a well-known proverb from the translated country, "Where there is a will, there is a way," to expand the publicity effect.

Example 18: 让世界倾听我们的声音

Translation : Let our voice be heard in the world.

The original text was a slogan from a CCTV public service advertisement, which was based on the lyrics "Let our voice be heard.

===Conclusion===

In this paper, the writer divides and analyzes different texts and explain the approaches they take in translation. This perspective of using text type theory to analyze and discuss how to translate public service texts may be of some help to scholars.

According to different texts, the text type theory has its own emphasis in translation, and different PSA texts are mostly operative texts, and sometimes one text has multiple textual characteristics, which translators can take into full consideration when choosing the emphasis and translation methods.
Public service translation is very different from commercial advertising translation, which is mainly used to educate the public, convey correct and positive values, encourage people to take actions to help others, and create a good social environment to resist bad behaviors. Generally speaking, it is necessary to consider the actual situation when translating the PSAs.

Through analyzing the texts of PSAs, the author has made the following discoveries, and the translation of PSAs can be done according to the text type theory. Although there are some cultural differences between the two languages, the differences do not make translation difficult to achieve. If literal translation cannot translate the meaning of the source text, then paraphrase,borrowing translation and other translation methods can also be used.

===Limitation===

In this paper, I put forward some personal ideas, but in the final version, I can still find my own shortcomings. First of all, there is still a lack of richness of information due to the limitation of space. Secondly, the depth of my ideas is still insufficient, and I only hope that this article can provide some research ideas for researchers and contribute to the translation of public service texts.

===References===

Newmark .(2001).P.A Textbook of Translation .Shanghai :Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

Reiss,Katherina.(2004).Translation Criticism: the potential & limitation . trans .by Erroll F.Rhodes .Shanghai :Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

Chen Yanhong 陈燕红. (2012). 文化视角中汉英公益广告的翻译策略 [Translation Strategies of Chinese-English Public Service Advertisements in Cultural Perspective].

Jin Haibing 金海兵. (2005). 试谈公益广告标语及其翻译 [On Analyzing Public Service Advertisements and Their Translation].

Jia Heping 贾和平. (2019). 论纽马克与赖斯的文本分类比较研究 [A Comparative Study on Newmark’s and Reiss’s Text Type Classification ].

Li Zhi 李治. (2008). 论纽马克与赖斯的文本分类比较研究 [Newmark’s and Reiss’s Text Type Classification and A Comparative Analysis of Translation Methodology ].

Li Qingxue, Wang Huaiwang 李庆学王怀望. (2019). 接受美学视角下的公益广告翻译 [A Study of English Translation of Public Service Advertisements from the Perspective of Reception Aesthetics].

Liu Xiaofang 刘晓芳. (2015). 目的论视角下《中国日报》公益广告英译的探析 [The English Translation of PSAs in China Daily from the Perspective of Skopos theorie].

Xiong Bing 熊兵. (2013). 翻译研究中的概念混淆 [Conceptual Confusion in Translation Studies].

Ye Qiuling 叶秋伶. (2020). 语义翻译和交际翻译理论视角下中文公益广告英译——以央视公益广告为例 [English Translation of Chinese Public Service Advertisements from the Perspective of Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation Theory - Taking CCTV Public Service Advertisements as an Example].

20201228 trans

2020-12-28T07:10:15Z

Weiyafei: /* Wen Sixing 文偲荇 */

==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==
'''Zhu Ziqing'''

A third example, where an author shows another face in his essays is Zhu Ziqing. He is known as the author of the most often reprinted story-like Chinese essay "''Back View''" (Beiying), a standard school text. The success of this essay lies in the fact, that it applies to filial pity. From the reported fare-well scene with his father at the train station, he learned that his father loved him and that he had grown-up too now.
==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==
This self-reflective essay helped Zhu to find himself through the observation of the other (here his father). The 2nd often printed essay is also from Zhu. Parallelistic and repetitive structures are the driving factor in the atmospherical nebulous lyrical landscape desription "''The Moonlit Lotus Pond''", whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader.

Zhu Ziqing supposedly opposed all political engagement and, wrote about unspectacular things. In Taiwan he became a type of substitute for the categorically refused state writer of the People’s Republic, Lu Xun, mainly because of Zhu’s supposed political independence.

通过他人的观察（这里主要指朱自清的父亲），这篇自我反省式的文章帮助朱自清认清了自己。经常出版的第二版本也来自朱自清。“荷塘月色”中描述的天空星云，抒情般的景色是通过平行结构和重复结构中展现出来的，这种风格使西方读者很容易辨别。

据称朱自清反对一切政治参与，只写不引人注意的事情。在台湾，主要因为朱自清的所谓政治独立，他因而代替了明确反对民国的作家鲁迅。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 14:33, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Han 陈涵==
I would like to show with three examples that Zhu had absolutely clear political ideas: He had taken part in the demonstration March 18, 1926, which ended in a massacre. Zhu described this in ''"Report On the Massacre of the Government''"[ (Zhizhengfu da tusha ji).].

''Shots were still being fired, and the entrance of the east gate was packed with people. [...] Pushing and shoving, we climbed over them with great effort. We must have lost our senses then, not seeing, to our shame, the grotesqueness of our action. ''

我想用三个例子说明，朱自清有绝对明确的政治思想。1926年3月18日，他参加了示威游行，这场游行最终以屠杀告终。朱自清在《执政府大屠杀记》中对此进行了描述。

''这时枪声未歇，东门口拥塞得几乎水泄不通。[...] 我们便推推搡搡，拥挤着，挣扎着，从他们身上踏上去。那时理性真失了作用，竟恬然不以为怪似的。'' --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:39, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Hui 陈惠==
''[...]I was still walking on top of the people. No one dared to miss a single step, filing through the gate that divided safety from danger, one that would give us life or take our lives away. [...] My efforts finally brought me down to the ground, sealing my fate as I rolled down from the human pile. [...] I learned later that some of the people by the gate were dead, killed by the pistol squad firing from the other side of the gate. When I recall stepping over dead bodies, I cannot help but tremble with fear. [...]''
==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==
From this experience, Zhu addresses directly the repsonsible political leaders:

''Duan Qirui, you must think about it! [...] How could we explain this to the world? [...] Granted, Duan Qirui and others could commit such atrocities without a thought; but how could we, the people of China, face the world with such a shameless government? [...] We, [...], must ask, „So many were killed—what should we do?“''
经过这次经验，朱直接给负责相关部门的政府官员写信道：“段祺瑞，你好好想一想！[…]我们要怎么跟世界人民解释？[…]当然了，段祺瑞和其他士兵不用想都会承认这次的暴行；但是，我们，作为中华人民共和国，怎么能以这样一种无耻的政府面对世界？，[…]我们，[…]必须要问，这么多人牺牲了，我们应该做什么？”--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 15:11, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==
In contrast, Lu Xun has portrayed the same massacre with sighing undertone and Zhou Zuoren bitter-humorously in his "''Ways to die''"[ (Si fa).] - in which he finds "to be shot" the best method to die. The supposedly less politically engaged Zhu shows here more engagement.

The essay "''Facing the New China''"[ (Xin Zhongguo zai wang zhong).] is Zhu's political manifest: He asks for democracy, enlightenment and an increase of the education level.
相比之下，鲁迅用悲伤的笔调描绘了同样的大屠杀，而周作人在他的《死亡之道》中讽刺地写道—他发现“被枪杀”是最好的死亡方法。据说较少参与政治的朱自清在这里表现出更多的参与。
文章《面对新中国》是朱自清的政治体现：他要求民主，启蒙和提高教育水平。--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 06:51, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==
''China has to be born again through democratization. [...] The people should express their own will, concentrate on their own strength. Every level of administration should build up on the expressed will and strength of the people and struggle for the majority and its greatest happiness. This means that the people govern, the people own, the people enjoy.''

A few weeks before his death, he demanded in the speech ''"Today's duty of the Intellectuals''"[ (Zhishifenzi jintian de renwu).] the participation of the intellectual in the struggle for a better society.

“中国必须通过民主化重生。[...]人们应该表达自己的意志，集中自己的力量。各级行政机关都应该建立在人民的意志和力量的基础之上，并且为大多数人及其最大化的幸福而奋斗。也就是民治，民有，民享。”

”中国必须用过民主化重生。[...]人们应当表达他们自身的意志，集中力量。各级政府都应建立在人民意志和力量基础之上，并为大部分人民及其最大幸福而奋斗。也就是民治、民有、民享。”--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 13:15, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

在他去世的几周前，他在 “知识分子今天的职责”的演讲中要求知识分子参与建设更好的社会。--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 11:31, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing

==Chen Sha 陈莎==
With only a handful of essays I have demonstrated, that the picture of these three authors changes substantially, if we read carefully also their less known essayistic work. Imagine now how the picture of 20th century Chinese literature might change, if the literary histories and anthologies would not only tell the history of drama, fiction and poetry, but would also grant the essay its proper place. The following part of my paper are results of my monograph on the 20th century Chinese essay.
==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==
'''The essay boom as a mirror reflecting growing individuality, participation in the public sphere, and the giddy-paced character of modern Chinese society'''

Acquiring an overview of the essay and assessing its essence has required extensive research in bookstores and libraries, in the People's Republic of China, Taiwan, Hong Kong and the United States for available resources in the form of essay book collections as well as secondary literature dealing with the essay.

'''散文潮就像一面镜子，反映出了日渐显著的个体性、公众场合的参与度和现代中国社会令人眼花缭乱的种种特质'''

对散文进行全面审视，并分析其内在本质，要求我们在中华人民共和国、台湾、香港和美国的各大书店、图书馆开展广泛研究，获取散文集或涉及散文主题的二次文献等可用资源。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 00:35, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==
I built a database for a statistical analysis to rank more than 5000 essays and 1400 essayists. It turned out that out of the top 60 most famous Chinese essays only 14 had been translated into English so far. The forthcoming collection of Tam King-fai adds 4 and my own one the remaining 42.

Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report[ (baogao wenxue) (Klaschka 1998).].

我建立了一个用于统计分析的数据库，对5000余篇散文和1400名散文家进行排名。事实证明，迄今为止，在中国最著名的60篇论文中，只有14篇被翻译成英文。谭景辉即将出版的散文选集另有新翻译的4篇，我自己则翻译余下的42篇。

分析表明，自1979年以来，总体上来说，散文发表有所增加，在“文化大革命”之后还出现了两次热潮，在1990年达到了新的高度。首次增加出现在20世纪20年代和30年代，此后便被报告文学所取代（Klaschka 1998）。--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:41, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Cheng Yusi 成于思==
The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous essay bookseries[ sanwen congshu 散文叢書.].

The reason for the increase in essay production, which we can date right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in the sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for the survey. There are three reasons for the increase in Chinese essay production and popularity in the mid-1990s:
==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==
1, The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts, as Hall has put it: “[...] we live in an age of exposition”[ (Hall 1984:xiii).].

2, The increasing consciousness of individuality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands.

3, A revival of interest in discussing socio-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.

1，当前中国社会的快节奏需要分篇和短篇文本。正如霍尔所言，：“ ......我们生活在博览会时代。” [（Hall 1984：xiii）]。

2，对于正在增强的个人意识来说，散文是主观表达的最直接形式，甚至比具有韵律和形式要求的诗歌更直接。

3，通过散文讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复兴，就像1920年代/ 30年代那样。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 14:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==
If we look carefully at essay collections not only published in the United States, but also in Hong Kong, Taiwan and the People’s Republic, we find the following three reasons for the under- and overestimation of single essayists or essays which correspond to regional differences:

1, EXOTIC In the United States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones.

如果我们仔细观察在美国出版的，以及在香港、台湾和中华人民共和国出版的散文集，我们会发现以下三个原因导致人们低估和高估了回应地域差异的单个散文家或散文:

1、异国情调在美国，散文往往是根据西方人的口味来选择的，完全不知名的作者和老牌作家拥有一样多的空间。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 09:37, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

如果我们细细研读在美国出版的，以及在中国香港、台湾和大陆出版的散文集，我们会发现以下三个原因导致人们因地域差异而低估或高估了某些散文家或散文:

1、异国情调在美国，散文往往是根据西方人的口味来选择的，名不见经传的作者和著名的作家拥有同样多的市场。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling

==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==
2, SOCIO-POLITICAL In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, as the mentioned survey proofs, he ranks 12th among modern authors there. Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.

3, PERSONAL Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by his disciple Huang Weiliang in favor for Yu.[ (see Lin Yaode 1989:50).]

Having named reasons for the essay boom and for the support for and the suppression of different actors in the cultural field of the essay, I would like to finish my paper by naming a few trends of the essay as they appear at the eve of the century.

2、社会政治在台湾，鲁迅被禁锢了很久，但如今，如上述调查证明，他在台湾现代作家中排名第12位。在中华人民共和国，王蒙因其政治职务而被高估。

3，个人在香港关于余光中的文学被他的弟子黄伟良检查和删节，他是赞成余光中的。（见林耀德1989：50）。

在列举了一些关于论文热潮以及在论文文化领域中对不同行为者的支持和压制的原因之后，我想通过列举几世纪前夕出现的一些论文趋势来结束我的论文。--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 14:51, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==
The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consumer-orientation of the masses. The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educational claim with the exception of essays which claim to be "art pourt l'art".

政治散文的主题从1907年兴起的启蒙教育散文转变为20世纪20-30年代的日常政治散文，又进一步于20世纪40年代转变为反日宣传，于20世纪50-60年代发展为意识形态宣传。然而到了20世纪80年代，（文学和电影）都在讨论最佳社会制度，于是有关政治问题的主题复兴，但20世纪90年代时，主题又变成了非政治性，更加哲学道德的主题范畴，那会，散文家们首先对照大众的消费导向来定义角色。除了声称“艺术倾注的”文章外，在中国，这类散文似乎是保留了教育主张的唯一体裁。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 12:42, 27 December 2020

政治类散文的局部发展从1907年兴起的启蒙教育类转变为20世纪20-30年代的日常政治散文，又进一步于20世纪40年代转变为反日宣传，于20世纪50-60年代发展为意识形态宣传。然而到了20世纪80年代，（文学和电影中）对于最佳社会制度的探讨使得政治话题再次变得火热。但20世纪90年代时，写作主题又转向非政治性，以及更加哲学道德的范畴，那会，散文家们首先会对照大众的消费导向来定义角色。除了声称“艺术倾注的”文章外，在中国，这类散文似乎是保留了教育主张的唯一体裁。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:53, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==
The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing ("''On dreams''"[ "Shuo meng 說夢" On dreams in: Zhu Ziqing 1928.]) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 ("''My own garden''"[ 9.1923.], "''The Fly''"[ 1924.], "''Reading on the Toilet''"[ 1936.]), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the newly encountered world of mass consumerism.

非政治类文章的局部发展始于朱自清以及周作人1917年开始写的每日随想（朱自清1928年发表的散文《说梦》；周作人1923年发表的《自己的园地》、1924年发表的《苍蝇》、1936年发表的《入厕读书》）。自1927年的修正，政治类文章成为主流，直到20世纪30年代末期，非政治类文章因为抗日战争的爆发完全消失。直到20世纪70年代，人民生活回归正常，非政治类文章才重新现世，由于消失太久，日常琐事成为当时热门的写作话题。20世纪90年代，由于政治话题热度的下降以及进入新时代为迎合广大群众而开发新话题的需要，非政治类文章又迎来一次高潮。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:46, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==
In the end of this century not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. Among the upper list places of the political essay after 1949 there are critical essays. For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain.

在本世纪末，位于排行榜前列的不是政府要求的肯定性文本，而是非政治性的文章位于前列。尤其是从1923年到1928年，大部分非政治性文章可以追溯到共和党时代。这一观察结果得到上述统计分析结果的支持。在1949年以后的政治论文中，排名较高的有批评文章。在中华人民共和国，台湾和香港最常选择的论文中，道德和美学标准似乎已成为基础话题。--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 06:56, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==
A sign for the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publishing houses with an orientation for customers (former: "readers"). Following the emotional essays of Zhu Ziqing who rank 1st and 2nd, ''nostalgia'' is the element of emotional identification in "''Wild vegetables of my home region''" by Zhou Zuoren, which ranks 3rd[ In Jia Pingwa's "Moon traces", which ranks 11, and in Ba Jin's "''Paradise for Birds''", which ranks 19]. Therefore one can state, that moving essays form the top.
==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==
In 1927, Chinese literature took the form of 'engaged literature'. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics in daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology. In the later half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of individuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife.

1927年，中国文学出现了“参与文学”的形式。不同于那个时候，在20世纪90年代，有关日常利益的政治讨论只占很小的一部分。 20世纪80年代，包括诗歌和散文在内的所有流派都被批评家用来反对共产主义的主要叙事或毛泽东主义对艺术作为意识形态的理解。 20世纪90年代下半页，主讲者本人似乎迷失在个人的主观性以及越来越正式化但基本上空虚的城市生活的日常亵渎和平庸中。--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 01:35, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==
In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only remiscent element left is the patriotism.[ ''Trends like the use of ordinary language'', which one finds in novels since 1993 (''Jia Pingwa'', Feidu; ''Gu Cheng'', Yingger) and New Borderlessness since 1995, cannot be proven in the essaywriting.The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable ''object d'art''.]

上个世纪90年代，80年代的政论文随笔文化逐渐隐没了，唯一剩下留有想象空间的元素就是爱国主义。[“比如使用普通语言的趋势”，这是从1993年以来在小说中发现的（“贾平凹”）费杜，古格，英格）以及自1995年以来，《新无边际》都无法在论文写作中得到证明，我们之所以没有找到后现代小说意义上的后现代散文，是因为文章的直接性：随笔作为一种体裁，是作者和读者之间的对话，而不是想要引起不同解释的原因或可能依赖于特殊形式或内容甚至是按顺序引用前现代特征的艺术品，这使它成为一个与众不同的“艺术品”。]--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 13:06, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

'''References''' [partly mentioned with German translation] （不用翻）

Vera Schwarcz 1996, Vera Schwarcz, "The pain of sorrow: public uses of personal grief in modern China", in Daedalus: Journal of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (Winter 1996)

Ba Jin 1982, Ba Jin: "Yi feng huixin 一封回信" (Ein Antwortbrief (26.10.1982)), in: Bing zhong ji 病中集 (Auf dem Krankenlager), Hongkong 香港 1984(?) (Series Suixiang lu 隨想錄 (Thoughts) Bd 4), 147 pp.

Ba Jin 1982a, Ba Jin: "Yi pian xuwen 一篇序文" (Ein Vorwort) [dated 1982.9/10], in: Ba Jin: Auf dem Krankenlager 1984

Ba Jin 1956, Ba Jin 巴金: "Duli sikao 獨立思考" (Unabhängig denken), in: Li Jisheng 李濟生, Li Xiaolin 李小林 (Hgg.): Ba Jin liushi nian wenxuan (1927 - 1986), Suixiang lu, zagan, sanwen, xuba, yanjiang, shuxin 巴金六十年文選（１９２７－１９８６）隨想錄·雜感·散文·序跋· 演講·書信 (Ba Jin. Werkauswahl aus 60 Jahren (1927 - 1986), Gedanken, vermischte Gefühle, Essays, Vor- und Nachworte, Reden, Briefe), Shanghai 上海: Shanghai wenyi chubanshe 上海文藝出版社 (Literatur- und Kunstverlag Shanghai), 1986.12, S. 461 - 462 [Datiert auf 1956.]

Ba Jin 1962, "Zuojia de yongqi yu zerenxin 作家的勇氣與責任心" (Mut und Verantwortungsbewußtsein der Schrifsteller) 1962; der Essay von Zhou Zuoren 周作人: "Wenxue tan 文學談" (Über Literatur), in: Tan long ji 談龍集 (Über Drachen. Sammlung), Shanghai 上海: Kaiming shudian 開明書店 (Kaiming Buchladen) 1927.12, Nachdruck: Hongkong 香港: Shiyong shuju 使用書局 (Praxisverlag) 1972.1, 310 S., S. 165 - 167

Zhou Zuoren 1919, Zhou Zuoren, "Zuxian chongbai 1919 (Ancestor Worship)," in Early Essays, op.cit., pp. 78

Zhou Zuoren 1920: Zhou Zuoren 周作人, Xin wenxue de yaoqiu 新文學的要求" (The demand of the New Literature) [lecture], in Beiping shaonian xuehui 北平少年學會 (Beiping youth conference) 1920.1.6, in: Zhang Ruoying 長若英: Xin wenxue yundong shi ziliao 新文學運動史資料 (Material on the history of the New Literature movement), Shanghai 上海: Guangming shuju 光明書局 (Guangming bookstore) (1934.9) ²1936.9, 291-296

Zhou Zuoren 1923, Zhou Zuoren: Yanzhicao ba (Preface to Yu Pingbo's Yanzhicao), in: Yongri ji (Book of Eternal Day), Shanghai: Beixin shuju 1929, 180-181

Zhou Zuoren 1929, Zhou Zuoren: Ertong de shu (The books of children), in: Chenbao fukan (1923.8.17)

Zhou Zuoren yuanliu, Zhou Zuoren: Zhongguo xin wenxue de yuanliu (Sources of New Chinese Literature), p 71

Zhou Zuoren 1932, Zhou Zuoren: Lun baguwen 1932, in: Kanyun ji p. 148

Source: NEAAS annual meeting 10/09/1999 New Haven (Yale University)

==Guo Lu 郭露==
'''Modern Chinese Literature and the Essay Genre: A New Perspective'''

''Martin Woesler''

In this paper, I will not recount the contents and propose interpretations of any essays, nor will I outline the main topics or styles of essaywriting in China, but I would like to take the opportunity to reflect a little bit on the phenomenon of the genre itself and discuss some conclusions and hypotheses with the attentive and critical audience which can be found at only a few places on earth, EALC at Harvard definitely being one of them.

《中国现代文学与散文体裁：以新视角》

''吴漠汀''

在本文中,我将不再赘述任何文章的内容和提出的观点,我也不会列出其主要主题或风格,但是我想借此机会,反映一些现象本身的类型，并与包括哈佛大学学生在内的观众对一些结论和假设进行探讨。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:16, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

《中国现代文学与散文体裁：新视角》

吴漠汀

本文将不再赘述或解释任何文章的内容，也不会列出中国散文的主要主题或风格。我想借此机会，反思体裁现象，同乐于助人、至关重要且世间少有的读者，包括哈佛大学东亚语言和文化学院的学生，对一些结论和假设进行探讨。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:28, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==
'''1. The unknown genre'''

The literary-historical narrative told by anthologies and collections of the 20th century has drawn an incomplete picture of Chinese literature: The genre of the essay was lacking. In my paper I will ask, if the picture of literature can remain unchanged, if we take into consideration also the essay. The genre has been neglected for a long time as a genre of merit (Margouliès 1949, Schmidt-Glintzer 1990) or overlooked (McNaughton 1974, Leiden 1988-90, McDougall 1998);

'''1.未知体裁'''

二十世纪文选和选集里的文学史的叙述对于整个中国文学来说是不完整的：散文题材是缺失的。在我的论文里我将要探寻是否文学整个文学框架依旧保持不变，是否把散文体裁考虑进去。作为一种具有优势的体裁它已经被忽视了很久了。（马古烈 1949，施寒薇 1990）或者被省略（约翰·麦克诺顿 1974，莱顿 1988-90，杜博妮 1998）；--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 11:09, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

'''1.未知体裁'''

20世纪选集所讲述的文学历史叙事，描绘了一幅不完整的中国文学图景:：散文题材是缺失的。在我的论文里我将要探寻是否文学整个文学框架依旧保持不变，是否把散文体裁考虑进去。作为一种具有优势的体裁它已经被忽视了很久了。（马古烈 1949，施寒薇 1990）或者被省略（约翰·麦克诺顿 1974，莱顿 1988-90，杜博妮 1998）；--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 12:30, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

'''1.未知体裁'''

20世纪的选集和文集所讲述的文学史叙事，勾勒出一幅不完整的中国文学图景。散文的体裁是缺乏的。在我的论文中将要探讨如果我们把散文也考虑进去，文学的图景是否可以保持不变。长期以来，这一文体作为一种优秀的文体被忽视（马古利耶斯1949年，施密特-格林策1990年）或被忽略（麦克诺顿1974年，莱顿1988-90年，麦克杜格尔1998年）。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 15:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==
whereas its elder brother, fiction, has been prized ever since the valuing of fictional literature and the vernacularisation of writing in early Republican China, which followed from the master narrative established by the May 4th movement. Modern anthologies would have the reader believe that a triumvirate of poetry, fiction and drama forms the backbone of modern Chinese literary output.

由于自民国初年五四运动确立的总叙事之后，对小说文学的重视和写作的白话化，因而它的系列小说，就一直受到重视。现代选本会让读者相信诗歌、小说、戏剧这三驾马车构成了中国现代文学创作的主干。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 15:20, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==He Changqi 何长琦==
'''Excursion: Defining the essay as a non-fictional subjective representation in a free form'''

Similar to international literature, the basic subdivision of literature in China in general is one in three types: epic (with xiaoshuo (fiction), sanwen (non-fictional prose)), lyrics (shige) and drama (xiqu). Though there is no pure epic form, fiction and prose are often jointly addressed with the Chinese term "wu yunwen" which corresponds to the term "epic" in the West. The types may be distinguished roughly by their nature in the following way: In the epic, bygone events are retold, a broad, filled story dominates the foreground.
==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==
In the lyrics, the reader is encouraged to feel the current sensations and often confessionlike feelings of the poet. The drama recalls a self-contained action directly in monologue or dialogue and in this way unburdens the re-creative imagination of the readers/spectators through it. The essay as a genre of the epic is a detached non-fictional subjective representation in a free form.
在抒情诗中，读者被鼓励去感受当下的感觉，并且常常是诗人的忏悔式的感觉。戏剧直接在独白或对话中回忆起一个自足的动作，以这种方式释放了读者/观众重新创造的想象力。散文作为史诗的一种体裁，是一种超脱的、非虚构的、自由形式的主观表现。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 02:29, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

在抒情诗中，鼓励读者感受诗人当下的感觉，且这种感觉常常是诗人的忏悔。戏剧直接以独白或对话的方式回忆一个自足的动作，并通过这种方式释放了读者/观众再创造的想象力。散文作为史诗的一种体裁，是以自由的形式进行的一种分离的非虚构的主观表现。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 07:11, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==
"Essay", Chinese mostly ''sanwen'', is a genre term for shorter, self-contained non-fictional prose texts, in which the author tries to mediate individual experiences on an object or a question out of subjective I-perspective. This it tries associatively and from different sides, not as a text for daily use, but with artistic or educationally demanding means of language, nevertheless in an accessible form. The resource is mastered by the essayist sovereignly and the topic is seen in a larger context and can even be presented humorously. Freedom in form and content is essential for the essay.

“散文”，中文主要是“散文”，是一个较短的、独立的非虚构散文文本的体裁术语，作者试图从主观的角度调解个人对一个对象或问题的体验。它试图从不同的方面进行联想，不是作为日常使用的文本，而是用艺术或教育要求的语言手段，然而是以一种容易理解的形式。资源由散文家自主掌握，主题在更大的背景下被看到，甚至可以幽默地呈现。文章在形式和内容上的自由是必不可少的。--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 13:22, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

“散文”是一种体裁术语，在汉语中也叫做“sanwen”，指篇幅较短、自成一体的非虚构散文文本，散文创作者可以从主观的角度，将个人的经验调和到事物或问题上。它试图从不同的方面进行联想，不是作为日常使用的文本，而是用艺术或教育要求的语言手段，然而是以一种容易理解的形式。文章素材由散文家自主掌握，主题可以置于更大的背景之下，甚至可以一种幽默的方式呈现。散文的形式和内容都是自由的。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 14:36, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

“随笔”，中文名多为“散文”，是一种体裁术语，指篇幅较短、自成一体的非虚构散文文本，作者试图从主观视角来调和个人对对象或问题的经验。
散文试图从不同的方面进行联想，它不是作为日常使用的文本，而是作为艺术或教育要求的语言方式，虽然如此，还是以一种可理解的方式呈现。
资源由随笔作家独享，话题可以在更大的背景下展出，甚至可以幽默地呈现。形式和内容的自由对这篇随笔至关重要。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 14:38, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Hu Jin 胡瑾==
Different perspectives range in the international genre of the essay: Genres are primarily divisions of literature through the scholarship of literature for specialized contemplation and in order to be able to compare similar texts more easily. On the other hand, a subcategorization in numerous small entities, like Zheng Mingli does with the essay, questions the sense of such subdivisioning in reference to hermeneutic findings. One must also stay aware of the changing nature of literature itself and the relativity of the scientific perspective, which is still a timely one, even if its accepted internationally.

不同的视角范围在国际上的文章体裁。体裁主要是通过对文学的学术研究，对文学进行专门的沉思，为了能够更容易地比较同类文本而进行的划分。另一方面，像郑明立对文章那样，以众多小实体进行细分，则是对这种细分的意义提出质疑，以参考解释学的研究成果。我们还必须时刻注意文学本身的变化和科学观点的相对性，即使其在国际上被接受，也是适时的。--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 06:14, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==
Regional deviations seem less important for the essay than for established genres like short stories, novels etc., and far less important than for poems. All these other genres are seen as international genres. My hypothesis, that the Chinese and the Western essay also belong to the same international genre maybe proved by the crosscultural mutualities both in form and content.

地域差异对散文的影响似乎不如对已确立的文体如短篇小说、小说的影响大，也远不如对诗歌的影响大。除散文外的其他文体被视为国际文体。我认为中西方散文也属于相同的国际文体，跨文化的相互作用也许可以在形式和内容上证明这一假设。

对于文章而言，比起短篇故事，小说等已存的体裁，区域差异似乎不那么重要，对于诗歌而言，区域差异更不重要。所有这些其他的体裁都被看作国际体裁。中国和西方的文章都属于同一国际体裁，这一假设也许可以通过形式和内容上的跨文化相互关系来证明。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 15:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==

In the 21st century, the world is growing together and culture is mainly determined by the grade of modernization. The Chinese essay, as we find it in newspapers today, has taken on the form and content of the Western essay and is aimed at a target group comparable to that of the Western essay. This is a second hint that the modern Chinese essay belongs to the international genre of the essay.

在21世纪，世界共同发展，文化主要决定于现代化的水平。今天我们在刊物上看到的中国散文，已经具备了西方散文的形式和内容，而且其目标群体与西方散文相当。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文类别的第二个暗示。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 07:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

在21世纪，世界上的国家趋向于走到一起，而文化则主要取决于现代化水平。正如我们从现今报纸里面看到的那样，中国散文采用了西方散文的形式和内容，而且其目标群体与西方散文相当。这是中国现代散文开始趋同于国际散文体裁的第二个标志。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 09:27, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

21世纪，世界在共同成长，文化主要由现代化程度决定。我们今天在报纸上看到的中国散文，在形式和内容上都与西方散文相似，其目标群体也与之相似。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文的第二个暗示。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 09:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

在21世纪，世界共同发展，文化主要决定于现代化的水平。我们今天在报纸上看到的中国散文，已经呈现出西方散文的形式与内容，并且其目标群体也与西方散文不相上下。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文体裁的第二个迹象。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 11:17, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Jiang Hao 姜好==
Even though the translation of ''duanpian xiaoshuo'' with ''short stories'' is commonly accepted, both are less closely related than the Western essay and its Chinese counterpart. The definition, which I developed out of a sample of more than 5000 modern Chinese essays, fits also the special international understanding of the essay (following Bolz 1992 13:269-272 on the development of the western essay; Butrym 1989 on the theory of the western essay).

尽管人们普遍接受用短小故事来翻译短篇小说，但两者的关系不如西方的散文和中国的同类文章密切。这个定义是我从5000多篇中国现代散文样本中发展出来的，也符合国际上对散文的特殊理解（继博尔兹1992年13:269-272论西方散文的发展；布特莱姆1989年论西方散文的理论）。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 11:01, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

尽管人们普遍接受用“短小故事”来翻译“短篇小说”，但两者的关系并不如西方散文与其中国同类文章密切。这个定义是我从5000多篇中国现代散文样本中得出的，也符合国际上对散文的特殊理解（继博尔兹于1992年 13:269-272 论西方散文的发展；布特莱姆于1989年论西方散文的理论）。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

尽管人们普遍接受用“短小故事”来翻译“短篇小说”，但两者的关系不如西方的散文和中国的对应定义密切。这个定义是我从5000多篇中国现代散文样本中发展出来的，也符合国际上对散文的特殊理解（继博尔兹1992年13:269-272论西方散文的发展；布特莱姆1989年论西方散文的理论）。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 11:01, 27 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 15:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==
Besides the trend towards a globalized society, first expressed in Zhou Zuoren's call to adopt the English essay style, there are special local characteristics of the Chinese essay. How is the Chinese essay to determine culturally, what makes it "Chinese"? In the occidental essay the form seems to be a more important criterion of differentiation than in its Chinese counterpart. In China even those texts are included, which have only a similar content, but cross the borders of the formal generical framework.

除了首先由周作人表达出来的社会全球化趋势，号召采用英语散文风格，中文散文有独特本土的特征。中文散文如何形成其特有文化，其中文性又由何组成？和中文散文相比，西方散文的文章形式似乎是更重要的分类标准。在中国，甚至有些文章内容相似，但形式和类别大相径庭。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 02:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

除了最初由周作人表达出来的社会全球化趋势，号召采用英语散文风格，中文散文具有独特的本土特色。中文散文如何形成其特有文化，其中文性又由何组成？与中文散文相比，西方散文的形式分类标准似乎更重要。在中国，有些文章甚至是内容相似，但形式和类别大相径庭。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:18, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

除了周作人提倡采用英语散文风格所体现的全球化社会趋势外，中文散文还具有独特的本土特色。中文散文如何在文化上定义，其中国性又是什么？在西方文章中，形式似乎是比中国文章更重要的区分标准。在中国，甚至包括那些只有类似内容，却跨越了形式上的属相框架的文本。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 11:05, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==
This can be shown with Zheng Mingli, who subcategorises the "unfinished diary" or the "unfinished letter". Those texts belong - within the Western context - to texts of personal use and therefor to the non-fictional prose works. Only after they have been altered into essays (Zheng Mingli: "essay in diary form" and "essay in letter form"), they are accepted as essays.

这一点可以从郑那里得到证明，他把“未完成的日记”或“未完成的信”分门别类。在西方语境中，这些文本属于个人使用的文本，因此属于非虚构的散文作品。只有当它们被改成散文(郑:“日记体散文”和“书信体散文”)后，它们才被接受为散文。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:07, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==
'''The Chinese understanding of the genre is tendencially broader'''

This tendencial broader understanding of the essay in China can be traced back directly to the connotation, that the term ''sanwen'' possesses in Chinese: ''wú yùnwén'' "non-rhythmic prose", which originally meant all non-fictional prose. In this broader meaning, also texts for personal or everyday use are included. However I deal only with ''sanwen'' in the narrower meaning "short literary essay pieces".

Further differences are that Chinese essays often have ideological contents and show stylistic characteristics like repetitions and the usage of sayings.

'''中国人对这类体裁的理解区域广泛'''

在中国，这种对随笔的广泛认识可以直接追溯到“散文”一词在中文中所具有的“无韵散文”的内涵，“无韵散文”原本指所有的非虚构散文。从更广泛的意义来讲，个人或日常使用的文本也包括在内。但是，我只讨论“散文”的狭义意义，指的是“短篇文学随笔片段”。

更进一步的差异是，中国散文往往具有思想内容，并表现出重复、谚语使用等文体特征。

==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==
'''The Chinese essay is booming again in the 1980s and 1990s'''

Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report (''baogao wenxue'').[ Klaschka 1998.] The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous ''sanwen congshu'' 散文叢書 (essay bookseries).

20世纪80年代和90年代中国散文再次蓬勃发展
研究表明，1979年以后散文发表量普遍增加，在“文革”之后出现了两个高峰期。
散文出版量在1990年达到了一个新的高度。第一次增长出现在20世纪20年代和30年代，但是在此之后，散文的角色因为报告这一体裁(报告文学)而黯然失色。(Klaschka 1998。)在1920/30年代和1980/90年代，散文的繁荣在一定程度上得益于新杂志的出现，这些杂志是当代散文家发表文章的阵地，其大多属于散文丛书。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 14:22, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

'''二十世纪八九十年代中国散文再次蓬勃发展'''

相关分析表明，1979年后散文出版量普遍增加，在文化大革命后达到了两次顶峰。1990年，散文出版量明显再创新高。散文出版量的第一次增长出现在二十世纪二三十年代。随后，报告文学的出现使得散文黯然失色(Klaschka 1998.)二十世纪二三十年代和八九十年代散文出版量之所以猛然增长，部分原因在于作为当代散文家写作阵地的新杂志和众多散文丛书的出现。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 00:48, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==
The increase in essay production right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in a sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for a survey.

Thanks to the work of some major Chinese editors, the whole essay culture was compiled from magazines and newspapers and was published in a flood of anthologies since the 1970s. This boom is comparable to the cultural fever of undigging xiangtu literature, which rose in Taiwan in front of the background of the movement of self-identification and independance.

文化革命结束后，散文产量的增加导致需求积压，1980至1982年间，共有印刷了一百万册的散文集，这仅计算了我为调查收集的130本“代表性”书籍的样本中包含的藏书。

感谢一些年长的中国编者的作品，自20世纪70年代以来，整个散文文化是由杂志和报纸汇编而成的，并以大量选集的形式出版。这种文学繁荣堪比无题乡图文学的文化热，它是在台湾自我认同和独立运动的背景下兴起的。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 14:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==
'''2. Why is the essay as abundant as fiction?'''

Let me name a few reasons, why the essay in fact is as abundant as its prose brother, fiction, and its lyrical sister, poetry, and why it must be valued as highly:

- The essay had a direct impact on Chinese society throughout history (the reform ideas from the end of the Qing dynasty through the May Fourth period with the literary theorethical pieces and the daily political zawen of Lu Xun, until today are mostly presented in essay form). The impact on literary reflection and theory is shown in the collection "Modern Chinese Literary Thought" 1996. The effect of the essay genre with its direct language, its connection to life (e.g. its role in the coming to terms with the cultural revolution), and its direct access to the individual reader through newspapers. This impact is larger than the indirect one of fiction or poetry. The poem is the genre of retreat from social life, from political issues and time references.

为什么论文像小说一样丰富？

让我列举几个原因，为什么这篇论文实际上与它的散文兄弟，小说以及抒情姐妹，诗歌一样丰富，以及为什么必须如此重视它：

-这篇文章在整个历史上都对中国社会产生了直接的影响（从清末到五四期间的改革思想，包括文学理论作品和鲁迅的日常政治杂文，直到今天大多以论文形式呈现）。对文学反思和理论的影响在1996年的“中国现代文学思想”合集中显示。随笔类型，其直接语言，与生活之间的联系（例如，其在适应文化大革命中的作用）的影响，并通过报纸直接接触个人读者。这种影响大于小说或诗歌的间接影响。这首诗是从社会生活，政治问题和时间参照中退缩的一种体裁。--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:32, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

为什么散文像小说一样丰富？

让我举几个理由，为什么这篇文章实际上和它的散文兄弟、小说和它的抒情妹妹、诗歌一样丰富，为什么它必须被高度重视：

这篇文章对中国社会产生了直接的影响（从清末到五四时期的改革思想，以鲁迅的文学理论和日常政治面貌，直到今天，大多以散文的形式呈现）。对文学反思和理论的影响见1996年《中国现代文学思想集。散文体裁与其直接语言的影响，它与生活的联系(例如。它在接受文化革命方面的作用)，以及它通过报纸直接接触个人读者。这种影响大于小说或诗歌的间接影响。这首诗是从社会生活、政治问题和时间参考中退缩的体裁。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 03:49, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==
Hu Shi argues, that ''poetry'' is most important in the process of modernity, since poetry rises emotions. But it relies also on images and on linguistic rhythm. Liang Qichao stresses the role of novel and opera in the changing society. But ''sanwen'' is able to name things, it reflects life, caleidoscopic. Modern subjectivity is constructed with the tool of ''sanwen''.

- The essay also reflects trends in the society better than poetry and fiction: Individualism is expressed in the essay more directly than in the poem with its limitation in content and form. Ephemerality is reflected in the short form of the essay, which may be read in the subway on the way to work, where poems may not be so spontaneously enjoyed.

胡适认为“诗”在现代化的过程中是最重要的，因为诗会升华情感。但诗歌依赖于形象和语言节奏。梁启超强调小说和戏曲在社会变迁中的作用。但“三文”却能命名事物，它反映生活千变万化。现代主体性是以“三文”为工具来建构的。

-散文也比诗歌和小说更能反映社会的趋势。个人主义在随笔中表现得比在诗歌中更直接，但在内容和形式上都有局限性。短文的短暂性体现在短文的形式上，可以在上班路上的地铁里读，而在地铁里读诗，可能就不能那么随性的享受了。--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 13:48, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi

胡适认为“诗”在现代化的过程中是最重要的，因为诗歌升华情感。但诗歌也依赖于意象和语言节奏。梁启超强调小说和戏曲在社会变迁中的作用。但“散文”却能给事物命名，反映千变万化的生活。现代主体性就是以“散文”为工具建构的。

- 随笔也比诗歌和小说更能反映社会的发展趋势。个人主义在随笔中的表现比在诗歌中更直接，因为诗歌在内容和形式上对此有所限制。随笔的短暂性体现在随笔的形式上，人们可以在上班路上的地铁里阅读，而在地铁里读诗，可能就没有那么随性的享受。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:55, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

胡适认为“诗”在现代化的过程中是最重要的，因为诗会升华情感。但诗歌也依赖意向和语言节奏。梁启超强调小说和戏曲在社会变迁中的作用。但“三文”却能命名事物，它反映生活千变万化。现代主体性是以“三文”为工具来建构的。

-散文也比诗歌和小说更能反映社会的趋势。由于散文的内容和形式上受限，它比诗歌更能直接表达个人主义。散文很短，所以花时间少，可以在上班路上的地铁里读，但在地铁里读诗可能就不能那么随性的享受了。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 12:54, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Haiquan 李海泉==
- The essay reaches a larger part of the population than poetry, the amount of time spended on reading novels goes back, too. The essay itself a genre of high actuality, if not simply the genre of today.

- The essay tells us more about an author and his time than fiction or poetry, because in this genre, we encounter the author himself without metrical restrictions. We look trough authentic eyes on his contemporary society. Many authors turned to essay writing in the later periods of their lifes, like Lu Xun, Ba Jin, and Wang Meng.
[[Media:Example.ogg]]==Li Lili 李丽丽==
- The volume of ''essay'' production exceeds the volume of ''xiaoshuo'' production: Chinese newspapers since the 1870s on[ Shenbao, Shibao etc. Liang Qichao sees the role of the newspaper both as liberal and authoritative: He understands the press as an institution to control the government, on the other hand he favors censorship.] and as a mass media from the early 20th century presented only one or two fictional stories in a serialized form, but invented essay columns like ''zagan'' (from which Lu Xun developed his ''zawen''), ''suibi'' or ''suixiang'' (from which famous collections like Ba Jin's ''Suixiang lu'' derived).

“随笔”的产量超过了“小说”：从19世纪70年代开始，中国的报纸就在《申报》、《时报》等杂志上发表。梁启超认为报纸既自由又权威：他认为报纸是控制政府的机构，另一方面，他主张审查制度，作为20世纪初的一个大众媒体，他以连载的形式呈现一两个虚构的故事，但却发明了散文专栏，如“扎根”（鲁迅从中发展了他的“札文”）、“随笔”或“随想”（巴金的《随想录》就是从中衍生出来的）。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 13:33, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

“随笔”的产量超过了“小说”的产量：从19世纪70年代开始，中国的报纸就在《申报》、《时报》等杂志上发表。梁启超认为报纸既自由又权威：他认为报纸是控制政府的机构，另一方面，他主张审查制度，作为20世纪初的一个大众媒体，他以连载的形式呈现一两个虚构的故事，但却发明了散文专栏，如“扎根”（鲁迅从中发展了他的“札文”）、“随笔”或“随想”（巴金的《随想录》就是从中衍生出来的）。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 12:54, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

“随笔”的产量超过了“小说”的产量：从19世纪70年代开始，中国的报纸就在《申报》、《时报》等杂志上发表。梁启超认为报纸既自由又权威：他认为报社是控制政府的机构；另一方面，他主张审查制度，报纸作为20世纪初的一个大众媒体，以连载的形式呈现一两个虚构的故事，但却发明了散文专栏，如“扎根”（鲁迅从中发展了他的“札文”）、“随笔”或“随想”（巴金的《随想录》就是从中衍生出来的）。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 10:19, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Lingyue 李凌月==
'''3. Let us assign the essay its proper place'''
The consequence which must be driven from the above presented contrast between value and valuing of the essay is: Let us assign the essay its proper place! I will describe the beginnings of the discovery of the essay.
Despite the increase in essay writing from 1979 on, it took a decade for the first theoretical reflections on this phenomenon to appear. It took another decade before the international scholarship of Chinese Studies became aware of the phenomenon of the essay.

3.让我们为散文指定其适当的位置，
由此得出的结论是:让我们为散文指定其适当的位置!我将描述发现这篇文章的开始。尽管从1979年开始，论文写作有所增加，但对这一现象的第一次理论反思却花了10年时间才出现。又过了10年，中国研究的国际学者才意识到这一现象。

3.让我们给作文赋予它应有的位置
从上面提出的论文的价值与价值之间的对比,由此得出的结论是:让我们给作文赋予它应有的位置!我将描述发现这篇文章的开始。尽管从1979年开始，散文写作有所增加，但有关这一现象的出现的第一次理论反思却花了10年时间。又过了10年，中国研究的国际学者才意识到这一现象。--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 15:12, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Liqin 李丽琴==

In the 1980s, Chinese scholarship made a first major approach to reflect on essay literature by writing essay histories and collecting papers, which concentrated first on the essayistic work of single authors like Lu Xun. Also two essay conferences in the 1990s showed no move towards international scholarship. Not before 1995 did international scholarship started to use common philological methods to explore single essayists (on Gaylord Leung [Liang Xihua] 梁錫華 Kubin 1995, on Wang Meng 王蒙 Woesler 1995, on Liu Zaifu 劉再復 Mansberg 1995 [unpublished]) or essays of groups (on 'Xīnyùe pài 新月派' Wagner 1996).

20世纪80年代，中国学术界首次以撰写散文史和散文集的方式对散文文学进行了重大的反思，这首先集中在鲁迅等单个作家的散文作品上。另外90年代的两次会议也没有趋于国际学术研究的动向。直到1995年，国际学术界才开始使用共同的语言学方法来探讨单个散文家（比如1995年Kubin的《关于梁漱溟》；Woesler的《关于王蒙》；Mansberg的《关于刘再复》[未发表]）或探讨某个群体的散文（1996年瓦格纳的《关于新月派》）。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 12:54, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

20世纪80年代，中国学术界首次以撰写散文史和散文集的方式对散文文学进行了重大的反思，这首先集中在鲁迅等单个作家的散文作品上。除此之外，20世纪90年代的两次会议也没有转向国际学术研究的方向。直到1995年，国际学术界才开始使用共同的语言学方法来探讨单个散文家（比如1995年Kubin的《关于梁漱溟》；Woesler的《关于王蒙》；Mansberg的《关于刘再复》[未发表]）或探讨某个群体的散文（1996年瓦格纳的《关于新月派》）。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 13:37, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Luyi 李璐伊==
Not before the second half of the 1990s, did a history of the Chinese essay using the means of Western philology appear (Woesler 1998) and for the first time, the essay was included in Western anthologies of literature as a genre equal to fiction and poetry (''The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature'' 1995, ''Modern Chinese Literary Thought'' 1996).

Regarding the valuing of essays in China, Taiwan and the West, there are regional differences: In the States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones.

在不早于上个世纪90年代下半叶之时，出现了使用西方语言学方法撰写的中国散文史（Woesler 1998），并且散文首次作为与小说和诗歌同等的体裁被纳入西方文学选集。（《哥伦比亚现代中国文学选集》 1995，《现代中国文学思想读本》 1996）。

关于中国大陆，台湾地区和西方的散文评价，存在地区差异：在美国，人们通常根据西方人的喜好来选择散文，给予完全不知名的作家与知名作家同等的篇幅。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

上世纪90年代后半期以前, 出现了使用西方语言学方法撰写的中国散文史（Woesler 1998），并且散文首次作为与小说和诗歌同等的体裁被纳入西方文学选集。（《哥伦比亚现代中国文学选集》 1995，《现代中国文学思想读本》 1996）。中国大陆，台湾和西方对散文的评价，存在地区差异：在美国，人们通常根据西方人的喜好来选择散文，给予完全不知名的作家与知名作家同等的篇幅。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 12:24, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Meng 李梦==
In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, in my survey, which Chinese essayists are printed the most in the 1990s, he ranks 16th. If one only take modern authors into account, he even ranks 12th. Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by Huang Weiliang in favor for the first (see Lin Yaode 1989:50), and Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.

Still it remains a ''desideratum'' to get the most important Chinese essays in Western translation.
在台湾,鲁迅很早就被禁了,但今天,在我的调查里,上世纪90年代中国散文家印刷量最大的时候,鲁迅排在了第16位。如果只考虑现代作家,甚至排在了第12位。香港关于余光中文学的评论,被黄伟良第一次看中(见林耀德1989:50),王蒙因政治职务在中华人民共和国被高估。
然而,要获得西译中最重要的中国散文,还需要一个参考文献。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 12:16, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

在台湾,鲁迅的作品很早就被禁了,但今天,在我的调查里,上世纪90年代中国散文家作品印刷量最大的时候,鲁迅排在了第16位。如果只考虑现代作家,甚至排在了第12位。香港关于余光中文学的评论,被黄伟良第一次看中(见林耀德1989:50),王蒙因政治职务在中华人民共和国被高估。

然而,要获得西译中最重要的中国散文,还需要一个参考文献。--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 12:39, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==
Currently at least three essay collections in English translation are in the reviewing process (Tam King-Fai, Woesler) or already published (Pollard 1999). Pollard's selection is a highly subjective and eclective choice of essays, covering even the premodern essay. This year, scholars will meet on a first international conference on the essay (Achern, Germany August 25-26). In the years to come, a new ''Bonn History of Chinese Literature'' will grant the essay its proper place with two to three volumes only dedicated to the ''biji, youji'' and other essays.
==Li Yu 李玉==
'''4. Taking into consideration the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature'''

I will give a few hints, what the essay can contribute to the picture of Chinese Literature, which so far is overshadowed by fiction through the narrative of C.T. Hsia, Prusek and Anderson.

We are used to established narratives, like the emergence and success of the May-Fourth literature. But this view neglects the role, that for example the ''yuanyang hudie pai'' played in the choir of different voices in the awoken intellectual debate in the beginning of this century.
==Lin Min 林敏==
The May-Fourth group at that time was one voice among many and only succeeded because of its agitation and polemic in the public sphere, so we have to use new means to assign the Chinese essay its proper place. We learn from simplifiying narratives, that it is absolutely necessary to differentiate, and to reconstruct the complex time background. Having understood Chinese literature as determined by the development of fiction and poetry only, a broader understanding will change the whole appearance of Chinese literature. A scholarly endeavour is the use of modern literary theories in the approach to this genre.
==Lin Xin 林鑫==
In the following, I will name three aspects (chronologically sorted by past, modern and contemporary time) to hold the argument, that the taking into consideration of the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature and change our current understanding of it.

'''5. The classical and premodern essay documents Chinese philosophy, early subjectivity and still, a native Chinese tradition is questioned'''

How is the Chinese essay to be positioned historically, how did it emerge, what is its generic background? Generically, the ancestors of the essay are both in China and the West notes written on the margins of books, they are letters and travel notes.

下面，我将从三个方面(在时间顺序上按过去、现代、当代排序)来论述对散文的考量将改写中国文学史，改变我们目前对它的认识这一论点。

5. 古典和前现代散文记录了中国哲学，其早期的主体性，仍然是对中国本土传统的质疑。
中国散文在历史上要如何定位，它是如何产生的，它的共有背景是什么？一般来说，中国和西方的散文都是起源于写在书本空白处的笔记，是书信和游记。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:18, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==
These notes differed from the canonized literature through its informal style, its expression of individuality und subjectivity, a much earlier document for subjectivity than the first autobiographical Chinese novel, ''The Dream of the Red Chamber''.

From the very beginning, the essay was valued lower than poetry: the oldest reference this far for the term ''sanwen'' that I found is Luo Dajing's 羅大經 (? - after 1248) statement from 1240: “Shī sāomiào tiānxià, ér sǎnwén pōjué suǒsuì júcù.
==Liu Bo 刘博==
詩騷妙天下，而散文頗覺瑣碎局促。” (Poetry is moving mankind in a wonderful way, prose inquires into incoherent bagatels, is limited.) (''Helin yulu''). Another reproach Luo Dajing mentions, is a formal one: In comparison to the highly artistic and century-long tradition of poetic writing, the direct and often vernacular langage of the essay in his eyes had less value.

In the West, a real 'art of the essaywriting' came up in the late 16th century as a medium for the newly reorganized knowledge.

“詩騷妙天下，而散文頗覺瑣碎局促。”罗大京提到的另一个骂名，是形式上的：与具有高度艺术性和长达一个世纪传统的诗歌写作相比，散文中直接的、白话文式的语言在他看来并不那么有价值。
在西方，16世纪晚期出现了一种真正的“散文写作艺术”，作为一种传播重组知识的媒介。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 00:50, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

“诗騷妙天下，而散文颇觉瑣碎局促。”罗大经提出的另一个责难，是形式上的。在他看来，与高度艺术化的百年诗词写作传统相比，散文直接的、白话文式的语言没有什么价值。
在西方，真正的 “散文写作艺术 ”是在16世纪末作为重组知识的一种媒介出现的。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:30, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==
The reorganization originated from the observations of Kopernikus, which destroyed the whole conception of the world of the Middle Age.

In China, particularly the debates on Buddhism in the 4th and 5th century A.D. saw the origination of a tradition of letters. The Chinese tradition of the ''sanwen'' 散文 (essay) however, in the understanding of sǎn 散 as (to dispel, leisure, loose, relaxed, irregular, independant style, free prose, can be seen not before the detachment from the dialogue - or aphorism, which is still visible in the philosophical ''Lunyu''.
==Liu Liu 刘柳==
Xunzi delivered the prototype of the later essay with his philosophical treatises. They are an early form of philosophical didactical essays, in which general theorems are derived not only from quotations of the canonized classical works, but for the first time also from his own individual experience. The individuality is still a main characteristic of the essay today.

During the dynasties the essay manifested itself further in certain subcategories: From reading-notes written at the paper margins originated the ''biji'' µ§°O (occasional notes), flourishing in the Ming Dynasty.

荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形，它们是哲学教学论文的早期形式。其中的一般定理不仅来自于经典著作的引用，而且第一次从他的个人经验中得出。个性仍是现今散文的主要特点。

历朝历代，散文在某些子类中进一步得以表现，如从写在纸边的读书笔记产生了明朝盛行的偶记。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 02:25, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形。其作品是哲学论教散文的早期形式，这些散文中传授的普遍定理不仅有引用经典著作，还首次借鉴其个人经历。这种个体性在当代的散文中仍有保留。

历朝历代，散文通过一些子类别得以呈现，如明朝盛行的在书页边上写的读书注释，它就是源于笔记。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 08:47, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形。其作品是哲学论教散文的早期形式，其中的一般定理不仅来自于经典著作的引用，而且第一次从他的个人经验中得出。个性仍是现今散文的主要特点。

历朝历代，散文在某些子类中进一步得以表现，如从写在纸边的读书笔记产生了明朝盛行的偶记。--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:20, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Ou 刘欧==
The marginalism is a link between Western and Chinese tradition of early essays. Occasional notes could contain private historical notes, anecdotes, communications and contemplations. However, the consciousness of the essay as a genre of its own originated in China not before the Qing ²M dynastie, when numerous essay anthologies were compiled.

Taking into consideration the social-historical background draws a different picture of the old society than short stories and novels: Essays are much closer to real life, since they express individual problems and experiences.

边缘主义是中西早期散文的一个纽带。散见的笔记包含了私人的历史记录，轶事，交谈和个人沉思。然而，尽管当时的散文选集众多，但将视散文作为一种文体的意识，清朝之前并没有出现。

考虑到当时的社会历史背景，人们在旧社会时，对短篇故事和小说的看法不同：散文更接近现实生活，因为它们表达了个人的困惑和经历。--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 04:15, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

边缘主义是中西早期散文传统的一个纽带。偶尔的笔记可以包含私人的历史笔记，轶事，交流和沉思。然而，尽管当时中国散文选集有很多，一直到清朝之后我们才将散文视作一种文体意识。
考虑到当时的社会历史背景，人们对旧社会的看法与短篇小说和小说不同：散文更接近现实生活，因为它们表达了个人的问题和经历。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 07:43, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==
Until now, the Chinese pre-''Hongloumeng'' individual literature spoke only through the indirect language of poems to us. Rediscovering the essays, we have a splendid source of opinions, social-historical pictures etc.

Premodern essay literature consists of much more than its most well-known example, the formally restrictive ''baguwen''. Lu Xun himself wrote some of his essays in ''baguwen'' style, but on the other hand took it as a synonym for the ancient society. Zhou Zuoren saw the rhythm of the language of the "Eight legged essay" as as appealing and intoxicating as the "pleasure of doing opium.'' (Zhou 1932:148).

目前为止，中国红楼梦前的个体文学还只是通过诗中的间接语言与我们对话。通过重拾散文，我们可以知晓不同观点和社会历史状况等文学创作的丰富源泉。
现代散文之前的文学并不限于形式上受限制的八股文，一方面鲁迅本人也有一些散文是用八股文写成的，但另一方面他又把八股文当作古代社会的代名词。周作人把 "八股文 "的语言节奏看作是 "做鸦片的快感 "一样令人陶醉。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 08:42, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

直到现在，中国前“红楼梦”的个体文学只能通过诗歌的间接语言与我们对话。重新发掘这些散文，我们可以拥有丰富的观点来源，社会历史图片等。

前现代散文文学不仅仅包括它最为人所知的例子，正式的、有限制性的“八卦文”。鲁迅自己的一些文章就是用“八卦文”写的，但是在另一方面又把它当作古代社会的同义词。周作人认为《八股文》的语言节奏就像“吸鸦片的快感”一样令人陶醉。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 09:07, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Yi 刘艺==
But he considered it also as a prevalent genre implicit in the modern writings as ''yang bagu'' (westernized bagu) and ''dang bagu'' (party-line bagu) (borrowing from Wu Zhihui, Zhou Yuanliu:71).

Neo-Confucianism stressed ''wen'' (prose) as the most important tool to transmit the ''dao'' (way): ''Wenyi zai dao'' (Literature as the carrier of the way). If we reinterprete this diction in the perspective of genre, we can say, that the essay then has been regarded as an important tool to express truth, subjectivity and Self.

但他认为这也是隐含在现代著作中的''洋包谷''（西化包谷）和''党行包谷''（借用吴稚晖、周远流的说法：71）的一种普遍的文体。

新儒家强调''文''（散文）是传播''道''的最重要工具：''文以载道''（文以载道）。如果我们从文体的角度来重新解读这句话，我们可以说，当时的散文已经被视为表达真理、主体性和自我的重要工具。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:01, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

但他认为这也是隐含在现代著作中的''洋包谷''（西化包谷）和''党行包谷''（借用吴稚晖、周远流的说法：71）的一种普遍的文体。

理学强调“文”（散文）是传播“道”的最重要工具：“文以载道”。（以文学为载体的方式）。如果我们从体裁的角度来重新解读这一措辞，可以说，散文已成为表达真理、主体性和自我的重要工具。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 00:53, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==
Liang Qichao developed a ''xīn wéntǐ'' 新文體 (new prose style), which was influenced by Western languages, but the essay became popular not before the newspapers became mass media, and the language changed into ''baihua''.

'''6. The essay as the medium of modernity, the questioning of the genuiness of the Chinese essay'''

To solve first of all the dispute on whether the Chinese essay grew out of a native tradition or was influenced by Western translations, one finds both traditions relevant: The occidental essay was introduced to the writers of the literature reform movement from 1907 on by translations in Chinese (Lin Shu: ''Irving'' 1907, ''Addison'' 1911).

梁启超研究出了一种新文体，这种文体受西方的语言所影响。但是这篇散文在报纸成为大众媒体之后才开始流行开来，成为所说的“白话”。

6.散文作为现代化的媒介，质疑了中国散文的真实性。
首先要解决的问题就是中国散文是源自本土传统还是西方翻译，有人认为两者都有所相关:散文意外地以中文译文的形式受引入到1907年的文学改革运动作家群体中来。(林纾:欧文，1907，爱迪森，1911)--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 02:12, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==
The current form of the genre is mostly based on the influence of Western essay translations. First developed a Chinese essay tradition, which consciously leaned upon the Western model in language, form and terminology, its own proponents succumbed soon to the temptation to derive a tradition of the Chinese essay from Chinese history only. A seemingly unbroken Chinese tradition of the native Chinese ''wenyan sanwen'' is presented in Chinese textbooks (Yu Zaichun 1978-82, Li Xishang 1985).

This is older than the ones referred to in the ''Large Chinese Dictionary'' of Morohashi (Morohashi undated) and in the ''Encyclopaedic Dictionary of the Chinese Language'' 1966.

==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==
Still, the value of the native tradition of essay writing and the role of the Western influence upon it is discussed controversially among the scholars. Some admit that Western impact played a key role in what we understand as Chinese essays nowadays: Wang Bin 1992, Fan Peisong 1993; for Western impact in general see Průšek 1964, Gálik 1966, McDougall 1971. Other scholars think that Western influence is overestimated - Denton 1996 showed that the theoretical background was missing for understanding Western theories of literature in China, - and recommended that we understand the essay first by its national tradition.

然而，对于本土论文写作传统的价值以及西方对其的影响，学者们争论不休。有些人承认西方的影响在我们今天所理解的中国散文中起了关键作用:王斌1992，范培松1993;对西方总的影响参考。还有一些学者认为，西方的影响被高估了——Denton 1996表明，中国缺乏理解西方文学理论的理论背景，并建议我们首先从其民族传统来理解这篇文章。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:57, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

然而，对于本土论文写作传统的价值以及西方对其的影响，学者们争论不休。有些人承认西方的影响在我们今天所理解的中国散文中起了关键作用:王斌1992，范培松1993;对西方总的影响参考。还有一些学者认为，西方的影响被高估了——Denton 1996表明，中国缺乏理解西方文学理论的理论背景，并建议我们首先从其民族传统来理解这篇文章。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 15:07, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==
How far personal opinion may influence the narrative of historical facts can be seen by the example of the legendary authors of the May Fourth movement. All of them considered the English essay as the father of the Chinese essay: Zhou Zuoren 1921, Lu Xun 1933, the anarchist and later member of the Guomindang Wu Zhihui [1934]. Later, some of these authors changed their minds to support their own theories on the essay by looking for proof of a native Chinese essay tradition:

以五四运动传奇作者为例可以看出个人观点对历史事实的叙述的影响有多大。这些作者把英文散文视为中国散文之父：周作人（1921年），鲁迅（1933年）以及后来的无政府主义者吴志辉（1934年）。后来，其中一些作者改变了主意，通过寻找中国本土散文传统的证明来支持他们自己的论文理论：--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 13:19, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

以五四运动传奇作家为例可以看出个人观点对史实叙述的影响有多大。这些作者把英文散文视为中国散文之父：周作人（1921年），鲁迅（1933年）以及后来的无政府主义者吴志辉（1934年）。后来，其中一些作者改变了主意，通过寻找中国本土散文传统的证明来支持他们自己的论文理论：--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:14, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==
for example, Lu Xun with his theory "'Zhǎnkāi' shuō yǔ 'méngyá' lùn “展開”說與“萌芽”論"" (Theory of "Starting" and "Blossoming") came to see the fighting and critical character of the essay of the Jin dynasty (265 - 420) as the 'father' of the Chinese essay, and Zhou Zuoren first the English essay (1921) and later the ''biji'' (occasional notes) of the Ming, although he still tried to integrate the English essay in his "Gonganpài yu Yīngguo xiaopin 'hecheng' lun 公安派與英國小品“合成”論" (Theory of the Synthesis of the Gongan School and the English Essay).

例如，鲁迅以其“开始”与“绽放”的理论，将晋代散文的战斗性和批判性视为中国散文的“父”，周作人则先是英文散文（1921年）出发，之后是明朝“笔记”（随心记录），尽管他仍试图在公干派与英国小品合成论中中融入英文文章。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:09, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

例如，鲁迅的“展开”说与“萌芽”论认为晋代散文的攻击性与批判性是中国散文的先祖。周作人则将英语散文视为明朝“笔记”的先祖，在公安派英国小品“合成”论中，他努力使英文散文与他的理论合成一体。--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 02:44, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ma Juan 马娟==
Wang Zengqi regrets that the national Chinese tradition of the essay at the time of the 'May Fourth Movement' has not been taken up again and has not continued in contemporary essays (Wang Zengqi 1993). The Chinese essay is an accommodating object of study, because one may look to it to prove any theory of the essay. One can find examples for each topic in almost every period, simply because the essay has a wide range of subjects.

王曾祺遗憾的是，“五四”时期的中国民族散文传统没有重新开始，也没有在当代散文中延续(王曾祺1993)。中国的文章是一个很好的研究对象，因为人们可以指望它来证明文章的任何理论。人们几乎可以在每个时期找到每个主题的例子，这仅仅是因为这篇文章的主题范围很广。--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 02:29, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

王曾祺遗憾的是，“五四”时期的中国民族散文传统没有被拾起，也没有在当代散文中延续(王曾祺1993)。中国的文章是一个很好的研究对象，因为人们可以指望它来证明文章的所有理论。人们几乎可以在每个时期找到每个主题的例子，这仅仅是因为这篇文章的主题范围很广。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:09, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==
When Zhou Zuoren showed that only seven months after the incident at Marco Polo bridge it was again possible to write about a candy seller (1924), he was critizised as "paralyzing" (Lu Xun 1934, Zhu Zhaoluo 1943). When he wrote a piece on the "Fly", he was reproached with dealing with subjects of minor importance. Reproaches like this lie in the very nature of the genre, since ''marginalism'' is substantial to the essay. The mentioned formal reproach of Luo Dajing can be found again in the 1990s, Hong Kong students critisized the literary style as it appears in Ba Jins "Thoughts" (Suixiang lu) as too direct and too less artful. But this perspective does not recognize the very nature of the essay, which is a very individual expression of an author's thoughts and not bound to tradition, and therefore much more free also in content.
==Ma Zhixing 马智星==
The essay - from its very nature free and independant - almost disappeared in the time of the Cultural Revolution and - except for the ideologically influenced essays - had a hard struggle between Yan'an and the loss of moral legitimacy by the leadership in 1989.

The essay was ''the'' genre of the modernizing society of the early 20th century. Many writers had to define and often redefine their position and self-understanding in reaction to war and warlordism and later in the modernizing society, often burying their own ideals, in the larger perspective for the seeming "needs" of society, which also claimed the author to be one of its products.
==Meng Ying 孟莹==
But from its very nature, the essay set new boundaries in form and content, and therefore not only survived the ideological restrictions, but also established its own critical subculture within. The essay was not only a medium of discussion and a documentation of the social-political background for us today, but also a documentation of the personal struggle of the writers finding a position in a changing environment, since the essay is "a genre of self-reflection". Some essays even deconstructed master narratives like the one of leftist ideology, often simply by confronting it with subjective experience, reality or art.

I want to mention another position on literature, which stresses the impact of literature on life, especially on the eve of revolutions - following this view, all literature is political (Jameson).
==Mo Ling 莫玲==
Not only the understanding of literature as a whole changes if we take into consideration the essay, also the view of single authors shifts, if we see not only their novels or poems, but also their essays. I mention only Zhou Zuoren. His ideas connected him spiritually to his contemporary collegues in Europe, Japan and America, but these where ideas for which China turned out to be not yet ready. At that time, China had taken a road which led away from progress, wealth, freedom and spiritual enlightenment. The consequences have yet to be overcome.

除开关注作家的小说和诗歌之外，如果我们对他们的散文有所涉猎，就会发现他们不仅对文学整体的理解发生了变化，单个作者的观点也发生了变化。仅就周作人来说，他的思想在精神上把他和他在欧洲、日本和美国的同伴们联系在一起，但是这些设想在中国行不通。当时的中国走的是一条远离进步、财富、自由和精神启蒙的道路，这一现状还并没有得到改变。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:34, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling

如果我们考虑到散文，不仅文学作为一个整体的理解会改变，而且如果我们不仅看到他们的小说或诗歌，而且看到他们的散文，单个作者的观点也会改变。我只提周作人,他的想法在精神上把他和他在欧洲、日本和美国的当代同事联系在一起，但这些想法在中国还中国行不通。那时，中国已经走上了一条远离进步、财富、自由和精神启蒙的道路。其后果还有待克服。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 14:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Mo Nan 莫南==
In 1927, Chinese literature has taken the form of 'engaged literature'. The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics of daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology.
==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==
Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consume-orientation of the masses. The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educational claim with the exception of essays which claim to be "art pourt l'art".
==Ou Rong 欧蓉==
The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing ("Shuo meng 說夢" On dreams in: Zhu Ziqing 1928) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 (My own garden 9.1923, "The Fly" 1924, "Reading on the Toilet" 1936), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the new found world of mass consumerism.
==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==
I mentioned the lack of translations in Western languages. One of the reasons might be the impression of some scholars that many of the Chinese essays were just propaganda. This might be true for the 1940s and even the 1950s, but nowadays this has changed, as the overwhelming majority of publications prove. This demands a closer look: Since 1949, politically affirmative literature has been encouraged by the government, resulting in a statistical paradox: not the affirmative authors and their texts form the majority of the essayists read in the 1990s, but the critical essayists, whose texts oppose the order to serve politics through their apolitical, sometimes even defiant character.
==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==
In the 1990s, the texts of 1920s/1930s Republican China are still as often reprinted as their contemporary counterparts. Obviously we can conclude that the politically affirmative essay of the 1950s only survived in special political essay collections and is no longer written by famous contemporary authors nor read by the Chinese audience in the beginning of the 21st century.

Taking into account of a genre shifts the whole perspective on literature, taking into account the essayistic works of an author shifts also the view of the author. I will name only one author as an example for a modern essayist: Zhou Zuoren.

20世纪90年代，20、30年代民国时期的文本和当代的文本一样也经常被重印。显然，我们可得出一个结论：20世纪50年代的那些政治宣传文只能留存在特殊的政治文章选集当中，到了21世纪初，就不再有作者去写这类文章，也不会有中国读者去看这类文章了。

考虑到整个体裁对整个文学角度的转变，以及散文作品反映出的作者观点的变化，我只举一位现代散文家的例子：周作人。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 07:47, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

20世纪90年代，20-30年代民国时期的文章仍然和当代的同类文章一样经常被重印。显然，我们可以得出一个结论：20世纪50年代的政治宣传类散文只保存在专门的政治散文集中，到21世纪初，不再有人去写，也不再有人读这类文章了。

一种文学体裁会转变整个文学的视角，一位作家的散文作品，同样也会转变对这个作家的看法。我只以一位现代散文家为例：周作人。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 09:02, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Peng Dan 彭丹==
'''Zhou Zuoren'''

I mentioned already his theoretical contribution to the Chinese essayism, but still, his essays have been neglected until the 1980s. The reason does not lie in literary quality, but in political valuing. The master narrative of the offical literary history of the People's Republic on Zhou Zuoren is, that the theoretical May Fourth genius "degenerated" and later became a "traitor". Publishing in the Japanese sponsored magazines ''Reminiscences'',* and ''Chinese Literature'', he was blamed together with Zhu Pu and Yuan Xi of collaboration. An unanswered question is, why another author, who published there, Zhang Ailing, was never reproached with collaboratorship. The difference between all of them is that Zhang Ailing tried to avoid political committments, whereas Zhou felt guilty, Zhu justified it and Yuan simply accepted it.

我已经提到了他对中国散文主义的理论贡献，但直到20世纪80年代，他的散文一直被忽视。原因不在于文学品质，而在于政治价值。周作人是五四理论天才的“堕落”，后来成为“叛徒”。在日本赞助的《回忆》、《中国文学》等杂志上发表，他与朱璞、袁熙的合作受到指责。一个没有回答的问题是为什么另一位在那里发表文章的作者张爱玲从来没有受到过合作者的指责。两者的区别在于张爱玲试图避免政治承诺，而周作人感到内疚，朱璞证明了这一点，袁熙简单地接受了这一点。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 03:44, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Peng Juan 彭娟==
''The 'mainstream' writers took an affirmative approach in their writing, whereas the other writers formed a minority. The individual authors did not necessarily belong to either one of these groups throughout their life, but may have moved between them. Since the essay is a medium which enables the individual to express thoughts directly, the writers chosen for this paper can be classified according to their position.''

''Yu Guangzhong's essay'' "The wolves are coming" ''shows that the ideological perspective did not only harm mainland essaywriting.''
==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==
In his small literary pieces, Zhou tried to aesthetizise the little things of the everyday life out of the subjective experience of his private space. The major contribution of Zhou Zuoren is, that he set the turning point in Chinese essay writing with his call for writing short literary pieces (''Meiwen'' 1921).

In foreign literature there is the so-called ''lunwen'' 論文 (treatise), which is roughly divided into two groups: the reflecting ones, piping 批評 (critical), are scientific articles. The others are ''jishu'' 記述 (descriptive) and ''yishuxing'' 藝術性 (artistic), they are also called ''meiwen'' 美文 (aesthetic essay). Within these texts, one can distinguish between ''xushi'' 敘事 (narrative) and ''shuqing'' 抒情 (lyric). But there are also mixed texts. [...] I hope that the aesthetical essay is encouraged to come back, and will open up a new field for the New Literature. Wouldn’t that be wonderful?

周作人在他的文学小品中，试图将日常生活中的小事从私人空间的主观体验中审美化。周作人的主要贡献在于，他以号召写短篇文艺作品（《美文》1921），开创了中国散文写作的转折点。

在外国文学中，有所谓''lunwen''论文，大致分为两类：反映的，管批评的，是科学文章。其他的是''jishu''记述（描述性）和''yishuxing''艺术性，它们也被称为''meiwen''美文。在这些文章中，我们可以区分''xushi''敘事和''shuqing''抒情。但也有混杂的文字。[......]我希望美学文章受到鼓励，能够回来，为《新文学》开辟一个新的领域。那岂不妙哉？

==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==
With these words from the essay "''The aesthetic essay''" this new vernacular form was defined. This starting point founded a whole new tradition of essay writing in China. Contemporary writers called this piece the "king of essays".

In order to bring this new form to his compatriots, he tried to find similiarities with the ''xiaopinwen'' of the Ming dynasty. He further discussed these thoughts in his essay theory. In his own essays, he profited a lot from ancient ''suibi''. Later he further developed his literary theory towards an up and down of two trends. In the modernizing society, he advocated the liberation of women and asked to "treat children as full subjects with their own external and internal lives" and to "make children the essence of children's literature" (Zhou 1923). He promoted the ''baguwen'' and the independance of literature from politics and effected the literary scene and the development towards a modern Chinese society especially between 1917 and 1938.

“美学散文”中的这些词语定义了这种新的白话形式。这个起点在中国建立了一种新的散文写作传统。当代作家称此作品为“散文之王”。

为了将这种新形式带给他的同胞，他试图找到其与明朝“小品文”的相似之处。他在散文理论中进一步讨论了这些思想。他自己的散文也从古代的“随笔”中受益匪浅。后来，他将文学理论朝着上下两种趋势进一步发展。在现代化社会中，他呼吁解放妇女、“将儿童看作具有外在和内在生命的完整主体”以及“让儿童成为儿童文学的本质”（Zhou 1923）。他提倡“八股文”和文学脱离政治的独立性，这对文学界产生了影响，并推动了中国向近代社会尤其是1917年至1938年的发展。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 09:48, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==
With this theoretical foundation and his own vo'luÉminous essayistic work, Zhou Zuoren through the example of his own form of short literary pieces within this genre, fought at that stage of the development of his literary theory like Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque 130 years ago in France for the idea "l'art pour l'art" , for individuality and independance of the writer, for disinterested literature. The jugdment, that Zhou was an apolitical author cannot be proved with his essays. Instead, he wanted his abstinence of political statement to be understood as a political statement by itself. For him, literature was a mean not for revolution, but for resistance (Zhou 1929:180-181).
==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==
In fact he saw himself as ‘patriotic underground fighter’ and looked at the collaboration with the Japanese puppet regime as a forced one, following his attempted assasination, through which his driver had lost his life. His own concept of essay writing served less the needs of the building of a nation-state and comes closer to the ideal of the individual.

"I don't really know why, but I am feeling as if I am born into a dark age. I admit, that our forests are not inhabited by dragons, tigers and wolves, but shapeless "monsters" and "goblins" are still creeping around and try to swallow our souls. [...] What alarms me most, is the absence of freedom in this prison, into which we writers have been thrown."
==Qi Kai 漆凯==
Confronting tradition and progress in the essay "''Ancestor Worship''", he is in favor of the latter, since past could only become present through changes (Zhou 1919:7-8).

Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque (1767 - 1830) war französischer Romanschriftsteller und liberaler Politiker, der neben der Freiheit der Kunst nach der Französischen Revolution die Einführung der konstitutionellen Monarchie nach englischem Vorbild forderte.

面对“祖先崇拜”中的传统和进步，他赞成后者，因为过去只能通过变化才能变成现在(周1919：7-8)。

本杰明·亨利·康斯坦德·丽贝卡(Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecca，1767-1830)是一位法国小说家和自由主义政治家，除了法国大革命后的艺术自由外，他还呼吁引入以英国模式为基础的君主立宪制。--[[User:QiKai|QiKai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 06:39, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Qu Miao 瞿淼==
Siehe ''Journal'' (10.2.1804). Die "Kunst um der Kunst willen" propagierte die Zweckfreiheit der Kunst. Im Gegensatz dazu versteht sich die engagierte Literatur. Die Parallele zwischen Zhou Zuorens Literaturverständnis und dem Konzept "Kunst um der Kunst willen" zieht auch Wolff: ''Chou Tso-jen'' 1971, S. 84.

Siehe Zhou Zuoren: ''Der Ursprung der neuen chinesischen Literatur'' 1934, S. 95 - 98; vgl. auch Chen Zizhan: ''Vorträge zur chinesischen Literaturgeschichte'' 1937, Bd 3, pp. 416 - 422, besonders S. 422. Hinweis in: H. Martin: "''Liang Qichao on Poetry Reform''" 1996, Bd 1, S. 213.

见“期刊”（102.4804 年）。“艺术之艺术”宣传了艺术目的自由。相比之下，承诺的文学是可以理解的。周作人对文学的理解与“艺术之艺术”概念之间的相似之处也吸引了沃尔夫：“周作人”，1971 年 84.

参见周作人：“中国新文学的起源”，1934 年，第 95-98 页；另见陈子赞：“中国文学史讲座”，1937 年，第 3 卷，第 416-422 页，特别是 p422。注：H。马丁：“梁启超诗歌改革”，1996 年，第 1 卷，p213--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 13:55, 27 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 13:57, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Quan Meixin 全美欣==
Regarding Zhou Zuoren, I want to correct the official assessment of the People’s Republic, that his work would have experienced a caesura in 1938. In order to explain his opposition of the propaganda to build up national heroes about 1937 and his collaboration from 1939, it has been said officially, that his thoughts had "duoluo 墮落" (degenerated) at that time (Zhu Jinshun 1990:59). In fact, this caesura, namely the change in the style and subject in his essays on literature, art etc. to ''zhengjing'' 正經 (serious, intentional essays), and ''xianshi'' 閑適 (essays for one’s own enjoyment) is located not before his outlawing through Mao Zedong (1942), and his arrest through the Guomindang (1945).
==Sagara Seydou ==
Therefore not the Japanese suppressors are responsible for the retreat of this great writer, but his Chinese compatriots'.

On the basis of the stigma of the 'traitor', he has been undervalued until now. That his work in the 1990s is almost as often published as Lu Xun's and Zhu Ziqing's shows that his texts finally experience a more positive literaric evaluation through the audience, which now must be registered also by scholars.

因此，不是日本的压制者对这位伟大作家的退缩负责，而是他的中国同胞的退缩.
根据“叛徒”的污名，他一直被低估。他在1990年代的著作几乎与鲁迅和朱自清的著作一样频繁地出版，这表明他的著作最终在听众中得到了更为积极的文学评价，现在也必须由学者进行注册.

因此，不是日本侵略者造成了这位伟大作家的退缩，而是他的中国同胞们。由于背负着“叛徒”的污名，他一直未受到重视。20世纪90年代，他的作品出版频繁，几乎与鲁迅和朱自清等同，这表明这些作品在读者中收到了更为积极的评价，这一点也获得了当代学者的认可。--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 01:47, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Shi Diwen 石迪文==
Another example of a misread Zhou Zuoren is his short essay on "''The Fly''", where he describes his changing attitude towards flies, which he had played with as child but later disgusted when he learned about their danger of passing on diseases. ”''The fly''” shows Zhou Zuoren’s strength to describe details and make them a real topic by recalling memories on them or describing a change of perspective on them. Zhou summarized the philosophical wisdom he learnt from this, that people did not judge on things objectively, but were likely to praise or damn things.
==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==
The official reading re¬proaches Zhou that he "saw only the fly and not the cosmos" , a quotation of the young Zhou about a position he himself clearly opposed.

His ability to chat about the more pleasent things in life is displayed in his essay ”Birds’ twitter”. In ”''Peking cakes and sweet-meat''” and in ”''Wild vegetable of my home region''”, Zhou Zuoren shows his ability to make the reader feel at home at a region, where he feels at home himself, by describing the customs and special regional food.

Siehe Zhou Zuoren: "Cangying 蒼蠅" (Die Stubenfliege), in: ''Chenbao fujuan'' 晨报副镌 (Beilage zur Morgenpost) (1924.7.13). Eine Zu¬sammenfassung des Inhalts findet sich in: Yu Daxiang (Hg.): ''Auswahllexikon chinesischer Essays mit Inhaltsangaben und Analysen'' 1993.

''Siehe Vollständige chinesische Anthologie der Wissenschaften - Bd Chinesische Literatur'' 1988, Bd 2, S. 1300. Dies spielt auf den Essay "''Cangying'' 蒼蠅" (Die Stubenfliege), in: Zhou Zuoren: ''Zhi Tang. Sammlung'' 1933 an.（文献无需翻译）

官方的解读指责他“只看到了渺小，而没有看到伟大”，这是对年轻的周作人的引用，他自己明确反对该立场。
他谈论生活中更愉快的事情，在他推特的文章“鸟”中得到了展示。在“北京蛋糕和甜食”与“我家乡的野菜”中，周作人通过描述风俗和特殊的地区食物，展示了他让读者感到宾至如归的能力。--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 13:37, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Si Yu 司妤==
His piece ”''Bitter rain''” shows the atmosphere, for what his essays had been labelled ”bitter tea”: There remains a taste in one’s mouth after reading. If you compare Lu Xun’s ”''On tea drinking''” (Yang/Yang 1961 3:325-326) with Zhou Zuoren’s essay with the same title, you see the difference of ”short and to the point” and ”eloquent and well-read”. ”''First love''” is more hilarious. The essay ”''Three different ways to die''” shows that Zhou Zuoren can compete with his elder brother in sarcasm. Lu Xun's essay on the same subject, the massacre on March 18, 1926, was a sight.

他的作品《苦雨》展现出了这种氛围，因此他的文章被称为“苦茶”：阅读完之后能感到余味悠长。如果你对比鲁迅和周作人的《论饮茶》(Yang/Yang 1961 3:325-326)，你可以看到“短小精辟”和“雄辩易读”的区别。《初恋》是最欢乐的作品。文章《三种不同的死法》表明周作人在讽刺小说方面足以与他的哥哥抗衡。鲁迅的同题作文《1926年3月18日的大屠杀》让人眼前一亮。--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 12:36, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Song Jianru 宋建茹==
Zhou asks for the ”best” way to die and favors the short and painless one. In ”''On alcohol''” and ”''The awning bunk boat''” Zhou Zuoren continues the tradition of late Ming ''biji''.

'''7. The essay as a snapshot of contemporary thoughts'''

''What is the state of contemporary essay writing in China? Its position should be brought into its proper relationship to recent approaches, perspectives and terms of categorization, like post-modernist elements, post-colonial thinking, deconstructivism etc.''

==Su Lin 苏琳==
The increase of the essay production after the ‘Cultural Revolution’ might be explained with the ability of the essay, to express personal experiences much more authentically than other genres because of its immanent claim of historical truth. But the essay is not a guarantee for objective truth: In the same time it is subjective, the essayist mediates his image consciously. This restricts the reported truth to a subjective one and bears the risk of a consciously “corrected” truth.
==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==
The individualism of the Republican era has been based on the common feeling to stand at a historical turning point and directed towards common targets like the creation of a New Literature and a new Chinese society. In the 1980s and especially in the 1990s, individualism asks for a critical reflection on the satisfaction of personal consumption needs and tries to give personal orientation, essayists plead for moral virtues (Wang Meng: "''Anxiang'' 安详" (Serene) 1992, "''Zuohao ni ziji de shi'' 做好你自己的事" (First make your own things in a good way) 1994).
==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==
These essays, mainly published in newspapers and magazines, are widely read by people in the rapidly changing, anonymous, alienating and consume-oriented mass cultural society.

Other essays in the 1980s and 1990s are in a kind of new subjectivism targeted away from contemporary contradictions but apply to the feelings of the audience by creating an either positive ("''Shanxi opera''", Jia Pingwa 1984) or negative world ("''The nightmare''", Si Yu 1995).

From the essay, we can see contemporary trends of literature, which are also reasons for the increase in volume of this genre in the 1990s:

这些散文主要发表在报刊和杂志上，在瞬息万变、匿名、疏离和消费导向的大众文化社会中广为人们阅读。
20世纪80年代和90年代的其他散文虽是一种新的主观主义，其目标是摆脱当代的矛盾，但是通过创造一个积极的世界（“秦腔”，贾平凹，1984)或消极的世界(“噩梦”，思羽，1995)来迎合观众。
从这篇文章中，我们可以看到当代文学的趋势，这也是20世纪90年代这种文学体裁增加的原因:--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 12:30, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

这些散文主要发表在报刊和杂志上，在瞬息万变、匿名、疏离和消费导向的大众文化社会中广为人们阅读。
20世纪80年代和90年代的其他散文是一种新的个人主义，其目标是远离当代的矛盾，但通过创造一个积极的世界（“秦腔”，贾平凹，1984)或消极的世界(“噩梦”，思羽，1995)来迎合观众。
从这篇文章中，我们可以看到文学的时代趋势，这也是20世纪90年代这种文学体裁增加的原因:--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 14:44, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==
- The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts: “[...] we live in an age of exposition” (Hall 1984:xiii);

- The increasing consciousness of indivi¬duality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjecti¬ve expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands;

- A revival of interest in discussing social-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.

- The banality of everyday life becomes conscious through becoming a literary topic, most commonly in the genre of everyday life, the essay.

- 当下中国社会的浮躁节奏，对转折性和短文的要求。"[...]我们生活在一个论述的时代"(Hall 1984:xiii)。

- 越发增加的独立意识，对其而言，文章是最直接的主体表达形式，甚至比诗的格律和形式要求更直接。

- 通过散文这一媒介讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复苏，就像20世纪20/30年代的情况一样。

- 日常生活的平庸性通过成为文学话题而变得自觉，最常见的是日常生活的文体--散文。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

-当前中国社会节奏轻快，要求有趣味的短文：“[…]我们生活在一个博览会时代”（大厅1984:xiii）；

-对于个人二元性意识的增强，散文是主体性表达的最直接形式，甚至比诗歌的韵律和形式要求更直接；

-通过这篇文章讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复复苏，如同20世纪20年代或30年代的情况一样。

-日常生活的平庸通过成为一个文学主题而变得有意识，最常见的是日常生活的体裁——散文。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 12:59, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Tang Bei 汤蓓==
- The De-ideologization of Chinese society. Today not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. The mostly read political essays after 1949 are critical essays.

- Regarding the compiling of essay collections: For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain.

- 中国社会的去意识形态化。如今在最前列的不是政府要求的平权文，而是非政治性的文章，大多是民国时期的文章，特别是1923年至1928年的。上述统计分析的结果也支持这一观点。1949年以后的政论文多为批评性散文。

- 关于散文集的编纂：对于中华人民共和国、台湾和香港最常被选中的文集来说，道德和审美标准似乎是其基础。--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 05:19, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Tang Ming 唐铭==
This is a sign of the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publis¬hing houses with an orientation toward customers (former: "readers").

- The criteria for essay best sellers in the P.R. of China are the following: In the most often printed essay "''The Back View''", filial piety is the driving factor, parallelistic and repetitive structures in the atmospherical nebulous "''The Moonlit Lotus Pond''", both written by Zhu Ziqing, whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader.
==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==
Nostalgic home feelings are the emotional identification element in "''Wild vegetables of my home region''" by Wang Zengqi. Therefore one can state, that moving es¬says form the top.

- ''In the latter half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of in¬dividuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife. Time loses worth, since more and more of the daily acctivities are filled with mechanical and autistic actions.''

乡愁是汪曾祺《家乡的野菜》中的情感认同元素。因此可以说，动人的散文构成了上。

- 在90年代后半期，在日趋形式化但实质上空虚的城市生活中，作者自己似乎也迷失在个体的主体性和日常的亵渎性与平庸性中。时间失去了价值，因为越来越多的日常活动被机械和自闭的行为所充斥。--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 07:09, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Tao Ye 陶冶==
''In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only political replique is the patriotism, for example expressed in the 1996 published monograph'' China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war (''No''! 1996).

- ''The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable object d'art.''
==Wang Meiling 王美玲==
''Also trends like the use of ordinary language, which one finds in novels since 1993 (Jia Pingwa, Feidu; Gu Cheng, Yingger) and'' New Borderlessness ''since'' 1995, ''cannot be pro-ven in the essaywriting. ''

- Also the fictional realism David Der-Wei Wang sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proves helpful for the understanding of some essays, one being "''The Small Dog Baodi''", written by Ba Jin 1981, in which the author turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in allegoric instead of in descriptive truth as before ("''In memoriam of Xiao Shan II''", Ba Jin 1984).

另外像1993年以来的小说（贾平凹、飞渡；顾城、莺歌）和1995年以来的《新无界》中发现的普通语言的使用趋势，也不能在散文写作中得到证明。

- 另外，王德威在老舍、茅盾、沈从文身上看到的小说现实主义，也证明了对一些文章的理解是有帮助的，其中之一是1981年巴金写的《小狗包弟》，作者变成了一个叙述者，用寓言式而不是像以前那样用描述式的真实来叙述'文革'的记忆（《纪念萧山二号》，巴金1984）。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 06:46, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wang Xuan 王轩==
Similar is the concept of imaginery nostalgia, as Wang calls the fictional truth in Shen Congwen's work (David Der-Wei Wang 1992), helpful for the reading of Wang Zengqi's "''Rain in Kunming''" as well as for Jia Pingwa's "''Shanxi opera''".
类似的还有想象怀旧的概念，正如王功权所说的沈从文作品中虚构的真实（王大卫·德维王1992），有助于解读汪曾祺的《昆明雨》，也有助于贾平凹的《山西剧》。

- The Schwarcz' concept of ''personal grief'' expressed in a ''metaphorical discourse'' helps us to understand how Ba Jin was able to overcome the ''truth of being'' he was known for, only to reach a more convincing fictional truth through the metaphor of his dog Baodi.
施瓦茨在“隐喻话语”中所表达的“个人悲伤”概念，有助于我们理解巴金是如何克服他以“存在的真理”而闻名的，却通过他的狗“宝坻”的隐喻而获得更具说服力的虚构真相。

Xin zhuangtai xiaoshuo 新狀態小說 new borderless fiction, represented by Chen Dong 韓東, Lu Yang 魯羊, Zhu Wen 朱文, Lin Bai 林白, Chen Liang 陳梁, Zhang Mei 張梅.（文献无需翻译）

''Post-colonialist thinking (Williams et al. 1994), which is to be seen as part of the social-political discourse, appears in essays, especially in the less critical political, but patriotic essays of the 1990s. Kafkaism helps us understand the essay "The nightmare", where Si Yu appears as a de-constructionist, the I-narrator even is drawn near to suicide.''（文献无需翻译）

And maybe for Xie Bingxins* reflections on her experience as one of the chosen voluntaries of the Wuhan military academy: She insisted to remain a lifelong "woman soldier" .（文献无需翻译）

==Wang Yu 王煜==
'''8. Discussion: Is the genre of the essay the form of literary expression in 21st century China?'''

Regarding the future of the Chinese literature, we can only speculate. But out the risk of being wild and provocative, I would like to suggest some questions for considering the place of the essay in the field of Chinese literature and literary studies.

- People have less time for actions like reading, and get used to reduced visualized information through the Internet. Will the brevity of the essay make it the ideal medium?

8. 讨论：在21世纪中国，散文体裁是文学表达形式么？

关于中国文学的未来，我们只能猜测。但除开可能会变得狂热和具有挑衅性的危险外，我想就散文在中国文学和文学研究领域的地位提些问题。
人们很少有时间去阅读，并且习惯于网上简略的可视信息。散文的精简会使其成为一个理想的媒介么？--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 06:40, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

8. 讨论：在21世纪中国，散文体裁是文学表达形式么？

关于中国文学的未来，我们只能猜测。但出于狂妄和挑衅的风险，我想提出一些问题，以考虑散文在中国文学和文学研究领域的地位。

- 人们阅读等行动的时间少了，也习惯了通过网络减少视觉化的信息。散文的简洁性是否会使其成为理想的媒介？--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 06:49, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wang Yuan 王源==
- If the Chinese people are rediscovering their individuality, will the essay allow them to express individual thoughts more directly?

- Modern societies are characterized by TV culture, mass consumption, and the loss of consciousness of one's own tradition, often partly due to the American impact on national cultures. Is the essay less bound to the restrictions of tradition, especially compared to the poem and thus more adaptable to the modern phenomenon of mass consumption?

==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==
- The alienation and the anonymity of citylife worldwide, in China is combined with a loss of traditional values like ideology, family, solidarity etc. in favor of the concept of profit for oneself, - if this has produced a longing for new orientation, will it possibly be filled by morally guiding essays or nationalistic thinking?

- 在中国，世界范围内城市生活的异化和互相不认识的现象与传统价值观如意识形态、家庭、团圆等的丧失结合在一起，有利于为自己谋利的观念，如果这已经产生了对新方向的渴望，这个领域能否被道德指导性文章或民族主义思想所填补呢？--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 11:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

《红楼梦》与其他世界文学作品的相似性——推荐《红楼梦》列入世界记忆遗产名录

'''Commonness between the Red Chamber Dreams and other World Literature Novels – Proposing the Red Chamber Dreams to the World Documentary Heritage List'''（修改）

吴漠汀，湖南师范大学 Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University

Source: Lecture at Harvard University, Cambridge, MA USA, 14.3.2000（文献无需翻译）

==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==
'''Abstract'''

In every culture, readers associate the literature they know with new literature they read. So literature is always cumulative, it grows out of existing literature and can refer back to it. When Western readers read the Red Chamber Dreams, they foremost associate novels and other pieces of literature of their own cultural tradition with the Dreams. This has also influenced the first full translation into German.

Cao Xueqin and even more his protagonist Jia Baoyu both are early humanists, universalists and world citizens. ''The Red Chamber Dreams'' function worldwide.

摘要

在每一种文化中，读者都会把他们读到的新文学与已知文学联系起来，所以文学总是积累的，它生长于现有文学之中，并以已有文学为参考。西方读者在阅读《红楼梦》时，首先会把《红楼梦》与自身文化传统中的小说和其他文学作品联系起来，这也影响了首次的德语全译本。

曹雪芹，尤其是他的主人公贾宝玉，都是早期的人文主义者，普世主义者和世界公民。《红楼梦》具有普世价值。--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 07:03, 28 December 2020 (UTC)Wei yafei

在每一种文化中，读者都会把他们读到的新文学与已知文学联系起来，所以文学总是积累的，它从现有的文学中衍生出来，并以已有文学为参考。西方读者在阅读《红楼梦》时，首先会把《红楼梦》与自身文化传统中的小说和其他文学作品联系起来，这也影响了首次德语全译本。

曹雪芹，甚至于他的主人公贾宝玉，都是早期的人文主义者，普世主义者和世界公民。《红楼梦》具有普世价值。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:09, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==
''The Dream'' is a complex showroom of diverse aspects of Chinese cultures and is the embodiment and essence of Chinese cultures, but it has also a global impact, therefore it should be honoured as “World Documentary Heritage”.

红楼梦》综合展示了中国的多元文化，是中国文化的集中体现和精华，同时在全球范围内产生影响，理应列入世界记忆遗产名录。（修改）

多元一体

'''Key words'''

Western culture, reception tradition, German translation, Embodiment of Chinese cultures, global compatibility, World Documentary Heritage

“红楼梦”是一个多元的中国文化综合体，是中国文化的体现和精髓，但它也具有全球影响力，因此应该被授予“世界文献遗产”的荣誉。（修改<nowiki>Insert non-formatted text here</nowiki>）

多元一体

'''Key words'''

Western culture, reception tradition, German translation, Embodiment of Chinese cultures, global compatibility, World Documentary Heritage
--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 10:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

《红楼梦》是一个中国文化综合体，展示着中国文化的精髓的同时也极具全球影响力，理应被列入世界记忆遗产名录。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:00, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

《红楼梦》是一个中国文化的综合体，它展示着中国文化的精髓并极具全球影响力，因此它应该被列入世界记忆文献遗产名录。
关键词
西方文化，传统保护，德国翻译，中国文化具像化表现，全球兼容，世界遗产文献
--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 07:10, 28 December 2020 (UTC)Wei yafei

==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==
'''1. Chinese Ethics'''

To help the poor and disadvantaged belongs to the traditional core values of Chinese culture.

When we sit in the Beijing Subway today, the loudspeaker announcement reminds us, that it is Chinese traditional ethics to give seats to the disadvantaged (老弱病残孕让座是中国传统道德). We know of Cao Xueqin, that he supported the poor and disadvantaged, and that he made kites for children.

However, when we look closer at these “Chinese Ethics”, we discover, that they are claimed also in Indian Buddhism “karuna” and in the Christian tradition of “caritas” and in almost every civilization. Therefore, we might call these values “human ethics”.

==Wu Kai 吴恺==
'''2. Compatibility
'''
Why do the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' function worldwide and have achieved world literature status even in their translations?

First of all, the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' are, like novels worldwide, a piece of entertainment literature. In comparison to the drama, in which every element is compulsory and plays its part in the overall structure, in the novel the line of action itself is simpler and not so important, most of the scenes or episodes are loosely put together and fit in the broader theme of the novel.

'''2. 兼容性
'''
为什么《红楼梦》在世界范围内广泛流传，甚至在翻译领域中也取得了世界文学的地位？

首先，《红楼梦》和世界小说一样，是一部娱乐文学。与戏剧中的每一个元素都是强制性的，在整体结构中起作用的戏剧相比，小说的行动路线本身更简单，也不那么重要，大部分场景或情节都松散地组合在一起，这和小说更广泛的主题相吻合。--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 14:29, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wu Qi 吴琪==
However, the lose arrangement of episodes of the ''Dreams'' comes from the tradition of almost unconnected episodes like in the ''Shuihuzhuan'' and is a step towards the greater coherence of the episodes, the aligning into a story line and the greater concentration on fewer protagonists. Therefore, the ''Dreams'' show clearly a step towards the Western tradition of novels, maybe because of growing Western influence in Qing dynasty.

'''3. Impact of translator’s native culture on the translation process'''

There are intercultural parallels between the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' and Western works of literature.

然而，《红楼梦》章回结构不连续来自于《水浒传》中几乎没有联系的章回的传统，这是朝着章回更连贯、与故事线一致以及更集中于较少主角的方向迈出的一步。因此，《红楼梦》明显向西方小说传统迈进了一步，可能是因为西方对清代的影响越来越大。

'''3.译者的本土文化对翻译过程的影响'''

《红楼梦》和西方文学作品之间有跨文化的相似之处。
--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 11:54, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wu Qiong 吴琼==
These parallels are fundamental for the translation and were explicitly and implicitly fundamental for the German translator Martin Woesler during his translation and editorial work on the first full German translation. In the following, I will mention some of the Western novels and pieces of literature, which the Western reader of the ''Dreams'' will immediately think of.

'''4. The novel as embodiment of “Zeitgeist”'''

According to Georg Lukács’ ''Theory of the Novel'', while the Epos (like Homer’s ''Ilias'', which like the ''Dream'' reasons the stories in the divine realm) displayed a holistic world experience, a complete, self-contained culture, the novel displays, that the modern world has become infinitely large and has lost its homely quality.
==Wu Xiang 邬香==
The novel as a genre is no longer documenting just one culture, but represents, with the words of Walter Benjamin, the Organon of History. So the understanding of the novel changed with Lukacs to historical-philosophically. A novel is understood as typical for its historical era, the novel embodies the spirit of the epoch (Zeitgeist).

小说作为一种文学题材不再仅仅记录一种文化，而是用沃尔特·本杰明的话来代表历史的有机物。因此，卢卡奇对这部小说的理解从历史转向哲学。一部小说被理解为其历史时代的典型小说，这部小说会体现时代精神（时代精神）。

The ''Red Chamber Dreams'' are written in front of the background of the Manchu minority having taken over the power in formerly Han-shaped Ming-China (which was a multi-ethnic and crosscultural society) and families suffering the changing favor of changing emperors, with the Cao family being fostered by Kangxi and being persecuted by Yongzheng.

《红楼梦》是在满族统治原汉族掌管的明朝（当时是一个多民族、跨文化的社会）和贵族家庭遭受皇位更迭影响的背景下写成的，曹氏家族受到康熙的扶植和雍正的迫害。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 15:04, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wu Yilu 吴一露==
While the author in his time could not criticize the system and power of emperors, in the novel he came to terms with this life by seeking the guilt for the persecution in the growing decadence of the family (engaging in Daoism, leisure, poetry-writing, arts and music instead of learning for being able to earn a living) and in himself not fulfilling the expectations as the family heir. This description of decadence of a declining family reminds us of the novels of Tschechov (and e.g. in the ''Buddenbrooks'' by Mann, including the turn to arts and music).

虽然作者在他的时代无法批判皇帝的制度和权力，但在小说中，他通过家族的日益衰败（修行道教、休闲、写诗、艺术和音乐，而不是为了能够谋生而学习）和自己没有实现作为家族继承人的期望中寻找受迫害的罪责，来接受这种生活。这种对没落家庭颓废的描述，让我们想起了契诃夫的小说（如曼恩的《布登布鲁克》，包括对艺术和音乐的转向）。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 12:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

虽然作者在他的时代无法批判帝制和皇权，但在小说中，他为家族的日益衰败（参加道教、娱乐、诗歌、艺术和音乐活动，而不是为了谋生而学习）和自己作为家族继承人没有实现家族期望感到自责，通过这样做，他也对这种生活做妥协。这种对没落家族颓废状况的描写，让我们想起了契诃夫的小说（如曼恩的《布登布鲁克》，包括对艺术和音乐的转向）--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 15:08, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==

Moreover, with the detailed description of life on all social levels in early Qing Dynasty, the Dream appears as a documentary historical novel very much like Günter Grass’ The Tin Drum 1959.

'''5. Coming-of-age and Alienation'''

Abandoning the paradise-like garden in the Red Chamber Dreams is a symbol for leaving the protected childhood and arriving in the complex world of adults. With George Lukács theory of the novel, the protagonist starts to problematize the sense of his life, in the novel, the protagonist’s self permanently struggles with his environment.

此外，《红楼梦》对清初社会各阶层生活的详细描写，与君特·格拉斯的《铁皮鼓1959》非常相似，《铁皮鼓1959》是一部纪实历史小说。

“5. 成熟和异化”

抛弃《红楼梦》中天堂般的花园，是离开受保护的童年，进入复杂的成人世界的象征。随着乔治·卢卡奇的小说理论，主人公开始对他的生活感觉产生疑问，在小说中，主人公的自我一直与他的环境作斗争。--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 16:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia

==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==
However, Cao Xueqin’s message is not simply the one of “Paradise Lost”, instead he himself made the best out of his life. Although being less wealthy than when his family still enjoyed the favour of the emperor, there was a payroll system and a social net intact in Early Qing China, where he received enough income to be independent from his rich relatives, to be selective on accepting jobs, to live a relaxed life in a small house in the nature, spending time with his family and friends, follow his own interests, like reading, writing and drinking wine, making kites for the children and thinking of the disadvantaged.

然而，曹雪芹的信息不仅是“失乐园”的信息，而是他本人的一生。尽管不如他的家人仍然享有皇帝的宠爱时富裕，但清初中国有一个工资体系和一个完整的社会网络，在那里他获得了足够的收入以独立于自己的富裕亲戚，可以有选择性地接受工作在大自然的小房子里过着轻松的生活，与家人和朋友共度时光，遵循自己的兴趣，例如读书，写作和喝酒，为孩子们放风筝和思考处境不利的人。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:38, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

然而，曹雪芹所传达的信息并不是简单的“失乐园”，相反，他把自己的生活过得很好。虽然比起他的家族享受皇帝的宠爱，他过得没有那么富裕，但清初中国有一套薪俸制度和一张完整的社会网，他获得了足够的收入，可以独立于富贵亲戚，可以有选择性地接受工作，可以在大自然的小房子里过着悠闲的生活，可以与家人和朋友共度时光，可以追随自己的兴趣，例如读书，写作和饮酒，可以为孩子们做风筝，可以为弱势群体着想。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 11:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xiao Ting 肖婷==
Cao Xueqin was fully aware of his time and China’s cultural achievements, he was familiar with the different levels of society, he was a detailed observer and skilful narrator. He may have conceptualized the ending of the novel as a discussion about the different personalities of the characters in the novel and therefore displaying his reflection about life and his psychological understanding of the diversity of human nature. He was able to grasp the “spirit of time” (Zeitgeist) and with his autobiographical experience create an eternal coming-of-age novel not just for his family, for the Qing-Chinese, for Chinese people, but for mankind.

曹雪芹对自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就有充分的认识，他熟悉社会的方方面面，他观察细致，叙事娴熟。他能把小说的结尾构思为对小说中人物不同性格的探讨，从而体现出他对人生的思考和对人性多样性的理解。他能够把握 "时间精神"(Zeitgeist)，并以他的亲身经历为材料创造了一部成熟的绝世之作，这不仅是为他的家庭、为清人、为中国人，更是为全人类。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 11:29, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

曹雪芹充分了解自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就，熟悉社会的不同层次，是一个细致的观察者和娴熟的叙述者。他可能将小说的结局概念化为对小说中人物不同性格的讨论，从而表现出他对生活的反思和对人性多样性的心理理解。他能够把握“时代精神”(时代精神)，并以他的自传体经历，为他的家庭，为清朝人，为中国人，为人类创造了一部永恒的成长小说。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 12:01, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

曹雪芹对自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就了如指掌，他熟悉社会的不同层面，他是一个细致的观察者和娴熟的叙述者。因此，他在小说中对人的不同个性的理解和对小说中人物性格的多样性进行了概念化的探讨。他能够把握“时代精神”，用他的自传体经历，不仅为他的家庭，为清朝的中国人，为中国人民，而且为人类，创作了一部永恒的成人小说。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:43, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

==Xiao Xi 肖茜==
This tradition of Coming-of-age novels is also a European one, like enlightenment philosopher Voltaire’s novel ''Candide or Optimism''《老实人》shows at the very same time (1759) in Europe. Also Voltaire’s Candide has to leave the luxurious paradise of his childhood and strives for true love, but his main learning is more pessimistic, since Voltaire wrote the novel in opposition to Leibniz, who optimistically looked to China as “the best of all worlds”. Recent research findings show that China had a much larger influence on European enlightenment philosophers and we can be sure, that also Cao Xueqin was aware of some European literary traditions.
这种成熟的传统小说也是一个欧洲人,像启蒙哲学家伏尔泰在欧洲同时间出版的的小说《老实人》(1759)。伏尔泰笔下的老实人不得不离开童年的奢华天堂，为追求真爱而奋斗，但他的主要学习内容却更为悲观，因为伏尔泰的小说与莱布尼茨截然相反，莱布尼茨乐观地认为中国是“所有世界中最好的”。最近的研究发现，中国对欧洲启蒙哲学家的影响要大得多，我们可以肯定，曹雪芹对欧洲的一些文学传统也有所了解。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 15:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

这种成熟的传统小说也是一个欧洲人,像启蒙运动哲学家伏尔泰在欧洲同时间出版的的小说《老实人》(1759年)。伏尔泰笔下的老实人不得不离开童年的奢华天堂，为追求真爱而奋斗，但他的主要学习内容却更为悲观，因为伏尔泰的小说与莱布尼茨截然相反，莱布尼茨乐观地认为中国是“所有世界中最好的”。最近的研究发现，中国对欧洲启蒙运动哲学家的影响要大得多，我们可以肯定，曹雪芹对欧洲的一些文学传统也有所了解。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 04:33, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==
Also the German readership is familiar with the chronological following of the life of the protagonist and his development, the fate of a family over generations, the German readership knows this type of novel as the “Education novel” or “Coming-of-age-novel”. In Germany, the genre of the coming-of-age novel has a long tradition and it is shaped more by single characters, who appear as teachers (Goethe: ''Wilhelm Meister’s Apprenticeship''威廉·麦斯特的学徒岁月 1795-96, Novalis 诺瓦利斯: ''Heinrich von Ofterdingen''《海因利·封·歐福特丁根》1802).

德国读者对主人公的生平及其发展、家族世代的命运都很熟悉，德国读者把这种类型的小说称为“教育小说”或“成长小说”。在德国,关于成长小说的体裁有着悠久的传统,它的形状更由单个字符,它更多的是被塑造为教师的单个人物(歌德：'Wilhelm Meister’s Apprenticeship''威廉·麦斯特的学徒岁月 1795-96, Novalis 诺瓦利斯: ''Heinrich von Ofterdingen''《海因利·封·歐福特丁根》1802)。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 14:59, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining

==Xie Fan 解帆==
Wilhelm Meister, parallely to Jia Baoyu, is struggling with the traditional education, in ''Wilhelm Meister'' this is represented with the classics revived in Shakespeare’s dramas. Tradition can give orientation, but the personality of the protagonist needs to develop through emancipation is a wisdom, we can learn from all mentioned novels including the ''Dreams''.

'''6. Pornography and True Love, female rivals'''

Sexuality is a basic human need and has developed into different shapes in all cultures. The German audience is familiar with erotic topics from the Middle Ages, in which sexuality was stylized. In the “Schwänke” of the 15th century (Wittenwielers Ring), erotic scenes are described sexually explicit.

与贾宝玉一样，威廉·迈斯特也在与传统教育作斗争，这通过莎士比亚的经典戏剧得以体现。传统可以作为方向标，但主人公的个性需要通过解放才能发展，这是一种智慧，我们可以以上提过包括《梦》的所有小说中学习。
“6.色情与真爱，女性对手"
性是人类的一种基本需求，在不同文化中展现出不同的形态。德国观众熟悉中世纪的情色话题，在这些话题中，性是有固定程式的。在15世纪的“Schwanke”(Wittenwielers Ring)中，情色场景被描述为露骨的性。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:37, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

与贾宝玉一样，威廉·迈斯特也在与传统教育作斗争，在《威廉·迈斯特》中，莎士比亚戏剧中复兴的经典作品代表了这一点。传统可以给予导向，但主人公的个性需要通过解放来发展是一种智慧，我们可以从包括《梦》在内的所有小说中学习。
“6。色情与真爱，女性对手"
性是人类的一种基本需求，在各种文化中形成了不同的形态。德国观众熟悉中世纪的情色话题，在这些话题中，性是程式化的。在15世纪的“Schwanke”(Wittenwielers Ring)中，情色场景被描述为露骨的性。--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 01:37, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==
In the barock literature of the 17th century even the physical act is described extensively.

According to „cumulativity“, every human being is a product of history and literature is based on previous literature, therefore the author of this pager thinks that this background has to be taken into account while translating.

The best study on ''qing'' passion in the Dreams is the one by Anthony Yu, who understood it as ''desire'' and as the central motif of the ''Dreams''. „The centrality of qing in shaping virtually every aspect of The Story of the Stone’s structure and meaning cannot be denied [...].“ (Anthony Yu 2001, 54).

==Xu Jia 徐佳==
In the framework story of the Dreams, the narrator consciously takes a stand against low-action and stereotypical pornographic literature as well as against the widespread romance novels (with the classic roles of the beautiful, talented woman and the poor scholar who finally achieves a respected position and prosperity by passing a civil service exam).

In chapter 1 he says: ”of the true feelings of young people [...] nobody has reported about so far.”

Erotic scenes are described in a decent and associative way (“Game of clouds and rain”), while displaying another quality in its openness e.g. towards bisexuality.

在《梦》的框架故事中，叙述者有意识地站在了反对低级动作和刻板色情文学的立场上，也站在了反对普遍存在的言情小说的立场上（以美丽的才女和通过公务员考试最终获得地位和财富的穷书生为经典角色）。

在第一章中，他说："年轻人的真情实感......至今无人报道"。

"情色场面以体面和联想的方式描述（"云和雨的游戏"），同时表现出另一种开放性，例如对双性恋的开放。--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 12:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia

在《梦》的框架故事中，叙述者有意识地反对低俗的动作和陈规定型的色情文学，反对流传甚广的浪漫小说（以美丽的才女和通过公务员制度最终获得受人尊敬的地位的穷困书生为经典角色）。

在第一章中，他说：“关于年轻人的真实感受，[……]到目前为止还没有人报道过。”

情色场景被描述成一个体面和联想的方式（“云和雨的游戏”），同时显示了另一个开放性的性质，例如对双性恋。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 15:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining

==Xu Jing 许晶==
The ''Dreams'' narrate the story of unfortunate lovers. Unfortunate lovers also in the West have a literary tradition, they constitute an archetype, such as Hero and Leander, Pyramus and Thisbe, Tristan and Isolde, Flore and Blanscheflur as well as Troilus and Cressida, the latter being considered the model for Arthur Brookes, who wrote Romeo and Juliet in 1562 and thus directly influenced Shakespeare.

While Marián Galik saw as the central topic of both, the ''Dream'' and ''Faust'', the eternal feminine, which draws us on high, Gu Cheng called it the “eternal virgine”.

《梦》讲述了一对不幸的恋人的故事。在西方，不幸恋人也有文学传统，即他们构成了一个原型，例如Hero和Leander，Pyramus和Thisbe，Tristan和Isolde，Flore和Blanscheflur以及Troilus和Cressida，后者被认为是Arthur Brookes的模型，他在1562年撰写了《罗密欧与朱丽叶》，从而直接影响了莎士比亚。

玛丽安·加利克（Mariann Galik）认为《梦》和《浮士德》都是吸引我们的永恒女性的中心主题，顾城则称其为“永恒的处女”。--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 00:25, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xu Jing 许静==
In Goethe’s coming-of-age novel ''Wilhelm Meisters Wanderjahre'', we find a similar motif of female rivals, in the Keller 凯勒 ''The Green Henry'' 《绿衣亨利》1855, the hero turns away from an emphatically sexually designed figure and turns to the 'real' woman. In Jane Austen’s ''Pride and Prejudice'' 1813 Elizabeth and Lin Daiyu are similar, e.g. they both strive for real love (Zhuang 2011).

在歌德的成长小说''Wilhelm Meisters Wanderjahre''中，我们发现了类似的女性竞争主题，在凯勒''The Green Henry''（《绿衣亨利》1855）中，男主人公父亲早亡，母亲养育其成人。在简-奥斯汀的''Pride and Prejudice''（《傲慢与偏见》1813）中，伊丽莎白和林黛玉是相似的，比如她们都追求真爱（庄2011）。--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 03:38, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==
'''7. Feudal society and slavery'''

A widespread interpretation is that Jia Baoyu’s equal treatment of family members and slaves would be a manifesto to free the slaves. I also do not share this interpretation, since Aristotle, when he demanded democracy, would exclude slaves from the right to vote. So we cannot use modern concepts to judge on the past. In my understanding, Jia Baoyu was not fighting inequality, but looked at the people as humans and individuals.

封建社会和奴隶
一种普遍的解释是，贾宝玉对家庭成员和奴隶一视同仁，这将成为奴隶解放的宣言。我并不同意这个解释，因为亚里士多德的民主就排除了奴隶的投票权。所以，我们并不能用现代观念去评判过去。在我看来，贾宝玉并不是和不平等作斗争，而是把人视作群体和个人。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 09:55, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie

一种普遍的解释是，贾宝玉对家庭成员和奴隶的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我也不同意这种解释，因为亚里士多德，当他要求民主的时候，会排除奴隶的投票权。所以我们不能用现代的概念来判断过去。在我的理解中，贾宝玉并不是在与不平等作斗争，而是把人看成是群体和个人。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 10:31, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

许多人认为，贾宝玉对家庭成员和仆人的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我也不同意这种看法。因为当亚里士多德要求民主时，奴隶并没有投票权。所以我们不能用现代的概念来判断过去发生的事。在我的理解中，贾宝玉并不是在与不平等作斗争，而是把人分为是群体和个人。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 11:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

人们普遍认为贾宝玉对待家庭成员和奴隶的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我不同意这种解释，因为亚里士多德吁民主时，会将奴隶从投票权中剔除。所以我们不能用现代观点评判古人。我认为，贾宝玉并不是在为不平等而做斗争，而是将人区分为人或是个体。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 12:02, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==
Also the understanding of the servants as slaves does not match the description in the Dream, since some servants had servants themselves, the family took care after they left the Jia family to find a match for them and Jia Zheng refers to his daughter Yingchun as „yatou 丫头“, so it is inappropriate to translate this expression with slave. Therefore, the translator preferred “servant” over “slave” in the translation.

另外，把仆人理解为奴隶也与《红楼梦》中所描述的不符，因为有些仆人自己也有仆人，他们离开贾家后，家人会照顾他们，为他们婚配，并且贾正把女儿迎春称为“丫头”，所以用奴隶来翻译这个词是不合适的。因此，译者在翻译中更倾向于“仆人”而不是“奴隶”。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 09:14, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

而且把仆人理解为奴隶与《红楼梦》中的描写不符，因为有些仆人自己还有仆人，贾府会在她们离府的时候为她们寻一门亲事，作为贾府对她们的照料；贾政也把自己的女儿迎春喊作 “丫头”，所以把这些翻译成奴隶是不合适的。因此英文翻译中采用“servant”会比“slave”更为合适。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 10:08, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie

==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==
Mo Yan in his speech at the Frankfurt Bookfair in 2009, when China was the guest of honor, draws the (similarly) parallel between the ''Dream'' and Goethe’s ''Sorrows of the Young Werther'', that both expressed the wish to abandon feudal society. My own impression is that both do not express this wish, but that this is a later concept and interpretation and we should not apply this to judge the past.

2009年，莫言代表中国作为主宾国参加法兰克福书展时，他在演讲中把《梦》和歌德的《少年维特之哀》画上了约等号，表达了抛弃封建社会的愿望。我自己的印象是，两者都没有表达这个愿望，但这是后来的概念和解释，而我们不应该以此来判断过去。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:36, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting

2009年，莫言代表中国作为主宾国参加法兰克福书展时，在演讲中把《梦》和歌德的《少年维特之哀》画上了约等号，表达了抛弃封建社会的愿望。我自己的感觉是，两者都没有表达这个愿望，但这是后来的概念和解释，我们不应该以此来判断过去。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:43, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Hairong 杨海容==
'''8. Tragedy of all tragedies'''

Aristotle explained in ''On the Tragedy'' (Poetics VI), that tragedies move people more than comedies because they “imitate [mimēsis] an action that is serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude” (Aristotle 1971, 51), This high esteem of the tragedy in Europe is partly ascribed to the loss of Aristotle’s work ''On the Comedy''.

8.所有悲剧的悲剧成分

亚里士多德在《悲剧论》（诗学VI）中解释说，悲剧使人们比喜剧更能吸引人，因为他们“模仿（mimēsis）一种严肃、完整和有程度的行动”（Aristotle 1971，51）。欧洲的悲剧部分归因于亚里斯多德作品《喜剧》的丢失。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 10:16, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

8.所有悲剧含有的悲剧成分

亚里士多德在《悲剧论》（诗学VI）中解释道，悲剧之所以比戏剧更加动人，是因为它们“模仿（mimēsis）一种严肃、完整且具有一定规模的行动”（Aristotle 1971，51）。悲剧在欧洲拥有崇高地位部分归因于亚里士多德的作品《论喜剧》的失传。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 12:42, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Hui 阳慧==
While Europe has the Hamlet as its tragedy of all tragedies, the lack of tragic literature in Chinese literary tradition has long been lamented. Wang Guowei sees the Dream as "tragedy of all tragedies". To Wang Guowei the suffering of Faust and Jia Baoyu is central in the novels. However, many scholars contest that Faustianism is central for Chinese culture.

In 18th century Europe, we saw a new development in the genre of the drama, to establish a “bourgeois tragedy”.

尽管欧洲将“哈姆雷特”作为悲剧的悲剧，但长期以来中国传统文学中缺乏悲剧文学的现象一直令人遗憾。王国伟把“梦”看作“一切悲剧的悲剧”。对王国伟来说，浮士德和贾宝玉的苦难是小说的核心。然而，许多学者认为，浮士德主义是中国文化的核心。

在 18 世纪的欧洲，我们看到了戏剧体裁的新发展，确立了“资产阶级悲剧”。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 13:40, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

欧洲悲剧中以《哈姆雷特》为悲剧，而中国文学传统中悲剧文学的缺失，长期以来被人们所惋惜。王国维认为《梦》是“所有悲剧中的悲剧”。对王国维来说，浮士德和贾宝玉的苦难是小说的中心。然而，许多学者认为浮士德主义是中国文化的核心。

在18世纪的欧洲，我们看到了戏剧体裁的新发展，确立了“资产阶级悲剧”。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 15:36, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

==Yang Yi 杨逸==
It developed as an emancipatory movement in the 18th century in London, Paris and Germany, and demonstrated that tragedy was not reserved to rulers, but was also imagineable for lower noblemen and ordinary citizens. The ''Dream'' at the same time as the bourgeois tragedy in Europe shows a tragic story of a mid-level noble family which loses its titles and privileges.

它作为一场解放运动在18世纪的伦敦、巴黎和德国发展起来，并证明了悲剧并非只发生在统治者身上，也可能发生在下层贵族和普通公民身上。《梦》与欧洲资产阶级悲剧同时上演，讲述的是一个中层贵族家庭失去头衔和特权的悲剧故事。--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 03:31, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Yue 杨悦==

'''9. “Non-Binary” Novels'''

One of the things attracting Western readers is the adorable but mysterious protagonist Jia Baoyu. With his open bisexual orientation and his interest in his mates regardless of their social status, he appears “modern” or at least displaced in time. His struggle with traditional learning makes him appear sympathetic, his long states of rapture out of the world give him both the aura of a timeless character and of mystery.

9. “非二进制小说”

可爱而神秘的主角贾宝玉是吸引西方读者的其中一点。由于他开放的双性恋倾向以及对同伴的兴趣，无论他们的社会地位如何，他彰显“现代”气质或至少不属于那个时代。他与传统学习的斗争使他显得富有同情心，他与世隔绝的漫长状态使他既具有永恒的品格又具有神秘感。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:17, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

“非二元”小说

一个吸引西方读者的东西是可爱而神秘的主人公贾宝玉。由于他开放的双性恋倾向和他对伴侣的兴趣，不管他们的社会地位如何，他显得“现代”或至少在时间上流离失所。他与传统学习的斗争使他显得富有同情心，他从世界上长期的狂喜给了他永恒的性格和神秘的气息。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 13:43, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==
With the bisexual orientation of the Dreams’ protagonist, the novel appears non-binary.
According to Karl-Heinz Pohl, binaries are just superficial, ultimately decisive is the ''Heart Sutra''. Today, the novel is listed among the genre of non-binary literature (see e.g. the bibliographical list on https://www.goodreads.com/list/tag/non-binary), in which contrasts are dissolved deconstructivistically.

随着梦中主人公的双性取向，小说呈现出非二元性。
卡尔·海因茨·波尔认为，二进制只是表面现象，最终起决定性作用的是“心经”。今天，这部小说被列为非二元文学的一个流派（参见https://www.goodreads.com/list/tag/non-binary)，其中的反差被解构主义地化解了。--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 05:01, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yao Cheng 姚诚==
'''10. Foreign Cultures in the Red Chamber Dreams'''

Foreign Cultures frequently appear in the Dreams in all kinds of varieties, like exoticism with the many objects in the household and presented to the household as novelties, especially the blond girl of the same age as Baoyu referred to in person (combining different origins and cultures, including European, Japanese, Chinese) or several times on paintings, one time shown with wings as an angel.

10.红楼梦中的异邦文化
红楼梦中经常出现各种各样的异邦文化元素，例如许多贾府物品带有异国情调，并以新奇用品的形式呈现给贾府，尤其是提到的与宝玉同龄的金发女孩（结合了不同的来历和文化，包括欧洲，日本，中国），金发女孩也多次在绘画中出现，其中一次是为有翅膀的天使的形象。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:47, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

10.红楼梦中的异邦文化

红楼梦中经常出现各种各样的异邦文化元素，例如许多贾府物品带有异国情调，并是以新奇的形式呈现给贾府的，尤其是其中提到的与宝玉同龄的金发女孩（结合了不同的来历和文化，包括欧洲，日本，中国），金发女孩也多次在绘画中出现，有一次是以带翅膀的天使的形象出现。--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 03:36, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yao Jia 姚佳==
The playful combination of different traditions we can see also when a religious dress is described, which carries characteristics of different religions. Similarly, the Daoist monk and the Confucian priest appear together. Cao Xueqin wanted to show the richness and diversity, also with the many topics and societal levels of the novel. Even a variety of Christian motifs can be found, like when Jia Baoyu is not recognized by his father in chapter 120 and when he disappears, all parallel to Jesus Christ.
我们在描述宗教服饰时也能见识不同传统的玩味结合，它带有不同宗教的特点。同样，道士和儒士也可一起出现。曹雪芹想表现出小说的丰富性和多样性，这也与小说的诸多题材和社会层面有关。在书中甚至可以找到各种基督教的主题，比如第120章贾宝玉不被父亲认可，贾宝玉消失，这些都与耶稣基督平行。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 00:10, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

宗教服饰带有不同宗教的特点，在描述一种宗教服饰时，我们也能体味不同宗教传统的玩味结合。同样，道士和儒士也可一起出现。曹雪芹想表现出小说的丰富性和多样性，同时也要展现出小说的众多主题和社会层次。在书中甚至可以找到各种基督教的主题，比如第120章贾宝玉不被父亲认可，以及贾宝玉消失的时候，这些都与耶稣基督平行。--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 00:43, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yi Huan 易欢==
The variety of cultures is paralleled with the variety of elements of different dynasties, which makes it timeless and therefore even more a masterpiece of Chinese art and a masterpiece of human art. Therefore I would like to nominate the Red Chamber Dreams as “World Documentary Heritage”.

'''References'''（参考文献不用翻译）

Anthony, C. Yu. (2001). ''Rereading the Stone: Desire and the Making of Fiction in Dream of the Red Chamber''. Princeton University Press.

Aristotle. (1971). ''Poetics''. Trans. S. H. Butcher. Ed. Hazard Adams. Critical Theory since Plato. ew York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 48-66.

Woesler, Martin, ed., Cao Xueqin, Gao E et al. (2016). ''Der Traum der Roten Kammer oder Die Geschichte vom Stein'' [''Red Chamber Dreams or The Story of the Stone''], Peking: Foreign Languages Press, ISBN 9787119094120, 4813 pages, 6 vols., hardcover, transl. by Rainer Schwarz and Martin Woesler; Chinese-German bilingual edition

Woesler, Martin. (2011). “Being Explicit About the Implicit – John Minford’s Translation of the last Forty Chapters of The Story of the Stone with a Field Study on two Sexually Arousing Scenes”. ''Hong lou meng xue kan'' 6: 274-289

Woesler, Martin. (2010). “ ’To Amuse the Beaux and Belles’ The Early Western Reception of the Hongloumeng”. ''Journal of Sino-Western Communications'' 2 (2010.12) 2:81-107

Zhuang, Xiuhua. (2011). Self, Ideal and Salvation: A Comparative Study of Jane Austen’s Elizabeth and Cao Xueqin’s Lin Daiyu. ''Journal of Language Teaching and Research'', Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 420-423, March 2011. Fulltext: http://www.academypublication.com/issues/past/jltr/vol02/02/19.pdf.

==Yi Zichu 义子楚==
'''Virtual Communication Between Machines with the Human as Their Object
'''

A new stage of multimodal communication after oral, written, printed, electronic and machine-human communication

Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University

'''Abstract'''

Luhmann and Baecker described the development of communication from orality (media epoch 1.0) to script (2.0), through print (3.0) and finally to digital communication (4.0). In all these stages, technology played only an assisting role.

机器之间以人为对象的虚拟通信

口头，书面，印刷，电子和人机交流之后的多模式交流进入新阶段

湖南师范大学马丁·沃斯勒

摘要

卢曼和贝克尔描述了从口头交流（媒体时代1.0）到脚本（2.0），从印刷品（3.0）到数字通信（4.0）的发展。在所有这些阶段中，技术仅起到辅助作用。
--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 03:33, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

卢曼和贝克尔描述了从口头交流（媒体时代1.0）到脚本（2.0），从印刷品（3.0）最终到数字通信（4.0）的发展。在所有这些阶段中，技术仅起到辅助作用。--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 05:05, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==You Yuting 游雨婷==
This paper argues, that there is a fundamentally new media epoch of “virtual communication” (communication 5.0), in which artificial intelligence (initialized by humans) has taken over and humans have become the object of analysis and manipulation (as customers, voters etc.).

Algorithms do not only listen to oral or read written human communication (between humans or between humans and bots), but they analyze multimodal communication (including likes, behaviour, surfing habits, mobility profile, values, dreams, aims, beliefs etc.), compare them with Big Data (e.g. cloud data) and base decisions of manipulation on a prediction of behavior according to a personality profile and correlations.

本文认为，“虚拟传播”(5.0传播版本)是一个全新的媒体时代，在这个时代，人工智能(由人类初始化)已经接管，人类成为分析和操纵的对象(如顾客、选民等)。

算法不仅听人类口头或书面沟通(在人类之间或人类和机器人之间),但他们分析多通道通信(包括喜欢、行为、上网习惯,流动剖面,价值观,梦想,目标,信念等),比较他们与大数据(例如云数据)和基础操作的预测行为的决策根据个性特征和相关性。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 12:34, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

本文认为，“虚拟传播”(5.0传播版本)是一个全新的媒体时代，在这个时代，人工智能(由人类初始化)已经接管世界，人类成为分析和操纵的对象(如顾客、选民等)。

算法不仅听人类口头或书面沟通(在人类之间或人类和机器人之间),但他们分析多通道通信(包括喜欢、行为、上网习惯,流动剖面,价值观,梦想,目标,信念等),比较他们与大数据(例如云数据)和基础操作的预测行为的决策根据个性特征和相关性。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 10:47, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yu Ni 余妮==
These algorithms target not only the explicit communications, but the emotions and thoughts of humans too and predict future behavior, therefore allowing simulations of reality. Mightier algorithms have also taken over decision-making roles in societies where they: replace human court decisions, fine tune just-in-time and on-demand production, censor chatrooms etc. Sets of algorithms help to manage smart cities and a whole society.

这些算法不仅针对明确的交流，也针对人类的情绪和思想，并预测未来的行为，因此允许模拟现实。更强大的算法也在社会中占据了决策角色：取代人类法庭的判决，及时微调和按需制作，审查聊天室等。一套算法有助于管理智慧城市和整个社会。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 10:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

----

==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==
Although the human is still part of the communication, especially as the analyzed object and the target of the manipulation, the human is often unaware of the virtual communication and a passive receiver of the machine’s decisions, while the main actors in the virtual communication are machines.

虽然人仍然是通信的一部分，特别是作为被分析的对象和操纵的目标，但是人往往没有意识到虚拟通信和机器决策的被动接受者，而虚拟通信的主要参与者是机器。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 08:55, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

尽管人类仍然是交流活动的一个组成部分，特别是作为被分析的对象和操纵的目标，但是人类往往没有意识到，自己是虚拟沟通和机器决策的被动接受者，而虚拟沟通的主导者是机器。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:11, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

虽然人仍然是构成通信的一部分，尤其是作为分析对象和操纵目标，但人往往没有意识到人们在虚拟通信中扮演机器决策的被动接受者，而机器才是主要参与者。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:42, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==
Research describes these forms of virtual communication, finds evidence in social management systems and credit systems (in Germany, we have the “Schufa”, in the USA there are big players in credit history, which leads to credit-orientation and gamification of human life) or customized (fake) news filter bubbles and in customized consumption offers (Amazon, Facebook, Google, Netflix) and analyzes benefits, including security enhancements through such virtual communication.

研究对这些形式的虚拟沟通进行了描述，在社会管理系统、信用系统（定制的（虚假）新闻筛选泡沫）和定制的消费商（亚马逊、脸书、谷歌、网飞）里面找到了证据（德国有“Schufa”，美国则因为信用史有重大人物而使得社会信用至上并日趋游戏化），并对益处加以分析，这些益处包含通过这类虚拟沟通提升安全。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 09:20, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

研究描述了这些虚拟通信的形式，在社会管理系统和信用系统中找到证据（在德国，我们有 "Schufa"，在美国有信用记录的大玩家，这导致了信用导向和人类生活的游戏化）或定制化（假）新闻过滤气泡，以及在定制化的消费优惠中（亚马逊，Facebook，谷歌，Netflix），并分析了好处，包括通过这种虚拟通信增强安全性。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:03, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==
But research also has the duty to warn of abuse or harmful developments and to raise ethical questions. Exoskeletal ethics, imposed by gamifications like credit systems, especially need to be valued against intrinsic ethics.

'''Introduction'''

In this paper dealing with machine to machine communication, I skip the machines assisting humans to make their life more convenient (ranging from “The milk is out, please add the usual amount of milk to the delivery list,” to “The old lady has not left her bed this morning, I’ll better call the doctor”).

但研究也有责任对滥用或有害的发展发出警告，同时要对引起的伦理问题也要承担责任。特别是信用体系游戏化所造成的外骨骼伦理问题更需要得到重视，要反对内在的伦理问题。

引言

本论文在涉及机器与机器之间的交流时，我不考虑那些帮助人类让生活更便捷的机器（从“牛奶没了，请在送货单上加平常剂量的牛奶”到“老太太今早卧床不起，我最好叫医生吧”）。
--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:10, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

但研究也有责任对滥用或有害的发展提出警告，并提出伦理问题。特别是信用体系等游戏化所强加的外骨骼伦理，更需要对照内在伦理加以重视。

引言

在本文中涉及机器与机器之间的交流，我跳过了机器协助人类提高生活便利的内容（从 "牛奶没了，请把平时的牛奶量加到送货单上"，到 "老太太今天早上还没下床，我还是叫医生吧"。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 11:40, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==
Instead, I deal with communication like: “Let’s create a user personality profile and compare it with Big Data to learn how I can best catch this user’s attention and make him/her vote for presidential candidate A or B.”; “Let’s check this users’ mouse movements and compare it with Big Data to get a correlation to estimate if (and if “yes” when) he will get Parkinson, to decide whether or not to deny him the loan or health insurance.”
实际上，本人研究涉及的方面如下：比如，“让我们创建一名用户的个性化主界面，并将其与大数据进行比对，学习如何最好的吸引该用户的注意，让他/她投票给总统候选人甲或乙。”“让我们检查这名用户鼠标的运动轨迹，通过与大数据进行比对，建立关联，来估计他是否会得帕金森。如果他患有帕金森疾病，我们会决定是否需要对他的贷款或医疗保险的申请予以拒绝。”--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:41, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Liang 曾良==
“Let’s check this users sexual orientation, religious beliefs, fears, secrets like adultery etc. to blackmail him to get ransom money for my programmer.”; or even “Let’s use this user’s location to aim the killer drone.”

The current neoliberal system with Amazon, Facebook, WhatsApp, Instagram, Google, Netflix etc. provides incentives to collect as much user data as possible and to abuse user data for manipulation, which creates huge profits.

“让我们检查该用户的性取向、宗教信仰、恐惧、诸如通奸之类的秘密去勒索他为我的程序员去获取赎金”。或者甚至“使用用户的位置瞄准杀手无人机。”

当前具有亚马逊、脸谱网、瓦茨艾普、照片墙、谷歌、奈飞等的新自由主义系统激励人们尽可能多地收集用户信息，并滥用用户信息进行操纵，从而创造可观利益。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:04, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

"让我们查一查这个用户的性取向、宗教信仰、恐惧、通奸等秘密，以勒索他为我的程序员获取赎金。"；甚至"利用这个用户的位置来瞄准杀手无人机。"
目前亚马逊、脸书、WhatsApp、Instagram、谷歌、奈飞等的新自由主义体系，为收集尽可能多的用户数据，并滥用用户数据，从而创造了巨大的利润。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:39, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting

“让我们检查该用户的性取向、宗教信仰、惧怕的事物、诸如通奸之类的秘密，从而勒索他让我的程序员获取赎金”。更有甚时，“让我们使用用户的位置让攻击机瞄准他。”

当前亚马逊、脸书、联络电话、Instagram、谷歌、网飞等的新自由主义的系统软件，激励人们尽可能多地收集用户信息，并滥用用户信息进行操纵，从而创造可观利益。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==
Very much like the financial crisis, which was caused by the unregulated use of derivatives, this is a systemic development, which currently follows a path to enslave the human race under the control of algorithms for the benefit of tech companies. The enslavement has already begun, as we can see from the world wide addiction to social media, from the growing mass of conspiracy theorists and from the polarization of the USA over Trump or the polarization of Great Britain over the Brexit.

这与因不受监管地使用衍生品导致的金融危机非常相似。这是一个系统性的发展，它目前走的是一条用算法控制奴役人们，为科技公司谋利的道路。从全世界对社交媒体的沉迷，从越来越多的阴谋论者，从美国对特朗普的两极分化或英国对英国脱欧的两极分化，我们都可以看出，奴役已经开始。--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 13:07, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==
'''1 History of Media Epochs'''

Luhmann and Baecker described the development of communication from orality (media epoch 1.0) to script (2.0), through print (3.0) and finally to digital communication (4.0). In all these stages, technology played only an assisting role.

This paper argues, that there is a fundamentally new stage of “virtual communication” (media epoch 5.0), in which artificial intelligence (initialized by humans) has taken over and humans have become the object of analysis and manipulation (as customers, voters etc.).

卢曼和贝克尔描述了从口头（媒体时代1.0）到文字（2.0）的通讯发展，再到印刷（3.0）数字通讯（4.0）
在所有这些阶段中，科技都只起到了协助作用。

本文认为，从根本上来说，“虚拟沟通”处于新阶段（媒体时代5.0），其中人工智能（由人类初始化）已被接管，人类已成为分析和操纵的对象（如顾客，选民等）--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 14:56, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Hu 张虎==
While Luhmann would still summarize this under digital communication, I see a full new quality here, and have therefore coined the term “communication 5.0” or “virtual communication” for it. In Luhmann’s view, the computer consists out of the “surface” of the machine (the visible interfaces like screen, keyboard, mouse) and the “depth” of the machine (the invisible, often incomprehensive inside).

虽然卢曼仍然会在数字通信中总结这一点，但我在这里看到了一个全新的品质，因此创造了术语“通信5.0”或“虚拟通信”。在卢曼看来，计算机是由机器的“表面”(屏幕、键盘、鼠标等可见界面)和机器的“内里”(看不见的、内部不全面的部分)组成的。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:41, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Hui 张慧==
However, we are almost constantly producing data, with our chats and geotracked movements, with our addiction to social media, our carrying of cell phones and more and more smart devices at all times, and we are therefore an object of analysis by algorithms.

The traditional setting of a communicative act blurs: The machine can directly communicate with the human (there the Turing test marks a threshold), and, after a certain complexity, it can hide its machine nature.

但是，我们几乎一直在通过聊天和地理位置追踪运动，不断沉迷于社交媒体，携带手机以及越来越多的智能设备来生成数据，因此，我们一直是通过算法进行分析的对象。

交流行为的传统设置变得模糊：机器可以直接与人类交流（图灵测试标记了阈值），并且在经过一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏机器的本质。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 11:49, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

然而，我们几乎在不断地产生数据，我们的聊天和地理追踪的动作，我们对社交媒体的沉迷，我们随时携带手机和越来越多的智能设备，因而成为算法分析的对象。

传统的交流行为的设定模糊了。机器可以直接与人类交流（图灵测试标志着一个门槛），在一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏自己的机器本质。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:03, 25 December 2020 (UTC)
然而，我们几乎是在不断地产生数据，我们的聊天和追踪移动，我们对社交媒体的沉迷，我们无时无刻都带着手机和越来越多的智能设备，因此我们是算法分析的对象。
传统的交流行为设定是模糊的:机器可以直接与人类交流(图灵测试在这里标记了一个阈值)，并且在一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏自己的机器本质。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 10:49, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Ling 张玲==
The machine can also indirectly communicate with the human by simply analyzing humans’ verbal communication, non-verbal multimodal communication, behavior, personality etc. and interacting with the human with, or without, revealing its existence. A human, growing up in a filter bubble and believing in conspiracy theories is one such example: The human has been manipulated by social media and news which prefer lies over truth.

机器还可以通过简单地分析人类的语言交流、非语言的多模态交流、行为、个性等，并与人类进行交互，从而间接地与人类进行交流，从而揭示人类的存在。一个在过滤器泡沫中成长并相信阴谋论的人就是这样一个例子：人们被社会媒体和新闻操纵，而这些媒体和新闻更喜欢谎言而不是真相。 --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 08:33, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

机器也可以通过简单地分析人类的语言交流、非语言多模态交流、行为、个性等与人类进行交流，或者间接地与人类进行互动，从而揭示人类的存在。一个在过滤气泡中长大、相信阴谋论的人就是这样一个例子:这个人一直被社会媒体和新闻操纵，而这些媒体和新闻更喜欢谎言而不是真相。--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 12:45, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==
Without even noticing that there was an interaction taking place between the human and the machine, the human has lost his/her independence to the machine.

'''2 Types of communicative acts'''

1.Texts (oral and written comments/chat texts/blogs/emails)

2.Surf behavior (websites visited)

3.Consumer behavior (purchases)

4.Likes (see OCEAN, UEBA)

5.Duration/Attention (see UEBA)

6.habits/repetitiveness/occurrences (is an element of analysis in different AI apps/tools)
甚至没有注意到人与机器之间发生的互动，人已经失去了他/她对机器的独立性。

"两种类型的交际行为"

1.
文本(口头和书面评论/聊天文本/博客/电子邮件)

2.
上网行为(浏览网站)

3.
消费者行为(购买)

4.
喜欢(参见OCEAN, UEBA)

5.
持续时间/关注(见UEBA)

6.
习惯/重复/出现(是不同AI应用/工具的分析元素)--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 10:46, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Qi 张琪==
7.Unconscious, often unique data allowing identification (way of writing, mouse movements pattern, see Raj Kannan 2020)

8.social interaction incl. friendships, sexual relationships

9.mobility behavior/pattern (e.g. immediate environment – e.g. unconsciously recording the inside of houses while playing “Pokemon Go”), travel: Travel Behavior (Yu Cui et al. 2018)

7，无意识且通常唯一的数据可以识别（书写方式，鼠标移动方式，请参见Raj Kannan 2020）

8.社交互动，包括友谊，性关系

9.出行行为/模式（例如周围环境-例如在玩``口袋妖怪Go''时不自觉地记录房屋内部），旅行：出行行为（于翠等人，2018年）--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 13:24, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==
'''3 Types of analysis'''

1.General (User and Entity Behavior Analytics UEBA: AI-assisted cybersecurity tools like by Gartner, Inc.)

2.True identity (e.g.: mouse movements, face recognition, find real name) (Verschuere 2016)

3.Personality profile: Big Five Personality Inventory: Openness to Experience, Consciousness, Extroversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism “OCEAN” (Golbeck 2011), by only analyzing the users' likes, Facebook can generate personality profiles (AI-Demand 2020)

4.Mobility profile/pattern

'''3种分析类型'''

1.概况（用户和实体行为分析:AI辅助的网络安全工具，如美国Gartner公司提供的）

2.真实身份（例如:鼠标移动，人脸识别，查找真实姓名）（Verschuere，2016）

3.个人简介:五大人格清单:开放体验，意识，外向，宜人，神经质海洋（Golbeck，2011），仅通过分析用户的喜好，脸书就可以生成个人简历（AI-Demand，2020）

4..流动概况/模式

==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==
5.Health situation (health apps, ai supported disease research, see Daley 2020)

6.Job situation/job market (Talent Search People 2020 analyzes the job market, and classifies 4 different AI systems: 1. systems that think like humans, 2. systems that act like humans, 3. systems that think rationally, and 4.) systems that act rationally.)

5.健康状况（由疾病研究提供AI支持的健康应用程序，见 Daley 2020)

6.就业形势/就业市场（2020年《人才搜索人》分析了就业市场，并将人工智能系统分为四类：1.像人类一样思考的系统。2.像人类一样行动的系。3.理性思考的系统。4.理性行动的系统。）--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 11:33, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

5.健康状况（由疾病研究提供AI支持的健康应用程序，见 Daley 2020)

6.就业形势/就业市场（《人才搜索人 2020》分析了就业市场，并将人工智能系统分为四类：1.像人类一样思考的系统。2.像人类一样行动的系。3.理性思考的系统。4.理性行动的系统。）--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 11:58, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==
7.Financial credit-worthiness: E.g. German Schufa company uses AI in addition to human expertise for evaluations, see Banken-Technologie 2020. Banken-Technologie 2020. Schufa’s attempt to gain access to customers’ bank account transfer information was discussed in the news.

8.Consumer Behavior: e.g. the "clickworker" company analyses and optimizes customers' searches in respect to a client company's goals/products with the help of AI (clickworker 2019)

9.Secrets (like adultery)

7.财务信誉度：例如,德国Schufa公司除使用人类专业知识外还使用AI进行评估,请参阅Banken科技2020。新闻中讨论了Schufa尝试访问客户的银行帐户转账信息的尝试。

8，消费者行为：例如在微软的帮助下，``clickworker''公司根据客户公司的目标/产品分析并优化了客户的搜索（clickworker 2019）

9，秘密（如通奸）--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 03:59, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Yu 张瑜==
'''4 Unique quality of media epoch 5.0'''[ I have coined the terms “media epoch 5.0” and “virtual communication” I have developed it from concepts like „Industry 4.0“ in Germany and the four media epochs Luhmann and Baecker developed (by Baecker called 1.0 … 4.0). There are several authors speculating about the media epoch 4.0, like Ray Kurzweil. The Age of Intelligent Machines. 1990.]

1.the human switches from active to passive

2.the human switches from subject to object

3.the human becomes addicted to social media, which enhances depression (Van Den Eijnden et al. 2016, Jasso-Medrano et al. 2018, Shensa et al. 2017)

4.the human switches from puppeteer, or entity with seemingly free will, to puppet

5.nature of the internet turns from freedom to surveillance

4.媒介5.0时代的独特品质 [我创造了 "媒介5.0时代"和 "虚拟通信 "这两个词，它们是从德国的“工业4.0”以及卢曼和贝克提出的媒介4.0时代（贝克称之为1.0...4.0）等概念发展而来的。一些作者揣测媒介4.0时代这个词的含义，比如1990年出版的雷-库兹韦尔的《灵魂机器时代》]

1.人从主动到被动的转换

2.人从主体到客体的转换

3.人沉迷于社交媒体，提高了患抑郁症的风险

4.人从木偶操纵者或看似拥有自由意志的实体到木偶人的转换

5.互联网的性质从自由到监测的转换--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 01:25, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==
6.direct communication turns into indirect communication (humans may not be aware of this communication/analysis)

7.explicit communication (voice, words) turns into implicit communication (preferences/thoughts/dreams/wishes/ values (first experiments with brain scanners in worker hats have started in Shanghai and Peking))

8.man-man communication turns to man-machine communication (phone bot) to machine-machine

9.4.0 was from centralization to decentralization, 5.0 is partial centralization and partial decentralization, but also concentration

6，直接交流变成间接交流（人们自己可能没有意识到这种交流/分析）。

7，明确的交流（声音，文字）变成隐性的交流（偏好/想法/梦想/愿望/价值观（上海和北京已开始在工人的帽子上使用脑扫描仪进行首次实验））。

8，人与人之间的通信变成了人与机器之间的通信（电话机器人）再到机器与机器之间的通信。

9.4.0是从集中到分散，5.0是部分集中和部分分散，也有集中。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 10:52, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==
So far, mass media has been considered one-way. The interaction and processing of data of millions of individual users seemed simply too much work. In the age of virtual communication, the media epoch 5.0, mass media is individualized and interactive and therefore even more influential.

'''5 Types of manipulation (consciously or unconsciously, sometimes half-consciously)
'''

1.Priming by unconscious advertisements: Influencing consumer decisions

2.Filter bubbles => supports conspiracy theories, influences judgments

到目前为止，大众媒体一直被认为是单一的。数百万个人用户数据的交互和处理似乎太费力。在虚拟传播时代，即媒体时代5.0，大众传媒是个性化和互动的，因此更具影响力。

'''5 种操纵类型（有意识或无意识，有时是半意识的）'''

1.无意识广告发布：影响消费者决策

2.过滤泡沫=>支持阴谋论，影响判断--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:08, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhao Xi 赵茜==
3.Nature of social media: lies spread 6 times faster than truth. (Vosoughi et al. 2018).

4.Change of political attitude: Case Cambridge Analytica: Helped minority to win election by manipulating young people of majority not to vote (Do so: Don’t vote campaign, Oddleifson 2020); Trump election and Brexit were won by manipulation

5.Use of private information/dependencies to obtain advantages (blackmailing for money or for conducting crimes etc.)

6.Identity theft

3.社交媒体的本质：谎言的传播速度比真理快 6 倍。（Vosoughi等人，2018年）。

4.改变政治态度：案例剑桥分析：通过操纵多数年轻人不投票帮助少数民族赢得选举（这样做：不要投票竞选。奥德利夫森 2020年）；特朗普选举和英国脱欧通过操纵获胜

5.利用私人信息/依赖关系获取好处（勒索钱财或犯罪等）

6.身份盗窃--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 05:18, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3.社交媒体的性质：谎言传播速度是真相的6倍。（Vosoughi等人，2018年）。
4.政治态度的改变：剑桥分析案例：通过操纵大多数年轻人不投票帮助少数人赢得选举（Do Do Do:Do not vote campaign，Oddleifson 2020）；特朗普选举和脱欧是通过操纵赢得的
5.利用私人信息/依赖性获取利益（勒索钱财或犯罪等）
6.身份盗窃--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==
'''6 Consequences'''

1.Virtual Communication is mostly “hidden”, the human is mostly unaware of it, but may endure the consequences (policeman may detain suspect simply because the face recognition glass recognizes a pedestrian passing by and assesses him/her as “dangerous”; loan is declined; insurance company declines to accept new customer)

6.后果

1.虚拟通讯大多是 "隐蔽 "的，人多半不知道，但可能会承受后果（警察可能仅仅因为人脸识别玻璃识别出路过的行人，并评估其为 "危险 "而拘留嫌疑人；贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新的客户）--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:02, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

6.后果

1.虚拟通信通常是“隐藏的”，人类大多数情况下是不知道的，但可能会承受后果（警察可能只是因为面部识别玻璃杯识别出行人经过并将他/她评估为“危险”而拘留嫌疑人；贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新客户）。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 12:05, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

'''6.后果
'''

1.大多情况下，虚拟通信是“隐藏的”，人类也没有意识到这一点，但可能会承担由此带来的后果（警察可能会因为面部识别玻璃检测到行人通过，并将其评估为“危险人物”而将嫌疑犯拘留‘贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新客户）。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 09:29, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==
2.User becomes transparent (government can fight terrorism, any user can be blackmailed, jealous spouse can check on adultery)

3.Less will to communicate and discuss (since positions are too far apart)

4.Populists and populist views gain supporters

5.Polarization of Society

6.There is an incentive not to reveal how much one knows about the object, because the object then could question the legality, the system etc.

7.Last resort, the thinking, is tackled: Machine interprets “real” attitudes, not lip-service words

2.用户变得透明化（政府可以反恐，任何用户都可以被拉黑，嫉妒的配偶可以查奸情）

3.交流讨论意愿较弱（因为立场相差太远）

4.民粹主义者和民粹主义观点获得支持者

5.社会的两极分化

6.有动机不透露自己对对象了解多少，因为对象就可能质疑合法性、制度等。

7.最后的手段—思维，已经被破解：机器解释的是 "真实 "的态度，而不是口头禅--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 07:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2.用户变得透明（政府可以反恐，任何用户都可以被勒索，嫉妒的配偶可以调查奸情）

3.缺乏沟通和讨论的意愿（因为立场相差太远）

4.民粹主义者和民粹主义观点获得支持者

5.社会两极分化

6.有动机不透露自己对客体了解多少，因为客体可能会质疑其合法性、制度等。

7.最后一个办法是思考：机器解释的是“真实”的态度，而不是口头禅--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 11:42, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2.用户变得透明(政府可以打击恐怖主义，任何用户都可以被勒索，嫉妒的配偶可以遏制通奸)。

3.缺乏沟通和讨论的意愿(因为职位相距太远)。

4.民粹主义和民粹主义观点获得支持。

5.社会两极分化。

英译汉有一种动机是不透露一个人对该对象了解多少，因为该对象可能会对合法性、制度等提出质疑。

7.最后要解决的是思维问题：机器解释的是“真实”的态度，而不是口惠而实不至的话--[[User:QiKai|QiKai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 06:41, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==
8.The knowing ones (algorithms, hackers, controllers of algorithms) have power over the unknowing ones (victims)

9.Exoskeleton ethics (like points/awards for measurable performances) reduce incentives to build inner ethics
'''
7 Simulation of the imminent future'''

1.The imminent future behavior of a human can be predicted

2.With many analyzed humans, the imminent future of reality can be predicted => simulation

8.已经知道的人（算法、黑客、算法的控制者）比不知道的人（受害者）更有力量
9.外骨骼伦理（如可衡量绩效的积分/奖励）减少了建立内在道德的动机
'''
7模8拟即将到来的未来
1.人类即将发生的未来行为是可以预测的
2.有了许多被分析的人类，现实的即将到来的未来可以被预测=>模拟--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:00, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

8.已知的人（算法、黑客、算法的控制者）比未知im min的人（受害者）更有力量
9.外骨骼伦理（如可衡量绩效的积分/奖励）减少了建立内在道德的动机
'''
7模拟迫近的未来
1.人类的迫近未来行为是可以预测的
2.在分析了许多人类后，我们便可预测现实的迫近未来=>模拟--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:22, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

8.已经知道的人（算法、黑客、算法的控制者）比不知道的人（受害者）更有力量
9.外骨骼伦理（如可衡量绩效的积分/奖励）减少了建立内在道德的动机
'''
7模8拟即将到来的未来
1.人类即将发生的未来行为是可以预测的
2.通过大量分析人类，现实里马上到来的未来便可预测到=>模拟--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 13:32, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==
Is this an Orwellian dystopia or reality? Some cases of the above listed phenomena have been documented. However, we are still at the beginning of “little” AI development (optimizing existing processes) and on the brink of a much more powerful development, that of “big” AI (rethinking whole industries, being able to reproduce and enhance itself). (cf. Euchner 2019).

==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==
'''8 Conclusion and Outlook'''

Data has succeeded oil as the most valuable resource for today’s economy. Big Tech companies already use users’ data and make big profits with it while legislation is delayed and national boundaries (which do not exist for the Tech companies) are struggled over.
Although input-legitimized liberal democracies and market economies, like that of the European Union, still protect privacy and data security, US- and China-based technology companies are already penetrating the European market.

'''8 结论与展望'''

数据已经取代石油成为当今经济中最有价值的资源。大型科技公司已经在使用用户的数据并从中牟取暴利，与此同时，立法被拖延，国界（不存在科技公司）正在为之苦苦挣扎。

尽管像欧盟这样的以输入合法化的自由民主国家和市场经济，仍然保护着隐私和数据安全，但是中美两国的科技公司已经开始渗透欧洲市场。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 11:59, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==
We need to raise awareness and guide the youth to be careful with screen time and what they share online. We need to avoid addiction to social media.

'''The algorithms do not just check which film to suggest viewing next, they have started to invade the innermost sanctum of personality, our thoughts, dreams, wishes, visions, hopes, fears and secrets.
'''
'''
The listed consequences document a fundamental change of paradigms:
'''
我们需要提高意识，引导青少年注意屏幕时间和他们在网上分享的东西。我们需要避免沉迷于社交媒体。

'''算法不只是检查建议接下来看哪部电影，它们已经开始侵入人格、我们的思想、梦想、愿望、愿景、希望、恐惧和秘密的最深处的圣殿。'''

所列出的后果证明了范式的根本变化:--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 01:38, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

我们需要提高意识，引导青少年留意屏幕时间和网上分享，需要避免沉迷于社交媒体。

'''算法不只是检查建议接下来看哪部电影，它们已经开始侵入人格、我们的思想、梦想、愿望、愿景、希望、恐惧和秘密的最深处的圣殿。'''

所列出的后果证明了范式的基本变化:--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:11, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==
'''The cause-based decision-making by humans with established institutions like politicians, judges etc. is being replaced with correlation-based decision-making by algorithms which often serve the profit interests of tech companies or the political interests of election-manipulators.
'''

AI took the wrong development path, when it changed from serving humans to trying to manipulate humans for economic or political profit. When AI is used to educate citizens – like helping German customers to keep a clean credit history and a good credit score – then it changes the behavior of citizens to an exoskeletal ethic.

人类通过建立政治、法官等制度所形成的原因导向的决策方法正在被算法形成的关联导向的决策方法所取代，算法通常为科技公司的利润利益或选举操纵者的政治利益服务。

人工智能走上了错误的发展道路，它从为人类服务变成了试图为了经济或政治利益而操纵人类。当人工智能被用于教育公民——比如帮助德国客户保持干净的信用历史和良好的信用评分——它就会改变公民的行为，使其成为一种外骨骼伦理。--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 08:42, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==
However, animals with an exoskeleton reduce their inside muscles and develop a soft inside, making them totally incapable of living without the exoskeleton. An exoskeletal ethic, giving reward points, for example, for behavior which is deemed positive and subtracting points for behavior which is deemed negative, deprives the human of the natural learning and developing process, in a social environment, of his responsibility and inner ethical judgment. If you were to meet a human with exoskeletal ethics and one who has inner ethics, whom would you trust more?

但是，具有外骨骼的动物会减少其内部肌肉并发展出柔软的内部，从而使它们完全没有外骨骼就无法生存。骨骼外伦理，例如，对于被认为是积极的行为给予奖励积分，而对于被认为是消极的行为给予减分，这剥夺了人类在社会环境中的自然学习和发展过程的责任和内在的道德判断力。如果遇到一个具有骨骼外伦理和内心道德的人，你会更信任谁？--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 04:10, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==
If we want to avoid the consequences listed in point 6, the public needs to become aware of this and nations and supranational organizations need to define legislation to a) protect privacy and data security, and b) give the user the control over his/her data including the commercial use of it where they earn a share from the profit made with the usage of his/her data.

==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==
'''9 Outlook'''

We need to accept, that the development is irreversible. Every new technology has created fears. Important is, that we become aware of the developments and adjust where the development heads into the wrong direction. We need set the right framework and incentives that the new technology stays on track to serve humanity.

'''9展望'''

我们必须承认，发展是不可逆转的。每一项新技术都在某种程度上引发了恐慌。然后重要的事情是，我们开始意识到，并调整那些朝错误方向进行的发展。我们需要制定正确的构架和激励措施，让新技术继续稳定地为人类服务。--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 03:06, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

'''9展望'''

我们不得不承认，这种发展是不可逆转的。每一项新技术都会引发恐慌。重要的是，我们要意识到这些发展，并调整错误的发展方向。我们需要建立正确的框架和激励机制，使新技术能够继续为人类服务。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 04:04, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==
New developments open new possibilities. We need to make sure that not only a few tech companies and terrorists use this powerful new technology to achieve their goals, but that the mass of smart device users emancipate themselves from addiction to and manipulation by technology and gain back their dignity, privacy and free will.

'''References
'''
（参考文献不用翻译）

AI-Demand. (2020). www.ai-demand.com/insights/data/big-data/big-data-and-facebook-the-heavenly-pair-that-isnt-quite-in-heaven/

Baecker, Dirk. (2007). ''Studien zur nächsten Gesellschaft''. Frankfurt 2007

Banken-Technologie. (2020). 26. Handelsblatt Jahrestagung. Banken-Technologie. „New Normal” in der Finanzwirtschaft: digital – intelligent – automatisiert – hybrid. 2. und 3.12.2020, Digital [Conference Announcement] https://veranstaltungen.handelsblatt.com/bankentechnologie/ki-machine-learning-finanzanalyse/

Booth, T. "Cambridge Analytica controversy must spur researchers to update data ethics." ''Nature'' 555.7698 (2018): 559-560.

Clickworker. (2019). www.clickworker.com/2019/04/30/ai-for-ecommerce/

Cui, Yu, Qing He, and Alireza Khani. (2018). Travel behavior classification: an approach with social network and deep learning. ''Transportation research record'', 2672(47), 68-80. https://par.nsf.gov/servlets/purl/10109453

Daley, Sam. (2020). 32 Examples of AI in Healthcare that Will Make you Feel better about the Future (July 4, 2019, updated July 29, 2020). builtin.com/artificial-intelligence/artificial-intelligence-healthcare

Euchner, Jim. (2019). Little ai, Big AI—Good AI, Bad AI. Terminology Management 62:3, 10-12. pdf:

https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/08956308.2019.1587280?needAccess=true

Golbeck, Jennifer, Cristina Robles, and Karen Turner. (2011). "Predicting personality with social media." ''CHI'11 extended abstracts on human factors in computing systems''. 2011. 253-262.

Jasso-Medrano, José Luis, and Fuensanta Lopez-Rosales. (2018). "Measuring the relationship between social media use and addictive behavior and depression and suicide ideation among university students." Computers in Human Behavior 87: 183-191.

Luhmann, Niklas. (1997). ''Die Gesellschaft der Gesellschaft''. 1997

Oddleifson, Evan. 2020, The Effects of Modern Data Analytics in Electoral Politics: Cambridge Analytica’s Suppression of Voter Agency and the Implications for Global Politics, ''Political Sciences Undergraduate Review'' 5 (2020) 7, 1-7.

https://journals.library.ualberta.ca/psur/index.php/psur/article/view/130/90/130-Article%20Text-642-1-10-20200401.pdf

Raj Kannan, J., Sabitha, R., Karthik, S., & Shanthini, J. (2020). Mouse Movement Pattern Based Analysis of Customer Behavior (CBA-MMP) Using Cloud Data Analytics. ''Wireless Personal Communications'', OnlineFirst, 1-17.

Ruan, Lotus, et al. "One App, Two Systems: How WeChat uses one censorship policy in China and another internationally." (2016).
Shensa, Ariel, et al. (2017). "Problematic social media use and depressive symptoms among US young adults: A nationally-representative study." ''Social Science & Medicine ''182: 150-157.

Talent Search People. (2020). How Will Artificial Intelligence Affect the Job Market? www.talentsearchpeople.com/en/blog/494-how-will-artificial-intelligence-affect-the-job-market/.

Van Den Eijnden, Regina JJM, Jeroen S. Lemmens, and Patti M. Valkenburg. (2016). "The social media disorder scale." ''Computers in Human Behavior ''61: 478-487.

Verschuere, Bruno, and Bennett Kleinberg. "ID‐check: Online Concealed Information Test reveals true identity." ''Journal of forensic sciences'' 61 (2016): S237-S240.

Vosoughi, Soroush, Deb Roy, and Sinan Aral. (2018). The spread of true and false news online. Science 359.6380: 1146-1151.. science.sciencemag.org/content/359/6380/1146

新发展提供了新可能。我们需要确保除了少数的技术公司和恐怖分子使用这一强大的新技术来达到他们的目的，还需要确保大量的智能设备的使用者不再沉迷于其中，不再被技术操控，从而重拾尊严，重获隐私和实现意志自由。--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 06:51, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhu Xu 朱旭==
'''Bio'''

Martin Woesler, PhD, is Jean Monnet Chair in European Studies with Hunan Normal University since 2020. At its Foreign Studies College, he is Distinguished Professor of Chinese Studies, Translation Studies and Comparative Literature since 2019. Woesler was elected Academian of the European Academy of Sciences and Arts, Salzburg in 2019.
Woesler has co-edited the books "China's Digital Dream", "Ethics of Information Society" and Springer has scheduled to publish the book "Diverse Voices in Chinese Translation and Interpretation" including his book chapter "Modern Interpreting with Digital and Technical Aids" in February 2021.

个人简历

自2020年起，吴漠汀（Martin Woesler）博士是湖南师范大学欧洲研究的讲座教授。自2019年来，他在湖师大外国语学院担任中国文化研究、翻译研究和比较文学的特聘教授。2019年，吴教授当选萨尔茨堡欧洲科学与艺术学院院士。吴教授曾与人合编《中国的数字梦想》、《信息社会伦理学》等书。施普林格（Springer）已计划于2021年2月出版《中国笔译与口译中的多种声音》一书，其中包括他的《数字与技术辅助的现代口译》一章。--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 09:26, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==
Woesler was a Senior Fellow of the German Science Foundation's (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft) Research College "Media Cultures of Computer Simulations" 2019‐2020 and hosted a related workshop with Bertelsmann Foundation in 2020. Woesler is also a researcher with Witten/Herdecke University, Germany, investigating the impact of daily screen time of children and of young people on their health.

20201228 trans

2020-12-28T07:03:52Z

Weiyafei: /* Wei Yafei 魏亚菲 */

==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==
'''Zhu Ziqing'''

A third example, where an author shows another face in his essays is Zhu Ziqing. He is known as the author of the most often reprinted story-like Chinese essay "''Back View''" (Beiying), a standard school text. The success of this essay lies in the fact, that it applies to filial pity. From the reported fare-well scene with his father at the train station, he learned that his father loved him and that he had grown-up too now.
==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==
This self-reflective essay helped Zhu to find himself through the observation of the other (here his father). The 2nd often printed essay is also from Zhu. Parallelistic and repetitive structures are the driving factor in the atmospherical nebulous lyrical landscape desription "''The Moonlit Lotus Pond''", whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader.

Zhu Ziqing supposedly opposed all political engagement and, wrote about unspectacular things. In Taiwan he became a type of substitute for the categorically refused state writer of the People’s Republic, Lu Xun, mainly because of Zhu’s supposed political independence.

通过他人的观察（这里主要指朱自清的父亲），这篇自我反省式的文章帮助朱自清认清了自己。经常出版的第二版本也来自朱自清。“荷塘月色”中描述的天空星云，抒情般的景色是通过平行结构和重复结构中展现出来的，这种风格使西方读者很容易辨别。

据称朱自清反对一切政治参与，只写不引人注意的事情。在台湾，主要因为朱自清的所谓政治独立，他因而代替了明确反对民国的作家鲁迅。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 14:33, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Han 陈涵==
I would like to show with three examples that Zhu had absolutely clear political ideas: He had taken part in the demonstration March 18, 1926, which ended in a massacre. Zhu described this in ''"Report On the Massacre of the Government''"[ (Zhizhengfu da tusha ji).].

''Shots were still being fired, and the entrance of the east gate was packed with people. [...] Pushing and shoving, we climbed over them with great effort. We must have lost our senses then, not seeing, to our shame, the grotesqueness of our action. ''

我想用三个例子说明，朱自清有绝对明确的政治思想。1926年3月18日，他参加了示威游行，这场游行最终以屠杀告终。朱自清在《执政府大屠杀记》中对此进行了描述。

''这时枪声未歇，东门口拥塞得几乎水泄不通。[...] 我们便推推搡搡，拥挤着，挣扎着，从他们身上踏上去。那时理性真失了作用，竟恬然不以为怪似的。'' --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:39, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Hui 陈惠==
''[...]I was still walking on top of the people. No one dared to miss a single step, filing through the gate that divided safety from danger, one that would give us life or take our lives away. [...] My efforts finally brought me down to the ground, sealing my fate as I rolled down from the human pile. [...] I learned later that some of the people by the gate were dead, killed by the pistol squad firing from the other side of the gate. When I recall stepping over dead bodies, I cannot help but tremble with fear. [...]''
==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==
From this experience, Zhu addresses directly the repsonsible political leaders:

''Duan Qirui, you must think about it! [...] How could we explain this to the world? [...] Granted, Duan Qirui and others could commit such atrocities without a thought; but how could we, the people of China, face the world with such a shameless government? [...] We, [...], must ask, „So many were killed—what should we do?“''
经过这次经验，朱直接给负责相关部门的政府官员写信道：“段祺瑞，你好好想一想！[…]我们要怎么跟世界人民解释？[…]当然了，段祺瑞和其他士兵不用想都会承认这次的暴行；但是，我们，作为中华人民共和国，怎么能以这样一种无耻的政府面对世界？，[…]我们，[…]必须要问，这么多人牺牲了，我们应该做什么？”--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 15:11, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==
In contrast, Lu Xun has portrayed the same massacre with sighing undertone and Zhou Zuoren bitter-humorously in his "''Ways to die''"[ (Si fa).] - in which he finds "to be shot" the best method to die. The supposedly less politically engaged Zhu shows here more engagement.

The essay "''Facing the New China''"[ (Xin Zhongguo zai wang zhong).] is Zhu's political manifest: He asks for democracy, enlightenment and an increase of the education level.
相比之下，鲁迅用悲伤的笔调描绘了同样的大屠杀，而周作人在他的《死亡之道》中讽刺地写道—他发现“被枪杀”是最好的死亡方法。据说较少参与政治的朱自清在这里表现出更多的参与。
文章《面对新中国》是朱自清的政治体现：他要求民主，启蒙和提高教育水平。--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 06:51, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==
''China has to be born again through democratization. [...] The people should express their own will, concentrate on their own strength. Every level of administration should build up on the expressed will and strength of the people and struggle for the majority and its greatest happiness. This means that the people govern, the people own, the people enjoy.''

A few weeks before his death, he demanded in the speech ''"Today's duty of the Intellectuals''"[ (Zhishifenzi jintian de renwu).] the participation of the intellectual in the struggle for a better society.

“中国必须通过民主化重生。[...]人们应该表达自己的意志，集中自己的力量。各级行政机关都应该建立在人民的意志和力量的基础之上，并且为大多数人及其最大化的幸福而奋斗。也就是民治，民有，民享。”

”中国必须用过民主化重生。[...]人们应当表达他们自身的意志，集中力量。各级政府都应建立在人民意志和力量基础之上，并为大部分人民及其最大幸福而奋斗。也就是民治、民有、民享。”--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 13:15, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

在他去世的几周前，他在 “知识分子今天的职责”的演讲中要求知识分子参与建设更好的社会。--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 11:31, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing

==Chen Sha 陈莎==
With only a handful of essays I have demonstrated, that the picture of these three authors changes substantially, if we read carefully also their less known essayistic work. Imagine now how the picture of 20th century Chinese literature might change, if the literary histories and anthologies would not only tell the history of drama, fiction and poetry, but would also grant the essay its proper place. The following part of my paper are results of my monograph on the 20th century Chinese essay.
==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==
'''The essay boom as a mirror reflecting growing individuality, participation in the public sphere, and the giddy-paced character of modern Chinese society'''

Acquiring an overview of the essay and assessing its essence has required extensive research in bookstores and libraries, in the People's Republic of China, Taiwan, Hong Kong and the United States for available resources in the form of essay book collections as well as secondary literature dealing with the essay.

'''散文潮就像一面镜子，反映出了日渐显著的个体性、公众场合的参与度和现代中国社会令人眼花缭乱的种种特质'''

对散文进行全面审视，并分析其内在本质，要求我们在中华人民共和国、台湾、香港和美国的各大书店、图书馆开展广泛研究，获取散文集或涉及散文主题的二次文献等可用资源。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 00:35, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==
I built a database for a statistical analysis to rank more than 5000 essays and 1400 essayists. It turned out that out of the top 60 most famous Chinese essays only 14 had been translated into English so far. The forthcoming collection of Tam King-fai adds 4 and my own one the remaining 42.

Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report[ (baogao wenxue) (Klaschka 1998).].

我建立了一个用于统计分析的数据库，对5000余篇散文和1400名散文家进行排名。事实证明，迄今为止，在中国最著名的60篇论文中，只有14篇被翻译成英文。谭景辉即将出版的散文选集另有新翻译的4篇，我自己则翻译余下的42篇。

分析表明，自1979年以来，总体上来说，散文发表有所增加，在“文化大革命”之后还出现了两次热潮，在1990年达到了新的高度。首次增加出现在20世纪20年代和30年代，此后便被报告文学所取代（Klaschka 1998）。--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:41, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Cheng Yusi 成于思==
The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous essay bookseries[ sanwen congshu 散文叢書.].

The reason for the increase in essay production, which we can date right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in the sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for the survey. There are three reasons for the increase in Chinese essay production and popularity in the mid-1990s:
==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==
1, The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts, as Hall has put it: “[...] we live in an age of exposition”[ (Hall 1984:xiii).].

2, The increasing consciousness of individuality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands.

3, A revival of interest in discussing socio-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.

1，当前中国社会的快节奏需要分篇和短篇文本。正如霍尔所言，：“ ......我们生活在博览会时代。” [（Hall 1984：xiii）]。

2，对于正在增强的个人意识来说，散文是主观表达的最直接形式，甚至比具有韵律和形式要求的诗歌更直接。

3，通过散文讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复兴，就像1920年代/ 30年代那样。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 14:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==
If we look carefully at essay collections not only published in the United States, but also in Hong Kong, Taiwan and the People’s Republic, we find the following three reasons for the under- and overestimation of single essayists or essays which correspond to regional differences:

1, EXOTIC In the United States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones.

如果我们仔细观察在美国出版的，以及在香港、台湾和中华人民共和国出版的散文集，我们会发现以下三个原因导致人们低估和高估了回应地域差异的单个散文家或散文:

1、异国情调在美国，散文往往是根据西方人的口味来选择的，完全不知名的作者和老牌作家拥有一样多的空间。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 09:37, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

如果我们细细研读在美国出版的，以及在中国香港、台湾和大陆出版的散文集，我们会发现以下三个原因导致人们因地域差异而低估或高估了某些散文家或散文:

1、异国情调在美国，散文往往是根据西方人的口味来选择的，名不见经传的作者和著名的作家拥有同样多的市场。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling

==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==
2, SOCIO-POLITICAL In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, as the mentioned survey proofs, he ranks 12th among modern authors there. Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.

3, PERSONAL Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by his disciple Huang Weiliang in favor for Yu.[ (see Lin Yaode 1989:50).]

Having named reasons for the essay boom and for the support for and the suppression of different actors in the cultural field of the essay, I would like to finish my paper by naming a few trends of the essay as they appear at the eve of the century.

2、社会政治在台湾，鲁迅被禁锢了很久，但如今，如上述调查证明，他在台湾现代作家中排名第12位。在中华人民共和国，王蒙因其政治职务而被高估。

3，个人在香港关于余光中的文学被他的弟子黄伟良检查和删节，他是赞成余光中的。（见林耀德1989：50）。

在列举了一些关于论文热潮以及在论文文化领域中对不同行为者的支持和压制的原因之后，我想通过列举几世纪前夕出现的一些论文趋势来结束我的论文。--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 14:51, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==
The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consumer-orientation of the masses. The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educational claim with the exception of essays which claim to be "art pourt l'art".

政治散文的主题从1907年兴起的启蒙教育散文转变为20世纪20-30年代的日常政治散文，又进一步于20世纪40年代转变为反日宣传，于20世纪50-60年代发展为意识形态宣传。然而到了20世纪80年代，（文学和电影）都在讨论最佳社会制度，于是有关政治问题的主题复兴，但20世纪90年代时，主题又变成了非政治性，更加哲学道德的主题范畴，那会，散文家们首先对照大众的消费导向来定义角色。除了声称“艺术倾注的”文章外，在中国，这类散文似乎是保留了教育主张的唯一体裁。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 12:42, 27 December 2020

政治类散文的局部发展从1907年兴起的启蒙教育类转变为20世纪20-30年代的日常政治散文，又进一步于20世纪40年代转变为反日宣传，于20世纪50-60年代发展为意识形态宣传。然而到了20世纪80年代，（文学和电影中）对于最佳社会制度的探讨使得政治话题再次变得火热。但20世纪90年代时，写作主题又转向非政治性，以及更加哲学道德的范畴，那会，散文家们首先会对照大众的消费导向来定义角色。除了声称“艺术倾注的”文章外，在中国，这类散文似乎是保留了教育主张的唯一体裁。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:53, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==
The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing ("''On dreams''"[ "Shuo meng 說夢" On dreams in: Zhu Ziqing 1928.]) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 ("''My own garden''"[ 9.1923.], "''The Fly''"[ 1924.], "''Reading on the Toilet''"[ 1936.]), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the newly encountered world of mass consumerism.

非政治类文章的局部发展始于朱自清以及周作人1917年开始写的每日随想（朱自清1928年发表的散文《说梦》；周作人1923年发表的《自己的园地》、1924年发表的《苍蝇》、1936年发表的《入厕读书》）。自1927年的修正，政治类文章成为主流，直到20世纪30年代末期，非政治类文章因为抗日战争的爆发完全消失。直到20世纪70年代，人民生活回归正常，非政治类文章才重新现世，由于消失太久，日常琐事成为当时热门的写作话题。20世纪90年代，由于政治话题热度的下降以及进入新时代为迎合广大群众而开发新话题的需要，非政治类文章又迎来一次高潮。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:46, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==
In the end of this century not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. Among the upper list places of the political essay after 1949 there are critical essays. For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain.

在本世纪末，位于排行榜前列的不是政府要求的肯定性文本，而是非政治性的文章位于前列。尤其是从1923年到1928年，大部分非政治性文章可以追溯到共和党时代。这一观察结果得到上述统计分析结果的支持。在1949年以后的政治论文中，排名较高的有批评文章。在中华人民共和国，台湾和香港最常选择的论文中，道德和美学标准似乎已成为基础话题。--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 06:56, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==
A sign for the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publishing houses with an orientation for customers (former: "readers"). Following the emotional essays of Zhu Ziqing who rank 1st and 2nd, ''nostalgia'' is the element of emotional identification in "''Wild vegetables of my home region''" by Zhou Zuoren, which ranks 3rd[ In Jia Pingwa's "Moon traces", which ranks 11, and in Ba Jin's "''Paradise for Birds''", which ranks 19]. Therefore one can state, that moving essays form the top.
==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==
In 1927, Chinese literature took the form of 'engaged literature'. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics in daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology. In the later half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of individuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife.

1927年，中国文学出现了“参与文学”的形式。不同于那个时候，在20世纪90年代，有关日常利益的政治讨论只占很小的一部分。 20世纪80年代，包括诗歌和散文在内的所有流派都被批评家用来反对共产主义的主要叙事或毛泽东主义对艺术作为意识形态的理解。 20世纪90年代下半页，主讲者本人似乎迷失在个人的主观性以及越来越正式化但基本上空虚的城市生活的日常亵渎和平庸中。--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 01:35, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==
In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only remiscent element left is the patriotism.[ ''Trends like the use of ordinary language'', which one finds in novels since 1993 (''Jia Pingwa'', Feidu; ''Gu Cheng'', Yingger) and New Borderlessness since 1995, cannot be proven in the essaywriting.The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable ''object d'art''.]

上个世纪90年代，80年代的政论文随笔文化逐渐隐没了，唯一剩下留有想象空间的元素就是爱国主义。[“比如使用普通语言的趋势”，这是从1993年以来在小说中发现的（“贾平凹”）费杜，古格，英格）以及自1995年以来，《新无边际》都无法在论文写作中得到证明，我们之所以没有找到后现代小说意义上的后现代散文，是因为文章的直接性：随笔作为一种体裁，是作者和读者之间的对话，而不是想要引起不同解释的原因或可能依赖于特殊形式或内容甚至是按顺序引用前现代特征的艺术品，这使它成为一个与众不同的“艺术品”。]--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 13:06, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

'''References''' [partly mentioned with German translation] （不用翻）

Vera Schwarcz 1996, Vera Schwarcz, "The pain of sorrow: public uses of personal grief in modern China", in Daedalus: Journal of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (Winter 1996)

Ba Jin 1982, Ba Jin: "Yi feng huixin 一封回信" (Ein Antwortbrief (26.10.1982)), in: Bing zhong ji 病中集 (Auf dem Krankenlager), Hongkong 香港 1984(?) (Series Suixiang lu 隨想錄 (Thoughts) Bd 4), 147 pp.

Ba Jin 1982a, Ba Jin: "Yi pian xuwen 一篇序文" (Ein Vorwort) [dated 1982.9/10], in: Ba Jin: Auf dem Krankenlager 1984

Ba Jin 1956, Ba Jin 巴金: "Duli sikao 獨立思考" (Unabhängig denken), in: Li Jisheng 李濟生, Li Xiaolin 李小林 (Hgg.): Ba Jin liushi nian wenxuan (1927 - 1986), Suixiang lu, zagan, sanwen, xuba, yanjiang, shuxin 巴金六十年文選（１９２７－１９８６）隨想錄·雜感·散文·序跋· 演講·書信 (Ba Jin. Werkauswahl aus 60 Jahren (1927 - 1986), Gedanken, vermischte Gefühle, Essays, Vor- und Nachworte, Reden, Briefe), Shanghai 上海: Shanghai wenyi chubanshe 上海文藝出版社 (Literatur- und Kunstverlag Shanghai), 1986.12, S. 461 - 462 [Datiert auf 1956.]

Ba Jin 1962, "Zuojia de yongqi yu zerenxin 作家的勇氣與責任心" (Mut und Verantwortungsbewußtsein der Schrifsteller) 1962; der Essay von Zhou Zuoren 周作人: "Wenxue tan 文學談" (Über Literatur), in: Tan long ji 談龍集 (Über Drachen. Sammlung), Shanghai 上海: Kaiming shudian 開明書店 (Kaiming Buchladen) 1927.12, Nachdruck: Hongkong 香港: Shiyong shuju 使用書局 (Praxisverlag) 1972.1, 310 S., S. 165 - 167

Zhou Zuoren 1919, Zhou Zuoren, "Zuxian chongbai 1919 (Ancestor Worship)," in Early Essays, op.cit., pp. 78

Zhou Zuoren 1920: Zhou Zuoren 周作人, Xin wenxue de yaoqiu 新文學的要求" (The demand of the New Literature) [lecture], in Beiping shaonian xuehui 北平少年學會 (Beiping youth conference) 1920.1.6, in: Zhang Ruoying 長若英: Xin wenxue yundong shi ziliao 新文學運動史資料 (Material on the history of the New Literature movement), Shanghai 上海: Guangming shuju 光明書局 (Guangming bookstore) (1934.9) ²1936.9, 291-296

Zhou Zuoren 1923, Zhou Zuoren: Yanzhicao ba (Preface to Yu Pingbo's Yanzhicao), in: Yongri ji (Book of Eternal Day), Shanghai: Beixin shuju 1929, 180-181

Zhou Zuoren 1929, Zhou Zuoren: Ertong de shu (The books of children), in: Chenbao fukan (1923.8.17)

Zhou Zuoren yuanliu, Zhou Zuoren: Zhongguo xin wenxue de yuanliu (Sources of New Chinese Literature), p 71

Zhou Zuoren 1932, Zhou Zuoren: Lun baguwen 1932, in: Kanyun ji p. 148

Source: NEAAS annual meeting 10/09/1999 New Haven (Yale University)

==Guo Lu 郭露==
'''Modern Chinese Literature and the Essay Genre: A New Perspective'''

''Martin Woesler''

In this paper, I will not recount the contents and propose interpretations of any essays, nor will I outline the main topics or styles of essaywriting in China, but I would like to take the opportunity to reflect a little bit on the phenomenon of the genre itself and discuss some conclusions and hypotheses with the attentive and critical audience which can be found at only a few places on earth, EALC at Harvard definitely being one of them.

《中国现代文学与散文体裁：以新视角》

''吴漠汀''

在本文中,我将不再赘述任何文章的内容和提出的观点,我也不会列出其主要主题或风格,但是我想借此机会,反映一些现象本身的类型，并与包括哈佛大学学生在内的观众对一些结论和假设进行探讨。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:16, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

《中国现代文学与散文体裁：新视角》

吴漠汀

本文将不再赘述或解释任何文章的内容，也不会列出中国散文的主要主题或风格。我想借此机会，反思体裁现象，同乐于助人、至关重要且世间少有的读者，包括哈佛大学东亚语言和文化学院的学生，对一些结论和假设进行探讨。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:28, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==
'''1. The unknown genre'''

The literary-historical narrative told by anthologies and collections of the 20th century has drawn an incomplete picture of Chinese literature: The genre of the essay was lacking. In my paper I will ask, if the picture of literature can remain unchanged, if we take into consideration also the essay. The genre has been neglected for a long time as a genre of merit (Margouliès 1949, Schmidt-Glintzer 1990) or overlooked (McNaughton 1974, Leiden 1988-90, McDougall 1998);

'''1.未知体裁'''

二十世纪文选和选集里的文学史的叙述对于整个中国文学来说是不完整的：散文题材是缺失的。在我的论文里我将要探寻是否文学整个文学框架依旧保持不变，是否把散文体裁考虑进去。作为一种具有优势的体裁它已经被忽视了很久了。（马古烈 1949，施寒薇 1990）或者被省略（约翰·麦克诺顿 1974，莱顿 1988-90，杜博妮 1998）；--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 11:09, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

'''1.未知体裁'''

20世纪选集所讲述的文学历史叙事，描绘了一幅不完整的中国文学图景:：散文题材是缺失的。在我的论文里我将要探寻是否文学整个文学框架依旧保持不变，是否把散文体裁考虑进去。作为一种具有优势的体裁它已经被忽视了很久了。（马古烈 1949，施寒薇 1990）或者被省略（约翰·麦克诺顿 1974，莱顿 1988-90，杜博妮 1998）；--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 12:30, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

'''1.未知体裁'''

20世纪的选集和文集所讲述的文学史叙事，勾勒出一幅不完整的中国文学图景。散文的体裁是缺乏的。在我的论文中将要探讨如果我们把散文也考虑进去，文学的图景是否可以保持不变。长期以来，这一文体作为一种优秀的文体被忽视（马古利耶斯1949年，施密特-格林策1990年）或被忽略（麦克诺顿1974年，莱顿1988-90年，麦克杜格尔1998年）。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 15:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==
whereas its elder brother, fiction, has been prized ever since the valuing of fictional literature and the vernacularisation of writing in early Republican China, which followed from the master narrative established by the May 4th movement. Modern anthologies would have the reader believe that a triumvirate of poetry, fiction and drama forms the backbone of modern Chinese literary output.

由于自民国初年五四运动确立的总叙事之后，对小说文学的重视和写作的白话化，因而它的系列小说，就一直受到重视。现代选本会让读者相信诗歌、小说、戏剧这三驾马车构成了中国现代文学创作的主干。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 15:20, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==He Changqi 何长琦==
'''Excursion: Defining the essay as a non-fictional subjective representation in a free form'''

Similar to international literature, the basic subdivision of literature in China in general is one in three types: epic (with xiaoshuo (fiction), sanwen (non-fictional prose)), lyrics (shige) and drama (xiqu). Though there is no pure epic form, fiction and prose are often jointly addressed with the Chinese term "wu yunwen" which corresponds to the term "epic" in the West. The types may be distinguished roughly by their nature in the following way: In the epic, bygone events are retold, a broad, filled story dominates the foreground.
==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==
In the lyrics, the reader is encouraged to feel the current sensations and often confessionlike feelings of the poet. The drama recalls a self-contained action directly in monologue or dialogue and in this way unburdens the re-creative imagination of the readers/spectators through it. The essay as a genre of the epic is a detached non-fictional subjective representation in a free form.
在抒情诗中，读者被鼓励去感受当下的感觉，并且常常是诗人的忏悔式的感觉。戏剧直接在独白或对话中回忆起一个自足的动作，以这种方式释放了读者/观众重新创造的想象力。散文作为史诗的一种体裁，是一种超脱的、非虚构的、自由形式的主观表现。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 02:29, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

在抒情诗中，鼓励读者感受诗人当下的感觉，且这种感觉常常是诗人的忏悔。戏剧直接以独白或对话的方式回忆一个自足的动作，并通过这种方式释放了读者/观众再创造的想象力。散文作为史诗的一种体裁，是以自由的形式进行的一种分离的非虚构的主观表现。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 07:11, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==
"Essay", Chinese mostly ''sanwen'', is a genre term for shorter, self-contained non-fictional prose texts, in which the author tries to mediate individual experiences on an object or a question out of subjective I-perspective. This it tries associatively and from different sides, not as a text for daily use, but with artistic or educationally demanding means of language, nevertheless in an accessible form. The resource is mastered by the essayist sovereignly and the topic is seen in a larger context and can even be presented humorously. Freedom in form and content is essential for the essay.

“散文”，中文主要是“散文”，是一个较短的、独立的非虚构散文文本的体裁术语，作者试图从主观的角度调解个人对一个对象或问题的体验。它试图从不同的方面进行联想，不是作为日常使用的文本，而是用艺术或教育要求的语言手段，然而是以一种容易理解的形式。资源由散文家自主掌握，主题在更大的背景下被看到，甚至可以幽默地呈现。文章在形式和内容上的自由是必不可少的。--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 13:22, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

“散文”是一种体裁术语，在汉语中也叫做“sanwen”，指篇幅较短、自成一体的非虚构散文文本，散文创作者可以从主观的角度，将个人的经验调和到事物或问题上。它试图从不同的方面进行联想，不是作为日常使用的文本，而是用艺术或教育要求的语言手段，然而是以一种容易理解的形式。文章素材由散文家自主掌握，主题可以置于更大的背景之下，甚至可以一种幽默的方式呈现。散文的形式和内容都是自由的。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 14:36, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

“随笔”，中文名多为“散文”，是一种体裁术语，指篇幅较短、自成一体的非虚构散文文本，作者试图从主观视角来调和个人对对象或问题的经验。
散文试图从不同的方面进行联想，它不是作为日常使用的文本，而是作为艺术或教育要求的语言方式，虽然如此，还是以一种可理解的方式呈现。
资源由随笔作家独享，话题可以在更大的背景下展出，甚至可以幽默地呈现。形式和内容的自由对这篇随笔至关重要。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 14:38, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Hu Jin 胡瑾==
Different perspectives range in the international genre of the essay: Genres are primarily divisions of literature through the scholarship of literature for specialized contemplation and in order to be able to compare similar texts more easily. On the other hand, a subcategorization in numerous small entities, like Zheng Mingli does with the essay, questions the sense of such subdivisioning in reference to hermeneutic findings. One must also stay aware of the changing nature of literature itself and the relativity of the scientific perspective, which is still a timely one, even if its accepted internationally.

不同的视角范围在国际上的文章体裁。体裁主要是通过对文学的学术研究，对文学进行专门的沉思，为了能够更容易地比较同类文本而进行的划分。另一方面，像郑明立对文章那样，以众多小实体进行细分，则是对这种细分的意义提出质疑，以参考解释学的研究成果。我们还必须时刻注意文学本身的变化和科学观点的相对性，即使其在国际上被接受，也是适时的。--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 06:14, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==
Regional deviations seem less important for the essay than for established genres like short stories, novels etc., and far less important than for poems. All these other genres are seen as international genres. My hypothesis, that the Chinese and the Western essay also belong to the same international genre maybe proved by the crosscultural mutualities both in form and content.

地域差异对散文的影响似乎不如对已确立的文体如短篇小说、小说的影响大，也远不如对诗歌的影响大。除散文外的其他文体被视为国际文体。我认为中西方散文也属于相同的国际文体，跨文化的相互作用也许可以在形式和内容上证明这一假设。

对于文章而言，比起短篇故事，小说等已存的体裁，区域差异似乎不那么重要，对于诗歌而言，区域差异更不重要。所有这些其他的体裁都被看作国际体裁。中国和西方的文章都属于同一国际体裁，这一假设也许可以通过形式和内容上的跨文化相互关系来证明。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 15:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==

In the 21st century, the world is growing together and culture is mainly determined by the grade of modernization. The Chinese essay, as we find it in newspapers today, has taken on the form and content of the Western essay and is aimed at a target group comparable to that of the Western essay. This is a second hint that the modern Chinese essay belongs to the international genre of the essay.

在21世纪，世界共同发展，文化主要决定于现代化的水平。今天我们在刊物上看到的中国散文，已经具备了西方散文的形式和内容，而且其目标群体与西方散文相当。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文类别的第二个暗示。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 07:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

在21世纪，世界上的国家趋向于走到一起，而文化则主要取决于现代化水平。正如我们从现今报纸里面看到的那样，中国散文采用了西方散文的形式和内容，而且其目标群体与西方散文相当。这是中国现代散文开始趋同于国际散文体裁的第二个标志。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 09:27, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

21世纪，世界在共同成长，文化主要由现代化程度决定。我们今天在报纸上看到的中国散文，在形式和内容上都与西方散文相似，其目标群体也与之相似。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文的第二个暗示。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 09:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

在21世纪，世界共同发展，文化主要决定于现代化的水平。我们今天在报纸上看到的中国散文，已经呈现出西方散文的形式与内容，并且其目标群体也与西方散文不相上下。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文体裁的第二个迹象。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 11:17, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Jiang Hao 姜好==
Even though the translation of ''duanpian xiaoshuo'' with ''short stories'' is commonly accepted, both are less closely related than the Western essay and its Chinese counterpart. The definition, which I developed out of a sample of more than 5000 modern Chinese essays, fits also the special international understanding of the essay (following Bolz 1992 13:269-272 on the development of the western essay; Butrym 1989 on the theory of the western essay).

尽管人们普遍接受用短小故事来翻译短篇小说，但两者的关系不如西方的散文和中国的同类文章密切。这个定义是我从5000多篇中国现代散文样本中发展出来的，也符合国际上对散文的特殊理解（继博尔兹1992年13:269-272论西方散文的发展；布特莱姆1989年论西方散文的理论）。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 11:01, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

尽管人们普遍接受用“短小故事”来翻译“短篇小说”，但两者的关系并不如西方散文与其中国同类文章密切。这个定义是我从5000多篇中国现代散文样本中得出的，也符合国际上对散文的特殊理解（继博尔兹于1992年 13:269-272 论西方散文的发展；布特莱姆于1989年论西方散文的理论）。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

尽管人们普遍接受用“短小故事”来翻译“短篇小说”，但两者的关系不如西方的散文和中国的对应定义密切。这个定义是我从5000多篇中国现代散文样本中发展出来的，也符合国际上对散文的特殊理解（继博尔兹1992年13:269-272论西方散文的发展；布特莱姆1989年论西方散文的理论）。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 11:01, 27 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 15:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==
Besides the trend towards a globalized society, first expressed in Zhou Zuoren's call to adopt the English essay style, there are special local characteristics of the Chinese essay. How is the Chinese essay to determine culturally, what makes it "Chinese"? In the occidental essay the form seems to be a more important criterion of differentiation than in its Chinese counterpart. In China even those texts are included, which have only a similar content, but cross the borders of the formal generical framework.

除了首先由周作人表达出来的社会全球化趋势，号召采用英语散文风格，中文散文有独特本土的特征。中文散文如何形成其特有文化，其中文性又由何组成？和中文散文相比，西方散文的文章形式似乎是更重要的分类标准。在中国，甚至有些文章内容相似，但形式和类别大相径庭。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 02:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

除了最初由周作人表达出来的社会全球化趋势，号召采用英语散文风格，中文散文具有独特的本土特色。中文散文如何形成其特有文化，其中文性又由何组成？与中文散文相比，西方散文的形式分类标准似乎更重要。在中国，有些文章甚至是内容相似，但形式和类别大相径庭。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:18, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

除了周作人提倡采用英语散文风格所体现的全球化社会趋势外，中文散文还具有独特的本土特色。中文散文如何在文化上定义，其中国性又是什么？在西方文章中，形式似乎是比中国文章更重要的区分标准。在中国，甚至包括那些只有类似内容，却跨越了形式上的属相框架的文本。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 11:05, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==
This can be shown with Zheng Mingli, who subcategorises the "unfinished diary" or the "unfinished letter". Those texts belong - within the Western context - to texts of personal use and therefor to the non-fictional prose works. Only after they have been altered into essays (Zheng Mingli: "essay in diary form" and "essay in letter form"), they are accepted as essays.

这一点可以从郑那里得到证明，他把“未完成的日记”或“未完成的信”分门别类。在西方语境中，这些文本属于个人使用的文本，因此属于非虚构的散文作品。只有当它们被改成散文(郑:“日记体散文”和“书信体散文”)后，它们才被接受为散文。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:07, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==
'''The Chinese understanding of the genre is tendencially broader'''

This tendencial broader understanding of the essay in China can be traced back directly to the connotation, that the term ''sanwen'' possesses in Chinese: ''wú yùnwén'' "non-rhythmic prose", which originally meant all non-fictional prose. In this broader meaning, also texts for personal or everyday use are included. However I deal only with ''sanwen'' in the narrower meaning "short literary essay pieces".

Further differences are that Chinese essays often have ideological contents and show stylistic characteristics like repetitions and the usage of sayings.

'''中国人对这类体裁的理解区域广泛'''

在中国，这种对随笔的广泛认识可以直接追溯到“散文”一词在中文中所具有的“无韵散文”的内涵，“无韵散文”原本指所有的非虚构散文。从更广泛的意义来讲，个人或日常使用的文本也包括在内。但是，我只讨论“散文”的狭义意义，指的是“短篇文学随笔片段”。

更进一步的差异是，中国散文往往具有思想内容，并表现出重复、谚语使用等文体特征。

==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==
'''The Chinese essay is booming again in the 1980s and 1990s'''

Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report (''baogao wenxue'').[ Klaschka 1998.] The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous ''sanwen congshu'' 散文叢書 (essay bookseries).

20世纪80年代和90年代中国散文再次蓬勃发展
研究表明，1979年以后散文发表量普遍增加，在“文革”之后出现了两个高峰期。
散文出版量在1990年达到了一个新的高度。第一次增长出现在20世纪20年代和30年代，但是在此之后，散文的角色因为报告这一体裁(报告文学)而黯然失色。(Klaschka 1998。)在1920/30年代和1980/90年代，散文的繁荣在一定程度上得益于新杂志的出现，这些杂志是当代散文家发表文章的阵地，其大多属于散文丛书。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 14:22, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

'''二十世纪八九十年代中国散文再次蓬勃发展'''

相关分析表明，1979年后散文出版量普遍增加，在文化大革命后达到了两次顶峰。1990年，散文出版量明显再创新高。散文出版量的第一次增长出现在二十世纪二三十年代。随后，报告文学的出现使得散文黯然失色(Klaschka 1998.)二十世纪二三十年代和八九十年代散文出版量之所以猛然增长，部分原因在于作为当代散文家写作阵地的新杂志和众多散文丛书的出现。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 00:48, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==
The increase in essay production right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in a sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for a survey.

Thanks to the work of some major Chinese editors, the whole essay culture was compiled from magazines and newspapers and was published in a flood of anthologies since the 1970s. This boom is comparable to the cultural fever of undigging xiangtu literature, which rose in Taiwan in front of the background of the movement of self-identification and independance.

文化革命结束后，散文产量的增加导致需求积压，1980至1982年间，共有印刷了一百万册的散文集，这仅计算了我为调查收集的130本“代表性”书籍的样本中包含的藏书。

感谢一些年长的中国编者的作品，自20世纪70年代以来，整个散文文化是由杂志和报纸汇编而成的，并以大量选集的形式出版。这种文学繁荣堪比无题乡图文学的文化热，它是在台湾自我认同和独立运动的背景下兴起的。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 14:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==
'''2. Why is the essay as abundant as fiction?'''

Let me name a few reasons, why the essay in fact is as abundant as its prose brother, fiction, and its lyrical sister, poetry, and why it must be valued as highly:

- The essay had a direct impact on Chinese society throughout history (the reform ideas from the end of the Qing dynasty through the May Fourth period with the literary theorethical pieces and the daily political zawen of Lu Xun, until today are mostly presented in essay form). The impact on literary reflection and theory is shown in the collection "Modern Chinese Literary Thought" 1996. The effect of the essay genre with its direct language, its connection to life (e.g. its role in the coming to terms with the cultural revolution), and its direct access to the individual reader through newspapers. This impact is larger than the indirect one of fiction or poetry. The poem is the genre of retreat from social life, from political issues and time references.

为什么论文像小说一样丰富？

让我列举几个原因，为什么这篇论文实际上与它的散文兄弟，小说以及抒情姐妹，诗歌一样丰富，以及为什么必须如此重视它：

-这篇文章在整个历史上都对中国社会产生了直接的影响（从清末到五四期间的改革思想，包括文学理论作品和鲁迅的日常政治杂文，直到今天大多以论文形式呈现）。对文学反思和理论的影响在1996年的“中国现代文学思想”合集中显示。随笔类型，其直接语言，与生活之间的联系（例如，其在适应文化大革命中的作用）的影响，并通过报纸直接接触个人读者。这种影响大于小说或诗歌的间接影响。这首诗是从社会生活，政治问题和时间参照中退缩的一种体裁。--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:32, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

为什么散文像小说一样丰富？

让我举几个理由，为什么这篇文章实际上和它的散文兄弟、小说和它的抒情妹妹、诗歌一样丰富，为什么它必须被高度重视：

这篇文章对中国社会产生了直接的影响（从清末到五四时期的改革思想，以鲁迅的文学理论和日常政治面貌，直到今天，大多以散文的形式呈现）。对文学反思和理论的影响见1996年《中国现代文学思想集。散文体裁与其直接语言的影响，它与生活的联系(例如。它在接受文化革命方面的作用)，以及它通过报纸直接接触个人读者。这种影响大于小说或诗歌的间接影响。这首诗是从社会生活、政治问题和时间参考中退缩的体裁。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 03:49, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==
Hu Shi argues, that ''poetry'' is most important in the process of modernity, since poetry rises emotions. But it relies also on images and on linguistic rhythm. Liang Qichao stresses the role of novel and opera in the changing society. But ''sanwen'' is able to name things, it reflects life, caleidoscopic. Modern subjectivity is constructed with the tool of ''sanwen''.

- The essay also reflects trends in the society better than poetry and fiction: Individualism is expressed in the essay more directly than in the poem with its limitation in content and form. Ephemerality is reflected in the short form of the essay, which may be read in the subway on the way to work, where poems may not be so spontaneously enjoyed.

胡适认为“诗”在现代化的过程中是最重要的，因为诗会升华情感。但诗歌依赖于形象和语言节奏。梁启超强调小说和戏曲在社会变迁中的作用。但“三文”却能命名事物，它反映生活千变万化。现代主体性是以“三文”为工具来建构的。

-散文也比诗歌和小说更能反映社会的趋势。个人主义在随笔中表现得比在诗歌中更直接，但在内容和形式上都有局限性。短文的短暂性体现在短文的形式上，可以在上班路上的地铁里读，而在地铁里读诗，可能就不能那么随性的享受了。--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 13:48, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi

胡适认为“诗”在现代化的过程中是最重要的，因为诗歌升华情感。但诗歌也依赖于意象和语言节奏。梁启超强调小说和戏曲在社会变迁中的作用。但“散文”却能给事物命名，反映千变万化的生活。现代主体性就是以“散文”为工具建构的。

- 随笔也比诗歌和小说更能反映社会的发展趋势。个人主义在随笔中的表现比在诗歌中更直接，因为诗歌在内容和形式上对此有所限制。随笔的短暂性体现在随笔的形式上，人们可以在上班路上的地铁里阅读，而在地铁里读诗，可能就没有那么随性的享受。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:55, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

胡适认为“诗”在现代化的过程中是最重要的，因为诗会升华情感。但诗歌也依赖意向和语言节奏。梁启超强调小说和戏曲在社会变迁中的作用。但“三文”却能命名事物，它反映生活千变万化。现代主体性是以“三文”为工具来建构的。

-散文也比诗歌和小说更能反映社会的趋势。由于散文的内容和形式上受限，它比诗歌更能直接表达个人主义。散文很短，所以花时间少，可以在上班路上的地铁里读，但在地铁里读诗可能就不能那么随性的享受了。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 12:54, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Haiquan 李海泉==
- The essay reaches a larger part of the population than poetry, the amount of time spended on reading novels goes back, too. The essay itself a genre of high actuality, if not simply the genre of today.

- The essay tells us more about an author and his time than fiction or poetry, because in this genre, we encounter the author himself without metrical restrictions. We look trough authentic eyes on his contemporary society. Many authors turned to essay writing in the later periods of their lifes, like Lu Xun, Ba Jin, and Wang Meng.
[[Media:Example.ogg]]==Li Lili 李丽丽==
- The volume of ''essay'' production exceeds the volume of ''xiaoshuo'' production: Chinese newspapers since the 1870s on[ Shenbao, Shibao etc. Liang Qichao sees the role of the newspaper both as liberal and authoritative: He understands the press as an institution to control the government, on the other hand he favors censorship.] and as a mass media from the early 20th century presented only one or two fictional stories in a serialized form, but invented essay columns like ''zagan'' (from which Lu Xun developed his ''zawen''), ''suibi'' or ''suixiang'' (from which famous collections like Ba Jin's ''Suixiang lu'' derived).

“随笔”的产量超过了“小说”：从19世纪70年代开始，中国的报纸就在《申报》、《时报》等杂志上发表。梁启超认为报纸既自由又权威：他认为报纸是控制政府的机构，另一方面，他主张审查制度，作为20世纪初的一个大众媒体，他以连载的形式呈现一两个虚构的故事，但却发明了散文专栏，如“扎根”（鲁迅从中发展了他的“札文”）、“随笔”或“随想”（巴金的《随想录》就是从中衍生出来的）。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 13:33, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

“随笔”的产量超过了“小说”的产量：从19世纪70年代开始，中国的报纸就在《申报》、《时报》等杂志上发表。梁启超认为报纸既自由又权威：他认为报纸是控制政府的机构，另一方面，他主张审查制度，作为20世纪初的一个大众媒体，他以连载的形式呈现一两个虚构的故事，但却发明了散文专栏，如“扎根”（鲁迅从中发展了他的“札文”）、“随笔”或“随想”（巴金的《随想录》就是从中衍生出来的）。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 12:54, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

“随笔”的产量超过了“小说”的产量：从19世纪70年代开始，中国的报纸就在《申报》、《时报》等杂志上发表。梁启超认为报纸既自由又权威：他认为报社是控制政府的机构；另一方面，他主张审查制度，报纸作为20世纪初的一个大众媒体，以连载的形式呈现一两个虚构的故事，但却发明了散文专栏，如“扎根”（鲁迅从中发展了他的“札文”）、“随笔”或“随想”（巴金的《随想录》就是从中衍生出来的）。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 10:19, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Lingyue 李凌月==
'''3. Let us assign the essay its proper place'''
The consequence which must be driven from the above presented contrast between value and valuing of the essay is: Let us assign the essay its proper place! I will describe the beginnings of the discovery of the essay.
Despite the increase in essay writing from 1979 on, it took a decade for the first theoretical reflections on this phenomenon to appear. It took another decade before the international scholarship of Chinese Studies became aware of the phenomenon of the essay.

3.让我们为散文指定其适当的位置，
由此得出的结论是:让我们为散文指定其适当的位置!我将描述发现这篇文章的开始。尽管从1979年开始，论文写作有所增加，但对这一现象的第一次理论反思却花了10年时间才出现。又过了10年，中国研究的国际学者才意识到这一现象。

3.让我们给作文赋予它应有的位置
从上面提出的论文的价值与价值之间的对比,由此得出的结论是:让我们给作文赋予它应有的位置!我将描述发现这篇文章的开始。尽管从1979年开始，散文写作有所增加，但有关这一现象的出现的第一次理论反思却花了10年时间。又过了10年，中国研究的国际学者才意识到这一现象。--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 15:12, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Liqin 李丽琴==

In the 1980s, Chinese scholarship made a first major approach to reflect on essay literature by writing essay histories and collecting papers, which concentrated first on the essayistic work of single authors like Lu Xun. Also two essay conferences in the 1990s showed no move towards international scholarship. Not before 1995 did international scholarship started to use common philological methods to explore single essayists (on Gaylord Leung [Liang Xihua] 梁錫華 Kubin 1995, on Wang Meng 王蒙 Woesler 1995, on Liu Zaifu 劉再復 Mansberg 1995 [unpublished]) or essays of groups (on 'Xīnyùe pài 新月派' Wagner 1996).

20世纪80年代，中国学术界首次以撰写散文史和散文集的方式对散文文学进行了重大的反思，这首先集中在鲁迅等单个作家的散文作品上。另外90年代的两次会议也没有趋于国际学术研究的动向。直到1995年，国际学术界才开始使用共同的语言学方法来探讨单个散文家（比如1995年Kubin的《关于梁漱溟》；Woesler的《关于王蒙》；Mansberg的《关于刘再复》[未发表]）或探讨某个群体的散文（1996年瓦格纳的《关于新月派》）。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 12:54, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

20世纪80年代，中国学术界首次以撰写散文史和散文集的方式对散文文学进行了重大的反思，这首先集中在鲁迅等单个作家的散文作品上。除此之外，20世纪90年代的两次会议也没有转向国际学术研究的方向。直到1995年，国际学术界才开始使用共同的语言学方法来探讨单个散文家（比如1995年Kubin的《关于梁漱溟》；Woesler的《关于王蒙》；Mansberg的《关于刘再复》[未发表]）或探讨某个群体的散文（1996年瓦格纳的《关于新月派》）。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 13:37, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Luyi 李璐伊==
Not before the second half of the 1990s, did a history of the Chinese essay using the means of Western philology appear (Woesler 1998) and for the first time, the essay was included in Western anthologies of literature as a genre equal to fiction and poetry (''The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature'' 1995, ''Modern Chinese Literary Thought'' 1996).

Regarding the valuing of essays in China, Taiwan and the West, there are regional differences: In the States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones.

在不早于上个世纪90年代下半叶之时，出现了使用西方语言学方法撰写的中国散文史（Woesler 1998），并且散文首次作为与小说和诗歌同等的体裁被纳入西方文学选集。（《哥伦比亚现代中国文学选集》 1995，《现代中国文学思想读本》 1996）。

关于中国大陆，台湾地区和西方的散文评价，存在地区差异：在美国，人们通常根据西方人的喜好来选择散文，给予完全不知名的作家与知名作家同等的篇幅。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

上世纪90年代后半期以前, 出现了使用西方语言学方法撰写的中国散文史（Woesler 1998），并且散文首次作为与小说和诗歌同等的体裁被纳入西方文学选集。（《哥伦比亚现代中国文学选集》 1995，《现代中国文学思想读本》 1996）。中国大陆，台湾和西方对散文的评价，存在地区差异：在美国，人们通常根据西方人的喜好来选择散文，给予完全不知名的作家与知名作家同等的篇幅。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 12:24, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Meng 李梦==
In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, in my survey, which Chinese essayists are printed the most in the 1990s, he ranks 16th. If one only take modern authors into account, he even ranks 12th. Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by Huang Weiliang in favor for the first (see Lin Yaode 1989:50), and Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.

Still it remains a ''desideratum'' to get the most important Chinese essays in Western translation.
在台湾,鲁迅很早就被禁了,但今天,在我的调查里,上世纪90年代中国散文家印刷量最大的时候,鲁迅排在了第16位。如果只考虑现代作家,甚至排在了第12位。香港关于余光中文学的评论,被黄伟良第一次看中(见林耀德1989:50),王蒙因政治职务在中华人民共和国被高估。
然而,要获得西译中最重要的中国散文,还需要一个参考文献。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 12:16, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

在台湾,鲁迅的作品很早就被禁了,但今天,在我的调查里,上世纪90年代中国散文家作品印刷量最大的时候,鲁迅排在了第16位。如果只考虑现代作家,甚至排在了第12位。香港关于余光中文学的评论,被黄伟良第一次看中(见林耀德1989:50),王蒙因政治职务在中华人民共和国被高估。

然而,要获得西译中最重要的中国散文,还需要一个参考文献。--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 12:39, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==
Currently at least three essay collections in English translation are in the reviewing process (Tam King-Fai, Woesler) or already published (Pollard 1999). Pollard's selection is a highly subjective and eclective choice of essays, covering even the premodern essay. This year, scholars will meet on a first international conference on the essay (Achern, Germany August 25-26). In the years to come, a new ''Bonn History of Chinese Literature'' will grant the essay its proper place with two to three volumes only dedicated to the ''biji, youji'' and other essays.
==Li Yu 李玉==
'''4. Taking into consideration the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature'''

I will give a few hints, what the essay can contribute to the picture of Chinese Literature, which so far is overshadowed by fiction through the narrative of C.T. Hsia, Prusek and Anderson.

We are used to established narratives, like the emergence and success of the May-Fourth literature. But this view neglects the role, that for example the ''yuanyang hudie pai'' played in the choir of different voices in the awoken intellectual debate in the beginning of this century.
==Lin Min 林敏==
The May-Fourth group at that time was one voice among many and only succeeded because of its agitation and polemic in the public sphere, so we have to use new means to assign the Chinese essay its proper place. We learn from simplifiying narratives, that it is absolutely necessary to differentiate, and to reconstruct the complex time background. Having understood Chinese literature as determined by the development of fiction and poetry only, a broader understanding will change the whole appearance of Chinese literature. A scholarly endeavour is the use of modern literary theories in the approach to this genre.
==Lin Xin 林鑫==
In the following, I will name three aspects (chronologically sorted by past, modern and contemporary time) to hold the argument, that the taking into consideration of the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature and change our current understanding of it.

'''5. The classical and premodern essay documents Chinese philosophy, early subjectivity and still, a native Chinese tradition is questioned'''

How is the Chinese essay to be positioned historically, how did it emerge, what is its generic background? Generically, the ancestors of the essay are both in China and the West notes written on the margins of books, they are letters and travel notes.

下面，我将从三个方面(在时间顺序上按过去、现代、当代排序)来论述对散文的考量将改写中国文学史，改变我们目前对它的认识这一论点。

5. 古典和前现代散文记录了中国哲学，其早期的主体性，仍然是对中国本土传统的质疑。
中国散文在历史上要如何定位，它是如何产生的，它的共有背景是什么？一般来说，中国和西方的散文都是起源于写在书本空白处的笔记，是书信和游记。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:18, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==
These notes differed from the canonized literature through its informal style, its expression of individuality und subjectivity, a much earlier document for subjectivity than the first autobiographical Chinese novel, ''The Dream of the Red Chamber''.

From the very beginning, the essay was valued lower than poetry: the oldest reference this far for the term ''sanwen'' that I found is Luo Dajing's 羅大經 (? - after 1248) statement from 1240: “Shī sāomiào tiānxià, ér sǎnwén pōjué suǒsuì júcù.
==Liu Bo 刘博==
詩騷妙天下，而散文頗覺瑣碎局促。” (Poetry is moving mankind in a wonderful way, prose inquires into incoherent bagatels, is limited.) (''Helin yulu''). Another reproach Luo Dajing mentions, is a formal one: In comparison to the highly artistic and century-long tradition of poetic writing, the direct and often vernacular langage of the essay in his eyes had less value.

In the West, a real 'art of the essaywriting' came up in the late 16th century as a medium for the newly reorganized knowledge.

“詩騷妙天下，而散文頗覺瑣碎局促。”罗大京提到的另一个骂名，是形式上的：与具有高度艺术性和长达一个世纪传统的诗歌写作相比，散文中直接的、白话文式的语言在他看来并不那么有价值。
在西方，16世纪晚期出现了一种真正的“散文写作艺术”，作为一种传播重组知识的媒介。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 00:50, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

“诗騷妙天下，而散文颇觉瑣碎局促。”罗大经提出的另一个责难，是形式上的。在他看来，与高度艺术化的百年诗词写作传统相比，散文直接的、白话文式的语言没有什么价值。
在西方，真正的 “散文写作艺术 ”是在16世纪末作为重组知识的一种媒介出现的。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:30, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==
The reorganization originated from the observations of Kopernikus, which destroyed the whole conception of the world of the Middle Age.

In China, particularly the debates on Buddhism in the 4th and 5th century A.D. saw the origination of a tradition of letters. The Chinese tradition of the ''sanwen'' 散文 (essay) however, in the understanding of sǎn 散 as (to dispel, leisure, loose, relaxed, irregular, independant style, free prose, can be seen not before the detachment from the dialogue - or aphorism, which is still visible in the philosophical ''Lunyu''.
==Liu Liu 刘柳==
Xunzi delivered the prototype of the later essay with his philosophical treatises. They are an early form of philosophical didactical essays, in which general theorems are derived not only from quotations of the canonized classical works, but for the first time also from his own individual experience. The individuality is still a main characteristic of the essay today.

During the dynasties the essay manifested itself further in certain subcategories: From reading-notes written at the paper margins originated the ''biji'' µ§°O (occasional notes), flourishing in the Ming Dynasty.

荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形，它们是哲学教学论文的早期形式。其中的一般定理不仅来自于经典著作的引用，而且第一次从他的个人经验中得出。个性仍是现今散文的主要特点。

历朝历代，散文在某些子类中进一步得以表现，如从写在纸边的读书笔记产生了明朝盛行的偶记。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 02:25, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形。其作品是哲学论教散文的早期形式，这些散文中传授的普遍定理不仅有引用经典著作，还首次借鉴其个人经历。这种个体性在当代的散文中仍有保留。

历朝历代，散文通过一些子类别得以呈现，如明朝盛行的在书页边上写的读书注释，它就是源于笔记。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 08:47, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形。其作品是哲学论教散文的早期形式，其中的一般定理不仅来自于经典著作的引用，而且第一次从他的个人经验中得出。个性仍是现今散文的主要特点。

历朝历代，散文在某些子类中进一步得以表现，如从写在纸边的读书笔记产生了明朝盛行的偶记。--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:20, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Ou 刘欧==
The marginalism is a link between Western and Chinese tradition of early essays. Occasional notes could contain private historical notes, anecdotes, communications and contemplations. However, the consciousness of the essay as a genre of its own originated in China not before the Qing ²M dynastie, when numerous essay anthologies were compiled.

Taking into consideration the social-historical background draws a different picture of the old society than short stories and novels: Essays are much closer to real life, since they express individual problems and experiences.

边缘主义是中西早期散文的一个纽带。散见的笔记包含了私人的历史记录，轶事，交谈和个人沉思。然而，尽管当时的散文选集众多，但将视散文作为一种文体的意识，清朝之前并没有出现。

考虑到当时的社会历史背景，人们在旧社会时，对短篇故事和小说的看法不同：散文更接近现实生活，因为它们表达了个人的困惑和经历。--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 04:15, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

边缘主义是中西早期散文传统的一个纽带。偶尔的笔记可以包含私人的历史笔记，轶事，交流和沉思。然而，尽管当时中国散文选集有很多，一直到清朝之后我们才将散文视作一种文体意识。
考虑到当时的社会历史背景，人们对旧社会的看法与短篇小说和小说不同：散文更接近现实生活，因为它们表达了个人的问题和经历。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 07:43, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==
Until now, the Chinese pre-''Hongloumeng'' individual literature spoke only through the indirect language of poems to us. Rediscovering the essays, we have a splendid source of opinions, social-historical pictures etc.

Premodern essay literature consists of much more than its most well-known example, the formally restrictive ''baguwen''. Lu Xun himself wrote some of his essays in ''baguwen'' style, but on the other hand took it as a synonym for the ancient society. Zhou Zuoren saw the rhythm of the language of the "Eight legged essay" as as appealing and intoxicating as the "pleasure of doing opium.'' (Zhou 1932:148).

目前为止，中国红楼梦前的个体文学还只是通过诗中的间接语言与我们对话。通过重拾散文，我们可以知晓不同观点和社会历史状况等文学创作的丰富源泉。
现代散文之前的文学并不限于形式上受限制的八股文，一方面鲁迅本人也有一些散文是用八股文写成的，但另一方面他又把八股文当作古代社会的代名词。周作人把 "八股文 "的语言节奏看作是 "做鸦片的快感 "一样令人陶醉。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 08:42, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

直到现在，中国前“红楼梦”的个体文学只能通过诗歌的间接语言与我们对话。重新发掘这些散文，我们可以拥有丰富的观点来源，社会历史图片等。

前现代散文文学不仅仅包括它最为人所知的例子，正式的、有限制性的“八卦文”。鲁迅自己的一些文章就是用“八卦文”写的，但是在另一方面又把它当作古代社会的同义词。周作人认为《八股文》的语言节奏就像“吸鸦片的快感”一样令人陶醉。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 09:07, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Yi 刘艺==
But he considered it also as a prevalent genre implicit in the modern writings as ''yang bagu'' (westernized bagu) and ''dang bagu'' (party-line bagu) (borrowing from Wu Zhihui, Zhou Yuanliu:71).

Neo-Confucianism stressed ''wen'' (prose) as the most important tool to transmit the ''dao'' (way): ''Wenyi zai dao'' (Literature as the carrier of the way). If we reinterprete this diction in the perspective of genre, we can say, that the essay then has been regarded as an important tool to express truth, subjectivity and Self.

但他认为这也是隐含在现代著作中的''洋包谷''（西化包谷）和''党行包谷''（借用吴稚晖、周远流的说法：71）的一种普遍的文体。

新儒家强调''文''（散文）是传播''道''的最重要工具：''文以载道''（文以载道）。如果我们从文体的角度来重新解读这句话，我们可以说，当时的散文已经被视为表达真理、主体性和自我的重要工具。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:01, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

但他认为这也是隐含在现代著作中的''洋包谷''（西化包谷）和''党行包谷''（借用吴稚晖、周远流的说法：71）的一种普遍的文体。

理学强调“文”（散文）是传播“道”的最重要工具：“文以载道”。（以文学为载体的方式）。如果我们从体裁的角度来重新解读这一措辞，可以说，散文已成为表达真理、主体性和自我的重要工具。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 00:53, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==
Liang Qichao developed a ''xīn wéntǐ'' 新文體 (new prose style), which was influenced by Western languages, but the essay became popular not before the newspapers became mass media, and the language changed into ''baihua''.

'''6. The essay as the medium of modernity, the questioning of the genuiness of the Chinese essay'''

To solve first of all the dispute on whether the Chinese essay grew out of a native tradition or was influenced by Western translations, one finds both traditions relevant: The occidental essay was introduced to the writers of the literature reform movement from 1907 on by translations in Chinese (Lin Shu: ''Irving'' 1907, ''Addison'' 1911).

梁启超研究出了一种新文体，这种文体受西方的语言所影响。但是这篇散文在报纸成为大众媒体之后才开始流行开来，成为所说的“白话”。

6.散文作为现代化的媒介，质疑了中国散文的真实性。
首先要解决的问题就是中国散文是源自本土传统还是西方翻译，有人认为两者都有所相关:散文意外地以中文译文的形式受引入到1907年的文学改革运动作家群体中来。(林纾:欧文，1907，爱迪森，1911)--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 02:12, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==
The current form of the genre is mostly based on the influence of Western essay translations. First developed a Chinese essay tradition, which consciously leaned upon the Western model in language, form and terminology, its own proponents succumbed soon to the temptation to derive a tradition of the Chinese essay from Chinese history only. A seemingly unbroken Chinese tradition of the native Chinese ''wenyan sanwen'' is presented in Chinese textbooks (Yu Zaichun 1978-82, Li Xishang 1985).

This is older than the ones referred to in the ''Large Chinese Dictionary'' of Morohashi (Morohashi undated) and in the ''Encyclopaedic Dictionary of the Chinese Language'' 1966.

==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==
Still, the value of the native tradition of essay writing and the role of the Western influence upon it is discussed controversially among the scholars. Some admit that Western impact played a key role in what we understand as Chinese essays nowadays: Wang Bin 1992, Fan Peisong 1993; for Western impact in general see Průšek 1964, Gálik 1966, McDougall 1971. Other scholars think that Western influence is overestimated - Denton 1996 showed that the theoretical background was missing for understanding Western theories of literature in China, - and recommended that we understand the essay first by its national tradition.

然而，对于本土论文写作传统的价值以及西方对其的影响，学者们争论不休。有些人承认西方的影响在我们今天所理解的中国散文中起了关键作用:王斌1992，范培松1993;对西方总的影响参考。还有一些学者认为，西方的影响被高估了——Denton 1996表明，中国缺乏理解西方文学理论的理论背景，并建议我们首先从其民族传统来理解这篇文章。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:57, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

然而，对于本土论文写作传统的价值以及西方对其的影响，学者们争论不休。有些人承认西方的影响在我们今天所理解的中国散文中起了关键作用:王斌1992，范培松1993;对西方总的影响参考。还有一些学者认为，西方的影响被高估了——Denton 1996表明，中国缺乏理解西方文学理论的理论背景，并建议我们首先从其民族传统来理解这篇文章。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 15:07, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==
How far personal opinion may influence the narrative of historical facts can be seen by the example of the legendary authors of the May Fourth movement. All of them considered the English essay as the father of the Chinese essay: Zhou Zuoren 1921, Lu Xun 1933, the anarchist and later member of the Guomindang Wu Zhihui [1934]. Later, some of these authors changed their minds to support their own theories on the essay by looking for proof of a native Chinese essay tradition:

以五四运动传奇作者为例可以看出个人观点对历史事实的叙述的影响有多大。这些作者把英文散文视为中国散文之父：周作人（1921年），鲁迅（1933年）以及后来的无政府主义者吴志辉（1934年）。后来，其中一些作者改变了主意，通过寻找中国本土散文传统的证明来支持他们自己的论文理论：--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 13:19, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

以五四运动传奇作家为例可以看出个人观点对史实叙述的影响有多大。这些作者把英文散文视为中国散文之父：周作人（1921年），鲁迅（1933年）以及后来的无政府主义者吴志辉（1934年）。后来，其中一些作者改变了主意，通过寻找中国本土散文传统的证明来支持他们自己的论文理论：--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:14, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==
for example, Lu Xun with his theory "'Zhǎnkāi' shuō yǔ 'méngyá' lùn “展開”說與“萌芽”論"" (Theory of "Starting" and "Blossoming") came to see the fighting and critical character of the essay of the Jin dynasty (265 - 420) as the 'father' of the Chinese essay, and Zhou Zuoren first the English essay (1921) and later the ''biji'' (occasional notes) of the Ming, although he still tried to integrate the English essay in his "Gonganpài yu Yīngguo xiaopin 'hecheng' lun 公安派與英國小品“合成”論" (Theory of the Synthesis of the Gongan School and the English Essay).

例如，鲁迅以其“开始”与“绽放”的理论，将晋代散文的战斗性和批判性视为中国散文的“父”，周作人则先是英文散文（1921年）出发，之后是明朝“笔记”（随心记录），尽管他仍试图在公干派与英国小品合成论中中融入英文文章。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:09, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

例如，鲁迅的“展开”说与“萌芽”论认为晋代散文的攻击性与批判性是中国散文的先祖。周作人则将英语散文视为明朝“笔记”的先祖，在公安派英国小品“合成”论中，他努力使英文散文与他的理论合成一体。--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 02:44, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ma Juan 马娟==
Wang Zengqi regrets that the national Chinese tradition of the essay at the time of the 'May Fourth Movement' has not been taken up again and has not continued in contemporary essays (Wang Zengqi 1993). The Chinese essay is an accommodating object of study, because one may look to it to prove any theory of the essay. One can find examples for each topic in almost every period, simply because the essay has a wide range of subjects.

王曾祺遗憾的是，“五四”时期的中国民族散文传统没有重新开始，也没有在当代散文中延续(王曾祺1993)。中国的文章是一个很好的研究对象，因为人们可以指望它来证明文章的任何理论。人们几乎可以在每个时期找到每个主题的例子，这仅仅是因为这篇文章的主题范围很广。--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 02:29, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

王曾祺遗憾的是，“五四”时期的中国民族散文传统没有被拾起，也没有在当代散文中延续(王曾祺1993)。中国的文章是一个很好的研究对象，因为人们可以指望它来证明文章的所有理论。人们几乎可以在每个时期找到每个主题的例子，这仅仅是因为这篇文章的主题范围很广。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:09, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==
When Zhou Zuoren showed that only seven months after the incident at Marco Polo bridge it was again possible to write about a candy seller (1924), he was critizised as "paralyzing" (Lu Xun 1934, Zhu Zhaoluo 1943). When he wrote a piece on the "Fly", he was reproached with dealing with subjects of minor importance. Reproaches like this lie in the very nature of the genre, since ''marginalism'' is substantial to the essay. The mentioned formal reproach of Luo Dajing can be found again in the 1990s, Hong Kong students critisized the literary style as it appears in Ba Jins "Thoughts" (Suixiang lu) as too direct and too less artful. But this perspective does not recognize the very nature of the essay, which is a very individual expression of an author's thoughts and not bound to tradition, and therefore much more free also in content.
==Ma Zhixing 马智星==
The essay - from its very nature free and independant - almost disappeared in the time of the Cultural Revolution and - except for the ideologically influenced essays - had a hard struggle between Yan'an and the loss of moral legitimacy by the leadership in 1989.

The essay was ''the'' genre of the modernizing society of the early 20th century. Many writers had to define and often redefine their position and self-understanding in reaction to war and warlordism and later in the modernizing society, often burying their own ideals, in the larger perspective for the seeming "needs" of society, which also claimed the author to be one of its products.
==Meng Ying 孟莹==
But from its very nature, the essay set new boundaries in form and content, and therefore not only survived the ideological restrictions, but also established its own critical subculture within. The essay was not only a medium of discussion and a documentation of the social-political background for us today, but also a documentation of the personal struggle of the writers finding a position in a changing environment, since the essay is "a genre of self-reflection". Some essays even deconstructed master narratives like the one of leftist ideology, often simply by confronting it with subjective experience, reality or art.

I want to mention another position on literature, which stresses the impact of literature on life, especially on the eve of revolutions - following this view, all literature is political (Jameson).
==Mo Ling 莫玲==
Not only the understanding of literature as a whole changes if we take into consideration the essay, also the view of single authors shifts, if we see not only their novels or poems, but also their essays. I mention only Zhou Zuoren. His ideas connected him spiritually to his contemporary collegues in Europe, Japan and America, but these where ideas for which China turned out to be not yet ready. At that time, China had taken a road which led away from progress, wealth, freedom and spiritual enlightenment. The consequences have yet to be overcome.

除开关注作家的小说和诗歌之外，如果我们对他们的散文有所涉猎，就会发现他们不仅对文学整体的理解发生了变化，单个作者的观点也发生了变化。仅就周作人来说，他的思想在精神上把他和他在欧洲、日本和美国的同伴们联系在一起，但是这些设想在中国行不通。当时的中国走的是一条远离进步、财富、自由和精神启蒙的道路，这一现状还并没有得到改变。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:34, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling

如果我们考虑到散文，不仅文学作为一个整体的理解会改变，而且如果我们不仅看到他们的小说或诗歌，而且看到他们的散文，单个作者的观点也会改变。我只提周作人,他的想法在精神上把他和他在欧洲、日本和美国的当代同事联系在一起，但这些想法在中国还中国行不通。那时，中国已经走上了一条远离进步、财富、自由和精神启蒙的道路。其后果还有待克服。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 14:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Mo Nan 莫南==
In 1927, Chinese literature has taken the form of 'engaged literature'. The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics of daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology.
==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==
Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consume-orientation of the masses. The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educational claim with the exception of essays which claim to be "art pourt l'art".
==Ou Rong 欧蓉==
The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing ("Shuo meng 說夢" On dreams in: Zhu Ziqing 1928) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 (My own garden 9.1923, "The Fly" 1924, "Reading on the Toilet" 1936), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the new found world of mass consumerism.
==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==
I mentioned the lack of translations in Western languages. One of the reasons might be the impression of some scholars that many of the Chinese essays were just propaganda. This might be true for the 1940s and even the 1950s, but nowadays this has changed, as the overwhelming majority of publications prove. This demands a closer look: Since 1949, politically affirmative literature has been encouraged by the government, resulting in a statistical paradox: not the affirmative authors and their texts form the majority of the essayists read in the 1990s, but the critical essayists, whose texts oppose the order to serve politics through their apolitical, sometimes even defiant character.
==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==
In the 1990s, the texts of 1920s/1930s Republican China are still as often reprinted as their contemporary counterparts. Obviously we can conclude that the politically affirmative essay of the 1950s only survived in special political essay collections and is no longer written by famous contemporary authors nor read by the Chinese audience in the beginning of the 21st century.

Taking into account of a genre shifts the whole perspective on literature, taking into account the essayistic works of an author shifts also the view of the author. I will name only one author as an example for a modern essayist: Zhou Zuoren.

20世纪90年代，20、30年代民国时期的文本和当代的文本一样也经常被重印。显然，我们可得出一个结论：20世纪50年代的那些政治宣传文只能留存在特殊的政治文章选集当中，到了21世纪初，就不再有作者去写这类文章，也不会有中国读者去看这类文章了。

考虑到整个体裁对整个文学角度的转变，以及散文作品反映出的作者观点的变化，我只举一位现代散文家的例子：周作人。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 07:47, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

20世纪90年代，20-30年代民国时期的文章仍然和当代的同类文章一样经常被重印。显然，我们可以得出一个结论：20世纪50年代的政治宣传类散文只保存在专门的政治散文集中，到21世纪初，不再有人去写，也不再有人读这类文章了。

一种文学体裁会转变整个文学的视角，一位作家的散文作品，同样也会转变对这个作家的看法。我只以一位现代散文家为例：周作人。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 09:02, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Peng Dan 彭丹==
'''Zhou Zuoren'''

I mentioned already his theoretical contribution to the Chinese essayism, but still, his essays have been neglected until the 1980s. The reason does not lie in literary quality, but in political valuing. The master narrative of the offical literary history of the People's Republic on Zhou Zuoren is, that the theoretical May Fourth genius "degenerated" and later became a "traitor". Publishing in the Japanese sponsored magazines ''Reminiscences'',* and ''Chinese Literature'', he was blamed together with Zhu Pu and Yuan Xi of collaboration. An unanswered question is, why another author, who published there, Zhang Ailing, was never reproached with collaboratorship. The difference between all of them is that Zhang Ailing tried to avoid political committments, whereas Zhou felt guilty, Zhu justified it and Yuan simply accepted it.

我已经提到了他对中国散文主义的理论贡献，但直到20世纪80年代，他的散文一直被忽视。原因不在于文学品质，而在于政治价值。周作人是五四理论天才的“堕落”，后来成为“叛徒”。在日本赞助的《回忆》、《中国文学》等杂志上发表，他与朱璞、袁熙的合作受到指责。一个没有回答的问题是为什么另一位在那里发表文章的作者张爱玲从来没有受到过合作者的指责。两者的区别在于张爱玲试图避免政治承诺，而周作人感到内疚，朱璞证明了这一点，袁熙简单地接受了这一点。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 03:44, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Peng Juan 彭娟==
''The 'mainstream' writers took an affirmative approach in their writing, whereas the other writers formed a minority. The individual authors did not necessarily belong to either one of these groups throughout their life, but may have moved between them. Since the essay is a medium which enables the individual to express thoughts directly, the writers chosen for this paper can be classified according to their position.''

''Yu Guangzhong's essay'' "The wolves are coming" ''shows that the ideological perspective did not only harm mainland essaywriting.''
==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==
In his small literary pieces, Zhou tried to aesthetizise the little things of the everyday life out of the subjective experience of his private space. The major contribution of Zhou Zuoren is, that he set the turning point in Chinese essay writing with his call for writing short literary pieces (''Meiwen'' 1921).

In foreign literature there is the so-called ''lunwen'' 論文 (treatise), which is roughly divided into two groups: the reflecting ones, piping 批評 (critical), are scientific articles. The others are ''jishu'' 記述 (descriptive) and ''yishuxing'' 藝術性 (artistic), they are also called ''meiwen'' 美文 (aesthetic essay). Within these texts, one can distinguish between ''xushi'' 敘事 (narrative) and ''shuqing'' 抒情 (lyric). But there are also mixed texts. [...] I hope that the aesthetical essay is encouraged to come back, and will open up a new field for the New Literature. Wouldn’t that be wonderful?

周作人在他的文学小品中，试图将日常生活中的小事从私人空间的主观体验中审美化。周作人的主要贡献在于，他以号召写短篇文艺作品（《美文》1921），开创了中国散文写作的转折点。

在外国文学中，有所谓''lunwen''论文，大致分为两类：反映的，管批评的，是科学文章。其他的是''jishu''记述（描述性）和''yishuxing''艺术性，它们也被称为''meiwen''美文。在这些文章中，我们可以区分''xushi''敘事和''shuqing''抒情。但也有混杂的文字。[......]我希望美学文章受到鼓励，能够回来，为《新文学》开辟一个新的领域。那岂不妙哉？

==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==
With these words from the essay "''The aesthetic essay''" this new vernacular form was defined. This starting point founded a whole new tradition of essay writing in China. Contemporary writers called this piece the "king of essays".

In order to bring this new form to his compatriots, he tried to find similiarities with the ''xiaopinwen'' of the Ming dynasty. He further discussed these thoughts in his essay theory. In his own essays, he profited a lot from ancient ''suibi''. Later he further developed his literary theory towards an up and down of two trends. In the modernizing society, he advocated the liberation of women and asked to "treat children as full subjects with their own external and internal lives" and to "make children the essence of children's literature" (Zhou 1923). He promoted the ''baguwen'' and the independance of literature from politics and effected the literary scene and the development towards a modern Chinese society especially between 1917 and 1938.

“美学散文”中的这些词语定义了这种新的白话形式。这个起点在中国建立了一种新的散文写作传统。当代作家称此作品为“散文之王”。

为了将这种新形式带给他的同胞，他试图找到其与明朝“小品文”的相似之处。他在散文理论中进一步讨论了这些思想。他自己的散文也从古代的“随笔”中受益匪浅。后来，他将文学理论朝着上下两种趋势进一步发展。在现代化社会中，他呼吁解放妇女、“将儿童看作具有外在和内在生命的完整主体”以及“让儿童成为儿童文学的本质”（Zhou 1923）。他提倡“八股文”和文学脱离政治的独立性，这对文学界产生了影响，并推动了中国向近代社会尤其是1917年至1938年的发展。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 09:48, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==
With this theoretical foundation and his own vo'luÉminous essayistic work, Zhou Zuoren through the example of his own form of short literary pieces within this genre, fought at that stage of the development of his literary theory like Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque 130 years ago in France for the idea "l'art pour l'art" , for individuality and independance of the writer, for disinterested literature. The jugdment, that Zhou was an apolitical author cannot be proved with his essays. Instead, he wanted his abstinence of political statement to be understood as a political statement by itself. For him, literature was a mean not for revolution, but for resistance (Zhou 1929:180-181).
==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==
In fact he saw himself as ‘patriotic underground fighter’ and looked at the collaboration with the Japanese puppet regime as a forced one, following his attempted assasination, through which his driver had lost his life. His own concept of essay writing served less the needs of the building of a nation-state and comes closer to the ideal of the individual.

"I don't really know why, but I am feeling as if I am born into a dark age. I admit, that our forests are not inhabited by dragons, tigers and wolves, but shapeless "monsters" and "goblins" are still creeping around and try to swallow our souls. [...] What alarms me most, is the absence of freedom in this prison, into which we writers have been thrown."
==Qi Kai 漆凯==
Confronting tradition and progress in the essay "''Ancestor Worship''", he is in favor of the latter, since past could only become present through changes (Zhou 1919:7-8).

Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque (1767 - 1830) war französischer Romanschriftsteller und liberaler Politiker, der neben der Freiheit der Kunst nach der Französischen Revolution die Einführung der konstitutionellen Monarchie nach englischem Vorbild forderte.

面对“祖先崇拜”中的传统和进步，他赞成后者，因为过去只能通过变化才能变成现在(周1919：7-8)。

本杰明·亨利·康斯坦德·丽贝卡(Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecca，1767-1830)是一位法国小说家和自由主义政治家，除了法国大革命后的艺术自由外，他还呼吁引入以英国模式为基础的君主立宪制。--[[User:QiKai|QiKai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 06:39, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Qu Miao 瞿淼==
Siehe ''Journal'' (10.2.1804). Die "Kunst um der Kunst willen" propagierte die Zweckfreiheit der Kunst. Im Gegensatz dazu versteht sich die engagierte Literatur. Die Parallele zwischen Zhou Zuorens Literaturverständnis und dem Konzept "Kunst um der Kunst willen" zieht auch Wolff: ''Chou Tso-jen'' 1971, S. 84.

Siehe Zhou Zuoren: ''Der Ursprung der neuen chinesischen Literatur'' 1934, S. 95 - 98; vgl. auch Chen Zizhan: ''Vorträge zur chinesischen Literaturgeschichte'' 1937, Bd 3, pp. 416 - 422, besonders S. 422. Hinweis in: H. Martin: "''Liang Qichao on Poetry Reform''" 1996, Bd 1, S. 213.

见“期刊”（102.4804 年）。“艺术之艺术”宣传了艺术目的自由。相比之下，承诺的文学是可以理解的。周作人对文学的理解与“艺术之艺术”概念之间的相似之处也吸引了沃尔夫：“周作人”，1971 年 84.

参见周作人：“中国新文学的起源”，1934 年，第 95-98 页；另见陈子赞：“中国文学史讲座”，1937 年，第 3 卷，第 416-422 页，特别是 p422。注：H。马丁：“梁启超诗歌改革”，1996 年，第 1 卷，p213--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 13:55, 27 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 13:57, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Quan Meixin 全美欣==
Regarding Zhou Zuoren, I want to correct the official assessment of the People’s Republic, that his work would have experienced a caesura in 1938. In order to explain his opposition of the propaganda to build up national heroes about 1937 and his collaboration from 1939, it has been said officially, that his thoughts had "duoluo 墮落" (degenerated) at that time (Zhu Jinshun 1990:59). In fact, this caesura, namely the change in the style and subject in his essays on literature, art etc. to ''zhengjing'' 正經 (serious, intentional essays), and ''xianshi'' 閑適 (essays for one’s own enjoyment) is located not before his outlawing through Mao Zedong (1942), and his arrest through the Guomindang (1945).
==Sagara Seydou ==
Therefore not the Japanese suppressors are responsible for the retreat of this great writer, but his Chinese compatriots'.

On the basis of the stigma of the 'traitor', he has been undervalued until now. That his work in the 1990s is almost as often published as Lu Xun's and Zhu Ziqing's shows that his texts finally experience a more positive literaric evaluation through the audience, which now must be registered also by scholars.

因此，不是日本的压制者对这位伟大作家的退缩负责，而是他的中国同胞的退缩.
根据“叛徒”的污名，他一直被低估。他在1990年代的著作几乎与鲁迅和朱自清的著作一样频繁地出版，这表明他的著作最终在听众中得到了更为积极的文学评价，现在也必须由学者进行注册.

因此，不是日本侵略者造成了这位伟大作家的退缩，而是他的中国同胞们。由于背负着“叛徒”的污名，他一直未受到重视。20世纪90年代，他的作品出版频繁，几乎与鲁迅和朱自清等同，这表明这些作品在读者中收到了更为积极的评价，这一点也获得了当代学者的认可。--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 01:47, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Shi Diwen 石迪文==
Another example of a misread Zhou Zuoren is his short essay on "''The Fly''", where he describes his changing attitude towards flies, which he had played with as child but later disgusted when he learned about their danger of passing on diseases. ”''The fly''” shows Zhou Zuoren’s strength to describe details and make them a real topic by recalling memories on them or describing a change of perspective on them. Zhou summarized the philosophical wisdom he learnt from this, that people did not judge on things objectively, but were likely to praise or damn things.
==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==
The official reading re¬proaches Zhou that he "saw only the fly and not the cosmos" , a quotation of the young Zhou about a position he himself clearly opposed.

His ability to chat about the more pleasent things in life is displayed in his essay ”Birds’ twitter”. In ”''Peking cakes and sweet-meat''” and in ”''Wild vegetable of my home region''”, Zhou Zuoren shows his ability to make the reader feel at home at a region, where he feels at home himself, by describing the customs and special regional food.

Siehe Zhou Zuoren: "Cangying 蒼蠅" (Die Stubenfliege), in: ''Chenbao fujuan'' 晨报副镌 (Beilage zur Morgenpost) (1924.7.13). Eine Zu¬sammenfassung des Inhalts findet sich in: Yu Daxiang (Hg.): ''Auswahllexikon chinesischer Essays mit Inhaltsangaben und Analysen'' 1993.

''Siehe Vollständige chinesische Anthologie der Wissenschaften - Bd Chinesische Literatur'' 1988, Bd 2, S. 1300. Dies spielt auf den Essay "''Cangying'' 蒼蠅" (Die Stubenfliege), in: Zhou Zuoren: ''Zhi Tang. Sammlung'' 1933 an.（文献无需翻译）

官方的解读指责他“只看到了渺小，而没有看到伟大”，这是对年轻的周作人的引用，他自己明确反对该立场。
他谈论生活中更愉快的事情，在他推特的文章“鸟”中得到了展示。在“北京蛋糕和甜食”与“我家乡的野菜”中，周作人通过描述风俗和特殊的地区食物，展示了他让读者感到宾至如归的能力。--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 13:37, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Si Yu 司妤==
His piece ”''Bitter rain''” shows the atmosphere, for what his essays had been labelled ”bitter tea”: There remains a taste in one’s mouth after reading. If you compare Lu Xun’s ”''On tea drinking''” (Yang/Yang 1961 3:325-326) with Zhou Zuoren’s essay with the same title, you see the difference of ”short and to the point” and ”eloquent and well-read”. ”''First love''” is more hilarious. The essay ”''Three different ways to die''” shows that Zhou Zuoren can compete with his elder brother in sarcasm. Lu Xun's essay on the same subject, the massacre on March 18, 1926, was a sight.

他的作品《苦雨》展现出了这种氛围，因此他的文章被称为“苦茶”：阅读完之后能感到余味悠长。如果你对比鲁迅和周作人的《论饮茶》(Yang/Yang 1961 3:325-326)，你可以看到“短小精辟”和“雄辩易读”的区别。《初恋》是最欢乐的作品。文章《三种不同的死法》表明周作人在讽刺小说方面足以与他的哥哥抗衡。鲁迅的同题作文《1926年3月18日的大屠杀》让人眼前一亮。--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 12:36, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Song Jianru 宋建茹==
Zhou asks for the ”best” way to die and favors the short and painless one. In ”''On alcohol''” and ”''The awning bunk boat''” Zhou Zuoren continues the tradition of late Ming ''biji''.

'''7. The essay as a snapshot of contemporary thoughts'''

''What is the state of contemporary essay writing in China? Its position should be brought into its proper relationship to recent approaches, perspectives and terms of categorization, like post-modernist elements, post-colonial thinking, deconstructivism etc.''

==Su Lin 苏琳==
The increase of the essay production after the ‘Cultural Revolution’ might be explained with the ability of the essay, to express personal experiences much more authentically than other genres because of its immanent claim of historical truth. But the essay is not a guarantee for objective truth: In the same time it is subjective, the essayist mediates his image consciously. This restricts the reported truth to a subjective one and bears the risk of a consciously “corrected” truth.
==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==
The individualism of the Republican era has been based on the common feeling to stand at a historical turning point and directed towards common targets like the creation of a New Literature and a new Chinese society. In the 1980s and especially in the 1990s, individualism asks for a critical reflection on the satisfaction of personal consumption needs and tries to give personal orientation, essayists plead for moral virtues (Wang Meng: "''Anxiang'' 安详" (Serene) 1992, "''Zuohao ni ziji de shi'' 做好你自己的事" (First make your own things in a good way) 1994).
==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==
These essays, mainly published in newspapers and magazines, are widely read by people in the rapidly changing, anonymous, alienating and consume-oriented mass cultural society.

Other essays in the 1980s and 1990s are in a kind of new subjectivism targeted away from contemporary contradictions but apply to the feelings of the audience by creating an either positive ("''Shanxi opera''", Jia Pingwa 1984) or negative world ("''The nightmare''", Si Yu 1995).

From the essay, we can see contemporary trends of literature, which are also reasons for the increase in volume of this genre in the 1990s:

这些散文主要发表在报刊和杂志上，在瞬息万变、匿名、疏离和消费导向的大众文化社会中广为人们阅读。
20世纪80年代和90年代的其他散文虽是一种新的主观主义，其目标是摆脱当代的矛盾，但是通过创造一个积极的世界（“秦腔”，贾平凹，1984)或消极的世界(“噩梦”，思羽，1995)来迎合观众。
从这篇文章中，我们可以看到当代文学的趋势，这也是20世纪90年代这种文学体裁增加的原因:--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 12:30, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

这些散文主要发表在报刊和杂志上，在瞬息万变、匿名、疏离和消费导向的大众文化社会中广为人们阅读。
20世纪80年代和90年代的其他散文是一种新的个人主义，其目标是远离当代的矛盾，但通过创造一个积极的世界（“秦腔”，贾平凹，1984)或消极的世界(“噩梦”，思羽，1995)来迎合观众。
从这篇文章中，我们可以看到文学的时代趋势，这也是20世纪90年代这种文学体裁增加的原因:--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 14:44, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==
- The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts: “[...] we live in an age of exposition” (Hall 1984:xiii);

- The increasing consciousness of indivi¬duality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjecti¬ve expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands;

- A revival of interest in discussing social-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.

- The banality of everyday life becomes conscious through becoming a literary topic, most commonly in the genre of everyday life, the essay.

- 当下中国社会的浮躁节奏，对转折性和短文的要求。"[...]我们生活在一个论述的时代"(Hall 1984:xiii)。

- 越发增加的独立意识，对其而言，文章是最直接的主体表达形式，甚至比诗的格律和形式要求更直接。

- 通过散文这一媒介讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复苏，就像20世纪20/30年代的情况一样。

- 日常生活的平庸性通过成为文学话题而变得自觉，最常见的是日常生活的文体--散文。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

-当前中国社会节奏轻快，要求有趣味的短文：“[…]我们生活在一个博览会时代”（大厅1984:xiii）；

-对于个人二元性意识的增强，散文是主体性表达的最直接形式，甚至比诗歌的韵律和形式要求更直接；

-通过这篇文章讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复复苏，如同20世纪20年代或30年代的情况一样。

-日常生活的平庸通过成为一个文学主题而变得有意识，最常见的是日常生活的体裁——散文。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 12:59, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Tang Bei 汤蓓==
- The De-ideologization of Chinese society. Today not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. The mostly read political essays after 1949 are critical essays.

- Regarding the compiling of essay collections: For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain.

- 中国社会的去意识形态化。如今在最前列的不是政府要求的平权文，而是非政治性的文章，大多是民国时期的文章，特别是1923年至1928年的。上述统计分析的结果也支持这一观点。1949年以后的政论文多为批评性散文。

- 关于散文集的编纂：对于中华人民共和国、台湾和香港最常被选中的文集来说，道德和审美标准似乎是其基础。--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 05:19, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Tang Ming 唐铭==
This is a sign of the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publis¬hing houses with an orientation toward customers (former: "readers").

- The criteria for essay best sellers in the P.R. of China are the following: In the most often printed essay "''The Back View''", filial piety is the driving factor, parallelistic and repetitive structures in the atmospherical nebulous "''The Moonlit Lotus Pond''", both written by Zhu Ziqing, whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader.
==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==
Nostalgic home feelings are the emotional identification element in "''Wild vegetables of my home region''" by Wang Zengqi. Therefore one can state, that moving es¬says form the top.

- ''In the latter half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of in¬dividuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife. Time loses worth, since more and more of the daily acctivities are filled with mechanical and autistic actions.''

==Tao Ye 陶冶==
''In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only political replique is the patriotism, for example expressed in the 1996 published monograph'' China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war (''No''! 1996).

- ''The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable object d'art.''
==Wang Meiling 王美玲==
''Also trends like the use of ordinary language, which one finds in novels since 1993 (Jia Pingwa, Feidu; Gu Cheng, Yingger) and'' New Borderlessness ''since'' 1995, ''cannot be pro-ven in the essaywriting. ''

- Also the fictional realism David Der-Wei Wang sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proves helpful for the understanding of some essays, one being "''The Small Dog Baodi''", written by Ba Jin 1981, in which the author turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in allegoric instead of in descriptive truth as before ("''In memoriam of Xiao Shan II''", Ba Jin 1984).

另外像1993年以来的小说（贾平凹、飞渡；顾城、莺歌）和1995年以来的《新无界》中发现的普通语言的使用趋势，也不能在散文写作中得到证明。

- 另外，王德威在老舍、茅盾、沈从文身上看到的小说现实主义，也证明了对一些文章的理解是有帮助的，其中之一是1981年巴金写的《小狗包弟》，作者变成了一个叙述者，用寓言式而不是像以前那样用描述式的真实来叙述'文革'的记忆（《纪念萧山二号》，巴金1984）。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 06:46, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wang Xuan 王轩==
Similar is the concept of imaginery nostalgia, as Wang calls the fictional truth in Shen Congwen's work (David Der-Wei Wang 1992), helpful for the reading of Wang Zengqi's "''Rain in Kunming''" as well as for Jia Pingwa's "''Shanxi opera''".
类似的还有想象怀旧的概念，正如王功权所说的沈从文作品中虚构的真实（王大卫·德维王1992），有助于解读汪曾祺的《昆明雨》，也有助于贾平凹的《山西剧》。

- The Schwarcz' concept of ''personal grief'' expressed in a ''metaphorical discourse'' helps us to understand how Ba Jin was able to overcome the ''truth of being'' he was known for, only to reach a more convincing fictional truth through the metaphor of his dog Baodi.
施瓦茨在“隐喻话语”中所表达的“个人悲伤”概念，有助于我们理解巴金是如何克服他以“存在的真理”而闻名的，却通过他的狗“宝坻”的隐喻而获得更具说服力的虚构真相。

Xin zhuangtai xiaoshuo 新狀態小說 new borderless fiction, represented by Chen Dong 韓東, Lu Yang 魯羊, Zhu Wen 朱文, Lin Bai 林白, Chen Liang 陳梁, Zhang Mei 張梅.（文献无需翻译）

''Post-colonialist thinking (Williams et al. 1994), which is to be seen as part of the social-political discourse, appears in essays, especially in the less critical political, but patriotic essays of the 1990s. Kafkaism helps us understand the essay "The nightmare", where Si Yu appears as a de-constructionist, the I-narrator even is drawn near to suicide.''（文献无需翻译）

And maybe for Xie Bingxins* reflections on her experience as one of the chosen voluntaries of the Wuhan military academy: She insisted to remain a lifelong "woman soldier" .（文献无需翻译）

==Wang Yu 王煜==
'''8. Discussion: Is the genre of the essay the form of literary expression in 21st century China?'''

Regarding the future of the Chinese literature, we can only speculate. But out the risk of being wild and provocative, I would like to suggest some questions for considering the place of the essay in the field of Chinese literature and literary studies.

- People have less time for actions like reading, and get used to reduced visualized information through the Internet. Will the brevity of the essay make it the ideal medium?

8. 讨论：在21世纪中国，散文体裁是文学表达形式么？

关于中国文学的未来，我们只能猜测。但除开可能会变得狂热和具有挑衅性的危险外，我想就散文在中国文学和文学研究领域的地位提些问题。
人们很少有时间去阅读，并且习惯于网上简略的可视信息。散文的精简会使其成为一个理想的媒介么？--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 06:40, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

8. 讨论：在21世纪中国，散文体裁是文学表达形式么？

关于中国文学的未来，我们只能猜测。但出于狂妄和挑衅的风险，我想提出一些问题，以考虑散文在中国文学和文学研究领域的地位。

- 人们阅读等行动的时间少了，也习惯了通过网络减少视觉化的信息。散文的简洁性是否会使其成为理想的媒介？--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 06:49, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wang Yuan 王源==
- If the Chinese people are rediscovering their individuality, will the essay allow them to express individual thoughts more directly?

- Modern societies are characterized by TV culture, mass consumption, and the loss of consciousness of one's own tradition, often partly due to the American impact on national cultures. Is the essay less bound to the restrictions of tradition, especially compared to the poem and thus more adaptable to the modern phenomenon of mass consumption?

==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==
- The alienation and the anonymity of citylife worldwide, in China is combined with a loss of traditional values like ideology, family, solidarity etc. in favor of the concept of profit for oneself, - if this has produced a longing for new orientation, will it possibly be filled by morally guiding essays or nationalistic thinking?

- 在中国，世界范围内城市生活的异化和互相不认识的现象与传统价值观如意识形态、家庭、团圆等的丧失结合在一起，有利于为自己谋利的观念，如果这已经产生了对新方向的渴望，这个领域能否被道德指导性文章或民族主义思想所填补呢？--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 11:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

《红楼梦》与其他世界文学作品的相似性——推荐《红楼梦》列入世界记忆遗产名录

'''Commonness between the Red Chamber Dreams and other World Literature Novels – Proposing the Red Chamber Dreams to the World Documentary Heritage List'''（修改）

吴漠汀，湖南师范大学 Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University

Source: Lecture at Harvard University, Cambridge, MA USA, 14.3.2000（文献无需翻译）

==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==
'''Abstract'''

In every culture, readers associate the literature they know with new literature they read. So literature is always cumulative, it grows out of existing literature and can refer back to it. When Western readers read the Red Chamber Dreams, they foremost associate novels and other pieces of literature of their own cultural tradition with the Dreams. This has also influenced the first full translation into German.

Cao Xueqin and even more his protagonist Jia Baoyu both are early humanists, universalists and world citizens. ''The Red Chamber Dreams'' function worldwide.

摘要

在每一种文化中，读者都会把他们读到的新文学与已知文学联系起来，所以文学总是积累的，它生长于现有文学之中，并以已有文学为参考。西方读者在阅读《红楼梦》时，首先会把《红楼梦》与自身文化传统中的小说和其他文学作品联系起来，这也影响了首次的德语全译本。

曹雪芹，尤其是他的主人公贾宝玉，都是早期的人文主义者，普世主义者和世界公民。《红楼梦》具有普世价值。--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 07:03, 28 December 2020 (UTC)Wei yafei

在每一种文化中，读者都会把他们读到的新文学与已知文学联系起来，所以文学总是积累的，它从现有的文学中衍生出来，并以已有文学为参考。西方读者在阅读《红楼梦》时，首先会把《红楼梦》与自身文化传统中的小说和其他文学作品联系起来，这也影响了首次德语全译本。

曹雪芹，甚至于他的主人公贾宝玉，都是早期的人文主义者，普世主义者和世界公民。《红楼梦》具有普世价值。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:09, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==
''The Dream'' is a complex showroom of diverse aspects of Chinese cultures and is the embodiment and essence of Chinese cultures, but it has also a global impact, therefore it should be honoured as “World Documentary Heritage”.

红楼梦》综合展示了中国的多元文化，是中国文化的集中体现和精华，同时在全球范围内产生影响，理应列入世界记忆遗产名录。（修改）

多元一体

'''Key words'''

Western culture, reception tradition, German translation, Embodiment of Chinese cultures, global compatibility, World Documentary Heritage

“红楼梦”是一个多元的中国文化综合体，是中国文化的体现和精髓，但它也具有全球影响力，因此应该被授予“世界文献遗产”的荣誉。（修改<nowiki>Insert non-formatted text here</nowiki>）

多元一体

'''Key words'''

Western culture, reception tradition, German translation, Embodiment of Chinese cultures, global compatibility, World Documentary Heritage
--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 10:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

《红楼梦》是一个中国文化综合体，展示着中国文化的精髓的同时也极具全球影响力，理应被列入世界记忆遗产名录。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:00, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==
'''1. Chinese Ethics'''

To help the poor and disadvantaged belongs to the traditional core values of Chinese culture.

When we sit in the Beijing Subway today, the loudspeaker announcement reminds us, that it is Chinese traditional ethics to give seats to the disadvantaged (老弱病残孕让座是中国传统道德). We know of Cao Xueqin, that he supported the poor and disadvantaged, and that he made kites for children.

However, when we look closer at these “Chinese Ethics”, we discover, that they are claimed also in Indian Buddhism “karuna” and in the Christian tradition of “caritas” and in almost every civilization. Therefore, we might call these values “human ethics”.

==Wu Kai 吴恺==
'''2. Compatibility
'''
Why do the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' function worldwide and have achieved world literature status even in their translations?

First of all, the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' are, like novels worldwide, a piece of entertainment literature. In comparison to the drama, in which every element is compulsory and plays its part in the overall structure, in the novel the line of action itself is simpler and not so important, most of the scenes or episodes are loosely put together and fit in the broader theme of the novel.

'''2. 兼容性
'''
为什么《红楼梦》在世界范围内广泛流传，甚至在翻译领域中也取得了世界文学的地位？

首先，《红楼梦》和世界小说一样，是一部娱乐文学。与戏剧中的每一个元素都是强制性的，在整体结构中起作用的戏剧相比，小说的行动路线本身更简单，也不那么重要，大部分场景或情节都松散地组合在一起，这和小说更广泛的主题相吻合。--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 14:29, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wu Qi 吴琪==
However, the lose arrangement of episodes of the ''Dreams'' comes from the tradition of almost unconnected episodes like in the ''Shuihuzhuan'' and is a step towards the greater coherence of the episodes, the aligning into a story line and the greater concentration on fewer protagonists. Therefore, the ''Dreams'' show clearly a step towards the Western tradition of novels, maybe because of growing Western influence in Qing dynasty.

'''3. Impact of translator’s native culture on the translation process'''

There are intercultural parallels between the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' and Western works of literature.

然而，《红楼梦》章回结构不连续来自于《水浒传》中几乎没有联系的章回的传统，这是朝着章回更连贯、与故事线一致以及更集中于较少主角的方向迈出的一步。因此，《红楼梦》明显向西方小说传统迈进了一步，可能是因为西方对清代的影响越来越大。

'''3.译者的本土文化对翻译过程的影响'''

《红楼梦》和西方文学作品之间有跨文化的相似之处。
--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 11:54, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wu Qiong 吴琼==
These parallels are fundamental for the translation and were explicitly and implicitly fundamental for the German translator Martin Woesler during his translation and editorial work on the first full German translation. In the following, I will mention some of the Western novels and pieces of literature, which the Western reader of the ''Dreams'' will immediately think of.

'''4. The novel as embodiment of “Zeitgeist”'''

According to Georg Lukács’ ''Theory of the Novel'', while the Epos (like Homer’s ''Ilias'', which like the ''Dream'' reasons the stories in the divine realm) displayed a holistic world experience, a complete, self-contained culture, the novel displays, that the modern world has become infinitely large and has lost its homely quality.
==Wu Xiang 邬香==
The novel as a genre is no longer documenting just one culture, but represents, with the words of Walter Benjamin, the Organon of History. So the understanding of the novel changed with Lukacs to historical-philosophically. A novel is understood as typical for its historical era, the novel embodies the spirit of the epoch (Zeitgeist).

小说作为一种文学题材不再仅仅记录一种文化，而是用沃尔特·本杰明的话来代表历史的有机物。因此，卢卡奇对这部小说的理解从历史转向哲学。一部小说被理解为其历史时代的典型小说，这部小说会体现时代精神（时代精神）。

The ''Red Chamber Dreams'' are written in front of the background of the Manchu minority having taken over the power in formerly Han-shaped Ming-China (which was a multi-ethnic and crosscultural society) and families suffering the changing favor of changing emperors, with the Cao family being fostered by Kangxi and being persecuted by Yongzheng.

《红楼梦》是在满族统治原汉族掌管的明朝（当时是一个多民族、跨文化的社会）和贵族家庭遭受皇位更迭影响的背景下写成的，曹氏家族受到康熙的扶植和雍正的迫害。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 15:04, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wu Yilu 吴一露==
While the author in his time could not criticize the system and power of emperors, in the novel he came to terms with this life by seeking the guilt for the persecution in the growing decadence of the family (engaging in Daoism, leisure, poetry-writing, arts and music instead of learning for being able to earn a living) and in himself not fulfilling the expectations as the family heir. This description of decadence of a declining family reminds us of the novels of Tschechov (and e.g. in the ''Buddenbrooks'' by Mann, including the turn to arts and music).

虽然作者在他的时代无法批判皇帝的制度和权力，但在小说中，他通过家族的日益衰败（修行道教、休闲、写诗、艺术和音乐，而不是为了能够谋生而学习）和自己没有实现作为家族继承人的期望中寻找受迫害的罪责，来接受这种生活。这种对没落家庭颓废的描述，让我们想起了契诃夫的小说（如曼恩的《布登布鲁克》，包括对艺术和音乐的转向）。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 12:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

虽然作者在他的时代无法批判帝制和皇权，但在小说中，他为家族的日益衰败（参加道教、娱乐、诗歌、艺术和音乐活动，而不是为了谋生而学习）和自己作为家族继承人没有实现家族期望感到自责，通过这样做，他也对这种生活做妥协。这种对没落家族颓废状况的描写，让我们想起了契诃夫的小说（如曼恩的《布登布鲁克》，包括对艺术和音乐的转向）--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 15:08, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==

Moreover, with the detailed description of life on all social levels in early Qing Dynasty, the Dream appears as a documentary historical novel very much like Günter Grass’ The Tin Drum 1959.

'''5. Coming-of-age and Alienation'''

Abandoning the paradise-like garden in the Red Chamber Dreams is a symbol for leaving the protected childhood and arriving in the complex world of adults. With George Lukács theory of the novel, the protagonist starts to problematize the sense of his life, in the novel, the protagonist’s self permanently struggles with his environment.

此外，《红楼梦》对清初社会各阶层生活的详细描写，与君特·格拉斯的《铁皮鼓1959》非常相似，《铁皮鼓1959》是一部纪实历史小说。

“5. 成熟和异化”

抛弃《红楼梦》中天堂般的花园，是离开受保护的童年，进入复杂的成人世界的象征。随着乔治·卢卡奇的小说理论，主人公开始对他的生活感觉产生疑问，在小说中，主人公的自我一直与他的环境作斗争。--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 16:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia

==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==
However, Cao Xueqin’s message is not simply the one of “Paradise Lost”, instead he himself made the best out of his life. Although being less wealthy than when his family still enjoyed the favour of the emperor, there was a payroll system and a social net intact in Early Qing China, where he received enough income to be independent from his rich relatives, to be selective on accepting jobs, to live a relaxed life in a small house in the nature, spending time with his family and friends, follow his own interests, like reading, writing and drinking wine, making kites for the children and thinking of the disadvantaged.

然而，曹雪芹的信息不仅是“失乐园”的信息，而是他本人的一生。尽管不如他的家人仍然享有皇帝的宠爱时富裕，但清初中国有一个工资体系和一个完整的社会网络，在那里他获得了足够的收入以独立于自己的富裕亲戚，可以有选择性地接受工作在大自然的小房子里过着轻松的生活，与家人和朋友共度时光，遵循自己的兴趣，例如读书，写作和喝酒，为孩子们放风筝和思考处境不利的人。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:38, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

然而，曹雪芹所传达的信息并不是简单的“失乐园”，相反，他把自己的生活过得很好。虽然比起他的家族享受皇帝的宠爱，他过得没有那么富裕，但清初中国有一套薪俸制度和一张完整的社会网，他获得了足够的收入，可以独立于富贵亲戚，可以有选择性地接受工作，可以在大自然的小房子里过着悠闲的生活，可以与家人和朋友共度时光，可以追随自己的兴趣，例如读书，写作和饮酒，可以为孩子们做风筝，可以为弱势群体着想。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 11:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xiao Ting 肖婷==
Cao Xueqin was fully aware of his time and China’s cultural achievements, he was familiar with the different levels of society, he was a detailed observer and skilful narrator. He may have conceptualized the ending of the novel as a discussion about the different personalities of the characters in the novel and therefore displaying his reflection about life and his psychological understanding of the diversity of human nature. He was able to grasp the “spirit of time” (Zeitgeist) and with his autobiographical experience create an eternal coming-of-age novel not just for his family, for the Qing-Chinese, for Chinese people, but for mankind.

曹雪芹对自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就有充分的认识，他熟悉社会的方方面面，他观察细致，叙事娴熟。他能把小说的结尾构思为对小说中人物不同性格的探讨，从而体现出他对人生的思考和对人性多样性的理解。他能够把握 "时间精神"(Zeitgeist)，并以他的亲身经历为材料创造了一部成熟的绝世之作，这不仅是为他的家庭、为清人、为中国人，更是为全人类。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 11:29, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

曹雪芹充分了解自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就，熟悉社会的不同层次，是一个细致的观察者和娴熟的叙述者。他可能将小说的结局概念化为对小说中人物不同性格的讨论，从而表现出他对生活的反思和对人性多样性的心理理解。他能够把握“时代精神”(时代精神)，并以他的自传体经历，为他的家庭，为清朝人，为中国人，为人类创造了一部永恒的成长小说。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 12:01, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

曹雪芹对自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就了如指掌，他熟悉社会的不同层面，他是一个细致的观察者和娴熟的叙述者。因此，他在小说中对人的不同个性的理解和对小说中人物性格的多样性进行了概念化的探讨。他能够把握“时代精神”，用他的自传体经历，不仅为他的家庭，为清朝的中国人，为中国人民，而且为人类，创作了一部永恒的成人小说。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:43, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

==Xiao Xi 肖茜==
This tradition of Coming-of-age novels is also a European one, like enlightenment philosopher Voltaire’s novel ''Candide or Optimism''《老实人》shows at the very same time (1759) in Europe. Also Voltaire’s Candide has to leave the luxurious paradise of his childhood and strives for true love, but his main learning is more pessimistic, since Voltaire wrote the novel in opposition to Leibniz, who optimistically looked to China as “the best of all worlds”. Recent research findings show that China had a much larger influence on European enlightenment philosophers and we can be sure, that also Cao Xueqin was aware of some European literary traditions.
这种成熟的传统小说也是一个欧洲人,像启蒙哲学家伏尔泰在欧洲同时间出版的的小说《老实人》(1759)。伏尔泰笔下的老实人不得不离开童年的奢华天堂，为追求真爱而奋斗，但他的主要学习内容却更为悲观，因为伏尔泰的小说与莱布尼茨截然相反，莱布尼茨乐观地认为中国是“所有世界中最好的”。最近的研究发现，中国对欧洲启蒙哲学家的影响要大得多，我们可以肯定，曹雪芹对欧洲的一些文学传统也有所了解。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 15:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

这种成熟的传统小说也是一个欧洲人,像启蒙运动哲学家伏尔泰在欧洲同时间出版的的小说《老实人》(1759年)。伏尔泰笔下的老实人不得不离开童年的奢华天堂，为追求真爱而奋斗，但他的主要学习内容却更为悲观，因为伏尔泰的小说与莱布尼茨截然相反，莱布尼茨乐观地认为中国是“所有世界中最好的”。最近的研究发现，中国对欧洲启蒙运动哲学家的影响要大得多，我们可以肯定，曹雪芹对欧洲的一些文学传统也有所了解。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 04:33, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==
Also the German readership is familiar with the chronological following of the life of the protagonist and his development, the fate of a family over generations, the German readership knows this type of novel as the “Education novel” or “Coming-of-age-novel”. In Germany, the genre of the coming-of-age novel has a long tradition and it is shaped more by single characters, who appear as teachers (Goethe: ''Wilhelm Meister’s Apprenticeship''威廉·麦斯特的学徒岁月 1795-96, Novalis 诺瓦利斯: ''Heinrich von Ofterdingen''《海因利·封·歐福特丁根》1802).

德国读者对主人公的生平及其发展、家族世代的命运都很熟悉，德国读者把这种类型的小说称为“教育小说”或“成长小说”。在德国,关于成长小说的体裁有着悠久的传统,它的形状更由单个字符,它更多的是被塑造为教师的单个人物(歌德：'Wilhelm Meister’s Apprenticeship''威廉·麦斯特的学徒岁月 1795-96, Novalis 诺瓦利斯: ''Heinrich von Ofterdingen''《海因利·封·歐福特丁根》1802)。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 14:59, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining

==Xie Fan 解帆==
Wilhelm Meister, parallely to Jia Baoyu, is struggling with the traditional education, in ''Wilhelm Meister'' this is represented with the classics revived in Shakespeare’s dramas. Tradition can give orientation, but the personality of the protagonist needs to develop through emancipation is a wisdom, we can learn from all mentioned novels including the ''Dreams''.

'''6. Pornography and True Love, female rivals'''

Sexuality is a basic human need and has developed into different shapes in all cultures. The German audience is familiar with erotic topics from the Middle Ages, in which sexuality was stylized. In the “Schwänke” of the 15th century (Wittenwielers Ring), erotic scenes are described sexually explicit.

与贾宝玉一样，威廉·迈斯特也在与传统教育作斗争，这通过莎士比亚的经典戏剧得以体现。传统可以作为方向标，但主人公的个性需要通过解放才能发展，这是一种智慧，我们可以以上提过包括《梦》的所有小说中学习。
“6.色情与真爱，女性对手"
性是人类的一种基本需求，在不同文化中展现出不同的形态。德国观众熟悉中世纪的情色话题，在这些话题中，性是有固定程式的。在15世纪的“Schwanke”(Wittenwielers Ring)中，情色场景被描述为露骨的性。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:37, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

与贾宝玉一样，威廉·迈斯特也在与传统教育作斗争，在《威廉·迈斯特》中，莎士比亚戏剧中复兴的经典作品代表了这一点。传统可以给予导向，但主人公的个性需要通过解放来发展是一种智慧，我们可以从包括《梦》在内的所有小说中学习。
“6。色情与真爱，女性对手"
性是人类的一种基本需求，在各种文化中形成了不同的形态。德国观众熟悉中世纪的情色话题，在这些话题中，性是程式化的。在15世纪的“Schwanke”(Wittenwielers Ring)中，情色场景被描述为露骨的性。--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 01:37, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==
In the barock literature of the 17th century even the physical act is described extensively.

According to „cumulativity“, every human being is a product of history and literature is based on previous literature, therefore the author of this pager thinks that this background has to be taken into account while translating.

The best study on ''qing'' passion in the Dreams is the one by Anthony Yu, who understood it as ''desire'' and as the central motif of the ''Dreams''. „The centrality of qing in shaping virtually every aspect of The Story of the Stone’s structure and meaning cannot be denied [...].“ (Anthony Yu 2001, 54).

==Xu Jia 徐佳==
In the framework story of the Dreams, the narrator consciously takes a stand against low-action and stereotypical pornographic literature as well as against the widespread romance novels (with the classic roles of the beautiful, talented woman and the poor scholar who finally achieves a respected position and prosperity by passing a civil service exam).

In chapter 1 he says: ”of the true feelings of young people [...] nobody has reported about so far.”

Erotic scenes are described in a decent and associative way (“Game of clouds and rain”), while displaying another quality in its openness e.g. towards bisexuality.

在《梦》的框架故事中，叙述者有意识地站在了反对低级动作和刻板色情文学的立场上，也站在了反对普遍存在的言情小说的立场上（以美丽的才女和通过公务员考试最终获得地位和财富的穷书生为经典角色）。

在第一章中，他说："年轻人的真情实感......至今无人报道"。

"情色场面以体面和联想的方式描述（"云和雨的游戏"），同时表现出另一种开放性，例如对双性恋的开放。--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 12:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia

在《梦》的框架故事中，叙述者有意识地反对低俗的动作和陈规定型的色情文学，反对流传甚广的浪漫小说（以美丽的才女和通过公务员制度最终获得受人尊敬的地位的穷困书生为经典角色）。

在第一章中，他说：“关于年轻人的真实感受，[……]到目前为止还没有人报道过。”

情色场景被描述成一个体面和联想的方式（“云和雨的游戏”），同时显示了另一个开放性的性质，例如对双性恋。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 15:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining

==Xu Jing 许晶==
The ''Dreams'' narrate the story of unfortunate lovers. Unfortunate lovers also in the West have a literary tradition, they constitute an archetype, such as Hero and Leander, Pyramus and Thisbe, Tristan and Isolde, Flore and Blanscheflur as well as Troilus and Cressida, the latter being considered the model for Arthur Brookes, who wrote Romeo and Juliet in 1562 and thus directly influenced Shakespeare.

While Marián Galik saw as the central topic of both, the ''Dream'' and ''Faust'', the eternal feminine, which draws us on high, Gu Cheng called it the “eternal virgine”.

《梦》讲述了一对不幸的恋人的故事。在西方，不幸恋人也有文学传统，即他们构成了一个原型，例如Hero和Leander，Pyramus和Thisbe，Tristan和Isolde，Flore和Blanscheflur以及Troilus和Cressida，后者被认为是Arthur Brookes的模型，他在1562年撰写了《罗密欧与朱丽叶》，从而直接影响了莎士比亚。

玛丽安·加利克（Mariann Galik）认为《梦》和《浮士德》都是吸引我们的永恒女性的中心主题，顾城则称其为“永恒的处女”。--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 00:25, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xu Jing 许静==
In Goethe’s coming-of-age novel ''Wilhelm Meisters Wanderjahre'', we find a similar motif of female rivals, in the Keller 凯勒 ''The Green Henry'' 《绿衣亨利》1855, the hero turns away from an emphatically sexually designed figure and turns to the 'real' woman. In Jane Austen’s ''Pride and Prejudice'' 1813 Elizabeth and Lin Daiyu are similar, e.g. they both strive for real love (Zhuang 2011).

在歌德的成长小说''Wilhelm Meisters Wanderjahre''中，我们发现了类似的女性竞争主题，在凯勒''The Green Henry''（《绿衣亨利》1855）中，男主人公父亲早亡，母亲养育其成人。在简-奥斯汀的''Pride and Prejudice''（《傲慢与偏见》1813）中，伊丽莎白和林黛玉是相似的，比如她们都追求真爱（庄2011）。--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 03:38, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==
'''7. Feudal society and slavery'''

A widespread interpretation is that Jia Baoyu’s equal treatment of family members and slaves would be a manifesto to free the slaves. I also do not share this interpretation, since Aristotle, when he demanded democracy, would exclude slaves from the right to vote. So we cannot use modern concepts to judge on the past. In my understanding, Jia Baoyu was not fighting inequality, but looked at the people as humans and individuals.

封建社会和奴隶
一种普遍的解释是，贾宝玉对家庭成员和奴隶一视同仁，这将成为奴隶解放的宣言。我并不同意这个解释，因为亚里士多德的民主就排除了奴隶的投票权。所以，我们并不能用现代观念去评判过去。在我看来，贾宝玉并不是和不平等作斗争，而是把人视作群体和个人。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 09:55, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie

一种普遍的解释是，贾宝玉对家庭成员和奴隶的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我也不同意这种解释，因为亚里士多德，当他要求民主的时候，会排除奴隶的投票权。所以我们不能用现代的概念来判断过去。在我的理解中，贾宝玉并不是在与不平等作斗争，而是把人看成是群体和个人。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 10:31, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

许多人认为，贾宝玉对家庭成员和仆人的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我也不同意这种看法。因为当亚里士多德要求民主时，奴隶并没有投票权。所以我们不能用现代的概念来判断过去发生的事。在我的理解中，贾宝玉并不是在与不平等作斗争，而是把人分为是群体和个人。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 11:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

人们普遍认为贾宝玉对待家庭成员和奴隶的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我不同意这种解释，因为亚里士多德吁民主时，会将奴隶从投票权中剔除。所以我们不能用现代观点评判古人。我认为，贾宝玉并不是在为不平等而做斗争，而是将人区分为人或是个体。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 12:02, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==
Also the understanding of the servants as slaves does not match the description in the Dream, since some servants had servants themselves, the family took care after they left the Jia family to find a match for them and Jia Zheng refers to his daughter Yingchun as „yatou 丫头“, so it is inappropriate to translate this expression with slave. Therefore, the translator preferred “servant” over “slave” in the translation.

另外，把仆人理解为奴隶也与《红楼梦》中所描述的不符，因为有些仆人自己也有仆人，他们离开贾家后，家人会照顾他们，为他们婚配，并且贾正把女儿迎春称为“丫头”，所以用奴隶来翻译这个词是不合适的。因此，译者在翻译中更倾向于“仆人”而不是“奴隶”。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 09:14, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

而且把仆人理解为奴隶与《红楼梦》中的描写不符，因为有些仆人自己还有仆人，贾府会在她们离府的时候为她们寻一门亲事，作为贾府对她们的照料；贾政也把自己的女儿迎春喊作 “丫头”，所以把这些翻译成奴隶是不合适的。因此英文翻译中采用“servant”会比“slave”更为合适。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 10:08, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie

==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==
Mo Yan in his speech at the Frankfurt Bookfair in 2009, when China was the guest of honor, draws the (similarly) parallel between the ''Dream'' and Goethe’s ''Sorrows of the Young Werther'', that both expressed the wish to abandon feudal society. My own impression is that both do not express this wish, but that this is a later concept and interpretation and we should not apply this to judge the past.

2009年，莫言代表中国作为主宾国参加法兰克福书展时，他在演讲中把《梦》和歌德的《少年维特之哀》画上了约等号，表达了抛弃封建社会的愿望。我自己的印象是，两者都没有表达这个愿望，但这是后来的概念和解释，而我们不应该以此来判断过去。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:36, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting

2009年，莫言代表中国作为主宾国参加法兰克福书展时，在演讲中把《梦》和歌德的《少年维特之哀》画上了约等号，表达了抛弃封建社会的愿望。我自己的感觉是，两者都没有表达这个愿望，但这是后来的概念和解释，我们不应该以此来判断过去。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:43, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Hairong 杨海容==
'''8. Tragedy of all tragedies'''

Aristotle explained in ''On the Tragedy'' (Poetics VI), that tragedies move people more than comedies because they “imitate [mimēsis] an action that is serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude” (Aristotle 1971, 51), This high esteem of the tragedy in Europe is partly ascribed to the loss of Aristotle’s work ''On the Comedy''.

8.所有悲剧的悲剧成分

亚里士多德在《悲剧论》（诗学VI）中解释说，悲剧使人们比喜剧更能吸引人，因为他们“模仿（mimēsis）一种严肃、完整和有程度的行动”（Aristotle 1971，51）。欧洲的悲剧部分归因于亚里斯多德作品《喜剧》的丢失。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 10:16, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

8.所有悲剧含有的悲剧成分

亚里士多德在《悲剧论》（诗学VI）中解释道，悲剧之所以比戏剧更加动人，是因为它们“模仿（mimēsis）一种严肃、完整且具有一定规模的行动”（Aristotle 1971，51）。悲剧在欧洲拥有崇高地位部分归因于亚里士多德的作品《论喜剧》的失传。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 12:42, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Hui 阳慧==
While Europe has the Hamlet as its tragedy of all tragedies, the lack of tragic literature in Chinese literary tradition has long been lamented. Wang Guowei sees the Dream as "tragedy of all tragedies". To Wang Guowei the suffering of Faust and Jia Baoyu is central in the novels. However, many scholars contest that Faustianism is central for Chinese culture.

In 18th century Europe, we saw a new development in the genre of the drama, to establish a “bourgeois tragedy”.

尽管欧洲将“哈姆雷特”作为悲剧的悲剧，但长期以来中国传统文学中缺乏悲剧文学的现象一直令人遗憾。王国伟把“梦”看作“一切悲剧的悲剧”。对王国伟来说，浮士德和贾宝玉的苦难是小说的核心。然而，许多学者认为，浮士德主义是中国文化的核心。

在 18 世纪的欧洲，我们看到了戏剧体裁的新发展，确立了“资产阶级悲剧”。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 13:40, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

欧洲悲剧中以《哈姆雷特》为悲剧，而中国文学传统中悲剧文学的缺失，长期以来被人们所惋惜。王国维认为《梦》是“所有悲剧中的悲剧”。对王国维来说，浮士德和贾宝玉的苦难是小说的中心。然而，许多学者认为浮士德主义是中国文化的核心。

在18世纪的欧洲，我们看到了戏剧体裁的新发展，确立了“资产阶级悲剧”。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 15:36, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

==Yang Yi 杨逸==
It developed as an emancipatory movement in the 18th century in London, Paris and Germany, and demonstrated that tragedy was not reserved to rulers, but was also imagineable for lower noblemen and ordinary citizens. The ''Dream'' at the same time as the bourgeois tragedy in Europe shows a tragic story of a mid-level noble family which loses its titles and privileges.

它作为一场解放运动在18世纪的伦敦、巴黎和德国发展起来，并证明了悲剧并非只发生在统治者身上，也可能发生在下层贵族和普通公民身上。《梦》与欧洲资产阶级悲剧同时上演，讲述的是一个中层贵族家庭失去头衔和特权的悲剧故事。--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 03:31, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Yue 杨悦==

'''9. “Non-Binary” Novels'''

One of the things attracting Western readers is the adorable but mysterious protagonist Jia Baoyu. With his open bisexual orientation and his interest in his mates regardless of their social status, he appears “modern” or at least displaced in time. His struggle with traditional learning makes him appear sympathetic, his long states of rapture out of the world give him both the aura of a timeless character and of mystery.

9. “非二进制小说”

可爱而神秘的主角贾宝玉是吸引西方读者的其中一点。由于他开放的双性恋倾向以及对同伴的兴趣，无论他们的社会地位如何，他彰显“现代”气质或至少不属于那个时代。他与传统学习的斗争使他显得富有同情心，他与世隔绝的漫长状态使他既具有永恒的品格又具有神秘感。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:17, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

“非二元”小说

一个吸引西方读者的东西是可爱而神秘的主人公贾宝玉。由于他开放的双性恋倾向和他对伴侣的兴趣，不管他们的社会地位如何，他显得“现代”或至少在时间上流离失所。他与传统学习的斗争使他显得富有同情心，他从世界上长期的狂喜给了他永恒的性格和神秘的气息。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 13:43, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==
With the bisexual orientation of the Dreams’ protagonist, the novel appears non-binary.
According to Karl-Heinz Pohl, binaries are just superficial, ultimately decisive is the ''Heart Sutra''. Today, the novel is listed among the genre of non-binary literature (see e.g. the bibliographical list on https://www.goodreads.com/list/tag/non-binary), in which contrasts are dissolved deconstructivistically.

随着梦中主人公的双性取向，小说呈现出非二元性。
卡尔·海因茨·波尔认为，二进制只是表面现象，最终起决定性作用的是“心经”。今天，这部小说被列为非二元文学的一个流派（参见https://www.goodreads.com/list/tag/non-binary)，其中的反差被解构主义地化解了。--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 05:01, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yao Cheng 姚诚==
'''10. Foreign Cultures in the Red Chamber Dreams'''

Foreign Cultures frequently appear in the Dreams in all kinds of varieties, like exoticism with the many objects in the household and presented to the household as novelties, especially the blond girl of the same age as Baoyu referred to in person (combining different origins and cultures, including European, Japanese, Chinese) or several times on paintings, one time shown with wings as an angel.

10.红楼梦中的异邦文化
红楼梦中经常出现各种各样的异邦文化元素，例如许多贾府物品带有异国情调，并以新奇用品的形式呈现给贾府，尤其是提到的与宝玉同龄的金发女孩（结合了不同的来历和文化，包括欧洲，日本，中国），金发女孩也多次在绘画中出现，其中一次是为有翅膀的天使的形象。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:47, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

10.红楼梦中的异邦文化

红楼梦中经常出现各种各样的异邦文化元素，例如许多贾府物品带有异国情调，并是以新奇的形式呈现给贾府的，尤其是其中提到的与宝玉同龄的金发女孩（结合了不同的来历和文化，包括欧洲，日本，中国），金发女孩也多次在绘画中出现，有一次是以带翅膀的天使的形象出现。--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 03:36, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yao Jia 姚佳==
The playful combination of different traditions we can see also when a religious dress is described, which carries characteristics of different religions. Similarly, the Daoist monk and the Confucian priest appear together. Cao Xueqin wanted to show the richness and diversity, also with the many topics and societal levels of the novel. Even a variety of Christian motifs can be found, like when Jia Baoyu is not recognized by his father in chapter 120 and when he disappears, all parallel to Jesus Christ.
我们在描述宗教服饰时也能见识不同传统的玩味结合，它带有不同宗教的特点。同样，道士和儒士也可一起出现。曹雪芹想表现出小说的丰富性和多样性，这也与小说的诸多题材和社会层面有关。在书中甚至可以找到各种基督教的主题，比如第120章贾宝玉不被父亲认可，贾宝玉消失，这些都与耶稣基督平行。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 00:10, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

宗教服饰带有不同宗教的特点，在描述一种宗教服饰时，我们也能体味不同宗教传统的玩味结合。同样，道士和儒士也可一起出现。曹雪芹想表现出小说的丰富性和多样性，同时也要展现出小说的众多主题和社会层次。在书中甚至可以找到各种基督教的主题，比如第120章贾宝玉不被父亲认可，以及贾宝玉消失的时候，这些都与耶稣基督平行。--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 00:43, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yi Huan 易欢==
The variety of cultures is paralleled with the variety of elements of different dynasties, which makes it timeless and therefore even more a masterpiece of Chinese art and a masterpiece of human art. Therefore I would like to nominate the Red Chamber Dreams as “World Documentary Heritage”.

'''References'''（参考文献不用翻译）

Anthony, C. Yu. (2001). ''Rereading the Stone: Desire and the Making of Fiction in Dream of the Red Chamber''. Princeton University Press.

Aristotle. (1971). ''Poetics''. Trans. S. H. Butcher. Ed. Hazard Adams. Critical Theory since Plato. ew York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 48-66.

Woesler, Martin, ed., Cao Xueqin, Gao E et al. (2016). ''Der Traum der Roten Kammer oder Die Geschichte vom Stein'' [''Red Chamber Dreams or The Story of the Stone''], Peking: Foreign Languages Press, ISBN 9787119094120, 4813 pages, 6 vols., hardcover, transl. by Rainer Schwarz and Martin Woesler; Chinese-German bilingual edition

Woesler, Martin. (2011). “Being Explicit About the Implicit – John Minford’s Translation of the last Forty Chapters of The Story of the Stone with a Field Study on two Sexually Arousing Scenes”. ''Hong lou meng xue kan'' 6: 274-289

Woesler, Martin. (2010). “ ’To Amuse the Beaux and Belles’ The Early Western Reception of the Hongloumeng”. ''Journal of Sino-Western Communications'' 2 (2010.12) 2:81-107

Zhuang, Xiuhua. (2011). Self, Ideal and Salvation: A Comparative Study of Jane Austen’s Elizabeth and Cao Xueqin’s Lin Daiyu. ''Journal of Language Teaching and Research'', Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 420-423, March 2011. Fulltext: http://www.academypublication.com/issues/past/jltr/vol02/02/19.pdf.

==Yi Zichu 义子楚==
'''Virtual Communication Between Machines with the Human as Their Object
'''

A new stage of multimodal communication after oral, written, printed, electronic and machine-human communication

Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University

'''Abstract'''

Luhmann and Baecker described the development of communication from orality (media epoch 1.0) to script (2.0), through print (3.0) and finally to digital communication (4.0). In all these stages, technology played only an assisting role.

机器之间以人为对象的虚拟通信

口头，书面，印刷，电子和人机交流之后的多模式交流进入新阶段

湖南师范大学马丁·沃斯勒

摘要

卢曼和贝克尔描述了从口头交流（媒体时代1.0）到脚本（2.0），从印刷品（3.0）到数字通信（4.0）的发展。在所有这些阶段中，技术仅起到辅助作用。
--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 03:33, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

卢曼和贝克尔描述了从口头交流（媒体时代1.0）到脚本（2.0），从印刷品（3.0）最终到数字通信（4.0）的发展。在所有这些阶段中，技术仅起到辅助作用。--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 05:05, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==You Yuting 游雨婷==
This paper argues, that there is a fundamentally new media epoch of “virtual communication” (communication 5.0), in which artificial intelligence (initialized by humans) has taken over and humans have become the object of analysis and manipulation (as customers, voters etc.).

Algorithms do not only listen to oral or read written human communication (between humans or between humans and bots), but they analyze multimodal communication (including likes, behaviour, surfing habits, mobility profile, values, dreams, aims, beliefs etc.), compare them with Big Data (e.g. cloud data) and base decisions of manipulation on a prediction of behavior according to a personality profile and correlations.

本文认为，“虚拟传播”(5.0传播版本)是一个全新的媒体时代，在这个时代，人工智能(由人类初始化)已经接管，人类成为分析和操纵的对象(如顾客、选民等)。

算法不仅听人类口头或书面沟通(在人类之间或人类和机器人之间),但他们分析多通道通信(包括喜欢、行为、上网习惯,流动剖面,价值观,梦想,目标,信念等),比较他们与大数据(例如云数据)和基础操作的预测行为的决策根据个性特征和相关性。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 12:34, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

本文认为，“虚拟传播”(5.0传播版本)是一个全新的媒体时代，在这个时代，人工智能(由人类初始化)已经接管世界，人类成为分析和操纵的对象(如顾客、选民等)。

算法不仅听人类口头或书面沟通(在人类之间或人类和机器人之间),但他们分析多通道通信(包括喜欢、行为、上网习惯,流动剖面,价值观,梦想,目标,信念等),比较他们与大数据(例如云数据)和基础操作的预测行为的决策根据个性特征和相关性。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 10:47, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yu Ni 余妮==
These algorithms target not only the explicit communications, but the emotions and thoughts of humans too and predict future behavior, therefore allowing simulations of reality. Mightier algorithms have also taken over decision-making roles in societies where they: replace human court decisions, fine tune just-in-time and on-demand production, censor chatrooms etc. Sets of algorithms help to manage smart cities and a whole society.

这些算法不仅针对明确的交流，也针对人类的情绪和思想，并预测未来的行为，因此允许模拟现实。更强大的算法也在社会中占据了决策角色：取代人类法庭的判决，及时微调和按需制作，审查聊天室等。一套算法有助于管理智慧城市和整个社会。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 10:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

----

==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==
Although the human is still part of the communication, especially as the analyzed object and the target of the manipulation, the human is often unaware of the virtual communication and a passive receiver of the machine’s decisions, while the main actors in the virtual communication are machines.

虽然人仍然是通信的一部分，特别是作为被分析的对象和操纵的目标，但是人往往没有意识到虚拟通信和机器决策的被动接受者，而虚拟通信的主要参与者是机器。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 08:55, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

尽管人类仍然是交流活动的一个组成部分，特别是作为被分析的对象和操纵的目标，但是人类往往没有意识到，自己是虚拟沟通和机器决策的被动接受者，而虚拟沟通的主导者是机器。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:11, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

虽然人仍然是构成通信的一部分，尤其是作为分析对象和操纵目标，但人往往没有意识到人们在虚拟通信中扮演机器决策的被动接受者，而机器才是主要参与者。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:42, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==
Research describes these forms of virtual communication, finds evidence in social management systems and credit systems (in Germany, we have the “Schufa”, in the USA there are big players in credit history, which leads to credit-orientation and gamification of human life) or customized (fake) news filter bubbles and in customized consumption offers (Amazon, Facebook, Google, Netflix) and analyzes benefits, including security enhancements through such virtual communication.

研究对这些形式的虚拟沟通进行了描述，在社会管理系统、信用系统（定制的（虚假）新闻筛选泡沫）和定制的消费商（亚马逊、脸书、谷歌、网飞）里面找到了证据（德国有“Schufa”，美国则因为信用史有重大人物而使得社会信用至上并日趋游戏化），并对益处加以分析，这些益处包含通过这类虚拟沟通提升安全。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 09:20, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

研究描述了这些虚拟通信的形式，在社会管理系统和信用系统中找到证据（在德国，我们有 "Schufa"，在美国有信用记录的大玩家，这导致了信用导向和人类生活的游戏化）或定制化（假）新闻过滤气泡，以及在定制化的消费优惠中（亚马逊，Facebook，谷歌，Netflix），并分析了好处，包括通过这种虚拟通信增强安全性。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:03, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==
But research also has the duty to warn of abuse or harmful developments and to raise ethical questions. Exoskeletal ethics, imposed by gamifications like credit systems, especially need to be valued against intrinsic ethics.

'''Introduction'''

In this paper dealing with machine to machine communication, I skip the machines assisting humans to make their life more convenient (ranging from “The milk is out, please add the usual amount of milk to the delivery list,” to “The old lady has not left her bed this morning, I’ll better call the doctor”).

但研究也有责任对滥用或有害的发展发出警告，同时要对引起的伦理问题也要承担责任。特别是信用体系游戏化所造成的外骨骼伦理问题更需要得到重视，要反对内在的伦理问题。

引言

本论文在涉及机器与机器之间的交流时，我不考虑那些帮助人类让生活更便捷的机器（从“牛奶没了，请在送货单上加平常剂量的牛奶”到“老太太今早卧床不起，我最好叫医生吧”）。
--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:10, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

但研究也有责任对滥用或有害的发展提出警告，并提出伦理问题。特别是信用体系等游戏化所强加的外骨骼伦理，更需要对照内在伦理加以重视。

引言

在本文中涉及机器与机器之间的交流，我跳过了机器协助人类提高生活便利的内容（从 "牛奶没了，请把平时的牛奶量加到送货单上"，到 "老太太今天早上还没下床，我还是叫医生吧"。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 11:40, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==
Instead, I deal with communication like: “Let’s create a user personality profile and compare it with Big Data to learn how I can best catch this user’s attention and make him/her vote for presidential candidate A or B.”; “Let’s check this users’ mouse movements and compare it with Big Data to get a correlation to estimate if (and if “yes” when) he will get Parkinson, to decide whether or not to deny him the loan or health insurance.”
实际上，本人研究涉及的方面如下：比如，“让我们创建一名用户的个性化主界面，并将其与大数据进行比对，学习如何最好的吸引该用户的注意，让他/她投票给总统候选人甲或乙。”“让我们检查这名用户鼠标的运动轨迹，通过与大数据进行比对，建立关联，来估计他是否会得帕金森。如果他患有帕金森疾病，我们会决定是否需要对他的贷款或医疗保险的申请予以拒绝。”--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:41, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Liang 曾良==
“Let’s check this users sexual orientation, religious beliefs, fears, secrets like adultery etc. to blackmail him to get ransom money for my programmer.”; or even “Let’s use this user’s location to aim the killer drone.”

The current neoliberal system with Amazon, Facebook, WhatsApp, Instagram, Google, Netflix etc. provides incentives to collect as much user data as possible and to abuse user data for manipulation, which creates huge profits.

“让我们检查该用户的性取向、宗教信仰、恐惧、诸如通奸之类的秘密去勒索他为我的程序员去获取赎金”。或者甚至“使用用户的位置瞄准杀手无人机。”

当前具有亚马逊、脸谱网、瓦茨艾普、照片墙、谷歌、奈飞等的新自由主义系统激励人们尽可能多地收集用户信息，并滥用用户信息进行操纵，从而创造可观利益。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:04, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

"让我们查一查这个用户的性取向、宗教信仰、恐惧、通奸等秘密，以勒索他为我的程序员获取赎金。"；甚至"利用这个用户的位置来瞄准杀手无人机。"
目前亚马逊、脸书、WhatsApp、Instagram、谷歌、奈飞等的新自由主义体系，为收集尽可能多的用户数据，并滥用用户数据，从而创造了巨大的利润。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:39, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting

“让我们检查该用户的性取向、宗教信仰、惧怕的事物、诸如通奸之类的秘密，从而勒索他让我的程序员获取赎金”。更有甚时，“让我们使用用户的位置让攻击机瞄准他。”

当前亚马逊、脸书、联络电话、Instagram、谷歌、网飞等的新自由主义的系统软件，激励人们尽可能多地收集用户信息，并滥用用户信息进行操纵，从而创造可观利益。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==
Very much like the financial crisis, which was caused by the unregulated use of derivatives, this is a systemic development, which currently follows a path to enslave the human race under the control of algorithms for the benefit of tech companies. The enslavement has already begun, as we can see from the world wide addiction to social media, from the growing mass of conspiracy theorists and from the polarization of the USA over Trump or the polarization of Great Britain over the Brexit.

这与因不受监管地使用衍生品导致的金融危机非常相似。这是一个系统性的发展，它目前走的是一条用算法控制奴役人们，为科技公司谋利的道路。从全世界对社交媒体的沉迷，从越来越多的阴谋论者，从美国对特朗普的两极分化或英国对英国脱欧的两极分化，我们都可以看出，奴役已经开始。--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 13:07, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==
'''1 History of Media Epochs'''

Luhmann and Baecker described the development of communication from orality (media epoch 1.0) to script (2.0), through print (3.0) and finally to digital communication (4.0). In all these stages, technology played only an assisting role.

This paper argues, that there is a fundamentally new stage of “virtual communication” (media epoch 5.0), in which artificial intelligence (initialized by humans) has taken over and humans have become the object of analysis and manipulation (as customers, voters etc.).

卢曼和贝克尔描述了从口头（媒体时代1.0）到文字（2.0）的通讯发展，再到印刷（3.0）数字通讯（4.0）
在所有这些阶段中，科技都只起到了协助作用。

本文认为，从根本上来说，“虚拟沟通”处于新阶段（媒体时代5.0），其中人工智能（由人类初始化）已被接管，人类已成为分析和操纵的对象（如顾客，选民等）--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 14:56, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Hu 张虎==
While Luhmann would still summarize this under digital communication, I see a full new quality here, and have therefore coined the term “communication 5.0” or “virtual communication” for it. In Luhmann’s view, the computer consists out of the “surface” of the machine (the visible interfaces like screen, keyboard, mouse) and the “depth” of the machine (the invisible, often incomprehensive inside).

虽然卢曼仍然会在数字通信中总结这一点，但我在这里看到了一个全新的品质，因此创造了术语“通信5.0”或“虚拟通信”。在卢曼看来，计算机是由机器的“表面”(屏幕、键盘、鼠标等可见界面)和机器的“内里”(看不见的、内部不全面的部分)组成的。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:41, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Hui 张慧==
However, we are almost constantly producing data, with our chats and geotracked movements, with our addiction to social media, our carrying of cell phones and more and more smart devices at all times, and we are therefore an object of analysis by algorithms.

The traditional setting of a communicative act blurs: The machine can directly communicate with the human (there the Turing test marks a threshold), and, after a certain complexity, it can hide its machine nature.

但是，我们几乎一直在通过聊天和地理位置追踪运动，不断沉迷于社交媒体，携带手机以及越来越多的智能设备来生成数据，因此，我们一直是通过算法进行分析的对象。

交流行为的传统设置变得模糊：机器可以直接与人类交流（图灵测试标记了阈值），并且在经过一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏机器的本质。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 11:49, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

然而，我们几乎在不断地产生数据，我们的聊天和地理追踪的动作，我们对社交媒体的沉迷，我们随时携带手机和越来越多的智能设备，因而成为算法分析的对象。

传统的交流行为的设定模糊了。机器可以直接与人类交流（图灵测试标志着一个门槛），在一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏自己的机器本质。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:03, 25 December 2020 (UTC)
然而，我们几乎是在不断地产生数据，我们的聊天和追踪移动，我们对社交媒体的沉迷，我们无时无刻都带着手机和越来越多的智能设备，因此我们是算法分析的对象。
传统的交流行为设定是模糊的:机器可以直接与人类交流(图灵测试在这里标记了一个阈值)，并且在一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏自己的机器本质。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 10:49, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Ling 张玲==
The machine can also indirectly communicate with the human by simply analyzing humans’ verbal communication, non-verbal multimodal communication, behavior, personality etc. and interacting with the human with, or without, revealing its existence. A human, growing up in a filter bubble and believing in conspiracy theories is one such example: The human has been manipulated by social media and news which prefer lies over truth.

机器还可以通过简单地分析人类的语言交流、非语言的多模态交流、行为、个性等，并与人类进行交互，从而间接地与人类进行交流，从而揭示人类的存在。一个在过滤器泡沫中成长并相信阴谋论的人就是这样一个例子：人们被社会媒体和新闻操纵，而这些媒体和新闻更喜欢谎言而不是真相。 --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 08:33, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

机器也可以通过简单地分析人类的语言交流、非语言多模态交流、行为、个性等与人类进行交流，或者间接地与人类进行互动，从而揭示人类的存在。一个在过滤气泡中长大、相信阴谋论的人就是这样一个例子:这个人一直被社会媒体和新闻操纵，而这些媒体和新闻更喜欢谎言而不是真相。--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 12:45, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==
Without even noticing that there was an interaction taking place between the human and the machine, the human has lost his/her independence to the machine.

'''2 Types of communicative acts'''

1.Texts (oral and written comments/chat texts/blogs/emails)

2.Surf behavior (websites visited)

3.Consumer behavior (purchases)

4.Likes (see OCEAN, UEBA)

5.Duration/Attention (see UEBA)

6.habits/repetitiveness/occurrences (is an element of analysis in different AI apps/tools)
甚至没有注意到人与机器之间发生的互动，人已经失去了他/她对机器的独立性。

"两种类型的交际行为"

1.
文本(口头和书面评论/聊天文本/博客/电子邮件)

2.
上网行为(浏览网站)

3.
消费者行为(购买)

4.
喜欢(参见OCEAN, UEBA)

5.
持续时间/关注(见UEBA)

6.
习惯/重复/出现(是不同AI应用/工具的分析元素)--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 10:46, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Qi 张琪==
7.Unconscious, often unique data allowing identification (way of writing, mouse movements pattern, see Raj Kannan 2020)

8.social interaction incl. friendships, sexual relationships

9.mobility behavior/pattern (e.g. immediate environment – e.g. unconsciously recording the inside of houses while playing “Pokemon Go”), travel: Travel Behavior (Yu Cui et al. 2018)

7，无意识且通常唯一的数据可以识别（书写方式，鼠标移动方式，请参见Raj Kannan 2020）

8.社交互动，包括友谊，性关系

9.出行行为/模式（例如周围环境-例如在玩``口袋妖怪Go''时不自觉地记录房屋内部），旅行：出行行为（于翠等人，2018年）--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 13:24, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==
'''3 Types of analysis'''

1.General (User and Entity Behavior Analytics UEBA: AI-assisted cybersecurity tools like by Gartner, Inc.)

2.True identity (e.g.: mouse movements, face recognition, find real name) (Verschuere 2016)

3.Personality profile: Big Five Personality Inventory: Openness to Experience, Consciousness, Extroversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism “OCEAN” (Golbeck 2011), by only analyzing the users' likes, Facebook can generate personality profiles (AI-Demand 2020)

4.Mobility profile/pattern

'''3种分析类型'''

1.概况（用户和实体行为分析:AI辅助的网络安全工具，如美国Gartner公司提供的）

2.真实身份（例如:鼠标移动，人脸识别，查找真实姓名）（Verschuere，2016）

3.个人简介:五大人格清单:开放体验，意识，外向，宜人，神经质海洋（Golbeck，2011），仅通过分析用户的喜好，脸书就可以生成个人简历（AI-Demand，2020）

4..流动概况/模式

==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==
5.Health situation (health apps, ai supported disease research, see Daley 2020)

6.Job situation/job market (Talent Search People 2020 analyzes the job market, and classifies 4 different AI systems: 1. systems that think like humans, 2. systems that act like humans, 3. systems that think rationally, and 4.) systems that act rationally.)

5.健康状况（由疾病研究提供AI支持的健康应用程序，见 Daley 2020)

6.就业形势/就业市场（2020年《人才搜索人》分析了就业市场，并将人工智能系统分为四类：1.像人类一样思考的系统。2.像人类一样行动的系。3.理性思考的系统。4.理性行动的系统。）--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 11:33, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

5.健康状况（由疾病研究提供AI支持的健康应用程序，见 Daley 2020)

6.就业形势/就业市场（《人才搜索人 2020》分析了就业市场，并将人工智能系统分为四类：1.像人类一样思考的系统。2.像人类一样行动的系。3.理性思考的系统。4.理性行动的系统。）--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 11:58, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==
7.Financial credit-worthiness: E.g. German Schufa company uses AI in addition to human expertise for evaluations, see Banken-Technologie 2020. Banken-Technologie 2020. Schufa’s attempt to gain access to customers’ bank account transfer information was discussed in the news.

8.Consumer Behavior: e.g. the "clickworker" company analyses and optimizes customers' searches in respect to a client company's goals/products with the help of AI (clickworker 2019)

9.Secrets (like adultery)

7.财务信誉度：例如,德国Schufa公司除使用人类专业知识外还使用AI进行评估,请参阅Banken科技2020。新闻中讨论了Schufa尝试访问客户的银行帐户转账信息的尝试。

8，消费者行为：例如在微软的帮助下，``clickworker''公司根据客户公司的目标/产品分析并优化了客户的搜索（clickworker 2019）

9，秘密（如通奸）--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 03:59, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Yu 张瑜==
'''4 Unique quality of media epoch 5.0'''[ I have coined the terms “media epoch 5.0” and “virtual communication” I have developed it from concepts like „Industry 4.0“ in Germany and the four media epochs Luhmann and Baecker developed (by Baecker called 1.0 … 4.0). There are several authors speculating about the media epoch 4.0, like Ray Kurzweil. The Age of Intelligent Machines. 1990.]

1.the human switches from active to passive

2.the human switches from subject to object

3.the human becomes addicted to social media, which enhances depression (Van Den Eijnden et al. 2016, Jasso-Medrano et al. 2018, Shensa et al. 2017)

4.the human switches from puppeteer, or entity with seemingly free will, to puppet

5.nature of the internet turns from freedom to surveillance

4.媒介5.0时代的独特品质 [我创造了 "媒介5.0时代"和 "虚拟通信 "这两个词，它们是从德国的“工业4.0”以及卢曼和贝克提出的媒介4.0时代（贝克称之为1.0...4.0）等概念发展而来的。一些作者揣测媒介4.0时代这个词的含义，比如1990年出版的雷-库兹韦尔的《灵魂机器时代》]

1.人从主动到被动的转换

2.人从主体到客体的转换

3.人沉迷于社交媒体，提高了患抑郁症的风险

4.人从木偶操纵者或看似拥有自由意志的实体到木偶人的转换

5.互联网的性质从自由到监测的转换--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 01:25, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==
6.direct communication turns into indirect communication (humans may not be aware of this communication/analysis)

7.explicit communication (voice, words) turns into implicit communication (preferences/thoughts/dreams/wishes/ values (first experiments with brain scanners in worker hats have started in Shanghai and Peking))

8.man-man communication turns to man-machine communication (phone bot) to machine-machine

9.4.0 was from centralization to decentralization, 5.0 is partial centralization and partial decentralization, but also concentration

6，直接交流变成间接交流（人们自己可能没有意识到这种交流/分析）。

7，明确的交流（声音，文字）变成隐性的交流（偏好/想法/梦想/愿望/价值观（上海和北京已开始在工人的帽子上使用脑扫描仪进行首次实验））。

8，人与人之间的通信变成了人与机器之间的通信（电话机器人）再到机器与机器之间的通信。

9.4.0是从集中到分散，5.0是部分集中和部分分散，也有集中。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 10:52, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==
So far, mass media has been considered one-way. The interaction and processing of data of millions of individual users seemed simply too much work. In the age of virtual communication, the media epoch 5.0, mass media is individualized and interactive and therefore even more influential.

'''5 Types of manipulation (consciously or unconsciously, sometimes half-consciously)
'''

1.Priming by unconscious advertisements: Influencing consumer decisions

2.Filter bubbles => supports conspiracy theories, influences judgments

到目前为止，大众媒体一直被认为是单一的。数百万个人用户数据的交互和处理似乎太费力。在虚拟传播时代，即媒体时代5.0，大众传媒是个性化和互动的，因此更具影响力。

'''5 种操纵类型（有意识或无意识，有时是半意识的）'''

1.无意识广告发布：影响消费者决策

2.过滤泡沫=>支持阴谋论，影响判断--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:08, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhao Xi 赵茜==
3.Nature of social media: lies spread 6 times faster than truth. (Vosoughi et al. 2018).

4.Change of political attitude: Case Cambridge Analytica: Helped minority to win election by manipulating young people of majority not to vote (Do so: Don’t vote campaign, Oddleifson 2020); Trump election and Brexit were won by manipulation

5.Use of private information/dependencies to obtain advantages (blackmailing for money or for conducting crimes etc.)

6.Identity theft

3.社交媒体的本质：谎言的传播速度比真理快 6 倍。（Vosoughi等人，2018年）。

4.改变政治态度：案例剑桥分析：通过操纵多数年轻人不投票帮助少数民族赢得选举（这样做：不要投票竞选。奥德利夫森 2020年）；特朗普选举和英国脱欧通过操纵获胜

5.利用私人信息/依赖关系获取好处（勒索钱财或犯罪等）

6.身份盗窃--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 05:18, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3.社交媒体的性质：谎言传播速度是真相的6倍。（Vosoughi等人，2018年）。
4.政治态度的改变：剑桥分析案例：通过操纵大多数年轻人不投票帮助少数人赢得选举（Do Do Do:Do not vote campaign，Oddleifson 2020）；特朗普选举和脱欧是通过操纵赢得的
5.利用私人信息/依赖性获取利益（勒索钱财或犯罪等）
6.身份盗窃--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==
'''6 Consequences'''

1.Virtual Communication is mostly “hidden”, the human is mostly unaware of it, but may endure the consequences (policeman may detain suspect simply because the face recognition glass recognizes a pedestrian passing by and assesses him/her as “dangerous”; loan is declined; insurance company declines to accept new customer)

6.后果

1.虚拟通讯大多是 "隐蔽 "的，人多半不知道，但可能会承受后果（警察可能仅仅因为人脸识别玻璃识别出路过的行人，并评估其为 "危险 "而拘留嫌疑人；贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新的客户）--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:02, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

6.后果

1.虚拟通信通常是“隐藏的”，人类大多数情况下是不知道的，但可能会承受后果（警察可能只是因为面部识别玻璃杯识别出行人经过并将他/她评估为“危险”而拘留嫌疑人；贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新客户）。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 12:05, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

'''6.后果
'''

1.大多情况下，虚拟通信是“隐藏的”，人类也没有意识到这一点，但可能会承担由此带来的后果（警察可能会因为面部识别玻璃检测到行人通过，并将其评估为“危险人物”而将嫌疑犯拘留‘贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新客户）。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 09:29, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==
2.User becomes transparent (government can fight terrorism, any user can be blackmailed, jealous spouse can check on adultery)

3.Less will to communicate and discuss (since positions are too far apart)

4.Populists and populist views gain supporters

5.Polarization of Society

6.There is an incentive not to reveal how much one knows about the object, because the object then could question the legality, the system etc.

7.Last resort, the thinking, is tackled: Machine interprets “real” attitudes, not lip-service words

2.用户变得透明化（政府可以反恐，任何用户都可以被拉黑，嫉妒的配偶可以查奸情）

3.交流讨论意愿较弱（因为立场相差太远）

4.民粹主义者和民粹主义观点获得支持者

5.社会的两极分化

6.有动机不透露自己对对象了解多少，因为对象就可能质疑合法性、制度等。

7.最后的手段—思维，已经被破解：机器解释的是 "真实 "的态度，而不是口头禅--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 07:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2.用户变得透明（政府可以反恐，任何用户都可以被勒索，嫉妒的配偶可以调查奸情）

3.缺乏沟通和讨论的意愿（因为立场相差太远）

4.民粹主义者和民粹主义观点获得支持者

5.社会两极分化

6.有动机不透露自己对客体了解多少，因为客体可能会质疑其合法性、制度等。

7.最后一个办法是思考：机器解释的是“真实”的态度，而不是口头禅--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 11:42, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2.用户变得透明(政府可以打击恐怖主义，任何用户都可以被勒索，嫉妒的配偶可以遏制通奸)。

3.缺乏沟通和讨论的意愿(因为职位相距太远)。

4.民粹主义和民粹主义观点获得支持。

5.社会两极分化。

英译汉有一种动机是不透露一个人对该对象了解多少，因为该对象可能会对合法性、制度等提出质疑。

7.最后要解决的是思维问题：机器解释的是“真实”的态度，而不是口惠而实不至的话--[[User:QiKai|QiKai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 06:41, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==
8.The knowing ones (algorithms, hackers, controllers of algorithms) have power over the unknowing ones (victims)

9.Exoskeleton ethics (like points/awards for measurable performances) reduce incentives to build inner ethics
'''
7 Simulation of the imminent future'''

1.The imminent future behavior of a human can be predicted

2.With many analyzed humans, the imminent future of reality can be predicted => simulation

8.已经知道的人（算法、黑客、算法的控制者）比不知道的人（受害者）更有力量
9.外骨骼伦理（如可衡量绩效的积分/奖励）减少了建立内在道德的动机
'''
7模8拟即将到来的未来
1.人类即将发生的未来行为是可以预测的
2.有了许多被分析的人类，现实的即将到来的未来可以被预测=>模拟--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:00, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

8.已知的人（算法、黑客、算法的控制者）比未知im min的人（受害者）更有力量
9.外骨骼伦理（如可衡量绩效的积分/奖励）减少了建立内在道德的动机
'''
7模拟迫近的未来
1.人类的迫近未来行为是可以预测的
2.在分析了许多人类后，我们便可预测现实的迫近未来=>模拟--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:22, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

8.已经知道的人（算法、黑客、算法的控制者）比不知道的人（受害者）更有力量
9.外骨骼伦理（如可衡量绩效的积分/奖励）减少了建立内在道德的动机
'''
7模8拟即将到来的未来
1.人类即将发生的未来行为是可以预测的
2.通过大量分析人类，现实里马上到来的未来便可预测到=>模拟--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 13:32, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==
Is this an Orwellian dystopia or reality? Some cases of the above listed phenomena have been documented. However, we are still at the beginning of “little” AI development (optimizing existing processes) and on the brink of a much more powerful development, that of “big” AI (rethinking whole industries, being able to reproduce and enhance itself). (cf. Euchner 2019).

==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==
'''8 Conclusion and Outlook'''

Data has succeeded oil as the most valuable resource for today’s economy. Big Tech companies already use users’ data and make big profits with it while legislation is delayed and national boundaries (which do not exist for the Tech companies) are struggled over.
Although input-legitimized liberal democracies and market economies, like that of the European Union, still protect privacy and data security, US- and China-based technology companies are already penetrating the European market.

'''8 结论与展望'''

数据已经取代石油成为当今经济中最有价值的资源。大型科技公司已经在使用用户的数据并从中牟取暴利，与此同时，立法被拖延，国界（不存在科技公司）正在为之苦苦挣扎。

尽管像欧盟这样的以输入合法化的自由民主国家和市场经济，仍然保护着隐私和数据安全，但是中美两国的科技公司已经开始渗透欧洲市场。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 11:59, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==
We need to raise awareness and guide the youth to be careful with screen time and what they share online. We need to avoid addiction to social media.

'''The algorithms do not just check which film to suggest viewing next, they have started to invade the innermost sanctum of personality, our thoughts, dreams, wishes, visions, hopes, fears and secrets.
'''
'''
The listed consequences document a fundamental change of paradigms:
'''
我们需要提高意识，引导青少年注意屏幕时间和他们在网上分享的东西。我们需要避免沉迷于社交媒体。

'''算法不只是检查建议接下来看哪部电影，它们已经开始侵入人格、我们的思想、梦想、愿望、愿景、希望、恐惧和秘密的最深处的圣殿。'''

所列出的后果证明了范式的根本变化:--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 01:38, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

我们需要提高意识，引导青少年留意屏幕时间和网上分享，需要避免沉迷于社交媒体。

'''算法不只是检查建议接下来看哪部电影，它们已经开始侵入人格、我们的思想、梦想、愿望、愿景、希望、恐惧和秘密的最深处的圣殿。'''

所列出的后果证明了范式的基本变化:--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:11, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==
'''The cause-based decision-making by humans with established institutions like politicians, judges etc. is being replaced with correlation-based decision-making by algorithms which often serve the profit interests of tech companies or the political interests of election-manipulators.
'''

AI took the wrong development path, when it changed from serving humans to trying to manipulate humans for economic or political profit. When AI is used to educate citizens – like helping German customers to keep a clean credit history and a good credit score – then it changes the behavior of citizens to an exoskeletal ethic.

人类通过建立政治、法官等制度所形成的原因导向的决策方法正在被算法形成的关联导向的决策方法所取代，算法通常为科技公司的利润利益或选举操纵者的政治利益服务。

人工智能走上了错误的发展道路，它从为人类服务变成了试图为了经济或政治利益而操纵人类。当人工智能被用于教育公民——比如帮助德国客户保持干净的信用历史和良好的信用评分——它就会改变公民的行为，使其成为一种外骨骼伦理。--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 08:42, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==
However, animals with an exoskeleton reduce their inside muscles and develop a soft inside, making them totally incapable of living without the exoskeleton. An exoskeletal ethic, giving reward points, for example, for behavior which is deemed positive and subtracting points for behavior which is deemed negative, deprives the human of the natural learning and developing process, in a social environment, of his responsibility and inner ethical judgment. If you were to meet a human with exoskeletal ethics and one who has inner ethics, whom would you trust more?

但是，具有外骨骼的动物会减少其内部肌肉并发展出柔软的内部，从而使它们完全没有外骨骼就无法生存。骨骼外伦理，例如，对于被认为是积极的行为给予奖励积分，而对于被认为是消极的行为给予减分，这剥夺了人类在社会环境中的自然学习和发展过程的责任和内在的道德判断力。如果遇到一个具有骨骼外伦理和内心道德的人，你会更信任谁？--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 04:10, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==
If we want to avoid the consequences listed in point 6, the public needs to become aware of this and nations and supranational organizations need to define legislation to a) protect privacy and data security, and b) give the user the control over his/her data including the commercial use of it where they earn a share from the profit made with the usage of his/her data.

==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==
'''9 Outlook'''

We need to accept, that the development is irreversible. Every new technology has created fears. Important is, that we become aware of the developments and adjust where the development heads into the wrong direction. We need set the right framework and incentives that the new technology stays on track to serve humanity.

'''9展望'''

我们必须承认，发展是不可逆转的。每一项新技术都在某种程度上引发了恐慌。然后重要的事情是，我们开始意识到，并调整那些朝错误方向进行的发展。我们需要制定正确的构架和激励措施，让新技术继续稳定地为人类服务。--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 03:06, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

'''9展望'''

我们不得不承认，这种发展是不可逆转的。每一项新技术都会引发恐慌。重要的是，我们要意识到这些发展，并调整错误的发展方向。我们需要建立正确的框架和激励机制，使新技术能够继续为人类服务。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 04:04, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==
New developments open new possibilities. We need to make sure that not only a few tech companies and terrorists use this powerful new technology to achieve their goals, but that the mass of smart device users emancipate themselves from addiction to and manipulation by technology and gain back their dignity, privacy and free will.

'''References
'''
（参考文献不用翻译）

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Baecker, Dirk. (2007). ''Studien zur nächsten Gesellschaft''. Frankfurt 2007

Banken-Technologie. (2020). 26. Handelsblatt Jahrestagung. Banken-Technologie. „New Normal” in der Finanzwirtschaft: digital – intelligent – automatisiert – hybrid. 2. und 3.12.2020, Digital [Conference Announcement] https://veranstaltungen.handelsblatt.com/bankentechnologie/ki-machine-learning-finanzanalyse/

Booth, T. "Cambridge Analytica controversy must spur researchers to update data ethics." ''Nature'' 555.7698 (2018): 559-560.

Clickworker. (2019). www.clickworker.com/2019/04/30/ai-for-ecommerce/

Cui, Yu, Qing He, and Alireza Khani. (2018). Travel behavior classification: an approach with social network and deep learning. ''Transportation research record'', 2672(47), 68-80. https://par.nsf.gov/servlets/purl/10109453

Daley, Sam. (2020). 32 Examples of AI in Healthcare that Will Make you Feel better about the Future (July 4, 2019, updated July 29, 2020). builtin.com/artificial-intelligence/artificial-intelligence-healthcare

Euchner, Jim. (2019). Little ai, Big AI—Good AI, Bad AI. Terminology Management 62:3, 10-12. pdf:

https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/08956308.2019.1587280?needAccess=true

Golbeck, Jennifer, Cristina Robles, and Karen Turner. (2011). "Predicting personality with social media." ''CHI'11 extended abstracts on human factors in computing systems''. 2011. 253-262.

Jasso-Medrano, José Luis, and Fuensanta Lopez-Rosales. (2018). "Measuring the relationship between social media use and addictive behavior and depression and suicide ideation among university students." Computers in Human Behavior 87: 183-191.

Luhmann, Niklas. (1997). ''Die Gesellschaft der Gesellschaft''. 1997

Oddleifson, Evan. 2020, The Effects of Modern Data Analytics in Electoral Politics: Cambridge Analytica’s Suppression of Voter Agency and the Implications for Global Politics, ''Political Sciences Undergraduate Review'' 5 (2020) 7, 1-7.

https://journals.library.ualberta.ca/psur/index.php/psur/article/view/130/90/130-Article%20Text-642-1-10-20200401.pdf

Raj Kannan, J., Sabitha, R., Karthik, S., & Shanthini, J. (2020). Mouse Movement Pattern Based Analysis of Customer Behavior (CBA-MMP) Using Cloud Data Analytics. ''Wireless Personal Communications'', OnlineFirst, 1-17.

Ruan, Lotus, et al. "One App, Two Systems: How WeChat uses one censorship policy in China and another internationally." (2016).
Shensa, Ariel, et al. (2017). "Problematic social media use and depressive symptoms among US young adults: A nationally-representative study." ''Social Science & Medicine ''182: 150-157.

Talent Search People. (2020). How Will Artificial Intelligence Affect the Job Market? www.talentsearchpeople.com/en/blog/494-how-will-artificial-intelligence-affect-the-job-market/.

Van Den Eijnden, Regina JJM, Jeroen S. Lemmens, and Patti M. Valkenburg. (2016). "The social media disorder scale." ''Computers in Human Behavior ''61: 478-487.

Verschuere, Bruno, and Bennett Kleinberg. "ID‐check: Online Concealed Information Test reveals true identity." ''Journal of forensic sciences'' 61 (2016): S237-S240.

Vosoughi, Soroush, Deb Roy, and Sinan Aral. (2018). The spread of true and false news online. Science 359.6380: 1146-1151.. science.sciencemag.org/content/359/6380/1146

新发展提供了新可能。我们需要确保除了少数的技术公司和恐怖分子使用这一强大的新技术来达到他们的目的，还需要确保大量的智能设备的使用者不再沉迷于其中，不再被技术操控，从而重拾尊严，重获隐私和实现意志自由。--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 06:51, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhu Xu 朱旭==
'''Bio'''

Martin Woesler, PhD, is Jean Monnet Chair in European Studies with Hunan Normal University since 2020. At its Foreign Studies College, he is Distinguished Professor of Chinese Studies, Translation Studies and Comparative Literature since 2019. Woesler was elected Academian of the European Academy of Sciences and Arts, Salzburg in 2019.
Woesler has co-edited the books "China's Digital Dream", "Ethics of Information Society" and Springer has scheduled to publish the book "Diverse Voices in Chinese Translation and Interpretation" including his book chapter "Modern Interpreting with Digital and Technical Aids" in February 2021.

个人简历

自2020年起，吴漠汀（Martin Woesler）博士是湖南师范大学欧洲研究的讲座教授。自2019年来，他在湖师大外国语学院担任中国文化研究、翻译研究和比较文学的特聘教授。2019年，吴教授当选萨尔茨堡欧洲科学与艺术学院院士。吴教授曾与人合编《中国的数字梦想》、《信息社会伦理学》等书。施普林格（Springer）已计划于2021年2月出版《中国笔译与口译中的多种声音》一书，其中包括他的《数字与技术辅助的现代口译》一章。--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 09:26, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==
Woesler was a Senior Fellow of the German Science Foundation's (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft) Research College "Media Cultures of Computer Simulations" 2019‐2020 and hosted a related workshop with Bertelsmann Foundation in 2020. Woesler is also a researcher with Witten/Herdecke University, Germany, investigating the impact of daily screen time of children and of young people on their health.