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20211215 homework

2021-12-29T09:38:09Z

Wu Jingyue: /* 魏兆妍 Wèi Zhàoyán 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081528 */

20211215 homework

2021-12-29T09:35:51Z

Wu Jingyue: /* 吴婧悦 Wú Jìngyuè 俄语语言文学女 202120081529 */

20211201 homework

2021-12-29T09:30:38Z

Wu Jingyue: /* 吴婧悦 Wú Jìngyuè 俄语语言文学女 202120081529 */

20211229 homework

2021-12-29T09:21:35Z

Wu Jingyue: /* 吴婧悦 Wú Jìngyuè 俄语语言文学女 202120081529 */

20211208 homework

2021-12-29T09:18:21Z

Wu Jingyue: /* 吴婧悦 Wú Jìngyuè 俄语语言文学女 202120081529 */

20211124 homework

2021-12-29T09:12:08Z

Wu Jingyue: /* 魏兆妍 Wèi Zhàoyán 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081528 */

20211124 homework

2021-12-29T09:10:59Z

Wu Jingyue: /* 吴婧悦 Wú Jìngyuè 俄语语言文学女 202120081529 */

20210929 homework

2021-12-29T09:01:07Z

Wu Jingyue: /* 俄语语言文学 202120081529 吴婧悦女 */

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[[20210929_homework|homework of session 1 for session 2 Sep 29]]

IN PREPARATION

专业班级名称学号姓名性别
==语言智能与跨文化传播研究 202120081535 徐敏赟男==
This is the homework of 徐敏赟.--[[User:Root|Root]] ([[User talk:Root|talk]]) 12:41, 26 September 2021 (UTC)

清初时期的汉籍（书）翻译及其文化沟通意涵

摘要：清初之际，统治者虽以武力立国，但社会的主导意识形态尚未形成，国家的“治统”与“道统”尚未确立。为了匡扶社稷，教化臣民，探求君主治术，建构符合国家需求的集体价值观，统治者积极组织汉书翻译，促进文化交流，增进民族和解。

The Translation of Chinese Books in the Early Qing Dynasty and its Cultural Communication Implications

Abstract: At the beginning of the Qing Dynasty, the ruler established the country by force, but the dominant social ideology has not yet been formed. Besides, the country's "ruling" and "moral orthodox" have not yet been established either. In order to help the community, educate the people, explore the rules of the monarchy, and construct collective values that meet the needs of the country, the ruler organized the translation of Chinese books actively, which helped promote cultural exchanges and enhance national reconciliation.

The Translation of the Han Classics in Early Qing Dynasty and its Implications for Cultural Communication

Abstract: At the beginning of Qing Dynasty, the ruler established the country by force, but the dominant social ideology has not yet been formed. Besides, the country's "governance" and "moral orthodoxy" have not yet been established neither. In order to help the community, educate the people, explore the rules of the monarchy, and construct collective values that meet the needs of the country, the ruler organized the translation of Chinese books actively, which helped promote cultural exchanges and enhance national reconciliation.--[[User:Root|Root]] ([[User talk:Root|talk]]) 12:44, 29 September 2021 (UTC)

The Translation of the Han Classics in Early Qing Dynasty and its Implications for Cultural Communication

Abstract: At the beginning of the Qing Dynasty, the ruler established the country by force, but the dominant social ideology has not yet been formed. Besides, the country's "governance" and "moral orthodox" have not yet been established either. In order to rectify and sustain the society, educate the subjects, explore the rules of the monarchy, and construct collective values that meet the needs of the country, the ruler organized the translation of Han Classics actively, which helped promote cultural exchanges and enhance national reconciliation.--[[User:Yan Jing|Yan Jing]] ([[User talk:Yan Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 8 October 2021 (UTC)

==语言智能与跨文化传播研究 202120081536 颜静女==

作为清初文化事业的重要组成部分，汉书翻译有着明确的选择标准，实用主义色彩浓厚，主要关注汉族的文治教化与典章制度，将翻译与政要相关联，反对浮华藻饰的翻译。组织上，汉书翻译以官方为主，以民间为辅，译书者既有兼通满、汉双语之旗人，又有八旗科举考试之及第者，这些人既是文化交流的管理者，又是实践者，代表了统治阶级意欲沟通满汉的主观愿望。成效上，汉书翻译不仅促进了新生政权的制度建设，而且为统治者建构政权合法性做出了贡献。
As an important part of cutural undertakings in early Qing dynasty, the translation of Han Shu had clear selection criteria and strong pragmatism. It focused on cultural education and institutions of Han nationality, associated the translation with politics and opposed flashly one. Organizationally,Han Shu was translated mainly by officials, and then public people. The translators contained not only the Eight Banners' People who mastered both Manchu and Chinese language, but also those who passed the Eight Banners imperial examination. These people were administrators of cultural exchanges, and also practicers, representing that the ruling class was willing to communicate the Manchu and Han people. In effect, the translating of Han Shu promoted the institutional construction of new regime, and also contributed to the rulers for constructing the regime legitimacy.

As an important part of cutural undertakings in early Qing dynasty, the translation of Han Shu had clear selection criteria and strong pragmatism. It (mainly) focused on cultural education and institutions of Han nationality, associated the translation with politics and opposed flashly one(embellishments). Organizationally,Han Shu was translated mainly by officials, and then (by) public people. The translators contained not only the Eight Banners' People who mastered both Manchu and Chinese language, but also those who passed the Eight Banners imperial examination. These people were administrators of cultural exchanges, and also practicers, representing that the ruling class was willing to (intended to) communicate the Manchu and Han people. In effect(As a result), the translating of Han Shu promoted the institutional construction of new regime, and also contributed to the rulers for constructing the regime legitimacy.--[[User:Du Lina|Du Lina]] ([[User talk:Du Lina|talk]]) 07:06, 29 September 2021 (UTC)

==英语语言文学（语言学） 202120081484 杜莉娜女==

导论：凡国家之建立，必有立国精神和主导意识形态，以及相应之文化政策。

早在天聪年间，清太宗便为新政权提出文武并用的战略构想，既强调以武功勘祸乱，又主张以文教佐太平，提出了文化统制与文化建设的独到见解。顺治十年，世祖章皇帝订定崇儒重道之政策，并以此为基础构建了兴文教、崇经术的治国理念。
Introduction: The establishment of any countries must need the national spirit ,dominant ideology and appropriate cultural policies.
As early as the year of Tiancong, Hong Taiji put forward the strategy of combining education and force for the new regime. He emphasized to calm down the chaos by force and to keep the peace by civilian. And he came up with unique insights into cultural unification and cultural development as well. During the first decade of Shunzhi, the emperor made the policies of respecting Confucianism and Taoism, and from this the concepts of governing like prospering education and worshipping scriptures were built.
--[[User:Du Lina|Du Lina]] ([[User talk:Du Lina|talk]]) 16:07, 28 September 2021 (UTC)

1、“文武并用”应该更侧重于“文化”，译为culture；
2、“以文教佐太平”中的文教可译为cultural education；
3、“and from this the concepts of governing like prospering education and worshipping scriptures were built.”此句可用定从，which served as a basis of …
--[[User:Hu Shuqing|Hu Shuqing]] ([[User talk:Hu Shuqing|talk]]) 02:25, 30 September 2021 (UTC)

==英语语言文学（语言学） 202120081490 胡舒情女==

自此以后，虽然清代历朝统治者在关注满、汉文化交流时，不免对汉人进行打压，但也同时对汉族文化进行宣扬与推广。

清初统治者在构建“治统”与“道统”的过程中，围绕“崇儒重道”，衍生出众多文化政策实举，如科举取士、博学鸿词等，而汉籍经史的翻译与编纂也是其中重要内容。汉籍翻译是清代文化事业的重要组成部分，是清代民族关系与文化政策的重要载体，它和满清政权的其它文化活动一样，在功能上相互关联，彼此补充，为促进民族之间的相互了解，维护王朝体系的稳定发展，做出了重要贡献。
Since then, although all the dominators of Qing dynasty would squash the Han people when focusing on cultural exchange between Manchu and Han, they also propagated and promoted the Han culture at the same time. The dominators of early Qing dynasty implemented numerous cultural policies around the idea of “respecting and emphasizing Confucianism” during the progress of constructing Monarchism and statesmanship, which included imperial examinations, erudite and an important part - compilation and translation of Han classics and history. Its translation formed Qing’s cultural undertakings as necessary parts and served as a carrier of Qing’s ethnic relations and cultural policies. It was the same as other cultural activities of Qing dynasty. They related to and complemented each other, which made a contribution to promoting mutual understanding among peoples and maintaining the stable development of the dynastic system.
--[[User:Hu Shuqing|Hu Shuqing]] ([[User talk:Hu Shuqing|talk]]) 02:26, 30 September 2021 (UTC)

Since then when it comes to Man and Han culture communication, all the dominants of Qing dynasty would freeze Han people but also promoted their culture at the same time.
During the process of constructing Monarchism and statesmanship, the dominators of early Qing dynasty implemented numerous cultural policies around the idea of “respecting and emphasizing Confucianism”,which included imperial examinations, erudite etc. and also compilation and translation of Han classics and history as an important content. Translating Han classic is an important part of Qing culture and the critical carrier of its ethnic relationship and cultural policies. Like other cultural activities it related to each other functionally and made great contributions to ethnic communication and the solid development of Qing dynasty.--[[User:Huang Jinyun|Huang Jinyun]] ([[User talk:Huang Jinyun|talk]]) 13:18, 11 October 2021 (UTC)

==英语语言文学（语言学） 202120081491 黄锦云女==

作为汉籍翻译的管理者和实践者，译者们承担了沟通满、汉文化的历史使命，其所翻译的汉族书籍不仅有效增进了旗人对于汉文化的了解，而且为新生政权进行制度建设，以及合法性的建构发挥了历史性作用。

一满洲前身时期的汉籍翻译

满洲的前身系女真，语言文字上属阿尔泰语系。
As the manager and practicer of translating Han's books, translators take charge of the historial mission to combine Manchu cultrue and Han cultrue. Their translations not only enhance the Bannermen to know Han cultrue, but also play a historical role in forming a new regime and conlidating its validity.--Translation of Han's books before Manchu period
Manchurians originates from Nvzhen race, and their language and character belongs to Altaic languages.

As managers and practitioners of translation of Han's books, the translators undertake the historical mission of cultural communication between the Manchu nationality and the Han nationality. Their translations of Han's books not only efficiently improve the Manchu's understanding of Han culture, but also play a historical role in system construction for new regime and legal construction.
-- Translation of Han's books before the Manchu period
Manchurians originate from Nvzhen race, and their language belongs to Altaic language.--[[User:Kuang Yanli|Kuang Yanli]] ([[User talk:Kuang Yanli|talk]]) 14:11, 9 October 2021 (UTC)

==英语语言文学（语言学） 202120081495 邝艳丽女==

满族和历史上的女真族一样，原本没有自己的语言，记事时需要借用其他民族文字。《金史》中说：“初无文字，国势日强，与邻国交好，迺用契丹字。”[ 杨家骆：《金史》，台北：鼎文书局，1985年，第1684页。] 金朝立国后，初期的内、外公文几乎都用契丹文书写，金太祖本人也擅长契丹语。
As Jurchen in the history, the Manchu nationality did not have its own language, and they needed to use other national characters when making a memorandum. "The Jin dynasty did not have their own characters, but with its increasing development and its need to deal with the relation with neighbouring country, then used Khitan characters" said in ''The History of Jin Dynasty''[Yang Jialuo: ''The History of Jin Dynasty'',Taipei: Dingwen Publishing House, 1985, p.16884] After Jin Dynasty was established, the official documents inside and outside the court were nearly written with Khitan characters, even the Emperor Taizu of Jin Dynasty was skilled in using Khitan language.--[[User:Kuang Yanli|Kuang Yanli]] ([[User talk:Li Aixuan|talk]])09:41, 29 September 2021 (UTC)

As Jurchen in the history, the Manchu nationality did not have its own language. Therefore, keeping a record of events depended on the characters of other nation. Said in The History of Jin Dynasty, "the Jin dynasty did not have their own characters, but with its increasing development and its need to deal with the relation with neighbouring country, then used Khitan characters". [Yang Jialuo: The History of Jin Dynasty,Taipei: Dingwen Publishing House, 1985, p.16884] After the establishment of Jin Dynasty, the official documents at home and abroad were nearly written in Khitan characters, even the Emperor Taizu of Jin was skilled in using Khitan characters.--[[User:Li Aixuan|Li Aixuan]] ([[User talk:Li Aixuan|talk]]) 13:34, 29 September 2021 (UTC)

==英语语言文学（语言学） 202120081496 李爱璇女==

然而，契丹语与金人女真语差距较大，因而金太祖命完颜希尹、叶鲁依据汉人楷字，并参照契丹字制度，创制适合本族的语言文字“女直文”。天辅（金太祖年号）三年，女直文依诏令颁行，称“女直大字”。二十年后，即1138年，金熙宗完颜亶又命人参照契丹字，创制并颁布另一种女直文字，即“女直小字”。
However, there was a huge gap between the Khitan language and the Jurchen language. Therefore, the Emperor Taizu of Jin ordered Wanyan Xiyin and Ye Lu to create a language suitable for their own people, Jurchen script, based on the Han regular script and referring to the Khitan script system. In the third year of the period of Tianfu (the reign title of Emperor Taizu of Jin), according to the edict, the Jurchen script was enacted as "Jurchen Large Script". In 1138, twenty years later, Wanyan Dan, the Emperor of Xizong, ordered someone to create and enact another kind of Jurchen script, namely "Jurchen Little Script", referring to the Khitan script system.--[[User:Li Aixuan|Li Aixuan]] ([[User talk:Li Aixuan|talk]]) 01:15, 29 September 2021 (UTC)
However, there was a big gap between Khitan language and Jin Nuzhen language. Therefore, Jin Taizu ordered Wanyan Xiyin and Ye Lu to create a language suitable for their own nationality "Jurchen script", according to the regular script of Han people and with reference to the Khitan character system. In the third year of Tianfu (the year of emperor Taizu of Jin Dynasty), Jurchen script was issued in accordance with the imperial edict, known as "Jurchen Large Script". Twenty years later, in 1138, Jin Xizong, Wanyan Dan ordered people to create and promulgate another Jurchen script, namely “Jurchen Little Script", according to the Khitan character.— Li Xichang

==英语语言文学（语言学） 202120081502 李习长男==

金世宗继位后，在推动女直文字的使用上，力度更大，举措更丰。如大定（金世宗年号）四年，金世宗令翰林侍讲学士徒单子温等用女直大、小字，翻译经书。女直文字的创制，对金朝翻译汉书影响巨大，而汉书翻译又影响了金朝的政治制度与国家治理。

After Jin Shizong succeeded to the throne, he made greater efforts and took more measures to promote the use of nvzhi characters. For example, in the fourth year of Dading (the year of Jin Shizong), Jin Shizong ordered the Imperial College to teach the bachelor's Apprentice Shan Ziwen to translate scriptures in large and small characters. The creation of nvzhi characters had a great impact on the translation of Chinese books in the Jin Dynasty, which in turn affected the political system and national governance of the Jin Dynasty.

After Jin Shizong succeeded to the throne, he made greater efforts and took more measures to promote the use of nvzhi characters. For example, in the fourth year of Dading (the year of the region of emperor Jin Shizong), he ordered his disciple Shan Ziwen and other Shijiang academicians of Hanlin to translate Confucian Classics in Jurchen large and small scripts. the creation of Jurchen script had a great impact on the translation of Chinese books in the Jin Dynasty, and that, in turn, the Chinese books affected the political system and national governance of the Jin Dynasty.—[[User:Qiu Tingting|Qiu Tingting]] ([[User talk:Qiu Tingting|talk]]) 03:39, 29 September 2021 (UTC)

==英语语言文学（语言学） 202120081519 邱婷婷女==

如大定五年，金世宗命徒单镒翻译《贞观政要》和《白氏策林》等书，次年徒单子温将译本进呈皇帝。大定七年，《史记》和《西汉书》等翻译成书，金世宗敕令刊刻颁行。大定十五年，金世宗再令翻译各部经书，由温迪罕缔达（著作佐郎）、宗璧（编修官）、阿鲁（尚书省译史）、杨克忠（史部令史）等负责对译本进行注解。

For example, in the fifth year of Dading (the year of the region of emperor Jin Shizong), the emperor ordered his disciple Shan Yi to translate The Political Program of Zhen Guan and Bai Shi Ce Lin, etc. Then emperor Shizong received the translations submitted by another disciple named Shan Ziwen in the next year. In the seventh year of Dading, the Records of the Grand Historian and the book of the Western Han Dynasty were translated into books, which were printed and issued by the royal decree of emperor Shizong. What’s more, he released an order again translating several Confucian classics which were annotated by Wendihan Dida （assistant of Zhu Zuolang）， Zong Bi（ BianxiuOfficer), A Lu( translator of history of Department of State Affairs ), Yang Kezhong( Lingshi of the Ministry of Official Personnel Affairs ) etc.

Annotation:
1.Zhu Zuolang: A person whose responsibility is to compile historical works.
2.Bianxiu: The official name, first placed in the Song Dynasty, is mainly responsible for the revision and compilation of documents.
3.Lingshi: Official name; the general name of petty officials in the government since the song and Yuan Dynasties.—[[User:Qiu Tingting|Qiu Tingting]] ([[User talk:Qiu Tingting|talk]]) 16:58, 28 September 2021 (UTC)

For example, in the fifth year of Dading (the year of the region of emperor Jin Shizong), the emperor ordered his disciple Shan Yi to translate ''The Political Program of Zhen Guan'' and ''Bai Shi Ce Lin'', etc. Then emperor Shizong received the translations submitted by another disciple named Shan Ziwen in the next year. One year later,''the Records of the Grand Historian'' and ''the book of the Western Han Dynasty'' were translated into books, which were printed and issued under the royal decree of emperor Shizong. What’s more, he released an order again translating various kinds of Confucian classics, and put Wendihan Dida （assistant of Zhu Zuolang）， Zong Bi（ BianxiuOfficer), A Lu( translator of history of Department of State Affairs ), Yang Kezhong( Lingshi of the Ministry of Official Personnel Affairs ) etc.in chagrge of the annotation of the translations of these books.

Annotation:
1.Zhu Zuolang: A person whose responsibility is to compile historical works.
2.Bianxiu: The official name, first placed in the Song Dynasty, is mainly responsible for the revision and compilation of documents.
3.Lingshi: Official name; the general name of petty officials in the government since the song and Yuan Dynasties.--[[User:Rao Jinying|Rao Jinying]] ([[User talk:Rao Jinying|talk]]) 13:00, 29 September 2021 (UTC)

==英语语言文学（语言学） 202120081520 饶金盈女==

金世宗在位期间，朝廷设立译经所，专司汉文经史的翻译。期间，所译汉书除上述几种之外，另有《易》、《书》、《论语》、《老子》、《孟子》、《扬子》、《文中子》、《刘子》以及《新唐书》等。之所以翻译这些书籍，是因为金世宗希望女直人了解汉人的仁义道德，以利于治国安邦。
During the reign of Wan Yanyong, the fifth emperor of the Jin Dynasty, the imperial court set up a sutra translation office to specialize in the translation of scriptures and historical materials written in classical Chinese. Meantime, in addition to the above-mentioned Chinese books, there were also ''Yi'', ''Shu'', ''the Analects of Confucius'', ''the Laozi'', ''the Mencius'', ''the Yangzi'', ''the Wenzhongzi'', ''the Liuzi'' and ''the New Book of Tang Dynasty''. The reason why these books were translated was that Wan Yanyong hoped that the Jurchen people would get some knowledge of the humanity, justice, and morality of Han people by reading these books, so as to develop a prosperous and stable country.--[[User:Rao Jinying|Rao Jinying]] ([[User talk:Rao Jinying|talk]]) 13:05, 28 September 2021 (UTC)

During the reign of Emperor Jin Shizong,the imperial court set up a classics translation office concentrating on the translation of Chinese classics. During this period,apart from translating the above-mentioned Chinese classics, they also translated " Yi", "Shu", "the Analects of Confucius", "Laozi", "Mencius", "Yangzi", "Wenzhongzi", "Liuzi" and "New Book of Tang", etc. The reason why Jin Shizong chose these classics was that he hoped that Nuzhi people could know the virtue and morality of Chinese by reading these classics. And then he could rule the nation better and build a stable society. -- Yang Aijiang (talk) 21.57. 11 October 2021

==英语语言文学（语言学） 202120081541 杨爱江女==

然而，当时的女直字与汉字不能直接对译，中间需要经过转译为契丹字。为解决这一问题，金章宗在位期间，诏设弘文院，命人译写儒家经典并讲解。旋即，又废止契丹字，要求嗣后汉文典籍直接译为女直字，以省去须经契丹字转译的中间环节。

However, it was not feasible to translate Nvzhi characters into Chinese characters at that time. And it needed to be translated into Khitan characters first. During the reign of Emperor Jin Zhangzong, he set up Hongwen Academy and commanded his ministers to translate and explain Confucian classics in order to figure out the language problem. Besides, Jin Zhangzong abolished its use of Khitan characters and demanded that the Chinese classics should be translated in Nvzhi characters directly, omitting taking advantage of the translation of Khitan characters as a bridge.

However, Nvzhi characters could not be directly translated into Chinese without being rendered into Khitan ones first. During the reign of Emperor Jin Zhangzong, he set up Hongwen Academy and commanded his ministers to translate and explain Confucian classics in order to figure out the language problem. Soon after, Jin Zhangzong abolished the use of Khitan characters and demanded that the Chinese classics should be translated into Nvzhi characters directly, avoiding the intermediate step of using Khitan characters.--[[User:Yin Meida|Yin Meida]] ([[User talk:Yin Meida|talk]]) 13:37, 11 October 2021 (UTC)

==英语语言文学（语言学） 202120081547 殷美达女==

金朝政权覆灭之后，虽然留居东北故地的少数女直上层人士尚能娴习女直文，但女直字作为一种语言逐渐失传。明朝政府设置“四夷馆”后，又延人专习女直字，以应付中央与地方政府，或中央与藩属地之间的通译需要。虽然如此，女直语的凋落已成定势。

二太祖时期汉籍（书）翻译之“始”

After the collapse of Jin Dynasty, a small number of upper class Nuzhen people who still lived in northeastern China were proficient in Nuzhen language, but its words were being lost gradually. The Ming Dynasty, when setting up "Si Yi Academy ", hired particular people to study Nuzhen language to meet the needs of communication and translation between the central and local governments or its dependent territories. Nevertheless, the decline of Nuzhen language had become a foregone conclusion.
Second, the initial translation of Chinese books in the Emperor Taizu period

After the collapse of the Jin Dynasty, although a small number of Nuzhen upper class people living in Northeast China were very proficient in Nuzhen language, Nuzhen characters have been gradually lost. Having set up the Si-yi-guan, the Ming Dynasty hired people to specially learn Nuzhen characters to meet the needs of translation between the central government and local governments or its affiliated places. Nevertheless, the decline of Nuzhen language is inevitable.--[[User:Zhou Qiao1|Zhou Qiao1]] ([[User talk:Zhou Qiao1|talk]]) 01:18, 29 September 2021 (UTC)

==英语语言文学（语言学） 202120081557 周巧女==

明朝万历年间，努尔哈赤率部崛起之时，作为女直后裔的满族并无文字。那时，文移往来必须靠蒙古语的学习与翻译才能完成。为满足文移往来，记注政事的需要，并解决“今我国之语，必译为蒙古语读之，则未习蒙古语者，不能知也”的问题，清太祖努尔哈赤于明万历二十七年，命额尔德尼、噶（gá）盖等改制国书（即，国家的语言文字），以改变满人说女真语却写蒙古字的尴尬局面。[ 明珠等奉敕修：《清实录·太祖高皇帝实录》，北京：中华书局，1986年，第2页。]
In the wanli period of Ming Dynasty, when Nurhachi led the rise of the Manchu, as a straight descendant of Jurchen, it had no written words. At that time, the exchange of letters had to rely on Mongolian learning and translation to complete. For recording the political affairs and solving the problem that "Nowadays, the language of our country have to be translated into Mongolian to read, otherwise people can’t understand it without the learning of it. In the wanli 27 years of Ming Dynasty, Emperor Nurhachi（the first founder of Ming Dynasty） ordered Erdeni, Gagai and etc to reform credentials (namely the national language), which is to change the embarrassing situation of Manchu speaking Jurchen language while writing Mongolian. Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1986, p. 2.

During the Wanli period of Ming Dynasty, when Nurhachi led the rise of the Manchu, the Manchu, as the straight descendant of Jurchen, had no written words . At that time, the exchange of letters had to rely on Mongolian learning and translation. In order to meet the need of exchange of letters, recording and annotating the political affairs as well as solving the problem that "Nowadays, the language of our country have to be translated into Mongolian to read, and the people who do not learn Mobolian can't understand it.", in the Wanli 27 years of Ming Dynasty, Emperor Nurhachi（the first founder of Ming Dynasty） ordered Erdeni, Gagai and etc to reform credentials (namely the national language), which aimed to change the embarrassing situation that Manchu speaking Jurchen language while writing in Mongolian. Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1986, p. 2.--[[User:Zhu Suzhen|Zhu Suzhen]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suzhen|talk]]) 06:16, 30 September 2021 (UTC)

==英语语言文学（语言学） 202120081561 朱素珍女==

自此，满洲的语言和文字渐趋一致。然而问题在于，此时创制的满洲语言（老满文）系参照畏兀儿体老蒙文字母，而蒙古与女真语音原本存在差异，借用的蒙文字母未必能充分传达女真语言的意义。如太宗皇太极在评价老满文时所说，“书中寻常语言，视其文义，易于通晓”，但“至于人名、地名，必致错误。”[ 中国第一历史档案馆、中国社科院历史研究所译注：《满文老档》，北京：中华书局，1990年，第1196页。]

From then on, the languange and the forms in Manchurian language are gradually consistant. However, the problem is that the Manchurian language(Old Manchu) was created with the guidance of Uighur Old Mongolia alphabets, and there exist original difference between Mongolia and Jurchen pronunciation. Therefore, the borrowed Mongolian alphabets could not explicitly express the meaning of Jurchen language. Just as what the great emperor Taizong Hoang Taiji said when he evaluated Old Manchu: "You can easily understand the meaning of the ordinary language in a book written in Old Manchu. However, in terms of the name of people and places, the Old Manchu would lead you to misunderstanding without any doubt." (Translated by The First Historical Archives of China and Institute of Chinese Social History :''Manchu Old File'',Peking:Zhonghua Book Company,1990, page 1196.)
Annotation:
1. Jurchen: an ancient nationality in China
2.Uighur(畏兀儿体/古维吾尔语): the earliest Mongolian Chinese characters
3. Old Manchu:the language used by ancient Machurian
4. Manchurian: the founder of Qing Dynasty

From then on, the languange and the characters in Manchurian language are gradually consistant. However, the problem is that the Manchurian language(Old Manchu) was created with the guidance of Uighur Old Mongolia alphabets, and there existed original difference between Mongolia and Jurchen pronunciation. Therefore, the borrowed Mongolian alphabets could not explicitly express the true meaning of Jurchen language. Just as what the great emperor Taizong Hoang Taiji said when he evaluated Old Manchu: "You can easily understand the meaning of the ordinary language in a book written in Old Manchu. However, in terms of the name of people and places, the Old Manchu would lead you to misunderstanding without any doubt." (Translated by The First Historical Archives of China and Institute of Chinese Social History :“Manchu Old File'',Peking:Zhonghua Book Company,1990, page 1196.) --[[User:Chen Huini|Chen Huini]] ([[User talk:Chen Huini|talk]]) 05:10, 3 October 2021 (UTC)Chen Huini
Annotation:
1. Jurchen: an ancient nationality in China
2.Uighur(畏兀儿体/古维吾尔语): the earliest Mongolian Chinese characters
3. Old Manchu:the language used by ancient Machurian
4. Manchurian: the founder of Qing Dynasty

==英语语言文学（英美文学） 202120081479 陈惠妮女==

为此，皇太极命“巴克什”达海对老满文加以改进，使其音、义明晓，有助于学习，形成了所谓“新满文”。[ 鄂尔泰等奉敕修：《清实录·太宗文皇帝实录》，北京：中华书局，1985年，第13页。]文字虽已形成，但满人一时间几乎无书可读，原因有二：其一，此时的满文尚属草创，旗人尚不能以满语编纂书籍；其二，汉字书籍的获取极为不易。
面对上述情况，太祖努尔哈赤敕令在旗人中延请师傅，教子弟读书，并令达海等人以满文翻译汉文典籍。
Therefore, the King asked Baks Dahai to develop the Old Manchu to make its sound and meaning more clear, which maked it easier to learn. It is in this way that the so-called New Manchu was formed. [E'ertai et al. Fengxiu: "Records of the Qing Dynasty·Records of Emperor Taizongwen", Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1985, p. 13. ] Although the characters and words have been developed, the Manchu can hardly find bookes to read for two reasons. One is that the Manchu language at that time is still an initial creation. The other is that it's so hard to get the books in Chineses charaters.On the face of this situation, Taizu Nurha Chi invited masters among the bannermen to teach children to read, and ordered Dahai and others to translate Chinese classics in Manchu. --[[User:Chen Huini|Chen Huini]] ([[User talk:Chen Huini|talk]]) 07:59, 29 December 2021 (UTC)Chen Huini

Therefore, Huang Taiji (an emperor of Qing Dynasty) instructed "Bakshi (a title of a scholar of Qing Dynasty)" Da Hai to develop the Old Manchu to the so-called "New Manchu", which made the sound and meaning more clear and then make it easier to learn. [E'ertai et al.: Factual Record of Qing Dynasty·Factual Records of Emperor Taizongwen, Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1985, p. 13. ] Although the characters and words have been formed, the Manchu for a time almost no books to read for two reasons. One is that the Manchu language at that time was still an initial creation, and the Bannermen couldn't compile with it. The other was that the acquisition of books in Chineses charaters was extremely hard.On the face of this situation, Taizu Nurha Chi invited masters among the bannermen to teach children to read, and ordered Dahai and others to translate Chinese classics into Manchu.--[[User:Cheng Yang|Cheng Yang]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yang|talk]]) 10:16, 29 September 2021 (UTC)

==英语语言文学（英美文学） 202120081482 程杨女==

《清史列传》中对此的记载如下：弱冠，太祖高皇帝召直文馆，凡国家与明及蒙古、朝鲜词命，悉出其手。有诏旨应兼汉文者，亦承命传宣，悉当上意。旋奉命译《明会典》及《素书》、《三略》。[ 王钟翰点校：《清史列传》，北京：中华书局，1987年，第187页。]
The records of Da Hai in ''the Biographies of the Qing Dynasty'' as follows: at the age of twenty, he was called into the imperial palace and served in Wen Guan (the bureaucratic ministry for translating Chinese books in the early Qing Dynasty). The naming of new words that related to the Ming Dynasty, Mongolia and North Korea were all by him to complete. He was also instructed to convey some of the Chainese-related orders totally reflecting the will of the emperor. Soon, he was asked to translate ''the Code of Ming Dynasty'', ''Su Shu''(written in Qing Dynasty), and ''San Lue''(written by Huang Shigong).[''The Biographies of the Qing Dynasty'', edited by Wang Zhonghan, Zhong Hua Book Company, 1987, pp.187.]--[[User:Cheng Yang|Cheng Yang]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yang|talk]]) 03:52, 29 September 2021 (UTC)

The records of Da Hai in ''the Biographies of Qing Dynasty'' as follows: at the age of twenty, he was appointed by Nurhachi①as a translator in Wen Guan②. The naming of new words that related to Ming Dynasty, Mongolia and North Korea were all by him to complete. He was also instructed to convey some of the Han's language-related orders totally reflecting the will of the emperor. Soon, he was asked to translate ''the Code of Ming Dynasty'', ''Su Shu''③, and ''San Lue''④.[''The Biographies of the Qing Dynasty'', edited by Wang Zhonghan, Zhong Hua Book Company, 1987, pp.187.

Annotation:①Nurhachi:the founder of Qing Dynasty, 1559–1626. ②Wen Guan: the bureaucratic ministry for translating Chinese books in the early Qing Dynasty. ③''Su Shu'': moral principles written in Western Han Dynasty by Huang Shigong. ④''San Lue'':military monograph written in Western Han Dynasty by Huang Shigong.--[[User:Ding Xuan|Ding Xuan]] ([[User talk:Ding Xuan|talk]]) 13:10, 29 September 2021 (UTC)

==英语语言文学（英美文学） 202120081483 丁旋女==

上文中所谓《明会典》，又称《大明会典》，系明代典章制度史书，内容涉及汉族文教、历法、习俗等。与《明会典》不同，《素书》成书于西汉，并非典章著作，而是哲理之学，道家思想的智慧之作。《三略》又名《黄石公三略》，既是军事战略专论，又糅合了诸子百家思想。
''Code of Ming Dynasty''① mentioned above, also known as ''Code of Great Ming Dynasty'', is one historical book about laws and regulations in the Ming Dynasty, covering Education of Han②, the Chinese calendar, and custom and so on. Different from Code of Ming Dynasty, ''Su Shu''③ written in the Western Han Dynasty is a wisdom work full of philosophy and Taoism rather than law and regulations. ''Sun-Lue''④, also called Sun-Lue of Huang Shigong, is not only a military strategy monograph but a mixture of the hundred schools of thought.

Annotation:
①''Code of Ming Dynasty'': One code about Ming’s laws and regulations in many aspects started to write in 1393 and finished in 1578.
②Education of Han: The education policy initiated by emperors of Ming Dynasty in order to transmit Confucianism thoughts and consolidate their reign.
③''Su Shu'': It is one book full of principles and truth written by Huang Shigong in the western Han Dynasty. It is used for the reign of country because of its instructive and moral function.
④''Sun-Lue'': It is one famous ancient military book including three parts written by Huang Shigong in the Western Han Dynasty. The military thoughts in it are critically useful and different from others because it discusses military strategies from political perspective.--[[User:Ding Xuan|Ding Xuan]] ([[User talk:Ding Xuan|talk]]) 06:43, 29 September 2021 (UTC)
''Code of Ming Dynasty''① mentioned above, also known as ''Code of Great Ming Dynasty'', is one historical book about laws and regulations in the Ming Dynasty, covering the range of Education of Han②, the Chinese calendar, and customs and so on. Different from Code of Ming Dynasty, ''Su Shu''③ written in the Western Han Dynasty is a work full of philosophical wisdom and Taoism rather than law and regulations. ''Sun-Lue''④, also called Sun-Lue of Huang Shigong, is not only a military strategy monograph but a mixture of the hundred schools of thought.

==英语语言文学（英美文学） 202120081485 付红岩女==

以上三者皆是重要的汉文典籍，清太祖令达海翻译它们，开启了清代翻译汉籍（书）之先河，其政治策略上的深刻用意不言而喻。

三太宗时期汉籍（书）翻译之“兴”

太宗皇太极即位后，为鼓励旗人读书，多措并举：一方面，要求“十五岁以下，八岁以上者，俱令读书”，惩处不愿教子读书者；另一方面，为改善“无书可读”的情况，又致函朝鲜，索求汉文典籍。

Since the three ancient books just mentioned above were all significant Chinese classics, Nurhaci, the Emperor in Qing Dynasty requested Dahai, the official should translate the classics into the mongolian, whose profound meaning in the aspect of political layout was very explicit.
Third, the interest of translating Chinese classics has reached its climax during the power of Nurhaci.
After NUrhaci’s coming into the power, many decrees has been enacted in attempt to encourage the people to read. On the one hand, the teenagers between 8 and 15 were allowed to read. In addition , the parents who were reluctant to support their offspring to read would be punished. On the other hand, Qing Dynasty sent a letter to Korea, in which the former asked the later to denote more Chinese classics in order to improve the predicament that the books were not enough to read.

批改：译者译文总体流畅，对原文理解总体得当。以下为细节处理上的建议

1.“清太祖”一词为中国专有名词，应先查后译。清太祖指的是努尔哈赤（1616-1626），是后金第一位大汗，清朝的奠基者，太祖在位时，“大清国”还没有定鼎中原，故此时的“清”并不能算是中国的一个朝代。译者将其处理为“the Emperor in Qing Dynasty”不够严谨。
建议改为：Nurhaci, the Founder of Qing Dynasty

2.“三太宗时期汉籍（书）翻译之‘兴’”此处为论文小标题，首先，应当注意标题格式。结构上，原文为名词短语，译者翻译时使用英语句子的SVO（A）结构，虽然意思完整，但失去了原文的简洁。
词语上，“兴”强调翻译之风的兴起、盛行，译者将其处理为“reached its climax”缺乏严谨性，太宗时期不一定是汉籍翻译的高潮时期。
建议改为：Third The Prosperity of Chinese Classics Translation During the Power of Nurhaci

3.“十五岁以下，八岁以上者，俱令读书”
词语上，“令”是主动要求的意思，译者将其处理为“be allowed”，即被允许读书的可能性，读与不读似乎都是可以接受的。结合后文“惩处不愿教子读书者”，说明“令”是强制的。“be allowed”不能精准传达出原文清政府对旗人读书的鼓励与强制性。
结构上，原句省略了主语（清政府），原意为：清政府要求十五岁以下，八岁以上的人都得读书。译者将主动结构改为了被动结构，突出强调了实施对象。
建议改为：The teenagers between 8 and 15 were asked to read.--[[User:Li Ruiyang|Li Ruiyang]] ([[User talk:Li Ruiyang|talk]]) 04:20, 29 September 2021 (UTC)

All the above three were important Han classics, so Nurhaci, the founder of Qing Dynasty, commanded Dahai to translate them into Manchu language, which opened the floodgates to the large-scale translations of Han classics and its profound political meaning was explicit.

Third The Prosperity of Chinese Classics Translation During the Power of Nurhaci

After Abahai, the son of Nurhaci, coming into power, many decrees has been issued to encourage people to read and study. On the one hand, hand, teenagers between 8 and 15 were asked to study, and their parents would be punished if they were unwilling to educate their children; On the other hand, in order to avoid the scarcity of Han classics, Qing Dynasty sent a written request to Korea for a generous lending.--[[User:Li Ruiyang|Li Ruiyang]] ([[User talk:Li Ruiyang|talk]]) 14:43, 29 September 2021 (UTC)

==英语语言文学（英美文学） 202120081497 李瑞洋女==

《朝鲜王朝实录·仁祖实录》中写道：“闻贵国有金、元所译《书》、《诗》等经及《四书》，敬求一览，惟冀慨然。”[ 国史编纂委员会：《朝鲜王朝实录》，汉城：国史编纂委员会，1973年，第38页。]可见，皇太极此时想要借阅的并非汉文原书，而是汉籍的金、元译本，即女真语和蒙古文译本。对此，朝鲜政府方面虽然进行了回应，但态度并不热忱：见索《诗》、《书》、《四书》等书籍，此意甚善，深嘉贵国尊信圣贤，慕悦礼义之盛意。

As mentioned in ''King Injo the Great'', one of the volumes in ''Annals of the Korean Dynasty'' “We heard your country have ''the Four Books'' and other classics including ''The Book of Poetry'' and T''he Book of History'', which were translated in Jin Dynasty and Yuan Dynasty, so we sincerely hope your generous lending of these books.” [National History Compilation Committee: ''Annals of the Korean Dynasty'', Seoul: National History Compilation Committee, 1973,P38] Obviously, at this time what Huang Taiji wanted to borrow was not the original Chinese book, but the Jin and Yuan translations, namely the Jurchen and Mongolian versions. Although Korean officials responded to this request, they were not very willing: It is very nice of you to ask for the Four Books and other classics including ''The Book of Poetry'' and ''The Book of History'', and we really appreciate your country’s popularity of respecting men of virtue and advocating courtesy and justice.--[[User:Li Ruiyang|Li Ruiyang]] ([[User talk:Li Ruiyang|talk]]) 02:19, 29 September 2021 (UTC)

It was recorded in ''King Injo the Great'', a volume of ''Annals of the Korean Dynasty'', that “We have heard your country have classics like ''The Book of Songs'', ''The Book of History'' and ''the Four Books'' , which were translated in Jin and Yuan Dynasties, so we sincerely hope for your generous lending of these books to us.” [National History Compilation Committee: ''Annals of the Korean Dynasty'', Seoul: National History Compilation Committee, 1973, 38.]
Obviously, what Huang Taiji wanted to borrow at that time were not the original Chinese books, but the translated versions of Jin and Yuan periods, namely the Jurchen and Mongolian versions. Although Korean officials respondedt, they didn't give a active response: It is glad to receive your borrowing request of these books, and we do appreciate your country’s deeds of respecting men of virtues and advocating courtesy and justice.--[[User:Li Shan|Li Shan]] ([[User talk:Li Shan|talk]]) 01:28, 30 September 2021 (UTC)

==英语语言文学（英美文学） 202120081498 李姗女==

第国中所有，只是天下通行本，而金、元所译，则曾未得见，兹未能奉副，无任愧歉。[ 国史编纂委员会：《朝鲜王朝实录》，汉城：国史编纂委员会，1973年，第62页。]

由于未能索得属意书籍，皇太极遂令达海继续翻译，后者于天聪六年开始翻译《通鉴》、《六韬》、《孟子》、《三国志（通俗演义）》，以及《大乘经》等。只可惜，由于达海英年早逝，上述书籍未能译竟。

The one that existed in the great empire was just a general version that circulated all over the country.（* But the one that existed in the whole country was just a general version.--[[User:Li Wenxuan|Li Wenxuan]] ([[User talk:Li Wenxuan|talk]]) 02:37, 29 September 2021 (UTC)） As the translating versions of Jin and Yuan were not publicized yet, it's a pity that their works were not able to be offered to the emperor.（* However, the translated versions in Jing Dynasty and Yuan Dynasty hadn't published yet.It's a pity that their works were not able to be offered to the emperor.--[[User:Li Wenxuan|Li Wenxuan]] ([[User talk:Li Wenxuan|talk]]) 02:37, 29 September 2021 (UTC)) [National History Compilation Committee: ''Records of the Korean Dynasty'', Seoul: National History Compilation Committee, 1973, 63.]

Failing to obtain desired translation versions, Huangtaiji,the first emperor of Qing dynasty, ordered Dahai to continue his translation work. And in the sixth year of Huangtaiji's rule (the year of 1632), Dahai began to translate ''History as a Mirror'', ''The Six Arts of War'', ''The Records of Three Kingdoms'' as well as ''Mahayana Sutra'' and so forth. [* ''Tong Jian'' ( a history book), ''Liu Tao'' ( a military book), ''Mencius''，''Records of the Three Kingdoms'' and ''Dacheng Jing'' ( a book about Buddhism) --[[User:Li Wenxuan|Li Wenxuan]] ([[User talk:Li Wenxuan|talk]]) 02:37, 29 September 2021 (UTC)] Unfortunately, the translation of these books was not finished as a result of Dahai's early death.--[[User:Li Shan|Li Shan]] ([[User talk:Li Shan|talk]]) 12:46, 11 October 2021 (UTC)

==英语语言文学（英美文学） 202120081500 李文璇女==

清初之际，达海被满洲“群推为圣人”，他翻译的汉文书籍对于拓展满族的知识范围，甚为关键。[ 叶高树：《清朝前期的文化政策》，台北：稻乡出版社，2002年，第58页。]《清实录·太宗文皇帝实录》中说：其平日所译汉书，有《刑部会典》、《素书》、《三略》、《万宝全书》俱成帙。（天聪六年）时方译《通鉴》、《六韬》、《孟子》、《三国志（通俗演义）》及《大乘经》，未竣而卒。
In the early Qing Dynasty, Dahai was regarded as a sage by the people of Manchuria. The Chinese books translated by him was significant for extending the knowledge. In the book ''Memoir of the Qing Dynasty'' for the Emperor Taizong, it recorded that the books Dahai had translated, including ''Records of Ministry of Punishment'', ''Su Shu'' ( a book about Taoism), ''San Lue'' ( a military book), ''Wan Bao Quan Shu'' ( a book about daily life), all of which had been compiled into volumes. In 1632, he translated ''Tong Jian'' ( a history book), ''Liu Tao'' ( a military book), ''Mencius''，''Records of the Three Kingdoms'' and ''Dacheng Jing'' ( a book about Buddhism). However, he died without finishing these books. --[[User:Li Wenxuan|Li Wenxuan]] ([[User talk:Li Wenxuan|talk]]) 23:26, 28 September 2021 (UTC)--[[User:Li Wen|Li Wen]] ([[User talk:Li Wen|talk]]) 02:38, 29 September 2021 (UTC)

==英语语言文学（英美文学） 202120081501 李雯女==

初我国未深谙典故，诸事皆以意创行，达海始用满文，译历代史书，颁行国中，人尽通晓。惟我太祖天纵聪明，因心肇造，所行皆与古圣贤同符默契。达海与额尔德尼应运而生，实佐一代文明之治云。[ 鄂尔泰等奉敕修：《清实录·太宗文皇帝实录》，北京：中华书局，1985年，第10页。]
In the beginning, our country was not familiar with the ancient books and stories, so everything began by "thoughts". Since Dai Hai began to use Man Character to translate historical books of the past dynasties and promulgated it in our country, it has become universal among public. Only my great Grandfather, gifted and wise, created from the heart, and acted in accordance with the ancient sages. So the Dai Hai and E Erdeni came into being following the tendecy, who help to create this generation of civilization.[E ertai,ect compiling by order of the Emperor;The record of Emperor Taizong in Qing Danasty,Beijing,Zhonghua Book Company,1985,Page 10.--[[User:Li Wen|Li Wen]] ([[User talk:Li Wen|talk]]) 02:36, 29 September 2021 (UTC)

In the beginning, our country established things at will without the study of ancient classics. They were not well-known to the public until Da Hai translated historical books of the past dynasties in Manchu and promulated them in the country. Only the Emperor Taizu, who founded the dynasty on his own way, was so gifted and wise that what he had done was exactly accordance with the ancient sages.In reasponse to the call of the times, Da Hai and Erdeni came into being and helped to create this generation of civilization.[E ertai,ect compiling by order of the Emperor;''The Record of Emperor Taizong in Qing Danasty'',Beijing,Zhonghua Book Company,1985,Page 10.--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 04:49, 29 September 2021 (UTC)

==英语语言文学（英美文学） 202120081505 刘沛婷女==

如前所述，《明会典》、《素书》、《三略》等书的翻译始于太祖时期，但成书于天聪四年，其余书籍的翻译则为时稍晚。综观达海译书，既有《孟子》之类所谓“知正心、修身、齐家、治国”者，又有《素书》、《三略》和《六韬》等“益聪明智识，选练战攻的机权”者，以及《通鉴》等“知古来兴废事迹”者，他的翻译“实佐一代文明之治”。

以《刑部会典》（又称《明会典》）为例，达海译本既是天聪年间国家创制法律的依据，也是太宗推行政治改革的蓝本。

As mentioned above, the translation of ''Code of Great Ming Dynasty'', ''Su Shu'' and ''Three Policies'' began in the reign of Taizu but was completed in 1630. The other books were translated a little later. Da Hai's translations covered abundant eminent men, such as those in ''Mencius'' who make their minds just, morality cultivated, families regulated and the country governed orderly, and those with extrodinary intelligence and knowledge of training and combat in ''Su Shu'', ''Three Policies'' and ''Six Strategies'', as well as the men knowing the rise and fall of ancient times in ''Comprehensive Mirror for Aid in Government''. Therefore, his translations did promote the rule of civilization.

Taking ''Code of Ministry of Penalty'' (also called ''Code of Great Ming Dynasty'')as an example,Da Hai's translations were not only the basis for establishing laws during the period of Tiancong, but also the blueprint for the political reforms carried out by Taizong.--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 15:25, 28 September 2021 (UTC)

As mentioned above, the translating of ''Code of Great Ming Dynasty'', ''Su Shu'' and ''Three Policies'' began during the reign of Taizu but was completed in 1630, the fourth year under the reign of Taizong. Other books were translated at a later time. Given that in Da Hai's translations exist abundant eminent men, such as those in ''Mencius'' who make their minds just, morality cultivated, families regulated and the country governed orderly, and those with extrodinary intelligence and knowledge of training the military in ''Su Shu'', ''Three Policies'' and ''Six Strategies'', as well as the men comprehending the ups and downs experienced by dynasties in the past in ''Comprehensive Mirror for Aid in Government'', his translations did promote the governance under civilization.

Taking ''Code of Ministry of Penalty'' (also called ''Code of Great Ming Dynasty'')as an example,Da Hai's translations were not only the basis for establishing laws during the period of Tiancong, but also the blueprint for the political reform carried out by Taizong.--[[User:Liu Xiao|Liu Xiao]] ([[User talk:Liu Xiao|talk]]) 02:46, 29 September 2021 (UTC)

==英语语言文学（英美文学） 202120081508 刘晓女==

太宗素有“振兴文治”的愿望，不仅创制了作为清代考试制度之滥觞的生员和举人考试，而且使巴克什、笔帖式制度臻于成熟，二者合力使得汉籍翻译的风气渐开：一方面，作为“巴克什”或“笔帖式”，希福、尼堪、刚林、苏开等人先后奉敕“（翻）译汉字书籍”或“记注国政”；另一方面，太宗以自古国家“以文教佐太平”为由，令满人争相读书，从生员中选取“文艺明通者优奖之”。[ 鄂尔泰等奉敕修：《清实录·太宗文皇帝实录》，北京：中华书局，1985年，第14页。]

在对待前朝即明代的问题上，太宗采取“讲和”与“自固”并行的政策，但其本人向往中原汉族文化，所谓“性嗜典籍，披览弗卷”即是这一情况的体现。

Holding the idea to "revitalize the administration by education and culture", Taizong not only created examinations from which the examination system of Qing Dynasty originated, for xiucai and juren, those who have passed in the exam at the county and provincial level respectively, but also made the Baksh and Bithesi system reach a mature state. Together, the two measures promoted the translation of books written in Chinese. On one hand, Xifu, Nikan, Ganglin and Su Kai, as "Bakshs" or"Bithesis", successively "translated Chinese books" or "annotated state affairs" by the order of the emperor. On the other hand, by saying that countries applied the education and culture to safeguarding the stablization since ancient times, Taizong urged people to scramble to study, and then awarded those from xiucai "who mastered literature and arts". (''Records of Qing Dynasty· Emperor Taizong'', edited by Ertai, officials in the Qing Dynasty, Beijing: China Publishing House, 1985, P14.)

In dealing with the treatment of the previous dynasty, that is Ming Dynasty, Taizong adopted the policy of "settling a dispute" and "self-consolidation". But he himself yearned for the Chinese culture of the Central Plains, which is embodied by the so called expression "Loving Chinese works and reading Buddha volumes."

Revised version：
Holding to the idea of "revitalizing the empire by education and cultural development", Taizong not only established shengyuan and juren exams（exams at the county and provincial level perspectively） initiating the imperial examination system of Qing Dynasty, but also brought the Baksh and Bithesi system to a mature state. Together, the two measures brought about the upsurge in translation of Han books. On the one hand, Xifu, Nikan, Ganglin and Su Kai, as "Bakshs" or"Bithesis", successively "translated Han books" or "annotated state affairs" by the order of the emperor. On the other hand, in the name of the national tradition of ensuring stabilization by education and cultural development, Taizong urged Man people to read and those shengyuan who stands out for their familiarity with literature and arts were awarded. (The Memoir of Qing Dynasty· Emperor Taizong, edited by Ertai, officials in the Qing Dynasty, Beijing: China Publishing House, 1985, P14.)

In dealing with the treatment of the former dynasty, namely Ming Dynasty, Taizong resorted to the policy of “peace negotiation” and " self-consolidation" in parallel. However, Taizong himself yearned for the Central Plains culture of Han, and the expression “a voracious reader of Han and Buddhist classics” can properly manifests it. --[[User:Liu Yunxin|Liu Yunxin]] ([[User talk:Liu Yunxin|talk]]) 07:53, 29 September 2021 (UTC)

==英语语言文学（英美文学） 202120081510 刘运心女==

于是，太宗诏令儒臣翻译汉书，并命金、汉之人阅读。[ 同上，第2页。]太宗深知，汉文典籍言微而义大，其精要者不仅涉及帝王治平之道，而且涉及正心、修身、齐家之理。但汉文典籍数量庞杂，翻译时必须有所选择。
Therefore, Taizong issued an order asking the civilian official to translate Han books and all the Han and Jin people are required read those. (Ibid., p.2) Taizong knew well how brief and profound Han classics were. Their essence not only involves the governess of the country and its people, but also discusses inner integrity, decent behavior and family harmony. Nevertheless, a great number and variety of Han classics means what to be translated needs selection.

Therefore, Taizong ordered Confucian officials to translate Han books, while all the Han and Jin people were required to read those. (Ibid., p.2) Taizong knew well that Han classics were sublime works with deep meaning, whose essentials included not only the method of statecraft, but also self-cultivation and family regulation. Nevertheless, among a great number of Han classics, there must be an extraction.
--[[User:Luo Anyi|Luo Anyi]] ([[User talk:Luo Anyi|talk]]) 02:14, 29 September 2021 (UTC)

==英语语言文学（英美文学） 202120081511 罗安怡女==

如天聪六年九月，王文奎奏请从读书笔帖式内，选取“伶俐通文者”一、二人，并从秀才内选取“老成明察者”一、二人，令其“讲解翻写”。天聪九年三月二十一日，仇震向太宗谏言，要求从汉人中选取精通经、史者二、三人，并从金人中选取熟悉字法者三、四人，将各经史典籍及《通鉴》（即《资治通鉴》）中“有裨君道”的精要部分“集为一部”，日日讲解，以便统治者在翻译、日讲中学习汉族文化，以及治世之道。[ 罗振玉：《天聪朝臣工奏议》，北京：中国人民大学出版社，1989年，第24-25、115页。]固然，对于汉文典籍与汉族文化，太宗并非全盘接受，而是辩证地加以吸收。
For instance, in September, 1632, the sixth year of T'ien-ts'ung (the first reign title of Emperor Taizong of Qing Dynasty), Wang Wenkui wrote to His Majesty, advising that they should elect one or two "literates who were skilled at writing and translation" from the bithesi, and one or two "scholars who were learned and perspicacious", for "teaching, interpretation, and translation" of Han classics. On March 21st, 1635, the ninth year of T’ien-ts'ung, Chou Zhen advised Emperor Taizong to elect two or three Han people who were proficient in lections and historical records, and three or four Jin people who were familiar with 字法. These scholars should choose essentials from classics and ''The Zizhi'' (''The Zizhi Tongjian'') , which benefits the ideas of ruling power of feudal emperors, and compile them into one book. Also they should discourse the compiled thoughts frequently, in which the ruler could learn the Han culture and method of statecraft. [Zhenyu, Luo .(罗振玉),《天聪朝臣工奏议》，Beijing：China Renmin University Press, 1989, P24-25, P115.] Of course, Taizong did accepted Chinese classics and han culture critically and dialectically.

For instance, in September, the sixth year of Tian Cong(the first reign title of Emperor Taizong of Qing Dynasty), Wang Wenkui wrote to His Majesty to pick up one or two who are "talented in literature” and pick up one or two who are "sophisticated and insightful"from the scholars for " interpretation, and translation" of Han classics. On March 21st, 1635, the ninth year of T’ien-ts'ung,Qiu Zhen advised Emperor Taizong to pick up two or three Han people who were proficient in lections and historical records, and three or four Jin people who were familiar with grammer to let them choose the essence which are benefical to the reign from classics and ''The Zizhi'' (''The Zizhi Tongjian'') and compile them into one book.After that,they should illuminate the compiled thoughts every day, which is beneficial to the study of the ruler about the Han culture and ruling ways. [Zhenyu, Luo .(罗振玉),《天聪朝臣工奏议》，Beijing：China Renmin University Press, 1989, P24-25, P115.] Definitely speaking, Taizong did accepted Chinese classics and han culture critically and dialectically.--[[User:Luo Xi|Luo Xi]] ([[User talk:Luo Xi|talk]]) 03:24, 29 September 2021 (UTC)(Luo Xi罗曦）

==英语语言文学（英美文学） 202120081512 罗曦女==

如天聪九年五月，上谕文馆诸臣：朕观汉文史书，殊多饰辞，虽全览无益也。今宜于《辽》、《宋》、《金》、《元》四史内，择其勤于求治而国祚昌隆，或所行悖道而统绪废坠，与夫用兵行师之方略，以及佐理之忠良、乱国之奸佞，有关政要者，汇纂翻译成书，用备观览。至汉文正史之外，野史所载，如交战几合，逞施法术之语，皆系妄诞，此等书籍，传之国中，恐无知之人信以为真，当停其翻译。[ 鄂尔泰等奉敕修：《清实录·太宗文皇帝实录》，北京：中华书局，1985年，第9页。]

For instance，in May，the ninth year of Tian Cong，the emperor informed all the offcials in the cultural center that：I have read all those historical records in Han Dynasty filled with various ornaments，only to find that I have gotten nothing。Now you had better to pick up some references among <Liao>、<Song>、<Jin>、<Yuan> about some cases like dilligence making a prosperous country or idleness making a weak one,also,you can pick up some military stratedies,and some information about those noble and talented citizens or traitors,and than you ought to translate all those relevence and compile them into a book prepared to be read.As for those unofficial history in Han excluded,like how many rounds did soldiers battle or the spell spoken by wizards,are all the nonsense,which will bewilder the ignorant,deserving to be prohibited from translation.{E Ertai：《清实录、太宗文皇帝实录》，Beijing：Chinese bookstore，1985，p9.}

A modified version: For instance, in May 1653, the Emperor said to the ministers in Literature Institution(that is, the later Cabinet in Qing Dynasty), "I have leafed through the historical works in Chinese language with various ornamental rhetorics, but the complete reading of them is not beneficial. Now it is appropriate to select salient examples referred from the four historical recrods of ''Liao'', ''Song'', ''Jin'' and ''Yuan'', which will be compiled into books for later reading. These examples include those who were dedicated in governing the country thereby with a promising national development, or those who deviated from the correct path with weak administration, and the generals adept at warfare, loyal and honest servants assisting the sovereign to handle state affairs, the treacherous ones rendering the nation disorderly and chaotic as well as other relevant political workers. Meanwhile, apart from the official history, the unofficial historical works that record untrue events, like the conditions of battles, are all fabricated. If those unfavorable books are spread to the mainland, they may bewilder the ignorant and gullible individuals, thus deserving to be prohibited from translation. (E Eratai: ''Records of Qing Dynasty·Emperor Taizong'', Beijing: China Publishing House, 1985, Page9.)--[[User:Mao Yawen|Mao Yawen]] ([[User talk:Mao Yawen|talk]]) 04:47, 29 September 2021 (UTC)毛雅文

==英语语言文学（英美文学） 202120081514 毛雅文女==

由上可知，在汉籍翻译的问题上，太宗讲求的是实用，希望将翻译与政要相关联，反对翻译浮华藻饰的汉文书籍，或者野史中所载不足为信者。以《刑部会典》的翻译为例，该译本的刊刻与颁行逐渐成为太宗朝的临政规范。《天聪朝臣工奏议》中说：“近奉上谕，凡事都照《大明会典》行，极为得策。”[ 罗振玉：《天聪朝臣工奏议》，北京：中国人民大学出版社，1989年，第2页。]

From here it can be seen that the Emperor Taizong put an emphasis on practicality with regard to the translation of Chinese works, hoping to associate translation with politics. He objected to the translation of Chinese books with flashy embellishments, or that of unofficial historical works recording unconvincing events. Take the translation of ''The Code of the Ministry of Penalty'' as an example. After its publication and promulgation, the tranlation of this code gradually became the norm of handling state affairs. ''The Petition of Ministers during the Reign of Tiancong'' states, "Recently, by the order of the Emperor, everything should be conducted in accordance with ''The Code of Ming Dynasty'', which is a desirable policy." (Luo Zhenyu: ''The Petition of Ministers during the Reign of Tiancong'', Beijing: China Remin University Press, 1989, Page2.)

From above it can be seen that the Emperor Taizong put an emphasis on practicality with regard to the translation of Chinese works, hoping to associate translation with politics. He objected to the translation of Chinese books with flashy embellishments, or that of unofficial historical works recording unconvincing events. Take the translation of The Code of the Ministry of Penalty as an example. After its publication and promulgation, the tranlation of this code gradually became the norm of handling state affairs. The Petition of Ministers during the Reign of Tiancong states, "Recently, by the order of the Emperor, everything has been conducted in accordance with The Code of Ming Dynasty, which is a desirable policy." (Luo Zhenyu: The Petition of Ministers during the Reign of Tiancong, Beijing: China Renmin University Press, 1989, Page2.)--[[User:Mou Yixin|Mou Yixin]] ([[User talk:Mou Yixin|talk]]) 10:19, 29 September 2021 (UTC)

==英语语言文学（英美文学） 202120081516 牟一心女==

宁完我也说，我国六部的设立原是照“蛮子家立的”，因而金官对于部中当举事宜原本并不知情，而今翻译《会典》（即《明会典》），参汉酌金，加以“打动”，必将使其“去因循之习”而“渐就中国之制”。[ 同上，第82页。]

四世祖时期汉籍（书）翻译之发展

清初儒臣中，除额尔德尼、噶盖和达海之外，通满、蒙、汉字者不乏他人，如伊成额、希福、刚林等，便是其中姣姣者。

Ning Wanwo also said that the establishment of the six ministries in feudal China was based “on that of minority nationalities”, so the officers of Jin Dynasty had no idea about the affairs in the ministries. Now the translation of Code(a record of laws and systems of a dynasty)(namely, Code of Great Ming Dynasty) must refer to both the precedents of Central China and Jin Dynasty and amend them to make it get rid of rigid traditions and turn to the conventions of Central China.[ibidem, Page 82]

FOURTH The development of Chinese literature (books) in Qing Dynasty Shunzhi period

Among the civilian officials in the early Qing Dynasty, besides Erdeni, Gagai, Daher, there is no lack of masters of Manchu language, Mongolian and Chinese, such as Icher, Hifo, Galin, who were the strong performers among them.

Ning Wanwo also said that the establishment of the six ministries of feudal China was based on “that of the southerners”, so Jin Guan had no knowledge of the affairs concerning the appointment in the ministries. Now the translation of Code( a record of laws and systems of a dynasty)( namely, Code of Great Ming Dynasty) must refer to both the precedents of Han and Jin Dynasty and then amend them to make it get rid of rigid traditions and gradually conform to the conventions of Central China. [ibidem, Page 82.]

FOURTH The development of Chinese literature (books) in Shizu Period

Among the civilian officials in the early Qing Dynasty, besides Erdeni, Gagai, Daher, there is no lack of masters of Manchu language, Mongolian and Chinese, such as Icher, Hifo, Galin, who were the best performers of them.--[[User:Shi Liqing|Shi Liqing]] ([[User talk:Shi Liqing|talk]]) 12:58, 29 September 2021 (UTC)

==英语语言文学（英美文学） 202120081521 石丽青女==

据传，伊成额不仅将《太祖高皇帝实录》译成汉文，而且翻译了朝鲜所奏表章，以及《礼部会典》等书。[ 清高宗敕纂：《八旗满洲氏族通谱》，沈阳：辽沈书社，1989年，第10页。]希福兼通满、蒙、汉三种语言，他的翻译有别于伊成额，不是将满文译成汉语，也不是将朝鲜文译成满语，而是主要翻译汉书、汉典，所翻译的汉文书籍包括《辽》、《金》、《元》三史等。希福的上述译书于顺治元年进呈皇帝，获世祖恩赉。

It is said that Yi Cheng'e translated not only the Annals of Emperor Taizu Gao into Chinese, but also the seals played by North Korea and the Book of the Ministry of Ceremonies. [ Qing Gaozong's Royal Compilation: "Eight Banners Manzhou Clan Genealogy", Shenyang: Liaoshen Publishing House, 1989, page10.] Xifu was fluent in Manchu, Mongolian and Chinese. His translation was different from Yicheng'e. He did not translate Manchu into Chinese or Korean into Manchu, but mainly translated Chinese books and Chinese classics, including Liao, Jin and Yuan. Xifu's translation was presented to the emperor in the first year of Shunzhi and won the honor of Shizu. --[[User:Shi Liqing|Shi Liqing]] ([[User talk:Shi Liqing|talk]]) 05:50, 29 December 2021 (UTC)

It is said that Yi Cheng'e translated not only the Factual Record of Taizu, but also the memorials presented to the emperor by North Korea, Records of the Board of Rites, and other books. [ Qing Gaozong's Royal Compilation: "Eight Banners Manzhou Clan Genealogy", Shenyang: Liaoshen Publishing House, 1989, page10.] Xi Fu was proficient in Manchu, Mongolian and Chinese, whose translation was different from Yi Cheng’e’s. Neither did he translate Manchu into Chineses nor Korean into Manchu, he mainly translated Chinese books and classics, including Liao, Jin and Yuan. Xi Fu’s translation was presented to the emperor in the first year of Shunzhi and won the honor of Shizu.--[[User:Wang Lifei|Wang Lifei]] ([[User talk:Wang Lifei|talk]]) 02:14, 29 September 2021 (UTC)

==英语语言文学（英美文学） 202120081523 王李菲女==

《清实录·世祖章皇帝实录》中，曾详细记载了希福进呈译本时的情形：窃稽自古史册所载，政治之得失，民生之休戚，国家之治乱，无不详悉具备，其事虽往，而可以诏今；其人虽亡，而足以镜世。故《语》云：“善者吾师，不善者亦吾师。”从来嬗继之圣王，未有不法此而行者也。

In the “Records of Qing Dynasty· Emperor Fu Lin”, there was a detailed record of the situation when Xi Fu presented the translation: in the ancient records, whatever gain and loss in politics, weal and woe of people’s livelihood, or governance and chaos of countries, they’ve all been documented in detail. Although things have passed, they can still enlighten us. The ancestors have passed away, they can also provide references. Therefore, the “Language” said, “The heroes are my teacher, and so are the villains .” Virtuous emperors from ancient times to present have all followed this rule.--[[User:Wang Lifei|Wang Lifei]] ([[User talk:Wang Lifei|talk]]) 16:01, 28 September 2021 (UTC)

The “Records of Qing Dynasty· Emperor Fu Lin”, which once recorded in detail the situation when Xi Fu presented the translation: As far as I am concerned, from the ancient records, the gains and losses of politics, the welfare and woe of people’s livelihood, and the governance and chaos in the country, all of which have been documented in detail. Although things have passed, they can still enlighten us. Although the ancestors passed away, they are enough to mirror the world. Therefore, the “Language” says, “The success is my teacher, and so is the failure.” Virtuous emperors from ancient times have all followed this rule.--[[User:Wang Lifei|Wang Lifei]] ([[User talk:Wang Lifei|talk]]) 16:01, 28 September 2021 (UTC) Edited by Wang Zhenlong.

==英语语言文学（英美文学） 202120081525 王镇隆男==

辽、金虽未混一，而辽已得天下之半，金亦得天下之大半，至元则混一寰区，奄有天下，其法令政教皆有可观者焉。我先帝鉴古之心，永怀不释，特命臣等将《辽》、《金》、《元》三史，芟（shān）削繁冗，惟取其善足为法，恶足为戒，及征伐畋（tián）猎之事，译以满语，缮写呈书。臣等敬奉纶音，将《辽史》自高祖至西辽耶律大石末年，凡十四帝，共三百七年；《金》凡九帝，共一百十九年；《元》凡十四帝，共一百六十二年，详录其有裨益者，……伏乞皇上万几之暇，时赐省览，懋稽古之德，弘无前之烈，臣等不胜幸甚。[ 鄂尔泰等奉敕修：《清实录·世祖章皇帝实录》，北京：中华书局，1985年，第15-16页。]

Although Liao and Jin did not mix together, Liao had already won half of the world, and Jin had also won the other half. Until the Yuan Dynasty, they were combined into one whole world,and there were considerable and available laws, politics and religions. My first emperor’s desire to learn from the ancients will never be released. I and other ministers were ordered to edit and slash the three histories of "Liao", "Jin" and "Yuan", but take the good part as the law, and the evil part as the precepts. And the matters of conquering and hunting, were translated into Manchu,written and presented in a book. I and others followed respectfully my Lord ‘s orders,took the history of Liao from Gaozu to the last year of Yelu Dashi of Xi Liao, where there were 14 emperors, a total of 370 years; Jin, the nine Emperors, lasted one hundred and nineteen years;Yuan recorded all the fourteen emperors for 162 years, and had careful records of those who have benefited us, ... I beg my Lord to have occasional reviews when my Lord is not dealing with country’s affairs,and to encourage your people to live up to ancient virtues and promote the unparalleled huge achievement. I and other would greatly appreciate it. [E'ertai et al. revised with imperial edict "Records of the Qing Dynasty·Records of Emperor Shizuzhang", Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1985, pp. 15-16. ]

Although Liao and Jin did not unite, Liao had already occupied half of the world, so had Jin. Until Yuan Dynasty, they combined and occupied the whole country, and there were considerable and available laws, politics and religions. My previous emperor’s desire to learn from the ancients will never be released. Other ministers and I were ordered to edit and slash ''the History of Liao, Jin and Yuan Dynasty'', take merits as the principle, and learn lessons from demerits. And the matters of conquering and hunting, were translated into Manchu, written and presented in a book. We followed respectfully my Majesty ‘s orders, took ''The History of Liao Dynasty'' from Gaozu to the last year of Yelu Dashi of Xi Liao, where there were 14 emperors, a total of 370 years; ''Jin'', nine Emperors, lasted one hundred and nineteen years; ''Yuan'' recorded all the fourteen emperors for 162 years, and had careful records of those who have benefited us, ... I beg my Majesty to have occasional reviews when he is not dealing with country’s affairs, and to encourage people to observe traditional virtues and advocate the unprecedent huge achievement. We all would greatly appreciate it. [E'ertai et al. revised with imperial edict ''Records of Emperor Shizuzhang in the Qing Dynasty'', Beijing: China Book Company, 1985, pp. 15-16. ]--[[User:Wei Yiwen|Wei Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Wei Yiwen|talk]]) 09:35, 29 September 2021 (UTC)

==英语语言文学（英美文学） 202120081526 卫怡雯女==

上文中，不仅明确论及汉文典籍的历史作用，而且阐述了翻译这些典籍的必要性、作用与目的等，其总目标是“懋稽古之德”，以翻译佐文教，治太平。换言之，希福希望通过翻译《辽》、《金》、《元》三史等，从中原汉族王朝中借鉴国家治理经验，以接续太宗皇太极以来以经世致用为核心的翻译思想，并为嗣后翻译汉籍树立原则与典范。据《国立故宫博物院善本旧籍总目》、《世界满文文献目录》、《全国满文图书资料联合目录》，以及《清代内府刻书目录解题》等综合统计，顺治年间，由官方刊刻的汉书满文译本共九种，分别是《辽史》、《金史》、《元史》、《洪武要训》、《三国志（通俗演义）》、《诗经》、《表忠录》、《孝经》（阿什坦译）和《六韬三略》。其中，顺治七年译成的《三国志（通俗演义）》既有满文本，又有满汉合璧本。

As described in the above, it not only discussed the historical role of Chinese classics, but also illustrated the necessity, the function and the goal of translating these ancient books and records. The overall goal is to encourage people to observe traditional virtues, using translation to assist the country to develop culture and education. In other words, Xifu wanted to draw on the experience of state governance from Han Dynasty in the central China through translating the history of Liao, Jin, and Yuan Dynasty in order to succeed the thought of translation of administering state affairs and applying theory to practice as the core since the emperor Taizong Huangtaiji, and set up the principle and model of translating Chinese books for later generation. According to general statistics of The General Catalogue of The Best Edition and the Ancient Books and Records of Taipei's National Palace Museum, The Catalogue of World’s Manchu Literature and The Union Directory of National Manchu Books and Materials and Solving Problems in the Catalogue of Engraved Books in the Qing Dynasty, during the period of Tongzhi, there are nine Manchu translated versions of the official published Chinese books by blocking print, they are: The History of Liao Dynasty, The History of Jin Dynasty, The History of Yuan Dynasty, Hongwu Yaoxun, The Romance of Three Kingdoms, Book of Songs, The Record of Loyalty, Classic of Filial Piety(translated by Ashtan), Liu Tao and San Lue. Among them, The Romance of Three Kingdoms translated in the seventh year of Tongzhi had both Manchu version and the combined one of Chinese and Manchu.--[[User:Wei Yiwen|Wei Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Wei Yiwen|talk]]) 03:23, 29 September 2021 (UTC)

Thereinbefore, it not only discussed the historic role of Chinese classics, but also illustrated the necessity, the function and the goal of translating these books. The overall goal is to encourage people to observe traditional virtues, using translation to develop culture and education and bring social prosperity. In other words, Xifu wanted to draw on the experience of state governance from Chinese dynasty in the central plains through translating the histories of ''Liao'', ''Jin'', and ''Yuan''. In this way, the translation idea originated from the dynasty of Huangtaiji that knowledge should benefit national affairs can be succeeded and set up the principle and model of translating Chinese books for later generation. According to the general statistics of ''The General Catalogue of the Publications and Classics of National Palace Museum'', ''The Catalogue of World’s Manchu Literature'' and ''The Union Catalogue of National Manchu Books and Materials'' and ''Solving Problems in the Catalogue of Engraved Books in Qing Dynasty'', during the period of Shunzhi dynasty, there are nine official Manchu translations of Chinese books.They are ''History of Liao Dynasty'', ''History of Jin Dynasty'', ''History of Yuan Dynasty'', ''Hongwuyaoxun'', ''Records of the Three Kingdoms'', ''Classic of Poetry'', ''Record of Loyalty'', ''Classic of Filial Piety''(translated by Ashtan), ''Liutaosanlue''. Among them, ''Records of the Three Kingdoms'' translated in the seventh year of Shunzhi dynasty has both Manchu version and the combined one of Chinese and Manchu.(revised by Wei Chuxuan)--[[User:Wei Chuxuan|Wei Chuxuan]] ([[User talk:Wei Chuxuan|talk]]) 07:11, 29 September 2021 (UTC)--[[User:Wei Chuxuan|Wei Chuxuan]] ([[User talk:Wei Chuxuan|talk]]) 08:59, 29 September 2021 (UTC)

==英语语言文学（英美文学） 202120081527 魏楚璇女==

另外，《孝经》曾于顺治、康熙、雍正朝刊刻三次，但版本明显不同：顺治年间的刊行本为阿什坦译本，康熙年间的刊行本为和素译校本，雍正时期的版本则译者未明，仅注明“雍正皇帝敕译”。令人好奇的是，虽然世祖笃信佛教，论佛谈法，但从相关文献看，未见有顺治朝翻译的汉文经书，其中原因，不得而知。
What's more, ''Filial Piety'' has different publications of translation in different dynasties. In Shunzhi dynasty, the publication is Ashtan's translation. In Kangxi dynasty, the publication is Hesu's translation. In Yongzheng dynasty, the translator is unknown. It is only indicated in the publication that the translation is asked by Yongzheng emperor. Curiously according to relevant literature though Shunzhi emperor believed in Buddhism, there is no translation of Buddhist classics made in his dynasty. And the reason of this remains a mystery.--[[User:Wei Chuxuan|Wei Chuxuan]] ([[User talk:Wei Chuxuan|talk]]) 02:12, 29 September 2021 (UTC)--[[User:Wei Chuxuan|Wei Chuxuan]] ([[User talk:Wei Chuxuan|talk]]) 09:05, 29 September 2021 (UTC)

What's more, ''Filial Piety'' has been published and printed three times in the dynasty of Shunzhi, Kangxi and Yongzheng respectively but with three obvious different versions. During the Shunzhi dynasty was the translation of Ashtan, during the dynasty of Kangxi was of Hesu and during the Yongzheng dynasty was of the unknown writer, only indicating "translating under the order of the emperor Yongzheng". What made people curious was that although Shizu sincerely believed in Buddhism, talking about Buddhism and Buddhist doctrine, there was no Chinese Confucian classics translated during the Shunzhi Dynasty according to the relevant references. And the reason of this remains unknown.--[[User:Wei Zhaoyan|Wei Zhaoyan]] ([[User talk:Wei Zhaoyan|talk]]) 08:14, 29 September 2021 (UTC)(Wei Zhaoyan 魏兆妍）

==英语语言文学（英美文学） 202120081528 魏兆妍女==

世祖年间翻译刊行的九种汉文书籍中，《六韬》、《三国志（通俗演义）》和《大乘经》等三种原系达海于天聪六年开始翻译，但由于达海早逝未能译成。三部作品中，尤以《三国志（通俗演义）》的翻译所获世祖认可为甚。《清实录·世祖章皇帝实录》中说：
以翻译《三国志（通俗演义）》告成，赏大学士范文程、刚林、祁充格、宁完我、洪承畴、冯铨、宋权、学士查布海、苏纳海、王文奎、伊图、胡理、刘清泰、来袞（gǔn）、马尔笃、蒋赫德等鞍马、银两有差。[ 鄂尔泰等奉敕修：《清实录·世祖章皇帝实录》，北京：中华书局，1985年，第13页。]

Nine kinds of Chinese literary books has been translated and published during the year of Shizu, among which Da Hai began translating three kinds of the original system of ''Liu Tao'', ''The Popular Romance of the Three Kingdoms'' and ''Mahayana Sutra'' during the sixth year of Tian Cong. However, Da Hai failed to translate them all successfully due to his early death. Among these three works, especially the translation of ''The Popular Romance of the Three Kingdoms'' has received the most approval of Shizu. Said in ''The Real Record of the Qing Dynasty · Real Record of the Emperor Shizu Zhang'': With the completed translation of ''The Popular Romance of the Three Kingdoms'', Shizu would award some side horses and silver to the Grand Master Fan Wenching, Gang Lin, Qi Chongge, Ning Wanwo, Hong Chengchou, Feng Quan, Song Quan and Bachelor Zha Buhai, Su Nahai, Wang Wenkui, Yi Tu, Hu Li, Liu Qingtai, Lai Gun, Ma Erdu, Jiang Hede. [ Ertai and others were ordered by the emperor to modify: ''The Real Record of Qing Dynasty · Real Record of the Emperor Shizu Zhang'', Beijing: China Publishing House, 1985, Page 13. ]--[[User:Wei Zhaoyan|Wei Zhaoyan]] ([[User talk:Wei Zhaoyan|talk]]) 07:52, 29 September 2021 (UTC)

Among the nine kinds of Chinese books translated and published during the reign of Shizu emperor , three were first translated by Da Hai in 1632, including "Liu Tao", “The Popular Romance of the Three Kingdoms" and "Mahayana Sutra”. Yet they failed to be finished due to his early death. Of the three works, the translation of "The Popular Romance of the Three Kingdoms" received the most recognition of Shizu emperor. According to "The Real Record of the Qing Dynasty · Real Record of the Emperor Shizu Zhang": Given the successful translation of "The Popular Romance of the Three Kingdoms", Shizu emperor awarded some side horses and silver to the Grand Master Fan Wenching, Gang Lin, Qi Chongge, Ning Wanwo, Hong Chengchou, Feng Quan, Song Quan and Bachelor Zha Buhai, Su Nahai, Wang Wenkui, Yi Tu, Hu Li, Liu Qingtai, Lai Gun, Ma Erdu, Jiang Hede, and the amount of awards depended on their position.[ Ertai and others ordered by the emperor to modify: ''The Real Record of Qing Dynasty · Real Record of the Emperor Shizu Zhang'', Beijing: China Publishing House, 1985, Page 13. ]--[[User:Xiao Yiyao|Xiao Yiyao]] ([[User talk:Xiao Yiyao|talk]]) 07:32, 29 September 2021 (UTC)

==英语语言文学（英美文学） 202120081531 肖毅瑶女==

此次获得赏赐者共计十六人，从大学士到学士不等，既赏鞍马，又赏银两，可见其对于该书翻译的重视。值得特别注意的是，关于《三国志（通俗演义）》一书的翻译，《清初内国史院满文档案译编》中也有记载，不仅更加详实，而且内容上也与《清实录》中的记载有较大出入。为便于比较，现一并摘录如下：
A total number of 16 officers, varying from Grand Masters to Bachelors, were awarded saddled horses and silver, which indicated that the emperor had attached great importance to the translation of this book. Besides, what deserves a speacial attention was that ''Translation and Compilation of Manchu Archives of the National Institute of History in the Early Qing Dynasty'' also documented some facts about the translation of the ''Romance of Three Kingdoms''. The records were not only more detailed but also quite different from that of the ''Factual Record of Qing dynasty''. For the convenience of comparison, both were excerpted as follows:

A total number of 16 officers, varying from Grand Academcians to Bachelors, were awarded saddled horses and silver, which indicated that the emperor had attached great importance to the translation of this book. Besides, it is worth paying speacial attention that ''Translation and Compilation of Manchu Archives of the National Institute of History in the Early Qing Dynasty'' also documented some facts about the translation of the ''Romance of Three Kingdoms''. The records were not only more detailed but also quite different from that of the ''Factual Record of Qing dynasty''. For the convenience of comparison, both were excerpted as follows:----[[User:Xie Jiafen|Xie Jiafen]] ([[User talk:Xie Jiafen|talk]]) 13:33, 11 October 2021 (UTC)

==英语语言文学（英美文学） 202120081532 谢佳芬女==

以翻译《三国志（通俗演义）》告成，赏赐内翰林院大臣。赏予大学士范文程巴克什、刚林巴克什、祁充格、宁完我、洪承畴、冯铨、宋权七大臣彩鞍、雕辔（pèi）、……头等马各一匹、银各五十两。赏学士查布海、苏纳海、王文奎、伊图、胡理、清泰、来袞、马迩都、赫德九人无鞍二等马各一匹、银各四十两。

When ''Romance of the Three Kingdoms’’ having been completed，all the ministers in Hanlin Academcian were awarded. The grand secretaries Fan Wencheng, Gang Lin, Qi Chongge, Ning Wanwo, Hong Chengchou, Feng Quan, Song Quan were rewarded color saddle, bridle, one first-class horse and fifty liang of silver respectively. The nine scholars, Cha Buhai, Su Nahai, Wang Wenkui, Yitu, Huli, Qingtai, laigon, Ma Youdu and Hede, each have one second-class bareback horse and forty liang of silver

After the completion of “Records of the Three Kingdoms”, ministers of Hanlin Academy were awarded. Maesters including Fan Wencheng, Gang Lin, Qi Chongge, Ning Wanwo, Hong Chengchou, Feng Quan, Song Quan were awarded with colorized saddle, bridle, a first-class horse and fifty Liang of silver respectively. Nine scholars like Cha Buhai, Su Nahai, Wang Wenkui, Yitu, Huli, Qingtai, laigon, Ma Youdu and Hede, each of them has one second-class bareback horse and forty liang of silver respectively.--[[User:Xiong Min|Xiong Min]] ([[User talk:Xiong Min|talk]]) 13:45, 11 October 2021 (UTC)

==英语语言文学（英美文学） 202120081534 熊敏女==

赏内弘文院主事能图、叶成格、曹皮、铿特依、杜当、布尔凯、侍讲学士吕宗烈、侍读学士张皮机、典籍官王丛庞九人银各四十两。赏博士科尔科岱、霍斯霍利、尼曼、苏和、奇同格、芒色、霍托、穆成格、周有德、必利科图、国史院博士图巴海、秘书院秦达浑臣十二人银各二十两。赏笔帖式翁国顺、额斯黑、高利、马齐蘭、乌勒扈、穆成格、必利科图、严楚蘭、阿希图、国史院笔帖式朱臣十人银各二十两。

Chiefs of Hongwen Academy like Neng Tu,Ye Chengge,Cao Pi,Qiang Teyi,Du Dang, But Erkai,teacher like Lv Zonglie, attendant like Zhang Piji, manager of ancient books like Wang Congpang were rewarded forty pounds of silver respectively.Doctor Me Erkedai, Huh Sihuoli,Niman,Su He,Qi Tongge, Mang Se, Huo Tuo,Mu Chengge,Zhou Youde, Bi Liketu,Tu Bahai,Qin Dahun were all awarded 20 pounds of silver. Weng Guoshun,E Sihei,Golly, Ma Qilan,Wu Leba,Mu Chengge, Bi Liketu,Yan Chulan,A Xitu,Zhu Chen were all rewarded with 20 pounds of silver.

Chief cadres of Hongwen Academy including Neng Tu,Ye Chengge,Cao Pi,Qiang Teyi,Du Dang,Bu Erkai,Teacher like Lv Zonglie, Attendant like Zhang Piji, Manager of ancient books Wang Congpang were rewarded forty silver pounds respectively. Doctor Me Erkedai, Huh Sihuoli,Niman,Su He,Qi Tongge, Mang Se, Huo Tuo,Mu Chengge,Zhou Youde, Bi Liketu,Tu Bahai,Qin Dahun were all awarded 20 silver pounds. Weng Guoshun,E Sihei,Golly, Ma Qilan,Wu Leba,Mu Chengge, Bi Liketu,Yan Chulan,A Xitu,Zhu Chen were all rewarded with 20 silver pounds.--[[User:Yang Ye|Yang Ye]] ([[User talk:Yang Ye|talk]]) 12:23, 30 September 2021 (UTC)

==英语语言文学（英美文学） 202120081539 羊叶女==

以上送礼部一一宣名，跪受赏。[ 中国第一历史档案馆编：《清初内国史院满文档案译编·顺治朝》，北京：光明日报出版社，1989年，第80页。]

显然，上述两种文献提到的系同一件事情，但内容上有明显出入：首先，封赏的人数不同。
The officials above give gifts to the Ministry of Rites one by one, being declared the name, and kneeling to be rewarded. [Editor of China's First Historical Archives: Translation of manchu archives of the National Historical Institute of the early Qing Dynasty, Shunzhi Dynasty, Beijing: Guangming Daily Press, 1989, p. 80.] Obviously,the two documents mention the same thing, but there are obvious differences in content: first, the number of people who are rewarded is quite different.

All these officials on the list will be named in recognition and rewarded on their knees at the Ministry of Rites. [ Edited by the First Historical Archive of China: "Translation and compilation of Manchu archives in the Early Qing Dynasty•Shunzhi Dynasty", GuangMing Daily Press, 1989, P80]

Appartently, the two literatures mentioned above refer to the same thing, but they differ in content: Firstly, the number of rewarded people is different. --[[User:Yang Liuqing|Yang Liuqing]] ([[User talk:Yang Liuqing|talk]]) 03:34, 29 September 2021 (UTC)

==英语语言文学（英美文学） 202120081543 杨柳青女==

例如，《清实录》中只有十六人，《清初内国史院满文档案译编》则多达四十七人，二者之间的出入主要在于弘文院主事、侍讲与侍读学士、典籍官、博士，以及笔帖式等职官群体名单。其次，在赏赐的物件问题上，《清初内国史院满文档案译编》的记载较之《清实录》明显更加详实、具体，可信度更高。再次，在个别封赏对象的称呼上，两种文献之间也有差异。

For example, only 16 civil officials are rewarded according to the "Records of the Qing Dynasty" while officials who are rewarded according to the "Translation and Compilation of Manchu Archives of the Chinese Academy in the Early Qing Dynasty" are as many as over 40. This difference mainly lies in the list of official groups such as the director of the Hong Arts Institute, official bachelors, classics officers, learned scholars and clerks handling paperwork. Secondly, the records about rewarded items in the "Translation of Manchu Archives of the Chinese Academy in the Early Qing Dynasty" are obviously more detailed, accurate and credible than those in the "Records of the Qing Dynasty". Thirdly, there are also some differences between the two literatures in terms of the appellation of the rewarded officials.--[[User:Yang Liuqing|Yang Liuqing]] ([[User talk:Yang Liuqing|talk]]) 03:30, 29 September 2021 (UTC)

For example, only 16 civil officials were rewarded in the The Records of the Qing Dynasty while officials rewarded in the Manchu Archives Translation and Compilation of the Inner State History Academy in the Early Qing Dynasty were as many as over 40. This difference mainly lay in the list of official groups such as the director of the Hong Arts Institute, official bachelors, classics officers, learned scholars and clerks handling paperwork. Secondly, the records about rewarded items in the Manchu Archives Translation and Compilation of the Inner State History Academy in the Early Qing Dynasty were obviously more detailed, accurate and credible than those in the The Records of the Qing Dynasty. Thirdly, there were also some differences between the two literatures in terms of the appellation of the rewarded officials.--[[User:Yi Yangfan|Yi Yangfan]] ([[User talk:Yi Yangfan|talk]]) 05:11, 29 September 2021 (UTC)--[[User:Yi Yangfan|Yi Yangfan]] ([[User talk:Yi Yangfan|talk]]) 05:11, 29 September 2021 (UTC)Yi Yangfan

==英语语言文学（英美文学） 202120081545 易扬帆女==

例如，《清实录》中的“刘清泰”被写作《清初内国史院满文档案译编》中的“清泰”，“马尔笃”被写作“马迩都”，“蒋赫德”被写作“赫德”，等等。
世祖年间翻译的汉文书籍中，《洪武宝训》、《表忠录》、《诗经》与《孝经》等也各具代表性。《洪武宝训》系明朝皇权政治的象征，反映了明太祖朱元璋治国理政的理念和方针政策。
For example, Liu Qingtai in Factual Record of Qing Dynasty was written as Qingtai in Manchu Archives Translation and Compilation of the Inner State History Academy in the Early Qing Dynasty, Mar Du was written as Ma Erdu, and Jiang Hede was written as Hurd, etc.
The translated Chinese books in the certain era of Fulin years, such as HongWu Baoxun, The Record of Loyalty, Books of Songs and Classic of Filial Piety have had their own representatives. HongWu Baoxun was a symbol of the imperial power politics of Ming Dynasty, which reflected the ideas and policies of Zhu Yuanzhang, the emperor Taizu of Ming Dynasty.--[[User:Yi Yangfan|Yi Yangfan]] ([[User talk:Yi Yangfan|talk]]) 16:03, 28 September 2021 (UTC)Yi Yangfan

For example, “Liu Qingtai” in Factual Record of Qing Dynasty was written as “Qingtai” in Manchu Archives Translation and Compilation of the Inner State History Academy in the Early Qing Dynasty, "Mar Du" was written as "Ma Erdu", "Jiang Hede" was written as "Hede", and so on. The translated Chinese books in Fulin years, such as HongWu Baoxun, The Record of Loyalty, Books of Songs and Classic of Filial Piety all were of representative. Hongwu Baoxun was a symbol of imperial power politics in the Ming Dynasty and reflected the ideas and policies of Zhu Yuanzhang, the emperor of the Ming Dynasty.--[[User:Yin Huizhen|Yin Huizhen]] ([[User talk:Yin Huizhen|talk]]) 02:46, 29 September 2021 (UTC)

==英语语言文学（英美文学） 202120081546 殷慧珍女==

顺治三年三月，《洪武宝训》的满文翻译完成，成为清朝入关后的首部汉籍译作。世祖对于该部译作极为重视，不仅赏赐了刚林、宁完我、范文程等译者，而且由摄政王多尔衮钦命汉官代笔，以世祖名义为译作制作序文，颁行全国。世祖对明太祖推崇备至，尤其是后者制定的条例章程，认为历代贤君莫如洪武，因而本书的翻译目的性极强。
In the March of the third year of Shunzhi, the Manchu translation of Hongwu Baoxun was completed, becoming the first translation written by Chinese writer after the Qing Dynasty was in power. The emperor Shizu attached great importance to this translation. He not only rewarded the translators such as Gang Lin,Ning Wanwo, and Fan Wencheng, ect., but also the regent Dorgon appointed Han officals to write a preface in the name of Shizu, which was issued throughout the country. The emperor Shizu revered the emperor Taizu of Ming Dynasty, especially the regulations and articles he formulated, and believed that there were no virtuous monarchs of all dynasties like Hongwu, so the translation purpose of this book was very strong.--[[User:Yin Huizhen|Yin Huizhen]] ([[User talk:Yin Huizhen|talk]]) 01:17, 29 September 2021 (UTC)

In the March of the third year of Shunzhi, the Manchu translation of Hongwu Baoxun was completed, becoming the first translation done by Chinese translators since the Qing Dynasty was established. The Emperor Shizu attached great importance to this translation. Not only he rewarded the translators such as Gang Lin,Ning Wanwo, and Fan Wencheng, ect., but also the regent Dorgon appointed the officals of Han Dynasty to write a preface, which was issued throughout the country, in the name of Shizu. The Emperor Shizu praised the emperor Taizu of Ming Dynasty highly, especially the regulations and articles he formulated, and he believed that there were no more virtuous monarchs of all dynasties than Hongwu, so the translation purpose of this book was very strong.--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 02:21, 29 September 2021 (UTC)

==英语语言文学（英美文学） 202120081548 尹媛女==

换言之，世祖希望借由此书的翻译，以中原汉族王朝的所谓“正统”巩固满清统治，粉饰民族征服和民族压迫。事实上，以翻译汉书，尤其是汉文典章制度书籍的翻译，作为统治的工具和手段，这一点在太宗时期即已存在。作为国家治理的重要手段，太宗不仅令达海改进老满文，而且钦定翻译了不少汉文书籍，如明太祖颁发的《大诰三编》和《三国演义》等，用作出谋划策和军事征讨的参考。
In other words, Shizu hoped to consolidate the rule of Qing Dynasty with the so-called "orthodox" of Han Dynasty in the Central Plains to deny national conquest and oppression by translating this book. Actually, in the reign of Emperor Taizong, it had existed that the translation of Chinese books, especially the translation of Chinese laws and regulations, was regarded as the tools and means of ruling. As the important mean of national governance, the old manchu scripts were developed by Da Hai and not a few Chinese books, such as ''The third Edition of Penal Code'' and ''The Romance of the Three Kingdoms''issued by Emperor Hongwu were translated under the decree of Emperor Taizong, which were used as a reference for planning and advising and military campaigns.--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 15:44, 28 September 2021 (UTC)

In other words, Shizu hoped to consolidate the rule of Qing Dynasty with the so-called "orthodox" of Han Dynasty in the Central Plains to whitewash national conquests and oppressions by translating this book. Actually, in the reign of Emperor Taizong, it had existed that the translation of Chinese books, especially the translation of Chinese laws and regulations, was regarded as the tools and means of ruling. As an important mean of national governance, the old manchu scripts were developed by Da Hai and not a few Chinese books, such as ''The third Edition of Penal Code'' and ''The Romance of the Three Kingdoms''issued by Emperor Hongwu were translated under the decree of Emperor Taizong, which were used as a reference for planning and military campaigns.--[[User:Zhan Ruoxuan|Zhan Ruoxuan]] ([[User talk:Zhan Ruoxuan|talk]]) 03:01, 29 September 2021 (UTC)

==英语语言文学（英美文学） 202120081549 詹若萱女==

《表忠录》同样辑自明朝嘉靖年间，实为杨继盛的两部奏疏，即《请诛贼臣疏》和《请罢马市疏》，由汪宗伊撰于明朝万历年间，属吏部传记类。顺治十三年前后，世祖降旨将杨继盛事迹写成《忠愍记》。所谓“忠愍”，即明穆宗因念及杨继盛参劾严嵩之功，誉其为“直谏诸臣之首”，而追赠给后者的谥号。
The Record of Loyalty was also written from the JiaJing peroid of Ming Dynasty. It was actually consisted of two memorials to throne of Yang JIsheng, namely memorial on killing traitors and memorial on closing the horse market written by Wang Zongyi during the Wanli period of Ming Dynasty. It belonged to official biography. About ShunZhi 13 years, the Emperor Shizu made a decree to write Yang Jisheng’s good deeds into The Record of Zhong Min. The so-called “Zhong Min” referred to the posthumous title given to Yang Jisheng after his death, because Emperor Muzong praised him as “the head of the ministers” for his contribution to impeaching Yan Song.--[[User:Zhan Ruoxuan|Zhan Ruoxuan]] ([[User talk:Zhan Ruoxuan|talk]]) 02:27, 29 September 2021 (UTC)

The Record of Loyalty was also written in the JiaJing peroid of Ming Dynasty. It was actually consisted of two memorials to throne of Yang JIsheng, namely memorial on killing traitors and memorial on closing the horse market written by Wang Zongyi during the Wanli period of Ming Dynasty. It is a kind of official biography. About ShunZhi 13 years, the Emperor Shizu made a decree to write Yang Jisheng’s good deeds into The Record of Zhong Min. The so-called “Zhong Min” referred to the posthumous title given to Yang Jisheng after his death, because Emperor Muzong praised him as “the head of the ministers” for his contribution to impeaching Yan Song.--[[User:Zhong Yifei|Zhong Yifei]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yifei|talk]]) 13:16, 11 October 2021 (UTC)

==英语语言文学（英美文学） 202120081553 钟义菲女==

《忠愍记》成书后，世祖御制《表忠录·序》以表彰杨继盛，其中写道：自古贤臣正士效力王家，率授命致身，捐生赴义。迹其所遭，若无厚幸然。
After the record of Zhong Min was written, the emperor Shizu personally wrote a preface to the record of loyalty to commend Yang Jisheng, which wrote: since ancient times, virtuous officials have devotedly served the emperor family, sacrificing their lives for justice. From what happened, there was no luck.

After the Record of Zhong Min was finished, the emperor Shizu personally wrote the Preface to the Record of Loyalty to commend Yang Jisheng, which wrote: since ancient times, virtuous officials and soldiers have devotedly served the loyal family, sacrificing their lives for justice. From what happened to them, there was no luck.--[[User:Zhong Yulu|Zhong Yulu]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yulu|talk]]) 12:40, 1 October 2021 (UTC)

==英语语言文学（英美文学） 202120081554 钟雨露女==

而时过论定，声称振杨，及于代远风遥，流徽弥茂，留连曩迹，如遘其人。是以孟轲有言：“奋乎百世之上，百世之下闻者莫不兴起也”。……顾竭志尽忠者，人臣之谊；善善恶恶者，大道之公。

But as time went by, the verdict on Yang Jisheng’s exploits had been reached and he gained considerable fame. When the years have passed, the fame of him spread all around. When people recalled his deeds, it was like meeting him in person. Just as Mencius said, “Those who made themselves distinguished a hundred generations before, and after a hundred generations, some people who heard of them are all aroused in this manner.” ……..Those who were intensely loyal could be harmonious with the ministers; And it was fair to punish the bad and to be kind to the good. --[[User:Zhong Yulu|Zhong Yulu]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yulu|talk]]) 01:33, 2 October 2021 (UTC)

But as time went by, Yang Jisheng’s exploits have been recognized, and he gained considerable fame. The older the years, the more his fame spread. When people recalled his deeds, it was like meeting him in person. Just as Mencius said, “Those who made themselves distinguished a hundred generations before, and after a hundred generations, some people who heard of them are all aroused in this manner.” ……..Those who were intensely loyal could be harmonious with the ministers. And it was fair to punish the bad and to be kind to the good. --[[User:Zhou Jiu|Zhou Jiu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Jiu|talk]]) 13:09, 11 October 2021 (UTC)

==英语语言文学（英美文学） 202120081555 周玖女==

循省往哲，爱结于中，诚有不能自己者也。朕万机之暇，绎载籍，每览忠孝节义之事，未尝不反复三致意焉。[ 阎崇年校注：《康熙顺天府志》，北京：中华书局，2009年，第482页。]

一方面，世祖赞誉杨继盛为忠臣之典范；另一方面，世祖又斥责严嵩为逆臣，认为正是严嵩父子威福专擅，浊乱王家，致使纪纲废断。

Reflecting on predecessors, despite the disloyal, the love to nation was condensed together. I was bombarded with numerous affairs. But in my spare time, I translated and recorded many books through dictation. When I read books about loyalty, I often analyzed them repeatedly to express my regard. [ Yan Chongnian: Kang Xi Shun Tianfu, Beijing: China Publishing House, 2009, Page 482. ]--[[User:Zhou Jiu|Zhou Jiu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Jiu|talk]]) 13:12, 11 October 2021 (UTC)
On the one hand, the emperor Shizu acclaimed Yang Jisheng as the paragon of loyal minister. On the other hand, he denounced Yan Song as a traitor, and believing（believed--Chen Xiangqiong(talk) )the fact that Yan Song and his son misused their authorities to domineer and disturb the loyal family so that the law and regulations became slacked.（were broken--Chen Xiangqiong(talk)）

==外国语言学及应用语言学 202120081480 陈湘琼女==

世祖敕令翻译此书，目的是为了激励官员学做忠谏之臣，劝勉意味浓厚。毋庸置疑，世祖时期的汉籍翻译秉承的原则也是“实用主义”原则，这一点太祖、太宗时期的汉籍翻译并无本质区别。例如，世祖敕译《诗经》，即有显著的现实意义与政治考量。

The Emperor Shunzhi commanded to translate this book for the purpose that officials could be encouraged to become people who dare to tell the truth and give right suggestions to the emperor, which had persuasive and warning meanings by itself. In this period, translation of books from Han dynasty was in fact abiding to the “utilization” principle, which had no difference to translations in the period of Qianlong Emperor and Huang Taiji Emperor. For example , practical significance and political meditation had been considered for Emperor Shunzhi commanding the translation of “Book of Songs”.

The Emperor Shunzhi commanded to translate this book to encourage officials to tell the truth and put forward reasonable suggestions, which was of great persuasive meaning.In this period, translation of canons from Han dynasty actually followed the “utilitarianism” principle, which had no difference to those during the reign of Qianlong Emperor and Huang Taiji Emperor. For example , practical significance and political meditation had been considered for Emperor Shunzhi commanding the translation of “Book of Songs”. --[[User:Huang Yiyan1|Huang Yiyan1]] ([[User talk:Huang Yiyan1|talk]]) 14:00, 30 September 2021 (UTC)

==外国语言学及应用语言学 202120081492 黄逸妍女==

《清实录·世祖章皇帝实录》中说，顺治十年二月，“上幸内院，披阅翻译《五经》，谕诸臣曰：‘天德王道，备载于书，真万世不易之理也’”。[ 鄂尔泰等奉敕修：《清实录·世祖章皇帝实录》，北京：中华书局，1985年，第9页。]可见，世祖饬令翻译《诗经》之时，其它各经的翻译也在进行，但《五经》中仅有《诗经》一部付梓。《诗经》译毕，世祖也为其御制序文，认为该部作品能使人明性意，崇礼义，“其言之深者，可用于庙堂；言之浅者，可用于身家。以之事君，必忠；以之事父，必孝。

According to Records of Qing Dynasty •Records of the Emperor Shizu, in February of the tenth year during the reign of the emperor Shunzhi, "After reading the Five Classics in palace, the emperor contended that morals and natural laws are recorded in these books in extenso, which are tough to reach." [Revised by Eertai: Records of Qing Dynasty •Records of the Emperor Shizu, Beijing: Zhonghua Publishing House, 1985:9 ] It was clear that the translating of other classics was also proceeding when the emperor Shizu commanded the translation of The Book of Songs while only the latter had been finished among the five classics. When the translation of The Book of Songs came to an end, the emperor Shizu wrote the preface to it himself and remained steadfast in the belief that that work helped to behave with propriety and righteousness. "The book can be used in imperial court from its profound aspect and in average families from its unadorned aspect. Instilled with the belief, the officials would be faithful and the children filial.
--[[User:Huang Yiyan1|Huang Yiyan1]] ([[User talk:Huang Yiyan1|talk]]) 00:44, 29 September 2021 (UTC)

According to Records of Qing Dynasty •Records of the Emperor Shizu, in February of the tenth year during the reign of the emperor Shunzhi, "After having a careful perusal of the Five Classics in adytum, the emperor proclaimed all ministers that morals and natural laws are recorded in these books in extenso, which are tough to reach for all ages." [Revised by Eertai et al: Records of Qing Dynasty •Records of the Emperor Shizu, Beijing: Zhonghua Publishing House, 1985:9 ] It could be seen that the translating of other classics was also proceeding when the emperor Shizu commanded to translate The Book of Songs, while only the latter had been finished among the five classics. When the translation of The Book of Songs came to an end, the emperor Shizu wrote the preface to it himself and believed that reading this work would help us to behave with propriety and righteousness. "It can be used in imperial court from its profound aspect and in average families from its unadorned aspect. Instilled with the belief, the officials would be faithful and the children filial.edit--[[User:Ma Xin|Ma Xin]] ([[User talk:Ma Xin|talk]]) 14:12, 30 September 2021 (UTC)

==外国语言学及应用语言学 202120081513 马新女==

更可以敦厚人伦，端正教化。”[ 叶高树：《清朝前期的文化政策》，台北：稻乡出版社，2002年，第72-73页。]

从“教化”的角度思考《诗经》的翻译，既是世祖本人的自觉认识，也是以他为首的统治者在面对稗（bài）官小说盛行，而满洲人竞相翻译时所做的一种调整。正如顺治九年进士、刑科给事中阿什坦指出的那样：学者立志，宜以圣贤为期，读书务以经史为中。

"It could also give depth to moral relations, straighten out educational ideas and transform people." [Ye Shugao: Cultural Policy in the Early Qing Dynasty, Taipei: Daoxiang Publishing House, 2002: 72-73.]

It is not only the conscious understanding of Qingshizhu Emperor himself to think about the translation of The Book of Songs from an "Enlightenment" perspective, but also an adjustment made by the rulers at his head faced with the prevalence of Bai-guan novels and Manchurians competing for translation. As pointed out by Ashtan, an advanced scholar in the ninth year of Shunzhi and a supervising censor of Justice, scholars should aspire to be saints and their reading must focus on classical and historical books. --[[User:Ma Xin|Ma Xin]] ([[User talk:Ma Xin|talk]]) 13:11, 30 September 2021 (UTC)

It could also give depth to moral relations, straighten out educational ideas and transform people." [Ye Shugao: Cultural Policy in the Early Qing Dynasty, Taipei: Daoxiang Publishing House, 2002: 72-73.]

Thinking about the translation of The Book of Songs from the "Teaching" perspectives is not only the personal understanding of Qingshizhu Emperor himself but also an adjustment made by the rulers at his head faced with the prevalence of Bai-guan novels and Manchurians competing for translation. As pointed out by Ashtan, an advanced scholar in the ninth year of Shunzhi and a supervising censor of Justice, the scholars should aspire to be saints and focus on classical and historical books.--[[User:Qing Jianan|Qing Jianan]] ([[User talk:Qing Jianan|talk]]) 15:38, 30 September 2021 (UTC)

==外国语言学及应用语言学 202120081518 秦建安女==

此外杂书无益之言，必概废之而不睹。则庶乎学业日隆，而邪慝（tè）之心无由而入。近见满洲译书内，多有小说秽言，非惟无益，恐流行渐染，则人心易致于邪慝。

Besides, there is no beneficial words in assorted books which should not be allowed to be published and be viewed.(So they shouldn't be allowed to be published and viewed--[[User:Sun Yashi|Sun Yashi]] ([[User talk:Sun Yashi|talk]]) 07:26, 29 September 2021 (UTC)) Then the level of study approximately can be uplifted day by day. Meanwhile, the minds of people will also not be degenerate. Recently I found that the translation of some Manchurian books was full of obscene words which personally was of futility. I am afraid that such transition will be so popular that easily erode people’s thoughts.

Revised version:--[[User:Sun Yashi|Sun Yashi]] ([[User talk:Sun Yashi|talk]]) 13:08, 11 October 2021 (UTC)
Besides, there is no beneficial words in assorted books.So they shouldn't be allowed to be published and viewed.Then the level of study approximately can be uplifted day by day. Meanwhile, the minds of people will also not be degenerate. Recently I found that the translation of some Manchurian books was full of obscene words which personally was of futility. I am afraid that such transition will be so popular that easily erode people’s thoughts.

==外国语言学及应用语言学 202120081522 孙雅诗女==

况圣贤古训，日详究之，犹恐不及，何暇费日时于无用之地？[ 鄂尔泰等修，李洵、赵德贵等点校：《八旗通志·初集》，长春：东北师范大学出版社，1989年，第5339页。]

阿什坦的奏章开宗明义，指出读书必以经史为要，必须摒弃杂书，尤其是污言秽语之书，以免贾祸人心。为此，他奏请皇帝对旗人读书严加限制，要求嗣后翻译书籍也应针对“关圣贤义理，古今治乱之书”，对于其它书籍则“概为禁饬，不许翻译”。[ 同上。]

What's more,there are many sages and wisdom need to be researched.We are afraid that we don't have enough time to do it in details day by day.So why do we waste our time translating those things?[Revised by Eertai ect.,proofread by Li Xun，Zhao De ect.:''Baqitongzhi·chuji'',Changchun:Northeast Normal University Press,1989,p.5339.]

The advice of Ashitan is very clear from the very begining--[[User:Wu Yinghong|Wu Yinghong]] ([[User talk:Wu Yinghong|talk]]) 15:33, 28 September 2021 (UTC),which points that reading should focus on the Confusion classic and history --[[User:Wu Yinghong|Wu Yinghong]] ([[User talk:Wu Yinghong|talk]]) 15:39, 28 September 2021 (UTC)and abandon those irrelevant books,especially those of dirty words,to get people rid of the obscene thoughts.In order to do this,he advised the emperor be more strict with the Qi people's readings.flag people's learning.--[[User:Wu Yinghong|Wu Yinghong]] ([[User talk:Wu Yinghong|talk]]) 15:30, 28 September 2021 (UTC)And he also required his offspring translate books about sages,principles and those can help to govern the society.Besides these books,other books are all forbidden and mustn't be translated.--[[User:Sun Yashi|Sun Yashi]] ([[User talk:Sun Yashi|talk]]) 11:44, 28 September 2021 (UTC)

==日语语言文学 202120081530 吴映红女==

这一观点既是他翻译《大学》、《中庸》、《孝经》、《潘氏（通鉴）总论》、《太公家教》的原则与标准，也是太祖朝以来一以贯之的译书宗旨。

五汉籍（书）翻译的文化沟通意涵

清初的汉书翻译主要由两部分人员构成：兼通满、汉的旗人（满洲、蒙古、汉军），以及八旗文科举中的举人、进士及第者，特别是顺治朝以来从新科进士中拣选出来学习满文的汉籍士子。
The opinion is not only the principle and standard of his translation about ‘’University‘’, ‘’the doctrine of the mean‘’,‘ ‘’ the book of filial piety‘’, ‘’the general theory of pan (Tongjian) ‘’and ‘’Taigong family education‘’, but also the consistent purpose of translation from the Taizu Dynasty.
FIFTH Cultural communication of Han nationality.
《大学》''The Great Learning'' --[[User:He Qin|He Qin]] ([[User talk:He Qin|talk]]) 14:01, 28 September 2021 (UTC)
In the early Qing Dynasty, the translation of Chinese traditional book was mostly composed of two parts: the flag people who knew Manchu and Han (Manchuria, Mongolia and Han Army), as well as the candidates, Jinshi and others in the eight flag liberal arts test, especially the Chinese bechelors who was selected from the new Jinshi to study Manchu from the Shunzhi Dynasty.

The opinion is not only the principle and standard of his translation about ‘’Daxue‘’, ‘’Zhongyong‘’,‘ ‘’ Xiaojing‘’, ‘’Genneral Theory(Tongjian) of Pan's Family ‘’and ‘’Taigong Family Education‘’, but also the consistent purpose of translation from the Taizu Dynasty.
FIFTH Cultural communication of Han nationality.
《大学》''The Great Learning'' --[[User:He Qin|He Qin]] ([[User talk:He Qin|talk]]) 14:01, 28 September 2021 (UTC)
In the early Qing Dynasty, the translation of Chinese traditional book was mostly composed of two parts: the flag people who knew Manchu and Han (Manchuria, Mongolia and Han Army), as well as the candidates, Jinshi and others in the eight flag liberal arts test, especially the Chinese bechelors who was selected from the new Jinshi to study Manchu from the Shunzhi Dynasty.
--[[User:Zhu Renduo|Zhu Renduo]] ([[User talk:Zhu Renduo|talk]]) 12:51, 29 September 2021 (UTC)

==日语语言文学 202120081560 朱壬铎男==

这些人员既是翻译专才，又是文化接触与交流的实践者，代表了满洲统治阶级想要与汉族之间进行文化沟通的意愿。如顺治六年四月，礼科给事中姚文然以“以满汉同心合力为念。窃思满汉一家，咸思报主”为由，奏请从新科进士内广选庶吉士，令其肄习清书，待精熟之后即授以科、道等官。[ 鄂尔泰等奉敕修：《清实录·世祖章皇帝实录》，北京：中华书局，1985年，第11页。]顺治十年，世祖降旨，对此前所选三科庶吉士进行考试，从中选取“通满洲文义者三人”，“以应升之缺用”，并选取“其次可造者十二人”，“仍照原衔，责令勉力学习，俟再试分别。”[ 同上，第7-8页。]

These persons are not only experts in translation,but also practicer in cultral contact and communication,which represented the will,which is to cultrally communicate with the Han people,of the ruling class of Manchu.

For example,in April of the sixth year of Shunzhi,Yao Wenran,the inspectorof the department of rites,with the reason that "with the purpose that is combining the Man ethnic and the Han ethnic,I secretly came up with an idea about the Man-Han family but with my whole life for the emperor",made a request that is to widely select Shujishi from newly selected Jinshi and order them to sutdy the books of Qing Dynasty to get well-learned then teach the bureaucrats from other departments and circuits.[E Ertai et al.write by imperial command:Veritable Records of Qing Dynasty-Records of Shizu Zhang Emperor,Beijing,China Book Bureau,1985,p.11]

In the tenth year of Shunzhi,Shizong emperor declared an imperial order about examining the selected Shujishi from all three subjects,from which select three persons who are "familiar with the texts of Manchu",to"fill the vacancy caused by the former Jinshi selection",and select "another 12 gifted persons""remain the former title,make them study hard for the further tests and selection."[E Ertai et al.write by imperial command:Veritable Records of Qing Dynasty-Records of Shizu Zhang Emperor,Beijing,China Book Bureau,1985,p.7-8]
--[[User:Zhu Renduo|Zhu Renduo]] ([[User talk:Zhu Renduo|talk]]) 02:47, 29 September 2021 (UTC)

These person are not only experts in translation,but also practicers in cultural contact and communication. They represent the will to culturally communicate with the Han people,of the ruling class of Manchu.
For example,in April of the sixth year of Shunzhi,Yao Wenran,the inspector of the Department of Rites,with the reason that "with the purpose that is combining the Manchu and the Han ethnic,I think both Manchu and Han should hold the thought to requite favours to the emperor,made a request to widely select Hanlin bachelor from newly selected Jinshi(a successful candidate in the highest imperial examinations) and order them to sutdy the books of Qing Dynasty to get well-learned then grant them official positions.[E Ertai et al.write by imperial command:Veritable Records of
Qing Dynasty-Records of Shizu Zhang Emperor,Beijing,China Book Bureau,1985,p.11]
In the tenth year of Shunzhi, the emperor declared an imperial order about examining the selected Han bachelor of all three subjects,from which select three persons who are "familiar with the texts of Manchu",to"fill the vacancy caused by the former Jinshi selection",and select "another 12 gifted persons""remain the former title,make them study hard for the further tests and selection."[Idem, p.7-8]

--[[User:Cai Zhufeng|Cai Zhufeng]] ([[User talk:Cai Zhufeng|talk]]) 06:10, 29 September 2021 (UTC)

==日语语言文学 202120081477 蔡珠凤女==

雍、乾、嘉年间，从新科进士中选取习满文者的做法得到延续，但每次选取者人数不一，整体上渐呈下降之势，至道光二十年前后废止，为汉书的满文翻译提供了人力来源，同时也为沟通满、汉两族文化提供了桥梁。

事实上，早在太宗时期，由于满人尚居关外，不识汉字，又罔知政体，遂敕达海等翻译汉书，使“满洲臣民未习汉文者，亦能兼通汉书”，而太宗自己也以它们作为“临政规范”，学习汉族的国家治理模式。[ 鄂尔泰等修，李洵、赵德贵等点校：《八旗通志·初集》，长春：东北师范大学出版社，1989年，第5325页。]顺治年间，阿什坦译成《大学》、《中庸》等书后，世祖又以它们作为倡导礼义教化的工具，希望通过此举使“满洲人知崇正学、尚经术”，令“邪说不得行”，而“风俗丕变”。[ 同上。]
In the years of Yong Zheng , Qian Long and Jia Qing , the practice of selecting Manchu scholars from new scholars continued, but the number of candidates selected each time varied, and the overall trend gradually decreased. It was abolished around the 20th year of Dao Guang, which not only provided a source of manpower resources for Manchu translation of Hanshu, but also provided a bridge for communication between Manchu and Han cultures.
In fact, as early as the Taizong period, because the Manchus still lived outside the frontier fortress, did not know Chinese characters and did not know about the regime, they ordered Dahai and other people to translate Chinese books, so that "Manchus who did not learn Chinese could also understand the contents of Chinese books", and Taizong himself used them as "administration norms" to learn the national governance model of the Han nationality. [Writed by Ertai etc.Checked by Li Xun, Zhao Degui etc.:"Ba Qi Tong Zhi I", Changchun: Northeast Normal University Press, 1989, P. 5325.] during the reign of Shunzhi, after Ashitan translated the 《University》《Moderate》and other books, Shizu used them as a tool to advocate etiquette and righteousness education, hoping to make "Manchus know and worship orthodox learning and classics" and "heresy can not be carried out" And "Customs change". [ibid.]

In the years of Yong Zheng , Qian Long and Jia Qing , the practice of selecting Manchu scholars from new scholars was continued, but the number of candidates selected each time varied, and the overall trend gradually tended to decrease. It was abolished around the second decade of Dao Guang, which not only provided human resources for Manchu translation of the Han books, but also builded the bridge of cultural communication between Manchu and Han.
In fact, as early as the the Emperor Taizong period, because the Manchu who still lived outside shanhaiguan pass, did not know Chinese characters and the regime,Taizong ordered Dahai and others to translate the Han books, so that "Manchus who did not learn Chinese could also understand the Han books", and Taizong himself also used them as " the administration norms" to learn the national governance model of the Han nationality. [Written by Ertai etc.Checked by Li Xun, Zhao Degui etc.:"Ba Qi Tong Zhi I", Changchun: Northeast Normal University Press, 1989, P. 5325.] During the reign of Shunzhi, after Ashitan translated the "University""Moderate"and other books,Hong Taiji used them as the tool to advocate confucian code of ethics , hoping to make "Manchus know and worship orthodox learning and classics" and "heresy can not be carried out" and "Customs change". [ibid.]--[[User:Fu Shiyu|Fu Shiyu]] ([[User talk:Fu Shiyu|talk]]) 02:40, 29 September 2021 (UTC)

==日语语言文学 202120081486 付诗雨女==

显然，汉文经、史的译印有助于端正满洲的人心风俗，使满、汉文化互通有无，即便是《诗经》中提到的各种花草树木、鸟兽虫鱼，也对拓展满人见闻甚有助益。[ 叶高树：《<诗经>满文译本比较研究——以<周南>、<召南>为例》，《国立台湾师范大学历史学报》1992年第20期。]有清一代，并非只有官方组织汉书的翻译，私人译书也很盛行。但官方译书与私人译书不同，无论是在译书的取材上，还是在译书的组织管理上，抑或是译书的颁行上，都有其特殊的考量。
Obviously,the translation and printing of the classics and history of Han are conductive to correcting the humanity and customs of Manchuria,and exchanging of needed culture between Manchu and Han.Even different kinds of flowers and trees, insects and fish, which were mentioned in ''the Book of Songs'', also contribute to enrich their knowledge.[Ye Gaoshu:"''Comparative Study of the Manchu translation for 'the book of songs'--Taking 'Zhounan' 'Shannan' as example","The Histotrical Journal of National Taiwan Normal University''
"1992;No.20.]In the Qing Dynasty, not only the official organization of the Han Books' translation, private translation was also very popular. However, unlike the private translation, the official translation was considered specially, whether in the materials of translation, the organization and management of the translation, or the publishment of the translation.--[[User:Fu Shiyu|Fu Shiyu]] ([[User talk:Fu Shiyu|talk]]) 15:16, 28 September 2021 (UTC)
Obviously,the translation and printing of the classics and history of chinese are conductive to correcting the morality and customs of Manchuria,and exchanging of needed culture between Manchu and Han.Even different kinds of flowers and trees, insects and fish, which were mentioned in "the Book of Songs", also contribute to enrich their knowledge.[Ye Gaoshu:"Comparative Study of the Manchu translation for 'the book of songs'--Taking 'Zhounan' 'Shannan' as the example","The Histotrical Journal of National Taiwan Normal University "1992;No.20.]In the Qing Dynasty, not only the official organization of the Han Books' translation, private translation was also very popular. However, unlike the private translation, the official translation was considered specially, whether in the materials,the organization,the management or the publishment of the translation.--[[User:Zhou Xiaoxue|Zhou Xiaoxue]] ([[User talk:Zhou Xiaoxue|talk]]) 14:05, 29 September 2021 (UTC)

==日语语言文学 202120081559 周小雪女==

即便是《三国志（通俗演义）》这样的通俗文学作品，译成满文后也被赋予了严肃的兵法与战略意义。以满文遍译汉书，尤其是经、史、子、集等书，并不是为了显示满语语文系统的优越性，所谓“精微巧妙，实小学家所未有”，而是为了“表章经学，天下从风”，通过汉籍的翻译“研究微言，讲求古义”，进行文化沟通。[ 叶高树：《清朝前期的文化政策》，台北：稻乡出版社，2002年，第91页。]藉由汉文典籍的翻译，满洲统治者不仅了解了汉族文化，而且在接触与学习中获得了“统制”汉民的重要经验，使满洲政权在性质上逐渐向“中原政权”转化，并实现“治统”与“道统”的和谐统一。
Even popular literature such as The History of the Three Kingdoms was given serious military and strategic significance when translated into Manchu script. The purpose of translating Chinese books with Manchu script ,especially Canon ,History,Philosophy and Literature such book is not to show the superiority of the Manchu language system,but to show the confucian classics。Through the translation of Chinese classics ,study small points ,emphasize the ancient significance and carry out cultural communication.Ye Gaoshu.Cultural Policy in the early Qing Dynasty.Taipei:Rice Village Press,2002,p.91.Through the translation of Chinese classics,Manchu rulers not only understood the Han culture,but also gained important experience of controlling the Han people in the process of contact and learning,so that Manchu regime gradually transformed into central plains regime in nature and realized the unity of regnant orthodoxy and confucian orthodoxy.--[[User:Zhou Xiaoxue|Zhou Xiaoxue]] ([[User talk:Zhou Xiaoxue|talk]]) 14:08, 29 September 2021 (UTC)

Modifying canon, history, philosophy and literature to Confusion classics, history, pre Qin hundred works, religion and classical writings.因为经：经书，是指儒家经典著作；史：史书，即正史；子：先秦百家著作，宗教；集：文集，即诗词汇编。泛指我国古代典籍。Canon, history, philosophy and literature did not express the exact meaning.
--[[User:Zou Yueli|Zou Yueli]] ([[User talk:Zou Yueli|talk]]) 01:41, 29 September 2021 (UTC)"表章经学，天下从风”The first half of the sentence is not translated accuratelyand the second half of the sentence has not been translated，so I think it should be translated into "Commend Confucian classics and let people all over the world follow"

==日语语言文学 202120081562 邹岳丽女==

结语
清初之际，虽然国家尚未实现从“征服王朝”向“中原王朝”的转变，但统治者在致力于武力开拓的同时，也开始关注文化活动。一方面，统治者念念不忘“国语骑射”的满洲旧制，将其视作立国精神；另一方面，又积极组织汉书翻译，倡导汉文化精神，从中原儒学中探求君主治术，构建国家的治统与道统。汉书翻译不仅让统治者得以接触汉族思想精粹和政治观念，而且让其在了解汉文经典与汉族文化的过程中，学习历代帝王的执政得失，以及古往今来的兴废事迹，从中汲取治国经验。
Conclusion At the beginning of the Qing Dynasty, although the country has not yet realized the transformation from "conquering Dynasty" to "Central Plains Dynasty"，however, while the rulers were committed to the development of force, they also began to pay attention to cultural activities. On the one hand, the rulers never forget the old Manchu system of "national language riding and shooting" and regarded it as the spirit of founding the country;On the other hand, --[[User:Zhu Suzhen|Zhu Suzhen]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suzhen|talk]]) 06:46, 28 September 2021 (UTC)he actively organized the translation of Chinese calligraphy, advocated the spirit of Chinese culture, explored the rule of monarchy from the Confucianism of the Central Plains, and constructed the rule and orthodoxy of the country.Chinese translation not only allows the rulers to get in touch with the
ideological essence and political concepts of the Han nationality, but also allows them to learn from the ruling gains and losses of emperors and the rise and fall deeds from ancient to modern times in the process of understanding Chinese classics and Han
culture, so as to learn from the experience of governing the country. --[[User:Zhu Suzhen|Zhu Suzhen]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suzhen|talk]]) 06:46, 28 September 2021 (UTC)from the experience of governing the country. “here the preposition from should be deleted--[[User:Zhu Suzhen|Zhu Suzhen]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suzhen|talk]]) 06:46, 28 September 2021 (UTC)

however, while the rulers were committed to expansion by military force.
国语骑射：Manchu language, horse-riding and archery--[[User:Zeng Junlin|Zeng Junlin]] ([[User talk:Zeng Junlin|talk]]) 01:49, 3 October 2021 (UTC)

--[[User:Zhu Suzhen|Zhu Suzhen]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suzhen|talk]]) 06:46, 28 September 2021 (UTC) ( here "he" is not consistant with the subjective "the rulers", so "he" should be changed in to "they" )

==国别 202120081478 曾俊霖男==

概言之，汉书的翻译既匡扶了社稷，又教化了臣民，令满、汉文化之间的交流得以开启并加深。虽然清初三朝期间，汉书翻译的规模不一，统治者对于汉族文化的具体态度存在差异，但翻译的原则与标准基本未变，那便是以文治教化和典章制度为主，通过翻译汉族典籍，凝聚符合国家需求的集体价值观，并将汉族传统文化落实为国家治理的大政方针，实现兴文教、崇经术、开太平的治国理念。

In short, the translation of books of Han nationality not only helped the whole country, but also educated his people so that the cultural exchange between Manchu and Han can be opened and deepened. During the three dynasties of the early Qing Dynasty, the scale of books of Han nationality translation was different, and the rulers' specific attitudes towards Han culture were different, but the principles and standards of translation remained basically unchanged, which focused on cultural education and the system of laws and regulations, condensed the collective values in line with the national needs through the translation of Han classics, and implemened the Han traditional culture as the major policy of national governance, realized the governing concept of promoting culture and education, advocating studies of Confucian classics and opening up peace.

In short, the translation of Books of Han not only gave great help to the whole country, but also educated its(the Qing Dynasty) people so that it began and then deepened the cultural exchange between Manchu and Han. During the first three emperors' rulings of the early Qing Dynasty, though the scales of translation was different, and the rulers' specific attitudes towards Han culture differed from each other, the principles and standards of translation remained basically unchanged, that is to say, it will focus on cultural education and the system of laws and regulations, condense the collective values in line with the national needs through the translation of Han classics, and implement the Han traditional culture as the major policy of national governance to realize the governing concept of promoting culture and education, advocating studies of Confucian classics and opening up peace.
--[[User:Huang Zhuliang|Huang Zhuliang]] ([[User talk:Huang Zhuliang|talk]]) 08:19, 29 September 2021 (UTC)Huang Zhuliang

==国别 202120081493 黄柱梁男==
Footnotes and References

1 杨家骆：《金史》，台北：鼎文书局，1985年，第1684页。

2 明珠等奉敕修：《清实录·太祖高皇帝实录》，北京：中华书局，1986年，第2页。

3 中国第一历史档案馆、中国社科院历史研究所译注：《满文老档》，北京：中华书局，1990年，第1196页。

4 鄂尔泰等奉敕修：《清实录·太宗文皇帝实录》，北京：中华书局，1985年，第13页。

5 王钟翰点校：《清史列传》，北京：中华书局，1987年，第187页。

6 国史编纂委员会：《朝鲜王朝实录》，汉城：国史编纂委员会，1973年，第38页。

1. Yang Jialuo, ''History of the Jin Dynasty''(1115-1234), Taipei, Dingwen Book Company, 1985, pp.1684.

2. Ming Zhu et al. (compiled under the order of Emperor Kangxi ), ''the Imperial Archives of Emperor Taichu(1559-1626, posthumous titled Gao Huang Di) of the Qing Dynasty'', Peking, Zhonghua Book Company, 1986, pp.2.

3. The First Historical Archives of China, Translated and Noted by the Institute of History in Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, ''Old Documents of Manchu Script'', Peking, Zhonghua Book Company, 1990, pp.1196.

4. E Ertai et al. (compiled under the order of Emperor Yongzheng ), ''the Imperial Archives of Emperor Taizong(1592-1643, posthumous titled Wen Huang Di) of the Qing Dynasty'', Peking, Zhonghua Book Company, 1985, pp.13.

5. Proofread by Wang Zhongshan, ''Biographies of the Qing Dynasty'', Peking, Zhonghua Book Company, 1987, pp.187.

6. Committee of National History Compilation, ''the Imperial Archives of Joseon Dynasty'', Seoul, Committee of National History Compilation, 1973, pp.38.
--[[User:Huang Zhuliang|Huang Zhuliang]] ([[User talk:Huang Zhuliang|talk]]) 08:18, 29 September 2021 (UTC)Huang Zhuliang

1 页码标记应为p.1684.

2 posthumous titled Gao Huang Di应改为posthumously titled Gao Huang Di,页码标记为p.2.

3“老满文”指的是清太祖努尔哈赤时期创制的满文，以文字中没有圈和点为特点。《满文老档》即是用老满文写成的档案汇编，所以《满文老档》应为 ''Manchu Archives written in Fore Manwen'',页码标记为p.1196.

4 同第二句，posthumous titled Wen Huang Di改为posthumously titled Wen Huang Di, 页码标记为p.13.

5 页码标记为p.187.

6 页码标记为p.38.
--[[User:Liu Wei|Liu Wei]] ([[User talk:Liu Wei|talk]]) 05:20, 1 October 2021 (UTC)Liu Wei

==国别 202120081507 刘薇女==
7 国史编纂委员会：《朝鲜王朝实录》，汉城：国史编纂委员会，1973年，第62页。

8 叶高树：《清朝前期的文化政策》，台北：稻乡出版社，2002年，第58页。

9 鄂尔泰等奉敕修：《清实录·太宗文皇帝实录》，北京：中华书局，1985年，第10页。

10 罗振玉：《天聪朝臣工奏议》，北京：中国人民大学出版社，1989年，第2页。

11 鄂尔泰等奉敕修：《清实录·太宗文皇帝实录》，北京：中华书局，1985年，第14页。

12 同上，第2页。

7 National History Compilation Committee, ''Records of the Korean Dynasty'', Seoul: National History Compilation Committee, 1973, p.62.

8 Ye Gaoshu,'' Cultural policise in the early Qing Dynasty'', Taipei: Daoxiang press, 2002, p.58.

9 E Ertai et al.(compiled by order of the emperor),''Record of the Emperor Taizong Wen in the Qing Dynasty'', Beijing: Zhonghua press, 1985,p.10.

10 Luo Zhenyu, ''Collections of secretary's memorial to the throne during the reign of Tencong'', Beijing: Renmin University of China Press, 1989, p.2.

11 E Ertai et al.(compiled by order of the emperor),''Record of the Emperor Taizong Wen in the Qing Dynasty'', Beijing: Zhonghua press, 1985,p.14.

12 Ertai et al.(compiled by order of the emperor),''Record of the Emperor Taizong Wen in the Qing Dynasty'', Beijing: Zhonghua press, 1985,p.2.
--[[User:Liu Wei|Liu Wei]] ([[User talk:Liu Wei|talk]]) 15:23, 28 September 2021 (UTC)Liu wei

7 National Institute of Korean History, ''Records of the Korean Dynasty'', Seoul: National Institute of Korean History, 1973, p.62.--[[User:Yan Lili|Yan Lili]] ([[User talk:Yan Lili|talk]]) 13:30, 11 October 2021 (UTC)

==国别 202120081537 颜莉莉女==
13 罗振玉：《天聪朝臣工奏议》，北京：中国人民大学出版社，1989年，第24-25、115页。

14 鄂尔泰等奉敕修：《清实录·太宗文皇帝实录》，北京：中华书局，1985年，第9页。

15 罗振玉：《天聪朝臣工奏议》，北京：中国人民大学出版社，1989年，第2页。

16 同上，第82页。

17 清高宗敕纂：《八旗满洲氏族通谱》，沈阳：辽沈书社，1989年，第10页。

18 鄂尔泰等奉敕修：《清实录·世祖章皇帝实录》，北京：中华书局，1985年，第15-16页。

13th. Lou Zhenyu: ''Tiancongchao Chengong Zouyi'' , Beijing: China People's University Press, 1989, pp.24-25,115.

14th. E Ertai eat al revised under order of emperor: ''Factual Record Of Qing Dynasty• Actual Record Of TaiZu'', Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1985, p.9

15th. Lou Zhenyu: ''Tiancongchao Chengong Zouyi'' , Beijing: China People's University Press, 1989, p.2

16th. Idem

17th. Qing emperor Gaozong ordered to write: ''General spectrum of Manchu clan in eight banners'', Shenyang: Liaoshen Book Company, 1989,p.10

18th. E Ertai eat al revised under order of emperor: ''Factual Record Of Qing Dynasty• Actual Record Of TaiZu'', Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1985, pp.15-16

14. E Ertai eat al （eds. on the order of emperor): ''Factual Record Of Qing Dynasty• Actual Record Of TaiZu'', Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1985, p.9

16. Idem, p.82

17. Qing emperor Gaozong ordered to write: ''Genealogy of Manchu clan in eight banners'', Shenyang: Liaoshen Book Company, 1989,p.10

18. E Ertai eat al （eds. on the order of emperor): ''Factual Record Of Qing Dynasty• Actual Record Of TaiZu'', Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1985, pp.15-16

==国别 202120081538 颜子涵女==
19 鄂尔泰等奉敕修：《清实录·世祖章皇帝实录》，北京：中华书局，1985年，第13页。

20 中国第一历史档案馆编：《清初内国史院满文档案译编·顺治朝》，北京：光明日报出版社，1989年，第80页。

21 阎崇年校注：《康熙顺天府志》，北京：中华书局，2009年，第482页。

22 鄂尔泰等奉敕修：《清实录·世祖章皇帝实录》，北京：中华书局，1985年，第9页。

23 叶高树：《清朝前期的文化政策》，台北：稻乡出版社，2002年，第72-73页。

24 鄂尔泰等修，李洵、赵德贵等点校：《八旗通志·初集》，长春：东北师范大学出版社，1989年，第5339页。

19. Ortai and some people compiled it on the orders of the emperor: ''Records of emperor shizuzhang in the Qing Dynasty'', Beijing: China Book Company, 1989, p.13.

20. Editor of China's First Historical Archives: ''Translation of manchu archives of the National Historical Institute of the early Qing Dynasty, Shunzhi Dynasty'', Beijing: Guangming Daily Press, 1989, p.80.

21. Yan Chongnian made proofreading: ''Kangxi Shuntian Fuzhi'', Beijing: China Book Company, 2009, p.482.

22. Ortai and some people compiled it on the orders of the emperor: ''Records of emperor shizuzhang in the Qing Dynasty'', Beijing: China Book Company ,1989,p.9.

23.Kao-Shu Yeh, ''Cultural policy in the early Qing Dynasty'', Taipei:Daoxiang Press, 2002, pp. 72-73.

24. Ortai and some people compiled，Li Wei, Zhao Degui and others proofread: ''Journal of the eight banners •First Episode'', Changchun: Northeast Normal University Press, 1989, p. 5339.

19. E,Ertai et al. (eds. under the order of the Emperor). ''An Actual Record of ShiZu Zhang in Factual Record of Qing Dynasty'', Beijing:Zhonghua Book Company,1985,p.13.

20. The First Historical Archives of China(ed.). ''A translation of Manchu archives of the Imperial Academy of National History in the Shunzhi Period of the early Qing Dynasty'', Beijing: Guangming Daily Press, 1989, p.80.

21. Yan Chongnian(proofread). ''The History of Shuntian of Emperor Kangxi'', Beijing: China Book Company, 2009, p.482.

22. E,Ertai et al. (eds. under the order of the Emperor). ''An Actual Record of ShiZu Zhang in Factual Record of Qing Dynasty'', Beijing:Zhonghua Book Company,1985,p.9.

23. Kao-Shu Yeh, ''The Cultural Policies of the Early Qing Dynasty'', Taipei:Daoxiang Press, 2002, pp. 72-73.

24. E,Ertai et al.(eds.), Li,Xun&Zhao Degui et al.(proofread). ''The First Collectanea in Ba Qi Tong Zhi'', Changchun:Northeast Normal University Press,1989, p.5339.

==国别 202120081540 阳佳颖女==
25 同上。

26 鄂尔泰等奉敕修：《清实录·世祖章皇帝实录》，北京：中华书局，1985年，第11页。

27 同上，第7-8页。

28 鄂尔泰等修，李洵、赵德贵等点校：《八旗通志·初集》，长春：东北师范大学出版社，1989年，第5325页。

29 同上。

30 叶高树：《<诗经>满文译本比较研究——以<周南>、<召南>为例》，《国立台湾师范大学历史学报》1992年第20期。

31 叶高树：《清朝前期的文化政策》，台北：稻乡出版社，2002年，第91页。

[25] Idem

[26] Ertai et al. (eds. under the order of the Emperor). "Actual Record of ShiZu Zhang in Factual Record of Qing Dynasty", Beijing:Zhonghua Book Company,1985,p.11.

[27] Idem,pp.7-8.

[28] E,Ertai et al.(eds.), Li,Xun&Zhao Degui et al.(proofread). ''The First Collectanea in Ba Qi Tong Zhi'', Changchun:Northeast Normal University Press,1989, p.5325.

[29] Idem

[30] Ye,Gaoshu. “The Comparative Study of the Manchu Translation On The Book of Songs---Cases Study of Zhounan and Zhaonan”.''Historical Inquiry of the National Taiwan Normal University'',no.20(1992).

[31] Ye,Gaoshu. ''The Cultural Policies of the Early Qing Dynasty''. Taipei:Daoxiang Press,2002,p.91.--[[User:Yang Jiaying|Yang Jiaying]] ([[User talk:Yang Jiaying|talk]]) 07:16, 29 December 2021 (UTC)

[25] Idem

[26] E,Ertai et al. (eds. under the order of the Emperor). "''Actual Record of Shih Tsu Fu Lin in Factual Record of Tsing Dynasty''", Beijing: China publishing house,1985,p.11.

[27] Idem,p.7-8.

[28] Ertai et al.(eds.), Li,Xun & Zhao Degui et al.(proofread). "''General History of the Eight Banners''", Changchun: Northeast Normal University Press,1989, p.5325.

[29] Idem

[30] Ye,Gaoshu. "''The Comparative Study of the Manchu Translation On The Book of Songs---Cases Study of Zhounan and Zhaonan.''", Bulletin of Historical Research of National Taiwan Normal University, No.20(1992).

[31] Ye,Gaoshu. "''The Cultural Policies of the Early Tsing Dynasty''". Taipei: Daoxiang Publishing House,2002,p.91. --Ye Weijie

=Hongloumeng=
HERE STARTS A NEW TRANSLATION: REST OF CHAPTER 19 OF HONGLOUMENG

PLEASE READ [[Joint_translation_terms|Joint translation terms]]

PLEASE ALSO READ THE PREVIOUS PARTS, AT LEAST THE SENTENCES BEFORE YOUR OWN PART IN CHAPTER 19 [[20210303_culture|1, Mar 3 Chapters 1-4]], [[20210310_culture|2, Mar 10 Chapters 6-7]], [[20210317_culture|3, Mar 17 Chapters 11-13]], [[20210324_culture|4, Mar 24 Chapters 15-17]], [[20210331_culture|5, Mar 31 Chapters 4-7]], [[20210407_culture|6, Apr 7 Chapters 8-10]], [[20210414_culture|7, Apr 14 Chapters 13-15]] , [[20210519_culture|12, May 19 Chapters 17-19]], [[20210929_homework#Hongloumeng|for Sep 29 - rest of HLM Chapter 19]] [[20211013_homework|for Oct 13 - HLM Chapters 20-21]] etc.

==国别 202120081544 叶维杰男==

第十九回 ... 这些丫头们明知宝玉不讲究这些；二则李嬷嬷已是告老解事出去的了，如今管不着他们：因此只顾玩笑，并不理他。那李嬷嬷还只管问：“宝玉如今一顿吃多少饭？什么时候睡觉？”丫头们总胡乱答应。有的说：“好个讨厌的老货！” 李嬷嬷又问道：“这盖碗里是酪，怎么不送给我吃？”说毕，拿起就吃。一个丫头道：“快别动，那是说了给袭人留着的，回来又惹气了。你老人家自己承认，别带累我们受气。”李嬷嬷听了，又气又愧，便说道：“我不信他这么坏了肠子。别说我吃了一碗牛奶，就是再比这个值钱的，也是应该的。难道待袭人比我还重？难道他不想想怎么长大了？我的血变了奶，吃的长这么大，如今我吃他碗牛奶，他就生气了？我偏吃了，看他怎么着！你们看袭人不知怎么样，那是我手里调理出来的毛丫头，什么阿物儿！”一面说，一面赌气把酪全吃了。

Chapter XIX...These girls' busy joking with each other and not much cared about Nanny Li as they previously knew Pao'yue was not particular about these, and there's no room left for Nanny Li to discipline them for she's already be dismissed. While Nanny Li kept asking:“ How's Pao-yue's appetite these day? And the time he make rest?” Always with so less careness girls reply. Some complained:“Aye! Such an old nosy lady!” Still Nanny Li asked：“A bowl of cheeze here! Why don't you bring it to me?”Then she directly grabbed some to her mouth. One girl hurriedly said:“Quit it! That's what Pao'yue reserved for Xiren! You take the blame yourself if he gets discontented, don't get us involved.” Angry but ashamed also Nanny Li went, and said:“I don't believe it！I even deserve something more valuable, let alone a bowl of milk! Is Xi'ren more important than me? Pao'yue can't be this heartless! Think about it, I myself raised him up this good step by step heart and soul with my own blood! How can he get discontented merely because of a bowl of milk? Still I'm gonna take it, even if he did! And Xi'ren? I taught her everything! Mad at me? Don't be ridiculous!”Nagging, Nanny Li emptied the whole bowl.

Chapter XIX...These maids knew clearly that Baoyu didn't care the trifles. Furthermore, Mammy Li was already retired and she had no control over them. Therefor she just ignored him in her teasing. Mammy Li always asked:"How many meals did Baoyu eat recently? When did he go to bed?" The maids'answers always were irrelevant. Some of them said:"What a nasty old woman!" While Mammy Li kept asking :"There is some cheese in the bowl. Why don't you give me?" As soon as the voice fell down, she grabbed the cheese and had it. One maid hurriedly said:“Quit it! That's what Baoyu reserved for Xiren! You take the blame yourself and don't get us involved.” Angry but ashamed also Mammy Li was, and said:“I don't believe he has such a bad temper！I even deserve something more valuable, not to mention a bowl of milk! Is Xi'ren more important than me? Think about it, I raised him up by my breast nursing with my own blood! How can he get discontented merely because of a bowl of milk? Still I'm gonna take it, even if he would! And Xiren? That's me who taught her everything! Mad at me? Don't be ridiculous!”Nagging, Mammy Li emptied the whole bowl.--[[User:Zhou Junhui|Zhou Junhui]] ([[User talk:Zhou Junhui|talk]]) 01:29, 2 October 2021 (UTC)

Chapter XIX ... these servant-girls were well aware that Precious Jade was not particular in these respects, and that in the next place Nanny Plum，having pleaded old age, resigned her place and gone home，had nowadays no control over them，so that they simply gave their minds to romping and joking，and paid no heed whatsoever to her. Nanny Plum however still kept on asking about Precious Jade，"How much rice do you now eat at one meal? And at what time do you go to sleep?" to which questions the servant-girls replied quite at random；some of those being there observed: "What a dreadful despicable old thing she is!" - "In this covered bowl," she continued to inquire, "is cream, and why not give it to me to eat?" and having concluded these words，she took it up there and then began eating it." Be quick，and leave it alone!" a servant-girl expostulated，"that，she said, was kept in order to be given to Aroma, and on his return，when he again gets into a huff，you，old lady，must，on your own motion，confess to having eaten it，and not involve us in any way as to have to bear his resentment." Nanny Plum，at these words，felt both angry and ashamed. "I can't believe，" she forthwith remarked，"that he has become so bad at heart！Not to speak of the milk I've had. I have，in fact every right to even something more expensive than this；for is it likely that he holds Aroma dearer than myself？ It can't forsooth be that he doesn't bear in mind how that I've brought him up to be a big man，and how that he has eaten my blood transformed into milk and grown up to this age！and will be because I'm now having a bowl of milk of his be angry on that score！I will，yes，eat it，and we'll see what he'll do！I don't know what you people think of Aroma，but she was a lowbred girl，whom I've with my own hands raised up! And what fine object indeed was she！"As she spoke，she flew into a temper, and taking the cream, she drank the whole of it.--[[User:Zhang Yang|Zhang Yang]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yang|talk]]) 13:02, 11 October 2021 (UTC)Zhang Yang

==国别 202120081551 张扬男==

又一个丫头笑道：“他们不会说话，怨不得你老人家生气。宝玉还送东西给你老人家去，岂有为这个不自在的？”李嬷嬷道：“你也不必装狐媚子哄我，打量上次为茶撵茜雪的事我不知道呢！明儿有了不是，我再来领。”说着，赌气去了。
少时，宝玉回来，命人去接袭人。只见晴雯躺在床上不动，宝玉因问：“可是病了？还是输了呢？”秋纹道：“他倒是赢的，谁知李老太太来了，混输了，他气的睡去了。”宝玉笑道：“你们别和他一般见识，由他去就是了。”
说着，袭人已来，彼此相见。袭人又问宝玉何处吃饭，多早晚回来；又代母、妹问诸同伴姊妹好。一时换衣卸妆。宝玉命取酥酪来，丫鬟们回说：“李奶奶吃了。”宝玉才要说话，袭人便忙笑说道：“原来留的是这个，多谢费心。前儿我因为好吃，吃多了，好肚子疼，闹的吐了，才好了。他吃了倒好，搁在这里白糟蹋了。我只想风干栗子吃，你替我剥栗子，我去铺炕。”

Another servant-girl grinned:“They don’t know how to speak properly, and it’s no wonder you old lady should get angry. Precious Jade still sends you great things, and it’s impossible that he will feel uncomfortable for a thing like this.” “You don’t have to act like a vixen to cajole me!” Nanny Plum said, “You think I’m not aware that you pushed Snow Alizarin away on account of a cup of tea the other day? And if I did make a mistake, I’ll come by and admit it!” Having said this, she went off, pissed off.
Soon Precious Jade came back and gave orders to go and fetch Aroma. Seeing Sunny Cloud Formation lying perfectly still on bed, Precious Jade asked:“ Is she ill? Or has she lost at cards?” “She had been a winner,” Autumn Vein answered,“but Nanny Plum came and muddled her so that she lost, and angry at that she rushed off to sleep,” Precious Jade smiled:“Don’t place yourselves on the same footing as nanny Plum. Leave her alone.”Aroma came as Precious Jade was saying his words. After the mutual salutations, Aroma went on to ask of Precious Jade:“ Where did you have your dinner? And when did you come back?” and to present likewise on behalf of her mother and sisters her salutations to all the girls, who were her companions. In a short while, she changed her costume and washed off her make up. When Precious Jade bade them fetch the cream, the servant-girls answered:“ Nanny Plum has eaten it.” And as Precious Jade was on the point of making some remarks Aroma hastened to interfere, laughing:“ Is it really this that you have kept for me? Many thanks for troubling. The other day when I ate some of it, I found it very tasty and had a lot of it, then I got a pain in the stomach. I was so upset that it was only after I had thrown it all up that I feel right. So it's fine that she has had it. If it had been kept there, it would have been wasted all for no use. What I want are dry chestnuts, and if you can clean a few for me, I'll go and lay the bed."
--[[User:Zhang Yang|Zhang Yang]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yang|talk]]) 10:58, 29 September 2021 (UTC)Zhang Yang

Another servant-girl grinned, “They don’t know how to talk properly, and no wonder you, old lady, get angry. Precious Jade still sends you great things, and it’s no need to be unpleased with it.” “You don’t have to cheat me!” Nanny Plum said, “You think I’m not aware that you sent Snow Alizarin away just on account of a cup of tea the other day? I will get it when it is prepared well tomorrow!” Having said this, she went off with sulks. Soon Precious Jade came back and asked someone to pick up Aroma. Seeing Sunny Cloud Formation lying still on bed, Precious Jade asked, “ Is she ill? Or has she lost at cards?” “She had been a winner,” Autumn Vein answered,“but Nanny Plum came and muddled her, so she lost the game and rushed off to sleep for the anger.” Precious Jade smiled, “Don’t take it serious and just leave her alone.”Aroma came as Precious Jade was saying his words. After the mutual salutations, Aroma went on to ask Precious Jade about the place for dinner and the time he would come back, then greet everyone on behalf of her mother and sisters. In a short while, she changed her costume and washed off her make-up. When Precious Jade asked one to fetch the cream, the servant-girls answered,“ Nanny Plum has taken it.” As Precious Jade was on the point of saying something, Aroma laughing, “ Is it this that you have kept for me? Thanks for troubling. The other day when I ate some of it, I found it very tasty and had a lot of it, then I got a pain in the stomach. It was better that she did so, for at least it is not wasted before getting bad. I just want some drying chestnuts. Could you please peel them while I will make the beds.”--[[User:Chen Jing|Chen Jing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jing|talk]]) 11:23, 29 September 2021 (UTC)

==国别 202020080595 陈静女==

宝玉听了，信以为真，方把酥酪丢开，取了栗子来，自向灯下检剥。一面见众人不在房中，乃笑问袭人道：“今儿那个穿红的是你什么人？”袭人道：“那是我两姨姐姐。”宝玉听了，赞叹了两声。袭人道：“叹什么？我知道你心里的缘故，想是说他那里配穿红的？”宝玉笑道：“不是，不是。那样的人不配穿红的，谁还敢穿？我因为见他实在好的很，怎么也得他在咱们家就好了。”袭人冷笑道：“我一个人是奴才命罢了，难道连我的亲戚都是奴才命不成，定还要拣实在好的丫头才往你们家来？”宝玉听了，忙笑道：“你又多心了。我说往咱们家来，必定是奴才不成，说亲戚就使不得？”袭人道：“那也般配不上。”
宝玉便不肯再说，只是剥栗子。袭人笑道：“怎么不言语了？想是我才冒撞冲犯了你？明儿赌气花几两银子，买进他们来就是了。”
宝玉笑道：“你说的话，怎么叫人答言呢？我不过是赞他好，正配生在这深宅大院里，没的我们这宗浊物倒生在这里。”

Hearing this, Master Bao fell for it and throw the curds away, taking some chestnuts and then peeling them under the lantern. Finding others not in the room except Aroma, Master quipped: “Who is the the person in red today?” Aroma answered, “Two of my cousins”. Knowing it, Master Bao couldn’t repress a sigh of admiration. “What do you sigh for? I know it is because they could not wear red.” Aroma said. Master Bao replied with smile: “No! Who dares to wear red if such persons doesn't deserve it? I just admire them and hope if they can stay in our home.” Aroma sneered, “I am just a slave. So all of my families are slaves and we should pick up the best girls to be slaves in your home?” Master Bao said with smile, “Don’t be touchy. It doesn’t mean to be the slave but to be our relatives in our house.” Aroma replied, “It doesn’t match, either.” Master Bao refused to say any more, but just peeled chestnuts. Aroma smiled and said, “Why are you silent? I just offended you. You could spend some money and buy them if you want.” Master smiled and said, “How to respond to your words. I just show my admiration and think they should be in such circumstance where the persons like me live.”--[[User:Chen Jing|Chen Jing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jing|talk]]) 11:26, 29 September 2021 (UTC)

Hearing this, Master Bao fell for it, threw the curds away, took some chestnuts and then peeled them under the lantern. Finding others not in the room except Aroma, Master quipped: “What’s the relationship between you and the person in red today?” Aroma answered, “Two of my cousins”. Knowing it, Master Bao couldn’t repress a sigh of admiration. “What do you sigh for? I know what you are thinking. You must think they don’t deserve to wear red.” Aroma said. Master Bao replied with smile: “No! Who dares to wear red if such persons don’t deserve it? I just admire them and hope if they can stay in our house.” Aroma sneered, “I live as a maid. So all of my families should be the same as me? And we should pick up the best girls to be maids in your home?” Master Bao said with smile, “Don’t be touchy. It doesn’t mean to be the maid but to be our relatives in our house.” Aroma replied, “It doesn’t match, either.” Master Bao refused to say any more, but just peeled chestnuts. Aroma smiled and said, “Why are you silent? I think I just offended you. You could spend some money and buy them if you want.” Master smiled and said, “How to respond to your words. I just show my admiration and think they are born to be in such circumstance where the persons like me live. ”--[[User:Chen Xinyi|Chen Xinyi]] ([[User talk:Chen Xinyi|talk]]) 10:34, 29 September 2021 (UTC)

==翻译学 202120081481 陈心怡女==

袭人道：“他虽没这样造化，倒也是娇生惯养的，我姨父、姨娘的宝贝儿似的。如今十七岁，各样的嫁妆都齐备了，明年就出嫁。”宝玉听了“出嫁”二字，不禁又嗐了两声。正不自在，又听袭人叹道：“我这几年，姊妹们都不大见；如今我要回去了，他们又都去了。”
宝玉听这话里有文章，不觉吃了一惊，忙扔下栗子，问道：“怎么着，你如今要回去？”袭人道：“我今儿听见我妈和哥哥商量，教我再耐一年，明年他们上来，就赎出我去呢。”宝玉听了这话，越发忙了，因问：“为什么赎你呢？”袭人道：“这话奇了。我又比不得是这里的家生子儿，我们一家子都在别处，独我一个人在这里，怎么是个了局呢？”宝玉道：“我不叫你去，也难哪。”袭人道：“从来没这个理。就是朝廷宫里，也有定例：几年一挑，几年一放，没有长远留下人的理，别说你们家。” 宝玉想一想，果然有理。又道：“老太太要不放你呢？”

Aroma said, “Although she has few achievements, she is pampered and the apple of my uncle’s, aunt’s eyes. She is now 17. Since all kinds of dowries had been prepared, she could get married next year. ” Hearing “get married”, Precious Jade Merchant signed spontaneously. He was still ill at ease and then heard Aroma said, “I have rarely met with my sisters in the past few years. Now I’m going back, however, they came.” Precious Jade Merchant thought that there’s more to it than what is said. He was amazed, threw chestnuts at once and asked, “what’s wrong? You are going back now?” Aroma said, “I heard my mother and brother talking about it today. They want me to remain patient for another year and they will come here to redeem me next year. ” Precious Jade heard it, felt anxious and asked, “Why they want to redeem you?” Aroma said, “What you said is pretty strange. I’m not a daughter of maids here. My family is elsewhere, and I’m the only one here. How can it be like this?” Precious Jade said, “I’m afraid I can’t let you go.” Aroma said, “It makes no sense. There are routines even in the imperial palace: palace maids are selected once every few years and then set free. There is no reason to keep a person for a long time in the imperial palace, let alone in your house.” Precious Jade thought about it for a while and thought it made sense. Then he said, “What if my grandmothers doesn’t let you go?”--[[User:Chen Xinyi|Chen Xinyi]] ([[User talk:Chen Xinyi|talk]]) 10:02, 29 September 2021 (UTC)
.

Aroma said, “Though not born as good, she is also spoilt and pampered, being the apple of my aunt and uncles’ eyes. She is now 17 and dowries of all sorts have been prepared for her marriage next year.” At the hearing of the word “marriage”, Precious Jade Merchant gave a sigh. As he was feeling ill at ease, Aroma sighed and continued, “I rarely met my sisters in the past few years. While I’m going back home, they are all about to leave.” Precious Jade Merchant felt surprised at what she said. He threw away chestnuts at once and asked, “why, you are going back home?” Aroma answered, ““I heard my mother and my brother talking today. They told me to stay here for another year and they will come here to ransom me next year.” Hearing that, Precious Jade got more anxious and asked, “Why do they want to ransom you?” Aroma replied, “what a strange question! I’m no daughter of maids here. My family lives elsewhere and I’m all alone here. How can we be together?” Precious Jade sighed, “If I won’t let you go, I suppose it’s difficult.” Aroma answered, “It makes no sense. There are routines even in the imperial palace: maids are selected once every few years and then set free. There is no reason to keep a servant for a long time in the imperial palace, let alone in your house.”Precious Jade thought for a while and considered it reasonable. Then he said, “What if my grandmothers won’t let you go?”--[[User:Gao Mi|Gao Mi]] ([[User talk:Gao Mi|talk]]) 09:47, 29 September 2021 (UTC)

==翻译学 202120081487 高蜜女==

袭人道：“为什么不放呢？我果然是个难得的，或者感动了老太太、太太，不肯放我出去，再多给我们家几两银子留下，也还有的；其实我又不过是个最平常的人，比我强的多而且多。我从小儿跟着老太太，先伏侍了史大姑娘几年，这会子又伏侍了你几年。我们家要来赎我，正是该叫去的，只怕连身价不要，就开恩放我去呢。要说为伏侍的你好，不叫我去，断然没有的事。那伏侍的好，是分内应当的，不是什么奇功；我去了，仍旧又有好的了，不是没了我就使不得的。”
宝玉听了这些话，竟是有去的理，无留的理，心里越发急了。因又道：“虽然如此说，我只一心要留下你，不怕老太太不和你母亲说，多多给你母亲些银子，他也不好意思接你了。”
袭人道：“我妈自然不敢强：且慢说和他好说，又多给银子；就便不好好和他说，一个钱也不给，安心要强留下我，他也不敢不依。但只是咱们家从没干过这倚势仗贵霸道的事。这比不得别的东西，因为喜欢，加十倍利，弄了来给你，那卖的人不吃亏，就可以行得的；如今无故平空留下我，于你又无益，反教我们骨肉分离，这件事，老太太、太太肯行吗？”

Aroma said, “Why won’t she let me leave? I should be so important, or I have somehow moved Grandma Merchant and Lady King so that they won’t let go of me and give some more money to my family so as to make me stay. Actually, I am a most ordinary person. A whole lot people are better than me. Bought in by Grandma Merchant since I was a child, I had served Lady History for the first several years, and these several years I have been serving you. Now my family are about to pay the ransom. When I ask for a leave, I’m thinking that you could have mercy on me and allow my leaving without the ransom money. I certainly don’t buy it that you stop me from leaving just because I have served you well. Even if it’s true, I’m just doing what I’m supposed to do, which is really no big deal. Nothing will go wrong without me as there are still good servants who will take my place when I leave.” Hearing that, Precious Jade Merchant became all the more anxious because she had a reason to leave and no reason to stay. Therefore, he continued, “Since all I want is to keep you here, I might as well tell you that I wish Grandma Merchant to talk to your mother and give her a lot more money so that she has no reason to come and take you home. Aroma replied, “My mother certainly dares not to ask for my leaving, not to mention that you talk to her in a mild and polite way and give her extra money. Even if you force her without a penny, she dares not to defy. It’s only that your family has never done such a thing as to throw your weight about. It’s feasible when you buy something with ten times of its original price out of love, for the seller suffers no loss. Unlike anything else, it does you no good to keep me for no reason, which instead separates me from my mother. Do you think Grandma Merchant and Lady King will let that happen?”--[[User:Gao Mi|Gao Mi]] ([[User talk:Gao Mi|talk]]) 16:09, 28 September 2021 (UTC)

Aroma said, “Why won’t she let me leave? I should be so important, or I have somehow moved Grandma Merchant and Lady King so that they won’t let go of me and give some more money to my family so as to make me stay. Actually, I can't be more ordinary, and too many maids out there are better than me. Bought in by Grandma Merchant when I was a child, I had served Lady History for the first several years, and these years I have been serving you. Now my families are about to pay the ransom. When I ask for leaving, I’m thinking that you could have mercy on me and allow my leaving without the ransom money. I certainly don’t buy it that you stop me from leaving just because I have taken good care of you. Even if it’s true, I’m just doing what I’m supposed to do, which is really no big deal. Nothing will go wrong without me as there are still good maids who will take my place when I leave.” Hearing that, Precious Jade Merchant became more anxious because she had every reason to leave but no reason to stay. Therefore, he continued, “Since all I want is to keep you here, I might as well tell you that I may beg Grandma to talk to your mother and give her extra money so that she has no reason to come and take you home.” Aroma replied, “My mother certainly dares not to ask, not to mention that you talk to her in a mild and polite way and give her extra money. Even if you force her without a penny, she dares not to defy. It’s only that your family has never done such a thing as to throw your weight about. It’s feasible when you buy something with ten times of its original price out of love, for the seller suffers no loss. Unlike anything else, it does you no good to keep me for no reason, which instead separates me from my family. Do you think Grandma Merchant and Lady King will let that happen?”--[[User:He Qin|He Qin]] ([[User talk:He Qin|talk]]) 10:02, 29 September 2021 (UTC)

==翻译学 202120081489 何芩女==

宝玉听了，思忖半晌，乃说道：“依你说来说去，是去定了？”袭人道：“去定了。”宝玉听了，自思道：“谁知这样一个人，这样薄情无义呢！”乃叹道：“早知道都是要去的，我就不该弄了来，临了剩我一个孤鬼儿。”说着，便赌气上床睡了。原来袭人在家，听见他母、兄要赎他回去，他就说：“至死也不回去。”又说：“当日原是你们没饭吃，就剩了我还值几两银子，要不叫你们卖，没有个看着老子娘饿死的理；如今幸而卖到这个地方儿，吃穿和主子一样，又不朝打暮骂。况如今爹虽没了，你们却又整理的家成业就，复了元气；若果然还艰难，把我赎出来，再多掏摸几个钱，也还罢了。其实又不难了，这会子又赎我做什么？权当我死了，再不必起赎我的念头了。”因此哭了一阵。他母、兄见他这般坚执，自然必不出来的了；况且原是卖倒的死契。明仗着贾宅是慈善宽厚人家儿，不过求求，只怕连身价银一并赏了，还是有的事呢。

After hearing this, Precious Jade Merchant thought for a while and said, “According to you, you have to go?” “I have to.” Aroma confirmed. Hearing this, Precious Jade thought to himself, “Who knows how heartless you are.” “I should not have had you here, since you are doomed to go, leaving me alone as a ghost.” Precious Jade sighed and went to bed with complaints. However, during her stay at home, Aroma heard her mother and elder brother wanted to redeem her back. “I won’t go back until I die.” Aroma railed, “At that time, you were starved to death. Nothing but I was worth some money. If I had refused to be sold, you would have been dead. I was fortunately to be sold to the Merchant’s and treated as a lady, free from abuses. Though my father has passed away, you have recollected yourselves and established new lives. If you were still in trouble, it would make sense that you wanted to reap some profit by redeeming me out. Since you are not, why are you bothering to do this? Don’t ever think about it! Just pretend I’m dead.” Seeing Aroma’s tears and insistence, her mother and elder brother knew it was impossible for her to leave the Merchant’s, besides, it was a sold-out death indenture. In fact, it was not impossible for the Merchant’s, who was a charitable and generous family, to set Aroma free with compensation money, if Aroma pleaded.--[[User:He Qin|He Qin]] ([[User talk:He Qin|talk]]) 13:03, 28 September 2021 (UTC)

After hearing this, Precious Jade Merchant thought for a while and said, “According to you, you have to go?” “Yes, I have to.” Aroma confirmed. Hearing this, Precious Jade thought, “Who knows how heartless she is.” “I should not have had you here, since you are doomed to go, leaving me alone as a ghost.” Precious Jade sighed and went to bed with complaints. However, during her stay at home, Aroma heard her mother and elder brother want to redeem her back. “I won’t return home until I die.” Aroma railed, “At that time, you were starved to death. Nothing but I was worth some money. If I had refused to be sold, you would have been dead. I was fortunately to be sold to the Merchant’s and treated as a lady, free from abuses. Though my father has passed away, you have reorganized the family and established new lives. If you were still in trouble, it would make sense that you wanted to reap some profit by redeeming me out. Since you are not, why are you bothering to do this? Don’t think about it anymore! Just pretend I’m dead.” Seeing Aroma’s tears and insistence, her mother and elder brother knew it was impossible for Aroma to leave the Merchant’s, besides, it was a sold-out lifetime indenture. In fact, it was possible for the Merchant’s, who was a charitable and generous family, to set Aroma free with compensation money, if Aroma pleaded.--[[User:Li Shuang|Li Shuang]] ([[User talk:Li Shuang|talk]]) 09:41, 29 September 2021 (UTC)

==翻译学 202120081499 李双女==

二则，贾府中从不曾作践下人，只有恩多威少的；且凡老少房中所有亲侍的女孩子们，更比待家下众人不同，平常寒薄人家的女孩儿也不能那么尊重。因此他母子两个就死心不赎了。
次后忽然宝玉去了，他两个又是那个光景儿，母子二人心中更明白了，越发一块石头落了地，而且是意外之想，彼此放心，再无别意了。
且说袭人自幼儿见宝玉性格异常，其淘气憨顽出于众小儿之外，更有几件千奇百怪、口不能言的毛病儿。近来仗着祖母溺爱，父母亦不能十分严紧拘管，更觉放纵弛荡，任情恣性，最不喜务正。每欲劝时，谅不能听。今日可巧有赎身之论，故先用骗词以探其情，以压其气，然后好下箴规。今见宝玉默默睡去，知其情有不忍，气已馁堕。自己原不想栗子吃，只因怕为酥酪生事，又像那茜雪之茶，是以假要栗子为由，混过宝玉不提就完了。
What’s more, the Merchant’s was very good to the servants, and never treated them cruelly. All the girls who served the old or the young received more respect than the others, even more than the girls who lived in poor families. Consequently Aroma’s mother and brother made their minds not to redeem her. Later the sudden arrival of Precious Jade and his meeting with Aroma still further reassured them and put down their stone in heart. The unexpected situation dispelled their other thoughts. When Precious Jade Merchant was young, Aroma found that he was different from ordinary children and that he was naughtier and had some foibles which can’t be told to others. Recently, because Grandma Merchant spoiled Precious Jade too much, his parents couldn’t discipline him too. He was therefore more indulgent and willful, and hated doing the right thing. Whenever others persuaded him, he was stubborn. Today it happened to talk about redemption, so Aroma deliberately lied to Precious Jade to test his attitude and to restrain his anger, and then made the rules. She saw Precious Jade go to sleep silently. She knew the truth, therefore she couldn’t help feeling some guilt, and her anger also subsided. Aroma hadn’t wanted to eat the chestnuts, but was just afraid of the problems that would result from the milk, just like Snow Alizarin’s tea. For this reason, she tricked Precious Jade into not mentioning milk by pretending she wanted to eat chestnuts.--[[User:Li Shuang|Li Shuang]] ([[User talk:Li Shuang|talk]]) 04:50, 29 September 2021 (UTC)

What’s more, the Merchant’s was very nice to the servants, and never treated them cruelly. All the girls who served as maids of the family members, old or young, were generally treated more kindly than the servants in other position, and were even better off than daughters of ordinary families. Consequently Aroma’s mother and brother made their minds not to buy her freedom. Then the sudden arrival of Precious Jade and the acquaintance between Aroma and her master showed the true situation of Aroma, which made them reassure. The unexpected situation dispelled their other thoughts. These years had shown Aroma that Baoyu with some indescribably odd habits, was no ordinary youth and was more willful than others. Recently, Precious Jade was so indulged by his grandma that his parents couldn’t discipline him strictly. Therefore, he became more indulgent, headstrong and impatient at conventions. Whenever she wanted to exhort him to clean up his act, she was convinced he would not listen to her. Luckily, using the incident as a convenient excuse, Aroma enabled to sound him out, pacify his mood, and give him a good lecture. She saw Precious Jade go to sleep silently. She knew his sadness about her departure, so she didn’t have the heart to give a lecture to him. As for chestnuts, Aroma hadn’t wanted to eat but she had pretended to be eager for them, for fear that the junket would creat a disturbance, just like Snow Alizarin’s tea. She made Precious Jade forget the junket by pretending to hanker after chestnuts.--[[User:Liu Shengnan|Liu Shengnan]] ([[User talk:Liu Shengnan|talk]]) 08:53, 1 October 2021 (UTC)

==翻译学 202120081506 刘胜楠女==

于是命小丫头子们将栗子拿去吃了，自己来推宝玉，只见宝玉泪痕满面。
袭人便笑道：“这有什么伤心的？你果然留我，我自然不肯出去。”宝玉见这话头儿活动了，便道：“你说说，我还要怎么留你？我自己也难说了。”
袭人笑道：“咱们两个的好，是不用说了。但你要安心留我，不在这上头。我另说出三件事来，你果然依了，那就是真心留我了；刀搁在脖子上，我也不出去了。”
宝玉忙笑道：“你说那几件？我都依你。好姐姐，好亲姐姐，别说两三件，就是两三百件，我也依的。只求你们看守着我，等我有一日化成了飞灰，——飞灰还不好，灰还有形有迹，还有知识的。——等我化成一股轻烟，风一吹就散了的时候儿，你们也管不得我，我也顾不得你们了，凭你们爱那里去，那里去就完了。”

Aroma thereupon gave the chestnuts to the other maids and nudged Precious Jade gently. She found his face is tear-strained .“Why you so sad about that?”she cajoled. “If you really want me to remind here, I won’t leave of course.” Reading between the lines, Precious Jade quickly replied , “Just tell me what I can do to keep you. I don't know how to persuade you.” She laughed, “We needn’t mention how well we get along with each other. If you really want to keep me, that’s a whole other story. If you promise me two or three things I come up with, I’ll assume that you are truly want me to stay. Then even a knife at my throat could not make me get out of here.”Precious Jade merrily said, “Well, what are these three conditions? I will agree them all, dear sister, my nice sister. I’d agree to two or three hundred conditions, let alone two or three. I merely implore you all to stay and take care of me until the day that I turn into flying ashes. No, I don’t want to turn into ashes because ashes have a trace of form and awareness . I’d like to let you all stay until I’ve turned into a wisp of smoke and been blown away by the wind. Then you will not be able to watch over me, and l will not be able to care about you. I will let you go wherever you please as well.”--[[User:Liu Shengnan|Liu Shengnan]] ([[User talk:Liu Shengnan|talk]]) 04:48, 29 September 2021 (UTC)

Xi Ren thereupon gave the chestnuts to the other maids and nudged Baoyu gently. She found his face tear-strained .
“Why are you so sad about that?”she cajoled . “If you really want me to remind in Jia’s mansion, I won’t leave naturally.” Reading between the lines, Baoyu quickly replied , “Just tell me what else I can do to keep you. I don't know.”
She laughed, “We needn’t mention how well we get along with each other. If you really want to keep me, that’s a whole other story. If you promise me two or three things I come up with, I‘ll assume that you are truly want me to stay. Then even a knife at my throat could not make me get out of here.” Baoyu merrily said, “Well, what are these three conditions? I will agree them all, good sister, my dear sister. I’d agree to two or three hundred conditions, let alone two or three. I merely implore you all to stay and take care of me until the day that I turn into flying ashes. No, I don’t want to turn into ashes because ashes have a trace of form and awareness . I’d like to let you all stay until I’ve turned into a wisp of smoke and been blown away by the wind. Then you will not be able to take care of me, and l will not be able to care about you. I will let you go wherever you want as well.”--[[User:Jin Xiaotong|Jin Xiaotong]] ([[User talk:Jin Xiaotong|talk]]) 13:38, 29 September 2021 (UTC)

==法语语言文学 202120021494 金晓童女==

急的袭人忙捂他的嘴道：“好爷，我正为劝你这些个，更说的狠了。”宝玉忙说道：“再不说这话了。”袭人道：“这是头一件要改的。”宝玉道：“改了，再说你就拧嘴。还有什么？”
袭人道：“第二件，你真爱念书也罢，假爱也罢，只在老爷跟前，或在别人跟前，你别只管嘴里混批，只作出个爱念书的样儿来，也叫老爷少生点儿气，在人跟前也好说嘴。老爷心里想着：我家代代念书，只从有了你，不承望不但不爱念书(已经他心里又气又恼了)，而且背前面后混批评：凡读书上进的人，你就起个外号儿，叫人家‘禄蠹’；又说只除了什么‘明明德’外就没书了，都是前人自己混编纂出来的。这些话，你怎么怨得老爷不气，不时时刻刻的要打你呢？”
宝玉笑道：“再不说了。那是我小时候儿不知天多高地多厚，信口胡说的，如今再不敢说了。还有什么呢？”
Aroma covered his mouth in a hurry and said:"my dear lord, I'm trying to persuade you, but you said these even harder." Precious Jade Merchant quickly said:"I will not say these again.""This is the first thing you need to change."Aroma replied.Precious Jade Merchant said:"OK,if I say it again,you can twist my mouth.Anything else?＂
Aroma said:” The second thing, whether you like studying or not, except for nonsense you just need to pretend that you like reading when talking to milord or other people, which can make milord less angry so that he have something to talk. Milord will say to himself:“Everyone in my family have studied from generation to generation except you. And I can’t imagine that not only do you hate reading(already he was angry and bitter), but also making criticism everywhere----if someone are motivated and love reading, you will call him ‘greedy man’; or you will say every book is fabricated but ‘li Ji’Because of these above, why did you complain that milord are usually annoyed and beat your ass?” “I will never be like that before. When I was a kid, I didn’t understand bragging and talk whatever I want. My dare not say now, and what else?” Precious Jade Merchant said with a smile.--[[User:Jin Xiaotong|Jin Xiaotong]] ([[User talk:Jin Xiaotong|talk]]) 14:49, 28 September 2021 (UTC)

Xiren covered his mouth in a hurry and said: "my dear lord, I'm trying to persuade you, but you're exaggerating these."Baoyu quickly said: "I will not say these again. " "This is the first thing you need to change. "Xiren replied.Baoyu said: "OK, if I say it again,you can twist my mouth. Anything else? "Xiren said: "The second thing, whether you like studying or not, you can't just talk nonsense, you just need to pretend that you like reading when talking to milord or other people, which can make milord less angry so that he have something to talk with others. Milord will say to himself: "Everyone in my family have studied from generation to generation except you .And I can't imagine that not only do you hate reading (already he was angry and bitter), but also making criticism everywhere casually----if someone are motivated and love reading, you will call him 'greedy man'; you also said there were no other books in the world except 'li Ji', that all other books were made up groundlessly by predecessors. Because of these above, why did you complain that milord are usually annoyed and beat your ass? "
"I will never be like that before. When I was a kid, I didn't understand bragging and talk whatever I want. My dare not say now, and what else? "BaoYu said with a smile.--[[User:Li Yi|Li Yi]] ([[User talk:Li Yi|talk]]) 02:19, 2 October 2021 (UTC)

==法语语言文学 202120081504 李怡女==

袭人道：“再不许谤僧毁道的了。还有更要紧的一件事：再不许弄花儿，弄粉儿，偷着吃人嘴上擦的胭脂和那个爱红的毛病儿了。”宝玉道：“都改，都改。再有什么，快说罢。”
袭人道：“也没有了，只是百事检点些，不任意任性的就是了。你要果然都依了，就拿八人轿也抬不出我去了。”宝玉笑道：“你在这里长远了，不怕没八人轿你坐。”袭人冷笑道：“这我可不稀罕的！有那个福气，没有那个道理，纵坐了也没趣儿。”
二人正说着，只见秋纹走进来说：“三更天了，该睡了。方才老太太打发嬷嬷来问，我答应睡了。”宝玉命取表来看时，果然针已指到子初二刻了。方从新盥漱，宽衣安歇，不在话下。
至次日清晨，袭人起来，便觉身体发重，头疼目胀，四肢火热。先时还扎挣的住，次后挨不住，只要睡，因而和衣躺在炕上。
Aroma said :Stop denigrating monks and dhamma.There is a more important things : no more indulging in flowers and rouge and powder,no more touching lipstick on other people's lips secretly ,and give up the habit of applying makeup. Precious Jade Merchant said :i will change it all .And anything else ? Aroma said : Nothing,you must be careful of everything and stop being capricious. If you change them all, I won't leave even if you lift me in a huge Jiao. Precious Jade Merchant laughed and said : If you stay here long enough, you'll be able to ride in a big Jiao. Aroma sneered and said :I don't desire it, and even if I were lucky enough to ride in the big Jiao, it would be against the rules and boring.
While the two were talking, Autumn Vein came in and said : It's early in the morning and it's time to go to bed. Grandma Merchant sent her maid to ask after you, and I said you were asleep. Precious Jade Merchant took a watch and checked the time, and it was already midnight, he cleaned up again and then undressed and went to bed and stopped talking.
When Aroma got up early the next morning, she felt heavy and dizzy,and she felt her body was burning. At first she managed to stand up, then she couldn't hold on and felt sleepy, and finally she lay down in bed with her clothes on.--[[User:Li Yi|Li Yi]] ([[User talk:Li Yi|talk]]) 08:35, 29 September 2021 (UTC)

Aroma said, “Stop denigrating monks and dhamma. There is a more important things : no more indulging in flowers and rouge and powder, no more eating lipstick on other people’s lips secretly, and give up the habit of applying makeup.” Precious Jade Merchant said, “I I will rectify all these addictions. And anything else ? ” Aroma said: “No, however, you must be careful of everything and stop being capricious. If you were a kind man, I won’t leave even if you had an eight-man palanquin. Precious Jade Merchant laughed and said: “If you stay here long enough, you’ll be able to in an eight-person palanquin. Aroma sneered and said: “I don’t desire it, and even if I were lucky enough to be in the palanquin, it would be against the rules. That’s boring.” While the two were talking, Autumn Vein came in and said, “It's almost dawn and it’s time to go to bed. Grandma Merchant sent her maid to ask after you, and I said you were asleep.” Precious Jade Merchant asked his servant to bring the watch and checked the time, and it was already midnight. He cleaned up again, undressed and went to bed promptly. When Aroma got up the next morning, she felt heavy and dizzy with a body burning. At first, she was able to stand up, but couldn’t hold on after a short while, and felt extremely sleepy. Thus, she lay down in bed with her clothes on.--[[User:Peng Ruixue|Peng Ruixue]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruixue|talk]]) 12:59, 29 September 2021 (UTC)彭瑞雪

==法语语言文学 202120081517 彭瑞雪女==

宝玉忙回了贾母，传医诊视，说道：“不过偶感风寒，吃一两剂药，疏散疏散就好了。”开方去后，令人取药来煎好。刚服下去，命他盖上被窝焐汗。宝玉自去黛玉房中来看视。
彼时黛玉自在床上歇午，丫鬟们皆出去自便，满屋内静悄悄的。宝玉揭起绣线软帘，进入里间，只见黛玉睡在那里，忙上来推他道：“好妹妹，才吃了饭，又睡觉。”将黛玉唤醒。黛玉见是宝玉，因说道：“你且出去逛逛。我前儿闹了一夜，今儿还没歇过来，浑身酸疼。”宝玉道：“酸疼事小，睡出来的病大。我替你解闷儿，混过困去就好了。”黛玉只合着眼，说道：“我不困，只略歇歇儿。你且别处去闹会子再来。”宝玉推他道：“我往那里去呢？见了别人就怪腻的。”
After hastily greeting Mother Jia, Baoyu invited a doctor to see Xiren at home. The doctor said,“This young lady has only caught a cold by chance, take a few pills, the illness will slowly fade away.” According to the prescription prescribed by the doctor, the servant was ordered to pick out the medicine in the pharmacy and to cook it. As soon as Xiren finished the soup, the doctor asked her to cover herself with a quilt in order to sweat and get rid of the cold in her body. Then, Baoyu went alone to Daiyu’s room to visit her. At that time, Daiyu was lying alone in bed, taking a nap, and the maids had all gone off to do their own things, and silence filled the whole room. Baoyu gently lifted the curtain and entered the room, only to see Daiyu sleeping there, and hurriedly went up to her, nudged her and said to her: “Lovely sister, you just went to bed after eating, how can you do that?” Baoyu tried to wake Daiyu up. When she was awakened, she saw that the person who had woken her up was Bao Yu, she saisd, “Could you go out for a walk for the time being. I was up all night the night before, and to this day I still have not recovered my energy. I feel sick.” Baoyu answered, “Feeling sick is not a big problem. But if you keep sleeping, you will become really very ill. I will relieve your boredom so that the sleepiness is dispelled, and you will be refreshed.” Daiyu just closed her eyes and said,“I’m not sleepy, I just want to rest for a while. Go and play somewhere else for a while, after that, you can come back to me.” Baoyu nudged her and said, “Where can I go? I’m tired of others.”

After hastily greeting Grandma Merchant, Precious Jade invited a doctor to see Aroma at home. The doctor said,“This young lady has only caught a cold by chance, take a few pills and she will be recovered.” According to the prescription prescribed by the doctor, the servant was ordered to pick out the medicine in the pharmacy and to decoct it. As soon as Aroma finished the medicine, the doctor asked her to cover herself with a quilt in order to sweat and get rid of the cold in her body. Then, Precious Jade went alone to Mascara Jade's room to visit her. At that time, Mascara Jade was lying alone in bed, taking a nap, and the maids had all gone off to do their own things, and silence filled the whole room. Precious Jade gently lifted the curtain and entered the room, only to see Daiyu sleeping there, and hurriedly went up to her, nudged her and said to her: “Lovely sister, you just went to bed after eating, how can you do that?” Precious Jade tried to wake Mascara Jade up. When she was awakened, she saw that the person who had woken her up was Precious Jade , she saisd, “Could you go out for a walk for the time being. I was up all night the night before, and to this day I still have not recovered my energy. I feel sick.” Precious Jade answered, “Feeling sick is not a big problem. But if you keep sleeping, you will become really very sick. I will relieve your boredom so that the sleepiness will be dispelled, and you will be refreshed.” Mascara Jade just closed her eyes and said,“I’m not sleepy, I just want to rest for a while. Go and play somewhere else for a while, after that, you can come back to me.” Precious Jade nudged her and said, “Where can I go? I’m tired of others.”--Yang Kun(talk) 21;22, 29 September 2021 (UTC)

==法语语言文学 202120081542 杨堃女==

黛玉听了，嗤的一笑道：“你既要在这里，那边去老老实实的坐着，咱们说话儿。”宝玉道：“我也歪着。”黛玉道：“你就歪着。”宝玉道：“没有枕头，咱们在一个枕头上罢。”黛玉道：“放屁！外头不是枕头？拿一个来枕着。”
宝玉出至外间，看了一看，回来笑道：“那个我不要，也不知是那个腌臜老婆子的。”黛玉听了，睁开眼，起身笑道：“真真你就是我命中的魔星！请枕这一个。”说着，将自己枕的推给宝玉，又起身将自己的再拿了一个来枕上，二人对着脸儿躺下。
黛玉一回眼，看见宝玉左边腮上有钮扣大小的一块血迹，便欠身凑近前来，以手抚之细看道：“这又是谁的指甲划破了？”宝玉倒身，一面躲，一面笑道：“不是划的，只怕是才刚替他们淘澄胭脂膏子，溅上了一点儿。”说着，便找绢子要擦。

When Mascara Jade heard this, she giggled and said, "Since you want to sit here, sit honestly there and let's talk." Precious Jade Merchant said, "I want to lie down here,too." "You can do it!" said Mascara Jade. " Precious Jade said, "There isn't other pillow. Let's be on the same pillow." Mascara Jade said, "Bullshit! It's not a pillow outside? Take one !"

Precious Jade went out to the outer room, looked at it, came back and smiled, "I don't want that, and I don't know if it belongs to a certain pickled old woman." Hearing this, Mascara Jade opened her eyes, got up and smiled, " You are the magic star I hit! Please rest with this one. " Then, she pushed her pillow to Precious Jade, got up and fetched another one .After that,the two lay down face-to-face.

As soon as Mascara Jade looked back and saw a piece of blood ,the size of a button, on Precious Jade's left cheek. She leaned forward and looked closely with her hand, saying, "whose nails cut your face?" Precious Jade turned back, hiding, and said with a smile, "It's not a wound. I think it's just spattered with a little blusher when I washed it for them just now." With that, he looked for the handkerchief to wipe.--Yang Kun (talk) 23:50, 28 September 2021 (UTC)

When Mascara Jade heard this, she giggled and said, "Since you want to stay here, sit there quietly and let's have a talk." Precious Jade said, "I want to lie down, too." "Do as you like" said Mascara Jade. " Precious Jade said, "There isn't other pillow. Let's share the pillow." Mascara Jade said, "Don’t talk rot! It's not a pillow outside? Take one !" Precious Jade went out to the outer room, looked at it, came back and smiled, "I don't want that, and I don't know if it belongs to a certain pickled old woman." Hearing this, Mascara Jade opened her eyes, got up and smiled, " You are the magic star I hit! Please rest with this one. " Then, she pushed her pillow to Precious Jade, got up and fetched another one. After that, the two lay down face-to-face. As soon as Mascara Jade looked back and saw a piece of blood ,the size of a button, on Precious Jade’s left cheek. She leaned forward and looked closely with her hand, saying, "whose nails cut your face?" Precious Jade turned back, hiding, and said with a smile, "It's not a wound. I think it's just spattered with a little blusher when I washed it for them just now." With that, he looked for the handkerchief to wipe.--[[User:Zhou Junhui|Zhou Junhui]] ([[User talk:Zhou Junhui|talk]]) 05:12, 29 December 2021 (UTC)

==法语语言文学 202120081556 周俊辉女==

黛玉便用自己的绢子替他擦了，咂着嘴儿说道：“你又干这些事了；干也罢了，必定还要带出幌子来。就是舅舅看不见，别人看见了，又当作奇怪事，新鲜话儿，去学舌讨好儿，吹到舅舅耳朵里，大家又该不得心净了。”
宝玉总没听见这些话，只闻见一股幽香，却是从黛玉袖中发出，闻之令人醉魂酥骨。
宝玉一把便将黛玉的衣袖拉住，要瞧瞧笼着何物。黛玉笑道：“这时候谁带什么香呢？”宝玉笑道：“那么着，这香是那里来的？”黛玉道：“连我也不知道，想必是柜子里头的香气熏染的，也未可知。”宝玉摇头道：“未必。这香的气味奇怪，不是那些香饼子、香球子、香袋儿的香。”黛玉冷笑道：“难道我也有什么罗汉、真人给我些奇香不成？就是得了奇香，也没有亲哥哥亲兄弟弄了花儿、朵儿、霜儿、雪儿替我炮制。我有的是那些俗香罢了。”

Mascara Jade wiped his cheek with her handkerchief. Smacking her mouth, she said:“ You did it again. You always make excuses to do the trifles. You’re lucky that my uncle doesn’t know. But if other people saw it, they would take it as an anecdote, an opportunity to play up to my uncle. As soon as my uncle hears about it, there will be no peace in the house.”
The words went in one his ear and out the other. At that moment, he smelled a faint fragrance coming from Mascara Jade’s sleeve, which was intoxicating.
Precious Jade grabbed Mascara Jade’s sleeve to see what it was. Mascara Jade laughed and said, “Who brings balsam at this time?” He laughed: “Then where does the fragrance come from?” “Even I don’t know. Maybe it came out of the closet.” Precious Jade shook his head:“Not necessarily, the smell is very strange, not like the fragrance of incense cake, of incense ball, of incense bag.” Mascara Jade sneered: “ Will some god give me some magic spice? Even if I really get it, there is no brothers to help me find flowers, buds, frost and snow, then help me make incense. All I have is mediocre spices.”--[[User:Zhou Junhui|Zhou Junhui]] ([[User talk:Zhou Junhui|talk]]) 01:04, 2 October 2021 (UTC)

Daiyu wiped his mouth with her mocket,she pouted and said:“You did it again, but you also make trouble to us. Although uncle couldn't see it, other people could and would take it as a anecdote. Mabye he heard of it beacause of someone's flattery, there won't be quiet.”
The words went in one of his ears and out the other. At that moment, he smelled a faint fragrance coming from Daiyu’s sleeve,which was intoxicating.
Baoyu grabbed Daiyu’s sleeve to see what stuff hide im. Daiyu smiled and said, “Who brings balsam at this time?” He laughed: “Then where does the fragrance come from?” “Even I don’t know. Maybe it's fumigated by the fragrance of the closet.” Baoyu shook his head:“Not necessarily, the smell is very strange, not like the fragrance of incense cake, of incense ball, of incense bag.” Daiyu sneered: “ Will some god give me some magic spice? Even if I really get it, there is no brothers to help me find flowers, buds, frost and snow, then help me make incense. All I have is mediocre spices.”--[[User:Zhou Qing|Zhou Qing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Qing|talk]]) 13:13, 29 September 2021 (UTC)

==法语语言文学 202120081558 周清女==

宝玉笑道：“凡我说一句，你就拉上这些。不给你个利害也不知道，从今儿可不饶你了。”说着，翻身起来，将两只手呵了两口，便伸向黛玉膈肢窝内两胁下乱挠。黛玉素性触痒不禁，见宝玉两手伸来乱挠，便笑的喘不过气来。口里说：“宝玉，你再闹，我就恼了。”宝玉方住了手，笑问道：“你还说这些不说了？”黛玉笑道：“再不敢了。”一面理鬓，笑道：“我有奇香，你有‘暖香’没有？”
宝玉见问，一时解不来，因问：“什么‘暖香’？”黛玉点头笑叹道：“蠢才，蠢才！你有‘玉’，人家就有‘金’来配你；人家有‘冷香’，你就没有‘暖香’去配他？”宝玉方听出来，因笑道：“方才告饶，如今更说狠了。”说着又要伸手。黛玉忙笑道：“好哥哥，我可不敢了。”宝玉笑道：“饶你不难，只把袖子我闻一闻。”说着便拉了袖子，笼在面上，闻个不住。黛玉夺了手道：“这可该去了。”宝玉笑道：“要去不能。咱们斯斯文文的躺着说话儿。”说着，复又躺下。黛玉也躺下，用绢子盖上脸。

Baoyu smiled and said:"if i say a word,you will do something like this. You don't know how to constrain, from now on, i won't forgive you anymore if you won't change." As he said, he stood up and exhaled two warm breaths to his both hands, and then put them into the two flanks of Daiyu's diaphragm and scratched randomly. Daiyu still couldn't help itching, so she couldn't breathe with a smile. She said:"Baoyu, if you make a disturbance,i will bw anoyed." Baoyu stopped, he smiled and said:"Will you still say this?" "i'll never do it again. But i have a special perfume, do you have the 'warm perfume'." Daiyu smiled and said.
Baoyu couldn't solve it for a while, so he asked:"What's the "warm perfume?" Daiyu nodded and signed with a smile:"stupd, stupid!You have "jade", people will have "gold"to match you;i have "cold perfume", but you don't have "warm perfume?" Baoyu undstood:"You just surrendered, and now it's even more excesive." He was about to stretch out his hand again. Daiyu hurriedly smiled: "Good brother, I don't dare anymore."Baoyu smiled: "It's not difficult to spare you. I just smell your sleeves." As he said, he pulled up his sleeves, caged on his face, and couldn't help smelling it.Daiyu grabbed his hand and said, "This is the time to go." Baoyu smiled and said, "I can't go. Let's lie down and talk quietly." As he said, he lay down again. Daiyu also lay down and covered her face with silk.--[[User:Zhou Qing|Zhou Qing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Qing|talk]]) 12:54, 11 October 2021 (UTC)

Baoyu smiled and said:"if i say a word,you will do something like this. You don't know what happened if I'm not serious. I won't let you off from this day forward. " As he said, he stood up and exhaled two warm breaths to his both hands, and then put them into the two flanks of Daiyu's diaphragm and scratched randomly. Daiyu still couldn't help itching, so she couldn't breathe with a smile. She said:"Baoyu, if you make a disturbance,i will bw anoyed." Baoyu stopped, he smiled and said:"Will you still say this?" "i'll never do it again. But i have a special perfume, do you have the 'warm perfume'." Daiyu smiled and said.
Baoyu couldn't solve it for a while, so he asked:"What's the "warm perfume?" Daiyu nodded and signed with a smile:"stupd, stupid!You have "jade", people will have "gold"to match you;i have "cold perfume", but you don't have "warm perfume?" Baoyu undstood:"You just surrendered, and now it's even more excesive." He was about to stretch out his hand again. Daiyu hurriedly smiled: "Good brother, I don't dare anymore."Baoyu smiled: "It's not difficult to spare you. I just smell your sleeves." As he said, he pulled up his sleeves, caged on his face, and couldn't help smelling it.Daiyu grabbed his hand and said, "This is the time to go." Baoyu smiled and said, "I don't go. Let's lie down and talk quietly." As he said, he lay down again. Daiyu also lay down and covered her face with silk.--[[User:Gong Boya|Gong Boya]] ([[User talk:Gong Boya|talk]]) 13:56, 29 September 2021 (UTC)

==俄语语言文学 202120081488 宫博雅女==

宝玉有一搭没一搭的说些鬼话，黛玉总不理。宝玉问他几岁上京，路上见何景致，扬州有何古迹，土俗民风如何。黛玉不答。宝玉只怕他睡出病来，便哄他道：“嗳哟！你们扬州衙门里有一件大故事，你可知道么？”黛玉见他说的郑重，又且正言厉色，只当是真事，因问：“什么事？”宝玉见问，便忍着笑顺口诌道：“扬州有一座黛山，山上有个林子洞。”黛玉笑道：“这就扯谎，自来也没听见这山。”宝玉道：“天下山水多着呢，你那里都知道？等我说完了，你再批评。”黛玉道：“你说。”
宝玉又诌道：“林子洞里原来有一群耗子精。那一年腊月初七，老耗子升座议事，说：‘明儿是腊八儿了，世上的人都熬腊八粥。如今我们洞里果品短少，须得趁此打劫些个来才好。’乃拔令箭一枝，遣了个能干小耗子去打听。小耗子回报：‘各处都打听了，惟有山下庙里果、米最多。’老耗子便问：‘米有几样？果有几品？’小耗子道：‘米、豆成仓。果品却只有五样：一是红枣，二是栗子，三是落花生，四是菱角，五是香芋。’

Precious Jade Merchant chattered by fits and starts, Mascara Jade Forest kept silent. Precious Jade Merchant asked, “How old were you when you went to the captical? What did you see along the road? Are there any historical sites in Yangzhou? How about the folk customs?” She didn’t answer. Precious Jade Merchant was worried she will get ill for sleeping too long , and coaxed her, “ Ah! There is an important event in yamen of Yangzhou, you know that? ” Mascara Jade Forest saw what he said with a stern look,so she aslo took it seriously. Then she asked, “What envent? ” Upon seeing this, Precious Jade Merchant concealed a smile and kept cooking up, “in Yangzhou there is a mountain called Daishan and a forest cave upon there. ” Mascara Jade Forest smiled, “It is nonsense, I have not heard of it at all. ”Precious Jade Merchant replied, “There are so many landscapes in the world, how do you know all of them? Keeping your comments until i finish my words. ” She said, “Say it. ” Precious Jade Merchant talked recklessly again, “There used to be a bunch of ratspirits in the forest cave. On the seventh day of the twelfth lunar month, the elder ratspirit held a meeting. On the meeting, he said, ‘Tomorrow is the eighth day of the twelfth lunar month. People will all make laba rice porridge. Now that we are short of grain in the cave, we must seize the chance to rob some. ’ Cosequently he threw a command arrow and sent an able young ratspirit to inquire. Young ratspirit returned and reported, ‘I have made inquiries everywhere. The temple at the mountain foot stores most fruits and rice. ’ The old ratspirit asked, ‘ How many kinds of grain? How many kinds of tribute? ’ The young ratspirit said, ‘There's a whole warehouse of rice and bean. There are only five kinds of cereal: one is red dates, two is chestnuts, three is peanuts, four is water chestnut, five is taro. ’--[[User:Gong Boya|Gong Boya]] ([[User talk:Gong Boya|talk]]) 01:55, 13 October 2021 (UTC)

Chinese names can be translated directly in pinyin.(宝玉—Baoyu；黛玉—Daiyu);Bao Yu was talking nonsense, but Dai Yu always ignored it. She asked him how old he was when he went to Beijing, what sights he saw on the way, what are the monuments in Yangzhou, and what are the customs and folklore. Daiyu did not answer. She was afraid that he would fall asleep and get sick, so she coaxed him, "Oh! There is a big story in your Yangzhou government office, do you know it?" The first time I saw him, I thought he was telling the truth, so I asked, "What is it?" When Baoyu saw the question, he stifled a laugh and said smoothly, "There is a Dai Mountain in Yangzhou and there is a Lin Zi Cave on the mountain." Daiyu laughed and said, "That's a lie, I haven't heard of this mountain since." The world is full of mountains and rivers, where do you know them all? When I've finished, you can criticise again." Daiyu said, "You say it." Bao Yu said, "There was a group of rat spirits in the forest cave. That year, on the seventh day of the lunar month, the old rats rose to their seats and said: 'Tomorrow is the eighth day of the lunar month, and everyone in the world is making lunar porridge. Now we are short of fruits in the cave, so we must take advantage of this to rob some of them.' He drew an arrow and sent a competent little rat to inquire. The little rat reported, 'I have asked everywhere, but the temple at the bottom of the hill has the most fruit and rice.' The old rat then asked, 'How many kinds of rice are there? How many kinds of fruit are there?' The little rat said, 'Rice and beans are in the warehouse. But there are only five kinds of fruits: first, red dates, second, chestnuts, third, groundnuts, fourth, lozenges, and fifth, taro.--[[User:Mao You|Mao You]] ([[User talk:Mao You|talk]]) 06:46, 29 September 2021 (UTC)

==俄语语言文学 202120081515 毛优女==

“老耗子听了大喜，即时拔了一枝令箭，问：‘谁去偷米？’一个耗子便接令去偷米。又拔令箭问：‘谁去偷豆？’又一个耗子接令去偷豆。然后一一的都各领令去了。只剩下香芋，因又拔令箭问：‘谁去偷香芋？’只见一个极小极弱的小耗子应道：‘我愿去偷香芋。’
“老耗子和众耗子见他这样，恐他不谙练，又怯懦无力，不准他去。小耗子道：‘我虽年小身弱，却是法术无边，口齿伶俐，机谋深远。这一去，管比他们偷的还巧呢。’众耗子忙问：‘怎么比他们巧呢？’小耗子道：‘我不学他们直偷；我只摇身一变，也变成个香芋，滚在香芋堆里，叫人瞧不出来，却暗暗儿的搬运，渐渐的就搬运尽了。这不比直偷硬取的巧吗？’众耗子听了，都说：‘妙却妙，只是不知怎么变？你先变个我们瞧瞧。’小耗子听了，笑道：‘这个不难，等我变来。’说毕，摇身说：‘变！’竟变了一个最标致美貌的一位小姐。众耗子忙笑说：‘错了，错了。原说变果子，怎么变出个小姐来了呢？’小耗子现了形，笑道：‘我说你们没见世面，只认得这果子是香芋，却不知盐课林老爷的小姐才是真正的香玉呢。’”

The old mouse was overjoyed and immediately drew an arrow and asked:"Who is going to steal the rice?" A mouse took the order to steal the rice. Then he drew /pulled another arrow and asked again :"Who is going to steal the beans?" Another mouse took the order to steal the beans. All the mouses One by one received the orders, only the order of taro was left. So the old mouse drew this left arrow and asked:"Who is going to steal the taro?" At this time a very small and weak mouse responded:"I am willing to steal the taro." The old mouse and all the mice saw him like this, and they would not allow him to go because they were afraid that he would be unskilled and cowardly. But the little mouse said: ‘Although I am young and weak, I have boundless power, skillful tongue and foresight. I will steal more cleverly than others. "The mice hurriedly asked: "How can you do that?" The little mouse said: "I won't learn from them to steal directy. I just changed my body and turned into a taro, rolled in the taro pile. In that way people can't see me. Then I will secretly carry the taros, and gradually they were exhausted. Isn't this more clever than stealing directly? All the mice heard this, and they all said, "It's indeed a wonderful way, but how can you change yourself into a taro? Can you show us now? let's see!"The little mouse listened and said with a smile: "This is not difficult, wait for me!" After speaking, he said: "Change! "She has turned into the most beautiful girl in this world. The mice laughed and said:"it’s wrong, it’s wrong. Originally you said that you would turn into fruit, why did you turn into a girl?" The little mouse appeared, and smiled: "I said you hadn't seen the world, because you only recognized that it was a taro, but you didn't know that master Lin's daughter was the real fragrant jade. "(In Chinese pronounciation of the word "taro" is as the same as the word "fragrant jade")--[[User:Mao You|Mao You]] ([[User talk:Mao You|talk]]) 14:28, 28 September 2021 (UTC)Sept. 28

The old mouse was overjoyed and immediately drew an arrow and asked:"Who is going to steal the rice?" A mouse took the order to steal the rice. Then he pulled another arrow and asked again :"Who is going to steal the beans?" Another mouse took the order to steal the beans. All the mouses One by one received the orders, only the order of taro was left. So the old mouse pulled this left arrow and asked:"Who is going to steal the taro?" At this time a very small and weak mouse responded:"I am willing to steal the taro." The old mouse and all the mice saw him like this, and they would not allow him to go because they were afraid that he would be unskilled and cowardly. But the little mouse said: ‘Although I am young and weak, I have boundless supernatural power, skillful tongue and foresight. I will steal more cleverly than others. "The mice hurriedly asked: "How can you do that?" The little mouse said: "I won't learn from them to steal directy. I just changed my body and turned into a taro, rolled in the taro pile. In that way people can't see me. Then I will secretly carry the taros, and gradually they were exhausted. Isn't this more clever than stealing directly? All the mice heard this, and they all said, "It's indeed a wonderful way, but how can you change yourself into a taro? Can you show us now? let's see!"The little mouse listened and said with a smile: "This is not difficult, wait for me!" After speaking, he said: "Change! "She has turned into the most beautiful girl in this world. The mice laughed and said:"it’s wrong, it’s wrong. Originally you said that you would turn into fruit, why did you turn into a girl?" The little mouse appeared, and smiled: "I said you hadn't seen the world, because you only recognized that it was a taro, but you didn't know that master Lin's daughter was the real fragrant jade. "--[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:00, 11 October 2021 (UTC)

==俄语语言文学 202120081529 吴婧悦女==

黛玉听了，翻身爬起来，按着宝玉笑道：“我把你这个烂了嘴的！我就知道你是编派我呢。”说着便拧。宝玉连连央告：“好妹妹，饶了我罢，再不敢了。我因为闻见你的香气，忽然想起这个故典来。”黛玉笑道：“饶骂了人，你还说是故典呢。” 一语未了，只见宝钗走来，笑问：“谁说故典呢？我也听听。”黛玉忙让坐，笑道：“你瞧瞧，还有谁？他饶骂了，还说是故典。”宝钗笑道：“哦！是宝兄弟哟，怪不得他，他肚子里的故典本来多么。就只是可惜一件：该用故典的时候儿，他就偏忘了。有今儿记得的，前儿夜里的芭蕉诗就该记得呀，眼面前儿的倒想不起来。别人冷的了不得，他只是出汗。这会子偏又有了记性了。”黛玉听了，笑道：“阿弥陀佛！到底是我的好姐姐。你一般也遇见对子了。可知一还一报，不爽不错的。”
刚说到这里，只听宝玉房中一片声吵嚷起来。
未知何事，下回分解。

Mascara Jade Forest listened, turned over and got up, she laughed at Precious Jade and said: “ Why you love to gossip so much? I knew that you were making fun of me.” She said and tweaked his ear. Precious Jade hastened to say that: “ my dear sister, forgive me please, I dare not do it again. Because I smelt your scent, and suddenly remembered this literary allusion.” Mascara Jade Forest smiled and added: “ You spout insults but said that it is an allusion.” Didn’t finish saying, while Precious hairpin came in, she also smiled and said: “ Who is telling allusions? I want to know, too.” Mascara Jade Forest offered her seat to Precious hairpin , and said: “ Look! Who else? He spout insults, but said they are allusion.” Precious hairpin added with a smile: “ Oh! It is brother Precious Jade, it’s none of his business, because he knew a lot of allusions, but it is a pity that he didn’t remember the allusion when it needed. He should have remembered the Plantain poem, but didn’t remember the allusion before him. The others were so cold, but he only sweated, and this time he unexpectedly had a good memory.” Mascara Jade Forest listened to her, laughing: “ God! You exactly my good sister. Now you also meet with your opponent. It is true that measure for measure.” By this time, Precious Jade‘s room rang out a noise. Unknown what had happened, it will be told in the next chapter.

Daiyu heard, turned over and got up, she laughed at Baoyu and said: “ Why you love to gossip so much? I know that you are making fun of me.” She said and tweaked his ear. Baoyu hastened to say that: “ my dear sister, forgive me please, I dare not do it again. Because I smelt your scent, and suddenly remembered this literary allusion.” Daiyu smiled and added: “ You spout insults but said that it is an allusion.” Didn’t finish saying, while Baochai came in, she also smiled and said: “ Who is telling allusions? I want to know, too.” Daiyu offered her seat to Baochai, and said: “ Look! Who else? He spout insults, but said they are allusion.” Baochai added with a smile: “ Oh! It is brother Baoyu, it’s none of his business, because he knew a lot of allusions, but it is a pity that he didn’t remember the allusion when it needed. He should have remembered the Plantain poem, but didn’t remember the allusion before him. The others were so cold, but he only sweated, and this time he unexpectedly had a good memory.” Daiyu listened to her, laughing: “ God! You are exactly my good sister. Now you also meet with your opponent. It is true that measure for measure.” By this time, Baoyu’s room rang out a noise. Unknown what had happened, it will be told in the next chapter. --[[User:Xie Qinglin|Xie Qinglin]] ([[User talk:Xie Qinglin|talk]]) 02:20, 29 September 2021 (UTC)

==俄语语言文学 202120081533 谢庆琳女==

花解语──解：理解，领会。语本“解语花”，出自五代·王仁裕《开元天宝遗事·卷下·解语花》：“秋八月，太液池有千叶白莲，数枝盛开，帝(唐玄宗)与贵戚宴赏焉。左右皆叹羡。久之，帝指贵妃示于左右曰：‘争如我解语花！’”(争：怎。)原指唐玄宗把杨贵妃比做善解人意的鲜花。引申以比喻善解人意的美女。曹雪芹化用为“花解语”，则变为美女善解人意；而“花”又为袭人之姓，则“花解语”就是花袭人善解人意。
玉生香──玉：指林黛玉。生香：散发出香气。语或本“活色生香”，出自唐·薛能《杏花》诗：“活色生香第一枝，手中移得近青楼。”原形容杏花呈现出生机盎然的美丽颜色，散发出沁人心脾的香气。引申以形容女子的天生美貌和芳香气息。这里用以形容林黛玉的天生美貌和芳香气息。
“Hua Jie Yu” - " Jie": to understand, to comprehend. The phrase is from Wang Renyu's "The Legacy of Kaiyuan Tianbao - Volume 2 - The Flower of Explanation": "In the eighth month of autumn, there were a thousand leaves of white lotus in full bloom at the Taiyan Pond. The Emperor (Tang Xuanzong) and his noble relatives enjoyed the feast, and all the people around him admired them. After a long time, the emperor pointed to the noble princess and showed her to the left and right, saying: 'Compete with me to interpret the flowers!'" (Strive: how.) Originally, Emperor Tang Xuanzong compared Yang Guifei to an understanding flower. This is a metaphor for a beautiful woman who understands people. Cao Xueqin's use of the word "Hua Jie Yu" is a metaphor for a beautiful woman who understands people's feelings; and since "Hua" is also the surname of Assailant, "Hua Jie Yu" means that Hua Assailant understands people's feelings. “Jade is fragrant” - “Jade” refers to Lin Daiyu. The name of the poem is "Jade". The phrase is derived from the poem 'Apricot Blossoms' by Xue Neng: "The first branch of apricot blossoms is in living colour and fragrance, and the hand has moved close to the green tower." The original description is that the apricot blossoms are of a vibrant and beautiful colour, emitting a refreshing fragrance. It is also used to describe the natural beauty and fragrance of a woman. Here it is used to describe the natural beauty and fragrance of Lin Daiyu.
--[[User:Xie Qinglin|Xie Qinglin]] ([[User talk:Xie Qinglin|talk]]) 02:02, 29 September 2021 (UTC)
“Hua Jie Yu” - " Jie": to understand, to comprehend. The phrase is from five dynasties and ten years ·Wang Renyu's "The Legacy of Kaiyuan Tianbao - Volume 2 - The Flower of Explanation": "In the eighth month of autumn, there were a thousand leaves of white lotus in full bloom at the Taiye Pond. The Emperor (Tang Xuanzong) and his relatives enjoyed the beautiful scenery, and all the people around him admired them. After a long time, the emperor pointed to Yang Guifei（his wife）and showed her to the left and right, saying: 'Compete with me to interpret the flowers!'" (Strive: how.) Originally, Emperor Tang Xuanzong compared Yang Guifei to an understanding flower. This is a metaphor for a beautiful woman who understands people. Cao Xueqin used the word "Hua Jie Yu" as a metaphor for a beautiful woman who understands people's feelings; and since “Hua” is also the surname of Aroma, “Hua Jie Yu” means that “Aroma Hua” understands people's feelings. “Yu Sheng Xiang” - “Yu”(Jade) refers to Mascara Jade Forest. “Sheng Xiang”- exude fragrance. Or it could be called ''Huo Se Sheng Xiang''.The phrase is derived from the poem 'Apricot Blossoms' by Xue Neng: "The first branch of apricot blossoms is in living colour and fragrance, when got it in hand has moved close to the brothel." The original description is that the apricot blossoms are of a vibrant and beautiful colour, emitting a refreshing fragrance. It is also used to describe the natural beauty and fragrance of a woman. Here it is used to describe the natural beauty and fragrance of Mascara Jade Forest.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 03:24, 29 September 2021 (UTC)

==俄语语言文学 202120081552 张怡然女==

掷骰(t óu投)子——是一种游戏，即互掷骰子，以点数多少决输赢。骰子：游戏或赌博用具。多用兽骨制成，为立体小方块，六面分别刻以一、二、三、四、五、六点，一、四点涂以红色，其馀涂以黑色，故又称“色子”。相传为曹操之子曹植发明。
《丁郎认父》──取材于小说《升仙记》的弋阳腔剧目。写明代杜文学因受奸相严嵩迫害，流落湖广，入赘胡丞相府，与前妻所生子丁郎曲折相认的故事。
《黄伯央大摆阴魂阵》──或作《黄伯英大摆阴兵阵》。是由《七国春秋平话》改编的地方戏目。写燕国大将乐毅请师父黄伯央(《七国春秋平话》作“黄伯杨”)下山摆设阴魂阵围困齐将孙膑，最后两国讲和的故事。
Cast the dice - is a game in which two people cast in turn, using the size of the dice to determine the winner. Dice: a game or gambling device.Most of them are small cubes made of animal bones, six sides are engraved on one, two, three, four, five, six points, one and four coated into red, and the rest is also black, so the dice is called again ''Shai zi''.It is said to be invented by Cao Zhi, the son of Cao Cao.
''Ding lang got acquainted with his father''-- based on the novel ''Sheng Xian Ji'' yiyang repertoire. It tells the story of a man named Du Wenxue in the Ming Dynasty, who was forced to live in Huguang area because of the persecution of Yan Song, the adulterous phase. He entered the residence of Prime Minister Hu and met ding Lang, the son of his ex-wife with twists and turns.
''Huang Boyang's Great display of ghosts'' ─ or ''Huang Boying's great display of died soldiers''. It is a local opera adapted from ”The story collection of the Seven Kingdoms In the Spring and Autumn Period”. It tells the story of the state of Yan general Yue Yi please master Huang Boyang (''The story collection of the Seven Kingdoms In the Spring and Autumn Period'' for ''Huang Boyang'' ) Down the mountain set up the ghost array besiege Qi general Sun Bin， finally the last two countries peace story.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 15:47, 28 September 2021 (UTC)
Cast the dice - is a game in which two people cast in turn, using the size of the dice to determine the winner. Dice: a game or gambling device.Most of them are small cubes made of animal bones, six sides are engraved on one, two, three, four, five, six points, one and four coated into red, and the rest is coated into black, so the dice is also called 'Shai zi''.It is said to be invented by Cao Zhi, the son of Cao Cao.
''Ding lang got acquainted with his father''-- based on yiyang repertoire of the novel ''Sheng Xian Ji''. It tells the story of a man named Du Wenxue in the Ming Dynasty, who was forced to live in Huguang area because of the persecution of Yan Song, the adulterous phase. He entered the residence of Prime Minister Hu and met ding Lang, the son of his ex-wife with twists and turns.
''Huang Boyang's Great display of ghosts'' ─ or ''Huang Boying's great display of died soldiers''. It is a local opera adapted from ”The story collection of the Seven Kingdoms In the Spring and Autumn Period”. It tells the story of the state of Yan general Yue Yi please master Huang Boyang (''The story collection of the Seven Kingdoms In the Spring and Autumn Period'' for ''Huang Boyang'' ) Down the mountain set up the ghost array besiege Qi general Sun Bin， finally the last make peace between the two countries.--[[User:Liu Yue|Liu Yue]] ([[User talk:Liu Yue|talk]]) 10:26, 29 September 2021 (UTC)

==亚非语言文学 202120081509 刘越女==

香玉──典出唐·温庭筠《晚归曲》：“弯堤弱柳遥相瞩，雀扇团圆掩香玉。”原比喻美女散发的香气和洁白如玉的肌肤。这里是把玉石的“玉”和林黛玉的“玉”合为一体，以比喻美女林黛玉。
《孙行者大闹天宫》──京剧和地方戏均有此剧目，取材于小说《西游记》。写孙悟空跟随唐僧前大闹天宫的故事。
《姜太公斩将封神》──京剧和地方戏均有此剧目，取材于小说《封神演义》。写姜太公助周灭商后斩将封神的故事。按：以上四剧皆为闹剧，隐寓宁国府子弟粗俗不堪。
献酬──亦作“献醻”。指酒席上主宾互相敬酒。《诗经·小雅·楚茨》：“献醻交错，礼仪卒度，笑语卒获。”郑玄笺：“始主人酌宾为献，宾既酌主人，主人又自饮酌宾曰醻。”
行令──即行酒令。是一种宴会中助兴的游戏。其方法是：由一人任令官，按一定规矩行令，违令或按令该饮者都要饮酒。
Sweet jade -- classic tang · Wen Tingjun late homing song : "Bent dike weak willow distant look, bird fan reunion mask sweet jade." Originally used as a metaphor for beauty to send out fragrance and white jade skin. Here, the "jade" of jade and the "jade" of Lin Daiyu are combined as a whole to compare the beauty Lin Daiyu.
Monkey King Makes Havoc in Heaven-- a play in Both Beijing and local operas, based on the novel 'Journey to the West.' It tells the story of Sun Wukong who caused havoc in heaven before he followed Tang Priest.
Jiang Taigong beheaded a General and canonized a God. This play is used in Both Beijing Opera and local opera, and is based on the novel Creation of the Gods(Fengshen Yanyi). Write the story of Jiang Taigong, who helped Zhou destroy the Shang dynasty and then beheaded the generals and sealed the gods. The author explains: the above four plays are farce, alluding to the vulgar children of the Ningguo mansion.
献酬（Make toasts）─ can also be said 献醻. Refers to the banquet guests toasting each other. The Book of Songs· xiaoya ·chuets : "The host and the guest toast each other, the etiquette completely conforms to the law, then a word and a smile are appropriate natural." Zheng Xuanjian: "First, the host toasts to the guests. After the guests drink the wine revered by the host, the host drinks it, which is called making toasts ."
Order -- that is, order to drink. It's a fun game at a banquet. Its method is: by a person as an officer, according to certain rules of the order, the violation or according to the order of the drinker to drink.--[[User:Liu Yue|Liu Yue]] ([[User talk:Liu Yue|talk]]) 10:26, 29 September 2021 (UTC)
Here is the "jade" of Jade and Lin Daiyu "jade" into one--[[User:Zhang Qiuyi|Zhang Qiuyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Qiuyi|talk]]) 10:38, 29 September 2021 (UTC)

==亚非语言文学 202120081550 张秋怡女==

家生子儿——奴仆在主子家生养的子女。清代规定家奴之子女必须为奴，世代如此。清·赵翼《陔馀丛考·家生子儿》：“奴仆在主家所生子，俗谓家生子。按《法苑珠林》记庸岭有大蛇为患，都尉令长求人家生婢子及有罪家女祭之，‘家生’之名见此。”(按：《法苑珠林》为唐·释道世撰。)又《汉书·陈胜传》“秦令少府章邯免骊山徒、人奴产子”唐·颜师古注：“奴产子，犹今人云家生奴也。”“家生奴”即“家生子”。可知“家生子”或“家生奴”之称至少在唐代已有。
卖倒的死契——指双方约定卖出后不能赎身、必须终生为奴的卖身契。卖倒：犹“卖定”、“卖死”。不可变更或反悔之意。
禄蠹——禄：身居官爵，享受俸禄。蠹：蛀虫。 “禄蠹”或本“国蠧”，出自《左传·襄公二十二年》：“不可使也，而傲使人，国之蠧也。”意思是本无治国之才而身居高位，便是国家的蛀虫。“禄蠹”与“国蠧” 的意思基本上一样，也是指身居高位、坐享国家俸禄而不干实事的官吏。
Offspring - The offspring of a servant in his master's house.The Qing Dynasty stipulated that the children of domestic slaves must be slaves,from generation to generation so.Qing · Zhaoyi “Gai Yu Cong Kao·The offspring of a servant in his master's house”：“A son born to a slave in his master's house is called a son of the family. according to the story in the Pearl forest of Fayuan that there was a snake in yongling, the commander ordered the family to give birth to maidservants and guilty family female sacrifice, the name of ‘Jia Sheng’ can be seen here.”(according to: the Pearl forest of Fayuan was written for Tang· Shi Daoshi.) Also in The Book of Han · Biography of Chen Sheng, “The Qin Dynasty sent Zhang Han to pardon those who had served in mount Lishan for crimes and the sons born to house slaves”Tang · Yan Shigu notes: “Slaves give birth to children, and is also slaves”.“family born slave” is “family born child”. It can be known that “family born son” or “family born slave” had been known at least in the Tang Dynasty.Dead deed of sale refers to the deed of sale in which both parties agree that they cannot redeem themselves and must be slaves for life. Sell down: “sell it” and “sell it to death”.The meaning of not changing or repentance.“LU DU”-Lu：official status, enjoy the salary. Du：moth. “Ludu” or “Guodu” from “Zuo Zhuan · Xianggong 22 years”: “do not make, but proud to make people the worm of the nation.It means that if you are in a high position without the ability to govern a country, you are the moth of the country. “Ludu” and “Guodu” basically the same meaning, also refers to a high position, enjoy the state salary and do not work officials.--[[User:Zhang Qiuyi|Zhang Qiuyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Qiuyi|talk]]) 01:29, 29 September 2021 (UTC)
--[[User:Wang Yifan21|Wang Yifan21]] ([[User talk:Wang Yifan21|talk]]) 13:47, 11 October 2021 (UTC)
Annotation:
First:The common term for a son born to a slave in his master’s house is a family son.
Second:It means that if you are in a high position without the ability to govern a country,you are the moth of the country.

==亚非语言文学 202120081524 王逸凡女==

明明德——头一个“明”为动词。彰明、弘扬之意。明德：美德，至德，完美的道德。语出《礼记·大学》：“大学之道，在明明德，在亲民，在止于至善。”意思是弘扬完美的道德。这里是指贾宝玉只肯定包括《大学》在内的《四书》(《论语》、《大学》、《中庸》、《孟子》)是正经书，其他书都要不得。
魔星——曹雪芹的原作为“天魔星”，显然是借用了佛家和道家的“天魔”之说。佛家说“天魔”为欲界第六天主。如《楞严经》卷九说：“或汝阴魔，或复天魔。”又《百喻经·小儿得大龟喻》说：“邪见外道，天魔波旬，及恶知识，而语之言，汝但极意六尘，恣情五欲，如我语者，必得解脱。”道家则说“天魔”为天上的魔怪。如《云笈七签》卷四说：“有经无符，则天魔害人。”这里的“魔星”则为冤家之意。
--[[User:Wang Yifan21|Wang Yifan21]] ([[User talk:Wang Yifan21|talk]]) 13:55, 11 October 2021 (UTC)
Mingmingde-The first Ming is a verb which means obviousness, clearness or carrying forward and the word Mingde means virtue,supreme virtue,perfect morality.TheBook of Rites·Great learningsaid that The way of a university lies in being clear and virtuous,being close to the people and being perfect.It means to promote perfect morality.Jiabaoyu only affirmed The Four Books including Great learning.(Analects,Great Learning,The Doctrine of the Mean,Mencius) are the proper scriptures and the other books are not acceptable.
Devil star—Cao Xueqin's original as heaven devil star apparently borrowed Buddhism and Taoism’s doctrine of heaven devil.Buddhists say that demons are the sixth god of desire.For example,volume 9 of the Surangama Sutra says, Either you cast shadows or you recover demons from heaven.And Buddhist parables said Evil sees the outside world,the sky is full of demons,and evil knowledge.But as you speak,you will be free from your desires.Taoism says that demons of heaven are demons in the sky.Such as Cloud gupta seven signs volume 4 said there is no sign,then the devil harm people.The devil star here is the meaning of enemy.

Laba Porridge-Originated from what Buddhism calls "Buddha Bathing Day". According to legend, Sakyamuni was born on the eighth day of the fourth month of the lunar calendar. Therefore, since the Han Dynasty, every Buddhist temple has held commemorative activities on this day. , "Buddhist Bathing Festival" or "Buddha Day". "The Book of the Later Han Dynasty·Tao Qian Biography" said:" Every time Buddha baths, to provid alms and rice to the road."In the Southern Dynasties Liang Zongmo's "Jingchu Sui Shi Ji" said: "April 8th, all monasteries Set up a fast, bath the Buddha with five-color perfume, and make Longhua Hui together. According to "The Biography of the Eminent Monk": ‘On April 8th, to bathe the Buddha, use Duliang incense as blue water, tulip as red water, Qiulong incense as white water, aconite incense as yellow water, benzoin as black water, to infuse the top of the Buddha. ’"In the Song Dynasty, the day of Sakyamuni’s Buddhahood, the eighth day of the twelfth lunar month, was the "Buddha Bathing Day." Every time this day, all the temples held commemorative activities, not only followed the alms, bathing Buddha and other items, but also added laba porridge, known as "Buddha Bathing Day." "On the eighth day of the lunar New Year, three or five monks and nuns in the streets chanted Buddha in teams. They would sit on a gold, bronze or wooden Buddha statue in a silver or bronze saro or a good basin. They would soak it in perfume and shower it with the branches of a tree and intended for the edification of the masses. The great monasteries served as bathing buddhas, and gave seven treasures and five flavors porridge and disciples, called "laba porridge". Since then every families also cooks porridge with fruit and miscellaneous ingredients. "Since then, the phase has become a common practice, and it has not faded to this day.--[[User:Li Xinxing|Li Xinxing]] ([[User talk:Li Xinxing|talk]]) 12:47, 11 October 2021 (UTC)

Laba congee - Originated from a festival which calls “Buddha Bathing Day” in Buddhism. According to legend, Sakyamuni was born on the eighth of forth lunar month. Therefore, on this day, every Buddhist temple will hold activities since Han Dynasty. People will practice alms all over the place, and wash Buddha statues with water full of spices, which is called “Buddha Bathing Day”, “Buddha Bathing Festival” or “Buddha Buddhism Day”. “Book of Later Han Dynasty · Tao Qian Biography” said: “Every time Buddha baths, there are more drinking and rice to the homeless people. And Liang Zongmo, the author of “Jingchu Sui Shi Ji”, said: “April 8th, all monasteries set up a fast, bath the Buddha with five-color perfume, and make Longhua Hui together.”
According to “The Biography of the Eminent Monk”: “On April 8th, people use Duliang incense as blue water, Yujin incense as red water, Qiulong incense as white water, Fuzi incense as yellow water, and Anxi incense as black water, to infuse the top of the Buddha”. In Song Dynasty, the day when Sakyamuni became a Buddha, the eighth of twelfth lunar month, was the "Buddha Bathing Day." On that day, all Buddhist temples held the activities which called “Buddha Bathing Activities”, not only followed the traditional items, but also added Laba congee. The folks also follow the example and eat Laba congee. We can see these things from “DongJingMengHualu·Volume Ten·December”, a book written by Meng in Song Dynasty: three or five monks and nuns in the streets chanted Buddha in teams. They would sit on a gold, bronze or wooden Buddha statue in a silver or bronze saro or a good basin. They would soak it in perfume and shower it with the branches of a tree and intended for the edification of the masses. The great monasteries served as bathing buddhas, and gave seven treasures and five flavors porridge and disciples, called ‘Laba congee’. Since then every families also cooks porridge with fruit and miscellaneous ingredients.” Since then, the phase has become a common practice, and it has not faded to this day.--[[User:Xu Minyun|Xu Minyun]] ([[User talk:Xu Minyun|talk]]) 13:55, 11 October 2021 (UTC)

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=Chapter 13 History of Translation Theories in the Soviet Union=
===苏联时期的翻译理论史===
Wu Jingyue 吴婧悦 Hunan Normal University

===1. Abstract===
As is well known, the history of the Soviet period and discusse the characteristics of the Soviet translation theory. written by --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:02, 19 December 2021 (UTC) Firstly, we discuss about the overall situation of the development of the Soviet period, the history of the Soviet period and discusses the characteristics of the Soviet translation theory. Finally, we introduce the famous translation theorist like: S. G. Barkhudarov (С. Г. Бархуда́ров) and I. A. Kashkin (И. А. Кашки́н) and so on.

===摘要===
众所周知，苏联的翻译理论在世界翻译理论中占有十分突出的地位。本文首先从苏联时期翻译理论发展的整体状况出发，对苏联时期翻译发展史进行梳理；探讨了苏联翻译理论发展的特色；最后向读者介绍了著名翻译理论家S. G. Barkhudarov (С. Г. Бархуда́ров) 以及I. A. Kashkin (И. А. Кашки́н) 等人的翻译理论。written by --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:18, 19 December 2021 (UTC)

===2. Key words===
Translation theories, Western translation theories, Soviet Translation theories

===关键词===
翻译理论；西方翻译理论；苏联时期翻译理论

===3. Introduction===
The Soviet translation theory play a pivotal role in the world translation theory. written by --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:04, 19 December 2021 (UTC)This paper firstly introduces the historical evolution of the development of the Soviet translation theory, which divides the Soviet Union into two periods: the development history of translation theory before World War II and the development history of translation theory after World War II. In introducing the history of translation theory before World War II, the source of the history of Soviet translation theory, the development of Soviet translation theory, namely linguistics and the contribution of Kamisarov, Liubimov and others.Secondly, the representatives of the translation literature and art school and the translation language school are introduced specifically.When introducing the school of translation literature, the views of translator Kashkin and Gachzzeraz are introduced; in introducing the language school of translation, they are mainly introduced.

===4. The evolution of Translation Theories in the Soviet Union.===
===4.1 History of translation theory development before World War II===
The Soviet translation theory occupies a very prominent position in the world translation theory.The Soviet study of translation theory began shortly after the October Revolution, began with literary translation.

In 1918, Gorky (А.М.Горький) founded the World Literature Press (Издательство "Всемирная литература") in conjunction with the help of Lenin(В.И.Ленин). The publisher's task is to introduce world classics, improve the translation art, and train translators.At this stage, nearly 100 professors and writers attended the work.In order to unify the thinking, discuss the theory of literary translation, and stipulate some clear rules, Gorky handed the burden to Chukowsky(К.И.Чуковский). Therefore, after making a lot of efforts, Chukowski wrote the book "The Principles of Literary Translation--written by [[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:07, 19 December 2021 (UTC)("Прицины художественного перевода") in 1919.He first proposed that the translator of the novel should be an artist and a master of language.Chukowski believed that a good translation can reproduce the artistic characteristics of the original text in vivid and rich Russian.But at that time, there was a very popular view in literary and theoretical criticism that translation was essentially impossible work.

(Cai & Duan, 2000: 5)

In 1930, The Principles of Literary Translation was collected in Chukowski's "The Art of Translation" ("Искусство переводов").It suggests that translators must understand the social environment.In addition, the communication of the structural characteristics and rhetorical characteristics of the original text, as well as the principles of translation and expression, are also discussed.

In 1934 Translation theorist Smirnov (А.А.Смирнов) made the first proposal of the concept of "equivalent translation" in the term "Soviet Literature Encyclopedia", "translation" (Перевод).The "equivalent translation" here means "conveying the ideological content, feelings, and written structure of the original work", that is, "conveying the full creative intention of the original author". Smirnov suggested that not only can use the direct counterpart of the original in translation but also can use the functional approximation of the original in translation.

(Cai & Duan, 2000: 16)

In 1936, Loginski (М.Л.Лозинский) reported at the first National Conference of Translators, "The Art of the Translation of Poetry" ("Искусство стихотворного перевода"), and pointed out that poetry translation should be the same in aesthetics as the original poetry works, highlighting the equivalent aesthetic function of literary and artistic translation.

Also in 1936, Kashkin (И.А.Кашкин) proposed the theory and became the founder of the Soviet theory of realism. His translation method is: translators should try their best to reproduce the objective reality expressed in the original text, rather than words; they should see, experience, and perfectly reproduce the reality in the eyes of the author from behind the original text. He equated the realistic method of translation with the socialist realism in literary creation.In the Soviet Union, he was hailed as "a theorist representing a entire era in the history of Russian translation". He believes that translators should be loyal to the original, to their readers, to reality, and that the three are inseparable. Kashkin believes that without a theory, translators are just a craftsman, and can never become a translator or artist.

( Kashkin, 1977)
(Cai & Duan, 2000: 25)

===4.2 History of translation theory development after World War II===
Since the 1950s, a new period of studying translation theory from the perspective of linguistics began. Its main characteristic is to link translation theory with comparative linguistics, and to reveal the law of the two languages based on the comparison of the phenomenon of the two languages.written by --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:12, 19 December 2021 (UTC)

In 1950, "Theory and Methods of Translation Teaching" ("Вопросы теории и методики учебного перевода"), which played a considerable role in the development of translation theory. For example, in Gary Palin(И.Р. Гпльперии) 's article, "Translation and Rhetoric" ("Перевод и стилистика"), shares Shakespeare's original Othello with Morosov’s (М.М.Морозов) translation, noting the similarities and differences between English and Russian in terms of meaning and aesthetic functions. Meanwhile, the book Lezkel(Я.И.Рецкер) ’s article, "On the regularity and correspondence in Russia" ("О закономерных соответствиях при переводе на роднои язык"), divides the language regularity correspondence into three categories: equivalent, approximation and equivalent substitution.These three methods are applied to scientific and technological translation, the translation of political articles, and literary translation.

(Wu, 2006: 325)

1953 Feodorov (А.В.Фёдоров) 's book "An Introduction to the Translation Theory" ("Введение в теорию перевода") was published.The book discusses the translation theory from the perspective of the linguistics theory, and proposes that the translation theory is a branch of the linguistics, and the translation problem can only be solved in the field of linguistics. In addition, the book stipulates the content of the concept of "translation", the object of theoretical research, the content, etc., and discusses the vocabulary issues, grammar issues and stylistic issues of translation, respectively.The book made Feyodorov the founder of the language school of translation theory. In addition, the book received wide attention in the Soviet translation circle, especially the translation teaching circle, but it also caused a heated controversy in the literary and art school of translation theory.

However, translators from the school of literature and art believe that Feodorov studied translation problems almost completely from a linguistic perspective, ignoring that the first thing of literary translation should be involved in the problem of literature and art.

(Wu, 2006: 354)

In 1954, Kashkin put forward in "Methods and Genres of Soviet Literary Translation" ("О методе и школе советского художественного перевода") that the theory of literary translation should be a broad language discipline. That is to say, written by --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:12, 19 December 2021 (UTC)the study of translation and literary problems should be combined.

In 1955 the collection of "Literary Translation" ("Вопросы художественного перевода") questions Feydorov's views, believing that studying translation theory from a linguistic perspective may lead to formalism and word-by-word dead translation in translation practice.

Since then, the Soviet theory of translation has gradually formed two major schools, namely, the school of literature and art and the language school.The two factions had long debated, culminating after the late 1950s and 1960s, with numerous papers and monographs each published."Translation Skills" ("Мастерство перевода"), published by the Soviet Writers Publishing House, focuses on the views of the literary school. The language school is based on the "Translation Worker Notes" ("Тетрадь переводчика") edited by Balhudarov, making comments and summarizing the translation experience.Most belong to the literary school are writers; the language school are linguists and college teachers.

( Kashkin, 1977: 163)

In 1958, Feodorov made some additions and modifications to the original book in the second edition of the Introduction to Translation Theory. Although he also admitted that the problems in the field of translation could not all be explained by linguistic methods, it was correct to study the translation problem from the perspective of linguistics, otherwise, there would be no real theory of translation art.He stressed that literary and artistic translation does have its own characteristics, and should highlight its aesthetic aspects, but literary images are created by language means, and must also be conveyed by another language means. Therefore, the study of translation and theory from the perspective of linguistics is the basis.

(Wu, 2006: 366)

In 1962, the collection of "Translation Theory and Review" ("Теория и критика перевода"), including two groups of translation theorists.Linguist Larin (Б.А.Ларии) In the preface to the collection, "Our Mission" ("Наши задачи"), proposed that the theory of literary translation must be established on the basis of linguistics and literature.He believes that it is impossible not to combine linguistics and literary methods organically, whether in linguistics, rhetoric, or translation theory. Any translation should begin with analysis, and finally finish with literary creation.

1963 Aitkin (Е.Т.Эткин) published the book "Poetry and Translation" ("Поэзии и перевод"), which analyzed and commented on a large number of foreign-language poems translated into Russian language in the early 19th century, concerning the translation of literary and artistic theory.He believes that the linguistic means of poetry translation are closely related to the reproduced artistic characteristics of the original poetry, and the two should not be opposed.In his opinion, translation is like rhetoric, which is both a problem of literature and art and linguistics, because rhetoric is a science of language synonymous, and it belongs to the two fields of linguistics. Ignoring the theory of the form of literary works will actually make the translator helpless.

(Tan，1991: 246)

In 1964, Gachzrazawa (Г.Р.Гачечиладзе) published the book "The Theory of Literary Translation" ("Вопросы теории художественного перевода"), in which he based on Lenin's reaction theory, proposing that the translator directly reflects the original text, namely the artistic reality of the original text, rather than the specific reality directly reflected by the original text.

That same year, Levzin (И.И.Ревзин) and Rosenzwig (В.Ю.Розенцвейг) has published "Principles of General Translation and Machine Translation" ("Основы общего и машинного перевода") to study translation issues from a structural linguistics perspective.It was the first work in the world to combine the concepts and principles of translational theory with the category of structural linguistics.

(Wu, 2006: 430)

In 1968, Feodorov made a new revision and supplement to the new situation, publishing the third edition of the book and renamed "Basic Translation" ("Основы общеи тоерии перевода").The rationale is that this can highlight the basic principles of translation theory —— studies various translation phenomena and various kinds of translation, revealing their commonalities and respective characteristics, comparing from a linguistic perspective.In the book, Feodorov makes it clear that it should never be forgotten that the ultimate task is to establish a common theory of philology.It is now outdated to insist that literary translation is studied only through literature and art, or only through linguistics. Contemporary era is an era of close cooperation between different disciplines. In philology, the distance between the two branches of literature and linguistics is not very large, and its differences are inevitable, but can be overcome, that is to say, the two can be combined all together.

The 1970s were called the "harvest years" of Soviet translation theory, and the debate entered a new stage.

In 1972, Gabriel's book "Literary Translation and Literary Exchange" ("Художественныи перевод и литературные взаимосвязи") can be regarded as a representative work of the school of literature and art, which more comprehensively expounded the translation theory views of the Soviet school of literature and art.Once published, the book immediately aroused widespread response from the Soviet translation theory community.In the book, he pointed out that literary and artistic translation belongs to the category of artistic creation, and studying literary translation from the perspective of linguistics inevitably leads to the dead translation of auxiliary words. As a result, the translation is linguistically correct and low in art. Because from a linguistic point of view, the decisive factor is not the translator's creative attitude towards the original text, but the linguistic correspondence principle.Thus, translation becomes some technical process, not creation. Literary and artistic translation should reproduce the aesthetic value of the original text.

1963 Komizarov (В.Н.Комиссаров) presents its unique theory of "equivalent levels" in his book on translation ("Слово о переводе").According to this theory, the meaning structure of discourse is a complex that can be divided into content, namely the level of language symbols, discourse level, notification structure level, scenario description level and the level of communication purpose.The principle of translation equivalence to the original text should be based on these levels during translation.

(Wu, 2006: 456)

The same year, Shvzel (В.Н.Комиссаров) published the book "Translation and Linguistics" ("Перевод и лингвистика"), suggesting that translation is not only the contact between two language systems, but also between two different cultures, and sometimes between two different civilizations.In addition, he raises questions about the invariant values of the translation function.Shvzel believes that translation functional invariant values include both semantic and grammatical aspects.

In 1974 Lezkel (Я.И.Рецкер) has published the book "Translation Theory and Translation Practice (An Introduction to the Theory of Linguistics of Translation)" ("Теория перевода и переводическая практика - Очерки лингвистическои теории перевода"), which discusses some key issues in the linguistics theory of translation, which are directly related to the translation practice.The book compares the lexical grammar and rhetorical characteristics of English with its functional counterpart in Russian, and reveals the logical semantic basis of using various translation techniques and methods in the translation process.

1975 Balhudarov (Л.С.Бархударов) published the book "Language and Translation" ("Язык и перевод"), which aroused widespread response in the Soviet translation community and was considered the representative work of the Soviet language school translation theory in the 1970s. The biggest characteristic of the book is to link the translation theory with the latest achievements in linguistics in the world, and put forward the linguistics theory of translation is comparing discourse linguistics, more specifically, is the semantic discourse in different languages, and the actual segmentation of the sentence is an essential condition of equivalent translation and a series of new arguments. Balhuduff makes it clear that translation changes the speech product of one language to another while keeping the content unchanged, that is, the translator does not deal with the language system, but with the language product.In addition, he discussed translationability, the nature of translation theory, semantics and translation, translation units, and translation methods.

(Balhudarov, 1975: 187)

In 1976, Chernhovskikaya (Л.А.Черняховская) published the book "Translation and the Semantic Structure" ("Перевод и смысловая структура"), the only Soviet work that conveys the logical focus and real semantic segmentation of sentences in translation.

That same year, Levitskaya (Т.Р.Леницкая) and Fejelman (А.М.Фетерман) published the book "translation problem" ("Проблемы перевода"), the book discusses English and Russian due to different vocabulary, grammar, rhetorical structure and the main translation problems, its focus is not the translation process itself and general translation methods and skills, but for the difficulty of English translation into Russian method.

In 1977 Lambimov (Н.М.Любимов) highlighted in "Translation is Art" ("Перевод - искусство") that literary translation is an art that pursues artistic accuracy rather than literal slave-style fidelity.At the same time, it is also proposed that words as language units can only be reflected in, or through words, so the objective reality of language existence is the overall —— discourse of the work. The basic category of translation is the discourse.

And 1978 Venogradov (В.С.Виноградов) pointed out in "The Lexical Problems of Literary Prose Translation" ("Лексические вопросы перевода художественнои прозы") that words are the basic unit of language, so, it is also the starting point of translation.

(Wu, 2006: 359)

In 1978, Komisarov edited and published the collection of "Translation Theory Issues in Foreign Linguistics" ("Вопросы теории перевода в зарубежнои лингвистике"), It fairly fully introduces the state of Western linguists studying translation theory, The book is divided into four themes, Both: the general linguistics problem of translation, Translation equivalent, translation process, Translational linguistics and Translational rhetoric; Translating the relevant discourse of some famous western linguists, For example, Jacobson (R.Jackbcon), one of the founders of the Prague School, British linguist J.R.Firch (J.R.Firch) and others.The influence of this collection is evident from the later writings of translation theorists of the Soviet language school.

In 1980, Komisarov published the book "translation linguistics" ("Лингвистика перевода"), which pointed out that the perspective of linguistics is entering a new stage, turned out to regard the linguistics translation theory as a part of applied linguistics, for the translation practice of service, its focus is on the translation process, its task is to study the linguistics mode of translation and determine the principle of translation. The results of studying translation from the perspective of linguistics show that translation is an integral part of linguistics, and the theoretical analysis of interlanguage communication phenomenon is necessary for the development of linguistics itself. Therefore, translation should be regarded as a special form of language function, which is a special method of its speech practice, and our knowledge of the essence and function of language is incomplete. That is, linguistic analysis of translation can not only serve translation practice, but also promote development of linguistics itself. It is under the guidance of this idea that the book discusses the general linguistics theory of translation, translation semantics, translation linguistics, translation rhetoric, translation mode, translation standards. Therefore, it provides a new perspective for the study of translation theory.

(Cai & Duan, 2000: 20)

In the same year, the Minyal. Bellolluchev (Р.К.Миньяр - Белоручев) published the book "Translation" ("Общая теория перевода и устныи перевод").The book regards translational science as an independent subject on the grounds that it has its own subjects, content and a complete set of terms; thinks that translation research is beyond the scope of linguistics. It written by --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:12, 19 December 2021 (UTC)is a subject of linguistics, psychology, semiotics, sociology intersection, mainly applicable to translation between any two languages; proposes the discourse information theory, the main method of translation and the classification of language means in translation and so on.The book first used the interpretation as a research subject.

In 1981, Ratshev (Л.К.Латышев) published the "Translation Tutorial —— Translation equivalent and achieve the equivalent Method" ("Курс перевода: Эквивалентность перевода и способы ее достижения"), which divided the translation equivalent into formal and functional equivalent two types, and proposed the specific methods to achieve the translation equivalent.

In 1983, Feodorov published the collection of "Translation Art and Literary Life" ("Искусство перевода и жизнь литературы."), indicating from the preface entitled "A Window to Another World" ("Окнов другои мир") that Feodorov partially accepted the other's views through disputes with the school of translation theory and literature.At the same time, he argued that Gaczrazzer greatly limited the role of language in translation, seeing language as mere technical means.

(Cai &Duan, 2000: 22)

In 1985, Lvorskaya (З.Д.Львовская) published the book "Theoretical Issues of Translation"(Теоритическая проблема перевода”), which based on the theory of communicative function, believing that discourse meaning is divided into linguistic and verbal categories. The equivalent of translation is not the absolute invariance of the semantic, pragmatic, and environmental components in the meaning structure, but only the equivalence of pragmatic and environmental components.
The 20th century school of literature in the translation theory of outstanding events is in the journal "literary review" ("Литературное обозрение") continuously on the discussion of translation problem, the content involves: the necessity of the translation theory, how to overcome the two extreme, how to treat the original aesthetics, time color, translation can really convey "the spirit of the original" and the creation of the translator, etc.

In 1988, Shvzzer, a translation theorist of the language school, published the book "Translation Theory: Status, Problems and Face"(“Теория перевода : Статус, проблема, аспекты”). The author combines the latest achievements in linguistics in the field of speech linguistics, sentence semantics, communication linguistics and psychological linguistics, the status of translation theory, the essence of translation, equivalent, similarities, interpretability, translation semantic, language, discourse and translation and other six issues, the language school translation theory research mentioned a new stage.

In 1990, Komisarov's book "Translation Theory (Linguistics)" ("Теория перевода (линвистические вопросы") clearly stated in his preface that translation theory is an important part of the training of future translators. As a textbook, the book aims to introduce the basic principles of translational linguistics theory.
In the 1980s, the Soviet theory of scientific and technological translation developed rapidly, and published a lot of articles and monographs.

(Cai & Duan, 2000: 37)

In all, the Soviet theory of translation has been developed from scratch, from sporadic to systematic, constantly enriched, and constantly deepening step by step.

===5. The Literary School of Translation===
===5.1 Realistic Translation pioneered by E.A.Kashkin===

Kashkin Ivan Alexandrovich - literary critic, translator and critic. He brought up a significant group of translators from the English language. He translated J. Chaucer's The Canterbury Tales (1946, with O. Rumer). Promoter of the best achievements of modern English and American poetry (R. Frost, K. Sandberg) and prose (E. Hemingway, E. Caldwell, J. Wayne, etc.). Aslo, he is the author of historical and literary studies about J. Conrad, L. Stevenson, W. Faulkner, E. Hemingway and others.

Some translators believe that they must obey the "absolute authority" of the original text and translate the original text word by word in order to be completely faithful. Other translators advocate for loyalty to the original text. And Kashkin believes that realism in art is a complex and diverse phenomenon, which is restricted by history. Realism in art is real and poetic. Exactly, to feel and reflect world

( Kashkin, 1977: 177)

In order to accurately convey the ideological content of the original work and creatively reproduce the artistic characteristics and national characteristics of the original work, it must adopt the realistic translation method. The translator must respect the reality of the text and strive to reproduce the objective reality expressed by the text and give it life, not simply copying the text symbols of the original text.

Translators should understand the author of the original text's direct feelings of reality through the barrier of the syntactic structure of a foreign language. Only in this way could he reproduce the original in the same powerful and clear language, as did the original author did. The translator should see the phenomena, thoughts, things, behaviors and conditions through the words of the original work, and specifically reproduce this reality in the eyes of the original author.
Reality in art is the image to reflect the essential characteristics in reality. written by --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:14, 19 December 2021 (UTC)

( Kashkin, 1977: 185)

The truth in literary translation is not a final pursuit that the surface is similar to the original text, nor does it simply copy all the unimportant details.The truth in literary translation is based on the internal logic of the image, and first, to faithfully translate the essence of the original text.The translator should faithfully understand the author's conception and creative intention, and retain the artistic characteristics of the original work, the historical reality and the atmosphere of The Times.

Otherwise, Kashkin believes that there must be a strict distinction between artistic images that should be conveyed and verbal images that occasionally occur in translation.Because language is the basic means of expressing all literature, but the basic task and main difficulty of literary and artistic translation is not to copy the language of the original text, including the language structure elements, but in the artistic reproduction of the original image, considering the differences of the language system.

( Kashkin, 1977: 205)

===5.2 Gaczilaser’s realistic view of translations===

Professor Givi Razhdenovich Gaczilaser is one of the largest specialists in the field of literary translation theory, the author of the famous monograph "The Problem of Realistic Translation", a translator of Shakespeare, Byron, Shelley and other English poets into Georgian. In the book offered to the reader's attention, he continued to develop in depth the theory and practice of literary translation. Proceeding from Lenin's theory of reflection, G. Gachechiladze considers literary translation as a form of cognition, as a creative act that helps the reader approach not only a foreign language work, but also the living reality reflected in this work.
Gaczilaser believes that the principles of literary translation have been swinging between the two extremes.One is word-by-word translation, and the other is artistically equivalent but written away from the original text. He thought it would be easy to combine the two principles, but it was impossible in practice. Because different means of expressing ideas are very different languages, word-by-word translation and artistic quality are always contradictory.

If the translator is limited to the original and not to reproduce what the author sees in the imagination, he is not a creative person. The translator should take the author's thoughts as the starting point, the original text serve the deep understanding of artistic reality. The translator should see the real life reflected in the original work behind the artistic reality, and it is not to create his own work.Realistic translation method refers to realists following the law of realistic art, reflecting the artistic reality of the original, and consistent with the original, more specifically, rhetorical consistency, only help to achieve linguistic loyalty, but should not let this affect their own will. Loyal to the author's artistic truth is the goal of the realistic translator.The artistic reality of the original includes both content and form, and even the unity of form and content.

(Gaczilaser, 1964: 120)

It is undoubtedly correct to compare the two language systems in the translation process.However, this contrast has certain limitations, as each language has its characteristic means of rhetoric.Just as there is no unified language, there is no unified rhetoric of all languages, nor the unified grammar of all languages. The application of rhetorical rules to any specific language would rise to a national, independent rhetorical system. Thus, the rhetorical rule can only be judged based on the character of some language.

===6. The Linguistic School Translation===
===6.1 Balhuadov’s Translation Concept===

Balhuarov was a famous translation theorist in the Soviet Union in the 20th century, one of the representatives of the language school and a doctor of Soviet philology, and has been engaged in translation teaching and translation theory research for many years. It is represented as the Language and Translation ("Язык и перевод").

From the perspective of the research subjects of the translation theory, Balhudav believes that the task of the linguistics theory of the translation is to pattern the translation process and put forward some scientific diagram for the translation process, which can more accurately reflect the important aspects of this process. In the view, on the one hand, translation theory, like any other theoretical model, reflects only some of the most important features of its subjects, rather than all features. Translation theory studies not all the relationship between the original language and the translation language, but the regular relationship between the two, that is, the typical and recurrent correspondence.On the other hand, translation theory, like any other discipline theory, stipulates not only a pattern, but many patterns that reflect the translation process in different ways as well as various characteristics.

(Balhudarov, 1975: 250)

From the essence of translation, Balhuudaf believes that translation is the process of converting a speech product into another language while keeping the content level (i. e., meaning) unchanged. Among them, the term “meaning” refers to the various relationships of language units. Translation is a process of changing one language discourse into another language discourse. The object of translation is not a language system, but a discourse.For translation, it is not the equivalent of the individual word, but the equivalent of the full text.Thus, the semantic differences between the two languages are not an insurmountable barrier in translation.
In addition, from the discussion of semantic problems of translation, Balhudv believes that the semantic problem of translation must be studied and conveyed from three aspects: meaning, pragmatic meaning and internal meaning.But on semantic issues, he presented no substantive content, with similar views mentioned by Jackson and Nida et al. in the late 1920s and early 1960s.But Balhudaf's interpretation is more detailed and fulfilling, and more generalized in some places.

Balhudaf also establishes equivalent translation from six levels: phonemic, phoneme, word, phrase, sentence, and discourse layer. The six levels are applied more systematically to translation theory.

(Balhudarov, 1975: 255)

===7. Conclusion ===

To sum up, by introducing the historical evolution of the development of translation theory in the Soviet Union, we and the representatives of the school of translation literature and art and the translation language school can draw the following conclusions:

First of all, the developmental foundation of the Soviet translation theory was weak. At the beginning of World War II, the discussion of translation theory wasn’t systematic and comprehensive and they were all carried out from the perspective of literature and art. Only translation textbooks and translation instructional references are exceptional and are conducted from a linguistic perspective .After World War II, the Soviet Union began a new period of studying the translation theory from the perspective of linguistics. Its main feature was to connect translation theory with comparative linguistics, and to reveal the correspondence of the two languages on the basis of comparing the two languages.written by --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:15, 19 December 2021 (UTC)

(Cai & Duan, 2000: 168)

(Wu, 2006: 325)

Secondly, from the perspective of the literary school of translation, Kashkin, the theorist of translation, founded the realistic concept of translation, believing that the translation should pay attention to understanding the feelings of the original author, and believing that we must strictly distinguish the artistic image that should be conveyed and the occasional language image in the translation. Translation theorist Gaczirze believes that the principles of literary translation have been swinging between the two extremes. One is word-by-word translation, and the other is artistically equivalent but written away from the original text. He thought it would be easy to combine the two principles, but it was impossible in practice.

Thirdly, from the perspective of the language school of translation, the translation theorist Balhudarov believes that the task of the linguistics theory of translation is to pattern the translation process and put forward some scientific diagram for the translation process, which can more accurately reflect the important aspects of this process.He made great contributions to the linguistic school of translation.

(Wu, 2006: 325)

All in all, the translation theory of the Soviet period has its own unique development path. The Soviet translation theorists in this period made great contributions to the history of Soviet translation, also, the translation theory of the Soviet period became an indispensable part of the world translation theory map.

===8. References ===

Cai, Yi 蔡毅，Duan,Jinghua, 段京华. Translation Studies in USSR苏联翻译理论.湖北教育出版社，2000

Liu Miqing刘宓庆，Translation Basics 翻译基础.上海.华东师范大学出版社，2008

Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜.Translation Studies 翻译学.复旦大学出版社，2017

Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜.History of Western Translation 西方翻译简史.北京.商务印书馆，1991

Wu, Keli 吴克礼.The Translation Methods and Studies in USSR 俄苏翻译理论流派综述. 上海外语教育出版社，2006

Xu, Jun 许均. Translation Theories 翻译论. 湖北教育出版社，2003

Balhudarov Бархударов Л.С. Language and Translation: Collation said Partial theory of Translation Язык и перевод: Вопросы общей и частной теории перевода, Международные отношения, 1975

Gaczilaser Гиви Гачечиладзе. Problems of Literary Theory Вопросы теории художественного перевода. Тбилиси: Литература да хлебовнеба, 1964

Kashkin Иван Кашкин. Articles and Studies Статьи и исследования. Москва. Советский писатель, 1977

--[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 08:41, 12 December 2021 (UTC)

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=Chapter 13 History of Translation Theories in the Soviet Union=
===苏联时期的翻译理论史===
Wu Jingyue 吴婧悦 Hunan Normal University

===1. Abstract===
As is well known, the history of the Soviet period and discusse the characteristics of the Soviet translation theory. written by --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:02, 19 December 2021 (UTC) Firstly, we discuss about the overall situation of the development of the Soviet period, the history of the Soviet period and discusses the characteristics of the Soviet translation theory. Finally, we introduce the famous translation theorist like: S. G. Barkhudarov (С. Г. Бархуда́ров) and I. A. Kashkin (И. А. Кашки́н) and so on.

===摘要===
众所周知，苏联的翻译理论在世界翻译理论中占有十分突出的地位。本文首先从苏联时期翻译理论发展的整体状况出发，对苏联时期翻译发展史进行梳理；探讨了苏联翻译理论发展的特色；最后向读者介绍了著名翻译理论家S. G. Barkhudarov (С. Г. Бархуда́ров) 以及I. A. Kashkin (И. А. Кашки́н) 等人的翻译理论。written by --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:18, 19 December 2021 (UTC)

===2. Key words===
Translation theories, Western translation theories, Soviet Translation theories

===关键词===
翻译理论；西方翻译理论；苏联时期翻译理论

===3. Introduction===
The Soviet translation theory play a pivotal role in the world translation theory. written by --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:04, 19 December 2021 (UTC)This paper firstly introduces the historical evolution of the development of the Soviet translation theory, which divides the Soviet Union into two periods: the development history of translation theory before World War II and the development history of translation theory after World War II. In introducing the history of translation theory before World War II, the source of the history of Soviet translation theory, the development of Soviet translation theory, namely linguistics and the contribution of Kamisarov, Liubimov and others.Secondly, the representatives of the translation literature and art school and the translation language school are introduced specifically.When introducing the school of translation literature, the views of translator Kashkin and Gachzzeraz are introduced; in introducing the language school of translation, they are mainly introduced.

===4. The evolution of Translation Theories in the Soviet Union.===
===4.1 History of translation theory development before World War II===
The Soviet translation theory occupies a very prominent position in the world translation theory.The Soviet study of translation theory began shortly after the October Revolution, began with literary translation.

In 1918, Gorky (А.М.Горький) founded the World Literature Press (Издательство "Всемирная литература") in conjunction with the help of Lenin(В.И.Ленин). The publisher's task is to introduce world classics, improve the translation art, and train translators.At this stage, nearly 100 professors and writers attended the work.In order to unify the thinking, discuss the theory of literary translation, and stipulate some clear rules, Gorky handed the burden to Chukowsky(К.И.Чуковский). Therefore, after making a lot of efforts, Chukowski wrote the book "The Principles of Literary Translation--written by [[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:07, 19 December 2021 (UTC)("Прицины художественного перевода") in 1919.He first proposed that the translator of the novel should be an artist and a master of language.Chukowski believed that a good translation can reproduce the artistic characteristics of the original text in vivid and rich Russian.But at that time, there was a very popular view in literary and theoretical criticism that translation was essentially impossible work.

(Cai & Duan, 2000: 5)

In 1930, The Principles of Literary Translation was collected in Chukowski's "The Art of Translation" ("Искусство переводов").It suggests that translators must understand the social environment.In addition, the communication of the structural characteristics and rhetorical characteristics of the original text, as well as the principles of translation and expression, are also discussed.

In 1934 Translation theorist Smirnov (А.А.Смирнов) made the first proposal of the concept of "equivalent translation" in the term "Soviet Literature Encyclopedia", "translation" (Перевод).The "equivalent translation" here means "conveying the ideological content, feelings, and written structure of the original work", that is, "conveying the full creative intention of the original author". Smirnov suggested that not only can use the direct counterpart of the original in translation but also can use the functional approximation of the original in translation.

(Cai & Duan, 2000: 16)

In 1936, Loginski (М.Л.Лозинский) reported at the first National Conference of Translators, "The Art of the Translation of Poetry" ("Искусство стихотворного перевода"), and pointed out that poetry translation should be the same in aesthetics as the original poetry works, highlighting the equivalent aesthetic function of literary and artistic translation.

'''(In 1936, Loginski (М.Л.Лозинский) delivered a report at the first National Conference of Translators, "The Art of the Translation of Poetry" ("Искусство стихотворного перевода"), and pointed out that poetry translation should be the same in aesthetics as the original poem, highlighting the equivalent aesthetic function of literary and artistic translation. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 17:16, 13 December 2021 (UTC))'''

Also in 1936, Kashkin (И.А.Кашкин) proposed the theory and became the founder of the Soviet theory of realism. His translation method is: translators should try their best to reproduce the objective reality expressed in the original text, rather than words; they should see, experience, and perfectly reproduce the reality in the eyes of the author from behind the original text. He equated the realistic method of translation with the socialist realism in literary creation.In the Soviet Union, he was hailed as "a theorist representing a entire era in the history of Russian translation". He believes that translators should be loyal to the original, to their readers, to reality, and that the three are inseparable. () Kashkin believes that without a theory, translators are just a craftsman, and can never become a translator or artist.

( Kashkin, 1977)
(Cai & Duan, 2000: 25)

Also in 1936, Kashkin (И.А.Кашкин) proposed the theory and became the founder of the Soviet theory of realism. His translation method is: translators should try their best to reproduce the objective reality expressed in the original text, rather than words; they should see, experience, and perfectly reproduce the reality in the eyes of the author from behind the original text. He equated the realistic method of translation with the socialist realism in literary creation.In the Soviet Union, he was hailed as "a theorist representing a entire era in the history of Russian translation". He believes that translators should be loyal to the original, to their readers, to reality, and that the three are inseparable. Kashkin believes that without a theory, translators are just a craftsman, and can never become a translator or artist.

(Cai & Duan, 2000: 120)

===4.2 History of translation theory development after World War II===
Since the 1950s, a new period of studying translation theory from the perspective of linguistics began. Its main characteristic is to link translation theory with comparative linguistics, and to reveal the law of the two languages based on the comparison of the phenomenon of the two languages.written by --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:12, 19 December 2021 (UTC)

In 1950, "Theory and Methods of Translation Teaching" ("Вопросы теории и методики учебного перевода"), which played a considerable role in the development of translation theory. For example, in Gary Palin(И.Р. Гпльперии) 's article, "Translation and Rhetoric" ("Перевод и стилистика"), shares Shakespeare's original Othello with Morosov’s (М.М.Морозов) translation, noting the similarities and differences between English and Russian in terms of meaning and aesthetic functions. Meanwhile, the book Lezkel(Я.И.Рецкер) ’s article, "On the regularity and correspondence in Russia" ("О закономерных соответствиях при переводе на роднои язык"), divides the language regularity correspondence into three categories: equivalent, approximation and equivalent substitution.These three methods are applied to scientific and technological translation, the translation of political articles, and literary translation.

(Wu, 2006: 325)

1953 Feodorov (А.В.Фёдоров) 's book "An Introduction to the Translation Theory" ("Введение в теорию перевода") was published.The book discusses the translation theory from the perspective of the linguistics theory, and proposes that the translation theory is a branch of the linguistics, and the translation problem can only be solved in the field of linguistics. In addition, the book stipulates the content of the concept of "translation", the object of theoretical research, the content, etc., and discusses the vocabulary issues, grammar issues and stylistic issues of translation, respectively.The book made Feyodorov the founder of the language school of translation theory. In addition, the book received wide attention in the Soviet translation circle, especially the translation teaching circle, but it also caused a heated controversy in the literary and art school of translation theory.

However, translators from the school of literature and art believe that Feodorov studied translation problems almost completely from a linguistic perspective, ignoring that the first thing of literary translation should be involved in the problem of literature and art.

(Wu, 2006: 354)

In 1954, Kashkin put forward in "Methods and Genres of Soviet Literary Translation" ("О методе и школе советского художественного перевода") that the theory of literary translation should be a broad language discipline. That is to say, written by --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:12, 19 December 2021 (UTC)the study of translation and literary problems should be combined.

In 1955 the collection of "Literary Translation" ("Вопросы художественного перевода") questions Feydorov's views, believing that studying translation theory from a linguistic perspective may lead to formalism and word-by-word dead translation in translation practice.

Since then, the Soviet theory of translation has gradually formed two major schools, namely, the school of literature and art and the language school.The two factions had long debated, culminating after the late 1950s and 1960s, with numerous papers and monographs each published."Translation Skills" ("Мастерство перевода"), published by the Soviet Writers Publishing House, focuses on the views of the literary school. The language school is based on the "Translation Worker Notes" ("Тетрадь переводчика") edited by Balhudarov, making comments and summarizing the translation experience.Most belong to the literary school are writers; the language school are linguists and college teachers.

( Kashkin, 1977: 163)

In 1958, Feodorov made some additions and modifications to the original book in the second edition of the Introduction to Translation Theory. Although he also admitted that the problems in the field of translation could not all be explained by linguistic methods, it was correct to study the translation problem from the perspective of linguistics, otherwise, there would be no real theory of translation art.He stressed that literary and artistic translation does have its own characteristics, and should highlight its aesthetic aspects, but literary images are created by language means, and must also be conveyed by another language means. Therefore, the study of translation and theory from the perspective of linguistics is the basis.

(Wu, 2006: 366)

In 1962, the collection of "Translation Theory and Review" ("Теория и критика перевода"), including two groups of translation theorists.Linguist Larin (Б.А.Ларии) In the preface to the collection, "Our Mission" ("Наши задачи"), proposed that the theory of literary translation must be established on the basis of linguistics and literature.He believes that it is impossible not to combine linguistics and literary methods organically, whether in linguistics, rhetoric, or translation theory. Any translation should begin with analysis, and finally finish with literary creation.

1963 Aitkin (Е.Т.Эткин) published the book "Poetry and Translation" ("Поэзии и перевод"), which analyzed and commented on a large number of foreign-language poems translated into Russian language in the early 19th century, concerning the translation of literary and artistic theory.He believes that the linguistic means of poetry translation are closely related to the reproduced artistic characteristics of the original poetry, and the two should not be opposed.In his opinion, translation is like rhetoric, which is both a problem of literature and art and linguistics, because rhetoric is a science of language synonymous, and it belongs to the two fields of linguistics. Ignoring the theory of the form of literary works will actually make the translator helpless.

(Tan，1991: 246)

In 1964, Gachzrazawa (Г.Р.Гачечиладзе) published the book "The Theory of Literary Translation" ("Вопросы теории художественного перевода"), in which he based on Lenin's reaction theory, proposing that the translator directly reflects the original text, namely the artistic reality of the original text, rather than the specific reality directly reflected by the original text.

That same year, Levzin (И.И.Ревзин) and Rosenzwig (В.Ю.Розенцвейг) has published "Principles of General Translation and Machine Translation" ("Основы общего и машинного перевода") to study translation issues from a structural linguistics perspective.It was the first work in the world to combine the concepts and principles of translational theory with the category of structural linguistics.

(Wu, 2006: 430)

In 1968, Feodorov made a new revision and supplement to the new situation, publishing the third edition of the book and renamed "Basic Translation" ("Основы общеи тоерии перевода").The rationale is that this can highlight the basic principles of translation theory —— studies various translation phenomena and various kinds of translation, revealing their commonalities and respective characteristics, comparing from a linguistic perspective.In the book, Feodorov makes it clear that it should never be forgotten that the ultimate task is to establish a common theory of philology.It is now outdated to insist that literary translation is studied only through literature and art, or only through linguistics. Contemporary era is an era of close cooperation between different disciplines. In philology, the distance between the two branches of literature and linguistics is not very large, and its differences are inevitable, but can be overcome, that is to say, the two can be combined all together.

The 1970s were called the "harvest years" of Soviet translation theory, and the debate entered a new stage.

In 1972, Gabriel's book "Literary Translation and Literary Exchange" ("Художественныи перевод и литературные взаимосвязи") can be regarded as a representative work of the school of literature and art, which more comprehensively expounded the translation theory views of the Soviet school of literature and art.Once published, the book immediately aroused widespread response from the Soviet translation theory community.In the book, he pointed out that literary and artistic translation belongs to the category of artistic creation, and studying literary translation from the perspective of linguistics inevitably leads to the dead translation of auxiliary words. As a result, the translation is linguistically correct and low in art. Because from a linguistic point of view, the decisive factor is not the translator's creative attitude towards the original text, but the linguistic correspondence principle.Thus, translation becomes some technical process, not creation. Literary and artistic translation should reproduce the aesthetic value of the original text.

1963 Komizarov (В.Н.Комиссаров) presents its unique theory of "equivalent levels" in his book on translation ("Слово о переводе").According to this theory, the meaning structure of discourse is a complex that can be divided into content, namely the level of language symbols, discourse level, notification structure level, scenario description level and the level of communication purpose.The principle of translation equivalence to the original text should be based on these levels during translation.

(Wu, 2006: 456)

The same year, Shvzel (В.Н.Комиссаров) published the book "Translation and Linguistics" ("Перевод и лингвистика"), suggesting that translation is not only the contact between two language systems, but also between two different cultures, and sometimes between two different civilizations.In addition, he raises questions about the invariant values of the translation function.Shvzel believes that translation functional invariant values include both semantic and grammatical aspects.

In 1974 Lezkel (Я.И.Рецкер) has published the book "Translation Theory and Translation Practice (An Introduction to the Theory of Linguistics of Translation)" ("Теория перевода и переводическая практика - Очерки лингвистическои теории перевода"), which discusses some key issues in the linguistics theory of translation, which are directly related to the translation practice.The book compares the lexical grammar and rhetorical characteristics of English with its functional counterpart in Russian, and reveals the logical semantic basis of using various translation techniques and methods in the translation process.

1975 Balhudarov (Л.С.Бархударов) published the book "Language and Translation" ("Язык и перевод"), which aroused widespread response in the Soviet translation community and was considered the representative work of the Soviet language school translation theory in the 1970s. The biggest characteristic of the book is to link the translation theory with the latest achievements in linguistics in the world, and put forward the linguistics theory of translation is comparing discourse linguistics, more specifically, is the semantic discourse in different languages, and the actual segmentation of the sentence is an essential condition of equivalent translation and a series of new arguments. Balhuduff makes it clear that translation changes the speech product of one language to another while keeping the content unchanged, that is, the translator does not deal with the language system, but with the language product.In addition, he discussed translationability, the nature of translation theory, semantics and translation, translation units, and translation methods.

(Balhudarov, 1975: 187)

In 1976, Chernhovskikaya (Л.А.Черняховская) published the book "Translation and the Semantic Structure" ("Перевод и смысловая структура"), the only Soviet work that conveys the logical focus and real semantic segmentation of sentences in translation.

That same year, Levitskaya (Т.Р.Леницкая) and Fejelman (А.М.Фетерман) published the book "translation problem" ("Проблемы перевода"), the book discusses English and Russian due to different vocabulary, grammar, rhetorical structure and the main translation problems, its focus is not the translation process itself and general translation methods and skills, but for the difficulty of English translation into Russian method.

In 1977 Lambimov (Н.М.Любимов) highlighted in "Translation is Art" ("Перевод - искусство") that literary translation is an art that pursues artistic accuracy rather than literal slave-style fidelity.At the same time, it is also proposed that words as language units can only be reflected in, or through words, so the objective reality of language existence is the overall —— discourse of the work. The basic category of translation is the discourse.

And 1978 Venogradov (В.С.Виноградов) pointed out in "The Lexical Problems of Literary Prose Translation" ("Лексические вопросы перевода художественнои прозы") that words are the basic unit of language, so, it is also the starting point of translation.

(Wu, 2006: 359)

In 1978, Komisarov edited and published the collection of "Translation Theory Issues in Foreign Linguistics" ("Вопросы теории перевода в зарубежнои лингвистике"), It fairly fully introduces the state of Western linguists studying translation theory, The book is divided into four themes, Both: the general linguistics problem of translation, Translation equivalent, translation process, Translational linguistics and Translational rhetoric; Translating the relevant discourse of some famous western linguists, For example, Jacobson (R.Jackbcon), one of the founders of the Prague School, British linguist J.R.Firch (J.R.Firch) and others.The influence of this collection is evident from the later writings of translation theorists of the Soviet language school.

In 1980, Komisarov published the book "translation linguistics" ("Лингвистика перевода"), which pointed out that the perspective of linguistics is entering a new stage, turned out to regard the linguistics translation theory as a part of applied linguistics, for the translation practice of service, its focus is on the translation process, its task is to study the linguistics mode of translation and determine the principle of translation. The results of studying translation from the perspective of linguistics show that translation is an integral part of linguistics, and the theoretical analysis of interlanguage communication phenomenon is necessary for the development of linguistics itself. Therefore, translation should be regarded as a special form of language function, which is a special method of its speech practice, and our knowledge of the essence and function of language is incomplete. That is, linguistic analysis of translation can not only serve translation practice, but also promote development of linguistics itself. It is under the guidance of this idea that the book discusses the general linguistics theory of translation, translation semantics, translation linguistics, translation rhetoric, translation mode, translation standards. Therefore, it provides a new perspective for the study of translation theory.

(Cai & Duan, 2000: 20)

In the same year, the Minyal. Bellolluchev (Р.К.Миньяр - Белоручев) published the book "Translation" ("Общая теория перевода и устныи перевод").The book regards translational science as an independent subject on the grounds that it has its own subjects, content and a complete set of terms; thinks that translation research is beyond the scope of linguistics. It written by --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:12, 19 December 2021 (UTC)is a subject of linguistics, psychology, semiotics, sociology intersection, mainly applicable to translation between any two languages; proposes the discourse information theory, the main method of translation and the classification of language means in translation and so on.The book first used the interpretation as a research subject.

In 1981, Ratshev (Л.К.Латышев) published the "Translation Tutorial —— Translation equivalent and achieve the equivalent Method" ("Курс перевода: Эквивалентность перевода и способы ее достижения"), which divided the translation equivalent into formal and functional equivalent two types, and proposed the specific methods to achieve the translation equivalent.

In 1983, Feodorov published the collection of "Translation Art and Literary Life" ("Искусство перевода и жизнь литературы."), indicating from the preface entitled "A Window to Another World" ("Окнов другои мир") that Feodorov partially accepted the other's views through disputes with the school of translation theory and literature.At the same time, he argued that Gaczrazzer greatly limited the role of language in translation, seeing language as mere technical means.

(Cai &Duan, 2000: 22)

In 1985, Lvorskaya (З.Д.Львовская) published the book "Theoretical Issues of Translation"(Теоритическая проблема перевода”), which based on the theory of communicative function, believing that discourse meaning is divided into linguistic and verbal categories. The equivalent of translation is not the absolute invariance of the semantic, pragmatic, and environmental components in the meaning structure, but only the equivalence of pragmatic and environmental components.
The 20th century school of literature in the translation theory of outstanding events is in the journal "literary review" ("Литературное обозрение") continuously on the discussion of translation problem, the content involves: the necessity of the translation theory, how to overcome the two extreme, how to treat the original aesthetics, time color, translation can really convey "the spirit of the original" and the creation of the translator, etc.

In 1988, Shvzzer, a translation theorist of the language school, published the book "Translation Theory: Status, Problems and Face"(“Теория перевода : Статус, проблема, аспекты”). The author combines the latest achievements in linguistics in the field of speech linguistics, sentence semantics, communication linguistics and psychological linguistics, the status of translation theory, the essence of translation, equivalent, similarities, interpretability, translation semantic, language, discourse and translation and other six issues, the language school translation theory research mentioned a new stage.

In 1990, Komisarov's book "Translation Theory (Linguistics)" ("Теория перевода (линвистические вопросы") clearly stated in his preface that translation theory is an important part of the training of future translators. As a textbook, the book aims to introduce the basic principles of translational linguistics theory.
In the 1980s, the Soviet theory of scientific and technological translation developed rapidly, and published a lot of articles and monographs.

(Cai & Duan, 2000: 37)

In all, the Soviet theory of translation has been developed from scratch, from sporadic to systematic, constantly enriched, and constantly deepening step by step.

===5. The Literary School of Translation===
===5.1 Realistic Translation pioneered by E.A.Kashkin===

Kashkin Ivan Alexandrovich - literary critic, translator and critic. He brought up a significant group of translators from the English language. He translated J. Chaucer's The Canterbury Tales (1946, with O. Rumer). Promoter of the best achievements of modern English and American poetry (R. Frost, K. Sandberg) and prose (E. Hemingway, E. Caldwell, J. Wayne, etc.). Aslo, he is the author of historical and literary studies about J. Conrad, L. Stevenson, W. Faulkner, E. Hemingway and others.

Some translators believe that they must obey the "absolute authority" of the original text and translate the original text word by word in order to be completely faithful. Other translators advocate for loyalty to the original text. And Kashkin believes that realism in art is a complex and diverse phenomenon, which is restricted by history. Realism in art is real and poetic. Exactly, to feel and reflect world

( Kashkin, 1977: 177)

In order to accurately convey the ideological content of the original work and creatively reproduce the artistic characteristics and national characteristics of the original work, it must adopt the realistic translation method. The translator must respect the reality of the text and strive to reproduce the objective reality expressed by the text and give it life, not simply copying the text symbols of the original text.

Translators should understand the author of the original text's direct feelings of reality through the barrier of the syntactic structure of a foreign language. Only in this way could he reproduce the original in the same powerful and clear language, as did the original author did. The translator should see the phenomena, thoughts, things, behaviors and conditions through the words of the original work, and specifically reproduce this reality in the eyes of the original author.
Reality in art is the image to reflect the essential characteristics in reality. written by --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:14, 19 December 2021 (UTC)

( Kashkin, 1977: 185)

The truth in literary translation is not a final pursuit that the surface is similar to the original text, nor does it simply copy all the unimportant details.The truth in literary translation is based on the internal logic of the image, and first, to faithfully translate the essence of the original text.The translator should faithfully understand the author's conception and creative intention, and retain the artistic characteristics of the original work, the historical reality and the atmosphere of The Times.

Otherwise, Kashkin believes that there must be a strict distinction between artistic images that should be conveyed and verbal images that occasionally occur in translation.Because language is the basic means of expressing all literature, but the basic task and main difficulty of literary and artistic translation is not to copy the language of the original text, including the language structure elements, but in the artistic reproduction of the original image, considering the differences of the language system.

( Kashkin, 1977: 205)

===5.2 Gaczilaser’s realistic view of translations===

Professor Givi Razhdenovich Gaczilaser is one of the largest specialists in the field of literary translation theory, the author of the famous monograph "The Problem of Realistic Translation", a translator of Shakespeare, Byron, Shelley and other English poets into Georgian. In the book offered to the reader's attention, he continued to develop in depth the theory and practice of literary translation. Proceeding from Lenin's theory of reflection, G. Gachechiladze considers literary translation as a form of cognition, as a creative act that helps the reader approach not only a foreign language work, but also the living reality reflected in this work.
Gaczilaser believes that the principles of literary translation have been swinging between the two extremes.One is word-by-word translation, and the other is artistically equivalent but written away from the original text. He thought it would be easy to combine the two principles, but it was impossible in practice. Because different means of expressing ideas are very different languages, word-by-word translation and artistic quality are always contradictory.

If the translator is limited to the original and not to reproduce what the author sees in the imagination, he is not a creative person. The translator should take the author's thoughts as the starting point, the original text serve the deep understanding of artistic reality. The translator should see the real life reflected in the original work behind the artistic reality, and it is not to create his own work.Realistic translation method refers to realists following the law of realistic art, reflecting the artistic reality of the original, and consistent with the original, more specifically, rhetorical consistency, only help to achieve linguistic loyalty, but should not let this affect their own will. Loyal to the author's artistic truth is the goal of the realistic translator.The artistic reality of the original includes both content and form, and even the unity of form and content.

(Gaczilaser, 1964: 120)

It is undoubtedly correct to compare the two language systems in the translation process.However, this contrast has certain limitations, as each language has its characteristic means of rhetoric.Just as there is no unified language, there is no unified rhetoric of all languages, nor the unified grammar of all languages. The application of rhetorical rules to any specific language would rise to a national, independent rhetorical system. Thus, the rhetorical rule can only be judged based on the character of some language.

===6. The Linguistic School Translation===
===6.1 Balhuadov’s Translation Concept===

Balhuarov was a famous translation theorist in the Soviet Union in the 20th century, one of the representatives of the language school and a doctor of Soviet philology, and has been engaged in translation teaching and translation theory research for many years. It is represented as the Language and Translation ("Язык и перевод").

From the perspective of the research subjects of the translation theory, Balhudav believes that the task of the linguistics theory of the translation is to pattern the translation process and put forward some scientific diagram for the translation process, which can more accurately reflect the important aspects of this process. In the view, on the one hand, translation theory, like any other theoretical model, reflects only some of the most important features of its subjects, rather than all features. Translation theory studies not all the relationship between the original language and the translation language, but the regular relationship between the two, that is, the typical and recurrent correspondence.On the other hand, translation theory, like any other discipline theory, stipulates not only a pattern, but many patterns that reflect the translation process in different ways as well as various characteristics.

(Balhudarov, 1975: 250)

From the essence of translation, Balhuudaf believes that translation is the process of converting a speech product into another language while keeping the content level (i. e., meaning) unchanged. Among them, the term “meaning” refers to the various relationships of language units. Translation is a process of changing one language discourse into another language discourse. The object of translation is not a language system, but a discourse.For translation, it is not the equivalent of the individual word, but the equivalent of the full text.Thus, the semantic differences between the two languages are not an insurmountable barrier in translation.
In addition, from the discussion of semantic problems of translation, Balhudv believes that the semantic problem of translation must be studied and conveyed from three aspects: meaning, pragmatic meaning and internal meaning.But on semantic issues, he presented no substantive content, with similar views mentioned by Jackson and Nida et al. in the late 1920s and early 1960s.But Balhudaf's interpretation is more detailed and fulfilling, and more generalized in some places.

Balhudaf also establishes equivalent translation from six levels: phonemic, phoneme, word, phrase, sentence, and discourse layer. The six levels are applied more systematically to translation theory.

(Balhudarov, 1975: 255)

===7. Conclusion ===

To sum up, by introducing the historical evolution of the development of translation theory in the Soviet Union, we and the representatives of the school of translation literature and art and the translation language school can draw the following conclusions:

First of all, the developmental foundation of the Soviet translation theory was weak. At the beginning of World War II, the discussion of translation theory wasn’t systematic and comprehensive and they were all carried out from the perspective of literature and art. Only translation textbooks and translation instructional references are exceptional and are conducted from a linguistic perspective .After World War II, the Soviet Union began a new period of studying the translation theory from the perspective of linguistics. Its main feature was to connect translation theory with comparative linguistics, and to reveal the correspondence of the two languages on the basis of comparing the two languages.written by --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:15, 19 December 2021 (UTC)

(Cai & Duan, 2000: 168)

(Wu, 2006: 325)

Secondly, from the perspective of the literary school of translation, Kashkin, the theorist of translation, founded the realistic concept of translation, believing that the translation should pay attention to understanding the feelings of the original author, and believing that we must strictly distinguish the artistic image that should be conveyed and the occasional language image in the translation. Translation theorist Gaczirze believes that the principles of literary translation have been swinging between the two extremes. One is word-by-word translation, and the other is artistically equivalent but written away from the original text. He thought it would be easy to combine the two principles, but it was impossible in practice.

Thirdly, from the perspective of the language school of translation, the translation theorist Balhudarov believes that the task of the linguistics theory of translation is to pattern the translation process and put forward some scientific diagram for the translation process, which can more accurately reflect the important aspects of this process.He made great contributions to the linguistic school of translation.

(Wu, 2006: 325)

All in all, the translation theory of the Soviet period has its own unique development path. The Soviet translation theorists in this period made great contributions to the history of Soviet translation, also, the translation theory of the Soviet period became an indispensable part of the world translation theory map.

===8. References ===

Cai, Yi 蔡毅，Duan,Jinghua, 段京华. Translation Studies in USSR苏联翻译理论.湖北教育出版社，2000

Liu Miqing刘宓庆，Translation Basics 翻译基础.上海.华东师范大学出版社，2008

Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜.Translation Studies 翻译学.复旦大学出版社，2017

Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜.History of Western Translation 西方翻译简史.北京.商务印书馆，1991

Wu, Keli 吴克礼.The Translation Methods and Studies in USSR 俄苏翻译理论流派综述. 上海外语教育出版社，2006

Xu, Jun 许均. Translation Theories 翻译论. 湖北教育出版社，2003

Balhudarov Бархударов Л.С. Language and Translation: Collation said Partial theory of Translation Язык и перевод: Вопросы общей и частной теории перевода, Международные отношения, 1975

Gaczilaser Гиви Гачечиладзе. Problems of Literary Theory Вопросы теории художественного перевода. Тбилиси: Литература да хлебовнеба, 1964

Kashkin Иван Кашкин. Articles and Studies Статьи и исследования. Москва. Советский писатель, 1977

--[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 08:41, 12 December 2021 (UTC)

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=Chapter 13 History of Translation Theories in the Soviet Union=
===苏联时期的翻译理论史===
Wu Jingyue 吴婧悦 Hunan Normal University

===1. Abstract===
As is well known, the history of the Soviet period and discusse the characteristics of the Soviet translation theory. written by --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:02, 19 December 2021 (UTC) Firstly, we discuss about the overall situation of the development of the Soviet period, the history of the Soviet period and discusses the characteristics of the Soviet translation theory. Finally, we introduce the famous translation theorist like: S. G. Barkhudarov (С. Г. Бархуда́ров) and I. A. Kashkin (И. А. Кашки́н) and so on.

===摘要===
众所周知，苏联的翻译理论在世界翻译理论中占有十分突出的地位。本文首先从苏联时期翻译理论发展的整体状况出发，对苏联时期翻译发展史进行梳理；探讨了苏联翻译理论发展的特色；最后向读者介绍了著名翻译理论家S. G. Barkhudarov (С. Г. Бархуда́ров) 以及I. A. Kashkin (И. А. Кашки́н) 等人的翻译理论。written by --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:18, 19 December 2021 (UTC)

===2. Key words===
Translation theories, Western translation theories, Soviet Translation theories

===关键词===
翻译理论；西方翻译理论；苏联时期翻译理论

===3. Introduction===
The Soviet translation theory play a pivotal role in the world translation theory. written by --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:04, 19 December 2021 (UTC)This paper firstly introduces the historical evolution of the development of the Soviet translation theory, which divides the Soviet Union into two periods: the development history of translation theory before World War II and the development history of translation theory after World War II. In introducing the history of translation theory before World War II, the source of the history of Soviet translation theory, the development of Soviet translation theory, namely linguistics and the contribution of Kamisarov, Liubimov and others.Secondly, the representatives of the translation literature and art school and the translation language school are introduced specifically.When introducing the school of translation literature, the views of translator Kashkin and Gachzzeraz are introduced; in introducing the language school of translation, they are mainly introduced.

===4. The evolution of Translation Theories in the Soviet Union.===
===4.1 History of translation theory development before World War II===
The Soviet translation theory occupies a very prominent position in the world translation theory.The Soviet study of translation theory began shortly after the October Revolution, began with literary translation.

In 1918, Gorky (А.М.Горький) founded the World Literature Press (Издательство "Всемирная литература") in conjunction with the help of Lenin(В.И.Ленин). The publisher's task is to introduce world classics, improve the translation art, and train translators.At this stage, nearly 100 professors and writers attended the work.In order to unify the thinking, discuss the theory of literary translation, and stipulate some clear rules, Gorky handed the burden to Chukowsky(К.И.Чуковский). Therefore, after making a lot of efforts, Chukowski wrote the book "The Principles of Literary Translation--written by [[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:07, 19 December 2021 (UTC)("Прицины художественного перевода") in 1919.He first proposed that the translator of the novel should be an artist and a master of language.Chukowski believed that a good translation can reproduce the artistic characteristics of the original text in vivid and rich Russian.But at that time, there was a very popular view in literary and theoretical criticism that translation was essentially impossible work.

(Cai & Duan, 2000: 5)

In 1930, The Principles of Literary Translation was collected in Chukowski's "The Art of Translation" ("Искусство переводов").It suggests that translators must understand the social environment.In addition, the communication of the structural characteristics and rhetorical characteristics of the original text, as well as the principles of translation and expression, are also discussed.

In 1934 Translation theorist Smirnov (А.А.Смирнов) made the first proposal of the concept of "equivalent translation" in the term "Soviet Literature Encyclopedia", "translation" (Перевод).The "equivalent translation" here means "conveying the ideological content, feelings, and written structure of the original work", that is, "conveying the full creative intention of the original author". Smirnov suggested that not only can use the direct counterpart of the original in translation but also can use the functional approximation of the original in translation.

(Cai & Duan, 2000: 16)

In 1936, Loginski (М.Л.Лозинский) reported at the first National Conference of Translators, "The Art of the Translation of Poetry" ("Искусство стихотворного перевода"), and pointed out that poetry translation should be the same in aesthetics as the original poetry works, highlighting the equivalent aesthetic function of literary and artistic translation.

'''(In 1936, Loginski (М.Л.Лозинский) delivered a report at the first National Conference of Translators, "The Art of the Translation of Poetry" ("Искусство стихотворного перевода"), and pointed out that poetry translation should be the same in aesthetics as the original poem, highlighting the equivalent aesthetic function of literary and artistic translation. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 17:16, 13 December 2021 (UTC))'''

Also in 1936, Kashkin (И.А.Кашкин) proposed the theory and became the founder of the Soviet theory of realism. His translation method is: translators should try their best to reproduce the objective reality expressed in the original text, rather than words; they should see, experience, and perfectly reproduce the reality in the eyes of the author from behind the original text. He equated the realistic method of translation with the socialist realism in literary creation.In the Soviet Union, he was hailed as "a theorist representing a entire era in the history of Russian translation". He believes that translators should be loyal to the original, to their readers, to reality, and that the three are inseparable. () Kashkin believes that without a theory, translators are just a craftsman, and can never become a translator or artist.

( Kashkin, 1977)
(Cai & Duan, 2000: 25)

Also in 1936, Kashkin (И.А.Кашкин) proposed the theory and became the founder of the Soviet theory of realism. His translation method is: translators should try their best to reproduce the objective reality expressed in the original text, rather than words; they should see, experience, and perfectly reproduce the reality in the eyes of the author from behind the original text. He equated the realistic method of translation with the socialist realism in literary creation.In the Soviet Union, he was hailed as "a theorist representing a entire era in the history of Russian translation". He believes that translators should be loyal to the original, to their readers, to reality, and that the three are inseparable. Kashkin believes that without a theory, translators are just a craftsman, and can never become a translator or artist.

(Cai & Duan, 2000: 120)

===4.2 History of translation theory development after World War II===
Since the 1950s, a new period of studying translation theory from the perspective of linguistics began. Its main characteristic is to link translation theory with comparative linguistics, and to reveal the law of the two languages based on the comparison of the phenomenon of the two languages.written by --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:12, 19 December 2021 (UTC)

In 1950, "Theory and Methods of Translation Teaching" ("Вопросы теории и методики учебного перевода"), which played a considerable role in the development of translation theory. For example, in Gary Palin(И.Р. Гпльперии) 's article, "Translation and Rhetoric" ("Перевод и стилистика"), shares Shakespeare's original Othello with Morosov’s (М.М.Морозов) translation, noting the similarities and differences between English and Russian in terms of meaning and aesthetic functions. Meanwhile, the book Lezkel(Я.И.Рецкер) ’s article, "On the regularity and correspondence in Russia" ("О закономерных соответствиях при переводе на роднои язык"), divides the language regularity correspondence into three categories: equivalent, approximation and equivalent substitution.These three methods are applied to scientific and technological translation, the translation of political articles, and literary translation.

(Wu, 2006: 325)

1953 Feodorov (А.В.Фёдоров) 's book "An Introduction to the Translation Theory" ("Введение в теорию перевода") was published.The book discusses the translation theory from the perspective of the linguistics theory, and proposes that the translation theory is a branch of the linguistics, and the translation problem can only be solved in the field of linguistics. In addition, the book stipulates the content of the concept of "translation", the object of theoretical research, the content, etc., and discusses the vocabulary issues, grammar issues and stylistic issues of translation, respectively.The book made Feyodorov the founder of the language school of translation theory. In addition, the book received wide attention in the Soviet translation circle, especially the translation teaching circle, but it also caused a heated controversy in the literary and art school of translation theory.

However, translators from the school of literature and art believe that Feodorov studied translation problems almost completely from a linguistic perspective, ignoring that the first thing of literary translation should be involved in the problem of literature and art.

(Wu, 2006: 354)

In 1954, Kashkin put forward in "Methods and Genres of Soviet Literary Translation" ("О методе и школе советского художественного перевода") that the theory of literary translation should be a broad language discipline. That is to say, written by --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:12, 19 December 2021 (UTC)the study of translation and literary problems should be combined.

In 1955 the collection of "Literary Translation" ("Вопросы художественного перевода") questions Feydorov's views, believing that studying translation theory from a linguistic perspective may lead to formalism and word-by-word dead translation in translation practice.

Since then, the Soviet theory of translation has gradually formed two major schools, namely, the school of literature and art and the language school.The two factions had long debated, culminating after the late 1950s and 1960s, with numerous papers and monographs each published."Translation Skills" ("Мастерство перевода"), published by the Soviet Writers Publishing House, focuses on the views of the literary school. The language school is based on the "Translation Worker Notes" ("Тетрадь переводчика") edited by Balhudarov, making comments and summarizing the translation experience.Most belong to the literary school are writers; the language school are linguists and college teachers.

( Kashkin, 1977: 163)

In 1958, Feodorov made some additions and modifications to the original book in the second edition of the Introduction to Translation Theory. Although he also admitted that the problems in the field of translation could not all be explained by linguistic methods, it was correct to study the translation problem from the perspective of linguistics, otherwise, there would be no real theory of translation art.He stressed that literary and artistic translation does have its own characteristics, and should highlight its aesthetic aspects, but literary images are created by language means, and must also be conveyed by another language means. Therefore, the study of translation and theory from the perspective of linguistics is the basis.

(Wu, 2006: 366)

In 1962, the collection of "Translation Theory and Review" ("Теория и критика перевода"), including two groups of translation theorists.Linguist Larin (Б.А.Ларии) In the preface to the collection, "Our Mission" ("Наши задачи"), proposed that the theory of literary translation must be established on the basis of linguistics and literature.He believes that it is impossible not to combine linguistics and literary methods organically, whether in linguistics, rhetoric, or translation theory. Any translation should begin with analysis, and finally finish with literary creation.

1963 Aitkin (Е.Т.Эткин) published the book "Poetry and Translation" ("Поэзии и перевод"), which analyzed and commented on a large number of foreign-language poems translated into Russian language in the early 19th century, concerning the translation of literary and artistic theory.He believes that the linguistic means of poetry translation are closely related to the reproduced artistic characteristics of the original poetry, and the two should not be opposed.In his opinion, translation is like rhetoric, which is both a problem of literature and art and linguistics, because rhetoric is a science of language synonymous, and it belongs to the two fields of linguistics. Ignoring the theory of the form of literary works will actually make the translator helpless.

(Tan，1991: 246)

In 1964, Gachzrazawa (Г.Р.Гачечиладзе) published the book "The Theory of Literary Translation" ("Вопросы теории художественного перевода"), in which he based on Lenin's reaction theory, proposing that the translator directly reflects the original text, namely the artistic reality of the original text, rather than the specific reality directly reflected by the original text.

That same year, Levzin (И.И.Ревзин) and Rosenzwig (В.Ю.Розенцвейг) has published "Principles of General Translation and Machine Translation" ("Основы общего и машинного перевода") to study translation issues from a structural linguistics perspective.It was the first work in the world to combine the concepts and principles of translational theory with the category of structural linguistics.

(Wu, 2006: 430)

In 1968, Feodorov made a new revision and supplement to the new situation, publishing the third edition of the book and renamed "Basic Translation" ("Основы общеи тоерии перевода").The rationale is that this can highlight the basic principles of translation theory —— studies various translation phenomena and various kinds of translation, revealing their commonalities and respective characteristics, comparing from a linguistic perspective.In the book, Feodorov makes it clear that it should never be forgotten that the ultimate task is to establish a common theory of philology.It is now outdated to insist that literary translation is studied only through literature and art, or only through linguistics. Contemporary era is an era of close cooperation between different disciplines. In philology, the distance between the two branches of literature and linguistics is not very large, and its differences are inevitable, but can be overcome, that is to say, the two can be combined all together.

The 1970s were called the "harvest years" of Soviet translation theory, and the debate entered a new stage.

In 1972, Gabriel's book "Literary Translation and Literary Exchange" ("Художественныи перевод и литературные взаимосвязи") can be regarded as a representative work of the school of literature and art, which more comprehensively expounded the translation theory views of the Soviet school of literature and art.Once published, the book immediately aroused widespread response from the Soviet translation theory community.In the book, he pointed out that literary and artistic translation belongs to the category of artistic creation, and studying literary translation from the perspective of linguistics inevitably leads to the dead translation of auxiliary words. As a result, the translation is linguistically correct and low in art. Because from a linguistic point of view, the decisive factor is not the translator's creative attitude towards the original text, but the linguistic correspondence principle.Thus, translation becomes some technical process, not creation. Literary and artistic translation should reproduce the aesthetic value of the original text.

1963 Komizarov (В.Н.Комиссаров) presents its unique theory of "equivalent levels" in his book on translation ("Слово о переводе").According to this theory, the meaning structure of discourse is a complex that can be divided into content, namely the level of language symbols, discourse level, notification structure level, scenario description level and the level of communication purpose.The principle of translation equivalence to the original text should be based on these levels during translation.

(Wu, 2006: 456)

The same year, Shvzel (В.Н.Комиссаров) published the book "Translation and Linguistics" ("Перевод и лингвистика"), suggesting that translation is not only the contact between two language systems, but also between two different cultures, and sometimes between two different civilizations.In addition, he raises questions about the invariant values of the translation function.Shvzel believes that translation functional invariant values include both semantic and grammatical aspects.

In 1974 Lezkel (Я.И.Рецкер) has published the book "Translation Theory and Translation Practice (An Introduction to the Theory of Linguistics of Translation)" ("Теория перевода и переводическая практика - Очерки лингвистическои теории перевода"), which discusses some key issues in the linguistics theory of translation, which are directly related to the translation practice.The book compares the lexical grammar and rhetorical characteristics of English with its functional counterpart in Russian, and reveals the logical semantic basis of using various translation techniques and methods in the translation process.

'''(In 1974 Lezkel (Я.И.Рецкер) published the book "Translation Theory and Translation Practice (An Introduction to the Theory of Linguistics of Translation)"

1975 Balhudarov (Л.С.Бархударов) published the book "Language and Translation" ("Язык и перевод"), which aroused widespread response in the Soviet translation community and was considered the representative work of the Soviet language school translation theory in the 1970s. The biggest characteristic of the book is to link the translation theory with the latest achievements in linguistics in the world, and put forward the linguistics theory of translation is comparing discourse linguistics, more specifically, is the semantic discourse in different languages, and the actual segmentation of the sentence is an essential condition of equivalent translation and a series of new arguments. Balhuduff makes it clear that translation changes the speech product of one language to another while keeping the content unchanged, that is, the translator does not deal with the language system, but with the language product.In addition, he discussed translationability, the nature of translation theory, semantics and translation, translation units, and translation methods.

(Balhudarov, 1975: 187)

In 1976, Chernhovskikaya (Л.А.Черняховская) published the book "Translation and the Semantic Structure" ("Перевод и смысловая структура"), the only Soviet work that conveys the logical focus and real semantic segmentation of sentences in translation.

That same year, Levitskaya (Т.Р.Леницкая) and Fejelman (А.М.Фетерман) published the book "translation problem" ("Проблемы перевода"), the book discusses English and Russian due to different vocabulary, grammar, rhetorical structure and the main translation problems, its focus is not the translation process itself and general translation methods and skills, but for the difficulty of English translation into Russian method.

In 1977 Lambimov (Н.М.Любимов) highlighted in "Translation is Art" ("Перевод - искусство") that literary translation is an art that pursues artistic accuracy rather than literal slave-style fidelity.At the same time, it is also proposed that words as language units can only be reflected in, or through words, so the objective reality of language existence is the overall —— discourse of the work. The basic category of translation is the discourse.

And 1978 Venogradov (В.С.Виноградов) pointed out in "The Lexical Problems of Literary Prose Translation" ("Лексические вопросы перевода художественнои прозы") that words are the basic unit of language, so, it is also the starting point of translation.

(Wu, 2006: 359)

In 1978, Komisarov edited and published the collection of "Translation Theory Issues in Foreign Linguistics" ("Вопросы теории перевода в зарубежнои лингвистике"), It fairly fully introduces the state of Western linguists studying translation theory, The book is divided into four themes, Both: the general linguistics problem of translation, Translation equivalent, translation process, Translational linguistics and Translational rhetoric; Translating the relevant discourse of some famous western linguists, For example, Jacobson (R.Jackbcon), one of the founders of the Prague School, British linguist J.R.Firch (J.R.Firch) and others.The influence of this collection is evident from the later writings of translation theorists of the Soviet language school.

In 1980, Komisarov published the book "translation linguistics" ("Лингвистика перевода"), which pointed out that the perspective of linguistics is entering a new stage, turned out to regard the linguistics translation theory as a part of applied linguistics, for the translation practice of service, its focus is on the translation process, its task is to study the linguistics mode of translation and determine the principle of translation. The results of studying translation from the perspective of linguistics show that translation is an integral part of linguistics, and the theoretical analysis of interlanguage communication phenomenon is necessary for the development of linguistics itself. Therefore, translation should be regarded as a special form of language function, which is a special method of its speech practice, and our knowledge of the essence and function of language is incomplete. That is, linguistic analysis of translation can not only serve translation practice, but also promote development of linguistics itself. It is under the guidance of this idea that the book discusses the general linguistics theory of translation, translation semantics, translation linguistics, translation rhetoric, translation mode, translation standards. Therefore, it provides a new perspective for the study of translation theory.

(Cai & Duan, 2000: 20)

In the same year, the Minyal. Bellolluchev (Р.К.Миньяр - Белоручев) published the book "Translation" ("Общая теория перевода и устныи перевод").The book regards translational science as an independent subject on the grounds that it has its own subjects, content and a complete set of terms; thinks that translation research is beyond the scope of linguistics. It written by --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:12, 19 December 2021 (UTC)is a subject of linguistics, psychology, semiotics, sociology intersection, mainly applicable to translation between any two languages; proposes the discourse information theory, the main method of translation and the classification of language means in translation and so on.The book first used the interpretation as a research subject.

In 1981, Ratshev (Л.К.Латышев) published the "Translation Tutorial —— Translation equivalent and achieve the equivalent Method" ("Курс перевода: Эквивалентность перевода и способы ее достижения"), which divided the translation equivalent into formal and functional equivalent two types, and proposed the specific methods to achieve the translation equivalent.

In 1983, Feodorov published the collection of "Translation Art and Literary Life" ("Искусство перевода и жизнь литературы."), indicating from the preface entitled "A Window to Another World" ("Окнов другои мир") that Feodorov partially accepted the other's views through disputes with the school of translation theory and literature.At the same time, he argued that Gaczrazzer greatly limited the role of language in translation, seeing language as mere technical means.

(Cai &Duan, 2000: 22)

In 1985, Lvorskaya (З.Д.Львовская) published the book "Theoretical Issues of Translation"(Теоритическая проблема перевода”), which based on the theory of communicative function, believing that discourse meaning is divided into linguistic and verbal categories. The equivalent of translation is not the absolute invariance of the semantic, pragmatic, and environmental components in the meaning structure, but only the equivalence of pragmatic and environmental components.
The 20th century school of literature in the translation theory of outstanding events is in the journal "literary review" ("Литературное обозрение") continuously on the discussion of translation problem, the content involves: the necessity of the translation theory, how to overcome the two extreme, how to treat the original aesthetics, time color, translation can really convey "the spirit of the original" and the creation of the translator, etc.

In 1988, Shvzzer, a translation theorist of the language school, published the book "Translation Theory: Status, Problems and Face"(“Теория перевода : Статус, проблема, аспекты”). The author combines the latest achievements in linguistics in the field of speech linguistics, sentence semantics, communication linguistics and psychological linguistics, the status of translation theory, the essence of translation, equivalent, similarities, interpretability, translation semantic, language, discourse and translation and other six issues, the language school translation theory research mentioned a new stage.

In 1990, Komisarov's book "Translation Theory (Linguistics)" ("Теория перевода (линвистические вопросы") clearly stated in his preface that translation theory is an important part of the training of future translators. As a textbook, the book aims to introduce the basic principles of translational linguistics theory.
In the 1980s, the Soviet theory of scientific and technological translation developed rapidly, and published a lot of articles and monographs.

(Cai & Duan, 2000: 37)

In all, the Soviet theory of translation has been developed from scratch, from sporadic to systematic, constantly enriched, and constantly deepening step by step.

===5. The Literary School of Translation===
===5.1 Realistic Translation pioneered by E.A.Kashkin===

Kashkin Ivan Alexandrovich - literary critic, translator and critic. He brought up a significant group of translators from the English language. He translated J. Chaucer's The Canterbury Tales (1946, with O. Rumer). Promoter of the best achievements of modern English and American poetry (R. Frost, K. Sandberg) and prose (E. Hemingway, E. Caldwell, J. Wayne, etc.). Aslo, he is the author of historical and literary studies about J. Conrad, L. Stevenson, W. Faulkner, E. Hemingway and others.

Some translators believe that they must obey the "absolute authority" of the original text and translate the original text word by word in order to be completely faithful. Other translators advocate for loyalty to the original text. And Kashkin believes that realism in art is a complex and diverse phenomenon, which is restricted by history. Realism in art is real and poetic. Exactly, to feel and reflect world

( Kashkin, 1977: 177)

In order to accurately convey the ideological content of the original work and creatively reproduce the artistic characteristics and national characteristics of the original work, it must adopt the realistic translation method. The translator must respect the reality of the text and strive to reproduce the objective reality expressed by the text and give it life, not simply copying the text symbols of the original text.

Translators should understand the author of the original text's direct feelings of reality through the barrier of the syntactic structure of a foreign language. Only in this way could he reproduce the original in the same powerful and clear language, as did the original author did. The translator should see the phenomena, thoughts, things, behaviors and conditions through the words of the original work, and specifically reproduce this reality in the eyes of the original author.
Reality in art is the image to reflect the essential characteristics in reality. written by --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:14, 19 December 2021 (UTC)

( Kashkin, 1977: 185)

The truth in literary translation is not a final pursuit that the surface is similar to the original text, nor does it simply copy all the unimportant details.The truth in literary translation is based on the internal logic of the image, and first, to faithfully translate the essence of the original text.The translator should faithfully understand the author's conception and creative intention, and retain the artistic characteristics of the original work, the historical reality and the atmosphere of The Times.

Otherwise, Kashkin believes that there must be a strict distinction between artistic images that should be conveyed and verbal images that occasionally occur in translation.Because language is the basic means of expressing all literature, but the basic task and main difficulty of literary and artistic translation is not to copy the language of the original text, including the language structure elements, but in the artistic reproduction of the original image, considering the differences of the language system.

( Kashkin, 1977: 205)

===5.2 Gaczilaser’s realistic view of translations===

Professor Givi Razhdenovich Gaczilaser is one of the largest specialists in the field of literary translation theory, the author of the famous monograph "The Problem of Realistic Translation", a translator of Shakespeare, Byron, Shelley and other English poets into Georgian. In the book offered to the reader's attention, he continued to develop in depth the theory and practice of literary translation. Proceeding from Lenin's theory of reflection, G. Gachechiladze considers literary translation as a form of cognition, as a creative act that helps the reader approach not only a foreign language work, but also the living reality reflected in this work.
Gaczilaser believes that the principles of literary translation have been swinging between the two extremes.One is word-by-word translation, and the other is artistically equivalent but written away from the original text. He thought it would be easy to combine the two principles, but it was impossible in practice. Because different means of expressing ideas are very different languages, word-by-word translation and artistic quality are always contradictory.

If the translator is limited to the original and not to reproduce what the author sees in the imagination, he is not a creative person. The translator should take the author's thoughts as the starting point, the original text serve the deep understanding of artistic reality. The translator should see the real life reflected in the original work behind the artistic reality, and it is not to create his own work.Realistic translation method refers to realists following the law of realistic art, reflecting the artistic reality of the original, and consistent with the original, more specifically, rhetorical consistency, only help to achieve linguistic loyalty, but should not let this affect their own will. Loyal to the author's artistic truth is the goal of the realistic translator.The artistic reality of the original includes both content and form, and even the unity of form and content.

(Gaczilaser, 1964: 120)

It is undoubtedly correct to compare the two language systems in the translation process.However, this contrast has certain limitations, as each language has its characteristic means of rhetoric.Just as there is no unified language, there is no unified rhetoric of all languages, nor the unified grammar of all languages. The application of rhetorical rules to any specific language would rise to a national, independent rhetorical system. Thus, the rhetorical rule can only be judged based on the character of some language.

===6. The Linguistic School Translation===
===6.1 Balhuadov’s Translation Concept===

Balhuarov was a famous translation theorist in the Soviet Union in the 20th century, one of the representatives of the language school and a doctor of Soviet philology, and has been engaged in translation teaching and translation theory research for many years. It is represented as the Language and Translation ("Язык и перевод").

From the perspective of the research subjects of the translation theory, Balhudav believes that the task of the linguistics theory of the translation is to pattern the translation process and put forward some scientific diagram for the translation process, which can more accurately reflect the important aspects of this process. In the view, on the one hand, translation theory, like any other theoretical model, reflects only some of the most important features of its subjects, rather than all features. Translation theory studies not all the relationship between the original language and the translation language, but the regular relationship between the two, that is, the typical and recurrent correspondence.On the other hand, translation theory, like any other discipline theory, stipulates not only a pattern, but many patterns that reflect the translation process in different ways as well as various characteristics.

(Balhudarov, 1975: 250)

From the essence of translation, Balhuudaf believes that translation is the process of converting a speech product into another language while keeping the content level (i. e., meaning) unchanged. Among them, the term “meaning” refers to the various relationships of language units. Translation is a process of changing one language discourse into another language discourse. The object of translation is not a language system, but a discourse.For translation, it is not the equivalent of the individual word, but the equivalent of the full text.Thus, the semantic differences between the two languages are not an insurmountable barrier in translation.
In addition, from the discussion of semantic problems of translation, Balhudv believes that the semantic problem of translation must be studied and conveyed from three aspects: meaning, pragmatic meaning and internal meaning.But on semantic issues, he presented no substantive content, with similar views mentioned by Jackson and Nida et al. in the late 1920s and early 1960s.But Balhudaf's interpretation is more detailed and fulfilling, and more generalized in some places.

Balhudaf also establishes equivalent translation from six levels: phonemic, phoneme, word, phrase, sentence, and discourse layer. The six levels are applied more systematically to translation theory.

(Balhudarov, 1975: 255)

===7. Conclusion ===

To sum up, by introducing the historical evolution of the development of translation theory in the Soviet Union, we and the representatives of the school of translation literature and art and the translation language school can draw the following conclusions:

First of all, the developmental foundation of the Soviet translation theory was weak. At the beginning of World War II, the discussion of translation theory wasn’t systematic and comprehensive and they were all carried out from the perspective of literature and art. Only translation textbooks and translation instructional references are exceptional and are conducted from a linguistic perspective .After World War II, the Soviet Union began a new period of studying the translation theory from the perspective of linguistics. Its main feature was to connect translation theory with comparative linguistics, and to reveal the correspondence of the two languages on the basis of comparing the two languages.written by --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:15, 19 December 2021 (UTC)

(Cai & Duan, 2000: 168)

(Wu, 2006: 325)

Secondly, from the perspective of the literary school of translation, Kashkin, the theorist of translation, founded the realistic concept of translation, believing that the translation should pay attention to understanding the feelings of the original author, and believing that we must strictly distinguish the artistic image that should be conveyed and the occasional language image in the translation. Translation theorist Gaczirze believes that the principles of literary translation have been swinging between the two extremes. One is word-by-word translation, and the other is artistically equivalent but written away from the original text. He thought it would be easy to combine the two principles, but it was impossible in practice.

Thirdly, from the perspective of the language school of translation, the translation theorist Balhudarov believes that the task of the linguistics theory of translation is to pattern the translation process and put forward some scientific diagram for the translation process, which can more accurately reflect the important aspects of this process.He made great contributions to the linguistic school of translation.

(Wu, 2006: 325)

All in all, the translation theory of the Soviet period has its own unique development path. The Soviet translation theorists in this period made great contributions to the history of Soviet translation, also, the translation theory of the Soviet period became an indispensable part of the world translation theory map.

===8. References ===

Cai, Yi 蔡毅，Duan,Jinghua, 段京华. Translation Studies in USSR苏联翻译理论.湖北教育出版社，2000

Liu Miqing刘宓庆，Translation Basics 翻译基础.上海.华东师范大学出版社，2008

Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜.Translation Studies 翻译学.复旦大学出版社，2017

Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜.History of Western Translation 西方翻译简史.北京.商务印书馆，1991

Wu, Keli 吴克礼.The Translation Methods and Studies in USSR 俄苏翻译理论流派综述. 上海外语教育出版社，2006

Xu, Jun 许均. Translation Theories 翻译论. 湖北教育出版社，2003

Balhudarov Бархударов Л.С. Language and Translation: Collation said Partial theory of Translation Язык и перевод: Вопросы общей и частной теории перевода, Международные отношения, 1975

Gaczilaser Гиви Гачечиладзе. Problems of Literary Theory Вопросы теории художественного перевода. Тбилиси: Литература да хлебовнеба, 1964

Kashkin Иван Кашкин. Articles and Studies Статьи и исследования. Москва. Советский писатель, 1977

--[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 08:41, 12 December 2021 (UTC)

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=Chapter 13 History of Translation Theories in the Soviet Union=
===苏联时期的翻译理论史===
Wu Jingyue 吴婧悦 Hunan Normal University

===1. Abstract===
As is well known, the history of the Soviet period and discusse the characteristics of the Soviet translation theory. written by --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:02, 19 December 2021 (UTC) Firstly, we discuss about the overall situation of the development of the Soviet period, the history of the Soviet period and discusses the characteristics of the Soviet translation theory. Finally, we introduce the famous translation theorist like: S. G. Barkhudarov (С. Г. Бархуда́ров) and I. A. Kashkin (И. А. Кашки́н) and so on.

===摘要===
众所周知，苏联的翻译理论在世界翻译理论中占有十分突出的地位。本文首先从苏联时期翻译理论发展的整体状况出发，对苏联时期翻译发展史进行梳理；探讨了苏联翻译理论发展的特色；最后向读者介绍了著名翻译理论家S. G. Barkhudarov (С. Г. Бархуда́ров) 以及I. A. Kashkin (И. А. Кашки́н) 等人的翻译理论。written by --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:18, 19 December 2021 (UTC)

===2. Key words===
Translation theories, Western translation theories, Soviet Translation theories

===关键词===
翻译理论；西方翻译理论；苏联时期翻译理论

===3. Introduction===
The Soviet translation theory play a pivotal role in the world translation theory. written by --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:04, 19 December 2021 (UTC)This paper firstly introduces the historical evolution of the development of the Soviet translation theory, which divides the Soviet Union into two periods: the development history of translation theory before World War II and the development history of translation theory after World War II. In introducing the history of translation theory before World War II, the source of the history of Soviet translation theory, the development of Soviet translation theory, namely linguistics and the contribution of Kamisarov, Liubimov and others.Secondly, the representatives of the translation literature and art school and the translation language school are introduced specifically.When introducing the school of translation literature, the views of translator Kashkin and Gachzzeraz are introduced; in introducing the language school of translation, they are mainly introduced.

===4. The evolution of Translation Theories in the Soviet Union.===
===4.1 History of translation theory development before World War II===
The Soviet translation theory occupies a very prominent position in the world translation theory.The Soviet study of translation theory began shortly after the October Revolution, began with literary translation.

In 1918, Gorky (А.М.Горький) founded the World Literature Press (Издательство "Всемирная литература") in conjunction with the help of Lenin(В.И.Ленин). The publisher's task is to introduce world classics, improve the translation art, and train translators.At this stage, nearly 100 professors and writers attended the work.In order to unify the thinking, discuss the theory of literary translation, and stipulate some clear rules, Gorky handed the burden to Chukowsky(К.И.Чуковский). Therefore, after making a lot of efforts, Chukowski wrote the book "The Principles of Literary Translation--written by [[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:07, 19 December 2021 (UTC)("Прицины художественного перевода") in 1919.He first proposed that the translator of the novel should be an artist and a master of language.Chukowski believed that a good translation can reproduce the artistic characteristics of the original text in vivid and rich Russian.But at that time, there was a very popular view in literary and theoretical criticism that translation was essentially impossible work.

(Cai & Duan, 2000: 5)

In 1930, The Principles of Literary Translation was collected in Chukowski's "The Art of Translation" ("Искусство переводов").It suggests that translators must understand the social environment.In addition, the communication of the structural characteristics and rhetorical characteristics of the original text, as well as the principles of translation and expression, are also discussed.

In 1934 Translation theorist Smirnov (А.А.Смирнов) made the first proposal of the concept of "equivalent translation" in the term "Soviet Literature Encyclopedia", "translation" (Перевод).The "equivalent translation" here means "conveying the ideological content, feelings, and written structure of the original work", that is, "conveying the full creative intention of the original author". Smirnov suggested that not only can use the direct counterpart of the original in translation but also can use the functional approximation of the original in translation.

(Cai & Duan, 2000: 16)

In 1936, Loginski (М.Л.Лозинский) reported at the first National Conference of Translators, "The Art of the Translation of Poetry" ("Искусство стихотворного перевода"), and pointed out that poetry translation should be the same in aesthetics as the original poetry works, highlighting the equivalent aesthetic function of literary and artistic translation.

'''(In 1936, Loginski (М.Л.Лозинский) delivered a report at the first National Conference of Translators, "The Art of the Translation of Poetry" ("Искусство стихотворного перевода"), and pointed out that poetry translation should be the same in aesthetics as the original poem, highlighting the equivalent aesthetic function of literary and artistic translation. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 17:16, 13 December 2021 (UTC))'''

Also in 1936, Kashkin (И.А.Кашкин) proposed the theory and became the founder of the Soviet theory of realism. His translation method is: translators should try their best to reproduce the objective reality expressed in the original text, rather than words; they should see, experience, and perfectly reproduce the reality in the eyes of the author from behind the original text. He equated the realistic method of translation with the socialist realism in literary creation.In the Soviet Union, he was hailed as "a theorist representing a entire era in the history of Russian translation". He believes that translators should be loyal to the original, to their readers, to reality, and that the three are inseparable. () Kashkin believes that without a theory, translators are just a craftsman, and can never become a translator or artist.

( Kashkin, 1977)
(Cai & Duan, 2000: 25)

Also in 1936, Kashkin (И.А.Кашкин) proposed the theory and became the founder of the Soviet theory of realism. His translation method is: translators should try their best to reproduce the objective reality expressed in the original text, rather than words; they should see, experience, and perfectly reproduce the reality in the eyes of the author from behind the original text. He equated the realistic method of translation with the socialist realism in literary creation.In the Soviet Union, he was hailed as "a theorist representing a entire era in the history of Russian translation". He believes that translators should be loyal to the original, to their readers, to reality, and that the three are inseparable. Kashkin believes that without a theory, translators are just a craftsman, and can never become a translator or artist.

(Cai & Duan, 2000: 120)

===4.2 History of translation theory development after World War II===
Since the 1950s, a new period of studying translation theory from the perspective of linguistics began. Its main characteristic is to link translation theory with comparative linguistics, and to reveal the law of the two languages based on the comparison of the phenomenon of the two languages.written by --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:12, 19 December 2021 (UTC)

In 1950, "Theory and Methods of Translation Teaching" ("Вопросы теории и методики учебного перевода"), which played a considerable role in the development of translation theory. For example, in Gary Palin(И.Р. Гпльперии) 's article, "Translation and Rhetoric" ("Перевод и стилистика"), shares Shakespeare's original Othello with Morosov’s (М.М.Морозов) translation, noting the similarities and differences between English and Russian in terms of meaning and aesthetic functions. Meanwhile, the book Lezkel(Я.И.Рецкер) ’s article, "On the regularity and correspondence in Russia" ("О закономерных соответствиях при переводе на роднои язык"), divides the language regularity correspondence into three categories: equivalent, approximation and equivalent substitution.These three methods are applied to scientific and technological translation, the translation of political articles, and literary translation.

(Wu, 2006: 325)

1953 Feodorov (А.В.Фёдоров) 's book "An Introduction to the Translation Theory" ("Введение в теорию перевода") was published.The book discusses the translation theory from the perspective of the linguistics theory, and proposes that the translation theory is a branch of the linguistics, and the translation problem can only be solved in the field of linguistics. In addition, the book stipulates the content of the concept of "translation", the object of theoretical research, the content, etc., and discusses the vocabulary issues, grammar issues and stylistic issues of translation, respectively.The book made Feyodorov the founder of the language school of translation theory. In addition, the book received wide attention in the Soviet translation circle, especially the translation teaching circle, but it also caused a heated controversy in the literary and art school of translation theory.

'''(1953 Feodorov (А.В.Фёдоров) 's book "An Introduction to Translation Theory" ("Введение в теорию перевода") was published. The book discusses the translation theory from the perspective of the linguistics theory and proposes that the translation theory is a branch of the linguistics and the translation problem can only be solved in the field of linguistics. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 02:11, 14 December 2021 (UTC))'''

However, translators from the school of literature and art believe that Feodorov studied translation problems almost completely from a linguistic perspective, ignoring that the first thing of literary translation should be involved in the problem of literature and art.

(Wu, 2006: 354)

In 1954, Kashkin put forward in "Methods and Genres of Soviet Literary Translation" ("О методе и школе советского художественного перевода") that the theory of literary translation should be a broad language discipline. That is to say, written by --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:12, 19 December 2021 (UTC)the study of translation and literary problems should be combined.

In 1955 the collection of "Literary Translation" ("Вопросы художественного перевода") questions Feydorov's views, believing that studying translation theory from a linguistic perspective may lead to formalism and word-by-word dead translation in translation practice.

Since then, the Soviet theory of translation has gradually formed two major schools, namely, the school of literature and art and the language school.The two factions had long debated, culminating after the late 1950s and 1960s, with numerous papers and monographs each published."Translation Skills" ("Мастерство перевода"), published by the Soviet Writers Publishing House, focuses on the views of the literary school. The language school is based on the "Translation Worker Notes" ("Тетрадь переводчика") edited by Balhudarov, making comments and summarizing the translation experience.Most belong to the literary school are writers; the language school are linguists and college teachers.

( Kashkin, 1977: 163)

In 1958, Feodorov made some additions and modifications to the original book in the second edition of the Introduction to Translation Theory. Although he also admitted that the problems in the field of translation could not all be explained by linguistic methods, it was correct to study the translation problem from the perspective of linguistics, otherwise, there would be no real theory of translation art.He stressed that literary and artistic translation does have its own characteristics, and should highlight its aesthetic aspects, but literary images are created by language means, and must also be conveyed by another language means. Therefore, the study of translation and theory from the perspective of linguistics is the basis.

(Wu, 2006: 366)

In 1962, the collection of "Translation Theory and Review" ("Теория и критика перевода"), including two groups of translation theorists.Linguist Larin (Б.А.Ларии) In the preface to the collection, "Our Mission" ("Наши задачи"), proposed that the theory of literary translation must be established on the basis of linguistics and literature.He believes that it is impossible not to combine linguistics and literary methods organically, whether in linguistics, rhetoric, or translation theory. Any translation should begin with analysis, and finally finish with literary creation.

1963 Aitkin (Е.Т.Эткин) published the book "Poetry and Translation" ("Поэзии и перевод"), which analyzed and commented on a large number of foreign-language poems translated into Russian language in the early 19th century, concerning the translation of literary and artistic theory.He believes that the linguistic means of poetry translation are closely related to the reproduced artistic characteristics of the original poetry, and the two should not be opposed.In his opinion, translation is like rhetoric, which is both a problem of literature and art and linguistics, because rhetoric is a science of language synonymous, and it belongs to the two fields of linguistics. Ignoring the theory of the form of literary works will actually make the translator helpless.

(Tan，1991: 246)

In 1964, Gachzrazawa (Г.Р.Гачечиладзе) published the book "The Theory of Literary Translation" ("Вопросы теории художественного перевода"), in which he based on Lenin's reaction theory, proposing that the translator directly reflects the original text, namely the artistic reality of the original text, rather than the specific reality directly reflected by the original text.

That same year, Levzin (И.И.Ревзин) and Rosenzwig (В.Ю.Розенцвейг) has published "Principles of General Translation and Machine Translation" ("Основы общего и машинного перевода") to study translation issues from a structural linguistics perspective.It was the first work in the world to combine the concepts and principles of translational theory with the category of structural linguistics.

(Wu, 2006: 430)

In 1968, Feodorov made a new revision and supplement to the new situation, publishing the third edition of the book and renamed "Basic Translation" ("Основы общеи тоерии перевода").The rationale is that this can highlight the basic principles of translation theory —— studies various translation phenomena and various kinds of translation, revealing their commonalities and respective characteristics, comparing from a linguistic perspective.In the book, Feodorov makes it clear that it should never be forgotten that the ultimate task is to establish a common theory of philology.It is now outdated to insist that literary translation is studied only through literature and art, or only through linguistics. Contemporary era is an era of close cooperation between different disciplines. In philology, the distance between the two branches of literature and linguistics is not very large, and its differences are inevitable, but can be overcome, that is to say, the two can be combined all together.

The 1970s were called the "harvest years" of Soviet translation theory, and the debate entered a new stage.

In 1972, Gabriel's book "Literary Translation and Literary Exchange" ("Художественныи перевод и литературные взаимосвязи") can be regarded as a representative work of the school of literature and art, which more comprehensively expounded the translation theory views of the Soviet school of literature and art.Once published, the book immediately aroused widespread response from the Soviet translation theory community.In the book, he pointed out that literary and artistic translation belongs to the category of artistic creation, and studying literary translation from the perspective of linguistics inevitably leads to the dead translation of auxiliary words. As a result, the translation is linguistically correct and low in art. Because from a linguistic point of view, the decisive factor is not the translator's creative attitude towards the original text, but the linguistic correspondence principle.Thus, translation becomes some technical process, not creation. Literary and artistic translation should reproduce the aesthetic value of the original text.

1963 Komizarov (В.Н.Комиссаров) presents its unique theory of "equivalent levels" in his book on translation ("Слово о переводе").According to this theory, the meaning structure of discourse is a complex that can be divided into content, namely the level of language symbols, discourse level, notification structure level, scenario description level and the level of communication purpose.The principle of translation equivalence to the original text should be based on these levels during translation.

(Wu, 2006: 456)

The same year, Shvzel (В.Н.Комиссаров) published the book "Translation and Linguistics" ("Перевод и лингвистика"), suggesting that translation is not only the contact between two language systems, but also between two different cultures, and sometimes between two different civilizations.In addition, he raises questions about the invariant values of the translation function.Shvzel believes that translation functional invariant values include both semantic and grammatical aspects.

'''(The same year, Shvzel (В.Н.Комиссаров) published the book "Translation and Linguistics" ("Перевод и лингвистика"), suggesting that translation is not only the contact between two language systems, but also between two different cultures, and sometimes between two different civilizations.In addition, he raised some questions about the invariant values of the translation function.Shvzel believes that translation functional invariant values include both semantic and grammatical aspects. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 02:11, 14 December 2021 (UTC))'''

In 1974 Lezkel (Я.И.Рецкер) has published the book "Translation Theory and Translation Practice (An Introduction to the Theory of Linguistics of Translation)" ("Теория перевода и переводическая практика - Очерки лингвистическои теории перевода"), which discusses some key issues in the linguistics theory of translation, which are directly related to the translation practice.The book compares the lexical grammar and rhetorical characteristics of English with its functional counterpart in Russian, and reveals the logical semantic basis of using various translation techniques and methods in the translation process.

'''(In 1974 Lezkel (Я.И.Рецкер) published the book "Translation Theory and Translation Practice (An Introduction to the Theory of Linguistics of Translation)" ("Теория перевода и переводическая практика - Очерки лингвистическои теории перевода"), which discusses some key issues in the linguistics theory of translation, which are directly related to the translation practice. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 02:11, 14 December 2021 (UTC))'''

1975 Balhudarov (Л.С.Бархударов) published the book "Language and Translation" ("Язык и перевод"), which aroused widespread response in the Soviet translation community and was considered the representative work of the Soviet language school translation theory in the 1970s. The biggest characteristic of the book is to link the translation theory with the latest achievements in linguistics in the world, and put forward the linguistics theory of translation is comparing discourse linguistics, more specifically, is the semantic discourse in different languages, and the actual segmentation of the sentence is an essential condition of equivalent translation and a series of new arguments. Balhuduff makes it clear that translation changes the speech product of one language to another while keeping the content unchanged, that is, the translator does not deal with the language system, but with the language product.In addition, he discussed translationability, the nature of translation theory, semantics and translation, translation units, and translation methods.

(Balhudarov, 1975: 187)

In 1976, Chernhovskikaya (Л.А.Черняховская) published the book "Translation and the Semantic Structure" ("Перевод и смысловая структура"), the only Soviet work that conveys the logical focus and real semantic segmentation of sentences in translation.

That same year, Levitskaya (Т.Р.Леницкая) and Fejelman (А.М.Фетерман) published the book "translation problem" ("Проблемы перевода"), the book discusses English and Russian due to different vocabulary, grammar, rhetorical structure and the main translation problems, its focus is not the translation process itself and general translation methods and skills, but for the difficulty of English translation into Russian method.

In 1977 Lambimov (Н.М.Любимов) highlighted in "Translation is Art" ("Перевод - искусство") that literary translation is an art that pursues artistic accuracy rather than literal slave-style fidelity.At the same time, it is also proposed that words as language units can only be reflected in, or through words, so the objective reality of language existence is the overall —— discourse of the work. The basic category of translation is the discourse.

And 1978 Venogradov (В.С.Виноградов) pointed out in "The Lexical Problems of Literary Prose Translation" ("Лексические вопросы перевода художественнои прозы") that words are the basic unit of language, so, it is also the starting point of translation.

(Wu, 2006: 359)

In 1978, Komisarov edited and published the collection of "Translation Theory Issues in Foreign Linguistics" ("Вопросы теории перевода в зарубежнои лингвистике"), It fairly fully introduces the state of Western linguists studying translation theory, The book is divided into four themes, Both: the general linguistics problem of translation, Translation equivalent, translation process, Translational linguistics and Translational rhetoric; Translating the relevant discourse of some famous western linguists, For example, Jacobson (R.Jackbcon), one of the founders of the Prague School, British linguist J.R.Firch (J.R.Firch) and others.The influence of this collection is evident from the later writings of translation theorists of the Soviet language school.

In 1980, Komisarov published the book "translation linguistics" ("Лингвистика перевода"), which pointed out that the perspective of linguistics is entering a new stage, turned out to regard the linguistics translation theory as a part of applied linguistics, for the translation practice of service, its focus is on the translation process, its task is to study the linguistics mode of translation and determine the principle of translation. The results of studying translation from the perspective of linguistics show that translation is an integral part of linguistics, and the theoretical analysis of interlanguage communication phenomenon is necessary for the development of linguistics itself. Therefore, translation should be regarded as a special form of language function, which is a special method of its speech practice, and our knowledge of the essence and function of language is incomplete. That is, linguistic analysis of translation can not only serve translation practice, but also promote development of linguistics itself. It is under the guidance of this idea that the book discusses the general linguistics theory of translation, translation semantics, translation linguistics, translation rhetoric, translation mode, translation standards. Therefore, it provides a new perspective for the study of translation theory.

(Cai & Duan, 2000: 20)

In the same year, the Minyal. Bellolluchev (Р.К.Миньяр - Белоручев) published the book "Translation" ("Общая теория перевода и устныи перевод").The book regards translational science as an independent subject on the grounds that it has its own subjects, content and a complete set of terms; thinks that translation research is beyond the scope of linguistics. It written by --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:12, 19 December 2021 (UTC)is a subject of linguistics, psychology, semiotics, sociology intersection, mainly applicable to translation between any two languages; proposes the discourse information theory, the main method of translation and the classification of language means in translation and so on.The book first used the interpretation as a research subject.

'''(In the same year, the Minyal. Bellolluchev (Р.К.Миньяр - Белоручев) published the book "Translation" ("Общая теория перевода и устныи перевод").This book regards translational science as an independent subject on the grounds that it has its own subjects, content and a complete set of terms; Besides, it presents that translation research is beyond the scope of linguistics. It is a subject of linguistics, psychology, semiotics, sociology intersection, mainly applicable to translation between any two languages; And this book also proposed the discourse information theory, the main method of translation and the classification of language means in translation and so on.The book first used the interpretation as a research subject. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 02:11, 14 December 2021 (UTC))'''

In 1981, Ratshev (Л.К.Латышев) published the "Translation Tutorial —— Translation equivalent and achieve the equivalent Method" ("Курс перевода: Эквивалентность перевода и способы ее достижения"), which divided the translation equivalent into formal and functional equivalent two types, and proposed the specific methods to achieve the translation equivalent.

In 1983, Feodorov published the collection of "Translation Art and Literary Life" ("Искусство перевода и жизнь литературы."), indicating from the preface entitled "A Window to Another World" ("Окнов другои мир") that Feodorov partially accepted the other's views through disputes with the school of translation theory and literature.At the same time, he argued that Gaczrazzer greatly limited the role of language in translation, seeing language as mere technical means.

(Cai &Duan, 2000: 22)

In 1985, Lvorskaya (З.Д.Львовская) published the book "Theoretical Issues of Translation"(Теоритическая проблема перевода”), which based on the theory of communicative function, believing that discourse meaning is divided into linguistic and verbal categories. The equivalent of translation is not the absolute invariance of the semantic, pragmatic, and environmental components in the meaning structure, but only the equivalence of pragmatic and environmental components.
The 20th century school of literature in the translation theory of outstanding events is in the journal "literary review" ("Литературное обозрение") continuously on the discussion of translation problem, the content involves: the necessity of the translation theory, how to overcome the two extreme, how to treat the original aesthetics, time color, translation can really convey "the spirit of the original" and the creation of the translator, etc.

In 1988, Shvzzer, a translation theorist of the language school, published the book "Translation Theory: Status, Problems and Face"(“Теория перевода : Статус, проблема, аспекты”). The author combines the latest achievements in linguistics in the field of speech linguistics, sentence semantics, communication linguistics and psychological linguistics, the status of translation theory, the essence of translation, equivalent, similarities, interpretability, translation semantic, language, discourse and translation and other six issues, the language school translation theory research mentioned a new stage.

In 1990, Komisarov's book "Translation Theory (Linguistics)" ("Теория перевода (линвистические вопросы") clearly stated in his preface that translation theory is an important part of the training of future translators. As a textbook, the book aims to introduce the basic principles of translational linguistics theory.
In the 1980s, the Soviet theory of scientific and technological translation developed rapidly, and published a lot of articles and monographs.

(Cai & Duan, 2000: 37)

In all, the Soviet theory of translation has been developed from scratch, from sporadic to systematic, constantly enriched, and constantly deepening step by step.

===5. The Literary School of Translation===
===5.1 Realistic Translation pioneered by E.A.Kashkin===

Kashkin Ivan Alexandrovich - literary critic, translator and critic. He brought up a significant group of translators from the English language. He translated J. Chaucer's The Canterbury Tales (1946, with O. Rumer). Promoter of the best achievements of modern English and American poetry (R. Frost, K. Sandberg) and prose (E. Hemingway, E. Caldwell, J. Wayne, etc.). Aslo, he is the author of historical and literary studies about J. Conrad, L. Stevenson, W. Faulkner, E. Hemingway and others.

Some translators believe that they must obey the "absolute authority" of the original text and translate the original text word by word in order to be completely faithful. Other translators advocate for loyalty to the original text. And Kashkin believes that realism in art is a complex and diverse phenomenon, which is restricted by history. Realism in art is real and poetic. Exactly, to feel and reflect world

( Kashkin, 1977: 177)

In order to accurately convey the ideological content of the original work and creatively reproduce the artistic characteristics and national characteristics of the original work, it must adopt the realistic translation method. The translator must respect the reality of the text and strive to reproduce the objective reality expressed by the text and give it life, not simply copying the text symbols of the original text.

Translators should understand the author of the original text's direct feelings of reality through the barrier of the syntactic structure of a foreign language. Only in this way could he reproduce the original in the same powerful and clear language, as did the original author did. The translator should see the phenomena, thoughts, things, behaviors and conditions through the words of the original work, and specifically reproduce this reality in the eyes of the original author.
Reality in art is the image to reflect the essential characteristics in reality. written by --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:14, 19 December 2021 (UTC)

( Kashkin, 1977: 185)

The truth in literary translation is not a final pursuit that the surface is similar to the original text, nor does it simply copy all the unimportant details.The truth in literary translation is based on the internal logic of the image, and first, to faithfully translate the essence of the original text.The translator should faithfully understand the author's conception and creative intention, and retain the artistic characteristics of the original work, the historical reality and the atmosphere of The Times.

Otherwise, Kashkin believes that there must be a strict distinction between artistic images that should be conveyed and verbal images that occasionally occur in translation.Because language is the basic means of expressing all literature, but the basic task and main difficulty of literary and artistic translation is not to copy the language of the original text, including the language structure elements, but in the artistic reproduction of the original image, considering the differences of the language system.

( Kashkin, 1977: 205)

===5.2 Gaczilaser’s realistic view of translations===

Professor Givi Razhdenovich Gaczilaser is one of the largest specialists in the field of literary translation theory, the author of the famous monograph "The Problem of Realistic Translation", a translator of Shakespeare, Byron, Shelley and other English poets into Georgian. In the book offered to the reader's attention, he continued to develop in depth the theory and practice of literary translation. Proceeding from Lenin's theory of reflection, G. Gachechiladze considers literary translation as a form of cognition, as a creative act that helps the reader approach not only a foreign language work, but also the living reality reflected in this work.
Gaczilaser believes that the principles of literary translation have been swinging between the two extremes.One is word-by-word translation, and the other is artistically equivalent but written away from the original text. He thought it would be easy to combine the two principles, but it was impossible in practice. Because different means of expressing ideas are very different languages, word-by-word translation and artistic quality are always contradictory.

If the translator is limited to the original and not to reproduce what the author sees in the imagination, he is not a creative person. The translator should take the author's thoughts as the starting point, the original text serve the deep understanding of artistic reality. The translator should see the real life reflected in the original work behind the artistic reality, and it is not to create his own work.Realistic translation method refers to realists following the law of realistic art, reflecting the artistic reality of the original, and consistent with the original, more specifically, rhetorical consistency, only help to achieve linguistic loyalty, but should not let this affect their own will. Loyal to the author's artistic truth is the goal of the realistic translator.The artistic reality of the original includes both content and form, and even the unity of form and content.

(Gaczilaser, 1964: 120)

It is undoubtedly correct to compare the two language systems in the translation process.However, this contrast has certain limitations, as each language has its characteristic means of rhetoric.Just as there is no unified language, there is no unified rhetoric of all languages, nor the unified grammar of all languages. The application of rhetorical rules to any specific language would rise to a national, independent rhetorical system. Thus, the rhetorical rule can only be judged based on the character of some language.

===6. The Linguistic School Translation===
===6.1 Balhuadov’s Translation Concept===

Balhuarov was a famous translation theorist in the Soviet Union in the 20th century, one of the representatives of the language school and a doctor of Soviet philology, and has been engaged in translation teaching and translation theory research for many years. It is represented as the Language and Translation ("Язык и перевод").

From the perspective of the research subjects of the translation theory, Balhudav believes that the task of the linguistics theory of the translation is to pattern the translation process and put forward some scientific diagram for the translation process, which can more accurately reflect the important aspects of this process. In the view, on the one hand, translation theory, like any other theoretical model, reflects only some of the most important features of its subjects, rather than all features. Translation theory studies not all the relationship between the original language and the translation language, but the regular relationship between the two, that is, the typical and recurrent correspondence.On the other hand, translation theory, like any other discipline theory, stipulates not only a pattern, but many patterns that reflect the translation process in different ways as well as various characteristics.

(Balhudarov, 1975: 250)

From the essence of translation, Balhuudaf believes that translation is the process of converting a speech product into another language while keeping the content level (i. e., meaning) unchanged. Among them, the term “meaning” refers to the various relationships of language units. Translation is a process of changing one language discourse into another language discourse. The object of translation is not a language system, but a discourse.For translation, it is not the equivalent of the individual word, but the equivalent of the full text.Thus, the semantic differences between the two languages are not an insurmountable barrier in translation.
In addition, from the discussion of semantic problems of translation, Balhudv believes that the semantic problem of translation must be studied and conveyed from three aspects: meaning, pragmatic meaning and internal meaning.But on semantic issues, he presented no substantive content, with similar views mentioned by Jackson and Nida et al. in the late 1920s and early 1960s.But Balhudaf's interpretation is more detailed and fulfilling, and more generalized in some places.

Balhudaf also establishes equivalent translation from six levels: phonemic, phoneme, word, phrase, sentence, and discourse layer. The six levels are applied more systematically to translation theory.

(Balhudarov, 1975: 255)

===7. Conclusion ===

To sum up, by introducing the historical evolution of the development of translation theory in the Soviet Union, we and the representatives of the school of translation literature and art and the translation language school can draw the following conclusions:

First of all, the developmental foundation of the Soviet translation theory was weak. At the beginning of World War II, the discussion of translation theory wasn’t systematic and comprehensive and they were all carried out from the perspective of literature and art. Only translation textbooks and translation instructional references are exceptional and are conducted from a linguistic perspective .After World War II, the Soviet Union began a new period of studying the translation theory from the perspective of linguistics. Its main feature was to connect translation theory with comparative linguistics, and to reveal the correspondence of the two languages on the basis of comparing the two languages.written by --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:15, 19 December 2021 (UTC)

(Cai & Duan, 2000: 168)

(Wu, 2006: 325)

Secondly, from the perspective of the literary school of translation, Kashkin, the theorist of translation, founded the realistic concept of translation, believing that the translation should pay attention to understanding the feelings of the original author, and believing that we must strictly distinguish the artistic image that should be conveyed and the occasional language image in the translation. Translation theorist Gaczirze believes that the principles of literary translation have been swinging between the two extremes. One is word-by-word translation, and the other is artistically equivalent but written away from the original text. He thought it would be easy to combine the two principles, but it was impossible in practice.

Thirdly, from the perspective of the language school of translation, the translation theorist Balhudarov believes that the task of the linguistics theory of translation is to pattern the translation process and put forward some scientific diagram for the translation process, which can more accurately reflect the important aspects of this process.He made great contributions to the linguistic school of translation.

(Wu, 2006: 325)

All in all, the translation theory of the Soviet period has its own unique development path. The Soviet translation theorists in this period made great contributions to the history of Soviet translation, also, the translation theory of the Soviet period became an indispensable part of the world translation theory map.

===8. References ===

Cai, Yi 蔡毅，Duan,Jinghua, 段京华. Translation Studies in USSR苏联翻译理论.湖北教育出版社，2000

Liu Miqing刘宓庆，Translation Basics 翻译基础.上海.华东师范大学出版社，2008

Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜.Translation Studies 翻译学.复旦大学出版社，2017

Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜.History of Western Translation 西方翻译简史.北京.商务印书馆，1991

Wu, Keli 吴克礼.The Translation Methods and Studies in USSR 俄苏翻译理论流派综述. 上海外语教育出版社，2006

Xu, Jun 许均. Translation Theories 翻译论. 湖北教育出版社，2003

Balhudarov Бархударов Л.С. Language and Translation: Collation said Partial theory of Translation Язык и перевод: Вопросы общей и частной теории перевода, Международные отношения, 1975

Gaczilaser Гиви Гачечиладзе. Problems of Literary Theory Вопросы теории художественного перевода. Тбилиси: Литература да хлебовнеба, 1964

Kashkin Иван Кашкин. Articles and Studies Статьи и исследования. Москва. Советский писатель, 1977

--[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 08:41, 12 December 2021 (UTC)

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=Chapter 13 History of Translation Theories in the Soviet Union=
===苏联时期的翻译理论史===
Wu Jingyue 吴婧悦 Hunan Normal University

===1. Abstract===
As is well known, the history of the Soviet period and discusse the characteristics of the Soviet translation theory. written by --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:02, 19 December 2021 (UTC) Firstly, we discuss about the overall situation of the development of the Soviet period, the history of the Soviet period and discusses the characteristics of the Soviet translation theory. Finally, we introduce the famous translation theorist like: S. G. Barkhudarov (С. Г. Бархуда́ров) and I. A. Kashkin (И. А. Кашки́н) and so on.

===摘要===
众所周知，苏联的翻译理论在世界翻译理论中占有十分突出的地位。本文首先从苏联时期翻译理论发展的整体状况出发，对苏联时期翻译发展史进行梳理；探讨了苏联翻译理论发展的特色；最后向读者介绍了著名翻译理论家S. G. Barkhudarov (С. Г. Бархуда́ров) 以及I. A. Kashkin (И. А. Кашки́н) 等人的翻译理论。written by --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:18, 19 December 2021 (UTC)

===2. Key words===
Translation theories, Western translation theories, Soviet Translation theories

===关键词===
翻译理论；西方翻译理论；苏联时期翻译理论

===3. Introduction===
The Soviet translation theory play a pivotal role in the world translation theory. written by --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:04, 19 December 2021 (UTC)This paper firstly introduces the historical evolution of the development of the Soviet translation theory, which divides the Soviet Union into two periods: the development history of translation theory before World War II and the development history of translation theory after World War II. In introducing the history of translation theory before World War II, the source of the history of Soviet translation theory, the development of Soviet translation theory, namely linguistics and the contribution of Kamisarov, Liubimov and others.Secondly, the representatives of the translation literature and art school and the translation language school are introduced specifically.When introducing the school of translation literature, the views of translator Kashkin and Gachzzeraz are introduced; in introducing the language school of translation, they are mainly introduced.

===4. The evolution of Translation Theories in the Soviet Union.===
===4.1 History of translation theory development before World War II===
The Soviet translation theory occupies a very prominent position in the world translation theory.The Soviet study of translation theory began shortly after the October Revolution, began with literary translation.

In 1918, Gorky (А.М.Горький) founded the World Literature Press (Издательство "Всемирная литература") in conjunction with the help of Lenin(В.И.Ленин). The publisher's task is to introduce world classics, improve the translation art, and train translators.At this stage, nearly 100 professors and writers attended the work.In order to unify the thinking, discuss the theory of literary translation, and stipulate some clear rules, Gorky handed the burden to Chukowsky(К.И.Чуковский). Therefore, after making a lot of efforts, Chukowski wrote the book "The Principles of Literary Translation--written by [[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:07, 19 December 2021 (UTC)("Прицины художественного перевода") in 1919.He first proposed that the translator of the novel should be an artist and a master of language.Chukowski believed that a good translation can reproduce the artistic characteristics of the original text in vivid and rich Russian.But at that time, there was a very popular view in literary and theoretical criticism that translation was essentially impossible work.

(Cai & Duan, 2000: 5)

In 1930, The Principles of Literary Translation was collected in Chukowski's "The Art of Translation" ("Искусство переводов").It suggests that translators must understand the social environment.In addition, the communication of the structural characteristics and rhetorical characteristics of the original text, as well as the principles of translation and expression, are also discussed.

In 1934 Translation theorist Smirnov (А.А.Смирнов) made the first proposal of the concept of "equivalent translation" in the term "Soviet Literature Encyclopedia", "translation" (Перевод).The "equivalent translation" here means "conveying the ideological content, feelings, and written structure of the original work", that is, "conveying the full creative intention of the original author". Smirnov suggested that not only can use the direct counterpart of the original in translation but also can use the functional approximation of the original in translation.

(Cai & Duan, 2000: 16)

In 1936, Loginski (М.Л.Лозинский) reported at the first National Conference of Translators, "The Art of the Translation of Poetry" ("Искусство стихотворного перевода"), and pointed out that poetry translation should be the same in aesthetics as the original poetry works, highlighting the equivalent aesthetic function of literary and artistic translation.

'''(In 1936, Loginski (М.Л.Лозинский) delivered a report at the first National Conference of Translators, "The Art of the Translation of Poetry" ("Искусство стихотворного перевода"), and pointed out that poetry translation should be the same in aesthetics as the original poem, highlighting the equivalent aesthetic function of literary and artistic translation. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 17:16, 13 December 2021 (UTC))'''

Also in 1936, Kashkin (И.А.Кашкин) proposed the theory and became the founder of the Soviet theory of realism. His translation method is: translators should try their best to reproduce the objective reality expressed in the original text, rather than words; they should see, experience, and perfectly reproduce the reality in the eyes of the author from behind the original text. He equated the realistic method of translation with the socialist realism in literary creation.In the Soviet Union, he was hailed as "a theorist representing a entire era in the history of Russian translation". He believes that translators should be loyal to the original, to their readers, to reality, and that the three are inseparable. () Kashkin believes that without a theory, translators are just a craftsman, and can never become a translator or artist.

( Kashkin, 1977)
(Cai & Duan, 2000: 25)

Also in 1936, Kashkin (И.А.Кашкин) proposed the theory and became the founder of the Soviet theory of realism. His translation method is: translators should try their best to reproduce the objective reality expressed in the original text, rather than words; they should see, experience, and perfectly reproduce the reality in the eyes of the author from behind the original text. He equated the realistic method of translation with the socialist realism in literary creation.In the Soviet Union, he was hailed as "a theorist representing a entire era in the history of Russian translation". He believes that translators should be loyal to the original, to their readers, to reality, and that the three are inseparable. Kashkin believes that without a theory, translators are just a craftsman, and can never become a translator or artist.

It was worth mentioning that at the beginning of World War II, the discussion of translation theories did not form systematic and comprehensive theory, and they were all carried out from a literary point of view. Only translation of textbooks and translation instructional references were exceptional and were conducted from a linguistic perspective. written by --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:07, 19 December 2021 (UTC)

(Cai & Duan, 2000: 120)

'''(It was worth mentioning that at the beginning of World War II, the discussion of translation theories did not form systematic and comprehensive theory, and they were all carried out from a literary point of view. Only translation of textbooks and translation instructional references were exceptional and were conducted from a linguistic perspective.Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 17:16, 13 December 2021 (UTC))'''

===4.2 History of translation theory development after World War II===
Since the 1950s, a new period of studying translation theory from the perspective of linguistics began. Its main characteristic is to link translation theory with comparative linguistics, and to reveal the law of the two languages based on the comparison of the phenomenon of the two languages.written by --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:12, 19 December 2021 (UTC)

In 1950, "Theory and Methods of Translation Teaching" ("Вопросы теории и методики учебного перевода"), which played a considerable role in the development of translation theory. For example, in Gary Palin(И.Р. Гпльперии) 's article, "Translation and Rhetoric" ("Перевод и стилистика"), shares Shakespeare's original Othello with Morosov’s (М.М.Морозов) translation, noting the similarities and differences between English and Russian in terms of meaning and aesthetic functions. Meanwhile, the book Lezkel(Я.И.Рецкер) ’s article, "On the regularity and correspondence in Russia" ("О закономерных соответствиях при переводе на роднои язык"), divides the language regularity correspondence into three categories: equivalent, approximation and equivalent substitution.These three methods are applied to scientific and technological translation, the translation of political articles, and literary translation.

(Wu, 2006: 325)

1953 Feodorov (А.В.Фёдоров) 's book "An Introduction to the Translation Theory" ("Введение в теорию перевода") was published.The book discusses the translation theory from the perspective of the linguistics theory, and proposes that the translation theory is a branch of the linguistics, and the translation problem can only be solved in the field of linguistics. In addition, the book stipulates the content of the concept of "translation", the object of theoretical research, the content, etc., and discusses the vocabulary issues, grammar issues and stylistic issues of translation, respectively.The book made Feyodorov the founder of the language school of translation theory. In addition, the book received wide attention in the Soviet translation circle, especially the translation teaching circle, but it also caused a heated controversy in the literary and art school of translation theory.

'''(1953 Feodorov (А.В.Фёдоров) 's book "An Introduction to Translation Theory" ("Введение в теорию перевода") was published. The book discusses the translation theory from the perspective of the linguistics theory and proposes that the translation theory is a branch of the linguistics and the translation problem can only be solved in the field of linguistics. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 02:11, 14 December 2021 (UTC))'''

However, translators from the school of literature and art believe that Feodorov studied translation problems almost completely from a linguistic perspective, ignoring that the first thing of literary translation should be involved in the problem of literature and art.

(Wu, 2006: 354)

In 1954, Kashkin put forward in "Methods and Genres of Soviet Literary Translation" ("О методе и школе советского художественного перевода") that the theory of literary translation should be a broad language discipline. That is to say, written by --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:12, 19 December 2021 (UTC)the study of translation and literary problems should be combined.

In 1955 the collection of "Literary Translation" ("Вопросы художественного перевода") questions Feydorov's views, believing that studying translation theory from a linguistic perspective may lead to formalism and word-by-word dead translation in translation practice.

Since then, the Soviet theory of translation has gradually formed two major schools, namely, the school of literature and art and the language school.The two factions had long debated, culminating after the late 1950s and 1960s, with numerous papers and monographs each published."Translation Skills" ("Мастерство перевода"), published by the Soviet Writers Publishing House, focuses on the views of the literary school. The language school is based on the "Translation Worker Notes" ("Тетрадь переводчика") edited by Balhudarov, making comments and summarizing the translation experience.Most belong to the literary school are writers; the language school are linguists and college teachers.

( Kashkin, 1977: 163)

In 1958, Feodorov made some additions and modifications to the original book in the second edition of the Introduction to Translation Theory. Although he also admitted that the problems in the field of translation could not all be explained by linguistic methods, it was correct to study the translation problem from the perspective of linguistics, otherwise, there would be no real theory of translation art.He stressed that literary and artistic translation does have its own characteristics, and should highlight its aesthetic aspects, but literary images are created by language means, and must also be conveyed by another language means. Therefore, the study of translation and theory from the perspective of linguistics is the basis.

(Wu, 2006: 366)

In 1962, the collection of "Translation Theory and Review" ("Теория и критика перевода"), including two groups of translation theorists.Linguist Larin (Б.А.Ларии) In the preface to the collection, "Our Mission" ("Наши задачи"), proposed that the theory of literary translation must be established on the basis of linguistics and literature.He believes that it is impossible not to combine linguistics and literary methods organically, whether in linguistics, rhetoric, or translation theory. Any translation should begin with analysis, and finally finish with literary creation.

1963 Aitkin (Е.Т.Эткин) published the book "Poetry and Translation" ("Поэзии и перевод"), which analyzed and commented on a large number of foreign-language poems translated into Russian language in the early 19th century, concerning the translation of literary and artistic theory.He believes that the linguistic means of poetry translation are closely related to the reproduced artistic characteristics of the original poetry, and the two should not be opposed.In his opinion, translation is like rhetoric, which is both a problem of literature and art and linguistics, because rhetoric is a science of language synonymous, and it belongs to the two fields of linguistics. Ignoring the theory of the form of literary works will actually make the translator helpless.

(Tan，1991: 246)

In 1964, Gachzrazawa (Г.Р.Гачечиладзе) published the book "The Theory of Literary Translation" ("Вопросы теории художественного перевода"), in which he based on Lenin's reaction theory, proposing that the translator directly reflects the original text, namely the artistic reality of the original text, rather than the specific reality directly reflected by the original text.

That same year, Levzin (И.И.Ревзин) and Rosenzwig (В.Ю.Розенцвейг) has published "Principles of General Translation and Machine Translation" ("Основы общего и машинного перевода") to study translation issues from a structural linguistics perspective.It was the first work in the world to combine the concepts and principles of translational theory with the category of structural linguistics.

(Wu, 2006: 430)

In 1968, Feodorov made a new revision and supplement to the new situation, publishing the third edition of the book and renamed "Basic Translation" ("Основы общеи тоерии перевода").The rationale is that this can highlight the basic principles of translation theory —— studies various translation phenomena and various kinds of translation, revealing their commonalities and respective characteristics, comparing from a linguistic perspective.In the book, Feodorov makes it clear that it should never be forgotten that the ultimate task is to establish a common theory of philology.It is now outdated to insist that literary translation is studied only through literature and art, or only through linguistics. Contemporary era is an era of close cooperation between different disciplines. In philology, the distance between the two branches of literature and linguistics is not very large, and its differences are inevitable, but can be overcome, that is to say, the two can be combined all together.

The 1970s were called the "harvest years" of Soviet translation theory, and the debate entered a new stage.

In 1972, Gabriel's book "Literary Translation and Literary Exchange" ("Художественныи перевод и литературные взаимосвязи") can be regarded as a representative work of the school of literature and art, which more comprehensively expounded the translation theory views of the Soviet school of literature and art.Once published, the book immediately aroused widespread response from the Soviet translation theory community.In the book, he pointed out that literary and artistic translation belongs to the category of artistic creation, and studying literary translation from the perspective of linguistics inevitably leads to the dead translation of auxiliary words. As a result, the translation is linguistically correct and low in art. Because from a linguistic point of view, the decisive factor is not the translator's creative attitude towards the original text, but the linguistic correspondence principle.Thus, translation becomes some technical process, not creation. Literary and artistic translation should reproduce the aesthetic value of the original text.

1963 Komizarov (В.Н.Комиссаров) presents its unique theory of "equivalent levels" in his book on translation ("Слово о переводе").According to this theory, the meaning structure of discourse is a complex that can be divided into content, namely the level of language symbols, discourse level, notification structure level, scenario description level and the level of communication purpose.The principle of translation equivalence to the original text should be based on these levels during translation.

(Wu, 2006: 456)

The same year, Shvzel (В.Н.Комиссаров) published the book "Translation and Linguistics" ("Перевод и лингвистика"), suggesting that translation is not only the contact between two language systems, but also between two different cultures, and sometimes between two different civilizations.In addition, he raises questions about the invariant values of the translation function.Shvzel believes that translation functional invariant values include both semantic and grammatical aspects.

'''(The same year, Shvzel (В.Н.Комиссаров) published the book "Translation and Linguistics" ("Перевод и лингвистика"), suggesting that translation is not only the contact between two language systems, but also between two different cultures, and sometimes between two different civilizations.In addition, he raised some questions about the invariant values of the translation function.Shvzel believes that translation functional invariant values include both semantic and grammatical aspects. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 02:11, 14 December 2021 (UTC))'''

In 1974 Lezkel (Я.И.Рецкер) has published the book "Translation Theory and Translation Practice (An Introduction to the Theory of Linguistics of Translation)" ("Теория перевода и переводическая практика - Очерки лингвистическои теории перевода"), which discusses some key issues in the linguistics theory of translation, which are directly related to the translation practice.The book compares the lexical grammar and rhetorical characteristics of English with its functional counterpart in Russian, and reveals the logical semantic basis of using various translation techniques and methods in the translation process.

'''(In 1974 Lezkel (Я.И.Рецкер) published the book "Translation Theory and Translation Practice (An Introduction to the Theory of Linguistics of Translation)" ("Теория перевода и переводическая практика - Очерки лингвистическои теории перевода"), which discusses some key issues in the linguistics theory of translation, which are directly related to the translation practice. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 02:11, 14 December 2021 (UTC))'''

1975 Balhudarov (Л.С.Бархударов) published the book "Language and Translation" ("Язык и перевод"), which aroused widespread response in the Soviet translation community and was considered the representative work of the Soviet language school translation theory in the 1970s. The biggest characteristic of the book is to link the translation theory with the latest achievements in linguistics in the world, and put forward the linguistics theory of translation is comparing discourse linguistics, more specifically, is the semantic discourse in different languages, and the actual segmentation of the sentence is an essential condition of equivalent translation and a series of new arguments. Balhuduff makes it clear that translation changes the speech product of one language to another while keeping the content unchanged, that is, the translator does not deal with the language system, but with the language product.In addition, he discussed translationability, the nature of translation theory, semantics and translation, translation units, and translation methods.

(Balhudarov, 1975: 187)

In 1976, Chernhovskikaya (Л.А.Черняховская) published the book "Translation and the Semantic Structure" ("Перевод и смысловая структура"), the only Soviet work that conveys the logical focus and real semantic segmentation of sentences in translation.

That same year, Levitskaya (Т.Р.Леницкая) and Fejelman (А.М.Фетерман) published the book "translation problem" ("Проблемы перевода"), the book discusses English and Russian due to different vocabulary, grammar, rhetorical structure and the main translation problems, its focus is not the translation process itself and general translation methods and skills, but for the difficulty of English translation into Russian method.

In 1977 Lambimov (Н.М.Любимов) highlighted in "Translation is Art" ("Перевод - искусство") that literary translation is an art that pursues artistic accuracy rather than literal slave-style fidelity.At the same time, it is also proposed that words as language units can only be reflected in, or through words, so the objective reality of language existence is the overall —— discourse of the work. The basic category of translation is the discourse.

And 1978 Venogradov (В.С.Виноградов) pointed out in "The Lexical Problems of Literary Prose Translation" ("Лексические вопросы перевода художественнои прозы") that words are the basic unit of language, so, it is also the starting point of translation.

(Wu, 2006: 359)

In 1978, Komisarov edited and published the collection of "Translation Theory Issues in Foreign Linguistics" ("Вопросы теории перевода в зарубежнои лингвистике"), It fairly fully introduces the state of Western linguists studying translation theory, The book is divided into four themes, Both: the general linguistics problem of translation, Translation equivalent, translation process, Translational linguistics and Translational rhetoric; Translating the relevant discourse of some famous western linguists, For example, Jacobson (R.Jackbcon), one of the founders of the Prague School, British linguist J.R.Firch (J.R.Firch) and others.The influence of this collection is evident from the later writings of translation theorists of the Soviet language school.

In 1980, Komisarov published the book "translation linguistics" ("Лингвистика перевода"), which pointed out that the perspective of linguistics is entering a new stage, turned out to regard the linguistics translation theory as a part of applied linguistics, for the translation practice of service, its focus is on the translation process, its task is to study the linguistics mode of translation and determine the principle of translation. The results of studying translation from the perspective of linguistics show that translation is an integral part of linguistics, and the theoretical analysis of interlanguage communication phenomenon is necessary for the development of linguistics itself. Therefore, translation should be regarded as a special form of language function, which is a special method of its speech practice, and our knowledge of the essence and function of language is incomplete. That is, linguistic analysis of translation can not only serve translation practice, but also promote development of linguistics itself. It is under the guidance of this idea that the book discusses the general linguistics theory of translation, translation semantics, translation linguistics, translation rhetoric, translation mode, translation standards. Therefore, it provides a new perspective for the study of translation theory.

(Cai & Duan, 2000: 20)

In the same year, the Minyal. Bellolluchev (Р.К.Миньяр - Белоручев) published the book "Translation" ("Общая теория перевода и устныи перевод").The book regards translational science as an independent subject on the grounds that it has its own subjects, content and a complete set of terms; thinks that translation research is beyond the scope of linguistics. It written by --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:12, 19 December 2021 (UTC)is a subject of linguistics, psychology, semiotics, sociology intersection, mainly applicable to translation between any two languages; proposes the discourse information theory, the main method of translation and the classification of language means in translation and so on.The book first used the interpretation as a research subject.

'''(In the same year, the Minyal. Bellolluchev (Р.К.Миньяр - Белоручев) published the book "Translation" ("Общая теория перевода и устныи перевод").This book regards translational science as an independent subject on the grounds that it has its own subjects, content and a complete set of terms; Besides, it presents that translation research is beyond the scope of linguistics. It is a subject of linguistics, psychology, semiotics, sociology intersection, mainly applicable to translation between any two languages; And this book also proposed the discourse information theory, the main method of translation and the classification of language means in translation and so on.The book first used the interpretation as a research subject. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 02:11, 14 December 2021 (UTC))'''

In 1981, Ratshev (Л.К.Латышев) published the "Translation Tutorial —— Translation equivalent and achieve the equivalent Method" ("Курс перевода: Эквивалентность перевода и способы ее достижения"), which divided the translation equivalent into formal and functional equivalent two types, and proposed the specific methods to achieve the translation equivalent.

In 1983, Feodorov published the collection of "Translation Art and Literary Life" ("Искусство перевода и жизнь литературы."), indicating from the preface entitled "A Window to Another World" ("Окнов другои мир") that Feodorov partially accepted the other's views through disputes with the school of translation theory and literature.At the same time, he argued that Gaczrazzer greatly limited the role of language in translation, seeing language as mere technical means.

(Cai &Duan, 2000: 22)

In 1985, Lvorskaya (З.Д.Львовская) published the book "Theoretical Issues of Translation"(Теоритическая проблема перевода”), which based on the theory of communicative function, believing that discourse meaning is divided into linguistic and verbal categories. The equivalent of translation is not the absolute invariance of the semantic, pragmatic, and environmental components in the meaning structure, but only the equivalence of pragmatic and environmental components.
The 20th century school of literature in the translation theory of outstanding events is in the journal "literary review" ("Литературное обозрение") continuously on the discussion of translation problem, the content involves: the necessity of the translation theory, how to overcome the two extreme, how to treat the original aesthetics, time color, translation can really convey "the spirit of the original" and the creation of the translator, etc.

In 1988, Shvzzer, a translation theorist of the language school, published the book "Translation Theory: Status, Problems and Face"(“Теория перевода : Статус, проблема, аспекты”). The author combines the latest achievements in linguistics in the field of speech linguistics, sentence semantics, communication linguistics and psychological linguistics, the status of translation theory, the essence of translation, equivalent, similarities, interpretability, translation semantic, language, discourse and translation and other six issues, the language school translation theory research mentioned a new stage.

In 1990, Komisarov's book "Translation Theory (Linguistics)" ("Теория перевода (линвистические вопросы") clearly stated in his preface that translation theory is an important part of the training of future translators. As a textbook, the book aims to introduce the basic principles of translational linguistics theory.
In the 1980s, the Soviet theory of scientific and technological translation developed rapidly, and published a lot of articles and monographs.

(Cai & Duan, 2000: 37)

In all, the Soviet theory of translation has been developed from scratch, from sporadic to systematic, constantly enriched, and constantly deepening step by step.

===5. The Literary School of Translation===
===5.1 Realistic Translation pioneered by E.A.Kashkin===

Kashkin Ivan Alexandrovich - literary critic, translator and critic. He brought up a significant group of translators from the English language. He translated J. Chaucer's The Canterbury Tales (1946, with O. Rumer). Promoter of the best achievements of modern English and American poetry (R. Frost, K. Sandberg) and prose (E. Hemingway, E. Caldwell, J. Wayne, etc.). Aslo, he is the author of historical and literary studies about J. Conrad, L. Stevenson, W. Faulkner, E. Hemingway and others.

Some translators believe that they must obey the "absolute authority" of the original text and translate the original text word by word in order to be completely faithful. Other translators advocate for loyalty to the original text. And Kashkin believes that realism in art is a complex and diverse phenomenon, which is restricted by history. Realism in art is real and poetic. Exactly, to feel and reflect world

( Kashkin, 1977: 177)

In order to accurately convey the ideological content of the original work and creatively reproduce the artistic characteristics and national characteristics of the original work, it must adopt the realistic translation method. The translator must respect the reality of the text and strive to reproduce the objective reality expressed by the text and give it life, not simply copying the text symbols of the original text.

Translators should understand the author of the original text's direct feelings of reality through the barrier of the syntactic structure of a foreign language. Only in this way could he reproduce the original in the same powerful and clear language, as did the original author did. The translator should see the phenomena, thoughts, things, behaviors and conditions through the words of the original work, and specifically reproduce this reality in the eyes of the original author.
Reality in art is the image to reflect the essential characteristics in reality. written by --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:14, 19 December 2021 (UTC)

( Kashkin, 1977: 185)

The truth in literary translation is not a final pursuit that the surface is similar to the original text, nor does it simply copy all the unimportant details.The truth in literary translation is based on the internal logic of the image, and first, to faithfully translate the essence of the original text.The translator should faithfully understand the author's conception and creative intention, and retain the artistic characteristics of the original work, the historical reality and the atmosphere of The Times.

Otherwise, Kashkin believes that there must be a strict distinction between artistic images that should be conveyed and verbal images that occasionally occur in translation.Because language is the basic means of expressing all literature, but the basic task and main difficulty of literary and artistic translation is not to copy the language of the original text, including the language structure elements, but in the artistic reproduction of the original image, considering the differences of the language system.

( Kashkin, 1977: 205)

===5.2 Gaczilaser’s realistic view of translations===

Professor Givi Razhdenovich Gaczilaser is one of the largest specialists in the field of literary translation theory, the author of the famous monograph "The Problem of Realistic Translation", a translator of Shakespeare, Byron, Shelley and other English poets into Georgian. In the book offered to the reader's attention, he continued to develop in depth the theory and practice of literary translation. Proceeding from Lenin's theory of reflection, G. Gachechiladze considers literary translation as a form of cognition, as a creative act that helps the reader approach not only a foreign language work, but also the living reality reflected in this work.
Gaczilaser believes that the principles of literary translation have been swinging between the two extremes.One is word-by-word translation, and the other is artistically equivalent but written away from the original text. He thought it would be easy to combine the two principles, but it was impossible in practice. Because different means of expressing ideas are very different languages, word-by-word translation and artistic quality are always contradictory.

If the translator is limited to the original and not to reproduce what the author sees in the imagination, he is not a creative person. The translator should take the author's thoughts as the starting point, the original text serve the deep understanding of artistic reality. The translator should see the real life reflected in the original work behind the artistic reality, and it is not to create his own work.Realistic translation method refers to realists following the law of realistic art, reflecting the artistic reality of the original, and consistent with the original, more specifically, rhetorical consistency, only help to achieve linguistic loyalty, but should not let this affect their own will. Loyal to the author's artistic truth is the goal of the realistic translator.The artistic reality of the original includes both content and form, and even the unity of form and content.

(Gaczilaser, 1964: 120)

It is undoubtedly correct to compare the two language systems in the translation process.However, this contrast has certain limitations, as each language has its characteristic means of rhetoric.Just as there is no unified language, there is no unified rhetoric of all languages, nor the unified grammar of all languages. The application of rhetorical rules to any specific language would rise to a national, independent rhetorical system. Thus, the rhetorical rule can only be judged based on the character of some language.

===6. The Linguistic School Translation===
===6.1 Balhuadov’s Translation Concept===

Balhuarov was a famous translation theorist in the Soviet Union in the 20th century, one of the representatives of the language school and a doctor of Soviet philology, and has been engaged in translation teaching and translation theory research for many years. It is represented as the Language and Translation ("Язык и перевод").

From the perspective of the research subjects of the translation theory, Balhudav believes that the task of the linguistics theory of the translation is to pattern the translation process and put forward some scientific diagram for the translation process, which can more accurately reflect the important aspects of this process. In the view, on the one hand, translation theory, like any other theoretical model, reflects only some of the most important features of its subjects, rather than all features. Translation theory studies not all the relationship between the original language and the translation language, but the regular relationship between the two, that is, the typical and recurrent correspondence.On the other hand, translation theory, like any other discipline theory, stipulates not only a pattern, but many patterns that reflect the translation process in different ways as well as various characteristics.

(Balhudarov, 1975: 250)

From the essence of translation, Balhuudaf believes that translation is the process of converting a speech product into another language while keeping the content level (i. e., meaning) unchanged. Among them, the term “meaning” refers to the various relationships of language units. Translation is a process of changing one language discourse into another language discourse. The object of translation is not a language system, but a discourse.For translation, it is not the equivalent of the individual word, but the equivalent of the full text.Thus, the semantic differences between the two languages are not an insurmountable barrier in translation.
In addition, from the discussion of semantic problems of translation, Balhudv believes that the semantic problem of translation must be studied and conveyed from three aspects: meaning, pragmatic meaning and internal meaning.But on semantic issues, he presented no substantive content, with similar views mentioned by Jackson and Nida et al. in the late 1920s and early 1960s.But Balhudaf's interpretation is more detailed and fulfilling, and more generalized in some places.

Balhudaf also establishes equivalent translation from six levels: phonemic, phoneme, word, phrase, sentence, and discourse layer. The six levels are applied more systematically to translation theory.

(Balhudarov, 1975: 255)

===7. Conclusion ===

To sum up, by introducing the historical evolution of the development of translation theory in the Soviet Union, we and the representatives of the school of translation literature and art and the translation language school can draw the following conclusions:

First of all, the developmental foundation of the Soviet translation theory was weak. At the beginning of World War II, the discussion of translation theory wasn’t systematic and comprehensive and they were all carried out from the perspective of literature and art. Only translation textbooks and translation instructional references are exceptional and are conducted from a linguistic perspective .After World War II, the Soviet Union began a new period of studying the translation theory from the perspective of linguistics. Its main feature was to connect translation theory with comparative linguistics, and to reveal the correspondence of the two languages on the basis of comparing the two languages.written by --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:15, 19 December 2021 (UTC)

(Cai & Duan, 2000: 168)

(Wu, 2006: 325)

Secondly, from the perspective of the literary school of translation, Kashkin, the theorist of translation, founded the realistic concept of translation, believing that the translation should pay attention to understanding the feelings of the original author, and believing that we must strictly distinguish the artistic image that should be conveyed and the occasional language image in the translation. Translation theorist Gaczirze believes that the principles of literary translation have been swinging between the two extremes. One is word-by-word translation, and the other is artistically equivalent but written away from the original text. He thought it would be easy to combine the two principles, but it was impossible in practice.

Thirdly, from the perspective of the language school of translation, the translation theorist Balhudarov believes that the task of the linguistics theory of translation is to pattern the translation process and put forward some scientific diagram for the translation process, which can more accurately reflect the important aspects of this process.He made great contributions to the linguistic school of translation.

(Wu, 2006: 325)

All in all, the translation theory of the Soviet period has its own unique development path. The Soviet translation theorists in this period made great contributions to the history of Soviet translation, also, the translation theory of the Soviet period became an indispensable part of the world translation theory map.

===8. References ===

Cai, Yi 蔡毅，Duan,Jinghua, 段京华. Translation Studies in USSR苏联翻译理论.湖北教育出版社，2000

Liu Miqing刘宓庆，Translation Basics 翻译基础.上海.华东师范大学出版社，2008

Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜.Translation Studies 翻译学.复旦大学出版社，2017

Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜.History of Western Translation 西方翻译简史.北京.商务印书馆，1991

Wu, Keli 吴克礼.The Translation Methods and Studies in USSR 俄苏翻译理论流派综述. 上海外语教育出版社，2006

Xu, Jun 许均. Translation Theories 翻译论. 湖北教育出版社，2003

Balhudarov Бархударов Л.С. Language and Translation: Collation said Partial theory of Translation Язык и перевод: Вопросы общей и частной теории перевода, Международные отношения, 1975

Gaczilaser Гиви Гачечиладзе. Problems of Literary Theory Вопросы теории художественного перевода. Тбилиси: Литература да хлебовнеба, 1964

Kashkin Иван Кашкин. Articles and Studies Статьи и исследования. Москва. Советский писатель, 1977

--[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 08:41, 12 December 2021 (UTC)

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=Chapter 13 History of Translation Theories in the Soviet Union=
===苏联时期的翻译理论史===
Wu Jingyue 吴婧悦 Hunan Normal University

===1. Abstract===
As is well known, the history of the Soviet period and discusse the characteristics of the Soviet translation theory. written by --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:02, 19 December 2021 (UTC) Firstly, we discuss about the overall situation of the development of the Soviet period, the history of the Soviet period and discusses the characteristics of the Soviet translation theory. Finally, we introduce the famous translation theorist like: S. G. Barkhudarov (С. Г. Бархуда́ров) and I. A. Kashkin (И. А. Кашки́н) and so on.

===摘要===
众所周知，苏联的翻译理论在世界翻译理论中占有十分突出的地位。本文首先从苏联时期翻译理论发展的整体状况出发，对苏联时期翻译发展史进行梳理；探讨了苏联翻译理论发展的特色；最后向读者介绍了著名翻译理论家S. G. Barkhudarov (С. Г. Бархуда́ров) 以及I. A. Kashkin (И. А. Кашки́н) 等人的翻译理论。written by --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:18, 19 December 2021 (UTC)

===2. Key words===
Translation theories, Western translation theories, Soviet Translation theories

===关键词===
翻译理论；西方翻译理论；苏联时期翻译理论

===3. Introduction===
The Soviet translation theory play a pivotal role in the world translation theory. written by --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:04, 19 December 2021 (UTC)This paper firstly introduces the historical evolution of the development of the Soviet translation theory, which divides the Soviet Union into two periods: the development history of translation theory before World War II and the development history of translation theory after World War II. In introducing the history of translation theory before World War II, the source of the history of Soviet translation theory, the development of Soviet translation theory, namely linguistics and the contribution of Kamisarov, Liubimov and others.Secondly, the representatives of the translation literature and art school and the translation language school are introduced specifically.When introducing the school of translation literature, the views of translator Kashkin and Gachzzeraz are introduced; in introducing the language school of translation, they are mainly introduced.

===4. The evolution of Translation Theories in the Soviet Union.===
===4.1 History of translation theory development before World War II===
The Soviet translation theory occupies a very prominent position in the world translation theory.The Soviet study of translation theory began shortly after the October Revolution, began with literary translation.

In 1918, Gorky (А.М.Горький) founded the World Literature Press (Издательство "Всемирная литература") in conjunction with the help of Lenin(В.И.Ленин). The publisher's task is to introduce world classics, improve the translation art, and train translators.At this stage, nearly 100 professors and writers attended the work.In order to unify the thinking, discuss the theory of literary translation, and stipulate some clear rules, Gorky handed the burden to Chukowsky(К.И.Чуковский). Therefore, after making a lot of efforts, Chukowski wrote the book "The Principles of Literary Translation--written by [[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:07, 19 December 2021 (UTC)("Прицины художественного перевода") in 1919.He first proposed that the translator of the novel should be an artist and a master of language.Chukowski believed that a good translation can reproduce the artistic characteristics of the original text in vivid and rich Russian.But at that time, there was a very popular view in literary and theoretical criticism that translation was essentially impossible work.

(Cai & Duan, 2000: 5)

In 1930, The Principles of Literary Translation was collected in Chukowski's "The Art of Translation" ("Искусство переводов").It suggests that translators must understand the social environment.In addition, the communication of the structural characteristics and rhetorical characteristics of the original text, as well as the principles of translation and expression, are also discussed.

In 1934 Translation theorist Smirnov (А.А.Смирнов) made the first proposal of the concept of "equivalent translation" in the term "Soviet Literature Encyclopedia", "translation" (Перевод).The "equivalent translation" here means "conveying the ideological content, feelings, and written structure of the original work", that is, "conveying the full creative intention of the original author". Smirnov suggested that not only can use the direct counterpart of the original in translation but also can use the functional approximation of the original in translation.

(Cai & Duan, 2000: 16)

In 1936, Loginski (М.Л.Лозинский) reported at the first National Conference of Translators, "The Art of the Translation of Poetry" ("Искусство стихотворного перевода"), and pointed out that poetry translation should be the same in aesthetics as the original poetry works, highlighting the equivalent aesthetic function of literary and artistic translation.

'''(In 1936, Loginski (М.Л.Лозинский) delivered a report at the first National Conference of Translators, "The Art of the Translation of Poetry" ("Искусство стихотворного перевода"), and pointed out that poetry translation should be the same in aesthetics as the original poem, highlighting the equivalent aesthetic function of literary and artistic translation. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 17:16, 13 December 2021 (UTC))'''

Also in 1936, Kashkin (И.А.Кашкин) proposed the theory and became the founder of the Soviet theory of realism. His translation method is: translators should try their best to reproduce the objective reality expressed in the original text, rather than words; they should see, experience, and perfectly reproduce the reality in the eyes of the author from behind the original text. He equated the realistic method of translation with the socialist realism in literary creation.In the Soviet Union, he was hailed as "a theorist representing a entire era in the history of Russian translation". He believes that translators should be loyal to the original, to their readers, to reality, and that the three are inseparable. () Kashkin believes that without a theory, translators are just a craftsman, and can never become a translator or artist.

( Kashkin, 1977)
(Cai & Duan, 2000: 25)

Also in 1936, Kashkin (И.А.Кашкин) proposed the theory and became the founder of the Soviet theory of realism. His translation method is: translators should try their best to reproduce the objective reality expressed in the original text, rather than words; they should see, experience, and perfectly reproduce the reality in the eyes of the author from behind the original text. He equated the realistic method of translation with the socialist realism in literary creation.In the Soviet Union, he was hailed as "a theorist representing a entire era in the history of Russian translation". He believes that translators should be loyal to the original, to their readers, to reality, and that the three are inseparable. Kashkin believes that without a theory, translators are just a craftsman, and can never become a translator or artist.

'''( His translation methods are: translators should try their best to show the objective reality expressed in the original text, instead of focuing on translating words by words; they should see, experience, and perfectly reproduce the reality in the eyes of the author of the original text.Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 17:16, 13 December 2021 (UTC))'''

It was worth mentioning that at the beginning of World War II, the discussion of translation theories did not form systematic and comprehensive theory, and they were all carried out from a literary point of view. Only translation of textbooks and translation instructional references were exceptional and were conducted from a linguistic perspective. written by --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:07, 19 December 2021 (UTC)

(Cai & Duan, 2000: 120)

'''(It was worth mentioning that at the beginning of World War II, the discussion of translation theories did not form systematic and comprehensive theory, and they were all carried out from a literary point of view. Only translation of textbooks and translation instructional references were exceptional and were conducted from a linguistic perspective.Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 17:16, 13 December 2021 (UTC))'''

===4.2 History of translation theory development after World War II===
Since the 1950s, a new period of studying translation theory from the perspective of linguistics began. Its main characteristic is to link translation theory with comparative linguistics, and to reveal the law of the two languages based on the comparison of the phenomenon of the two languages.written by --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:12, 19 December 2021 (UTC)

In 1950, "Theory and Methods of Translation Teaching" ("Вопросы теории и методики учебного перевода"), which played a considerable role in the development of translation theory. For example, in Gary Palin(И.Р. Гпльперии) 's article, "Translation and Rhetoric" ("Перевод и стилистика"), shares Shakespeare's original Othello with Morosov’s (М.М.Морозов) translation, noting the similarities and differences between English and Russian in terms of meaning and aesthetic functions. Meanwhile, the book Lezkel(Я.И.Рецкер) ’s article, "On the regularity and correspondence in Russia" ("О закономерных соответствиях при переводе на роднои язык"), divides the language regularity correspondence into three categories: equivalent, approximation and equivalent substitution.These three methods are applied to scientific and technological translation, the translation of political articles, and literary translation.

(Wu, 2006: 325)

1953 Feodorov (А.В.Фёдоров) 's book "An Introduction to the Translation Theory" ("Введение в теорию перевода") was published.The book discusses the translation theory from the perspective of the linguistics theory, and proposes that the translation theory is a branch of the linguistics, and the translation problem can only be solved in the field of linguistics. In addition, the book stipulates the content of the concept of "translation", the object of theoretical research, the content, etc., and discusses the vocabulary issues, grammar issues and stylistic issues of translation, respectively.The book made Feyodorov the founder of the language school of translation theory. In addition, the book received wide attention in the Soviet translation circle, especially the translation teaching circle, but it also caused a heated controversy in the literary and art school of translation theory.

'''(1953 Feodorov (А.В.Фёдоров) 's book "An Introduction to Translation Theory" ("Введение в теорию перевода") was published. The book discusses the translation theory from the perspective of the linguistics theory and proposes that the translation theory is a branch of the linguistics and the translation problem can only be solved in the field of linguistics. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 02:11, 14 December 2021 (UTC))'''

However, translators from the school of literature and art believe that Feodorov studied translation problems almost completely from a linguistic perspective, ignoring that the first thing of literary translation should be involved in the problem of literature and art.

(Wu, 2006: 354)

In 1954, Kashkin put forward in "Methods and Genres of Soviet Literary Translation" ("О методе и школе советского художественного перевода") that the theory of literary translation should be a broad language discipline. That is to say, written by --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:12, 19 December 2021 (UTC)the study of translation and literary problems should be combined.

In 1955 the collection of "Literary Translation" ("Вопросы художественного перевода") questions Feydorov's views, believing that studying translation theory from a linguistic perspective may lead to formalism and word-by-word dead translation in translation practice.

Since then, the Soviet theory of translation has gradually formed two major schools, namely, the school of literature and art and the language school.The two factions had long debated, culminating after the late 1950s and 1960s, with numerous papers and monographs each published."Translation Skills" ("Мастерство перевода"), published by the Soviet Writers Publishing House, focuses on the views of the literary school. The language school is based on the "Translation Worker Notes" ("Тетрадь переводчика") edited by Balhudarov, making comments and summarizing the translation experience.Most belong to the literary school are writers; the language school are linguists and college teachers.

( Kashkin, 1977: 163)

In 1958, Feodorov made some additions and modifications to the original book in the second edition of the Introduction to Translation Theory. Although he also admitted that the problems in the field of translation could not all be explained by linguistic methods, it was correct to study the translation problem from the perspective of linguistics, otherwise, there would be no real theory of translation art.He stressed that literary and artistic translation does have its own characteristics, and should highlight its aesthetic aspects, but literary images are created by language means, and must also be conveyed by another language means. Therefore, the study of translation and theory from the perspective of linguistics is the basis.

(Wu, 2006: 366)

In 1962, the collection of "Translation Theory and Review" ("Теория и критика перевода"), including two groups of translation theorists.Linguist Larin (Б.А.Ларии) In the preface to the collection, "Our Mission" ("Наши задачи"), proposed that the theory of literary translation must be established on the basis of linguistics and literature.He believes that it is impossible not to combine linguistics and literary methods organically, whether in linguistics, rhetoric, or translation theory. Any translation should begin with analysis, and finally finish with literary creation.

1963 Aitkin (Е.Т.Эткин) published the book "Poetry and Translation" ("Поэзии и перевод"), which analyzed and commented on a large number of foreign-language poems translated into Russian language in the early 19th century, concerning the translation of literary and artistic theory.He believes that the linguistic means of poetry translation are closely related to the reproduced artistic characteristics of the original poetry, and the two should not be opposed.In his opinion, translation is like rhetoric, which is both a problem of literature and art and linguistics, because rhetoric is a science of language synonymous, and it belongs to the two fields of linguistics. Ignoring the theory of the form of literary works will actually make the translator helpless.

(Tan，1991: 246)

In 1964, Gachzrazawa (Г.Р.Гачечиладзе) published the book "The Theory of Literary Translation" ("Вопросы теории художественного перевода"), in which he based on Lenin's reaction theory, proposing that the translator directly reflects the original text, namely the artistic reality of the original text, rather than the specific reality directly reflected by the original text.

That same year, Levzin (И.И.Ревзин) and Rosenzwig (В.Ю.Розенцвейг) has published "Principles of General Translation and Machine Translation" ("Основы общего и машинного перевода") to study translation issues from a structural linguistics perspective.It was the first work in the world to combine the concepts and principles of translational theory with the category of structural linguistics.

(Wu, 2006: 430)

In 1968, Feodorov made a new revision and supplement to the new situation, publishing the third edition of the book and renamed "Basic Translation" ("Основы общеи тоерии перевода").The rationale is that this can highlight the basic principles of translation theory —— studies various translation phenomena and various kinds of translation, revealing their commonalities and respective characteristics, comparing from a linguistic perspective.In the book, Feodorov makes it clear that it should never be forgotten that the ultimate task is to establish a common theory of philology.It is now outdated to insist that literary translation is studied only through literature and art, or only through linguistics. Contemporary era is an era of close cooperation between different disciplines. In philology, the distance between the two branches of literature and linguistics is not very large, and its differences are inevitable, but can be overcome, that is to say, the two can be combined all together.

The 1970s were called the "harvest years" of Soviet translation theory, and the debate entered a new stage.

In 1972, Gabriel's book "Literary Translation and Literary Exchange" ("Художественныи перевод и литературные взаимосвязи") can be regarded as a representative work of the school of literature and art, which more comprehensively expounded the translation theory views of the Soviet school of literature and art.Once published, the book immediately aroused widespread response from the Soviet translation theory community.In the book, he pointed out that literary and artistic translation belongs to the category of artistic creation, and studying literary translation from the perspective of linguistics inevitably leads to the dead translation of auxiliary words. As a result, the translation is linguistically correct and low in art. Because from a linguistic point of view, the decisive factor is not the translator's creative attitude towards the original text, but the linguistic correspondence principle.Thus, translation becomes some technical process, not creation. Literary and artistic translation should reproduce the aesthetic value of the original text.

1963 Komizarov (В.Н.Комиссаров) presents its unique theory of "equivalent levels" in his book on translation ("Слово о переводе").According to this theory, the meaning structure of discourse is a complex that can be divided into content, namely the level of language symbols, discourse level, notification structure level, scenario description level and the level of communication purpose.The principle of translation equivalence to the original text should be based on these levels during translation.

(Wu, 2006: 456)

The same year, Shvzel (В.Н.Комиссаров) published the book "Translation and Linguistics" ("Перевод и лингвистика"), suggesting that translation is not only the contact between two language systems, but also between two different cultures, and sometimes between two different civilizations.In addition, he raises questions about the invariant values of the translation function.Shvzel believes that translation functional invariant values include both semantic and grammatical aspects.

'''(The same year, Shvzel (В.Н.Комиссаров) published the book "Translation and Linguistics" ("Перевод и лингвистика"), suggesting that translation is not only the contact between two language systems, but also between two different cultures, and sometimes between two different civilizations.In addition, he raised some questions about the invariant values of the translation function.Shvzel believes that translation functional invariant values include both semantic and grammatical aspects. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 02:11, 14 December 2021 (UTC))'''

In 1974 Lezkel (Я.И.Рецкер) has published the book "Translation Theory and Translation Practice (An Introduction to the Theory of Linguistics of Translation)" ("Теория перевода и переводическая практика - Очерки лингвистическои теории перевода"), which discusses some key issues in the linguistics theory of translation, which are directly related to the translation practice.The book compares the lexical grammar and rhetorical characteristics of English with its functional counterpart in Russian, and reveals the logical semantic basis of using various translation techniques and methods in the translation process.

'''(In 1974 Lezkel (Я.И.Рецкер) published the book "Translation Theory and Translation Practice (An Introduction to the Theory of Linguistics of Translation)" ("Теория перевода и переводическая практика - Очерки лингвистическои теории перевода"), which discusses some key issues in the linguistics theory of translation, which are directly related to the translation practice. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 02:11, 14 December 2021 (UTC))'''

1975 Balhudarov (Л.С.Бархударов) published the book "Language and Translation" ("Язык и перевод"), which aroused widespread response in the Soviet translation community and was considered the representative work of the Soviet language school translation theory in the 1970s. The biggest characteristic of the book is to link the translation theory with the latest achievements in linguistics in the world, and put forward the linguistics theory of translation is comparing discourse linguistics, more specifically, is the semantic discourse in different languages, and the actual segmentation of the sentence is an essential condition of equivalent translation and a series of new arguments. Balhuduff makes it clear that translation changes the speech product of one language to another while keeping the content unchanged, that is, the translator does not deal with the language system, but with the language product.In addition, he discussed translationability, the nature of translation theory, semantics and translation, translation units, and translation methods.

(Balhudarov, 1975: 187)

In 1976, Chernhovskikaya (Л.А.Черняховская) published the book "Translation and the Semantic Structure" ("Перевод и смысловая структура"), the only Soviet work that conveys the logical focus and real semantic segmentation of sentences in translation.

That same year, Levitskaya (Т.Р.Леницкая) and Fejelman (А.М.Фетерман) published the book "translation problem" ("Проблемы перевода"), the book discusses English and Russian due to different vocabulary, grammar, rhetorical structure and the main translation problems, its focus is not the translation process itself and general translation methods and skills, but for the difficulty of English translation into Russian method.

In 1977 Lambimov (Н.М.Любимов) highlighted in "Translation is Art" ("Перевод - искусство") that literary translation is an art that pursues artistic accuracy rather than literal slave-style fidelity.At the same time, it is also proposed that words as language units can only be reflected in, or through words, so the objective reality of language existence is the overall —— discourse of the work. The basic category of translation is the discourse.

And 1978 Venogradov (В.С.Виноградов) pointed out in "The Lexical Problems of Literary Prose Translation" ("Лексические вопросы перевода художественнои прозы") that words are the basic unit of language, so, it is also the starting point of translation.

(Wu, 2006: 359)

In 1978, Komisarov edited and published the collection of "Translation Theory Issues in Foreign Linguistics" ("Вопросы теории перевода в зарубежнои лингвистике"), It fairly fully introduces the state of Western linguists studying translation theory, The book is divided into four themes, Both: the general linguistics problem of translation, Translation equivalent, translation process, Translational linguistics and Translational rhetoric; Translating the relevant discourse of some famous western linguists, For example, Jacobson (R.Jackbcon), one of the founders of the Prague School, British linguist J.R.Firch (J.R.Firch) and others.The influence of this collection is evident from the later writings of translation theorists of the Soviet language school.

In 1980, Komisarov published the book "translation linguistics" ("Лингвистика перевода"), which pointed out that the perspective of linguistics is entering a new stage, turned out to regard the linguistics translation theory as a part of applied linguistics, for the translation practice of service, its focus is on the translation process, its task is to study the linguistics mode of translation and determine the principle of translation. The results of studying translation from the perspective of linguistics show that translation is an integral part of linguistics, and the theoretical analysis of interlanguage communication phenomenon is necessary for the development of linguistics itself. Therefore, translation should be regarded as a special form of language function, which is a special method of its speech practice, and our knowledge of the essence and function of language is incomplete. That is, linguistic analysis of translation can not only serve translation practice, but also promote development of linguistics itself. It is under the guidance of this idea that the book discusses the general linguistics theory of translation, translation semantics, translation linguistics, translation rhetoric, translation mode, translation standards. Therefore, it provides a new perspective for the study of translation theory.

(Cai & Duan, 2000: 20)

In the same year, the Minyal. Bellolluchev (Р.К.Миньяр - Белоручев) published the book "Translation" ("Общая теория перевода и устныи перевод").The book regards translational science as an independent subject on the grounds that it has its own subjects, content and a complete set of terms; thinks that translation research is beyond the scope of linguistics. It written by --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:12, 19 December 2021 (UTC)is a subject of linguistics, psychology, semiotics, sociology intersection, mainly applicable to translation between any two languages; proposes the discourse information theory, the main method of translation and the classification of language means in translation and so on.The book first used the interpretation as a research subject.

'''(In the same year, the Minyal. Bellolluchev (Р.К.Миньяр - Белоручев) published the book "Translation" ("Общая теория перевода и устныи перевод").This book regards translational science as an independent subject on the grounds that it has its own subjects, content and a complete set of terms; Besides, it presents that translation research is beyond the scope of linguistics. It is a subject of linguistics, psychology, semiotics, sociology intersection, mainly applicable to translation between any two languages; And this book also proposed the discourse information theory, the main method of translation and the classification of language means in translation and so on.The book first used the interpretation as a research subject. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 02:11, 14 December 2021 (UTC))'''

In 1981, Ratshev (Л.К.Латышев) published the "Translation Tutorial —— Translation equivalent and achieve the equivalent Method" ("Курс перевода: Эквивалентность перевода и способы ее достижения"), which divided the translation equivalent into formal and functional equivalent two types, and proposed the specific methods to achieve the translation equivalent.

In 1983, Feodorov published the collection of "Translation Art and Literary Life" ("Искусство перевода и жизнь литературы."), indicating from the preface entitled "A Window to Another World" ("Окнов другои мир") that Feodorov partially accepted the other's views through disputes with the school of translation theory and literature.At the same time, he argued that Gaczrazzer greatly limited the role of language in translation, seeing language as mere technical means.

(Cai &Duan, 2000: 22)

In 1985, Lvorskaya (З.Д.Львовская) published the book "Theoretical Issues of Translation"(Теоритическая проблема перевода”), which based on the theory of communicative function, believing that discourse meaning is divided into linguistic and verbal categories. The equivalent of translation is not the absolute invariance of the semantic, pragmatic, and environmental components in the meaning structure, but only the equivalence of pragmatic and environmental components.
The 20th century school of literature in the translation theory of outstanding events is in the journal "literary review" ("Литературное обозрение") continuously on the discussion of translation problem, the content involves: the necessity of the translation theory, how to overcome the two extreme, how to treat the original aesthetics, time color, translation can really convey "the spirit of the original" and the creation of the translator, etc.

In 1988, Shvzzer, a translation theorist of the language school, published the book "Translation Theory: Status, Problems and Face"(“Теория перевода : Статус, проблема, аспекты”). The author combines the latest achievements in linguistics in the field of speech linguistics, sentence semantics, communication linguistics and psychological linguistics, the status of translation theory, the essence of translation, equivalent, similarities, interpretability, translation semantic, language, discourse and translation and other six issues, the language school translation theory research mentioned a new stage.

In 1990, Komisarov's book "Translation Theory (Linguistics)" ("Теория перевода (линвистические вопросы") clearly stated in his preface that translation theory is an important part of the training of future translators. As a textbook, the book aims to introduce the basic principles of translational linguistics theory.
In the 1980s, the Soviet theory of scientific and technological translation developed rapidly, and published a lot of articles and monographs.

(Cai & Duan, 2000: 37)

In all, the Soviet theory of translation has been developed from scratch, from sporadic to systematic, constantly enriched, and constantly deepening step by step.

===5. The Literary School of Translation===
===5.1 Realistic Translation pioneered by E.A.Kashkin===

Kashkin Ivan Alexandrovich - literary critic, translator and critic. He brought up a significant group of translators from the English language. He translated J. Chaucer's The Canterbury Tales (1946, with O. Rumer). Promoter of the best achievements of modern English and American poetry (R. Frost, K. Sandberg) and prose (E. Hemingway, E. Caldwell, J. Wayne, etc.). Aslo, he is the author of historical and literary studies about J. Conrad, L. Stevenson, W. Faulkner, E. Hemingway and others.

Some translators believe that they must obey the "absolute authority" of the original text and translate the original text word by word in order to be completely faithful. Other translators advocate for loyalty to the original text. And Kashkin believes that realism in art is a complex and diverse phenomenon, which is restricted by history. Realism in art is real and poetic. Exactly, to feel and reflect world

( Kashkin, 1977: 177)

In order to accurately convey the ideological content of the original work and creatively reproduce the artistic characteristics and national characteristics of the original work, it must adopt the realistic translation method. The translator must respect the reality of the text and strive to reproduce the objective reality expressed by the text and give it life, not simply copying the text symbols of the original text.

Translators should understand the author of the original text's direct feelings of reality through the barrier of the syntactic structure of a foreign language. Only in this way could he reproduce the original in the same powerful and clear language, as did the original author did. The translator should see the phenomena, thoughts, things, behaviors and conditions through the words of the original work, and specifically reproduce this reality in the eyes of the original author.
Reality in art is the image to reflect the essential characteristics in reality. written by --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:14, 19 December 2021 (UTC)

( Kashkin, 1977: 185)

The truth in literary translation is not a final pursuit that the surface is similar to the original text, nor does it simply copy all the unimportant details.The truth in literary translation is based on the internal logic of the image, and first, to faithfully translate the essence of the original text.The translator should faithfully understand the author's conception and creative intention, and retain the artistic characteristics of the original work, the historical reality and the atmosphere of The Times.

Otherwise, Kashkin believes that there must be a strict distinction between artistic images that should be conveyed and verbal images that occasionally occur in translation.Because language is the basic means of expressing all literature, but the basic task and main difficulty of literary and artistic translation is not to copy the language of the original text, including the language structure elements, but in the artistic reproduction of the original image, considering the differences of the language system.

( Kashkin, 1977: 205)

===5.2 Gaczilaser’s realistic view of translations===

Professor Givi Razhdenovich Gaczilaser is one of the largest specialists in the field of literary translation theory, the author of the famous monograph "The Problem of Realistic Translation", a translator of Shakespeare, Byron, Shelley and other English poets into Georgian. In the book offered to the reader's attention, he continued to develop in depth the theory and practice of literary translation. Proceeding from Lenin's theory of reflection, G. Gachechiladze considers literary translation as a form of cognition, as a creative act that helps the reader approach not only a foreign language work, but also the living reality reflected in this work.
Gaczilaser believes that the principles of literary translation have been swinging between the two extremes.One is word-by-word translation, and the other is artistically equivalent but written away from the original text. He thought it would be easy to combine the two principles, but it was impossible in practice. Because different means of expressing ideas are very different languages, word-by-word translation and artistic quality are always contradictory.

If the translator is limited to the original and not to reproduce what the author sees in the imagination, he is not a creative person. The translator should take the author's thoughts as the starting point, the original text serve the deep understanding of artistic reality. The translator should see the real life reflected in the original work behind the artistic reality, and it is not to create his own work.Realistic translation method refers to realists following the law of realistic art, reflecting the artistic reality of the original, and consistent with the original, more specifically, rhetorical consistency, only help to achieve linguistic loyalty, but should not let this affect their own will. Loyal to the author's artistic truth is the goal of the realistic translator.The artistic reality of the original includes both content and form, and even the unity of form and content.

(Gaczilaser, 1964: 120)

It is undoubtedly correct to compare the two language systems in the translation process.However, this contrast has certain limitations, as each language has its characteristic means of rhetoric.Just as there is no unified language, there is no unified rhetoric of all languages, nor the unified grammar of all languages. The application of rhetorical rules to any specific language would rise to a national, independent rhetorical system. Thus, the rhetorical rule can only be judged based on the character of some language.

===6. The Linguistic School Translation===
===6.1 Balhuadov’s Translation Concept===

Balhuarov was a famous translation theorist in the Soviet Union in the 20th century, one of the representatives of the language school and a doctor of Soviet philology, and has been engaged in translation teaching and translation theory research for many years. It is represented as the Language and Translation ("Язык и перевод").

From the perspective of the research subjects of the translation theory, Balhudav believes that the task of the linguistics theory of the translation is to pattern the translation process and put forward some scientific diagram for the translation process, which can more accurately reflect the important aspects of this process. In the view, on the one hand, translation theory, like any other theoretical model, reflects only some of the most important features of its subjects, rather than all features. Translation theory studies not all the relationship between the original language and the translation language, but the regular relationship between the two, that is, the typical and recurrent correspondence.On the other hand, translation theory, like any other discipline theory, stipulates not only a pattern, but many patterns that reflect the translation process in different ways as well as various characteristics.

(Balhudarov, 1975: 250)

From the essence of translation, Balhuudaf believes that translation is the process of converting a speech product into another language while keeping the content level (i. e., meaning) unchanged. Among them, the term “meaning” refers to the various relationships of language units. Translation is a process of changing one language discourse into another language discourse. The object of translation is not a language system, but a discourse.For translation, it is not the equivalent of the individual word, but the equivalent of the full text.Thus, the semantic differences between the two languages are not an insurmountable barrier in translation.
In addition, from the discussion of semantic problems of translation, Balhudv believes that the semantic problem of translation must be studied and conveyed from three aspects: meaning, pragmatic meaning and internal meaning.But on semantic issues, he presented no substantive content, with similar views mentioned by Jackson and Nida et al. in the late 1920s and early 1960s.But Balhudaf's interpretation is more detailed and fulfilling, and more generalized in some places.

Balhudaf also establishes equivalent translation from six levels: phonemic, phoneme, word, phrase, sentence, and discourse layer. The six levels are applied more systematically to translation theory.

(Balhudarov, 1975: 255)

===7. Conclusion ===

To sum up, by introducing the historical evolution of the development of translation theory in the Soviet Union, we and the representatives of the school of translation literature and art and the translation language school can draw the following conclusions:

First of all, the developmental foundation of the Soviet translation theory was weak. At the beginning of World War II, the discussion of translation theory wasn’t systematic and comprehensive and they were all carried out from the perspective of literature and art. Only translation textbooks and translation instructional references are exceptional and are conducted from a linguistic perspective .After World War II, the Soviet Union began a new period of studying the translation theory from the perspective of linguistics. Its main feature was to connect translation theory with comparative linguistics, and to reveal the correspondence of the two languages on the basis of comparing the two languages.written by --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:15, 19 December 2021 (UTC)

(Cai & Duan, 2000: 168)

(Wu, 2006: 325)

Secondly, from the perspective of the literary school of translation, Kashkin, the theorist of translation, founded the realistic concept of translation, believing that the translation should pay attention to understanding the feelings of the original author, and believing that we must strictly distinguish the artistic image that should be conveyed and the occasional language image in the translation. Translation theorist Gaczirze believes that the principles of literary translation have been swinging between the two extremes. One is word-by-word translation, and the other is artistically equivalent but written away from the original text. He thought it would be easy to combine the two principles, but it was impossible in practice.

Thirdly, from the perspective of the language school of translation, the translation theorist Balhudarov believes that the task of the linguistics theory of translation is to pattern the translation process and put forward some scientific diagram for the translation process, which can more accurately reflect the important aspects of this process.He made great contributions to the linguistic school of translation.

(Wu, 2006: 325)

All in all, the translation theory of the Soviet period has its own unique development path. The Soviet translation theorists in this period made great contributions to the history of Soviet translation, also, the translation theory of the Soviet period became an indispensable part of the world translation theory map.

===8. References ===

Cai, Yi 蔡毅，Duan,Jinghua, 段京华. Translation Studies in USSR苏联翻译理论.湖北教育出版社，2000

Liu Miqing刘宓庆，Translation Basics 翻译基础.上海.华东师范大学出版社，2008

Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜.Translation Studies 翻译学.复旦大学出版社，2017

Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜.History of Western Translation 西方翻译简史.北京.商务印书馆，1991

Wu, Keli 吴克礼.The Translation Methods and Studies in USSR 俄苏翻译理论流派综述. 上海外语教育出版社，2006

Xu, Jun 许均. Translation Theories 翻译论. 湖北教育出版社，2003

Balhudarov Бархударов Л.С. Language and Translation: Collation said Partial theory of Translation Язык и перевод: Вопросы общей и частной теории перевода, Международные отношения, 1975

Gaczilaser Гиви Гачечиладзе. Problems of Literary Theory Вопросы теории художественного перевода. Тбилиси: Литература да хлебовнеба, 1964

Kashkin Иван Кашкин. Articles and Studies Статьи и исследования. Москва. Советский писатель, 1977

--[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 08:41, 12 December 2021 (UTC)

Hist Trans Theo EN 13

2021-12-19T13:20:01Z

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=Chapter 13 History of Translation Theories in the Soviet Union=
===苏联时期的翻译理论史===
Wu Jingyue 吴婧悦 Hunan Normal University

===1. Abstract===
As is well known, the history of the Soviet period and discusse the characteristics of the Soviet translation theory. written by --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:02, 19 December 2021 (UTC) Firstly, we discuss about the overall situation of the development of the Soviet period, the history of the Soviet period and discusses the characteristics of the Soviet translation theory. Finally, we introduce the famous translation theorist like: S. G. Barkhudarov (С. Г. Бархуда́ров) and I. A. Kashkin (И. А. Кашки́н) and so on.

===摘要===
众所周知，苏联的翻译理论在世界翻译理论中占有十分突出的地位。本文首先从苏联时期翻译理论发展的整体状况出发，对苏联时期翻译发展史进行梳理；探讨了苏联翻译理论发展的特色；最后向读者介绍了著名翻译理论家S. G. Barkhudarov (С. Г. Бархуда́ров) 以及I. A. Kashkin (И. А. Кашки́н) 等人的翻译理论。written by --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:18, 19 December 2021 (UTC)

'''(As is well known, the history of the Soviet period and discusse the characteristics of the Soviet translation theory.corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 14:29, 13 December 2021 (UTC))'''

===2. Key words===
Translation theories, Western translation theories, Soviet Translation theories

===关键词===
翻译理论；西方翻译理论；苏联时期翻译理论

===3. Introduction===
The Soviet translation theory play a pivotal role in the world translation theory. written by --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:04, 19 December 2021 (UTC)This paper firstly introduces the historical evolution of the development of the Soviet translation theory, which divides the Soviet Union into two periods: the development history of translation theory before World War II and the development history of translation theory after World War II. In introducing the history of translation theory before World War II, the source of the history of Soviet translation theory, the development of Soviet translation theory, namely linguistics and the contribution of Kamisarov, Liubimov and others.Secondly, the representatives of the translation literature and art school and the translation language school are introduced specifically.When introducing the school of translation literature, the views of translator Kashkin and Gachzzeraz are introduced; in introducing the language school of translation, they are mainly introduced.

'''(The Soviet translation theory play a pivotal role in the world translation theory. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 17:16, 13 December 2021 (UTC))'''

===4. The evolution of Translation Theories in the Soviet Union.===
===4.1 History of translation theory development before World War II===
The Soviet translation theory occupies a very prominent position in the world translation theory.The Soviet study of translation theory began shortly after the October Revolution, began with literary translation.

In 1918, Gorky (А.М.Горький) founded the World Literature Press (Издательство "Всемирная литература") in conjunction with the help of Lenin(В.И.Ленин). The publisher's task is to introduce world classics, improve the translation art, and train translators.At this stage, nearly 100 professors and writers attended the work.In order to unify the thinking, discuss the theory of literary translation, and stipulate some clear rules, Gorky handed the burden to Chukowsky(К.И.Чуковский). Therefore, after making a lot of efforts, Chukowski wrote the book "The Principles of Literary Translation--written by [[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:07, 19 December 2021 (UTC)("Прицины художественного перевода") in 1919.He first proposed that the translator of the novel should be an artist and a master of language.Chukowski believed that a good translation can reproduce the artistic characteristics of the original text in vivid and rich Russian.But at that time, there was a very popular view in literary and theoretical criticism that translation was essentially impossible work.

(Cai & Duan, 2000: 5)

'''(Therefore, after making a lot of efforts, Chukowski wrote the book "The Principles of Literary Translation" ("Прицины художественного перевода") in 1919.Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 17:16, 13 December 2021 (UTC))'''

In 1930, The Principles of Literary Translation was collected in Chukowski's "The Art of Translation" ("Искусство переводов").It suggests that translators must understand the social environment.In addition, the communication of the structural characteristics and rhetorical characteristics of the original text, as well as the principles of translation and expression, are also discussed.

In 1934 Translation theorist Smirnov (А.А.Смирнов) made the first proposal of the concept of "equivalent translation" in the term "Soviet Literature Encyclopedia", "translation" (Перевод).The "equivalent translation" here means "conveying the ideological content, feelings, and written structure of the original work", that is, "conveying the full creative intention of the original author". Smirnov suggested that not only can use the direct counterpart of the original in translation but also can use the functional approximation of the original in translation.

(Cai & Duan, 2000: 16)

In 1936, Loginski (М.Л.Лозинский) reported at the first National Conference of Translators, "The Art of the Translation of Poetry" ("Искусство стихотворного перевода"), and pointed out that poetry translation should be the same in aesthetics as the original poetry works, highlighting the equivalent aesthetic function of literary and artistic translation.

'''(In 1936, Loginski (М.Л.Лозинский) delivered a report at the first National Conference of Translators, "The Art of the Translation of Poetry" ("Искусство стихотворного перевода"), and pointed out that poetry translation should be the same in aesthetics as the original poem, highlighting the equivalent aesthetic function of literary and artistic translation. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 17:16, 13 December 2021 (UTC))'''

Also in 1936, Kashkin (И.А.Кашкин) proposed the theory and became the founder of the Soviet theory of realism. His translation method is: translators should try their best to reproduce the objective reality expressed in the original text, rather than words; they should see, experience, and perfectly reproduce the reality in the eyes of the author from behind the original text. He equated the realistic method of translation with the socialist realism in literary creation.In the Soviet Union, he was hailed as "a theorist representing a entire era in the history of Russian translation". He believes that translators should be loyal to the original, to their readers, to reality, and that the three are inseparable. () Kashkin believes that without a theory, translators are just a craftsman, and can never become a translator or artist.

( Kashkin, 1977)
(Cai & Duan, 2000: 25)

Also in 1936, Kashkin (И.А.Кашкин) proposed the theory and became the founder of the Soviet theory of realism. His translation method is: translators should try their best to reproduce the objective reality expressed in the original text, rather than words; they should see, experience, and perfectly reproduce the reality in the eyes of the author from behind the original text. He equated the realistic method of translation with the socialist realism in literary creation.In the Soviet Union, he was hailed as "a theorist representing a entire era in the history of Russian translation". He believes that translators should be loyal to the original, to their readers, to reality, and that the three are inseparable. Kashkin believes that without a theory, translators are just a craftsman, and can never become a translator or artist.

'''( His translation methods are: translators should try their best to show the objective reality expressed in the original text, instead of focuing on translating words by words; they should see, experience, and perfectly reproduce the reality in the eyes of the author of the original text.Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 17:16, 13 December 2021 (UTC))'''

It was worth mentioning that at the beginning of World War II, the discussion of translation theories did not form systematic and comprehensive theory, and they were all carried out from a literary point of view. Only translation of textbooks and translation instructional references were exceptional and were conducted from a linguistic perspective. written by --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:07, 19 December 2021 (UTC)

(Cai & Duan, 2000: 120)

'''(It was worth mentioning that at the beginning of World War II, the discussion of translation theories did not form systematic and comprehensive theory, and they were all carried out from a literary point of view. Only translation of textbooks and translation instructional references were exceptional and were conducted from a linguistic perspective.Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 17:16, 13 December 2021 (UTC))'''

===4.2 History of translation theory development after World War II===
Since the 1950s, a new period of studying translation theory from the perspective of linguistics began. Its main characteristic is to link translation theory with comparative linguistics, and to reveal the law of the two languages based on the comparison of the phenomenon of the two languages.written by --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:12, 19 December 2021 (UTC)

'''(Since the 1950s, a new period of studying translation theory from the perspective of linguistics began. Its main characteristic is to link translation theory with comparative linguistics and to reveal the law of the two languages based on the comparison of the phenomenon of the two languagesCorrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 17:16, 13 December 2021 (UTC)) .
'''

In 1950, "Theory and Methods of Translation Teaching" ("Вопросы теории и методики учебного перевода"), which played a considerable role in the development of translation theory. For example, in Gary Palin(И.Р. Гпльперии) 's article, "Translation and Rhetoric" ("Перевод и стилистика"), shares Shakespeare's original Othello with Morosov’s (М.М.Морозов) translation, noting the similarities and differences between English and Russian in terms of meaning and aesthetic functions. Meanwhile, the book Lezkel(Я.И.Рецкер) ’s article, "On the regularity and correspondence in Russia" ("О закономерных соответствиях при переводе на роднои язык"), divides the language regularity correspondence into three categories: equivalent, approximation and equivalent substitution.These three methods are applied to scientific and technological translation, the translation of political articles, and literary translation.

(Wu, 2006: 325)

1953 Feodorov (А.В.Фёдоров) 's book "An Introduction to the Translation Theory" ("Введение в теорию перевода") was published.The book discusses the translation theory from the perspective of the linguistics theory, and proposes that the translation theory is a branch of the linguistics, and the translation problem can only be solved in the field of linguistics. In addition, the book stipulates the content of the concept of "translation", the object of theoretical research, the content, etc., and discusses the vocabulary issues, grammar issues and stylistic issues of translation, respectively.The book made Feyodorov the founder of the language school of translation theory. In addition, the book received wide attention in the Soviet translation circle, especially the translation teaching circle, but it also caused a heated controversy in the literary and art school of translation theory.

'''(1953 Feodorov (А.В.Фёдоров) 's book "An Introduction to Translation Theory" ("Введение в теорию перевода") was published. The book discusses the translation theory from the perspective of the linguistics theory and proposes that the translation theory is a branch of the linguistics and the translation problem can only be solved in the field of linguistics. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 02:11, 14 December 2021 (UTC))'''

However, translators from the school of literature and art believe that Feodorov studied translation problems almost completely from a linguistic perspective, ignoring that the first thing of literary translation should be involved in the problem of literature and art.

(Wu, 2006: 354)

'''(However, translators from the school of literature and art believe that Feodorov studied translation problems almost completely from a linguistic perspective, ignoring that the first thing of literary translation should be involved in the problem of literature and art.Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 02:11, 14 December 2021 (UTC))'''

In 1954, Kashkin put forward in "Methods and Genres of Soviet Literary Translation" ("О методе и школе советского художественного перевода") that the theory of literary translation should be a broad language discipline. That is to say, written by --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:12, 19 December 2021 (UTC)the study of translation and literary problems should be combined.

'''(In 1954, Kashkin put forward in "Methods and Genres of Soviet Literary Translation" ("О методе и школе советского художественного перевода") that the theory of literary translation should be a broad language discipline. That is to say, the study of translation and literary problems should be combined. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 02:11, 14 December 2021 (UTC))'''

In 1955 the collection of "Literary Translation" ("Вопросы художественного перевода") questions Feydorov's views, believing that studying translation theory from a linguistic perspective may lead to formalism and word-by-word dead translation in translation practice.

Since then, the Soviet theory of translation has gradually formed two major schools, namely, the school of literature and art and the language school.The two factions had long debated, culminating after the late 1950s and 1960s, with numerous papers and monographs each published."Translation Skills" ("Мастерство перевода"), published by the Soviet Writers Publishing House, focuses on the views of the literary school. The language school is based on the "Translation Worker Notes" ("Тетрадь переводчика") edited by Balhudarov, making comments and summarizing the translation experience.Most belong to the literary school are writers; the language school are linguists and college teachers.

( Kashkin, 1977: 163)

In 1958, Feodorov made some additions and modifications to the original book in the second edition of the Introduction to Translation Theory. Although he also admitted that the problems in the field of translation could not all be explained by linguistic methods, it was correct to study the translation problem from the perspective of linguistics, otherwise, there would be no real theory of translation art.He stressed that literary and artistic translation does have its own characteristics, and should highlight its aesthetic aspects, but literary images are created by language means, and must also be conveyed by another language means. Therefore, the study of translation and theory from the perspective of linguistics is the basis.

(Wu, 2006: 366)

'''(In 1958, Feodorov made some additions and modifications to the original book in the second edition of the Introduction to Translation Theory. Although he also admitted that the problems in the field of translation could not all be explained by linguistic methods, it was necessary to study the translation problem from the perspective of linguistics. Otherwise, there would be no real theory of translation art. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 02:11, 14 December 2021 (UTC))'''

In 1962, the collection of "Translation Theory and Review" ("Теория и критика перевода"), including two groups of translation theorists.Linguist Larin (Б.А.Ларии) In the preface to the collection, "Our Mission" ("Наши задачи"), proposed that the theory of literary translation must be established on the basis of linguistics and literature.He believes that it is impossible not to combine linguistics and literary methods organically, whether in linguistics, rhetoric, or translation theory. Any translation should begin with analysis, and finally finish with literary creation.

1963 Aitkin (Е.Т.Эткин) published the book "Poetry and Translation" ("Поэзии и перевод"), which analyzed and commented on a large number of foreign-language poems translated into Russian language in the early 19th century, concerning the translation of literary and artistic theory.He believes that the linguistic means of poetry translation are closely related to the reproduced artistic characteristics of the original poetry, and the two should not be opposed.In his opinion, translation is like rhetoric, which is both a problem of literature and art and linguistics, because rhetoric is a science of language synonymous, and it belongs to the two fields of linguistics. Ignoring the theory of the form of literary works will actually make the translator helpless.

(Tan，1991: 246)

In 1964, Gachzrazawa (Г.Р.Гачечиладзе) published the book "The Theory of Literary Translation" ("Вопросы теории художественного перевода"), in which he based on Lenin's reaction theory, proposing that the translator directly reflects the original text, namely the artistic reality of the original text, rather than the specific reality directly reflected by the original text.

That same year, Levzin (И.И.Ревзин) and Rosenzwig (В.Ю.Розенцвейг) has published "Principles of General Translation and Machine Translation" ("Основы общего и машинного перевода") to study translation issues from a structural linguistics perspective.It was the first work in the world to combine the concepts and principles of translational theory with the category of structural linguistics.

(Wu, 2006: 430)

'''(That year, Levzin (И.И.Ревзин) and Rosenzwig (В.Ю.Розенцвейг) published "Principles of General Translation and Machine Translation" ("Основы общего и машинного перевода") to study translation issues from a structural linguistics perspective.It was the first work in the world to combine the concepts and principles of translational theory with the category of structural linguistics. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 02:11, 14 December 2021 (UTC))'''

In 1968, Feodorov made a new revision and supplement to the new situation, publishing the third edition of the book and renamed "Basic Translation" ("Основы общеи тоерии перевода").The rationale is that this can highlight the basic principles of translation theory —— studies various translation phenomena and various kinds of translation, revealing their commonalities and respective characteristics, comparing from a linguistic perspective.In the book, Feodorov makes it clear that it should never be forgotten that the ultimate task is to establish a common theory of philology.It is now outdated to insist that literary translation is studied only through literature and art, or only through linguistics. Contemporary era is an era of close cooperation between different disciplines. In philology, the distance between the two branches of literature and linguistics is not very large, and its differences are inevitable, but can be overcome, that is to say, the two can be combined all together.

The 1970s were called the "harvest years" of Soviet translation theory, and the debate entered a new stage.

In 1972, Gabriel's book "Literary Translation and Literary Exchange" ("Художественныи перевод и литературные взаимосвязи") can be regarded as a representative work of the school of literature and art, which more comprehensively expounded the translation theory views of the Soviet school of literature and art.Once published, the book immediately aroused widespread response from the Soviet translation theory community.In the book, he pointed out that literary and artistic translation belongs to the category of artistic creation, and studying literary translation from the perspective of linguistics inevitably leads to the dead translation of auxiliary words. As a result, the translation is linguistically correct and low in art. Because from a linguistic point of view, the decisive factor is not the translator's creative attitude towards the original text, but the linguistic correspondence principle.Thus, translation becomes some technical process, not creation. Literary and artistic translation should reproduce the aesthetic value of the original text.

1963 Komizarov (В.Н.Комиссаров) presents its unique theory of "equivalent levels" in his book on translation ("Слово о переводе").According to this theory, the meaning structure of discourse is a complex that can be divided into content, namely the level of language symbols, discourse level, notification structure level, scenario description level and the level of communication purpose.The principle of translation equivalence to the original text should be based on these levels during translation.

(Wu, 2006: 456)

The same year, Shvzel (В.Н.Комиссаров) published the book "Translation and Linguistics" ("Перевод и лингвистика"), suggesting that translation is not only the contact between two language systems, but also between two different cultures, and sometimes between two different civilizations.In addition, he raises questions about the invariant values of the translation function.Shvzel believes that translation functional invariant values include both semantic and grammatical aspects.

'''(The same year, Shvzel (В.Н.Комиссаров) published the book "Translation and Linguistics" ("Перевод и лингвистика"), suggesting that translation is not only the contact between two language systems, but also between two different cultures, and sometimes between two different civilizations.In addition, he raised some questions about the invariant values of the translation function.Shvzel believes that translation functional invariant values include both semantic and grammatical aspects. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 02:11, 14 December 2021 (UTC))'''

In 1974 Lezkel (Я.И.Рецкер) has published the book "Translation Theory and Translation Practice (An Introduction to the Theory of Linguistics of Translation)" ("Теория перевода и переводическая практика - Очерки лингвистическои теории перевода"), which discusses some key issues in the linguistics theory of translation, which are directly related to the translation practice.The book compares the lexical grammar and rhetorical characteristics of English with its functional counterpart in Russian, and reveals the logical semantic basis of using various translation techniques and methods in the translation process.

'''(In 1974 Lezkel (Я.И.Рецкер) published the book "Translation Theory and Translation Practice (An Introduction to the Theory of Linguistics of Translation)" ("Теория перевода и переводическая практика - Очерки лингвистическои теории перевода"), which discusses some key issues in the linguistics theory of translation, which are directly related to the translation practice. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 02:11, 14 December 2021 (UTC))'''

1975 Balhudarov (Л.С.Бархударов) published the book "Language and Translation" ("Язык и перевод"), which aroused widespread response in the Soviet translation community and was considered the representative work of the Soviet language school translation theory in the 1970s. The biggest characteristic of the book is to link the translation theory with the latest achievements in linguistics in the world, and put forward the linguistics theory of translation is comparing discourse linguistics, more specifically, is the semantic discourse in different languages, and the actual segmentation of the sentence is an essential condition of equivalent translation and a series of new arguments. Balhuduff makes it clear that translation changes the speech product of one language to another while keeping the content unchanged, that is, the translator does not deal with the language system, but with the language product.In addition, he discussed translationability, the nature of translation theory, semantics and translation, translation units, and translation methods.

(Balhudarov, 1975: 187)

In 1976, Chernhovskikaya (Л.А.Черняховская) published the book "Translation and the Semantic Structure" ("Перевод и смысловая структура"), the only Soviet work that conveys the logical focus and real semantic segmentation of sentences in translation.

That same year, Levitskaya (Т.Р.Леницкая) and Fejelman (А.М.Фетерман) published the book "translation problem" ("Проблемы перевода"), the book discusses English and Russian due to different vocabulary, grammar, rhetorical structure and the main translation problems, its focus is not the translation process itself and general translation methods and skills, but for the difficulty of English translation into Russian method.

In 1977 Lambimov (Н.М.Любимов) highlighted in "Translation is Art" ("Перевод - искусство") that literary translation is an art that pursues artistic accuracy rather than literal slave-style fidelity.At the same time, it is also proposed that words as language units can only be reflected in, or through words, so the objective reality of language existence is the overall —— discourse of the work. The basic category of translation is the discourse.

And 1978 Venogradov (В.С.Виноградов) pointed out in "The Lexical Problems of Literary Prose Translation" ("Лексические вопросы перевода художественнои прозы") that words are the basic unit of language, so, it is also the starting point of translation.

(Wu, 2006: 359)

In 1978, Komisarov edited and published the collection of "Translation Theory Issues in Foreign Linguistics" ("Вопросы теории перевода в зарубежнои лингвистике"), It fairly fully introduces the state of Western linguists studying translation theory, The book is divided into four themes, Both: the general linguistics problem of translation, Translation equivalent, translation process, Translational linguistics and Translational rhetoric; Translating the relevant discourse of some famous western linguists, For example, Jacobson (R.Jackbcon), one of the founders of the Prague School, British linguist J.R.Firch (J.R.Firch) and others.The influence of this collection is evident from the later writings of translation theorists of the Soviet language school.

In 1980, Komisarov published the book "translation linguistics" ("Лингвистика перевода"), which pointed out that the perspective of linguistics is entering a new stage, turned out to regard the linguistics translation theory as a part of applied linguistics, for the translation practice of service, its focus is on the translation process, its task is to study the linguistics mode of translation and determine the principle of translation. The results of studying translation from the perspective of linguistics show that translation is an integral part of linguistics, and the theoretical analysis of interlanguage communication phenomenon is necessary for the development of linguistics itself. Therefore, translation should be regarded as a special form of language function, which is a special method of its speech practice, and our knowledge of the essence and function of language is incomplete. That is, linguistic analysis of translation can not only serve translation practice, but also promote development of linguistics itself. It is under the guidance of this idea that the book discusses the general linguistics theory of translation, translation semantics, translation linguistics, translation rhetoric, translation mode, translation standards. Therefore, it provides a new perspective for the study of translation theory.

(Cai & Duan, 2000: 20)

In the same year, the Minyal. Bellolluchev (Р.К.Миньяр - Белоручев) published the book "Translation" ("Общая теория перевода и устныи перевод").The book regards translational science as an independent subject on the grounds that it has its own subjects, content and a complete set of terms; thinks that translation research is beyond the scope of linguistics. It written by --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:12, 19 December 2021 (UTC)is a subject of linguistics, psychology, semiotics, sociology intersection, mainly applicable to translation between any two languages; proposes the discourse information theory, the main method of translation and the classification of language means in translation and so on.The book first used the interpretation as a research subject.

'''(In the same year, the Minyal. Bellolluchev (Р.К.Миньяр - Белоручев) published the book "Translation" ("Общая теория перевода и устныи перевод").This book regards translational science as an independent subject on the grounds that it has its own subjects, content and a complete set of terms; Besides, it presents that translation research is beyond the scope of linguistics. It is a subject of linguistics, psychology, semiotics, sociology intersection, mainly applicable to translation between any two languages; And this book also proposed the discourse information theory, the main method of translation and the classification of language means in translation and so on.The book first used the interpretation as a research subject. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 02:11, 14 December 2021 (UTC))'''

In 1981, Ratshev (Л.К.Латышев) published the "Translation Tutorial —— Translation equivalent and achieve the equivalent Method" ("Курс перевода: Эквивалентность перевода и способы ее достижения"), which divided the translation equivalent into formal and functional equivalent two types, and proposed the specific methods to achieve the translation equivalent.

In 1983, Feodorov published the collection of "Translation Art and Literary Life" ("Искусство перевода и жизнь литературы."), indicating from the preface entitled "A Window to Another World" ("Окнов другои мир") that Feodorov partially accepted the other's views through disputes with the school of translation theory and literature.At the same time, he argued that Gaczrazzer greatly limited the role of language in translation, seeing language as mere technical means.

(Cai &Duan, 2000: 22)

In 1985, Lvorskaya (З.Д.Львовская) published the book "Theoretical Issues of Translation"(Теоритическая проблема перевода”), which based on the theory of communicative function, believing that discourse meaning is divided into linguistic and verbal categories. The equivalent of translation is not the absolute invariance of the semantic, pragmatic, and environmental components in the meaning structure, but only the equivalence of pragmatic and environmental components.
The 20th century school of literature in the translation theory of outstanding events is in the journal "literary review" ("Литературное обозрение") continuously on the discussion of translation problem, the content involves: the necessity of the translation theory, how to overcome the two extreme, how to treat the original aesthetics, time color, translation can really convey "the spirit of the original" and the creation of the translator, etc.

In 1988, Shvzzer, a translation theorist of the language school, published the book "Translation Theory: Status, Problems and Face"(“Теория перевода : Статус, проблема, аспекты”). The author combines the latest achievements in linguistics in the field of speech linguistics, sentence semantics, communication linguistics and psychological linguistics, the status of translation theory, the essence of translation, equivalent, similarities, interpretability, translation semantic, language, discourse and translation and other six issues, the language school translation theory research mentioned a new stage.

In 1990, Komisarov's book "Translation Theory (Linguistics)" ("Теория перевода (линвистические вопросы") clearly stated in his preface that translation theory is an important part of the training of future translators. As a textbook, the book aims to introduce the basic principles of translational linguistics theory.
In the 1980s, the Soviet theory of scientific and technological translation developed rapidly, and published a lot of articles and monographs.

(Cai & Duan, 2000: 37)

In all, the Soviet theory of translation has been developed from scratch, from sporadic to systematic, constantly enriched, and constantly deepening step by step.

===5. The Literary School of Translation===
===5.1 Realistic Translation pioneered by E.A.Kashkin===

Kashkin Ivan Alexandrovich - literary critic, translator and critic. He brought up a significant group of translators from the English language. He translated J. Chaucer's The Canterbury Tales (1946, with O. Rumer). Promoter of the best achievements of modern English and American poetry (R. Frost, K. Sandberg) and prose (E. Hemingway, E. Caldwell, J. Wayne, etc.). Aslo, he is the author of historical and literary studies about J. Conrad, L. Stevenson, W. Faulkner, E. Hemingway and others.

Some translators believe that they must obey the "absolute authority" of the original text and translate the original text word by word in order to be completely faithful. Other translators advocate for loyalty to the original text. And Kashkin believes that realism in art is a complex and diverse phenomenon, which is restricted by history. Realism in art is real and poetic. Exactly, to feel and reflect world

( Kashkin, 1977: 177)

In order to accurately convey the ideological content of the original work and creatively reproduce the artistic characteristics and national characteristics of the original work, it must adopt the realistic translation method. The translator must respect the reality of the text and strive to reproduce the objective reality expressed by the text and give it life, not simply copying the text symbols of the original text.

Translators should understand the author of the original text's direct feelings of reality through the barrier of the syntactic structure of a foreign language. Only in this way could he reproduce the original in the same powerful and clear language, as did the original author did. The translator should see the phenomena, thoughts, things, behaviors and conditions through the words of the original work, and specifically reproduce this reality in the eyes of the original author.
Reality in art is the image to reflect the essential characteristics in reality. written by --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:14, 19 December 2021 (UTC)

( Kashkin, 1977: 185)

The truth in literary translation is not a final pursuit that the surface is similar to the original text, nor does it simply copy all the unimportant details.The truth in literary translation is based on the internal logic of the image, and first, to faithfully translate the essence of the original text.The translator should faithfully understand the author's conception and creative intention, and retain the artistic characteristics of the original work, the historical reality and the atmosphere of The Times.

Otherwise, Kashkin believes that there must be a strict distinction between artistic images that should be conveyed and verbal images that occasionally occur in translation.Because language is the basic means of expressing all literature, but the basic task and main difficulty of literary and artistic translation is not to copy the language of the original text, including the language structure elements, but in the artistic reproduction of the original image, considering the differences of the language system.

( Kashkin, 1977: 205)

===5.2 Gaczilaser’s realistic view of translations===

Professor Givi Razhdenovich Gaczilaser is one of the largest specialists in the field of literary translation theory, the author of the famous monograph "The Problem of Realistic Translation", a translator of Shakespeare, Byron, Shelley and other English poets into Georgian. In the book offered to the reader's attention, he continued to develop in depth the theory and practice of literary translation. Proceeding from Lenin's theory of reflection, G. Gachechiladze considers literary translation as a form of cognition, as a creative act that helps the reader approach not only a foreign language work, but also the living reality reflected in this work.
Gaczilaser believes that the principles of literary translation have been swinging between the two extremes.One is word-by-word translation, and the other is artistically equivalent but written away from the original text. He thought it would be easy to combine the two principles, but it was impossible in practice. Because different means of expressing ideas are very different languages, word-by-word translation and artistic quality are always contradictory.

If the translator is limited to the original and not to reproduce what the author sees in the imagination, he is not a creative person. The translator should take the author's thoughts as the starting point, the original text serve the deep understanding of artistic reality. The translator should see the real life reflected in the original work behind the artistic reality, and it is not to create his own work.Realistic translation method refers to realists following the law of realistic art, reflecting the artistic reality of the original, and consistent with the original, more specifically, rhetorical consistency, only help to achieve linguistic loyalty, but should not let this affect their own will. Loyal to the author's artistic truth is the goal of the realistic translator.The artistic reality of the original includes both content and form, and even the unity of form and content.

(Gaczilaser, 1964: 120)

It is undoubtedly correct to compare the two language systems in the translation process.However, this contrast has certain limitations, as each language has its characteristic means of rhetoric.Just as there is no unified language, there is no unified rhetoric of all languages, nor the unified grammar of all languages. The application of rhetorical rules to any specific language would rise to a national, independent rhetorical system. Thus, the rhetorical rule can only be judged based on the character of some language.

===6. The Linguistic School Translation===
===6.1 Balhuadov’s Translation Concept===

Balhuarov was a famous translation theorist in the Soviet Union in the 20th century, one of the representatives of the language school and a doctor of Soviet philology, and has been engaged in translation teaching and translation theory research for many years. It is represented as the Language and Translation ("Язык и перевод").

From the perspective of the research subjects of the translation theory, Balhudav believes that the task of the linguistics theory of the translation is to pattern the translation process and put forward some scientific diagram for the translation process, which can more accurately reflect the important aspects of this process. In the view, on the one hand, translation theory, like any other theoretical model, reflects only some of the most important features of its subjects, rather than all features. Translation theory studies not all the relationship between the original language and the translation language, but the regular relationship between the two, that is, the typical and recurrent correspondence.On the other hand, translation theory, like any other discipline theory, stipulates not only a pattern, but many patterns that reflect the translation process in different ways as well as various characteristics.

(Balhudarov, 1975: 250)

From the essence of translation, Balhuudaf believes that translation is the process of converting a speech product into another language while keeping the content level (i. e., meaning) unchanged. Among them, the term “meaning” refers to the various relationships of language units. Translation is a process of changing one language discourse into another language discourse. The object of translation is not a language system, but a discourse.For translation, it is not the equivalent of the individual word, but the equivalent of the full text.Thus, the semantic differences between the two languages are not an insurmountable barrier in translation.
In addition, from the discussion of semantic problems of translation, Balhudv believes that the semantic problem of translation must be studied and conveyed from three aspects: meaning, pragmatic meaning and internal meaning.But on semantic issues, he presented no substantive content, with similar views mentioned by Jackson and Nida et al. in the late 1920s and early 1960s.But Balhudaf's interpretation is more detailed and fulfilling, and more generalized in some places.

Balhudaf also establishes equivalent translation from six levels: phonemic, phoneme, word, phrase, sentence, and discourse layer. The six levels are applied more systematically to translation theory.

(Balhudarov, 1975: 255)

'''(Balhudaf also establishes equivalent translation from six levels: phonemic, phoneme, word, phrase, sentence, and discourse layer, which are applied more systematically in translation. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 02:48, 14 December 2021 (UTC))'''

===7. Conclusion ===

To sum up, by introducing the historical evolution of the development of translation theory in the Soviet Union, we and the representatives of the school of translation literature and art and the translation language school can draw the following conclusions:

First of all, the developmental foundation of the Soviet translation theory was weak. At the beginning of World War II, the discussion of translation theory wasn’t systematic and comprehensive and they were all carried out from the perspective of literature and art. Only translation textbooks and translation instructional references are exceptional and are conducted from a linguistic perspective .After World War II, the Soviet Union began a new period of studying the translation theory from the perspective of linguistics. Its main feature was to connect translation theory with comparative linguistics, and to reveal the correspondence of the two languages on the basis of comparing the two languages.written by --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:15, 19 December 2021 (UTC)

(Cai & Duan, 2000: 168)

(Wu, 2006: 325)

Secondly, from the perspective of the literary school of translation, Kashkin, the theorist of translation, founded the realistic concept of translation, believing that the translation should pay attention to understanding the feelings of the original author, and believing that we must strictly distinguish the artistic image that should be conveyed and the occasional language image in the translation. Translation theorist Gaczirze believes that the principles of literary translation have been swinging between the two extremes. One is word-by-word translation, and the other is artistically equivalent but written away from the original text. He thought it would be easy to combine the two principles, but it was impossible in practice.

Thirdly, from the perspective of the language school of translation, the translation theorist Balhudarov believes that the task of the linguistics theory of translation is to pattern the translation process and put forward some scientific diagram for the translation process, which can more accurately reflect the important aspects of this process.He made great contributions to the linguistic school of translation.

(Wu, 2006: 325)

All in all, the translation theory of the Soviet period has its own unique development path. The Soviet translation theorists in this period made great contributions to the history of Soviet translation, also, the translation theory of the Soviet period became an indispensable part of the world translation theory map.

===8. References ===

Cai, Yi 蔡毅，Duan,Jinghua, 段京华. Translation Studies in USSR苏联翻译理论.湖北教育出版社，2000

Liu Miqing刘宓庆，Translation Basics 翻译基础.上海.华东师范大学出版社，2008

Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜.Translation Studies 翻译学.复旦大学出版社，2017

Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜.History of Western Translation 西方翻译简史.北京.商务印书馆，1991

Wu, Keli 吴克礼.The Translation Methods and Studies in USSR 俄苏翻译理论流派综述. 上海外语教育出版社，2006

Xu, Jun 许均. Translation Theories 翻译论. 湖北教育出版社，2003

Balhudarov Бархударов Л.С. Language and Translation: Collation said Partial theory of Translation Язык и перевод: Вопросы общей и частной теории перевода, Международные отношения, 1975

Gaczilaser Гиви Гачечиладзе. Problems of Literary Theory Вопросы теории художественного перевода. Тбилиси: Литература да хлебовнеба, 1964

Kashkin Иван Кашкин. Articles and Studies Статьи и исследования. Москва. Советский писатель, 1977

--[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 08:41, 12 December 2021 (UTC)

Hist Trans Theo EN 13

2021-12-19T13:18:13Z

Wu Jingyue: /* 1. Abstract */

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=Chapter 13 History of Translation Theories in the Soviet Union=
===苏联时期的翻译理论史===
Wu Jingyue 吴婧悦 Hunan Normal University

===1. Abstract===
As is well known, the history of the Soviet period and discusse the characteristics of the Soviet translation theory. written by --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:02, 19 December 2021 (UTC) Firstly, we discuss about the overall situation of the development of the Soviet period, the history of the Soviet period and discusses the characteristics of the Soviet translation theory. Finally, we introduce the famous translation theorist like: S. G. Barkhudarov (С. Г. Бархуда́ров) and I. A. Kashkin (И. А. Кашки́н) and so on.

===摘要===
众所周知，苏联的翻译理论在世界翻译理论中占有十分突出的地位。本文首先从苏联时期翻译理论发展的整体状况出发，对苏联时期翻译发展史进行梳理；探讨了苏联翻译理论发展的特色；最后向读者介绍了著名翻译理论家S. G. Barkhudarov (С. Г. Бархуда́ров) 以及I. A. Kashkin (И. А. Кашки́н) 等人的翻译理论。written by --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:18, 19 December 2021 (UTC)

'''(As is well known, the history of the Soviet period and discusse the characteristics of the Soviet translation theory.corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 14:29, 13 December 2021 (UTC))'''

===2. Key words===
Translation theories, Western translation theories, Soviet Translation theories

===3. Introduction===
The Soviet translation theory play a pivotal role in the world translation theory. written by --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:04, 19 December 2021 (UTC)This paper firstly introduces the historical evolution of the development of the Soviet translation theory, which divides the Soviet Union into two periods: the development history of translation theory before World War II and the development history of translation theory after World War II. In introducing the history of translation theory before World War II, the source of the history of Soviet translation theory, the development of Soviet translation theory, namely linguistics and the contribution of Kamisarov, Liubimov and others.Secondly, the representatives of the translation literature and art school and the translation language school are introduced specifically.When introducing the school of translation literature, the views of translator Kashkin and Gachzzeraz are introduced; in introducing the language school of translation, they are mainly introduced.

'''(The Soviet translation theory play a pivotal role in the world translation theory. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 17:16, 13 December 2021 (UTC))'''

===4. The evolution of Translation Theories in the Soviet Union.===
===4.1 History of translation theory development before World War II===
The Soviet translation theory occupies a very prominent position in the world translation theory.The Soviet study of translation theory began shortly after the October Revolution, began with literary translation.

In 1918, Gorky (А.М.Горький) founded the World Literature Press (Издательство "Всемирная литература") in conjunction with the help of Lenin(В.И.Ленин). The publisher's task is to introduce world classics, improve the translation art, and train translators.At this stage, nearly 100 professors and writers attended the work.In order to unify the thinking, discuss the theory of literary translation, and stipulate some clear rules, Gorky handed the burden to Chukowsky(К.И.Чуковский). Therefore, after making a lot of efforts, Chukowski wrote the book "The Principles of Literary Translation--written by [[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:07, 19 December 2021 (UTC)("Прицины художественного перевода") in 1919.He first proposed that the translator of the novel should be an artist and a master of language.Chukowski believed that a good translation can reproduce the artistic characteristics of the original text in vivid and rich Russian.But at that time, there was a very popular view in literary and theoretical criticism that translation was essentially impossible work.

(Cai & Duan, 2000: 5)

'''(Therefore, after making a lot of efforts, Chukowski wrote the book "The Principles of Literary Translation" ("Прицины художественного перевода") in 1919.Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 17:16, 13 December 2021 (UTC))'''

In 1930, The Principles of Literary Translation was collected in Chukowski's "The Art of Translation" ("Искусство переводов").It suggests that translators must understand the social environment.In addition, the communication of the structural characteristics and rhetorical characteristics of the original text, as well as the principles of translation and expression, are also discussed.

In 1934 Translation theorist Smirnov (А.А.Смирнов) made the first proposal of the concept of "equivalent translation" in the term "Soviet Literature Encyclopedia", "translation" (Перевод).The "equivalent translation" here means "conveying the ideological content, feelings, and written structure of the original work", that is, "conveying the full creative intention of the original author". Smirnov suggested that not only can use the direct counterpart of the original in translation but also can use the functional approximation of the original in translation.

(Cai & Duan, 2000: 16)

In 1936, Loginski (М.Л.Лозинский) reported at the first National Conference of Translators, "The Art of the Translation of Poetry" ("Искусство стихотворного перевода"), and pointed out that poetry translation should be the same in aesthetics as the original poetry works, highlighting the equivalent aesthetic function of literary and artistic translation.

'''(In 1936, Loginski (М.Л.Лозинский) delivered a report at the first National Conference of Translators, "The Art of the Translation of Poetry" ("Искусство стихотворного перевода"), and pointed out that poetry translation should be the same in aesthetics as the original poem, highlighting the equivalent aesthetic function of literary and artistic translation. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 17:16, 13 December 2021 (UTC))'''

Also in 1936, Kashkin (И.А.Кашкин) proposed the theory and became the founder of the Soviet theory of realism. His translation method is: translators should try their best to reproduce the objective reality expressed in the original text, rather than words; they should see, experience, and perfectly reproduce the reality in the eyes of the author from behind the original text. He equated the realistic method of translation with the socialist realism in literary creation.In the Soviet Union, he was hailed as "a theorist representing a entire era in the history of Russian translation". He believes that translators should be loyal to the original, to their readers, to reality, and that the three are inseparable. () Kashkin believes that without a theory, translators are just a craftsman, and can never become a translator or artist.

( Kashkin, 1977)
(Cai & Duan, 2000: 25)

Also in 1936, Kashkin (И.А.Кашкин) proposed the theory and became the founder of the Soviet theory of realism. His translation method is: translators should try their best to reproduce the objective reality expressed in the original text, rather than words; they should see, experience, and perfectly reproduce the reality in the eyes of the author from behind the original text. He equated the realistic method of translation with the socialist realism in literary creation.In the Soviet Union, he was hailed as "a theorist representing a entire era in the history of Russian translation". He believes that translators should be loyal to the original, to their readers, to reality, and that the three are inseparable. Kashkin believes that without a theory, translators are just a craftsman, and can never become a translator or artist.

'''( His translation methods are: translators should try their best to show the objective reality expressed in the original text, instead of focuing on translating words by words; they should see, experience, and perfectly reproduce the reality in the eyes of the author of the original text.Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 17:16, 13 December 2021 (UTC))'''

It was worth mentioning that at the beginning of World War II, the discussion of translation theories did not form systematic and comprehensive theory, and they were all carried out from a literary point of view. Only translation of textbooks and translation instructional references were exceptional and were conducted from a linguistic perspective. written by --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:07, 19 December 2021 (UTC)

(Cai & Duan, 2000: 120)

'''(It was worth mentioning that at the beginning of World War II, the discussion of translation theories did not form systematic and comprehensive theory, and they were all carried out from a literary point of view. Only translation of textbooks and translation instructional references were exceptional and were conducted from a linguistic perspective.Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 17:16, 13 December 2021 (UTC))'''

===4.2 History of translation theory development after World War II===
Since the 1950s, a new period of studying translation theory from the perspective of linguistics began. Its main characteristic is to link translation theory with comparative linguistics, and to reveal the law of the two languages based on the comparison of the phenomenon of the two languages.written by --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:12, 19 December 2021 (UTC)

'''(Since the 1950s, a new period of studying translation theory from the perspective of linguistics began. Its main characteristic is to link translation theory with comparative linguistics and to reveal the law of the two languages based on the comparison of the phenomenon of the two languagesCorrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 17:16, 13 December 2021 (UTC)) .
'''

In 1950, "Theory and Methods of Translation Teaching" ("Вопросы теории и методики учебного перевода"), which played a considerable role in the development of translation theory. For example, in Gary Palin(И.Р. Гпльперии) 's article, "Translation and Rhetoric" ("Перевод и стилистика"), shares Shakespeare's original Othello with Morosov’s (М.М.Морозов) translation, noting the similarities and differences between English and Russian in terms of meaning and aesthetic functions. Meanwhile, the book Lezkel(Я.И.Рецкер) ’s article, "On the regularity and correspondence in Russia" ("О закономерных соответствиях при переводе на роднои язык"), divides the language regularity correspondence into three categories: equivalent, approximation and equivalent substitution.These three methods are applied to scientific and technological translation, the translation of political articles, and literary translation.

(Wu, 2006: 325)

1953 Feodorov (А.В.Фёдоров) 's book "An Introduction to the Translation Theory" ("Введение в теорию перевода") was published.The book discusses the translation theory from the perspective of the linguistics theory, and proposes that the translation theory is a branch of the linguistics, and the translation problem can only be solved in the field of linguistics. In addition, the book stipulates the content of the concept of "translation", the object of theoretical research, the content, etc., and discusses the vocabulary issues, grammar issues and stylistic issues of translation, respectively.The book made Feyodorov the founder of the language school of translation theory. In addition, the book received wide attention in the Soviet translation circle, especially the translation teaching circle, but it also caused a heated controversy in the literary and art school of translation theory.

'''(1953 Feodorov (А.В.Фёдоров) 's book "An Introduction to Translation Theory" ("Введение в теорию перевода") was published. The book discusses the translation theory from the perspective of the linguistics theory and proposes that the translation theory is a branch of the linguistics and the translation problem can only be solved in the field of linguistics. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 02:11, 14 December 2021 (UTC))'''

However, translators from the school of literature and art believe that Feodorov studied translation problems almost completely from a linguistic perspective, ignoring that the first thing of literary translation should be involved in the problem of literature and art.

(Wu, 2006: 354)

'''(However, translators from the school of literature and art believe that Feodorov studied translation problems almost completely from a linguistic perspective, ignoring that the first thing of literary translation should be involved in the problem of literature and art.Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 02:11, 14 December 2021 (UTC))'''

In 1954, Kashkin put forward in "Methods and Genres of Soviet Literary Translation" ("О методе и школе советского художественного перевода") that the theory of literary translation should be a broad language discipline. That is to say, written by --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:12, 19 December 2021 (UTC)the study of translation and literary problems should be combined.

'''(In 1954, Kashkin put forward in "Methods and Genres of Soviet Literary Translation" ("О методе и школе советского художественного перевода") that the theory of literary translation should be a broad language discipline. That is to say, the study of translation and literary problems should be combined. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 02:11, 14 December 2021 (UTC))'''

In 1955 the collection of "Literary Translation" ("Вопросы художественного перевода") questions Feydorov's views, believing that studying translation theory from a linguistic perspective may lead to formalism and word-by-word dead translation in translation practice.

Since then, the Soviet theory of translation has gradually formed two major schools, namely, the school of literature and art and the language school.The two factions had long debated, culminating after the late 1950s and 1960s, with numerous papers and monographs each published."Translation Skills" ("Мастерство перевода"), published by the Soviet Writers Publishing House, focuses on the views of the literary school. The language school is based on the "Translation Worker Notes" ("Тетрадь переводчика") edited by Balhudarov, making comments and summarizing the translation experience.Most belong to the literary school are writers; the language school are linguists and college teachers.

( Kashkin, 1977: 163)

In 1958, Feodorov made some additions and modifications to the original book in the second edition of the Introduction to Translation Theory. Although he also admitted that the problems in the field of translation could not all be explained by linguistic methods, it was correct to study the translation problem from the perspective of linguistics, otherwise, there would be no real theory of translation art.He stressed that literary and artistic translation does have its own characteristics, and should highlight its aesthetic aspects, but literary images are created by language means, and must also be conveyed by another language means. Therefore, the study of translation and theory from the perspective of linguistics is the basis.

(Wu, 2006: 366)

'''(In 1958, Feodorov made some additions and modifications to the original book in the second edition of the Introduction to Translation Theory. Although he also admitted that the problems in the field of translation could not all be explained by linguistic methods, it was necessary to study the translation problem from the perspective of linguistics. Otherwise, there would be no real theory of translation art. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 02:11, 14 December 2021 (UTC))'''

In 1962, the collection of "Translation Theory and Review" ("Теория и критика перевода"), including two groups of translation theorists.Linguist Larin (Б.А.Ларии) In the preface to the collection, "Our Mission" ("Наши задачи"), proposed that the theory of literary translation must be established on the basis of linguistics and literature.He believes that it is impossible not to combine linguistics and literary methods organically, whether in linguistics, rhetoric, or translation theory. Any translation should begin with analysis, and finally finish with literary creation.

1963 Aitkin (Е.Т.Эткин) published the book "Poetry and Translation" ("Поэзии и перевод"), which analyzed and commented on a large number of foreign-language poems translated into Russian language in the early 19th century, concerning the translation of literary and artistic theory.He believes that the linguistic means of poetry translation are closely related to the reproduced artistic characteristics of the original poetry, and the two should not be opposed.In his opinion, translation is like rhetoric, which is both a problem of literature and art and linguistics, because rhetoric is a science of language synonymous, and it belongs to the two fields of linguistics. Ignoring the theory of the form of literary works will actually make the translator helpless.

(Tan，1991: 246)

In 1964, Gachzrazawa (Г.Р.Гачечиладзе) published the book "The Theory of Literary Translation" ("Вопросы теории художественного перевода"), in which he based on Lenin's reaction theory, proposing that the translator directly reflects the original text, namely the artistic reality of the original text, rather than the specific reality directly reflected by the original text.

That same year, Levzin (И.И.Ревзин) and Rosenzwig (В.Ю.Розенцвейг) has published "Principles of General Translation and Machine Translation" ("Основы общего и машинного перевода") to study translation issues from a structural linguistics perspective.It was the first work in the world to combine the concepts and principles of translational theory with the category of structural linguistics.

(Wu, 2006: 430)

'''(That year, Levzin (И.И.Ревзин) and Rosenzwig (В.Ю.Розенцвейг) published "Principles of General Translation and Machine Translation" ("Основы общего и машинного перевода") to study translation issues from a structural linguistics perspective.It was the first work in the world to combine the concepts and principles of translational theory with the category of structural linguistics. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 02:11, 14 December 2021 (UTC))'''

In 1968, Feodorov made a new revision and supplement to the new situation, publishing the third edition of the book and renamed "Basic Translation" ("Основы общеи тоерии перевода").The rationale is that this can highlight the basic principles of translation theory —— studies various translation phenomena and various kinds of translation, revealing their commonalities and respective characteristics, comparing from a linguistic perspective.In the book, Feodorov makes it clear that it should never be forgotten that the ultimate task is to establish a common theory of philology.It is now outdated to insist that literary translation is studied only through literature and art, or only through linguistics. Contemporary era is an era of close cooperation between different disciplines. In philology, the distance between the two branches of literature and linguistics is not very large, and its differences are inevitable, but can be overcome, that is to say, the two can be combined all together.

The 1970s were called the "harvest years" of Soviet translation theory, and the debate entered a new stage.

In 1972, Gabriel's book "Literary Translation and Literary Exchange" ("Художественныи перевод и литературные взаимосвязи") can be regarded as a representative work of the school of literature and art, which more comprehensively expounded the translation theory views of the Soviet school of literature and art.Once published, the book immediately aroused widespread response from the Soviet translation theory community.In the book, he pointed out that literary and artistic translation belongs to the category of artistic creation, and studying literary translation from the perspective of linguistics inevitably leads to the dead translation of auxiliary words. As a result, the translation is linguistically correct and low in art. Because from a linguistic point of view, the decisive factor is not the translator's creative attitude towards the original text, but the linguistic correspondence principle.Thus, translation becomes some technical process, not creation. Literary and artistic translation should reproduce the aesthetic value of the original text.

1963 Komizarov (В.Н.Комиссаров) presents its unique theory of "equivalent levels" in his book on translation ("Слово о переводе").According to this theory, the meaning structure of discourse is a complex that can be divided into content, namely the level of language symbols, discourse level, notification structure level, scenario description level and the level of communication purpose.The principle of translation equivalence to the original text should be based on these levels during translation.

(Wu, 2006: 456)

The same year, Shvzel (В.Н.Комиссаров) published the book "Translation and Linguistics" ("Перевод и лингвистика"), suggesting that translation is not only the contact between two language systems, but also between two different cultures, and sometimes between two different civilizations.In addition, he raises questions about the invariant values of the translation function.Shvzel believes that translation functional invariant values include both semantic and grammatical aspects.

'''(The same year, Shvzel (В.Н.Комиссаров) published the book "Translation and Linguistics" ("Перевод и лингвистика"), suggesting that translation is not only the contact between two language systems, but also between two different cultures, and sometimes between two different civilizations.In addition, he raised some questions about the invariant values of the translation function.Shvzel believes that translation functional invariant values include both semantic and grammatical aspects. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 02:11, 14 December 2021 (UTC))'''

In 1974 Lezkel (Я.И.Рецкер) has published the book "Translation Theory and Translation Practice (An Introduction to the Theory of Linguistics of Translation)" ("Теория перевода и переводическая практика - Очерки лингвистическои теории перевода"), which discusses some key issues in the linguistics theory of translation, which are directly related to the translation practice.The book compares the lexical grammar and rhetorical characteristics of English with its functional counterpart in Russian, and reveals the logical semantic basis of using various translation techniques and methods in the translation process.

'''(In 1974 Lezkel (Я.И.Рецкер) published the book "Translation Theory and Translation Practice (An Introduction to the Theory of Linguistics of Translation)" ("Теория перевода и переводическая практика - Очерки лингвистическои теории перевода"), which discusses some key issues in the linguistics theory of translation, which are directly related to the translation practice. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 02:11, 14 December 2021 (UTC))'''

1975 Balhudarov (Л.С.Бархударов) published the book "Language and Translation" ("Язык и перевод"), which aroused widespread response in the Soviet translation community and was considered the representative work of the Soviet language school translation theory in the 1970s. The biggest characteristic of the book is to link the translation theory with the latest achievements in linguistics in the world, and put forward the linguistics theory of translation is comparing discourse linguistics, more specifically, is the semantic discourse in different languages, and the actual segmentation of the sentence is an essential condition of equivalent translation and a series of new arguments. Balhuduff makes it clear that translation changes the speech product of one language to another while keeping the content unchanged, that is, the translator does not deal with the language system, but with the language product.In addition, he discussed translationability, the nature of translation theory, semantics and translation, translation units, and translation methods.

(Balhudarov, 1975: 187)

In 1976, Chernhovskikaya (Л.А.Черняховская) published the book "Translation and the Semantic Structure" ("Перевод и смысловая структура"), the only Soviet work that conveys the logical focus and real semantic segmentation of sentences in translation.

That same year, Levitskaya (Т.Р.Леницкая) and Fejelman (А.М.Фетерман) published the book "translation problem" ("Проблемы перевода"), the book discusses English and Russian due to different vocabulary, grammar, rhetorical structure and the main translation problems, its focus is not the translation process itself and general translation methods and skills, but for the difficulty of English translation into Russian method.

In 1977 Lambimov (Н.М.Любимов) highlighted in "Translation is Art" ("Перевод - искусство") that literary translation is an art that pursues artistic accuracy rather than literal slave-style fidelity.At the same time, it is also proposed that words as language units can only be reflected in, or through words, so the objective reality of language existence is the overall —— discourse of the work. The basic category of translation is the discourse.

And 1978 Venogradov (В.С.Виноградов) pointed out in "The Lexical Problems of Literary Prose Translation" ("Лексические вопросы перевода художественнои прозы") that words are the basic unit of language, so, it is also the starting point of translation.

(Wu, 2006: 359)

In 1978, Komisarov edited and published the collection of "Translation Theory Issues in Foreign Linguistics" ("Вопросы теории перевода в зарубежнои лингвистике"), It fairly fully introduces the state of Western linguists studying translation theory, The book is divided into four themes, Both: the general linguistics problem of translation, Translation equivalent, translation process, Translational linguistics and Translational rhetoric; Translating the relevant discourse of some famous western linguists, For example, Jacobson (R.Jackbcon), one of the founders of the Prague School, British linguist J.R.Firch (J.R.Firch) and others.The influence of this collection is evident from the later writings of translation theorists of the Soviet language school.

In 1980, Komisarov published the book "translation linguistics" ("Лингвистика перевода"), which pointed out that the perspective of linguistics is entering a new stage, turned out to regard the linguistics translation theory as a part of applied linguistics, for the translation practice of service, its focus is on the translation process, its task is to study the linguistics mode of translation and determine the principle of translation. The results of studying translation from the perspective of linguistics show that translation is an integral part of linguistics, and the theoretical analysis of interlanguage communication phenomenon is necessary for the development of linguistics itself. Therefore, translation should be regarded as a special form of language function, which is a special method of its speech practice, and our knowledge of the essence and function of language is incomplete. That is, linguistic analysis of translation can not only serve translation practice, but also promote development of linguistics itself. It is under the guidance of this idea that the book discusses the general linguistics theory of translation, translation semantics, translation linguistics, translation rhetoric, translation mode, translation standards. Therefore, it provides a new perspective for the study of translation theory.

(Cai & Duan, 2000: 20)

In the same year, the Minyal. Bellolluchev (Р.К.Миньяр - Белоручев) published the book "Translation" ("Общая теория перевода и устныи перевод").The book regards translational science as an independent subject on the grounds that it has its own subjects, content and a complete set of terms; thinks that translation research is beyond the scope of linguistics. It written by --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:12, 19 December 2021 (UTC)is a subject of linguistics, psychology, semiotics, sociology intersection, mainly applicable to translation between any two languages; proposes the discourse information theory, the main method of translation and the classification of language means in translation and so on.The book first used the interpretation as a research subject.

'''(In the same year, the Minyal. Bellolluchev (Р.К.Миньяр - Белоручев) published the book "Translation" ("Общая теория перевода и устныи перевод").This book regards translational science as an independent subject on the grounds that it has its own subjects, content and a complete set of terms; Besides, it presents that translation research is beyond the scope of linguistics. It is a subject of linguistics, psychology, semiotics, sociology intersection, mainly applicable to translation between any two languages; And this book also proposed the discourse information theory, the main method of translation and the classification of language means in translation and so on.The book first used the interpretation as a research subject. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 02:11, 14 December 2021 (UTC))'''

In 1981, Ratshev (Л.К.Латышев) published the "Translation Tutorial —— Translation equivalent and achieve the equivalent Method" ("Курс перевода: Эквивалентность перевода и способы ее достижения"), which divided the translation equivalent into formal and functional equivalent two types, and proposed the specific methods to achieve the translation equivalent.

In 1983, Feodorov published the collection of "Translation Art and Literary Life" ("Искусство перевода и жизнь литературы."), indicating from the preface entitled "A Window to Another World" ("Окнов другои мир") that Feodorov partially accepted the other's views through disputes with the school of translation theory and literature.At the same time, he argued that Gaczrazzer greatly limited the role of language in translation, seeing language as mere technical means.

(Cai &Duan, 2000: 22)

In 1985, Lvorskaya (З.Д.Львовская) published the book "Theoretical Issues of Translation"(Теоритическая проблема перевода”), which based on the theory of communicative function, believing that discourse meaning is divided into linguistic and verbal categories. The equivalent of translation is not the absolute invariance of the semantic, pragmatic, and environmental components in the meaning structure, but only the equivalence of pragmatic and environmental components.
The 20th century school of literature in the translation theory of outstanding events is in the journal "literary review" ("Литературное обозрение") continuously on the discussion of translation problem, the content involves: the necessity of the translation theory, how to overcome the two extreme, how to treat the original aesthetics, time color, translation can really convey "the spirit of the original" and the creation of the translator, etc.

In 1988, Shvzzer, a translation theorist of the language school, published the book "Translation Theory: Status, Problems and Face"(“Теория перевода : Статус, проблема, аспекты”). The author combines the latest achievements in linguistics in the field of speech linguistics, sentence semantics, communication linguistics and psychological linguistics, the status of translation theory, the essence of translation, equivalent, similarities, interpretability, translation semantic, language, discourse and translation and other six issues, the language school translation theory research mentioned a new stage.

In 1990, Komisarov's book "Translation Theory (Linguistics)" ("Теория перевода (линвистические вопросы") clearly stated in his preface that translation theory is an important part of the training of future translators. As a textbook, the book aims to introduce the basic principles of translational linguistics theory.
In the 1980s, the Soviet theory of scientific and technological translation developed rapidly, and published a lot of articles and monographs.

(Cai & Duan, 2000: 37)

In all, the Soviet theory of translation has been developed from scratch, from sporadic to systematic, constantly enriched, and constantly deepening step by step.

===5. The Literary School of Translation===
===5.1 Realistic Translation pioneered by E.A.Kashkin===

Kashkin Ivan Alexandrovich - literary critic, translator and critic. He brought up a significant group of translators from the English language. He translated J. Chaucer's The Canterbury Tales (1946, with O. Rumer). Promoter of the best achievements of modern English and American poetry (R. Frost, K. Sandberg) and prose (E. Hemingway, E. Caldwell, J. Wayne, etc.). Aslo, he is the author of historical and literary studies about J. Conrad, L. Stevenson, W. Faulkner, E. Hemingway and others.

Some translators believe that they must obey the "absolute authority" of the original text and translate the original text word by word in order to be completely faithful. Other translators advocate for loyalty to the original text. And Kashkin believes that realism in art is a complex and diverse phenomenon, which is restricted by history. Realism in art is real and poetic. Exactly, to feel and reflect world

( Kashkin, 1977: 177)

In order to accurately convey the ideological content of the original work and creatively reproduce the artistic characteristics and national characteristics of the original work, it must adopt the realistic translation method. The translator must respect the reality of the text and strive to reproduce the objective reality expressed by the text and give it life, not simply copying the text symbols of the original text.

Translators should understand the author of the original text's direct feelings of reality through the barrier of the syntactic structure of a foreign language. Only in this way could he reproduce the original in the same powerful and clear language, as did the original author did. The translator should see the phenomena, thoughts, things, behaviors and conditions through the words of the original work, and specifically reproduce this reality in the eyes of the original author.
Reality in art is the image to reflect the essential characteristics in reality. written by --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:14, 19 December 2021 (UTC)

( Kashkin, 1977: 185)

The truth in literary translation is not a final pursuit that the surface is similar to the original text, nor does it simply copy all the unimportant details.The truth in literary translation is based on the internal logic of the image, and first, to faithfully translate the essence of the original text.The translator should faithfully understand the author's conception and creative intention, and retain the artistic characteristics of the original work, the historical reality and the atmosphere of The Times.

Otherwise, Kashkin believes that there must be a strict distinction between artistic images that should be conveyed and verbal images that occasionally occur in translation.Because language is the basic means of expressing all literature, but the basic task and main difficulty of literary and artistic translation is not to copy the language of the original text, including the language structure elements, but in the artistic reproduction of the original image, considering the differences of the language system.

( Kashkin, 1977: 205)

===5.2 Gaczilaser’s realistic view of translations===

Professor Givi Razhdenovich Gaczilaser is one of the largest specialists in the field of literary translation theory, the author of the famous monograph "The Problem of Realistic Translation", a translator of Shakespeare, Byron, Shelley and other English poets into Georgian. In the book offered to the reader's attention, he continued to develop in depth the theory and practice of literary translation. Proceeding from Lenin's theory of reflection, G. Gachechiladze considers literary translation as a form of cognition, as a creative act that helps the reader approach not only a foreign language work, but also the living reality reflected in this work.
Gaczilaser believes that the principles of literary translation have been swinging between the two extremes.One is word-by-word translation, and the other is artistically equivalent but written away from the original text. He thought it would be easy to combine the two principles, but it was impossible in practice. Because different means of expressing ideas are very different languages, word-by-word translation and artistic quality are always contradictory.

If the translator is limited to the original and not to reproduce what the author sees in the imagination, he is not a creative person. The translator should take the author's thoughts as the starting point, the original text serve the deep understanding of artistic reality. The translator should see the real life reflected in the original work behind the artistic reality, and it is not to create his own work.Realistic translation method refers to realists following the law of realistic art, reflecting the artistic reality of the original, and consistent with the original, more specifically, rhetorical consistency, only help to achieve linguistic loyalty, but should not let this affect their own will. Loyal to the author's artistic truth is the goal of the realistic translator.The artistic reality of the original includes both content and form, and even the unity of form and content.

(Gaczilaser, 1964: 120)

It is undoubtedly correct to compare the two language systems in the translation process.However, this contrast has certain limitations, as each language has its characteristic means of rhetoric.Just as there is no unified language, there is no unified rhetoric of all languages, nor the unified grammar of all languages. The application of rhetorical rules to any specific language would rise to a national, independent rhetorical system. Thus, the rhetorical rule can only be judged based on the character of some language.

===6. The Linguistic School Translation===
===6.1 Balhuadov’s Translation Concept===

Balhuarov was a famous translation theorist in the Soviet Union in the 20th century, one of the representatives of the language school and a doctor of Soviet philology, and has been engaged in translation teaching and translation theory research for many years. It is represented as the Language and Translation ("Язык и перевод").

From the perspective of the research subjects of the translation theory, Balhudav believes that the task of the linguistics theory of the translation is to pattern the translation process and put forward some scientific diagram for the translation process, which can more accurately reflect the important aspects of this process. In the view, on the one hand, translation theory, like any other theoretical model, reflects only some of the most important features of its subjects, rather than all features. Translation theory studies not all the relationship between the original language and the translation language, but the regular relationship between the two, that is, the typical and recurrent correspondence.On the other hand, translation theory, like any other discipline theory, stipulates not only a pattern, but many patterns that reflect the translation process in different ways as well as various characteristics.

(Balhudarov, 1975: 250)

From the essence of translation, Balhuudaf believes that translation is the process of converting a speech product into another language while keeping the content level (i. e., meaning) unchanged. Among them, the term “meaning” refers to the various relationships of language units. Translation is a process of changing one language discourse into another language discourse. The object of translation is not a language system, but a discourse.For translation, it is not the equivalent of the individual word, but the equivalent of the full text.Thus, the semantic differences between the two languages are not an insurmountable barrier in translation.
In addition, from the discussion of semantic problems of translation, Balhudv believes that the semantic problem of translation must be studied and conveyed from three aspects: meaning, pragmatic meaning and internal meaning.But on semantic issues, he presented no substantive content, with similar views mentioned by Jackson and Nida et al. in the late 1920s and early 1960s.But Balhudaf's interpretation is more detailed and fulfilling, and more generalized in some places.

Balhudaf also establishes equivalent translation from six levels: phonemic, phoneme, word, phrase, sentence, and discourse layer. The six levels are applied more systematically to translation theory.

(Balhudarov, 1975: 255)

'''(Balhudaf also establishes equivalent translation from six levels: phonemic, phoneme, word, phrase, sentence, and discourse layer, which are applied more systematically in translation. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 02:48, 14 December 2021 (UTC))'''

===7. Conclusion ===

To sum up, by introducing the historical evolution of the development of translation theory in the Soviet Union, we and the representatives of the school of translation literature and art and the translation language school can draw the following conclusions:

First of all, the developmental foundation of the Soviet translation theory was weak. At the beginning of World War II, the discussion of translation theory wasn’t systematic and comprehensive and they were all carried out from the perspective of literature and art. Only translation textbooks and translation instructional references are exceptional and are conducted from a linguistic perspective .After World War II, the Soviet Union began a new period of studying the translation theory from the perspective of linguistics. Its main feature was to connect translation theory with comparative linguistics, and to reveal the correspondence of the two languages on the basis of comparing the two languages.written by --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:15, 19 December 2021 (UTC)

(Cai & Duan, 2000: 168)

(Wu, 2006: 325)

Secondly, from the perspective of the literary school of translation, Kashkin, the theorist of translation, founded the realistic concept of translation, believing that the translation should pay attention to understanding the feelings of the original author, and believing that we must strictly distinguish the artistic image that should be conveyed and the occasional language image in the translation. Translation theorist Gaczirze believes that the principles of literary translation have been swinging between the two extremes. One is word-by-word translation, and the other is artistically equivalent but written away from the original text. He thought it would be easy to combine the two principles, but it was impossible in practice.

Thirdly, from the perspective of the language school of translation, the translation theorist Balhudarov believes that the task of the linguistics theory of translation is to pattern the translation process and put forward some scientific diagram for the translation process, which can more accurately reflect the important aspects of this process.He made great contributions to the linguistic school of translation.

(Wu, 2006: 325)

All in all, the translation theory of the Soviet period has its own unique development path. The Soviet translation theorists in this period made great contributions to the history of Soviet translation, also, the translation theory of the Soviet period became an indispensable part of the world translation theory map.

===8. References ===

Cai, Yi 蔡毅，Duan,Jinghua, 段京华. Translation Studies in USSR苏联翻译理论.湖北教育出版社，2000

Liu Miqing刘宓庆，Translation Basics 翻译基础.上海.华东师范大学出版社，2008

Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜.Translation Studies 翻译学.复旦大学出版社，2017

Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜.History of Western Translation 西方翻译简史.北京.商务印书馆，1991

Wu, Keli 吴克礼.The Translation Methods and Studies in USSR 俄苏翻译理论流派综述. 上海外语教育出版社，2006

Xu, Jun 许均. Translation Theories 翻译论. 湖北教育出版社，2003

Balhudarov Бархударов Л.С. Language and Translation: Collation said Partial theory of Translation Язык и перевод: Вопросы общей и частной теории перевода, Международные отношения, 1975

Gaczilaser Гиви Гачечиладзе. Problems of Literary Theory Вопросы теории художественного перевода. Тбилиси: Литература да хлебовнеба, 1964

Kashkin Иван Кашкин. Articles and Studies Статьи и исследования. Москва. Советский писатель, 1977

--[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 08:41, 12 December 2021 (UTC)

Hist Trans Theo EN 13

2021-12-19T13:15:30Z

Wu Jingyue: /* 7. Conclusion */

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=Chapter 13 History of Translation Theories in the Soviet Union=
===苏联时期的翻译理论史===
Wu Jingyue 吴婧悦 Hunan Normal University

===1. Abstract===
As is well known, the history of the Soviet period and discusse the characteristics of the Soviet translation theory. written by --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:02, 19 December 2021 (UTC) Firstly, we discuss about the overall situation of the development of the Soviet period, the history of the Soviet period and discusses the characteristics of the Soviet translation theory. Finally, we introduce the famous translation theorist like: S. G. Barkhudarov (С. Г. Бархуда́ров) and I. A. Kashkin (И. А. Кашки́н) and so on.

'''(As is well known, the history of the Soviet period and discusse the characteristics of the Soviet translation theory.corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 14:29, 13 December 2021 (UTC))'''

===2. Key words===
Translation theories, Western translation theories, Soviet Translation theories

===3. Introduction===
The Soviet translation theory play a pivotal role in the world translation theory. written by --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:04, 19 December 2021 (UTC)This paper firstly introduces the historical evolution of the development of the Soviet translation theory, which divides the Soviet Union into two periods: the development history of translation theory before World War II and the development history of translation theory after World War II. In introducing the history of translation theory before World War II, the source of the history of Soviet translation theory, the development of Soviet translation theory, namely linguistics and the contribution of Kamisarov, Liubimov and others.Secondly, the representatives of the translation literature and art school and the translation language school are introduced specifically.When introducing the school of translation literature, the views of translator Kashkin and Gachzzeraz are introduced; in introducing the language school of translation, they are mainly introduced.

'''(The Soviet translation theory play a pivotal role in the world translation theory. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 17:16, 13 December 2021 (UTC))'''

===4. The evolution of Translation Theories in the Soviet Union.===
===4.1 History of translation theory development before World War II===
The Soviet translation theory occupies a very prominent position in the world translation theory.The Soviet study of translation theory began shortly after the October Revolution, began with literary translation.

In 1918, Gorky (А.М.Горький) founded the World Literature Press (Издательство "Всемирная литература") in conjunction with the help of Lenin(В.И.Ленин). The publisher's task is to introduce world classics, improve the translation art, and train translators.At this stage, nearly 100 professors and writers attended the work.In order to unify the thinking, discuss the theory of literary translation, and stipulate some clear rules, Gorky handed the burden to Chukowsky(К.И.Чуковский). Therefore, after making a lot of efforts, Chukowski wrote the book "The Principles of Literary Translation--written by [[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:07, 19 December 2021 (UTC)("Прицины художественного перевода") in 1919.He first proposed that the translator of the novel should be an artist and a master of language.Chukowski believed that a good translation can reproduce the artistic characteristics of the original text in vivid and rich Russian.But at that time, there was a very popular view in literary and theoretical criticism that translation was essentially impossible work.

(Cai & Duan, 2000: 5)

'''(Therefore, after making a lot of efforts, Chukowski wrote the book "The Principles of Literary Translation" ("Прицины художественного перевода") in 1919.Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 17:16, 13 December 2021 (UTC))'''

In 1930, The Principles of Literary Translation was collected in Chukowski's "The Art of Translation" ("Искусство переводов").It suggests that translators must understand the social environment.In addition, the communication of the structural characteristics and rhetorical characteristics of the original text, as well as the principles of translation and expression, are also discussed.

In 1934 Translation theorist Smirnov (А.А.Смирнов) made the first proposal of the concept of "equivalent translation" in the term "Soviet Literature Encyclopedia", "translation" (Перевод).The "equivalent translation" here means "conveying the ideological content, feelings, and written structure of the original work", that is, "conveying the full creative intention of the original author". Smirnov suggested that not only can use the direct counterpart of the original in translation but also can use the functional approximation of the original in translation.

(Cai & Duan, 2000: 16)

In 1936, Loginski (М.Л.Лозинский) reported at the first National Conference of Translators, "The Art of the Translation of Poetry" ("Искусство стихотворного перевода"), and pointed out that poetry translation should be the same in aesthetics as the original poetry works, highlighting the equivalent aesthetic function of literary and artistic translation.

'''(In 1936, Loginski (М.Л.Лозинский) delivered a report at the first National Conference of Translators, "The Art of the Translation of Poetry" ("Искусство стихотворного перевода"), and pointed out that poetry translation should be the same in aesthetics as the original poem, highlighting the equivalent aesthetic function of literary and artistic translation. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 17:16, 13 December 2021 (UTC))'''

Also in 1936, Kashkin (И.А.Кашкин) proposed the theory and became the founder of the Soviet theory of realism. His translation method is: translators should try their best to reproduce the objective reality expressed in the original text, rather than words; they should see, experience, and perfectly reproduce the reality in the eyes of the author from behind the original text. He equated the realistic method of translation with the socialist realism in literary creation.In the Soviet Union, he was hailed as "a theorist representing a entire era in the history of Russian translation". He believes that translators should be loyal to the original, to their readers, to reality, and that the three are inseparable. () Kashkin believes that without a theory, translators are just a craftsman, and can never become a translator or artist.

( Kashkin, 1977)
(Cai & Duan, 2000: 25)

Also in 1936, Kashkin (И.А.Кашкин) proposed the theory and became the founder of the Soviet theory of realism. His translation method is: translators should try their best to reproduce the objective reality expressed in the original text, rather than words; they should see, experience, and perfectly reproduce the reality in the eyes of the author from behind the original text. He equated the realistic method of translation with the socialist realism in literary creation.In the Soviet Union, he was hailed as "a theorist representing a entire era in the history of Russian translation". He believes that translators should be loyal to the original, to their readers, to reality, and that the three are inseparable. Kashkin believes that without a theory, translators are just a craftsman, and can never become a translator or artist.

'''( His translation methods are: translators should try their best to show the objective reality expressed in the original text, instead of focuing on translating words by words; they should see, experience, and perfectly reproduce the reality in the eyes of the author of the original text.Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 17:16, 13 December 2021 (UTC))'''

It was worth mentioning that at the beginning of World War II, the discussion of translation theories did not form systematic and comprehensive theory, and they were all carried out from a literary point of view. Only translation of textbooks and translation instructional references were exceptional and were conducted from a linguistic perspective. written by --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:07, 19 December 2021 (UTC)

(Cai & Duan, 2000: 120)

'''(It was worth mentioning that at the beginning of World War II, the discussion of translation theories did not form systematic and comprehensive theory, and they were all carried out from a literary point of view. Only translation of textbooks and translation instructional references were exceptional and were conducted from a linguistic perspective.Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 17:16, 13 December 2021 (UTC))'''

===4.2 History of translation theory development after World War II===
Since the 1950s, a new period of studying translation theory from the perspective of linguistics began. Its main characteristic is to link translation theory with comparative linguistics, and to reveal the law of the two languages based on the comparison of the phenomenon of the two languages.written by --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:12, 19 December 2021 (UTC)

'''(Since the 1950s, a new period of studying translation theory from the perspective of linguistics began. Its main characteristic is to link translation theory with comparative linguistics and to reveal the law of the two languages based on the comparison of the phenomenon of the two languagesCorrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 17:16, 13 December 2021 (UTC)) .
'''

In 1950, "Theory and Methods of Translation Teaching" ("Вопросы теории и методики учебного перевода"), which played a considerable role in the development of translation theory. For example, in Gary Palin(И.Р. Гпльперии) 's article, "Translation and Rhetoric" ("Перевод и стилистика"), shares Shakespeare's original Othello with Morosov’s (М.М.Морозов) translation, noting the similarities and differences between English and Russian in terms of meaning and aesthetic functions. Meanwhile, the book Lezkel(Я.И.Рецкер) ’s article, "On the regularity and correspondence in Russia" ("О закономерных соответствиях при переводе на роднои язык"), divides the language regularity correspondence into three categories: equivalent, approximation and equivalent substitution.These three methods are applied to scientific and technological translation, the translation of political articles, and literary translation.

(Wu, 2006: 325)

1953 Feodorov (А.В.Фёдоров) 's book "An Introduction to the Translation Theory" ("Введение в теорию перевода") was published.The book discusses the translation theory from the perspective of the linguistics theory, and proposes that the translation theory is a branch of the linguistics, and the translation problem can only be solved in the field of linguistics. In addition, the book stipulates the content of the concept of "translation", the object of theoretical research, the content, etc., and discusses the vocabulary issues, grammar issues and stylistic issues of translation, respectively.The book made Feyodorov the founder of the language school of translation theory. In addition, the book received wide attention in the Soviet translation circle, especially the translation teaching circle, but it also caused a heated controversy in the literary and art school of translation theory.

'''(1953 Feodorov (А.В.Фёдоров) 's book "An Introduction to Translation Theory" ("Введение в теорию перевода") was published. The book discusses the translation theory from the perspective of the linguistics theory and proposes that the translation theory is a branch of the linguistics and the translation problem can only be solved in the field of linguistics. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 02:11, 14 December 2021 (UTC))'''

However, translators from the school of literature and art believe that Feodorov studied translation problems almost completely from a linguistic perspective, ignoring that the first thing of literary translation should be involved in the problem of literature and art.

(Wu, 2006: 354)

'''(However, translators from the school of literature and art believe that Feodorov studied translation problems almost completely from a linguistic perspective, ignoring that the first thing of literary translation should be involved in the problem of literature and art.Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 02:11, 14 December 2021 (UTC))'''

In 1954, Kashkin put forward in "Methods and Genres of Soviet Literary Translation" ("О методе и школе советского художественного перевода") that the theory of literary translation should be a broad language discipline. That is to say, written by --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:12, 19 December 2021 (UTC)the study of translation and literary problems should be combined.

'''(In 1954, Kashkin put forward in "Methods and Genres of Soviet Literary Translation" ("О методе и школе советского художественного перевода") that the theory of literary translation should be a broad language discipline. That is to say, the study of translation and literary problems should be combined. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 02:11, 14 December 2021 (UTC))'''

In 1955 the collection of "Literary Translation" ("Вопросы художественного перевода") questions Feydorov's views, believing that studying translation theory from a linguistic perspective may lead to formalism and word-by-word dead translation in translation practice.

Since then, the Soviet theory of translation has gradually formed two major schools, namely, the school of literature and art and the language school.The two factions had long debated, culminating after the late 1950s and 1960s, with numerous papers and monographs each published."Translation Skills" ("Мастерство перевода"), published by the Soviet Writers Publishing House, focuses on the views of the literary school. The language school is based on the "Translation Worker Notes" ("Тетрадь переводчика") edited by Balhudarov, making comments and summarizing the translation experience.Most belong to the literary school are writers; the language school are linguists and college teachers.

( Kashkin, 1977: 163)

In 1958, Feodorov made some additions and modifications to the original book in the second edition of the Introduction to Translation Theory. Although he also admitted that the problems in the field of translation could not all be explained by linguistic methods, it was correct to study the translation problem from the perspective of linguistics, otherwise, there would be no real theory of translation art.He stressed that literary and artistic translation does have its own characteristics, and should highlight its aesthetic aspects, but literary images are created by language means, and must also be conveyed by another language means. Therefore, the study of translation and theory from the perspective of linguistics is the basis.

(Wu, 2006: 366)

'''(In 1958, Feodorov made some additions and modifications to the original book in the second edition of the Introduction to Translation Theory. Although he also admitted that the problems in the field of translation could not all be explained by linguistic methods, it was necessary to study the translation problem from the perspective of linguistics. Otherwise, there would be no real theory of translation art. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 02:11, 14 December 2021 (UTC))'''

In 1962, the collection of "Translation Theory and Review" ("Теория и критика перевода"), including two groups of translation theorists.Linguist Larin (Б.А.Ларии) In the preface to the collection, "Our Mission" ("Наши задачи"), proposed that the theory of literary translation must be established on the basis of linguistics and literature.He believes that it is impossible not to combine linguistics and literary methods organically, whether in linguistics, rhetoric, or translation theory. Any translation should begin with analysis, and finally finish with literary creation.

1963 Aitkin (Е.Т.Эткин) published the book "Poetry and Translation" ("Поэзии и перевод"), which analyzed and commented on a large number of foreign-language poems translated into Russian language in the early 19th century, concerning the translation of literary and artistic theory.He believes that the linguistic means of poetry translation are closely related to the reproduced artistic characteristics of the original poetry, and the two should not be opposed.In his opinion, translation is like rhetoric, which is both a problem of literature and art and linguistics, because rhetoric is a science of language synonymous, and it belongs to the two fields of linguistics. Ignoring the theory of the form of literary works will actually make the translator helpless.

(Tan，1991: 246)

In 1964, Gachzrazawa (Г.Р.Гачечиладзе) published the book "The Theory of Literary Translation" ("Вопросы теории художественного перевода"), in which he based on Lenin's reaction theory, proposing that the translator directly reflects the original text, namely the artistic reality of the original text, rather than the specific reality directly reflected by the original text.

That same year, Levzin (И.И.Ревзин) and Rosenzwig (В.Ю.Розенцвейг) has published "Principles of General Translation and Machine Translation" ("Основы общего и машинного перевода") to study translation issues from a structural linguistics perspective.It was the first work in the world to combine the concepts and principles of translational theory with the category of structural linguistics.

(Wu, 2006: 430)

'''(That year, Levzin (И.И.Ревзин) and Rosenzwig (В.Ю.Розенцвейг) published "Principles of General Translation and Machine Translation" ("Основы общего и машинного перевода") to study translation issues from a structural linguistics perspective.It was the first work in the world to combine the concepts and principles of translational theory with the category of structural linguistics. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 02:11, 14 December 2021 (UTC))'''

In 1968, Feodorov made a new revision and supplement to the new situation, publishing the third edition of the book and renamed "Basic Translation" ("Основы общеи тоерии перевода").The rationale is that this can highlight the basic principles of translation theory —— studies various translation phenomena and various kinds of translation, revealing their commonalities and respective characteristics, comparing from a linguistic perspective.In the book, Feodorov makes it clear that it should never be forgotten that the ultimate task is to establish a common theory of philology.It is now outdated to insist that literary translation is studied only through literature and art, or only through linguistics. Contemporary era is an era of close cooperation between different disciplines. In philology, the distance between the two branches of literature and linguistics is not very large, and its differences are inevitable, but can be overcome, that is to say, the two can be combined all together.

The 1970s were called the "harvest years" of Soviet translation theory, and the debate entered a new stage.

In 1972, Gabriel's book "Literary Translation and Literary Exchange" ("Художественныи перевод и литературные взаимосвязи") can be regarded as a representative work of the school of literature and art, which more comprehensively expounded the translation theory views of the Soviet school of literature and art.Once published, the book immediately aroused widespread response from the Soviet translation theory community.In the book, he pointed out that literary and artistic translation belongs to the category of artistic creation, and studying literary translation from the perspective of linguistics inevitably leads to the dead translation of auxiliary words. As a result, the translation is linguistically correct and low in art. Because from a linguistic point of view, the decisive factor is not the translator's creative attitude towards the original text, but the linguistic correspondence principle.Thus, translation becomes some technical process, not creation. Literary and artistic translation should reproduce the aesthetic value of the original text.

1963 Komizarov (В.Н.Комиссаров) presents its unique theory of "equivalent levels" in his book on translation ("Слово о переводе").According to this theory, the meaning structure of discourse is a complex that can be divided into content, namely the level of language symbols, discourse level, notification structure level, scenario description level and the level of communication purpose.The principle of translation equivalence to the original text should be based on these levels during translation.

(Wu, 2006: 456)

The same year, Shvzel (В.Н.Комиссаров) published the book "Translation and Linguistics" ("Перевод и лингвистика"), suggesting that translation is not only the contact between two language systems, but also between two different cultures, and sometimes between two different civilizations.In addition, he raises questions about the invariant values of the translation function.Shvzel believes that translation functional invariant values include both semantic and grammatical aspects.

'''(The same year, Shvzel (В.Н.Комиссаров) published the book "Translation and Linguistics" ("Перевод и лингвистика"), suggesting that translation is not only the contact between two language systems, but also between two different cultures, and sometimes between two different civilizations.In addition, he raised some questions about the invariant values of the translation function.Shvzel believes that translation functional invariant values include both semantic and grammatical aspects. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 02:11, 14 December 2021 (UTC))'''

In 1974 Lezkel (Я.И.Рецкер) has published the book "Translation Theory and Translation Practice (An Introduction to the Theory of Linguistics of Translation)" ("Теория перевода и переводическая практика - Очерки лингвистическои теории перевода"), which discusses some key issues in the linguistics theory of translation, which are directly related to the translation practice.The book compares the lexical grammar and rhetorical characteristics of English with its functional counterpart in Russian, and reveals the logical semantic basis of using various translation techniques and methods in the translation process.

'''(In 1974 Lezkel (Я.И.Рецкер) published the book "Translation Theory and Translation Practice (An Introduction to the Theory of Linguistics of Translation)" ("Теория перевода и переводическая практика - Очерки лингвистическои теории перевода"), which discusses some key issues in the linguistics theory of translation, which are directly related to the translation practice. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 02:11, 14 December 2021 (UTC))'''

1975 Balhudarov (Л.С.Бархударов) published the book "Language and Translation" ("Язык и перевод"), which aroused widespread response in the Soviet translation community and was considered the representative work of the Soviet language school translation theory in the 1970s. The biggest characteristic of the book is to link the translation theory with the latest achievements in linguistics in the world, and put forward the linguistics theory of translation is comparing discourse linguistics, more specifically, is the semantic discourse in different languages, and the actual segmentation of the sentence is an essential condition of equivalent translation and a series of new arguments. Balhuduff makes it clear that translation changes the speech product of one language to another while keeping the content unchanged, that is, the translator does not deal with the language system, but with the language product.In addition, he discussed translationability, the nature of translation theory, semantics and translation, translation units, and translation methods.

(Balhudarov, 1975: 187)

In 1976, Chernhovskikaya (Л.А.Черняховская) published the book "Translation and the Semantic Structure" ("Перевод и смысловая структура"), the only Soviet work that conveys the logical focus and real semantic segmentation of sentences in translation.

That same year, Levitskaya (Т.Р.Леницкая) and Fejelman (А.М.Фетерман) published the book "translation problem" ("Проблемы перевода"), the book discusses English and Russian due to different vocabulary, grammar, rhetorical structure and the main translation problems, its focus is not the translation process itself and general translation methods and skills, but for the difficulty of English translation into Russian method.

In 1977 Lambimov (Н.М.Любимов) highlighted in "Translation is Art" ("Перевод - искусство") that literary translation is an art that pursues artistic accuracy rather than literal slave-style fidelity.At the same time, it is also proposed that words as language units can only be reflected in, or through words, so the objective reality of language existence is the overall —— discourse of the work. The basic category of translation is the discourse.

And 1978 Venogradov (В.С.Виноградов) pointed out in "The Lexical Problems of Literary Prose Translation" ("Лексические вопросы перевода художественнои прозы") that words are the basic unit of language, so, it is also the starting point of translation.

(Wu, 2006: 359)

In 1978, Komisarov edited and published the collection of "Translation Theory Issues in Foreign Linguistics" ("Вопросы теории перевода в зарубежнои лингвистике"), It fairly fully introduces the state of Western linguists studying translation theory, The book is divided into four themes, Both: the general linguistics problem of translation, Translation equivalent, translation process, Translational linguistics and Translational rhetoric; Translating the relevant discourse of some famous western linguists, For example, Jacobson (R.Jackbcon), one of the founders of the Prague School, British linguist J.R.Firch (J.R.Firch) and others.The influence of this collection is evident from the later writings of translation theorists of the Soviet language school.

In 1980, Komisarov published the book "translation linguistics" ("Лингвистика перевода"), which pointed out that the perspective of linguistics is entering a new stage, turned out to regard the linguistics translation theory as a part of applied linguistics, for the translation practice of service, its focus is on the translation process, its task is to study the linguistics mode of translation and determine the principle of translation. The results of studying translation from the perspective of linguistics show that translation is an integral part of linguistics, and the theoretical analysis of interlanguage communication phenomenon is necessary for the development of linguistics itself. Therefore, translation should be regarded as a special form of language function, which is a special method of its speech practice, and our knowledge of the essence and function of language is incomplete. That is, linguistic analysis of translation can not only serve translation practice, but also promote development of linguistics itself. It is under the guidance of this idea that the book discusses the general linguistics theory of translation, translation semantics, translation linguistics, translation rhetoric, translation mode, translation standards. Therefore, it provides a new perspective for the study of translation theory.

(Cai & Duan, 2000: 20)

In the same year, the Minyal. Bellolluchev (Р.К.Миньяр - Белоручев) published the book "Translation" ("Общая теория перевода и устныи перевод").The book regards translational science as an independent subject on the grounds that it has its own subjects, content and a complete set of terms; thinks that translation research is beyond the scope of linguistics. It written by --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:12, 19 December 2021 (UTC)is a subject of linguistics, psychology, semiotics, sociology intersection, mainly applicable to translation between any two languages; proposes the discourse information theory, the main method of translation and the classification of language means in translation and so on.The book first used the interpretation as a research subject.

'''(In the same year, the Minyal. Bellolluchev (Р.К.Миньяр - Белоручев) published the book "Translation" ("Общая теория перевода и устныи перевод").This book regards translational science as an independent subject on the grounds that it has its own subjects, content and a complete set of terms; Besides, it presents that translation research is beyond the scope of linguistics. It is a subject of linguistics, psychology, semiotics, sociology intersection, mainly applicable to translation between any two languages; And this book also proposed the discourse information theory, the main method of translation and the classification of language means in translation and so on.The book first used the interpretation as a research subject. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 02:11, 14 December 2021 (UTC))'''

In 1981, Ratshev (Л.К.Латышев) published the "Translation Tutorial —— Translation equivalent and achieve the equivalent Method" ("Курс перевода: Эквивалентность перевода и способы ее достижения"), which divided the translation equivalent into formal and functional equivalent two types, and proposed the specific methods to achieve the translation equivalent.

In 1983, Feodorov published the collection of "Translation Art and Literary Life" ("Искусство перевода и жизнь литературы."), indicating from the preface entitled "A Window to Another World" ("Окнов другои мир") that Feodorov partially accepted the other's views through disputes with the school of translation theory and literature.At the same time, he argued that Gaczrazzer greatly limited the role of language in translation, seeing language as mere technical means.

(Cai &Duan, 2000: 22)

In 1985, Lvorskaya (З.Д.Львовская) published the book "Theoretical Issues of Translation"(Теоритическая проблема перевода”), which based on the theory of communicative function, believing that discourse meaning is divided into linguistic and verbal categories. The equivalent of translation is not the absolute invariance of the semantic, pragmatic, and environmental components in the meaning structure, but only the equivalence of pragmatic and environmental components.
The 20th century school of literature in the translation theory of outstanding events is in the journal "literary review" ("Литературное обозрение") continuously on the discussion of translation problem, the content involves: the necessity of the translation theory, how to overcome the two extreme, how to treat the original aesthetics, time color, translation can really convey "the spirit of the original" and the creation of the translator, etc.

In 1988, Shvzzer, a translation theorist of the language school, published the book "Translation Theory: Status, Problems and Face"(“Теория перевода : Статус, проблема, аспекты”). The author combines the latest achievements in linguistics in the field of speech linguistics, sentence semantics, communication linguistics and psychological linguistics, the status of translation theory, the essence of translation, equivalent, similarities, interpretability, translation semantic, language, discourse and translation and other six issues, the language school translation theory research mentioned a new stage.

In 1990, Komisarov's book "Translation Theory (Linguistics)" ("Теория перевода (линвистические вопросы") clearly stated in his preface that translation theory is an important part of the training of future translators. As a textbook, the book aims to introduce the basic principles of translational linguistics theory.
In the 1980s, the Soviet theory of scientific and technological translation developed rapidly, and published a lot of articles and monographs.

(Cai & Duan, 2000: 37)

In all, the Soviet theory of translation has been developed from scratch, from sporadic to systematic, constantly enriched, and constantly deepening step by step.

===5. The Literary School of Translation===
===5.1 Realistic Translation pioneered by E.A.Kashkin===

Kashkin Ivan Alexandrovich - literary critic, translator and critic. He brought up a significant group of translators from the English language. He translated J. Chaucer's The Canterbury Tales (1946, with O. Rumer). Promoter of the best achievements of modern English and American poetry (R. Frost, K. Sandberg) and prose (E. Hemingway, E. Caldwell, J. Wayne, etc.). Aslo, he is the author of historical and literary studies about J. Conrad, L. Stevenson, W. Faulkner, E. Hemingway and others.

Some translators believe that they must obey the "absolute authority" of the original text and translate the original text word by word in order to be completely faithful. Other translators advocate for loyalty to the original text. And Kashkin believes that realism in art is a complex and diverse phenomenon, which is restricted by history. Realism in art is real and poetic. Exactly, to feel and reflect world

( Kashkin, 1977: 177)

In order to accurately convey the ideological content of the original work and creatively reproduce the artistic characteristics and national characteristics of the original work, it must adopt the realistic translation method. The translator must respect the reality of the text and strive to reproduce the objective reality expressed by the text and give it life, not simply copying the text symbols of the original text.

Translators should understand the author of the original text's direct feelings of reality through the barrier of the syntactic structure of a foreign language. Only in this way could he reproduce the original in the same powerful and clear language, as did the original author did. The translator should see the phenomena, thoughts, things, behaviors and conditions through the words of the original work, and specifically reproduce this reality in the eyes of the original author.
Reality in art is the image to reflect the essential characteristics in reality. written by --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:14, 19 December 2021 (UTC)

( Kashkin, 1977: 185)

The truth in literary translation is not a final pursuit that the surface is similar to the original text, nor does it simply copy all the unimportant details.The truth in literary translation is based on the internal logic of the image, and first, to faithfully translate the essence of the original text.The translator should faithfully understand the author's conception and creative intention, and retain the artistic characteristics of the original work, the historical reality and the atmosphere of The Times.

Otherwise, Kashkin believes that there must be a strict distinction between artistic images that should be conveyed and verbal images that occasionally occur in translation.Because language is the basic means of expressing all literature, but the basic task and main difficulty of literary and artistic translation is not to copy the language of the original text, including the language structure elements, but in the artistic reproduction of the original image, considering the differences of the language system.

( Kashkin, 1977: 205)

===5.2 Gaczilaser’s realistic view of translations===

Professor Givi Razhdenovich Gaczilaser is one of the largest specialists in the field of literary translation theory, the author of the famous monograph "The Problem of Realistic Translation", a translator of Shakespeare, Byron, Shelley and other English poets into Georgian. In the book offered to the reader's attention, he continued to develop in depth the theory and practice of literary translation. Proceeding from Lenin's theory of reflection, G. Gachechiladze considers literary translation as a form of cognition, as a creative act that helps the reader approach not only a foreign language work, but also the living reality reflected in this work.
Gaczilaser believes that the principles of literary translation have been swinging between the two extremes.One is word-by-word translation, and the other is artistically equivalent but written away from the original text. He thought it would be easy to combine the two principles, but it was impossible in practice. Because different means of expressing ideas are very different languages, word-by-word translation and artistic quality are always contradictory.

If the translator is limited to the original and not to reproduce what the author sees in the imagination, he is not a creative person. The translator should take the author's thoughts as the starting point, the original text serve the deep understanding of artistic reality. The translator should see the real life reflected in the original work behind the artistic reality, and it is not to create his own work.Realistic translation method refers to realists following the law of realistic art, reflecting the artistic reality of the original, and consistent with the original, more specifically, rhetorical consistency, only help to achieve linguistic loyalty, but should not let this affect their own will. Loyal to the author's artistic truth is the goal of the realistic translator.The artistic reality of the original includes both content and form, and even the unity of form and content.

(Gaczilaser, 1964: 120)

It is undoubtedly correct to compare the two language systems in the translation process.However, this contrast has certain limitations, as each language has its characteristic means of rhetoric.Just as there is no unified language, there is no unified rhetoric of all languages, nor the unified grammar of all languages. The application of rhetorical rules to any specific language would rise to a national, independent rhetorical system. Thus, the rhetorical rule can only be judged based on the character of some language.

===6. The Linguistic School Translation===
===6.1 Balhuadov’s Translation Concept===

Balhuarov was a famous translation theorist in the Soviet Union in the 20th century, one of the representatives of the language school and a doctor of Soviet philology, and has been engaged in translation teaching and translation theory research for many years. It is represented as the Language and Translation ("Язык и перевод").

From the perspective of the research subjects of the translation theory, Balhudav believes that the task of the linguistics theory of the translation is to pattern the translation process and put forward some scientific diagram for the translation process, which can more accurately reflect the important aspects of this process. In the view, on the one hand, translation theory, like any other theoretical model, reflects only some of the most important features of its subjects, rather than all features. Translation theory studies not all the relationship between the original language and the translation language, but the regular relationship between the two, that is, the typical and recurrent correspondence.On the other hand, translation theory, like any other discipline theory, stipulates not only a pattern, but many patterns that reflect the translation process in different ways as well as various characteristics.

(Balhudarov, 1975: 250)

From the essence of translation, Balhuudaf believes that translation is the process of converting a speech product into another language while keeping the content level (i. e., meaning) unchanged. Among them, the term “meaning” refers to the various relationships of language units. Translation is a process of changing one language discourse into another language discourse. The object of translation is not a language system, but a discourse.For translation, it is not the equivalent of the individual word, but the equivalent of the full text.Thus, the semantic differences between the two languages are not an insurmountable barrier in translation.
In addition, from the discussion of semantic problems of translation, Balhudv believes that the semantic problem of translation must be studied and conveyed from three aspects: meaning, pragmatic meaning and internal meaning.But on semantic issues, he presented no substantive content, with similar views mentioned by Jackson and Nida et al. in the late 1920s and early 1960s.But Balhudaf's interpretation is more detailed and fulfilling, and more generalized in some places.

Balhudaf also establishes equivalent translation from six levels: phonemic, phoneme, word, phrase, sentence, and discourse layer. The six levels are applied more systematically to translation theory.

(Balhudarov, 1975: 255)

'''(Balhudaf also establishes equivalent translation from six levels: phonemic, phoneme, word, phrase, sentence, and discourse layer, which are applied more systematically in translation. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 02:48, 14 December 2021 (UTC))'''

===7. Conclusion ===

To sum up, by introducing the historical evolution of the development of translation theory in the Soviet Union, we and the representatives of the school of translation literature and art and the translation language school can draw the following conclusions:

First of all, the developmental foundation of the Soviet translation theory was weak. At the beginning of World War II, the discussion of translation theory wasn’t systematic and comprehensive and they were all carried out from the perspective of literature and art. Only translation textbooks and translation instructional references are exceptional and are conducted from a linguistic perspective .After World War II, the Soviet Union began a new period of studying the translation theory from the perspective of linguistics. Its main feature was to connect translation theory with comparative linguistics, and to reveal the correspondence of the two languages on the basis of comparing the two languages.written by --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:15, 19 December 2021 (UTC)

(Cai & Duan, 2000: 168)

(Wu, 2006: 325)

Secondly, from the perspective of the literary school of translation, Kashkin, the theorist of translation, founded the realistic concept of translation, believing that the translation should pay attention to understanding the feelings of the original author, and believing that we must strictly distinguish the artistic image that should be conveyed and the occasional language image in the translation. Translation theorist Gaczirze believes that the principles of literary translation have been swinging between the two extremes. One is word-by-word translation, and the other is artistically equivalent but written away from the original text. He thought it would be easy to combine the two principles, but it was impossible in practice.

Thirdly, from the perspective of the language school of translation, the translation theorist Balhudarov believes that the task of the linguistics theory of translation is to pattern the translation process and put forward some scientific diagram for the translation process, which can more accurately reflect the important aspects of this process.He made great contributions to the linguistic school of translation.

(Wu, 2006: 325)

All in all, the translation theory of the Soviet period has its own unique development path. The Soviet translation theorists in this period made great contributions to the history of Soviet translation, also, the translation theory of the Soviet period became an indispensable part of the world translation theory map.

===8. References ===

Cai, Yi 蔡毅，Duan,Jinghua, 段京华. Translation Studies in USSR苏联翻译理论.湖北教育出版社，2000

Liu Miqing刘宓庆，Translation Basics 翻译基础.上海.华东师范大学出版社，2008

Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜.Translation Studies 翻译学.复旦大学出版社，2017

Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜.History of Western Translation 西方翻译简史.北京.商务印书馆，1991

Wu, Keli 吴克礼.The Translation Methods and Studies in USSR 俄苏翻译理论流派综述. 上海外语教育出版社，2006

Xu, Jun 许均. Translation Theories 翻译论. 湖北教育出版社，2003

Balhudarov Бархударов Л.С. Language and Translation: Collation said Partial theory of Translation Язык и перевод: Вопросы общей и частной теории перевода, Международные отношения, 1975

Gaczilaser Гиви Гачечиладзе. Problems of Literary Theory Вопросы теории художественного перевода. Тбилиси: Литература да хлебовнеба, 1964

Kashkin Иван Кашкин. Articles and Studies Статьи и исследования. Москва. Советский писатель, 1977

--[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 08:41, 12 December 2021 (UTC)

Hist Trans Theo EN 13

2021-12-19T13:14:06Z

Wu Jingyue: /* 5.1 Realistic Translation pioneered by E.A.Kashkin */

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=Chapter 13 History of Translation Theories in the Soviet Union=
===苏联时期的翻译理论史===
Wu Jingyue 吴婧悦 Hunan Normal University

===1. Abstract===
As is well known, the history of the Soviet period and discusse the characteristics of the Soviet translation theory. written by --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:02, 19 December 2021 (UTC) Firstly, we discuss about the overall situation of the development of the Soviet period, the history of the Soviet period and discusses the characteristics of the Soviet translation theory. Finally, we introduce the famous translation theorist like: S. G. Barkhudarov (С. Г. Бархуда́ров) and I. A. Kashkin (И. А. Кашки́н) and so on.

'''(As is well known, the history of the Soviet period and discusse the characteristics of the Soviet translation theory.corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 14:29, 13 December 2021 (UTC))'''

===2. Key words===
Translation theories, Western translation theories, Soviet Translation theories

===3. Introduction===
The Soviet translation theory play a pivotal role in the world translation theory. written by --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:04, 19 December 2021 (UTC)This paper firstly introduces the historical evolution of the development of the Soviet translation theory, which divides the Soviet Union into two periods: the development history of translation theory before World War II and the development history of translation theory after World War II. In introducing the history of translation theory before World War II, the source of the history of Soviet translation theory, the development of Soviet translation theory, namely linguistics and the contribution of Kamisarov, Liubimov and others.Secondly, the representatives of the translation literature and art school and the translation language school are introduced specifically.When introducing the school of translation literature, the views of translator Kashkin and Gachzzeraz are introduced; in introducing the language school of translation, they are mainly introduced.

'''(The Soviet translation theory play a pivotal role in the world translation theory. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 17:16, 13 December 2021 (UTC))'''

===4. The evolution of Translation Theories in the Soviet Union.===
===4.1 History of translation theory development before World War II===
The Soviet translation theory occupies a very prominent position in the world translation theory.The Soviet study of translation theory began shortly after the October Revolution, began with literary translation.

In 1918, Gorky (А.М.Горький) founded the World Literature Press (Издательство "Всемирная литература") in conjunction with the help of Lenin(В.И.Ленин). The publisher's task is to introduce world classics, improve the translation art, and train translators.At this stage, nearly 100 professors and writers attended the work.In order to unify the thinking, discuss the theory of literary translation, and stipulate some clear rules, Gorky handed the burden to Chukowsky(К.И.Чуковский). Therefore, after making a lot of efforts, Chukowski wrote the book "The Principles of Literary Translation--written by [[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:07, 19 December 2021 (UTC)("Прицины художественного перевода") in 1919.He first proposed that the translator of the novel should be an artist and a master of language.Chukowski believed that a good translation can reproduce the artistic characteristics of the original text in vivid and rich Russian.But at that time, there was a very popular view in literary and theoretical criticism that translation was essentially impossible work.

(Cai & Duan, 2000: 5)

'''(Therefore, after making a lot of efforts, Chukowski wrote the book "The Principles of Literary Translation" ("Прицины художественного перевода") in 1919.Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 17:16, 13 December 2021 (UTC))'''

In 1930, The Principles of Literary Translation was collected in Chukowski's "The Art of Translation" ("Искусство переводов").It suggests that translators must understand the social environment.In addition, the communication of the structural characteristics and rhetorical characteristics of the original text, as well as the principles of translation and expression, are also discussed.

In 1934 Translation theorist Smirnov (А.А.Смирнов) made the first proposal of the concept of "equivalent translation" in the term "Soviet Literature Encyclopedia", "translation" (Перевод).The "equivalent translation" here means "conveying the ideological content, feelings, and written structure of the original work", that is, "conveying the full creative intention of the original author". Smirnov suggested that not only can use the direct counterpart of the original in translation but also can use the functional approximation of the original in translation.

(Cai & Duan, 2000: 16)

In 1936, Loginski (М.Л.Лозинский) reported at the first National Conference of Translators, "The Art of the Translation of Poetry" ("Искусство стихотворного перевода"), and pointed out that poetry translation should be the same in aesthetics as the original poetry works, highlighting the equivalent aesthetic function of literary and artistic translation.

'''(In 1936, Loginski (М.Л.Лозинский) delivered a report at the first National Conference of Translators, "The Art of the Translation of Poetry" ("Искусство стихотворного перевода"), and pointed out that poetry translation should be the same in aesthetics as the original poem, highlighting the equivalent aesthetic function of literary and artistic translation. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 17:16, 13 December 2021 (UTC))'''

Also in 1936, Kashkin (И.А.Кашкин) proposed the theory and became the founder of the Soviet theory of realism. His translation method is: translators should try their best to reproduce the objective reality expressed in the original text, rather than words; they should see, experience, and perfectly reproduce the reality in the eyes of the author from behind the original text. He equated the realistic method of translation with the socialist realism in literary creation.In the Soviet Union, he was hailed as "a theorist representing a entire era in the history of Russian translation". He believes that translators should be loyal to the original, to their readers, to reality, and that the three are inseparable. () Kashkin believes that without a theory, translators are just a craftsman, and can never become a translator or artist.

( Kashkin, 1977)
(Cai & Duan, 2000: 25)

Also in 1936, Kashkin (И.А.Кашкин) proposed the theory and became the founder of the Soviet theory of realism. His translation method is: translators should try their best to reproduce the objective reality expressed in the original text, rather than words; they should see, experience, and perfectly reproduce the reality in the eyes of the author from behind the original text. He equated the realistic method of translation with the socialist realism in literary creation.In the Soviet Union, he was hailed as "a theorist representing a entire era in the history of Russian translation". He believes that translators should be loyal to the original, to their readers, to reality, and that the three are inseparable. Kashkin believes that without a theory, translators are just a craftsman, and can never become a translator or artist.

'''( His translation methods are: translators should try their best to show the objective reality expressed in the original text, instead of focuing on translating words by words; they should see, experience, and perfectly reproduce the reality in the eyes of the author of the original text.Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 17:16, 13 December 2021 (UTC))'''

It was worth mentioning that at the beginning of World War II, the discussion of translation theories did not form systematic and comprehensive theory, and they were all carried out from a literary point of view. Only translation of textbooks and translation instructional references were exceptional and were conducted from a linguistic perspective. written by --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:07, 19 December 2021 (UTC)

(Cai & Duan, 2000: 120)

'''(It was worth mentioning that at the beginning of World War II, the discussion of translation theories did not form systematic and comprehensive theory, and they were all carried out from a literary point of view. Only translation of textbooks and translation instructional references were exceptional and were conducted from a linguistic perspective.Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 17:16, 13 December 2021 (UTC))'''

===4.2 History of translation theory development after World War II===
Since the 1950s, a new period of studying translation theory from the perspective of linguistics began. Its main characteristic is to link translation theory with comparative linguistics, and to reveal the law of the two languages based on the comparison of the phenomenon of the two languages.written by --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:12, 19 December 2021 (UTC)

'''(Since the 1950s, a new period of studying translation theory from the perspective of linguistics began. Its main characteristic is to link translation theory with comparative linguistics and to reveal the law of the two languages based on the comparison of the phenomenon of the two languagesCorrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 17:16, 13 December 2021 (UTC)) .
'''

In 1950, "Theory and Methods of Translation Teaching" ("Вопросы теории и методики учебного перевода"), which played a considerable role in the development of translation theory. For example, in Gary Palin(И.Р. Гпльперии) 's article, "Translation and Rhetoric" ("Перевод и стилистика"), shares Shakespeare's original Othello with Morosov’s (М.М.Морозов) translation, noting the similarities and differences between English and Russian in terms of meaning and aesthetic functions. Meanwhile, the book Lezkel(Я.И.Рецкер) ’s article, "On the regularity and correspondence in Russia" ("О закономерных соответствиях при переводе на роднои язык"), divides the language regularity correspondence into three categories: equivalent, approximation and equivalent substitution.These three methods are applied to scientific and technological translation, the translation of political articles, and literary translation.

(Wu, 2006: 325)

1953 Feodorov (А.В.Фёдоров) 's book "An Introduction to the Translation Theory" ("Введение в теорию перевода") was published.The book discusses the translation theory from the perspective of the linguistics theory, and proposes that the translation theory is a branch of the linguistics, and the translation problem can only be solved in the field of linguistics. In addition, the book stipulates the content of the concept of "translation", the object of theoretical research, the content, etc., and discusses the vocabulary issues, grammar issues and stylistic issues of translation, respectively.The book made Feyodorov the founder of the language school of translation theory. In addition, the book received wide attention in the Soviet translation circle, especially the translation teaching circle, but it also caused a heated controversy in the literary and art school of translation theory.

'''(1953 Feodorov (А.В.Фёдоров) 's book "An Introduction to Translation Theory" ("Введение в теорию перевода") was published. The book discusses the translation theory from the perspective of the linguistics theory and proposes that the translation theory is a branch of the linguistics and the translation problem can only be solved in the field of linguistics. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 02:11, 14 December 2021 (UTC))'''

However, translators from the school of literature and art believe that Feodorov studied translation problems almost completely from a linguistic perspective, ignoring that the first thing of literary translation should be involved in the problem of literature and art.

(Wu, 2006: 354)

'''(However, translators from the school of literature and art believe that Feodorov studied translation problems almost completely from a linguistic perspective, ignoring that the first thing of literary translation should be involved in the problem of literature and art.Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 02:11, 14 December 2021 (UTC))'''

In 1954, Kashkin put forward in "Methods and Genres of Soviet Literary Translation" ("О методе и школе советского художественного перевода") that the theory of literary translation should be a broad language discipline. That is to say, written by --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:12, 19 December 2021 (UTC)the study of translation and literary problems should be combined.

'''(In 1954, Kashkin put forward in "Methods and Genres of Soviet Literary Translation" ("О методе и школе советского художественного перевода") that the theory of literary translation should be a broad language discipline. That is to say, the study of translation and literary problems should be combined. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 02:11, 14 December 2021 (UTC))'''

In 1955 the collection of "Literary Translation" ("Вопросы художественного перевода") questions Feydorov's views, believing that studying translation theory from a linguistic perspective may lead to formalism and word-by-word dead translation in translation practice.

Since then, the Soviet theory of translation has gradually formed two major schools, namely, the school of literature and art and the language school.The two factions had long debated, culminating after the late 1950s and 1960s, with numerous papers and monographs each published."Translation Skills" ("Мастерство перевода"), published by the Soviet Writers Publishing House, focuses on the views of the literary school. The language school is based on the "Translation Worker Notes" ("Тетрадь переводчика") edited by Balhudarov, making comments and summarizing the translation experience.Most belong to the literary school are writers; the language school are linguists and college teachers.

( Kashkin, 1977: 163)

In 1958, Feodorov made some additions and modifications to the original book in the second edition of the Introduction to Translation Theory. Although he also admitted that the problems in the field of translation could not all be explained by linguistic methods, it was correct to study the translation problem from the perspective of linguistics, otherwise, there would be no real theory of translation art.He stressed that literary and artistic translation does have its own characteristics, and should highlight its aesthetic aspects, but literary images are created by language means, and must also be conveyed by another language means. Therefore, the study of translation and theory from the perspective of linguistics is the basis.

(Wu, 2006: 366)

'''(In 1958, Feodorov made some additions and modifications to the original book in the second edition of the Introduction to Translation Theory. Although he also admitted that the problems in the field of translation could not all be explained by linguistic methods, it was necessary to study the translation problem from the perspective of linguistics. Otherwise, there would be no real theory of translation art. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 02:11, 14 December 2021 (UTC))'''

In 1962, the collection of "Translation Theory and Review" ("Теория и критика перевода"), including two groups of translation theorists.Linguist Larin (Б.А.Ларии) In the preface to the collection, "Our Mission" ("Наши задачи"), proposed that the theory of literary translation must be established on the basis of linguistics and literature.He believes that it is impossible not to combine linguistics and literary methods organically, whether in linguistics, rhetoric, or translation theory. Any translation should begin with analysis, and finally finish with literary creation.

1963 Aitkin (Е.Т.Эткин) published the book "Poetry and Translation" ("Поэзии и перевод"), which analyzed and commented on a large number of foreign-language poems translated into Russian language in the early 19th century, concerning the translation of literary and artistic theory.He believes that the linguistic means of poetry translation are closely related to the reproduced artistic characteristics of the original poetry, and the two should not be opposed.In his opinion, translation is like rhetoric, which is both a problem of literature and art and linguistics, because rhetoric is a science of language synonymous, and it belongs to the two fields of linguistics. Ignoring the theory of the form of literary works will actually make the translator helpless.

(Tan，1991: 246)

In 1964, Gachzrazawa (Г.Р.Гачечиладзе) published the book "The Theory of Literary Translation" ("Вопросы теории художественного перевода"), in which he based on Lenin's reaction theory, proposing that the translator directly reflects the original text, namely the artistic reality of the original text, rather than the specific reality directly reflected by the original text.

That same year, Levzin (И.И.Ревзин) and Rosenzwig (В.Ю.Розенцвейг) has published "Principles of General Translation and Machine Translation" ("Основы общего и машинного перевода") to study translation issues from a structural linguistics perspective.It was the first work in the world to combine the concepts and principles of translational theory with the category of structural linguistics.

(Wu, 2006: 430)

'''(That year, Levzin (И.И.Ревзин) and Rosenzwig (В.Ю.Розенцвейг) published "Principles of General Translation and Machine Translation" ("Основы общего и машинного перевода") to study translation issues from a structural linguistics perspective.It was the first work in the world to combine the concepts and principles of translational theory with the category of structural linguistics. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 02:11, 14 December 2021 (UTC))'''

In 1968, Feodorov made a new revision and supplement to the new situation, publishing the third edition of the book and renamed "Basic Translation" ("Основы общеи тоерии перевода").The rationale is that this can highlight the basic principles of translation theory —— studies various translation phenomena and various kinds of translation, revealing their commonalities and respective characteristics, comparing from a linguistic perspective.In the book, Feodorov makes it clear that it should never be forgotten that the ultimate task is to establish a common theory of philology.It is now outdated to insist that literary translation is studied only through literature and art, or only through linguistics. Contemporary era is an era of close cooperation between different disciplines. In philology, the distance between the two branches of literature and linguistics is not very large, and its differences are inevitable, but can be overcome, that is to say, the two can be combined all together.

The 1970s were called the "harvest years" of Soviet translation theory, and the debate entered a new stage.

In 1972, Gabriel's book "Literary Translation and Literary Exchange" ("Художественныи перевод и литературные взаимосвязи") can be regarded as a representative work of the school of literature and art, which more comprehensively expounded the translation theory views of the Soviet school of literature and art.Once published, the book immediately aroused widespread response from the Soviet translation theory community.In the book, he pointed out that literary and artistic translation belongs to the category of artistic creation, and studying literary translation from the perspective of linguistics inevitably leads to the dead translation of auxiliary words. As a result, the translation is linguistically correct and low in art. Because from a linguistic point of view, the decisive factor is not the translator's creative attitude towards the original text, but the linguistic correspondence principle.Thus, translation becomes some technical process, not creation. Literary and artistic translation should reproduce the aesthetic value of the original text.

1963 Komizarov (В.Н.Комиссаров) presents its unique theory of "equivalent levels" in his book on translation ("Слово о переводе").According to this theory, the meaning structure of discourse is a complex that can be divided into content, namely the level of language symbols, discourse level, notification structure level, scenario description level and the level of communication purpose.The principle of translation equivalence to the original text should be based on these levels during translation.

(Wu, 2006: 456)

The same year, Shvzel (В.Н.Комиссаров) published the book "Translation and Linguistics" ("Перевод и лингвистика"), suggesting that translation is not only the contact between two language systems, but also between two different cultures, and sometimes between two different civilizations.In addition, he raises questions about the invariant values of the translation function.Shvzel believes that translation functional invariant values include both semantic and grammatical aspects.

'''(The same year, Shvzel (В.Н.Комиссаров) published the book "Translation and Linguistics" ("Перевод и лингвистика"), suggesting that translation is not only the contact between two language systems, but also between two different cultures, and sometimes between two different civilizations.In addition, he raised some questions about the invariant values of the translation function.Shvzel believes that translation functional invariant values include both semantic and grammatical aspects. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 02:11, 14 December 2021 (UTC))'''

In 1974 Lezkel (Я.И.Рецкер) has published the book "Translation Theory and Translation Practice (An Introduction to the Theory of Linguistics of Translation)" ("Теория перевода и переводическая практика - Очерки лингвистическои теории перевода"), which discusses some key issues in the linguistics theory of translation, which are directly related to the translation practice.The book compares the lexical grammar and rhetorical characteristics of English with its functional counterpart in Russian, and reveals the logical semantic basis of using various translation techniques and methods in the translation process.

'''(In 1974 Lezkel (Я.И.Рецкер) published the book "Translation Theory and Translation Practice (An Introduction to the Theory of Linguistics of Translation)" ("Теория перевода и переводическая практика - Очерки лингвистическои теории перевода"), which discusses some key issues in the linguistics theory of translation, which are directly related to the translation practice. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 02:11, 14 December 2021 (UTC))'''

1975 Balhudarov (Л.С.Бархударов) published the book "Language and Translation" ("Язык и перевод"), which aroused widespread response in the Soviet translation community and was considered the representative work of the Soviet language school translation theory in the 1970s. The biggest characteristic of the book is to link the translation theory with the latest achievements in linguistics in the world, and put forward the linguistics theory of translation is comparing discourse linguistics, more specifically, is the semantic discourse in different languages, and the actual segmentation of the sentence is an essential condition of equivalent translation and a series of new arguments. Balhuduff makes it clear that translation changes the speech product of one language to another while keeping the content unchanged, that is, the translator does not deal with the language system, but with the language product.In addition, he discussed translationability, the nature of translation theory, semantics and translation, translation units, and translation methods.

(Balhudarov, 1975: 187)

In 1976, Chernhovskikaya (Л.А.Черняховская) published the book "Translation and the Semantic Structure" ("Перевод и смысловая структура"), the only Soviet work that conveys the logical focus and real semantic segmentation of sentences in translation.

That same year, Levitskaya (Т.Р.Леницкая) and Fejelman (А.М.Фетерман) published the book "translation problem" ("Проблемы перевода"), the book discusses English and Russian due to different vocabulary, grammar, rhetorical structure and the main translation problems, its focus is not the translation process itself and general translation methods and skills, but for the difficulty of English translation into Russian method.

In 1977 Lambimov (Н.М.Любимов) highlighted in "Translation is Art" ("Перевод - искусство") that literary translation is an art that pursues artistic accuracy rather than literal slave-style fidelity.At the same time, it is also proposed that words as language units can only be reflected in, or through words, so the objective reality of language existence is the overall —— discourse of the work. The basic category of translation is the discourse.

And 1978 Venogradov (В.С.Виноградов) pointed out in "The Lexical Problems of Literary Prose Translation" ("Лексические вопросы перевода художественнои прозы") that words are the basic unit of language, so, it is also the starting point of translation.

(Wu, 2006: 359)

In 1978, Komisarov edited and published the collection of "Translation Theory Issues in Foreign Linguistics" ("Вопросы теории перевода в зарубежнои лингвистике"), It fairly fully introduces the state of Western linguists studying translation theory, The book is divided into four themes, Both: the general linguistics problem of translation, Translation equivalent, translation process, Translational linguistics and Translational rhetoric; Translating the relevant discourse of some famous western linguists, For example, Jacobson (R.Jackbcon), one of the founders of the Prague School, British linguist J.R.Firch (J.R.Firch) and others.The influence of this collection is evident from the later writings of translation theorists of the Soviet language school.

In 1980, Komisarov published the book "translation linguistics" ("Лингвистика перевода"), which pointed out that the perspective of linguistics is entering a new stage, turned out to regard the linguistics translation theory as a part of applied linguistics, for the translation practice of service, its focus is on the translation process, its task is to study the linguistics mode of translation and determine the principle of translation. The results of studying translation from the perspective of linguistics show that translation is an integral part of linguistics, and the theoretical analysis of interlanguage communication phenomenon is necessary for the development of linguistics itself. Therefore, translation should be regarded as a special form of language function, which is a special method of its speech practice, and our knowledge of the essence and function of language is incomplete. That is, linguistic analysis of translation can not only serve translation practice, but also promote development of linguistics itself. It is under the guidance of this idea that the book discusses the general linguistics theory of translation, translation semantics, translation linguistics, translation rhetoric, translation mode, translation standards. Therefore, it provides a new perspective for the study of translation theory.

(Cai & Duan, 2000: 20)

In the same year, the Minyal. Bellolluchev (Р.К.Миньяр - Белоручев) published the book "Translation" ("Общая теория перевода и устныи перевод").The book regards translational science as an independent subject on the grounds that it has its own subjects, content and a complete set of terms; thinks that translation research is beyond the scope of linguistics. It written by --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:12, 19 December 2021 (UTC)is a subject of linguistics, psychology, semiotics, sociology intersection, mainly applicable to translation between any two languages; proposes the discourse information theory, the main method of translation and the classification of language means in translation and so on.The book first used the interpretation as a research subject.

'''(In the same year, the Minyal. Bellolluchev (Р.К.Миньяр - Белоручев) published the book "Translation" ("Общая теория перевода и устныи перевод").This book regards translational science as an independent subject on the grounds that it has its own subjects, content and a complete set of terms; Besides, it presents that translation research is beyond the scope of linguistics. It is a subject of linguistics, psychology, semiotics, sociology intersection, mainly applicable to translation between any two languages; And this book also proposed the discourse information theory, the main method of translation and the classification of language means in translation and so on.The book first used the interpretation as a research subject. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 02:11, 14 December 2021 (UTC))'''

In 1981, Ratshev (Л.К.Латышев) published the "Translation Tutorial —— Translation equivalent and achieve the equivalent Method" ("Курс перевода: Эквивалентность перевода и способы ее достижения"), which divided the translation equivalent into formal and functional equivalent two types, and proposed the specific methods to achieve the translation equivalent.

In 1983, Feodorov published the collection of "Translation Art and Literary Life" ("Искусство перевода и жизнь литературы."), indicating from the preface entitled "A Window to Another World" ("Окнов другои мир") that Feodorov partially accepted the other's views through disputes with the school of translation theory and literature.At the same time, he argued that Gaczrazzer greatly limited the role of language in translation, seeing language as mere technical means.

(Cai &Duan, 2000: 22)

In 1985, Lvorskaya (З.Д.Львовская) published the book "Theoretical Issues of Translation"(Теоритическая проблема перевода”), which based on the theory of communicative function, believing that discourse meaning is divided into linguistic and verbal categories. The equivalent of translation is not the absolute invariance of the semantic, pragmatic, and environmental components in the meaning structure, but only the equivalence of pragmatic and environmental components.
The 20th century school of literature in the translation theory of outstanding events is in the journal "literary review" ("Литературное обозрение") continuously on the discussion of translation problem, the content involves: the necessity of the translation theory, how to overcome the two extreme, how to treat the original aesthetics, time color, translation can really convey "the spirit of the original" and the creation of the translator, etc.

In 1988, Shvzzer, a translation theorist of the language school, published the book "Translation Theory: Status, Problems and Face"(“Теория перевода : Статус, проблема, аспекты”). The author combines the latest achievements in linguistics in the field of speech linguistics, sentence semantics, communication linguistics and psychological linguistics, the status of translation theory, the essence of translation, equivalent, similarities, interpretability, translation semantic, language, discourse and translation and other six issues, the language school translation theory research mentioned a new stage.

In 1990, Komisarov's book "Translation Theory (Linguistics)" ("Теория перевода (линвистические вопросы") clearly stated in his preface that translation theory is an important part of the training of future translators. As a textbook, the book aims to introduce the basic principles of translational linguistics theory.
In the 1980s, the Soviet theory of scientific and technological translation developed rapidly, and published a lot of articles and monographs.

(Cai & Duan, 2000: 37)

In all, the Soviet theory of translation has been developed from scratch, from sporadic to systematic, constantly enriched, and constantly deepening step by step.

===5. The Literary School of Translation===
===5.1 Realistic Translation pioneered by E.A.Kashkin===

Kashkin Ivan Alexandrovich - literary critic, translator and critic. He brought up a significant group of translators from the English language. He translated J. Chaucer's The Canterbury Tales (1946, with O. Rumer). Promoter of the best achievements of modern English and American poetry (R. Frost, K. Sandberg) and prose (E. Hemingway, E. Caldwell, J. Wayne, etc.). Aslo, he is the author of historical and literary studies about J. Conrad, L. Stevenson, W. Faulkner, E. Hemingway and others.

Some translators believe that they must obey the "absolute authority" of the original text and translate the original text word by word in order to be completely faithful. Other translators advocate for loyalty to the original text. And Kashkin believes that realism in art is a complex and diverse phenomenon, which is restricted by history. Realism in art is real and poetic. Exactly, to feel and reflect world

( Kashkin, 1977: 177)

In order to accurately convey the ideological content of the original work and creatively reproduce the artistic characteristics and national characteristics of the original work, it must adopt the realistic translation method. The translator must respect the reality of the text and strive to reproduce the objective reality expressed by the text and give it life, not simply copying the text symbols of the original text.

Translators should understand the author of the original text's direct feelings of reality through the barrier of the syntactic structure of a foreign language. Only in this way could he reproduce the original in the same powerful and clear language, as did the original author did. The translator should see the phenomena, thoughts, things, behaviors and conditions through the words of the original work, and specifically reproduce this reality in the eyes of the original author.
Reality in art is the image to reflect the essential characteristics in reality. written by --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:14, 19 December 2021 (UTC)

( Kashkin, 1977: 185)

The truth in literary translation is not a final pursuit that the surface is similar to the original text, nor does it simply copy all the unimportant details.The truth in literary translation is based on the internal logic of the image, and first, to faithfully translate the essence of the original text.The translator should faithfully understand the author's conception and creative intention, and retain the artistic characteristics of the original work, the historical reality and the atmosphere of The Times.

Otherwise, Kashkin believes that there must be a strict distinction between artistic images that should be conveyed and verbal images that occasionally occur in translation.Because language is the basic means of expressing all literature, but the basic task and main difficulty of literary and artistic translation is not to copy the language of the original text, including the language structure elements, but in the artistic reproduction of the original image, considering the differences of the language system.

( Kashkin, 1977: 205)

===5.2 Gaczilaser’s realistic view of translations===

Professor Givi Razhdenovich Gaczilaser is one of the largest specialists in the field of literary translation theory, the author of the famous monograph "The Problem of Realistic Translation", a translator of Shakespeare, Byron, Shelley and other English poets into Georgian. In the book offered to the reader's attention, he continued to develop in depth the theory and practice of literary translation. Proceeding from Lenin's theory of reflection, G. Gachechiladze considers literary translation as a form of cognition, as a creative act that helps the reader approach not only a foreign language work, but also the living reality reflected in this work.
Gaczilaser believes that the principles of literary translation have been swinging between the two extremes.One is word-by-word translation, and the other is artistically equivalent but written away from the original text. He thought it would be easy to combine the two principles, but it was impossible in practice. Because different means of expressing ideas are very different languages, word-by-word translation and artistic quality are always contradictory.

If the translator is limited to the original and not to reproduce what the author sees in the imagination, he is not a creative person. The translator should take the author's thoughts as the starting point, the original text serve the deep understanding of artistic reality. The translator should see the real life reflected in the original work behind the artistic reality, and it is not to create his own work.Realistic translation method refers to realists following the law of realistic art, reflecting the artistic reality of the original, and consistent with the original, more specifically, rhetorical consistency, only help to achieve linguistic loyalty, but should not let this affect their own will. Loyal to the author's artistic truth is the goal of the realistic translator.The artistic reality of the original includes both content and form, and even the unity of form and content.

(Gaczilaser, 1964: 120)

It is undoubtedly correct to compare the two language systems in the translation process.However, this contrast has certain limitations, as each language has its characteristic means of rhetoric.Just as there is no unified language, there is no unified rhetoric of all languages, nor the unified grammar of all languages. The application of rhetorical rules to any specific language would rise to a national, independent rhetorical system. Thus, the rhetorical rule can only be judged based on the character of some language.

===6. The Linguistic School Translation===
===6.1 Balhuadov’s Translation Concept===

Balhuarov was a famous translation theorist in the Soviet Union in the 20th century, one of the representatives of the language school and a doctor of Soviet philology, and has been engaged in translation teaching and translation theory research for many years. It is represented as the Language and Translation ("Язык и перевод").

From the perspective of the research subjects of the translation theory, Balhudav believes that the task of the linguistics theory of the translation is to pattern the translation process and put forward some scientific diagram for the translation process, which can more accurately reflect the important aspects of this process. In the view, on the one hand, translation theory, like any other theoretical model, reflects only some of the most important features of its subjects, rather than all features. Translation theory studies not all the relationship between the original language and the translation language, but the regular relationship between the two, that is, the typical and recurrent correspondence.On the other hand, translation theory, like any other discipline theory, stipulates not only a pattern, but many patterns that reflect the translation process in different ways as well as various characteristics.

(Balhudarov, 1975: 250)

From the essence of translation, Balhuudaf believes that translation is the process of converting a speech product into another language while keeping the content level (i. e., meaning) unchanged. Among them, the term “meaning” refers to the various relationships of language units. Translation is a process of changing one language discourse into another language discourse. The object of translation is not a language system, but a discourse.For translation, it is not the equivalent of the individual word, but the equivalent of the full text.Thus, the semantic differences between the two languages are not an insurmountable barrier in translation.
In addition, from the discussion of semantic problems of translation, Balhudv believes that the semantic problem of translation must be studied and conveyed from three aspects: meaning, pragmatic meaning and internal meaning.But on semantic issues, he presented no substantive content, with similar views mentioned by Jackson and Nida et al. in the late 1920s and early 1960s.But Balhudaf's interpretation is more detailed and fulfilling, and more generalized in some places.

Balhudaf also establishes equivalent translation from six levels: phonemic, phoneme, word, phrase, sentence, and discourse layer. The six levels are applied more systematically to translation theory.

(Balhudarov, 1975: 255)

'''(Balhudaf also establishes equivalent translation from six levels: phonemic, phoneme, word, phrase, sentence, and discourse layer, which are applied more systematically in translation. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 02:48, 14 December 2021 (UTC))'''

===7. Conclusion ===

To sum up, by introducing the historical evolution of the development of translation theory in the Soviet Union, we and the representatives of the school of translation literature and art and the translation language school can draw the following conclusions:

First of all, the developmental foundation of the Soviet translation theory was weak. By the beginning of World War II, the discussion of translation theory had formed no systematic and complete theories and they were all carried out from the perspective of literature and art. Only translation textbooks and translation instructional references are exceptional and are conducted from a linguistic perspective .After World War II, the Soviet Union began a new period of studying the translation theory from the perspective of linguistics. Its main feature was to connect the translation theory with the comparative linguistics, and to reveal the correspondence of the two languages on the basis of comparing the two languages. In 1954, translator Kaskin proposed that translation should not be separated from literature and art. Since then, the Soviet theory of translation has gradually formed two major schools, namely, the school of literature and art and the linguistic school. The two factions had long debated, culminating after the late 1950s and 1960s, with numerous papers and monographs each published.

(Cai & Duan, 2000: 168)

(Wu, 2006: 325)

'''(First of all, the developmental foundation of the Soviet translation theory was weak. At the beginning of World War II, the discussion of translation theory wasn’t systematic and comprehensive and they were all carried out from the perspective of literature and art. Only translation textbooks and translation instructional references are exceptional and are conducted from a linguistic perspective .After World War II, the Soviet Union began a new period of studying the translation theory from the perspective of linguistics. Its main feature was to connect translation theory with comparative linguistics, and to reveal the correspondence of the two languages on the basis of comparing the two languages. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 02:11, 14 December 2021 (UTC))
'''

Secondly, from the perspective of the literary school of translation, Kashkin, the theorist of translation, founded the realistic concept of translation, believing that the translation should pay attention to understanding the feelings of the original author, and believing that we must strictly distinguish the artistic image that should be conveyed and the occasional language image in the translation. Translation theorist Gaczirze believes that the principles of literary translation have been swinging between the two extremes. One is word-by-word translation, and the other is artistically equivalent but written away from the original text. He thought it would be easy to combine the two principles, but it was impossible in practice.

Thirdly, from the perspective of the language school of translation, the translation theorist Balhudarov believes that the task of the linguistics theory of translation is to pattern the translation process and put forward some scientific diagram for the translation process, which can more accurately reflect the important aspects of this process.He made great contributions to the linguistic school of translation.

(Wu, 2006: 325)

All in all, the translation theory of the Soviet period has its own unique development path. The Soviet translation theorists in this period made great contributions to the history of Soviet translation, also, the translation theory of the Soviet period became an indispensable part of the world translation theory map.

===8. References ===

Cai, Yi 蔡毅，Duan,Jinghua, 段京华. Translation Studies in USSR苏联翻译理论.湖北教育出版社，2000

Liu Miqing刘宓庆，Translation Basics 翻译基础.上海.华东师范大学出版社，2008

Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜.Translation Studies 翻译学.复旦大学出版社，2017

Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜.History of Western Translation 西方翻译简史.北京.商务印书馆，1991

Wu, Keli 吴克礼.The Translation Methods and Studies in USSR 俄苏翻译理论流派综述. 上海外语教育出版社，2006

Xu, Jun 许均. Translation Theories 翻译论. 湖北教育出版社，2003

Balhudarov Бархударов Л.С. Language and Translation: Collation said Partial theory of Translation Язык и перевод: Вопросы общей и частной теории перевода, Международные отношения, 1975

Gaczilaser Гиви Гачечиладзе. Problems of Literary Theory Вопросы теории художественного перевода. Тбилиси: Литература да хлебовнеба, 1964

Kashkin Иван Кашкин. Articles and Studies Статьи и исследования. Москва. Советский писатель, 1977

--[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 08:41, 12 December 2021 (UTC)

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Wu Jingyue: /* 4.2 History of translation theory development after World War II */

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=Chapter 13 History of Translation Theories in the Soviet Union=
===苏联时期的翻译理论史===
Wu Jingyue 吴婧悦 Hunan Normal University

===1. Abstract===
As is well known, the history of the Soviet period and discusse the characteristics of the Soviet translation theory. written by --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:02, 19 December 2021 (UTC) Firstly, we discuss about the overall situation of the development of the Soviet period, the history of the Soviet period and discusses the characteristics of the Soviet translation theory. Finally, we introduce the famous translation theorist like: S. G. Barkhudarov (С. Г. Бархуда́ров) and I. A. Kashkin (И. А. Кашки́н) and so on.

'''(As is well known, the history of the Soviet period and discusse the characteristics of the Soviet translation theory.corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 14:29, 13 December 2021 (UTC))'''

===2. Key words===
Translation theories, Western translation theories, Soviet Translation theories

===3. Introduction===
The Soviet translation theory play a pivotal role in the world translation theory. written by --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:04, 19 December 2021 (UTC)This paper firstly introduces the historical evolution of the development of the Soviet translation theory, which divides the Soviet Union into two periods: the development history of translation theory before World War II and the development history of translation theory after World War II. In introducing the history of translation theory before World War II, the source of the history of Soviet translation theory, the development of Soviet translation theory, namely linguistics and the contribution of Kamisarov, Liubimov and others.Secondly, the representatives of the translation literature and art school and the translation language school are introduced specifically.When introducing the school of translation literature, the views of translator Kashkin and Gachzzeraz are introduced; in introducing the language school of translation, they are mainly introduced.

'''(The Soviet translation theory play a pivotal role in the world translation theory. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 17:16, 13 December 2021 (UTC))'''

===4. The evolution of Translation Theories in the Soviet Union.===
===4.1 History of translation theory development before World War II===
The Soviet translation theory occupies a very prominent position in the world translation theory.The Soviet study of translation theory began shortly after the October Revolution, began with literary translation.

In 1918, Gorky (А.М.Горький) founded the World Literature Press (Издательство "Всемирная литература") in conjunction with the help of Lenin(В.И.Ленин). The publisher's task is to introduce world classics, improve the translation art, and train translators.At this stage, nearly 100 professors and writers attended the work.In order to unify the thinking, discuss the theory of literary translation, and stipulate some clear rules, Gorky handed the burden to Chukowsky(К.И.Чуковский). Therefore, after making a lot of efforts, Chukowski wrote the book "The Principles of Literary Translation--written by [[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:07, 19 December 2021 (UTC)("Прицины художественного перевода") in 1919.He first proposed that the translator of the novel should be an artist and a master of language.Chukowski believed that a good translation can reproduce the artistic characteristics of the original text in vivid and rich Russian.But at that time, there was a very popular view in literary and theoretical criticism that translation was essentially impossible work.

(Cai & Duan, 2000: 5)

'''(Therefore, after making a lot of efforts, Chukowski wrote the book "The Principles of Literary Translation" ("Прицины художественного перевода") in 1919.Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 17:16, 13 December 2021 (UTC))'''

In 1930, The Principles of Literary Translation was collected in Chukowski's "The Art of Translation" ("Искусство переводов").It suggests that translators must understand the social environment.In addition, the communication of the structural characteristics and rhetorical characteristics of the original text, as well as the principles of translation and expression, are also discussed.

In 1934 Translation theorist Smirnov (А.А.Смирнов) made the first proposal of the concept of "equivalent translation" in the term "Soviet Literature Encyclopedia", "translation" (Перевод).The "equivalent translation" here means "conveying the ideological content, feelings, and written structure of the original work", that is, "conveying the full creative intention of the original author". Smirnov suggested that not only can use the direct counterpart of the original in translation but also can use the functional approximation of the original in translation.

(Cai & Duan, 2000: 16)

In 1936, Loginski (М.Л.Лозинский) reported at the first National Conference of Translators, "The Art of the Translation of Poetry" ("Искусство стихотворного перевода"), and pointed out that poetry translation should be the same in aesthetics as the original poetry works, highlighting the equivalent aesthetic function of literary and artistic translation.

'''(In 1936, Loginski (М.Л.Лозинский) delivered a report at the first National Conference of Translators, "The Art of the Translation of Poetry" ("Искусство стихотворного перевода"), and pointed out that poetry translation should be the same in aesthetics as the original poem, highlighting the equivalent aesthetic function of literary and artistic translation. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 17:16, 13 December 2021 (UTC))'''

Also in 1936, Kashkin (И.А.Кашкин) proposed the theory and became the founder of the Soviet theory of realism. His translation method is: translators should try their best to reproduce the objective reality expressed in the original text, rather than words; they should see, experience, and perfectly reproduce the reality in the eyes of the author from behind the original text. He equated the realistic method of translation with the socialist realism in literary creation.In the Soviet Union, he was hailed as "a theorist representing a entire era in the history of Russian translation". He believes that translators should be loyal to the original, to their readers, to reality, and that the three are inseparable. () Kashkin believes that without a theory, translators are just a craftsman, and can never become a translator or artist.

( Kashkin, 1977)
(Cai & Duan, 2000: 25)

Also in 1936, Kashkin (И.А.Кашкин) proposed the theory and became the founder of the Soviet theory of realism. His translation method is: translators should try their best to reproduce the objective reality expressed in the original text, rather than words; they should see, experience, and perfectly reproduce the reality in the eyes of the author from behind the original text. He equated the realistic method of translation with the socialist realism in literary creation.In the Soviet Union, he was hailed as "a theorist representing a entire era in the history of Russian translation". He believes that translators should be loyal to the original, to their readers, to reality, and that the three are inseparable. Kashkin believes that without a theory, translators are just a craftsman, and can never become a translator or artist.

'''( His translation methods are: translators should try their best to show the objective reality expressed in the original text, instead of focuing on translating words by words; they should see, experience, and perfectly reproduce the reality in the eyes of the author of the original text.Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 17:16, 13 December 2021 (UTC))'''

It was worth mentioning that at the beginning of World War II, the discussion of translation theories did not form systematic and comprehensive theory, and they were all carried out from a literary point of view. Only translation of textbooks and translation instructional references were exceptional and were conducted from a linguistic perspective. written by --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:07, 19 December 2021 (UTC)

(Cai & Duan, 2000: 120)

'''(It was worth mentioning that at the beginning of World War II, the discussion of translation theories did not form systematic and comprehensive theory, and they were all carried out from a literary point of view. Only translation of textbooks and translation instructional references were exceptional and were conducted from a linguistic perspective.Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 17:16, 13 December 2021 (UTC))'''

===4.2 History of translation theory development after World War II===
Since the 1950s, a new period of studying translation theory from the perspective of linguistics began. Its main characteristic is to link translation theory with comparative linguistics, and to reveal the law of the two languages based on the comparison of the phenomenon of the two languages.written by --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:12, 19 December 2021 (UTC)

'''(Since the 1950s, a new period of studying translation theory from the perspective of linguistics began. Its main characteristic is to link translation theory with comparative linguistics and to reveal the law of the two languages based on the comparison of the phenomenon of the two languagesCorrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 17:16, 13 December 2021 (UTC)) .
'''

In 1950, "Theory and Methods of Translation Teaching" ("Вопросы теории и методики учебного перевода"), which played a considerable role in the development of translation theory. For example, in Gary Palin(И.Р. Гпльперии) 's article, "Translation and Rhetoric" ("Перевод и стилистика"), shares Shakespeare's original Othello with Morosov’s (М.М.Морозов) translation, noting the similarities and differences between English and Russian in terms of meaning and aesthetic functions. Meanwhile, the book Lezkel(Я.И.Рецкер) ’s article, "On the regularity and correspondence in Russia" ("О закономерных соответствиях при переводе на роднои язык"), divides the language regularity correspondence into three categories: equivalent, approximation and equivalent substitution.These three methods are applied to scientific and technological translation, the translation of political articles, and literary translation.

(Wu, 2006: 325)

1953 Feodorov (А.В.Фёдоров) 's book "An Introduction to the Translation Theory" ("Введение в теорию перевода") was published.The book discusses the translation theory from the perspective of the linguistics theory, and proposes that the translation theory is a branch of the linguistics, and the translation problem can only be solved in the field of linguistics. In addition, the book stipulates the content of the concept of "translation", the object of theoretical research, the content, etc., and discusses the vocabulary issues, grammar issues and stylistic issues of translation, respectively.The book made Feyodorov the founder of the language school of translation theory. In addition, the book received wide attention in the Soviet translation circle, especially the translation teaching circle, but it also caused a heated controversy in the literary and art school of translation theory.

'''(1953 Feodorov (А.В.Фёдоров) 's book "An Introduction to Translation Theory" ("Введение в теорию перевода") was published. The book discusses the translation theory from the perspective of the linguistics theory and proposes that the translation theory is a branch of the linguistics and the translation problem can only be solved in the field of linguistics. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 02:11, 14 December 2021 (UTC))'''

However, translators from the school of literature and art believe that Feodorov studied translation problems almost completely from a linguistic perspective, ignoring that the first thing of literary translation should be involved in the problem of literature and art.

(Wu, 2006: 354)

'''(However, translators from the school of literature and art believe that Feodorov studied translation problems almost completely from a linguistic perspective, ignoring that the first thing of literary translation should be involved in the problem of literature and art.Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 02:11, 14 December 2021 (UTC))'''

In 1954, Kashkin put forward in "Methods and Genres of Soviet Literary Translation" ("О методе и школе советского художественного перевода") that the theory of literary translation should be a broad language discipline. That is to say, written by --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:12, 19 December 2021 (UTC)the study of translation and literary problems should be combined.

'''(In 1954, Kashkin put forward in "Methods and Genres of Soviet Literary Translation" ("О методе и школе советского художественного перевода") that the theory of literary translation should be a broad language discipline. That is to say, the study of translation and literary problems should be combined. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 02:11, 14 December 2021 (UTC))'''

In 1955 the collection of "Literary Translation" ("Вопросы художественного перевода") questions Feydorov's views, believing that studying translation theory from a linguistic perspective may lead to formalism and word-by-word dead translation in translation practice.

Since then, the Soviet theory of translation has gradually formed two major schools, namely, the school of literature and art and the language school.The two factions had long debated, culminating after the late 1950s and 1960s, with numerous papers and monographs each published."Translation Skills" ("Мастерство перевода"), published by the Soviet Writers Publishing House, focuses on the views of the literary school. The language school is based on the "Translation Worker Notes" ("Тетрадь переводчика") edited by Balhudarov, making comments and summarizing the translation experience.Most belong to the literary school are writers; the language school are linguists and college teachers.

( Kashkin, 1977: 163)

In 1958, Feodorov made some additions and modifications to the original book in the second edition of the Introduction to Translation Theory. Although he also admitted that the problems in the field of translation could not all be explained by linguistic methods, it was correct to study the translation problem from the perspective of linguistics, otherwise, there would be no real theory of translation art.He stressed that literary and artistic translation does have its own characteristics, and should highlight its aesthetic aspects, but literary images are created by language means, and must also be conveyed by another language means. Therefore, the study of translation and theory from the perspective of linguistics is the basis.

(Wu, 2006: 366)

'''(In 1958, Feodorov made some additions and modifications to the original book in the second edition of the Introduction to Translation Theory. Although he also admitted that the problems in the field of translation could not all be explained by linguistic methods, it was necessary to study the translation problem from the perspective of linguistics. Otherwise, there would be no real theory of translation art. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 02:11, 14 December 2021 (UTC))'''

In 1962, the collection of "Translation Theory and Review" ("Теория и критика перевода"), including two groups of translation theorists.Linguist Larin (Б.А.Ларии) In the preface to the collection, "Our Mission" ("Наши задачи"), proposed that the theory of literary translation must be established on the basis of linguistics and literature.He believes that it is impossible not to combine linguistics and literary methods organically, whether in linguistics, rhetoric, or translation theory. Any translation should begin with analysis, and finally finish with literary creation.

1963 Aitkin (Е.Т.Эткин) published the book "Poetry and Translation" ("Поэзии и перевод"), which analyzed and commented on a large number of foreign-language poems translated into Russian language in the early 19th century, concerning the translation of literary and artistic theory.He believes that the linguistic means of poetry translation are closely related to the reproduced artistic characteristics of the original poetry, and the two should not be opposed.In his opinion, translation is like rhetoric, which is both a problem of literature and art and linguistics, because rhetoric is a science of language synonymous, and it belongs to the two fields of linguistics. Ignoring the theory of the form of literary works will actually make the translator helpless.

(Tan，1991: 246)

In 1964, Gachzrazawa (Г.Р.Гачечиладзе) published the book "The Theory of Literary Translation" ("Вопросы теории художественного перевода"), in which he based on Lenin's reaction theory, proposing that the translator directly reflects the original text, namely the artistic reality of the original text, rather than the specific reality directly reflected by the original text.

That same year, Levzin (И.И.Ревзин) and Rosenzwig (В.Ю.Розенцвейг) has published "Principles of General Translation and Machine Translation" ("Основы общего и машинного перевода") to study translation issues from a structural linguistics perspective.It was the first work in the world to combine the concepts and principles of translational theory with the category of structural linguistics.

(Wu, 2006: 430)

'''(That year, Levzin (И.И.Ревзин) and Rosenzwig (В.Ю.Розенцвейг) published "Principles of General Translation and Machine Translation" ("Основы общего и машинного перевода") to study translation issues from a structural linguistics perspective.It was the first work in the world to combine the concepts and principles of translational theory with the category of structural linguistics. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 02:11, 14 December 2021 (UTC))'''

In 1968, Feodorov made a new revision and supplement to the new situation, publishing the third edition of the book and renamed "Basic Translation" ("Основы общеи тоерии перевода").The rationale is that this can highlight the basic principles of translation theory —— studies various translation phenomena and various kinds of translation, revealing their commonalities and respective characteristics, comparing from a linguistic perspective.In the book, Feodorov makes it clear that it should never be forgotten that the ultimate task is to establish a common theory of philology.It is now outdated to insist that literary translation is studied only through literature and art, or only through linguistics. Contemporary era is an era of close cooperation between different disciplines. In philology, the distance between the two branches of literature and linguistics is not very large, and its differences are inevitable, but can be overcome, that is to say, the two can be combined all together.

The 1970s were called the "harvest years" of Soviet translation theory, and the debate entered a new stage.

In 1972, Gabriel's book "Literary Translation and Literary Exchange" ("Художественныи перевод и литературные взаимосвязи") can be regarded as a representative work of the school of literature and art, which more comprehensively expounded the translation theory views of the Soviet school of literature and art.Once published, the book immediately aroused widespread response from the Soviet translation theory community.In the book, he pointed out that literary and artistic translation belongs to the category of artistic creation, and studying literary translation from the perspective of linguistics inevitably leads to the dead translation of auxiliary words. As a result, the translation is linguistically correct and low in art. Because from a linguistic point of view, the decisive factor is not the translator's creative attitude towards the original text, but the linguistic correspondence principle.Thus, translation becomes some technical process, not creation. Literary and artistic translation should reproduce the aesthetic value of the original text.

1963 Komizarov (В.Н.Комиссаров) presents its unique theory of "equivalent levels" in his book on translation ("Слово о переводе").According to this theory, the meaning structure of discourse is a complex that can be divided into content, namely the level of language symbols, discourse level, notification structure level, scenario description level and the level of communication purpose.The principle of translation equivalence to the original text should be based on these levels during translation.

(Wu, 2006: 456)

The same year, Shvzel (В.Н.Комиссаров) published the book "Translation and Linguistics" ("Перевод и лингвистика"), suggesting that translation is not only the contact between two language systems, but also between two different cultures, and sometimes between two different civilizations.In addition, he raises questions about the invariant values of the translation function.Shvzel believes that translation functional invariant values include both semantic and grammatical aspects.

'''(The same year, Shvzel (В.Н.Комиссаров) published the book "Translation and Linguistics" ("Перевод и лингвистика"), suggesting that translation is not only the contact between two language systems, but also between two different cultures, and sometimes between two different civilizations.In addition, he raised some questions about the invariant values of the translation function.Shvzel believes that translation functional invariant values include both semantic and grammatical aspects. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 02:11, 14 December 2021 (UTC))'''

In 1974 Lezkel (Я.И.Рецкер) has published the book "Translation Theory and Translation Practice (An Introduction to the Theory of Linguistics of Translation)" ("Теория перевода и переводическая практика - Очерки лингвистическои теории перевода"), which discusses some key issues in the linguistics theory of translation, which are directly related to the translation practice.The book compares the lexical grammar and rhetorical characteristics of English with its functional counterpart in Russian, and reveals the logical semantic basis of using various translation techniques and methods in the translation process.

'''(In 1974 Lezkel (Я.И.Рецкер) published the book "Translation Theory and Translation Practice (An Introduction to the Theory of Linguistics of Translation)" ("Теория перевода и переводическая практика - Очерки лингвистическои теории перевода"), which discusses some key issues in the linguistics theory of translation, which are directly related to the translation practice. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 02:11, 14 December 2021 (UTC))'''

1975 Balhudarov (Л.С.Бархударов) published the book "Language and Translation" ("Язык и перевод"), which aroused widespread response in the Soviet translation community and was considered the representative work of the Soviet language school translation theory in the 1970s. The biggest characteristic of the book is to link the translation theory with the latest achievements in linguistics in the world, and put forward the linguistics theory of translation is comparing discourse linguistics, more specifically, is the semantic discourse in different languages, and the actual segmentation of the sentence is an essential condition of equivalent translation and a series of new arguments. Balhuduff makes it clear that translation changes the speech product of one language to another while keeping the content unchanged, that is, the translator does not deal with the language system, but with the language product.In addition, he discussed translationability, the nature of translation theory, semantics and translation, translation units, and translation methods.

(Balhudarov, 1975: 187)

In 1976, Chernhovskikaya (Л.А.Черняховская) published the book "Translation and the Semantic Structure" ("Перевод и смысловая структура"), the only Soviet work that conveys the logical focus and real semantic segmentation of sentences in translation.

That same year, Levitskaya (Т.Р.Леницкая) and Fejelman (А.М.Фетерман) published the book "translation problem" ("Проблемы перевода"), the book discusses English and Russian due to different vocabulary, grammar, rhetorical structure and the main translation problems, its focus is not the translation process itself and general translation methods and skills, but for the difficulty of English translation into Russian method.

In 1977 Lambimov (Н.М.Любимов) highlighted in "Translation is Art" ("Перевод - искусство") that literary translation is an art that pursues artistic accuracy rather than literal slave-style fidelity.At the same time, it is also proposed that words as language units can only be reflected in, or through words, so the objective reality of language existence is the overall —— discourse of the work. The basic category of translation is the discourse.

And 1978 Venogradov (В.С.Виноградов) pointed out in "The Lexical Problems of Literary Prose Translation" ("Лексические вопросы перевода художественнои прозы") that words are the basic unit of language, so, it is also the starting point of translation.

(Wu, 2006: 359)

In 1978, Komisarov edited and published the collection of "Translation Theory Issues in Foreign Linguistics" ("Вопросы теории перевода в зарубежнои лингвистике"), It fairly fully introduces the state of Western linguists studying translation theory, The book is divided into four themes, Both: the general linguistics problem of translation, Translation equivalent, translation process, Translational linguistics and Translational rhetoric; Translating the relevant discourse of some famous western linguists, For example, Jacobson (R.Jackbcon), one of the founders of the Prague School, British linguist J.R.Firch (J.R.Firch) and others.The influence of this collection is evident from the later writings of translation theorists of the Soviet language school.

In 1980, Komisarov published the book "translation linguistics" ("Лингвистика перевода"), which pointed out that the perspective of linguistics is entering a new stage, turned out to regard the linguistics translation theory as a part of applied linguistics, for the translation practice of service, its focus is on the translation process, its task is to study the linguistics mode of translation and determine the principle of translation. The results of studying translation from the perspective of linguistics show that translation is an integral part of linguistics, and the theoretical analysis of interlanguage communication phenomenon is necessary for the development of linguistics itself. Therefore, translation should be regarded as a special form of language function, which is a special method of its speech practice, and our knowledge of the essence and function of language is incomplete. That is, linguistic analysis of translation can not only serve translation practice, but also promote development of linguistics itself. It is under the guidance of this idea that the book discusses the general linguistics theory of translation, translation semantics, translation linguistics, translation rhetoric, translation mode, translation standards. Therefore, it provides a new perspective for the study of translation theory.

(Cai & Duan, 2000: 20)

In the same year, the Minyal. Bellolluchev (Р.К.Миньяр - Белоручев) published the book "Translation" ("Общая теория перевода и устныи перевод").The book regards translational science as an independent subject on the grounds that it has its own subjects, content and a complete set of terms; thinks that translation research is beyond the scope of linguistics. It written by --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:12, 19 December 2021 (UTC)is a subject of linguistics, psychology, semiotics, sociology intersection, mainly applicable to translation between any two languages; proposes the discourse information theory, the main method of translation and the classification of language means in translation and so on.The book first used the interpretation as a research subject.

'''(In the same year, the Minyal. Bellolluchev (Р.К.Миньяр - Белоручев) published the book "Translation" ("Общая теория перевода и устныи перевод").This book regards translational science as an independent subject on the grounds that it has its own subjects, content and a complete set of terms; Besides, it presents that translation research is beyond the scope of linguistics. It is a subject of linguistics, psychology, semiotics, sociology intersection, mainly applicable to translation between any two languages; And this book also proposed the discourse information theory, the main method of translation and the classification of language means in translation and so on.The book first used the interpretation as a research subject. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 02:11, 14 December 2021 (UTC))'''

In 1981, Ratshev (Л.К.Латышев) published the "Translation Tutorial —— Translation equivalent and achieve the equivalent Method" ("Курс перевода: Эквивалентность перевода и способы ее достижения"), which divided the translation equivalent into formal and functional equivalent two types, and proposed the specific methods to achieve the translation equivalent.

In 1983, Feodorov published the collection of "Translation Art and Literary Life" ("Искусство перевода и жизнь литературы."), indicating from the preface entitled "A Window to Another World" ("Окнов другои мир") that Feodorov partially accepted the other's views through disputes with the school of translation theory and literature.At the same time, he argued that Gaczrazzer greatly limited the role of language in translation, seeing language as mere technical means.

(Cai &Duan, 2000: 22)

In 1985, Lvorskaya (З.Д.Львовская) published the book "Theoretical Issues of Translation"(Теоритическая проблема перевода”), which based on the theory of communicative function, believing that discourse meaning is divided into linguistic and verbal categories. The equivalent of translation is not the absolute invariance of the semantic, pragmatic, and environmental components in the meaning structure, but only the equivalence of pragmatic and environmental components.
The 20th century school of literature in the translation theory of outstanding events is in the journal "literary review" ("Литературное обозрение") continuously on the discussion of translation problem, the content involves: the necessity of the translation theory, how to overcome the two extreme, how to treat the original aesthetics, time color, translation can really convey "the spirit of the original" and the creation of the translator, etc.

In 1988, Shvzzer, a translation theorist of the language school, published the book "Translation Theory: Status, Problems and Face"(“Теория перевода : Статус, проблема, аспекты”). The author combines the latest achievements in linguistics in the field of speech linguistics, sentence semantics, communication linguistics and psychological linguistics, the status of translation theory, the essence of translation, equivalent, similarities, interpretability, translation semantic, language, discourse and translation and other six issues, the language school translation theory research mentioned a new stage.

In 1990, Komisarov's book "Translation Theory (Linguistics)" ("Теория перевода (линвистические вопросы") clearly stated in his preface that translation theory is an important part of the training of future translators. As a textbook, the book aims to introduce the basic principles of translational linguistics theory.
In the 1980s, the Soviet theory of scientific and technological translation developed rapidly, and published a lot of articles and monographs.

(Cai & Duan, 2000: 37)

In all, the Soviet theory of translation has been developed from scratch, from sporadic to systematic, constantly enriched, and constantly deepening step by step.

===5. The Literary School of Translation===
===5.1 Realistic Translation pioneered by E.A.Kashkin===

Kashkin Ivan Alexandrovich - literary critic, translator and critic. He brought up a significant group of translators from the English language. He translated J. Chaucer's The Canterbury Tales (1946, with O. Rumer). Promoter of the best achievements of modern English and American poetry (R. Frost, K. Sandberg) and prose (E. Hemingway, E. Caldwell, J. Wayne, etc.). Aslo, he is the author of historical and literary studies about J. Conrad, L. Stevenson, W. Faulkner, E. Hemingway and others.

Some translators believe that they must obey the "absolute authority" of the original text and pursue the following word by word. Other translators advocate for loyalty to the original text. And Kashkin believes that realism in art is a complex and diverse phenomenon, which is restricted by history. Realism in art is real and poetic. Exactly, to feel and reflect world —— realism through inspiration is reflected in artistic life itself.

( Kashkin, 1977: 177)

'''(Some translators believe that they must obey the "absolute authority" of the original text and translate the original text word by word in order to be completely faithful. Other translators advocate for loyalty to the original text. And Kashkin believes that realism in art is a complex and diverse phenomenon, which is restricted by history. Realism in art is real and poetic. Exactly, to feel and reflect world —— realism through inspiration is reflected in artistic life itself. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 02:38, 14 December 2021 (UTC))'''

In order to accurately convey the ideological content of the original work, and creatively reproduce the artistic characteristics and national characteristics of the original work, it must adopt the realistic translation method. The translator must respect the reality of the text, but not simply copy the text symbols of the original text, but strive to reproduce the objective reality expressed by the text and give it life.

'''(In order to accurately convey the ideological content of the original work and creatively reproduce the artistic characteristics and national characteristics of the original work, it must adopt the realistic translation method. The translator must respect the reality of the text and strive to reproduce the objective reality expressed by the text and give it life, not simply copying the text symbols of the original text. corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 02:38, 14 December 2021 (UTC))
''

Translators should understand the author of the original text's direct feelings of reality through the barrier of the syntactic structure of a foreign language. Only in this way could he reproduce the original in the same powerful and clear language, as did the original author did. The translator should see the phenomena, thoughts, things, behaviors and conditions through the words of the original work, and specifically reproduce this reality in the eyes of the original author.
Reality in art is the image to reflect the essential characteristics in reality.

( Kashkin, 1977: 185)

The truth in literary translation is not a final pursuit that the surface is similar to the original text, nor does it simply copy all the unimportant details.The truth in literary translation is based on the internal logic of the image, and first, to faithfully translate the essence of the original text.The translator should faithfully understand the author's conception and creative intention, and retain the artistic characteristics of the original work, the historical reality and the atmosphere of The Times.

Otherwise, Kashkin believes that there must be a strict distinction between artistic images that should be conveyed and verbal images that occasionally occur in translation.Because language is the basic means of expressing all literature, but the basic task and main difficulty of literary and artistic translation is not to copy the language of the original text, including the language structure elements, but in the artistic reproduction of the original image, considering the differences of the language system.

( Kashkin, 1977: 205)

===5.2 Gaczilaser’s realistic view of translations===

Professor Givi Razhdenovich Gaczilaser is one of the largest specialists in the field of literary translation theory, the author of the famous monograph "The Problem of Realistic Translation", a translator of Shakespeare, Byron, Shelley and other English poets into Georgian. In the book offered to the reader's attention, he continued to develop in depth the theory and practice of literary translation. Proceeding from Lenin's theory of reflection, G. Gachechiladze considers literary translation as a form of cognition, as a creative act that helps the reader approach not only a foreign language work, but also the living reality reflected in this work.
Gaczilaser believes that the principles of literary translation have been swinging between the two extremes.One is word-by-word translation, and the other is artistically equivalent but written away from the original text. He thought it would be easy to combine the two principles, but it was impossible in practice. Because different means of expressing ideas are very different languages, word-by-word translation and artistic quality are always contradictory.

If the translator is limited to the original and not to reproduce what the author sees in the imagination, he is not a creative person. The translator should take the author's thoughts as the starting point, the original text serve the deep understanding of artistic reality. The translator should see the real life reflected in the original work behind the artistic reality, and it is not to create his own work.Realistic translation method refers to realists following the law of realistic art, reflecting the artistic reality of the original, and consistent with the original, more specifically, rhetorical consistency, only help to achieve linguistic loyalty, but should not let this affect their own will. Loyal to the author's artistic truth is the goal of the realistic translator.The artistic reality of the original includes both content and form, and even the unity of form and content.

(Gaczilaser, 1964: 120)

It is undoubtedly correct to compare the two language systems in the translation process.However, this contrast has certain limitations, as each language has its characteristic means of rhetoric.Just as there is no unified language, there is no unified rhetoric of all languages, nor the unified grammar of all languages. The application of rhetorical rules to any specific language would rise to a national, independent rhetorical system. Thus, the rhetorical rule can only be judged based on the character of some language.

===6. The Linguistic School Translation===
===6.1 Balhuadov’s Translation Concept===

Balhuarov was a famous translation theorist in the Soviet Union in the 20th century, one of the representatives of the language school and a doctor of Soviet philology, and has been engaged in translation teaching and translation theory research for many years. It is represented as the Language and Translation ("Язык и перевод").

From the perspective of the research subjects of the translation theory, Balhudav believes that the task of the linguistics theory of the translation is to pattern the translation process and put forward some scientific diagram for the translation process, which can more accurately reflect the important aspects of this process. In the view, on the one hand, translation theory, like any other theoretical model, reflects only some of the most important features of its subjects, rather than all features. Translation theory studies not all the relationship between the original language and the translation language, but the regular relationship between the two, that is, the typical and recurrent correspondence.On the other hand, translation theory, like any other discipline theory, stipulates not only a pattern, but many patterns that reflect the translation process in different ways as well as various characteristics.

(Balhudarov, 1975: 250)

From the essence of translation, Balhuudaf believes that translation is the process of converting a speech product into another language while keeping the content level (i. e., meaning) unchanged. Among them, the term “meaning” refers to the various relationships of language units. Translation is a process of changing one language discourse into another language discourse. The object of translation is not a language system, but a discourse.For translation, it is not the equivalent of the individual word, but the equivalent of the full text.Thus, the semantic differences between the two languages are not an insurmountable barrier in translation.
In addition, from the discussion of semantic problems of translation, Balhudv believes that the semantic problem of translation must be studied and conveyed from three aspects: meaning, pragmatic meaning and internal meaning.But on semantic issues, he presented no substantive content, with similar views mentioned by Jackson and Nida et al. in the late 1920s and early 1960s.But Balhudaf's interpretation is more detailed and fulfilling, and more generalized in some places.

Balhudaf also establishes equivalent translation from six levels: phonemic, phoneme, word, phrase, sentence, and discourse layer. The six levels are applied more systematically to translation theory.

(Balhudarov, 1975: 255)

'''(Balhudaf also establishes equivalent translation from six levels: phonemic, phoneme, word, phrase, sentence, and discourse layer, which are applied more systematically in translation. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 02:48, 14 December 2021 (UTC))'''

===7. Conclusion ===

To sum up, by introducing the historical evolution of the development of translation theory in the Soviet Union, we and the representatives of the school of translation literature and art and the translation language school can draw the following conclusions:

First of all, the developmental foundation of the Soviet translation theory was weak. By the beginning of World War II, the discussion of translation theory had formed no systematic and complete theories and they were all carried out from the perspective of literature and art. Only translation textbooks and translation instructional references are exceptional and are conducted from a linguistic perspective .After World War II, the Soviet Union began a new period of studying the translation theory from the perspective of linguistics. Its main feature was to connect the translation theory with the comparative linguistics, and to reveal the correspondence of the two languages on the basis of comparing the two languages. In 1954, translator Kaskin proposed that translation should not be separated from literature and art. Since then, the Soviet theory of translation has gradually formed two major schools, namely, the school of literature and art and the linguistic school. The two factions had long debated, culminating after the late 1950s and 1960s, with numerous papers and monographs each published.

(Cai & Duan, 2000: 168)

(Wu, 2006: 325)

'''(First of all, the developmental foundation of the Soviet translation theory was weak. At the beginning of World War II, the discussion of translation theory wasn’t systematic and comprehensive and they were all carried out from the perspective of literature and art. Only translation textbooks and translation instructional references are exceptional and are conducted from a linguistic perspective .After World War II, the Soviet Union began a new period of studying the translation theory from the perspective of linguistics. Its main feature was to connect translation theory with comparative linguistics, and to reveal the correspondence of the two languages on the basis of comparing the two languages. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 02:11, 14 December 2021 (UTC))
'''

Secondly, from the perspective of the literary school of translation, Kashkin, the theorist of translation, founded the realistic concept of translation, believing that the translation should pay attention to understanding the feelings of the original author, and believing that we must strictly distinguish the artistic image that should be conveyed and the occasional language image in the translation. Translation theorist Gaczirze believes that the principles of literary translation have been swinging between the two extremes. One is word-by-word translation, and the other is artistically equivalent but written away from the original text. He thought it would be easy to combine the two principles, but it was impossible in practice.

Thirdly, from the perspective of the language school of translation, the translation theorist Balhudarov believes that the task of the linguistics theory of translation is to pattern the translation process and put forward some scientific diagram for the translation process, which can more accurately reflect the important aspects of this process.He made great contributions to the linguistic school of translation.

(Wu, 2006: 325)

All in all, the translation theory of the Soviet period has its own unique development path. The Soviet translation theorists in this period made great contributions to the history of Soviet translation, also, the translation theory of the Soviet period became an indispensable part of the world translation theory map.

===8. References ===

Cai, Yi 蔡毅，Duan,Jinghua, 段京华. Translation Studies in USSR苏联翻译理论.湖北教育出版社，2000

Liu Miqing刘宓庆，Translation Basics 翻译基础.上海.华东师范大学出版社，2008

Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜.Translation Studies 翻译学.复旦大学出版社，2017

Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜.History of Western Translation 西方翻译简史.北京.商务印书馆，1991

Wu, Keli 吴克礼.The Translation Methods and Studies in USSR 俄苏翻译理论流派综述. 上海外语教育出版社，2006

Xu, Jun 许均. Translation Theories 翻译论. 湖北教育出版社，2003

Balhudarov Бархударов Л.С. Language and Translation: Collation said Partial theory of Translation Язык и перевод: Вопросы общей и частной теории перевода, Международные отношения, 1975

Gaczilaser Гиви Гачечиладзе. Problems of Literary Theory Вопросы теории художественного перевода. Тбилиси: Литература да хлебовнеба, 1964

Kashkin Иван Кашкин. Articles and Studies Статьи и исследования. Москва. Советский писатель, 1977

--[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 08:41, 12 December 2021 (UTC)

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Wu Jingyue: /* 4.1 History of translation theory development before World War II */

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=Chapter 13 History of Translation Theories in the Soviet Union=
===苏联时期的翻译理论史===
Wu Jingyue 吴婧悦 Hunan Normal University

===1. Abstract===
As is well known, the history of the Soviet period and discusse the characteristics of the Soviet translation theory. written by --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:02, 19 December 2021 (UTC) Firstly, we discuss about the overall situation of the development of the Soviet period, the history of the Soviet period and discusses the characteristics of the Soviet translation theory. Finally, we introduce the famous translation theorist like: S. G. Barkhudarov (С. Г. Бархуда́ров) and I. A. Kashkin (И. А. Кашки́н) and so on.

'''(As is well known, the history of the Soviet period and discusse the characteristics of the Soviet translation theory.corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 14:29, 13 December 2021 (UTC))'''

===2. Key words===
Translation theories, Western translation theories, Soviet Translation theories

===3. Introduction===
The Soviet translation theory play a pivotal role in the world translation theory. written by --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:04, 19 December 2021 (UTC)This paper firstly introduces the historical evolution of the development of the Soviet translation theory, which divides the Soviet Union into two periods: the development history of translation theory before World War II and the development history of translation theory after World War II. In introducing the history of translation theory before World War II, the source of the history of Soviet translation theory, the development of Soviet translation theory, namely linguistics and the contribution of Kamisarov, Liubimov and others.Secondly, the representatives of the translation literature and art school and the translation language school are introduced specifically.When introducing the school of translation literature, the views of translator Kashkin and Gachzzeraz are introduced; in introducing the language school of translation, they are mainly introduced.

'''(The Soviet translation theory play a pivotal role in the world translation theory. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 17:16, 13 December 2021 (UTC))'''

===4. The evolution of Translation Theories in the Soviet Union.===
===4.1 History of translation theory development before World War II===
The Soviet translation theory occupies a very prominent position in the world translation theory.The Soviet study of translation theory began shortly after the October Revolution, began with literary translation.

In 1918, Gorky (А.М.Горький) founded the World Literature Press (Издательство "Всемирная литература") in conjunction with the help of Lenin(В.И.Ленин). The publisher's task is to introduce world classics, improve the translation art, and train translators.At this stage, nearly 100 professors and writers attended the work.In order to unify the thinking, discuss the theory of literary translation, and stipulate some clear rules, Gorky handed the burden to Chukowsky(К.И.Чуковский). Therefore, after making a lot of efforts, Chukowski wrote the book "The Principles of Literary Translation--written by [[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:07, 19 December 2021 (UTC)("Прицины художественного перевода") in 1919.He first proposed that the translator of the novel should be an artist and a master of language.Chukowski believed that a good translation can reproduce the artistic characteristics of the original text in vivid and rich Russian.But at that time, there was a very popular view in literary and theoretical criticism that translation was essentially impossible work.

(Cai & Duan, 2000: 5)

'''(Therefore, after making a lot of efforts, Chukowski wrote the book "The Principles of Literary Translation" ("Прицины художественного перевода") in 1919.Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 17:16, 13 December 2021 (UTC))'''

In 1930, The Principles of Literary Translation was collected in Chukowski's "The Art of Translation" ("Искусство переводов").It suggests that translators must understand the social environment.In addition, the communication of the structural characteristics and rhetorical characteristics of the original text, as well as the principles of translation and expression, are also discussed.

In 1934 Translation theorist Smirnov (А.А.Смирнов) made the first proposal of the concept of "equivalent translation" in the term "Soviet Literature Encyclopedia", "translation" (Перевод).The "equivalent translation" here means "conveying the ideological content, feelings, and written structure of the original work", that is, "conveying the full creative intention of the original author". Smirnov suggested that not only can use the direct counterpart of the original in translation but also can use the functional approximation of the original in translation.

(Cai & Duan, 2000: 16)

In 1936, Loginski (М.Л.Лозинский) reported at the first National Conference of Translators, "The Art of the Translation of Poetry" ("Искусство стихотворного перевода"), and pointed out that poetry translation should be the same in aesthetics as the original poetry works, highlighting the equivalent aesthetic function of literary and artistic translation.

'''(In 1936, Loginski (М.Л.Лозинский) delivered a report at the first National Conference of Translators, "The Art of the Translation of Poetry" ("Искусство стихотворного перевода"), and pointed out that poetry translation should be the same in aesthetics as the original poem, highlighting the equivalent aesthetic function of literary and artistic translation. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 17:16, 13 December 2021 (UTC))'''

Also in 1936, Kashkin (И.А.Кашкин) proposed the theory and became the founder of the Soviet theory of realism. His translation method is: translators should try their best to reproduce the objective reality expressed in the original text, rather than words; they should see, experience, and perfectly reproduce the reality in the eyes of the author from behind the original text. He equated the realistic method of translation with the socialist realism in literary creation.In the Soviet Union, he was hailed as "a theorist representing a entire era in the history of Russian translation". He believes that translators should be loyal to the original, to their readers, to reality, and that the three are inseparable. () Kashkin believes that without a theory, translators are just a craftsman, and can never become a translator or artist.

( Kashkin, 1977)
(Cai & Duan, 2000: 25)

Also in 1936, Kashkin (И.А.Кашкин) proposed the theory and became the founder of the Soviet theory of realism. His translation method is: translators should try their best to reproduce the objective reality expressed in the original text, rather than words; they should see, experience, and perfectly reproduce the reality in the eyes of the author from behind the original text. He equated the realistic method of translation with the socialist realism in literary creation.In the Soviet Union, he was hailed as "a theorist representing a entire era in the history of Russian translation". He believes that translators should be loyal to the original, to their readers, to reality, and that the three are inseparable. Kashkin believes that without a theory, translators are just a craftsman, and can never become a translator or artist.

'''( His translation methods are: translators should try their best to show the objective reality expressed in the original text, instead of focuing on translating words by words; they should see, experience, and perfectly reproduce the reality in the eyes of the author of the original text.Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 17:16, 13 December 2021 (UTC))'''

It was worth mentioning that at the beginning of World War II, the discussion of translation theories did not form systematic and comprehensive theory, and they were all carried out from a literary point of view. Only translation of textbooks and translation instructional references were exceptional and were conducted from a linguistic perspective. written by --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:07, 19 December 2021 (UTC)

(Cai & Duan, 2000: 120)

'''(It was worth mentioning that at the beginning of World War II, the discussion of translation theories did not form systematic and comprehensive theory, and they were all carried out from a literary point of view. Only translation of textbooks and translation instructional references were exceptional and were conducted from a linguistic perspective.Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 17:16, 13 December 2021 (UTC))'''

===4.2 History of translation theory development after World War II===
Since the 1950s, a new period of studying translation theory from the perspective of linguistics began. Its main characteristic is to link translation theory with comparative linguistics, and on the basis of comparing the phenomenon of the two languages, to reveal the law of the two languages.

'''(Since the 1950s, a new period of studying translation theory from the perspective of linguistics began. Its main characteristic is to link translation theory with comparative linguistics and to reveal the law of the two languages based on the comparison of the phenomenon of the two languagesCorrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 17:16, 13 December 2021 (UTC)) .
'''

In 1950, "Theory and Methods of Translation Teaching" ("Вопросы теории и методики учебного перевода"), which played a considerable role in the development of translation theory. For example, in Gary Palin(И.Р. Гпльперии) 's article, "Translation and Rhetoric" ("Перевод и стилистика"), shares Shakespeare's original Othello with Morosov’s (М.М.Морозов) translation, noting the similarities and differences between English and Russian in terms of meaning and aesthetic functions. Meanwhile, the book Lezkel(Я.И.Рецкер) ’s article, "On the regularity and correspondence in Russia" ("О закономерных соответствиях при переводе на роднои язык"), divides the language regularity correspondence into three categories: equivalent, approximation and equivalent substitution.These three methods are applied to scientific and technological translation, the translation of political articles, and literary translation.

(Wu, 2006: 325)

1953 Feodorov (А.В.Фёдоров) 's book "An Introduction to the Translation Theory" ("Введение в теорию перевода") was published.The book discusses the translation theory from the perspective of the linguistics theory, and proposes that the translation theory is a branch of the linguistics, and the translation problem can only be solved in the field of linguistics. In addition, the book stipulates the content of the concept of "translation", the object of theoretical research, the content, etc., and discusses the vocabulary issues, grammar issues and stylistic issues of translation, respectively.The book made Feyodorov the founder of the language school of translation theory. In addition, the book received wide attention in the Soviet translation circle, especially the translation teaching circle, but it also caused a heated controversy in the literary and art school of translation theory.

'''(1953 Feodorov (А.В.Фёдоров) 's book "An Introduction to Translation Theory" ("Введение в теорию перевода") was published. The book discusses the translation theory from the perspective of the linguistics theory and proposes that the translation theory is a branch of the linguistics and the translation problem can only be solved in the field of linguistics. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 02:11, 14 December 2021 (UTC))'''

However, translators from the school of literature and art believe that Feodorov studied translation problems almost completely from a linguistic perspective, while ignoring that the first thing of literary translation should be involved in the problem of literature and art.

(Wu, 2006: 354)

'''(However, translators from the school of literature and art believe that Feodorov studied translation problems almost completely from a linguistic perspective, ignoring that the first thing of literary translation should be involved in the problem of literature and art.Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 02:11, 14 December 2021 (UTC))'''

In 1954, Kashkin put forward in "Methods and Genres of Soviet Literary Translation" ("О методе и школе советского художественного перевода") that the theory of literary translation should be a broad language discipline, that is to say, the study of translation and literary problems should be combined.

'''(In 1954, Kashkin put forward in "Methods and Genres of Soviet Literary Translation" ("О методе и школе советского художественного перевода") that the theory of literary translation should be a broad language discipline. That is to say, the study of translation and literary problems should be combined. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 02:11, 14 December 2021 (UTC))'''

In 1955 the collection of "Literary Translation" ("Вопросы художественного перевода") questions Feydorov's views, believing that studying translation theory from a linguistic perspective may lead to formalism and word-by-word dead translation in translation practice.

Since then, the Soviet theory of translation has gradually formed two major schools, namely, the school of literature and art and the language school.The two factions had long debated, culminating after the late 1950s and 1960s, with numerous papers and monographs each published."Translation Skills" ("Мастерство перевода"), published by the Soviet Writers Publishing House, focuses on the views of the literary school. The language school is based on the "Translation Worker Notes" ("Тетрадь переводчика") edited by Balhudarov, making comments and summarizing the translation experience.Most belong to the literary school are writers; the language school are linguists and college teachers.

( Kashkin, 1977: 163)

In 1958, Feodorov made some additions and modifications to the original book in the second edition of the Introduction to Translation Theory. Although he also admitted that the problems in the field of translation could not all be explained by linguistic methods, it was correct to study the translation problem from the perspective of linguistics, otherwise, there would be no real theory of translation art.He stressed that literary and artistic translation does have its own characteristics, and should highlight its aesthetic aspects, but literary images are created by language means, and must also be conveyed by another language means. Therefore, the study of translation and theory from the perspective of linguistics is the basis.

(Wu, 2006: 366)

'''(In 1958, Feodorov made some additions and modifications to the original book in the second edition of the Introduction to Translation Theory. Although he also admitted that the problems in the field of translation could not all be explained by linguistic methods, it was necessary to study the translation problem from the perspective of linguistics. Otherwise, there would be no real theory of translation art. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 02:11, 14 December 2021 (UTC))'''

In 1962, the collection of "Translation Theory and Review" ("Теория и критика перевода"), including two groups of translation theorists.Linguist Larin (Б.А.Ларии) In the preface to the collection, "Our Mission" ("Наши задачи"), proposed that the theory of literary translation must be established on the basis of linguistics and literature.He believes that it is impossible not to combine linguistics and literary methods organically, whether in linguistics, rhetoric, or translation theory. Any translation should begin with analysis, and finally finish with literary creation.

1963 Aitkin (Е.Т.Эткин) published the book "Poetry and Translation" ("Поэзии и перевод"), which analyzed and commented on a large number of foreign-language poems translated into Russian language in the early 19th century, concerning the translation of literary and artistic theory.He believes that the linguistic means of poetry translation are closely related to the reproduced artistic characteristics of the original poetry, and the two should not be opposed.In his opinion, translation is like rhetoric, which is both a problem of literature and art and linguistics, because rhetoric is a science of language synonymous, and it belongs to the two fields of linguistics. Ignoring the theory of the form of literary works will actually make the translator helpless.

(Tan，1991: 246)

In 1964, Gachzrazawa (Г.Р.Гачечиладзе) published the book "The Theory of Literary Translation" ("Вопросы теории художественного перевода"), in which he based on Lenin's reaction theory, proposing that the translator directly reflects the original text, namely the artistic reality of the original text, rather than the specific reality directly reflected by the original text.

That same year, Levzin (И.И.Ревзин) and Rosenzwig (В.Ю.Розенцвейг) has published "Principles of General Translation and Machine Translation" ("Основы общего и машинного перевода") to study translation issues from a structural linguistics perspective.It was the first work in the world to combine the concepts and principles of translational theory with the category of structural linguistics.

(Wu, 2006: 430)

'''(That year, Levzin (И.И.Ревзин) and Rosenzwig (В.Ю.Розенцвейг) published "Principles of General Translation and Machine Translation" ("Основы общего и машинного перевода") to study translation issues from a structural linguistics perspective.It was the first work in the world to combine the concepts and principles of translational theory with the category of structural linguistics. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 02:11, 14 December 2021 (UTC))'''

In 1968, Feodorov made a new revision and supplement to the new situation, publishing the third edition of the book and renamed "Basic Translation" ("Основы общеи тоерии перевода").The rationale is that this can highlight the basic principles of translation theory —— studies various translation phenomena and various kinds of translation, revealing their commonalities and respective characteristics, comparing from a linguistic perspective.In the book, Feodorov makes it clear that it should never be forgotten that the ultimate task is to establish a common theory of philology.It is now outdated to insist that literary translation is studied only through literature and art, or only through linguistics. Contemporary era is an era of close cooperation between different disciplines. In philology, the distance between the two branches of literature and linguistics is not very large, and its differences are inevitable, but can be overcome, that is to say, the two can be combined all together.

The 1970s were called the "harvest years" of Soviet translation theory, and the debate entered a new stage.

In 1972, Gabriel's book "Literary Translation and Literary Exchange" ("Художественныи перевод и литературные взаимосвязи") can be regarded as a representative work of the school of literature and art, which more comprehensively expounded the translation theory views of the Soviet school of literature and art.Once published, the book immediately aroused widespread response from the Soviet translation theory community.In the book, he pointed out that literary and artistic translation belongs to the category of artistic creation, and studying literary translation from the perspective of linguistics inevitably leads to the dead translation of auxiliary words. As a result, the translation is linguistically correct and low in art. Because from a linguistic point of view, the decisive factor is not the translator's creative attitude towards the original text, but the linguistic correspondence principle.Thus, translation becomes some technical process, not creation. Literary and artistic translation should reproduce the aesthetic value of the original text.

1963 Komizarov (В.Н.Комиссаров) presents its unique theory of "equivalent levels" in his book on translation ("Слово о переводе").According to this theory, the meaning structure of discourse is a complex that can be divided into content, namely the level of language symbols, discourse level, notification structure level, scenario description level and the level of communication purpose.The principle of translation equivalence to the original text should be based on these levels during translation.

(Wu, 2006: 456)

The same year, Shvzel (В.Н.Комиссаров) published the book "Translation and Linguistics" ("Перевод и лингвистика"), suggesting that translation is not only the contact between two language systems, but also between two different cultures, and sometimes between two different civilizations.In addition, he raises questions about the invariant values of the translation function.Shvzel believes that translation functional invariant values include both semantic and grammatical aspects.

'''(The same year, Shvzel (В.Н.Комиссаров) published the book "Translation and Linguistics" ("Перевод и лингвистика"), suggesting that translation is not only the contact between two language systems, but also between two different cultures, and sometimes between two different civilizations.In addition, he raised some questions about the invariant values of the translation function.Shvzel believes that translation functional invariant values include both semantic and grammatical aspects. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 02:11, 14 December 2021 (UTC))'''

In 1974 Lezkel (Я.И.Рецкер) has published the book "Translation Theory and Translation Practice (An Introduction to the Theory of Linguistics of Translation)" ("Теория перевода и переводическая практика - Очерки лингвистическои теории перевода"), which discusses some key issues in the linguistics theory of translation, which are directly related to the translation practice.The book compares the lexical grammar and rhetorical characteristics of English with its functional counterpart in Russian, and reveals the logical semantic basis of using various translation techniques and methods in the translation process.

'''(In 1974 Lezkel (Я.И.Рецкер) published the book "Translation Theory and Translation Practice (An Introduction to the Theory of Linguistics of Translation)" ("Теория перевода и переводическая практика - Очерки лингвистическои теории перевода"), which discusses some key issues in the linguistics theory of translation, which are directly related to the translation practice. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 02:11, 14 December 2021 (UTC))'''

1975 Balhudarov (Л.С.Бархударов) published the book "Language and Translation" ("Язык и перевод"), which aroused widespread response in the Soviet translation community and was considered the representative work of the Soviet language school translation theory in the 1970s. The biggest characteristic of the book is to link the translation theory with the latest achievements in linguistics in the world, and put forward the linguistics theory of translation is comparing discourse linguistics, more specifically, is the semantic discourse in different languages, and the actual segmentation of the sentence is an essential condition of equivalent translation and a series of new arguments. Balhuduff makes it clear that translation changes the speech product of one language to another while keeping the content unchanged, that is, the translator does not deal with the language system, but with the language product.In addition, he discussed translationability, the nature of translation theory, semantics and translation, translation units, and translation methods.

(Balhudarov, 1975: 187)

In 1976, Chernhovskikaya (Л.А.Черняховская) published the book "Translation and the Semantic Structure" ("Перевод и смысловая структура"), the only Soviet work that conveys the logical focus and real semantic segmentation of sentences in translation.

That same year, Levitskaya (Т.Р.Леницкая) and Fejelman (А.М.Фетерман) published the book "translation problem" ("Проблемы перевода"), the book discusses English and Russian due to different vocabulary, grammar, rhetorical structure and the main translation problems, its focus is not the translation process itself and general translation methods and skills, but for the difficulty of English translation into Russian method.

In 1977 Lambimov (Н.М.Любимов) highlighted in "Translation is Art" ("Перевод - искусство") that literary translation is an art that pursues artistic accuracy rather than literal slave-style fidelity.At the same time, it is also proposed that words as language units can only be reflected in, or through words, so the objective reality of language existence is the overall —— discourse of the work. The basic category of translation is the discourse.

And 1978 Venogradov (В.С.Виноградов) pointed out in "The Lexical Problems of Literary Prose Translation" ("Лексические вопросы перевода художественнои прозы") that words are the basic unit of language, so, it is also the starting point of translation.

(Wu, 2006: 359)

In 1978, Komisarov edited and published the collection of "Translation Theory Issues in Foreign Linguistics" ("Вопросы теории перевода в зарубежнои лингвистике"), It fairly fully introduces the state of Western linguists studying translation theory, The book is divided into four themes, Both: the general linguistics problem of translation, Translation equivalent, translation process, Translational linguistics and Translational rhetoric; Translating the relevant discourse of some famous western linguists, For example, Jacobson (R.Jackbcon), one of the founders of the Prague School, British linguist J.R.Firch (J.R.Firch) and others.The influence of this collection is evident from the later writings of translation theorists of the Soviet language school.

In 1980, Komisarov published the book "translation linguistics" ("Лингвистика перевода"), which pointed out that the perspective of linguistics is entering a new stage, turned out to regard the linguistics translation theory as a part of applied linguistics, for the translation practice of service, its focus is on the translation process, its task is to study the linguistics mode of translation and determine the principle of translation. The results of studying translation from the perspective of linguistics show that translation is an integral part of linguistics, and the theoretical analysis of interlanguage communication phenomenon is necessary for the development of linguistics itself. Therefore, translation should be regarded as a special form of language function, which is a special method of its speech practice, and our knowledge of the essence and function of language is incomplete. That is, linguistic analysis of translation can not only serve translation practice, but also promote development of linguistics itself. It is under the guidance of this idea that the book discusses the general linguistics theory of translation, translation semantics, translation linguistics, translation rhetoric, translation mode, translation standards. Therefore, it provides a new perspective for the study of translation theory.

(Cai & Duan, 2000: 20)

In the same year, the Minyal. Bellolluchev (Р.К.Миньяр - Белоручев) published the book "Translation" ("Общая теория перевода и устныи перевод").The book regards translational science as an independent subject on the grounds that it has its own subjects, content and a complete set of terms; thinks that translation research is beyond the scope of linguistics, it is a subject of linguistics, psychology, semiotics, sociology intersection, mainly applicable to translation between any two languages; proposes the discourse information theory, the main method of translation and the classification of language means in translation and so on.The book first used the interpretation as a research subject.

'''(In the same year, the Minyal. Bellolluchev (Р.К.Миньяр - Белоручев) published the book "Translation" ("Общая теория перевода и устныи перевод").This book regards translational science as an independent subject on the grounds that it has its own subjects, content and a complete set of terms; Besides, it presents that translation research is beyond the scope of linguistics. It is a subject of linguistics, psychology, semiotics, sociology intersection, mainly applicable to translation between any two languages; And this book also proposed the discourse information theory, the main method of translation and the classification of language means in translation and so on.The book first used the interpretation as a research subject. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 02:11, 14 December 2021 (UTC))'''

In 1981, Ratshev (Л.К.Латышев) published the "Translation Tutorial —— Translation equivalent and achieve the equivalent Method" ("Курс перевода: Эквивалентность перевода и способы ее достижения"), which divided the translation equivalent into formal and functional equivalent two types, and proposed the specific methods to achieve the translation equivalent.

In 1983, Feodorov published the collection of "Translation Art and Literary Life" ("Искусство перевода и жизнь литературы."), indicating from the preface entitled "A Window to Another World" ("Окнов другои мир") that Feodorov partially accepted the other's views through disputes with the school of translation theory and literature.At the same time, he argued that Gaczrazzer greatly limited the role of language in translation, seeing language as mere technical means.

(Cai &Duan, 2000: 22)

In 1985, Lvorskaya (З.Д.Львовская) published the book "Theoretical Issues of Translation"(Теоритическая проблема перевода”), which based on the theory of communicative function, believing that discourse meaning is divided into linguistic and verbal categories. The equivalent of translation is not the absolute invariance of the semantic, pragmatic, and environmental components in the meaning structure, but only the equivalence of pragmatic and environmental components.
The 20th century school of literature in the translation theory of outstanding events is in the journal "literary review" ("Литературное обозрение") continuously on the discussion of translation problem, the content involves: the necessity of the translation theory, how to overcome the two extreme, how to treat the original aesthetics, time color, translation can really convey "the spirit of the original" and the creation of the translator, etc.

In 1988, Shvzzer, a translation theorist of the language school, published the book "Translation Theory: Status, Problems and Face"(“Теория перевода : Статус, проблема, аспекты”). The author combines the latest achievements in linguistics in the field of speech linguistics, sentence semantics, communication linguistics and psychological linguistics, the status of translation theory, the essence of translation, equivalent, similarities, interpretability, translation semantic, language, discourse and translation and other six issues, the language school translation theory research mentioned a new stage.

In 1990, Komisarov's book "Translation Theory (Linguistics)" ("Теория перевода (линвистические вопросы") clearly stated in his preface that translation theory is an important part of the training of future translators. As a textbook, the book aims to introduce the basic principles of translational linguistics theory.
In the 1980s, the Soviet theory of scientific and technological translation developed rapidly, and published a lot of articles and monographs.

(Cai & Duan, 2000: 37)

In all, the Soviet theory of translation has been developed from scratch, from sporadic to systematic, constantly enriched, and constantly deepening step by step.

===5. The Literary School of Translation===
===5.1 Realistic Translation pioneered by E.A.Kashkin===

Kashkin Ivan Alexandrovich - literary critic, translator and critic. He brought up a significant group of translators from the English language. He translated J. Chaucer's The Canterbury Tales (1946, with O. Rumer). Promoter of the best achievements of modern English and American poetry (R. Frost, K. Sandberg) and prose (E. Hemingway, E. Caldwell, J. Wayne, etc.). Aslo, he is the author of historical and literary studies about J. Conrad, L. Stevenson, W. Faulkner, E. Hemingway and others.

Some translators believe that they must obey the "absolute authority" of the original text and pursue the following word by word. Other translators advocate for loyalty to the original text. And Kashkin believes that realism in art is a complex and diverse phenomenon, which is restricted by history. Realism in art is real and poetic. Exactly, to feel and reflect world —— realism through inspiration is reflected in artistic life itself.

( Kashkin, 1977: 177)

'''(Some translators believe that they must obey the "absolute authority" of the original text and translate the original text word by word in order to be completely faithful. Other translators advocate for loyalty to the original text. And Kashkin believes that realism in art is a complex and diverse phenomenon, which is restricted by history. Realism in art is real and poetic. Exactly, to feel and reflect world —— realism through inspiration is reflected in artistic life itself. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 02:38, 14 December 2021 (UTC))'''

In order to accurately convey the ideological content of the original work, and creatively reproduce the artistic characteristics and national characteristics of the original work, it must adopt the realistic translation method. The translator must respect the reality of the text, but not simply copy the text symbols of the original text, but strive to reproduce the objective reality expressed by the text and give it life.

'''(In order to accurately convey the ideological content of the original work and creatively reproduce the artistic characteristics and national characteristics of the original work, it must adopt the realistic translation method. The translator must respect the reality of the text and strive to reproduce the objective reality expressed by the text and give it life, not simply copying the text symbols of the original text. corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 02:38, 14 December 2021 (UTC))
''

Translators should understand the author of the original text's direct feelings of reality through the barrier of the syntactic structure of a foreign language. Only in this way could he reproduce the original in the same powerful and clear language, as did the original author did. The translator should see the phenomena, thoughts, things, behaviors and conditions through the words of the original work, and specifically reproduce this reality in the eyes of the original author.
Reality in art is the image to reflect the essential characteristics in reality.

( Kashkin, 1977: 185)

The truth in literary translation is not a final pursuit that the surface is similar to the original text, nor does it simply copy all the unimportant details.The truth in literary translation is based on the internal logic of the image, and first, to faithfully translate the essence of the original text.The translator should faithfully understand the author's conception and creative intention, and retain the artistic characteristics of the original work, the historical reality and the atmosphere of The Times.

Otherwise, Kashkin believes that there must be a strict distinction between artistic images that should be conveyed and verbal images that occasionally occur in translation.Because language is the basic means of expressing all literature, but the basic task and main difficulty of literary and artistic translation is not to copy the language of the original text, including the language structure elements, but in the artistic reproduction of the original image, considering the differences of the language system.

( Kashkin, 1977: 205)

===5.2 Gaczilaser’s realistic view of translations===

Professor Givi Razhdenovich Gaczilaser is one of the largest specialists in the field of literary translation theory, the author of the famous monograph "The Problem of Realistic Translation", a translator of Shakespeare, Byron, Shelley and other English poets into Georgian. In the book offered to the reader's attention, he continued to develop in depth the theory and practice of literary translation. Proceeding from Lenin's theory of reflection, G. Gachechiladze considers literary translation as a form of cognition, as a creative act that helps the reader approach not only a foreign language work, but also the living reality reflected in this work.
Gaczilaser believes that the principles of literary translation have been swinging between the two extremes.One is word-by-word translation, and the other is artistically equivalent but written away from the original text. He thought it would be easy to combine the two principles, but it was impossible in practice. Because different means of expressing ideas are very different languages, word-by-word translation and artistic quality are always contradictory.

If the translator is limited to the original and not to reproduce what the author sees in the imagination, he is not a creative person. The translator should take the author's thoughts as the starting point, the original text serve the deep understanding of artistic reality. The translator should see the real life reflected in the original work behind the artistic reality, and it is not to create his own work.Realistic translation method refers to realists following the law of realistic art, reflecting the artistic reality of the original, and consistent with the original, more specifically, rhetorical consistency, only help to achieve linguistic loyalty, but should not let this affect their own will. Loyal to the author's artistic truth is the goal of the realistic translator.The artistic reality of the original includes both content and form, and even the unity of form and content.

(Gaczilaser, 1964: 120)

It is undoubtedly correct to compare the two language systems in the translation process.However, this contrast has certain limitations, as each language has its characteristic means of rhetoric.Just as there is no unified language, there is no unified rhetoric of all languages, nor the unified grammar of all languages. The application of rhetorical rules to any specific language would rise to a national, independent rhetorical system. Thus, the rhetorical rule can only be judged based on the character of some language.

===6. The Linguistic School Translation===
===6.1 Balhuadov’s Translation Concept===

Balhuarov was a famous translation theorist in the Soviet Union in the 20th century, one of the representatives of the language school and a doctor of Soviet philology, and has been engaged in translation teaching and translation theory research for many years. It is represented as the Language and Translation ("Язык и перевод").

From the perspective of the research subjects of the translation theory, Balhudav believes that the task of the linguistics theory of the translation is to pattern the translation process and put forward some scientific diagram for the translation process, which can more accurately reflect the important aspects of this process. In the view, on the one hand, translation theory, like any other theoretical model, reflects only some of the most important features of its subjects, rather than all features. Translation theory studies not all the relationship between the original language and the translation language, but the regular relationship between the two, that is, the typical and recurrent correspondence.On the other hand, translation theory, like any other discipline theory, stipulates not only a pattern, but many patterns that reflect the translation process in different ways as well as various characteristics.

(Balhudarov, 1975: 250)

From the essence of translation, Balhuudaf believes that translation is the process of converting a speech product into another language while keeping the content level (i. e., meaning) unchanged. Among them, the term “meaning” refers to the various relationships of language units. Translation is a process of changing one language discourse into another language discourse. The object of translation is not a language system, but a discourse.For translation, it is not the equivalent of the individual word, but the equivalent of the full text.Thus, the semantic differences between the two languages are not an insurmountable barrier in translation.
In addition, from the discussion of semantic problems of translation, Balhudv believes that the semantic problem of translation must be studied and conveyed from three aspects: meaning, pragmatic meaning and internal meaning.But on semantic issues, he presented no substantive content, with similar views mentioned by Jackson and Nida et al. in the late 1920s and early 1960s.But Balhudaf's interpretation is more detailed and fulfilling, and more generalized in some places.

Balhudaf also establishes equivalent translation from six levels: phonemic, phoneme, word, phrase, sentence, and discourse layer. The six levels are applied more systematically to translation theory.

(Balhudarov, 1975: 255)

'''(Balhudaf also establishes equivalent translation from six levels: phonemic, phoneme, word, phrase, sentence, and discourse layer, which are applied more systematically in translation. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 02:48, 14 December 2021 (UTC))'''

===7. Conclusion ===

To sum up, by introducing the historical evolution of the development of translation theory in the Soviet Union, we and the representatives of the school of translation literature and art and the translation language school can draw the following conclusions:

First of all, the developmental foundation of the Soviet translation theory was weak. By the beginning of World War II, the discussion of translation theory had formed no systematic and complete theories and they were all carried out from the perspective of literature and art. Only translation textbooks and translation instructional references are exceptional and are conducted from a linguistic perspective .After World War II, the Soviet Union began a new period of studying the translation theory from the perspective of linguistics. Its main feature was to connect the translation theory with the comparative linguistics, and to reveal the correspondence of the two languages on the basis of comparing the two languages. In 1954, translator Kaskin proposed that translation should not be separated from literature and art. Since then, the Soviet theory of translation has gradually formed two major schools, namely, the school of literature and art and the linguistic school. The two factions had long debated, culminating after the late 1950s and 1960s, with numerous papers and monographs each published.

(Cai & Duan, 2000: 168)

(Wu, 2006: 325)

'''(First of all, the developmental foundation of the Soviet translation theory was weak. At the beginning of World War II, the discussion of translation theory wasn’t systematic and comprehensive and they were all carried out from the perspective of literature and art. Only translation textbooks and translation instructional references are exceptional and are conducted from a linguistic perspective .After World War II, the Soviet Union began a new period of studying the translation theory from the perspective of linguistics. Its main feature was to connect translation theory with comparative linguistics, and to reveal the correspondence of the two languages on the basis of comparing the two languages. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 02:11, 14 December 2021 (UTC))
'''

Secondly, from the perspective of the literary school of translation, Kashkin, the theorist of translation, founded the realistic concept of translation, believing that the translation should pay attention to understanding the feelings of the original author, and believing that we must strictly distinguish the artistic image that should be conveyed and the occasional language image in the translation. Translation theorist Gaczirze believes that the principles of literary translation have been swinging between the two extremes. One is word-by-word translation, and the other is artistically equivalent but written away from the original text. He thought it would be easy to combine the two principles, but it was impossible in practice.

Thirdly, from the perspective of the language school of translation, the translation theorist Balhudarov believes that the task of the linguistics theory of translation is to pattern the translation process and put forward some scientific diagram for the translation process, which can more accurately reflect the important aspects of this process.He made great contributions to the linguistic school of translation.

(Wu, 2006: 325)

All in all, the translation theory of the Soviet period has its own unique development path. The Soviet translation theorists in this period made great contributions to the history of Soviet translation, also, the translation theory of the Soviet period became an indispensable part of the world translation theory map.

===8. References ===

Cai, Yi 蔡毅，Duan,Jinghua, 段京华. Translation Studies in USSR苏联翻译理论.湖北教育出版社，2000

Liu Miqing刘宓庆，Translation Basics 翻译基础.上海.华东师范大学出版社，2008

Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜.Translation Studies 翻译学.复旦大学出版社，2017

Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜.History of Western Translation 西方翻译简史.北京.商务印书馆，1991

Wu, Keli 吴克礼.The Translation Methods and Studies in USSR 俄苏翻译理论流派综述. 上海外语教育出版社，2006

Xu, Jun 许均. Translation Theories 翻译论. 湖北教育出版社，2003

Balhudarov Бархударов Л.С. Language and Translation: Collation said Partial theory of Translation Язык и перевод: Вопросы общей и частной теории перевода, Международные отношения, 1975

Gaczilaser Гиви Гачечиладзе. Problems of Literary Theory Вопросы теории художественного перевода. Тбилиси: Литература да хлебовнеба, 1964

Kashkin Иван Кашкин. Articles and Studies Статьи и исследования. Москва. Советский писатель, 1977

--[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 08:41, 12 December 2021 (UTC)

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=Chapter 13 History of Translation Theories in the Soviet Union=
===苏联时期的翻译理论史===
Wu Jingyue 吴婧悦 Hunan Normal University

===1. Abstract===
As is well known, the history of the Soviet period and discusse the characteristics of the Soviet translation theory. written by --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:02, 19 December 2021 (UTC) Firstly, we discuss about the overall situation of the development of the Soviet period, the history of the Soviet period and discusses the characteristics of the Soviet translation theory. Finally, we introduce the famous translation theorist like: S. G. Barkhudarov (С. Г. Бархуда́ров) and I. A. Kashkin (И. А. Кашки́н) and so on.

'''(As is well known, the history of the Soviet period and discusse the characteristics of the Soviet translation theory.corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 14:29, 13 December 2021 (UTC))'''

===2. Key words===
Translation theories, Western translation theories, Soviet Translation theories

===3. Introduction===
The Soviet translation theory play a pivotal role in the world translation theory. written by --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:04, 19 December 2021 (UTC)This paper firstly introduces the historical evolution of the development of the Soviet translation theory, which divides the Soviet Union into two periods: the development history of translation theory before World War II and the development history of translation theory after World War II. In introducing the history of translation theory before World War II, the source of the history of Soviet translation theory, the development of Soviet translation theory, namely linguistics and the contribution of Kamisarov, Liubimov and others.Secondly, the representatives of the translation literature and art school and the translation language school are introduced specifically.When introducing the school of translation literature, the views of translator Kashkin and Gachzzeraz are introduced; in introducing the language school of translation, they are mainly introduced.

'''(The Soviet translation theory play a pivotal role in the world translation theory. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 17:16, 13 December 2021 (UTC))'''

===4. The evolution of Translation Theories in the Soviet Union.===
===4.1 History of translation theory development before World War II===
The Soviet translation theory occupies a very prominent position in the world translation theory.The Soviet study of translation theory began shortly after the October Revolution, began with literary translation.

In 1918, Gorky (А.М.Горький) founded the World Literature Press (Издательство "Всемирная литература") in conjunction with the help of Lenin(В.И.Ленин). The publisher's task is to introduce world classics, improve the translation art, and train translators.At this stage, nearly 100 professors and writers attended the work.In order to unify the thinking, discuss the theory of literary translation, and stipulate some clear rules, Gorky handed the burden to Chukowsky(К.И.Чуковский). Therefore, after a short effort, Chukowski wrote the book "The Principles of Literary Translation" ("Прицины художественного перевода") in 1919.He first proposed that the translator of the novel should be an artist and a master of language.Chukowski believed that a good translation can reproduce the artistic characteristics of the original text in vivid and rich Russian.But at that time, there was a very popular view in literary and theoretical criticism that translation was essentially impossible work.

(Cai & Duan, 2000: 5)

'''(Therefore, after making a lot of efforts, Chukowski wrote the book "The Principles of Literary Translation" ("Прицины художественного перевода") in 1919.Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 17:16, 13 December 2021 (UTC))'''

In 1930, The Principles of Literary Translation was collected in Chukowski's "The Art of Translation" ("Искусство переводов").It suggests that translators must understand the social environment.In addition, the communication of the structural characteristics and rhetorical characteristics of the original text, as well as the principles of translation and expression, are also discussed.

In 1934 Translation theorist Smirnov (А.А.Смирнов) made the first proposal of the concept of "equivalent translation" in the term "Soviet Literature Encyclopedia", "translation" (Перевод).The "equivalent translation" here means "conveying the ideological content, feelings, and written structure of the original work", that is, "conveying the full creative intention of the original author". Smirnov suggested that not only can use the direct counterpart of the original in translation but also can use the functional approximation of the original in translation.

(Cai & Duan, 2000: 16)

In 1936, Loginski (М.Л.Лозинский) reported at the first National Conference of Translators, "The Art of the Translation of Poetry" ("Искусство стихотворного перевода"), and pointed out that poetry translation should be the same in aesthetics as the original poetry works, highlighting the equivalent aesthetic function of literary and artistic translation.

'''(In 1936, Loginski (М.Л.Лозинский) delivered a report at the first National Conference of Translators, "The Art of the Translation of Poetry" ("Искусство стихотворного перевода"), and pointed out that poetry translation should be the same in aesthetics as the original poem, highlighting the equivalent aesthetic function of literary and artistic translation. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 17:16, 13 December 2021 (UTC))'''

Also in 1936, Kashkin (И.А.Кашкин) proposed the theory and became the founder of the Soviet theory of realism. His translation method is: translators should try their best to reproduce the objective reality expressed in the original text, rather than words; they should see, experience, and perfectly reproduce the reality in the eyes of the author from behind the original text. He equated the realistic method of translation with the socialist realism in literary creation.In the Soviet Union, he was hailed as "a theorist representing a entire era in the history of Russian translation". He believes that translators should be loyal to the original, to their readers, to reality, and that the three are inseparable. () Kashkin believes that without a theory, translators are just a craftsman, and can never become a translator or artist.

( Kashkin, 1977)
(Cai & Duan, 2000: 25)

Also in 1936, Kashkin (И.А.Кашкин) proposed the theory and became the founder of the Soviet theory of realism. His translation method is: translators should try their best to reproduce the objective reality expressed in the original text, rather than words; they should see, experience, and perfectly reproduce the reality in the eyes of the author from behind the original text. He equated the realistic method of translation with the socialist realism in literary creation.In the Soviet Union, he was hailed as "a theorist representing a entire era in the history of Russian translation". He believes that translators should be loyal to the original, to their readers, to reality, and that the three are inseparable. Kashkin believes that without a theory, translators are just a craftsman, and can never become a translator or artist.

'''( His translation methods are: translators should try their best to show the objective reality expressed in the original text, instead of focuing on translating words by words; they should see, experience, and perfectly reproduce the reality in the eyes of the author of the original text.Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 17:16, 13 December 2021 (UTC))'''

It is worth noting that by the beginning of World War II, the discussion of translation theories did not form systematic and complete theories, and they were all carried out from a literary point of view. Only translation of textbooks and translation instructional references are exceptional and are conducted from a linguistic perspective.

(Cai & Duan, 2000: 120)

'''(It was worth mentioning that at the beginning of World War II, the discussion of translation theories did not form systematic and comprehensive theory, and they were all carried out from a literary point of view. Only translation of textbooks and translation instructional references were exceptional and were conducted from a linguistic perspective.Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 17:16, 13 December 2021 (UTC))'''

===4.2 History of translation theory development after World War II===
Since the 1950s, a new period of studying translation theory from the perspective of linguistics began. Its main characteristic is to link translation theory with comparative linguistics, and on the basis of comparing the phenomenon of the two languages, to reveal the law of the two languages.

'''(Since the 1950s, a new period of studying translation theory from the perspective of linguistics began. Its main characteristic is to link translation theory with comparative linguistics and to reveal the law of the two languages based on the comparison of the phenomenon of the two languagesCorrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 17:16, 13 December 2021 (UTC)) .
'''

In 1950, "Theory and Methods of Translation Teaching" ("Вопросы теории и методики учебного перевода"), which played a considerable role in the development of translation theory. For example, in Gary Palin(И.Р. Гпльперии) 's article, "Translation and Rhetoric" ("Перевод и стилистика"), shares Shakespeare's original Othello with Morosov’s (М.М.Морозов) translation, noting the similarities and differences between English and Russian in terms of meaning and aesthetic functions. Meanwhile, the book Lezkel(Я.И.Рецкер) ’s article, "On the regularity and correspondence in Russia" ("О закономерных соответствиях при переводе на роднои язык"), divides the language regularity correspondence into three categories: equivalent, approximation and equivalent substitution.These three methods are applied to scientific and technological translation, the translation of political articles, and literary translation.

(Wu, 2006: 325)

1953 Feodorov (А.В.Фёдоров) 's book "An Introduction to the Translation Theory" ("Введение в теорию перевода") was published.The book discusses the translation theory from the perspective of the linguistics theory, and proposes that the translation theory is a branch of the linguistics, and the translation problem can only be solved in the field of linguistics. In addition, the book stipulates the content of the concept of "translation", the object of theoretical research, the content, etc., and discusses the vocabulary issues, grammar issues and stylistic issues of translation, respectively.The book made Feyodorov the founder of the language school of translation theory. In addition, the book received wide attention in the Soviet translation circle, especially the translation teaching circle, but it also caused a heated controversy in the literary and art school of translation theory.

'''(1953 Feodorov (А.В.Фёдоров) 's book "An Introduction to Translation Theory" ("Введение в теорию перевода") was published. The book discusses the translation theory from the perspective of the linguistics theory and proposes that the translation theory is a branch of the linguistics and the translation problem can only be solved in the field of linguistics. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 02:11, 14 December 2021 (UTC))'''

However, translators from the school of literature and art believe that Feodorov studied translation problems almost completely from a linguistic perspective, while ignoring that the first thing of literary translation should be involved in the problem of literature and art.

(Wu, 2006: 354)

'''(However, translators from the school of literature and art believe that Feodorov studied translation problems almost completely from a linguistic perspective, ignoring that the first thing of literary translation should be involved in the problem of literature and art.Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 02:11, 14 December 2021 (UTC))'''

In 1954, Kashkin put forward in "Methods and Genres of Soviet Literary Translation" ("О методе и школе советского художественного перевода") that the theory of literary translation should be a broad language discipline, that is to say, the study of translation and literary problems should be combined.

'''(In 1954, Kashkin put forward in "Methods and Genres of Soviet Literary Translation" ("О методе и школе советского художественного перевода") that the theory of literary translation should be a broad language discipline. That is to say, the study of translation and literary problems should be combined. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 02:11, 14 December 2021 (UTC))'''

In 1955 the collection of "Literary Translation" ("Вопросы художественного перевода") questions Feydorov's views, believing that studying translation theory from a linguistic perspective may lead to formalism and word-by-word dead translation in translation practice.

Since then, the Soviet theory of translation has gradually formed two major schools, namely, the school of literature and art and the language school.The two factions had long debated, culminating after the late 1950s and 1960s, with numerous papers and monographs each published."Translation Skills" ("Мастерство перевода"), published by the Soviet Writers Publishing House, focuses on the views of the literary school. The language school is based on the "Translation Worker Notes" ("Тетрадь переводчика") edited by Balhudarov, making comments and summarizing the translation experience.Most belong to the literary school are writers; the language school are linguists and college teachers.

( Kashkin, 1977: 163)

In 1958, Feodorov made some additions and modifications to the original book in the second edition of the Introduction to Translation Theory. Although he also admitted that the problems in the field of translation could not all be explained by linguistic methods, it was correct to study the translation problem from the perspective of linguistics, otherwise, there would be no real theory of translation art.He stressed that literary and artistic translation does have its own characteristics, and should highlight its aesthetic aspects, but literary images are created by language means, and must also be conveyed by another language means. Therefore, the study of translation and theory from the perspective of linguistics is the basis.

(Wu, 2006: 366)

'''(In 1958, Feodorov made some additions and modifications to the original book in the second edition of the Introduction to Translation Theory. Although he also admitted that the problems in the field of translation could not all be explained by linguistic methods, it was necessary to study the translation problem from the perspective of linguistics. Otherwise, there would be no real theory of translation art. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 02:11, 14 December 2021 (UTC))'''

In 1962, the collection of "Translation Theory and Review" ("Теория и критика перевода"), including two groups of translation theorists.Linguist Larin (Б.А.Ларии) In the preface to the collection, "Our Mission" ("Наши задачи"), proposed that the theory of literary translation must be established on the basis of linguistics and literature.He believes that it is impossible not to combine linguistics and literary methods organically, whether in linguistics, rhetoric, or translation theory. Any translation should begin with analysis, and finally finish with literary creation.

1963 Aitkin (Е.Т.Эткин) published the book "Poetry and Translation" ("Поэзии и перевод"), which analyzed and commented on a large number of foreign-language poems translated into Russian language in the early 19th century, concerning the translation of literary and artistic theory.He believes that the linguistic means of poetry translation are closely related to the reproduced artistic characteristics of the original poetry, and the two should not be opposed.In his opinion, translation is like rhetoric, which is both a problem of literature and art and linguistics, because rhetoric is a science of language synonymous, and it belongs to the two fields of linguistics. Ignoring the theory of the form of literary works will actually make the translator helpless.

(Tan，1991: 246)

In 1964, Gachzrazawa (Г.Р.Гачечиладзе) published the book "The Theory of Literary Translation" ("Вопросы теории художественного перевода"), in which he based on Lenin's reaction theory, proposing that the translator directly reflects the original text, namely the artistic reality of the original text, rather than the specific reality directly reflected by the original text.

That same year, Levzin (И.И.Ревзин) and Rosenzwig (В.Ю.Розенцвейг) has published "Principles of General Translation and Machine Translation" ("Основы общего и машинного перевода") to study translation issues from a structural linguistics perspective.It was the first work in the world to combine the concepts and principles of translational theory with the category of structural linguistics.

(Wu, 2006: 430)

'''(That year, Levzin (И.И.Ревзин) and Rosenzwig (В.Ю.Розенцвейг) published "Principles of General Translation and Machine Translation" ("Основы общего и машинного перевода") to study translation issues from a structural linguistics perspective.It was the first work in the world to combine the concepts and principles of translational theory with the category of structural linguistics. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 02:11, 14 December 2021 (UTC))'''

In 1968, Feodorov made a new revision and supplement to the new situation, publishing the third edition of the book and renamed "Basic Translation" ("Основы общеи тоерии перевода").The rationale is that this can highlight the basic principles of translation theory —— studies various translation phenomena and various kinds of translation, revealing their commonalities and respective characteristics, comparing from a linguistic perspective.In the book, Feodorov makes it clear that it should never be forgotten that the ultimate task is to establish a common theory of philology.It is now outdated to insist that literary translation is studied only through literature and art, or only through linguistics. Contemporary era is an era of close cooperation between different disciplines. In philology, the distance between the two branches of literature and linguistics is not very large, and its differences are inevitable, but can be overcome, that is to say, the two can be combined all together.

The 1970s were called the "harvest years" of Soviet translation theory, and the debate entered a new stage.

In 1972, Gabriel's book "Literary Translation and Literary Exchange" ("Художественныи перевод и литературные взаимосвязи") can be regarded as a representative work of the school of literature and art, which more comprehensively expounded the translation theory views of the Soviet school of literature and art.Once published, the book immediately aroused widespread response from the Soviet translation theory community.In the book, he pointed out that literary and artistic translation belongs to the category of artistic creation, and studying literary translation from the perspective of linguistics inevitably leads to the dead translation of auxiliary words. As a result, the translation is linguistically correct and low in art. Because from a linguistic point of view, the decisive factor is not the translator's creative attitude towards the original text, but the linguistic correspondence principle.Thus, translation becomes some technical process, not creation. Literary and artistic translation should reproduce the aesthetic value of the original text.

1963 Komizarov (В.Н.Комиссаров) presents its unique theory of "equivalent levels" in his book on translation ("Слово о переводе").According to this theory, the meaning structure of discourse is a complex that can be divided into content, namely the level of language symbols, discourse level, notification structure level, scenario description level and the level of communication purpose.The principle of translation equivalence to the original text should be based on these levels during translation.

(Wu, 2006: 456)

The same year, Shvzel (В.Н.Комиссаров) published the book "Translation and Linguistics" ("Перевод и лингвистика"), suggesting that translation is not only the contact between two language systems, but also between two different cultures, and sometimes between two different civilizations.In addition, he raises questions about the invariant values of the translation function.Shvzel believes that translation functional invariant values include both semantic and grammatical aspects.

'''(The same year, Shvzel (В.Н.Комиссаров) published the book "Translation and Linguistics" ("Перевод и лингвистика"), suggesting that translation is not only the contact between two language systems, but also between two different cultures, and sometimes between two different civilizations.In addition, he raised some questions about the invariant values of the translation function.Shvzel believes that translation functional invariant values include both semantic and grammatical aspects. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 02:11, 14 December 2021 (UTC))'''

In 1974 Lezkel (Я.И.Рецкер) has published the book "Translation Theory and Translation Practice (An Introduction to the Theory of Linguistics of Translation)" ("Теория перевода и переводическая практика - Очерки лингвистическои теории перевода"), which discusses some key issues in the linguistics theory of translation, which are directly related to the translation practice.The book compares the lexical grammar and rhetorical characteristics of English with its functional counterpart in Russian, and reveals the logical semantic basis of using various translation techniques and methods in the translation process.

'''(In 1974 Lezkel (Я.И.Рецкер) published the book "Translation Theory and Translation Practice (An Introduction to the Theory of Linguistics of Translation)" ("Теория перевода и переводическая практика - Очерки лингвистическои теории перевода"), which discusses some key issues in the linguistics theory of translation, which are directly related to the translation practice. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 02:11, 14 December 2021 (UTC))'''

1975 Balhudarov (Л.С.Бархударов) published the book "Language and Translation" ("Язык и перевод"), which aroused widespread response in the Soviet translation community and was considered the representative work of the Soviet language school translation theory in the 1970s. The biggest characteristic of the book is to link the translation theory with the latest achievements in linguistics in the world, and put forward the linguistics theory of translation is comparing discourse linguistics, more specifically, is the semantic discourse in different languages, and the actual segmentation of the sentence is an essential condition of equivalent translation and a series of new arguments. Balhuduff makes it clear that translation changes the speech product of one language to another while keeping the content unchanged, that is, the translator does not deal with the language system, but with the language product.In addition, he discussed translationability, the nature of translation theory, semantics and translation, translation units, and translation methods.

(Balhudarov, 1975: 187)

In 1976, Chernhovskikaya (Л.А.Черняховская) published the book "Translation and the Semantic Structure" ("Перевод и смысловая структура"), the only Soviet work that conveys the logical focus and real semantic segmentation of sentences in translation.

That same year, Levitskaya (Т.Р.Леницкая) and Fejelman (А.М.Фетерман) published the book "translation problem" ("Проблемы перевода"), the book discusses English and Russian due to different vocabulary, grammar, rhetorical structure and the main translation problems, its focus is not the translation process itself and general translation methods and skills, but for the difficulty of English translation into Russian method.

In 1977 Lambimov (Н.М.Любимов) highlighted in "Translation is Art" ("Перевод - искусство") that literary translation is an art that pursues artistic accuracy rather than literal slave-style fidelity.At the same time, it is also proposed that words as language units can only be reflected in, or through words, so the objective reality of language existence is the overall —— discourse of the work. The basic category of translation is the discourse.

And 1978 Venogradov (В.С.Виноградов) pointed out in "The Lexical Problems of Literary Prose Translation" ("Лексические вопросы перевода художественнои прозы") that words are the basic unit of language, so, it is also the starting point of translation.

(Wu, 2006: 359)

In 1978, Komisarov edited and published the collection of "Translation Theory Issues in Foreign Linguistics" ("Вопросы теории перевода в зарубежнои лингвистике"), It fairly fully introduces the state of Western linguists studying translation theory, The book is divided into four themes, Both: the general linguistics problem of translation, Translation equivalent, translation process, Translational linguistics and Translational rhetoric; Translating the relevant discourse of some famous western linguists, For example, Jacobson (R.Jackbcon), one of the founders of the Prague School, British linguist J.R.Firch (J.R.Firch) and others.The influence of this collection is evident from the later writings of translation theorists of the Soviet language school.

In 1980, Komisarov published the book "translation linguistics" ("Лингвистика перевода"), which pointed out that the perspective of linguistics is entering a new stage, turned out to regard the linguistics translation theory as a part of applied linguistics, for the translation practice of service, its focus is on the translation process, its task is to study the linguistics mode of translation and determine the principle of translation. The results of studying translation from the perspective of linguistics show that translation is an integral part of linguistics, and the theoretical analysis of interlanguage communication phenomenon is necessary for the development of linguistics itself. Therefore, translation should be regarded as a special form of language function, which is a special method of its speech practice, and our knowledge of the essence and function of language is incomplete. That is, linguistic analysis of translation can not only serve translation practice, but also promote development of linguistics itself. It is under the guidance of this idea that the book discusses the general linguistics theory of translation, translation semantics, translation linguistics, translation rhetoric, translation mode, translation standards. Therefore, it provides a new perspective for the study of translation theory.

(Cai & Duan, 2000: 20)

In the same year, the Minyal. Bellolluchev (Р.К.Миньяр - Белоручев) published the book "Translation" ("Общая теория перевода и устныи перевод").The book regards translational science as an independent subject on the grounds that it has its own subjects, content and a complete set of terms; thinks that translation research is beyond the scope of linguistics, it is a subject of linguistics, psychology, semiotics, sociology intersection, mainly applicable to translation between any two languages; proposes the discourse information theory, the main method of translation and the classification of language means in translation and so on.The book first used the interpretation as a research subject.

'''(In the same year, the Minyal. Bellolluchev (Р.К.Миньяр - Белоручев) published the book "Translation" ("Общая теория перевода и устныи перевод").This book regards translational science as an independent subject on the grounds that it has its own subjects, content and a complete set of terms; Besides, it presents that translation research is beyond the scope of linguistics. It is a subject of linguistics, psychology, semiotics, sociology intersection, mainly applicable to translation between any two languages; And this book also proposed the discourse information theory, the main method of translation and the classification of language means in translation and so on.The book first used the interpretation as a research subject. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 02:11, 14 December 2021 (UTC))'''

In 1981, Ratshev (Л.К.Латышев) published the "Translation Tutorial —— Translation equivalent and achieve the equivalent Method" ("Курс перевода: Эквивалентность перевода и способы ее достижения"), which divided the translation equivalent into formal and functional equivalent two types, and proposed the specific methods to achieve the translation equivalent.

In 1983, Feodorov published the collection of "Translation Art and Literary Life" ("Искусство перевода и жизнь литературы."), indicating from the preface entitled "A Window to Another World" ("Окнов другои мир") that Feodorov partially accepted the other's views through disputes with the school of translation theory and literature.At the same time, he argued that Gaczrazzer greatly limited the role of language in translation, seeing language as mere technical means.

(Cai &Duan, 2000: 22)

In 1985, Lvorskaya (З.Д.Львовская) published the book "Theoretical Issues of Translation"(Теоритическая проблема перевода”), which based on the theory of communicative function, believing that discourse meaning is divided into linguistic and verbal categories. The equivalent of translation is not the absolute invariance of the semantic, pragmatic, and environmental components in the meaning structure, but only the equivalence of pragmatic and environmental components.
The 20th century school of literature in the translation theory of outstanding events is in the journal "literary review" ("Литературное обозрение") continuously on the discussion of translation problem, the content involves: the necessity of the translation theory, how to overcome the two extreme, how to treat the original aesthetics, time color, translation can really convey "the spirit of the original" and the creation of the translator, etc.

In 1988, Shvzzer, a translation theorist of the language school, published the book "Translation Theory: Status, Problems and Face"(“Теория перевода : Статус, проблема, аспекты”). The author combines the latest achievements in linguistics in the field of speech linguistics, sentence semantics, communication linguistics and psychological linguistics, the status of translation theory, the essence of translation, equivalent, similarities, interpretability, translation semantic, language, discourse and translation and other six issues, the language school translation theory research mentioned a new stage.

In 1990, Komisarov's book "Translation Theory (Linguistics)" ("Теория перевода (линвистические вопросы") clearly stated in his preface that translation theory is an important part of the training of future translators. As a textbook, the book aims to introduce the basic principles of translational linguistics theory.
In the 1980s, the Soviet theory of scientific and technological translation developed rapidly, and published a lot of articles and monographs.

(Cai & Duan, 2000: 37)

In all, the Soviet theory of translation has been developed from scratch, from sporadic to systematic, constantly enriched, and constantly deepening step by step.

===5. The Literary School of Translation===
===5.1 Realistic Translation pioneered by E.A.Kashkin===

Kashkin Ivan Alexandrovich - literary critic, translator and critic. He brought up a significant group of translators from the English language. He translated J. Chaucer's The Canterbury Tales (1946, with O. Rumer). Promoter of the best achievements of modern English and American poetry (R. Frost, K. Sandberg) and prose (E. Hemingway, E. Caldwell, J. Wayne, etc.). Aslo, he is the author of historical and literary studies about J. Conrad, L. Stevenson, W. Faulkner, E. Hemingway and others.

Some translators believe that they must obey the "absolute authority" of the original text and pursue the following word by word. Other translators advocate for loyalty to the original text. And Kashkin believes that realism in art is a complex and diverse phenomenon, which is restricted by history. Realism in art is real and poetic. Exactly, to feel and reflect world —— realism through inspiration is reflected in artistic life itself.

( Kashkin, 1977: 177)

'''(Some translators believe that they must obey the "absolute authority" of the original text and translate the original text word by word in order to be completely faithful. Other translators advocate for loyalty to the original text. And Kashkin believes that realism in art is a complex and diverse phenomenon, which is restricted by history. Realism in art is real and poetic. Exactly, to feel and reflect world —— realism through inspiration is reflected in artistic life itself. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 02:38, 14 December 2021 (UTC))'''

In order to accurately convey the ideological content of the original work, and creatively reproduce the artistic characteristics and national characteristics of the original work, it must adopt the realistic translation method. The translator must respect the reality of the text, but not simply copy the text symbols of the original text, but strive to reproduce the objective reality expressed by the text and give it life.

'''(In order to accurately convey the ideological content of the original work and creatively reproduce the artistic characteristics and national characteristics of the original work, it must adopt the realistic translation method. The translator must respect the reality of the text and strive to reproduce the objective reality expressed by the text and give it life, not simply copying the text symbols of the original text. corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 02:38, 14 December 2021 (UTC))
''

Translators should understand the author of the original text's direct feelings of reality through the barrier of the syntactic structure of a foreign language. Only in this way could he reproduce the original in the same powerful and clear language, as did the original author did. The translator should see the phenomena, thoughts, things, behaviors and conditions through the words of the original work, and specifically reproduce this reality in the eyes of the original author.
Reality in art is the image to reflect the essential characteristics in reality.

( Kashkin, 1977: 185)

The truth in literary translation is not a final pursuit that the surface is similar to the original text, nor does it simply copy all the unimportant details.The truth in literary translation is based on the internal logic of the image, and first, to faithfully translate the essence of the original text.The translator should faithfully understand the author's conception and creative intention, and retain the artistic characteristics of the original work, the historical reality and the atmosphere of The Times.

Otherwise, Kashkin believes that there must be a strict distinction between artistic images that should be conveyed and verbal images that occasionally occur in translation.Because language is the basic means of expressing all literature, but the basic task and main difficulty of literary and artistic translation is not to copy the language of the original text, including the language structure elements, but in the artistic reproduction of the original image, considering the differences of the language system.

( Kashkin, 1977: 205)

===5.2 Gaczilaser’s realistic view of translations===

Professor Givi Razhdenovich Gaczilaser is one of the largest specialists in the field of literary translation theory, the author of the famous monograph "The Problem of Realistic Translation", a translator of Shakespeare, Byron, Shelley and other English poets into Georgian. In the book offered to the reader's attention, he continued to develop in depth the theory and practice of literary translation. Proceeding from Lenin's theory of reflection, G. Gachechiladze considers literary translation as a form of cognition, as a creative act that helps the reader approach not only a foreign language work, but also the living reality reflected in this work.
Gaczilaser believes that the principles of literary translation have been swinging between the two extremes.One is word-by-word translation, and the other is artistically equivalent but written away from the original text. He thought it would be easy to combine the two principles, but it was impossible in practice. Because different means of expressing ideas are very different languages, word-by-word translation and artistic quality are always contradictory.

If the translator is limited to the original and not to reproduce what the author sees in the imagination, he is not a creative person. The translator should take the author's thoughts as the starting point, the original text serve the deep understanding of artistic reality. The translator should see the real life reflected in the original work behind the artistic reality, and it is not to create his own work.Realistic translation method refers to realists following the law of realistic art, reflecting the artistic reality of the original, and consistent with the original, more specifically, rhetorical consistency, only help to achieve linguistic loyalty, but should not let this affect their own will. Loyal to the author's artistic truth is the goal of the realistic translator.The artistic reality of the original includes both content and form, and even the unity of form and content.

(Gaczilaser, 1964: 120)

It is undoubtedly correct to compare the two language systems in the translation process.However, this contrast has certain limitations, as each language has its characteristic means of rhetoric.Just as there is no unified language, there is no unified rhetoric of all languages, nor the unified grammar of all languages. The application of rhetorical rules to any specific language would rise to a national, independent rhetorical system. Thus, the rhetorical rule can only be judged based on the character of some language.

===6. The Linguistic School Translation===
===6.1 Balhuadov’s Translation Concept===

Balhuarov was a famous translation theorist in the Soviet Union in the 20th century, one of the representatives of the language school and a doctor of Soviet philology, and has been engaged in translation teaching and translation theory research for many years. It is represented as the Language and Translation ("Язык и перевод").

From the perspective of the research subjects of the translation theory, Balhudav believes that the task of the linguistics theory of the translation is to pattern the translation process and put forward some scientific diagram for the translation process, which can more accurately reflect the important aspects of this process. In the view, on the one hand, translation theory, like any other theoretical model, reflects only some of the most important features of its subjects, rather than all features. Translation theory studies not all the relationship between the original language and the translation language, but the regular relationship between the two, that is, the typical and recurrent correspondence.On the other hand, translation theory, like any other discipline theory, stipulates not only a pattern, but many patterns that reflect the translation process in different ways as well as various characteristics.

(Balhudarov, 1975: 250)

From the essence of translation, Balhuudaf believes that translation is the process of converting a speech product into another language while keeping the content level (i. e., meaning) unchanged. Among them, the term “meaning” refers to the various relationships of language units. Translation is a process of changing one language discourse into another language discourse. The object of translation is not a language system, but a discourse.For translation, it is not the equivalent of the individual word, but the equivalent of the full text.Thus, the semantic differences between the two languages are not an insurmountable barrier in translation.
In addition, from the discussion of semantic problems of translation, Balhudv believes that the semantic problem of translation must be studied and conveyed from three aspects: meaning, pragmatic meaning and internal meaning.But on semantic issues, he presented no substantive content, with similar views mentioned by Jackson and Nida et al. in the late 1920s and early 1960s.But Balhudaf's interpretation is more detailed and fulfilling, and more generalized in some places.

Balhudaf also establishes equivalent translation from six levels: phonemic, phoneme, word, phrase, sentence, and discourse layer. The six levels are applied more systematically to translation theory.

(Balhudarov, 1975: 255)

'''(Balhudaf also establishes equivalent translation from six levels: phonemic, phoneme, word, phrase, sentence, and discourse layer, which are applied more systematically in translation. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 02:48, 14 December 2021 (UTC))'''

===7. Conclusion ===

To sum up, by introducing the historical evolution of the development of translation theory in the Soviet Union, we and the representatives of the school of translation literature and art and the translation language school can draw the following conclusions:

First of all, the developmental foundation of the Soviet translation theory was weak. By the beginning of World War II, the discussion of translation theory had formed no systematic and complete theories and they were all carried out from the perspective of literature and art. Only translation textbooks and translation instructional references are exceptional and are conducted from a linguistic perspective .After World War II, the Soviet Union began a new period of studying the translation theory from the perspective of linguistics. Its main feature was to connect the translation theory with the comparative linguistics, and to reveal the correspondence of the two languages on the basis of comparing the two languages. In 1954, translator Kaskin proposed that translation should not be separated from literature and art. Since then, the Soviet theory of translation has gradually formed two major schools, namely, the school of literature and art and the linguistic school. The two factions had long debated, culminating after the late 1950s and 1960s, with numerous papers and monographs each published.

(Cai & Duan, 2000: 168)

(Wu, 2006: 325)

'''(First of all, the developmental foundation of the Soviet translation theory was weak. At the beginning of World War II, the discussion of translation theory wasn’t systematic and comprehensive and they were all carried out from the perspective of literature and art. Only translation textbooks and translation instructional references are exceptional and are conducted from a linguistic perspective .After World War II, the Soviet Union began a new period of studying the translation theory from the perspective of linguistics. Its main feature was to connect translation theory with comparative linguistics, and to reveal the correspondence of the two languages on the basis of comparing the two languages. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 02:11, 14 December 2021 (UTC))
'''

Secondly, from the perspective of the literary school of translation, Kashkin, the theorist of translation, founded the realistic concept of translation, believing that the translation should pay attention to understanding the feelings of the original author, and believing that we must strictly distinguish the artistic image that should be conveyed and the occasional language image in the translation. Translation theorist Gaczirze believes that the principles of literary translation have been swinging between the two extremes. One is word-by-word translation, and the other is artistically equivalent but written away from the original text. He thought it would be easy to combine the two principles, but it was impossible in practice.

Thirdly, from the perspective of the language school of translation, the translation theorist Balhudarov believes that the task of the linguistics theory of translation is to pattern the translation process and put forward some scientific diagram for the translation process, which can more accurately reflect the important aspects of this process.He made great contributions to the linguistic school of translation.

(Wu, 2006: 325)

All in all, the translation theory of the Soviet period has its own unique development path. The Soviet translation theorists in this period made great contributions to the history of Soviet translation, also, the translation theory of the Soviet period became an indispensable part of the world translation theory map.

===8. References ===

Cai, Yi 蔡毅，Duan,Jinghua, 段京华. Translation Studies in USSR苏联翻译理论.湖北教育出版社，2000

Liu Miqing刘宓庆，Translation Basics 翻译基础.上海.华东师范大学出版社，2008

Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜.Translation Studies 翻译学.复旦大学出版社，2017

Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜.History of Western Translation 西方翻译简史.北京.商务印书馆，1991

Wu, Keli 吴克礼.The Translation Methods and Studies in USSR 俄苏翻译理论流派综述. 上海外语教育出版社，2006

Xu, Jun 许均. Translation Theories 翻译论. 湖北教育出版社，2003

Balhudarov Бархударов Л.С. Language and Translation: Collation said Partial theory of Translation Язык и перевод: Вопросы общей и частной теории перевода, Международные отношения, 1975

Gaczilaser Гиви Гачечиладзе. Problems of Literary Theory Вопросы теории художественного перевода. Тбилиси: Литература да хлебовнеба, 1964

Kashkin Иван Кашкин. Articles and Studies Статьи и исследования. Москва. Советский писатель, 1977

--[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 08:41, 12 December 2021 (UTC)

Hist Trans Theo EN 13

2021-12-19T13:02:39Z

Wu Jingyue: /* 1. Abstract */

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=Chapter 13 History of Translation Theories in the Soviet Union=
===苏联时期的翻译理论史===
Wu Jingyue 吴婧悦 Hunan Normal University

===1. Abstract===
As is well known, the history of the Soviet period and discusse the characteristics of the Soviet translation theory. written by --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:02, 19 December 2021 (UTC) Firstly, we discuss about the overall situation of the development of the Soviet period, the history of the Soviet period and discusses the characteristics of the Soviet translation theory. Finally, we introduce the famous translation theorist like: S. G. Barkhudarov (С. Г. Бархуда́ров) and I. A. Kashkin (И. А. Кашки́н) and so on.

'''(As is well known, the history of the Soviet period and discusse the characteristics of the Soviet translation theory.corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 14:29, 13 December 2021 (UTC))'''

===2. Key words===
Translation theories, Western translation theories, Soviet Translation theories

===3. Introduction===
The Soviet translation theory played a pivotal role in the world translation theory. This paper firstly introduces the historical evolution of the development of the Soviet translation theory, which divides the Soviet Union into two periods: the development history of translation theory before World War II and the development history of translation theory after World War II. In introducing the history of translation theory before World War II, the source of the history of Soviet translation theory, the development of Soviet translation theory, namely linguistics and the contribution of Kamisarov, Liubimov and others.Secondly, the representatives of the translation literature and art school and the translation language school are introduced specifically.When introducing the school of translation literature, the views of translator Kashkin and Gachzzeraz are introduced; in introducing the language school of translation, they are mainly introduced.

'''(The Soviet translation theory play a pivotal role in the world translation theory. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 17:16, 13 December 2021 (UTC))'''

===4. The evolution of Translation Theories in the Soviet Union.===
===4.1 History of translation theory development before World War II===
The Soviet translation theory occupies a very prominent position in the world translation theory.The Soviet study of translation theory began shortly after the October Revolution, began with literary translation.

In 1918, Gorky (А.М.Горький) founded the World Literature Press (Издательство "Всемирная литература") in conjunction with the help of Lenin(В.И.Ленин). The publisher's task is to introduce world classics, improve the translation art, and train translators.At this stage, nearly 100 professors and writers attended the work.In order to unify the thinking, discuss the theory of literary translation, and stipulate some clear rules, Gorky handed the burden to Chukowsky(К.И.Чуковский). Therefore, after a short effort, Chukowski wrote the book "The Principles of Literary Translation" ("Прицины художественного перевода") in 1919.He first proposed that the translator of the novel should be an artist and a master of language.Chukowski believed that a good translation can reproduce the artistic characteristics of the original text in vivid and rich Russian.But at that time, there was a very popular view in literary and theoretical criticism that translation was essentially impossible work.

(Cai & Duan, 2000: 5)

'''(Therefore, after making a lot of efforts, Chukowski wrote the book "The Principles of Literary Translation" ("Прицины художественного перевода") in 1919.Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 17:16, 13 December 2021 (UTC))'''

In 1930, The Principles of Literary Translation was collected in Chukowski's "The Art of Translation" ("Искусство переводов").It suggests that translators must understand the social environment.In addition, the communication of the structural characteristics and rhetorical characteristics of the original text, as well as the principles of translation and expression, are also discussed.

In 1934 Translation theorist Smirnov (А.А.Смирнов) made the first proposal of the concept of "equivalent translation" in the term "Soviet Literature Encyclopedia", "translation" (Перевод).The "equivalent translation" here means "conveying the ideological content, feelings, and written structure of the original work", that is, "conveying the full creative intention of the original author". Smirnov suggested that not only can use the direct counterpart of the original in translation but also can use the functional approximation of the original in translation.

(Cai & Duan, 2000: 16)

In 1936, Loginski (М.Л.Лозинский) reported at the first National Conference of Translators, "The Art of the Translation of Poetry" ("Искусство стихотворного перевода"), and pointed out that poetry translation should be the same in aesthetics as the original poetry works, highlighting the equivalent aesthetic function of literary and artistic translation.

'''(In 1936, Loginski (М.Л.Лозинский) delivered a report at the first National Conference of Translators, "The Art of the Translation of Poetry" ("Искусство стихотворного перевода"), and pointed out that poetry translation should be the same in aesthetics as the original poem, highlighting the equivalent aesthetic function of literary and artistic translation. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 17:16, 13 December 2021 (UTC))'''

Also in 1936, Kashkin (И.А.Кашкин) proposed the theory and became the founder of the Soviet theory of realism. His translation method is: translators should try their best to reproduce the objective reality expressed in the original text, rather than words; they should see, experience, and perfectly reproduce the reality in the eyes of the author from behind the original text. He equated the realistic method of translation with the socialist realism in literary creation.In the Soviet Union, he was hailed as "a theorist representing a entire era in the history of Russian translation". He believes that translators should be loyal to the original, to their readers, to reality, and that the three are inseparable. () Kashkin believes that without a theory, translators are just a craftsman, and can never become a translator or artist.

( Kashkin, 1977)
(Cai & Duan, 2000: 25)

Also in 1936, Kashkin (И.А.Кашкин) proposed the theory and became the founder of the Soviet theory of realism. His translation method is: translators should try their best to reproduce the objective reality expressed in the original text, rather than words; they should see, experience, and perfectly reproduce the reality in the eyes of the author from behind the original text. He equated the realistic method of translation with the socialist realism in literary creation.In the Soviet Union, he was hailed as "a theorist representing a entire era in the history of Russian translation". He believes that translators should be loyal to the original, to their readers, to reality, and that the three are inseparable. Kashkin believes that without a theory, translators are just a craftsman, and can never become a translator or artist.

'''( His translation methods are: translators should try their best to show the objective reality expressed in the original text, instead of focuing on translating words by words; they should see, experience, and perfectly reproduce the reality in the eyes of the author of the original text.Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 17:16, 13 December 2021 (UTC))'''

It is worth noting that by the beginning of World War II, the discussion of translation theories did not form systematic and complete theories, and they were all carried out from a literary point of view. Only translation of textbooks and translation instructional references are exceptional and are conducted from a linguistic perspective.

(Cai & Duan, 2000: 120)

'''(It was worth mentioning that at the beginning of World War II, the discussion of translation theories did not form systematic and comprehensive theory, and they were all carried out from a literary point of view. Only translation of textbooks and translation instructional references were exceptional and were conducted from a linguistic perspective.Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 17:16, 13 December 2021 (UTC))'''

===4.2 History of translation theory development after World War II===
Since the 1950s, a new period of studying translation theory from the perspective of linguistics began. Its main characteristic is to link translation theory with comparative linguistics, and on the basis of comparing the phenomenon of the two languages, to reveal the law of the two languages.

'''(Since the 1950s, a new period of studying translation theory from the perspective of linguistics began. Its main characteristic is to link translation theory with comparative linguistics and to reveal the law of the two languages based on the comparison of the phenomenon of the two languagesCorrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 17:16, 13 December 2021 (UTC)) .
'''

In 1950, "Theory and Methods of Translation Teaching" ("Вопросы теории и методики учебного перевода"), which played a considerable role in the development of translation theory. For example, in Gary Palin(И.Р. Гпльперии) 's article, "Translation and Rhetoric" ("Перевод и стилистика"), shares Shakespeare's original Othello with Morosov’s (М.М.Морозов) translation, noting the similarities and differences between English and Russian in terms of meaning and aesthetic functions. Meanwhile, the book Lezkel(Я.И.Рецкер) ’s article, "On the regularity and correspondence in Russia" ("О закономерных соответствиях при переводе на роднои язык"), divides the language regularity correspondence into three categories: equivalent, approximation and equivalent substitution.These three methods are applied to scientific and technological translation, the translation of political articles, and literary translation.

(Wu, 2006: 325)

1953 Feodorov (А.В.Фёдоров) 's book "An Introduction to the Translation Theory" ("Введение в теорию перевода") was published.The book discusses the translation theory from the perspective of the linguistics theory, and proposes that the translation theory is a branch of the linguistics, and the translation problem can only be solved in the field of linguistics. In addition, the book stipulates the content of the concept of "translation", the object of theoretical research, the content, etc., and discusses the vocabulary issues, grammar issues and stylistic issues of translation, respectively.The book made Feyodorov the founder of the language school of translation theory. In addition, the book received wide attention in the Soviet translation circle, especially the translation teaching circle, but it also caused a heated controversy in the literary and art school of translation theory.

'''(1953 Feodorov (А.В.Фёдоров) 's book "An Introduction to Translation Theory" ("Введение в теорию перевода") was published. The book discusses the translation theory from the perspective of the linguistics theory and proposes that the translation theory is a branch of the linguistics and the translation problem can only be solved in the field of linguistics. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 02:11, 14 December 2021 (UTC))'''

However, translators from the school of literature and art believe that Feodorov studied translation problems almost completely from a linguistic perspective, while ignoring that the first thing of literary translation should be involved in the problem of literature and art.

(Wu, 2006: 354)

'''(However, translators from the school of literature and art believe that Feodorov studied translation problems almost completely from a linguistic perspective, ignoring that the first thing of literary translation should be involved in the problem of literature and art.Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 02:11, 14 December 2021 (UTC))'''

In 1954, Kashkin put forward in "Methods and Genres of Soviet Literary Translation" ("О методе и школе советского художественного перевода") that the theory of literary translation should be a broad language discipline, that is to say, the study of translation and literary problems should be combined.

'''(In 1954, Kashkin put forward in "Methods and Genres of Soviet Literary Translation" ("О методе и школе советского художественного перевода") that the theory of literary translation should be a broad language discipline. That is to say, the study of translation and literary problems should be combined. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 02:11, 14 December 2021 (UTC))'''

In 1955 the collection of "Literary Translation" ("Вопросы художественного перевода") questions Feydorov's views, believing that studying translation theory from a linguistic perspective may lead to formalism and word-by-word dead translation in translation practice.

Since then, the Soviet theory of translation has gradually formed two major schools, namely, the school of literature and art and the language school.The two factions had long debated, culminating after the late 1950s and 1960s, with numerous papers and monographs each published."Translation Skills" ("Мастерство перевода"), published by the Soviet Writers Publishing House, focuses on the views of the literary school. The language school is based on the "Translation Worker Notes" ("Тетрадь переводчика") edited by Balhudarov, making comments and summarizing the translation experience.Most belong to the literary school are writers; the language school are linguists and college teachers.

( Kashkin, 1977: 163)

In 1958, Feodorov made some additions and modifications to the original book in the second edition of the Introduction to Translation Theory. Although he also admitted that the problems in the field of translation could not all be explained by linguistic methods, it was correct to study the translation problem from the perspective of linguistics, otherwise, there would be no real theory of translation art.He stressed that literary and artistic translation does have its own characteristics, and should highlight its aesthetic aspects, but literary images are created by language means, and must also be conveyed by another language means. Therefore, the study of translation and theory from the perspective of linguistics is the basis.

(Wu, 2006: 366)

'''(In 1958, Feodorov made some additions and modifications to the original book in the second edition of the Introduction to Translation Theory. Although he also admitted that the problems in the field of translation could not all be explained by linguistic methods, it was necessary to study the translation problem from the perspective of linguistics. Otherwise, there would be no real theory of translation art. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 02:11, 14 December 2021 (UTC))'''

In 1962, the collection of "Translation Theory and Review" ("Теория и критика перевода"), including two groups of translation theorists.Linguist Larin (Б.А.Ларии) In the preface to the collection, "Our Mission" ("Наши задачи"), proposed that the theory of literary translation must be established on the basis of linguistics and literature.He believes that it is impossible not to combine linguistics and literary methods organically, whether in linguistics, rhetoric, or translation theory. Any translation should begin with analysis, and finally finish with literary creation.

1963 Aitkin (Е.Т.Эткин) published the book "Poetry and Translation" ("Поэзии и перевод"), which analyzed and commented on a large number of foreign-language poems translated into Russian language in the early 19th century, concerning the translation of literary and artistic theory.He believes that the linguistic means of poetry translation are closely related to the reproduced artistic characteristics of the original poetry, and the two should not be opposed.In his opinion, translation is like rhetoric, which is both a problem of literature and art and linguistics, because rhetoric is a science of language synonymous, and it belongs to the two fields of linguistics. Ignoring the theory of the form of literary works will actually make the translator helpless.

(Tan，1991: 246)

In 1964, Gachzrazawa (Г.Р.Гачечиладзе) published the book "The Theory of Literary Translation" ("Вопросы теории художественного перевода"), in which he based on Lenin's reaction theory, proposing that the translator directly reflects the original text, namely the artistic reality of the original text, rather than the specific reality directly reflected by the original text.

That same year, Levzin (И.И.Ревзин) and Rosenzwig (В.Ю.Розенцвейг) has published "Principles of General Translation and Machine Translation" ("Основы общего и машинного перевода") to study translation issues from a structural linguistics perspective.It was the first work in the world to combine the concepts and principles of translational theory with the category of structural linguistics.

(Wu, 2006: 430)

'''(That year, Levzin (И.И.Ревзин) and Rosenzwig (В.Ю.Розенцвейг) published "Principles of General Translation and Machine Translation" ("Основы общего и машинного перевода") to study translation issues from a structural linguistics perspective.It was the first work in the world to combine the concepts and principles of translational theory with the category of structural linguistics. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 02:11, 14 December 2021 (UTC))'''

In 1968, Feodorov made a new revision and supplement to the new situation, publishing the third edition of the book and renamed "Basic Translation" ("Основы общеи тоерии перевода").The rationale is that this can highlight the basic principles of translation theory —— studies various translation phenomena and various kinds of translation, revealing their commonalities and respective characteristics, comparing from a linguistic perspective.In the book, Feodorov makes it clear that it should never be forgotten that the ultimate task is to establish a common theory of philology.It is now outdated to insist that literary translation is studied only through literature and art, or only through linguistics. Contemporary era is an era of close cooperation between different disciplines. In philology, the distance between the two branches of literature and linguistics is not very large, and its differences are inevitable, but can be overcome, that is to say, the two can be combined all together.

The 1970s were called the "harvest years" of Soviet translation theory, and the debate entered a new stage.

In 1972, Gabriel's book "Literary Translation and Literary Exchange" ("Художественныи перевод и литературные взаимосвязи") can be regarded as a representative work of the school of literature and art, which more comprehensively expounded the translation theory views of the Soviet school of literature and art.Once published, the book immediately aroused widespread response from the Soviet translation theory community.In the book, he pointed out that literary and artistic translation belongs to the category of artistic creation, and studying literary translation from the perspective of linguistics inevitably leads to the dead translation of auxiliary words. As a result, the translation is linguistically correct and low in art. Because from a linguistic point of view, the decisive factor is not the translator's creative attitude towards the original text, but the linguistic correspondence principle.Thus, translation becomes some technical process, not creation. Literary and artistic translation should reproduce the aesthetic value of the original text.

1963 Komizarov (В.Н.Комиссаров) presents its unique theory of "equivalent levels" in his book on translation ("Слово о переводе").According to this theory, the meaning structure of discourse is a complex that can be divided into content, namely the level of language symbols, discourse level, notification structure level, scenario description level and the level of communication purpose.The principle of translation equivalence to the original text should be based on these levels during translation.

(Wu, 2006: 456)

The same year, Shvzel (В.Н.Комиссаров) published the book "Translation and Linguistics" ("Перевод и лингвистика"), suggesting that translation is not only the contact between two language systems, but also between two different cultures, and sometimes between two different civilizations.In addition, he raises questions about the invariant values of the translation function.Shvzel believes that translation functional invariant values include both semantic and grammatical aspects.

'''(The same year, Shvzel (В.Н.Комиссаров) published the book "Translation and Linguistics" ("Перевод и лингвистика"), suggesting that translation is not only the contact between two language systems, but also between two different cultures, and sometimes between two different civilizations.In addition, he raised some questions about the invariant values of the translation function.Shvzel believes that translation functional invariant values include both semantic and grammatical aspects. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 02:11, 14 December 2021 (UTC))'''

In 1974 Lezkel (Я.И.Рецкер) has published the book "Translation Theory and Translation Practice (An Introduction to the Theory of Linguistics of Translation)" ("Теория перевода и переводическая практика - Очерки лингвистическои теории перевода"), which discusses some key issues in the linguistics theory of translation, which are directly related to the translation practice.The book compares the lexical grammar and rhetorical characteristics of English with its functional counterpart in Russian, and reveals the logical semantic basis of using various translation techniques and methods in the translation process.

'''(In 1974 Lezkel (Я.И.Рецкер) published the book "Translation Theory and Translation Practice (An Introduction to the Theory of Linguistics of Translation)" ("Теория перевода и переводическая практика - Очерки лингвистическои теории перевода"), which discusses some key issues in the linguistics theory of translation, which are directly related to the translation practice. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 02:11, 14 December 2021 (UTC))'''

1975 Balhudarov (Л.С.Бархударов) published the book "Language and Translation" ("Язык и перевод"), which aroused widespread response in the Soviet translation community and was considered the representative work of the Soviet language school translation theory in the 1970s. The biggest characteristic of the book is to link the translation theory with the latest achievements in linguistics in the world, and put forward the linguistics theory of translation is comparing discourse linguistics, more specifically, is the semantic discourse in different languages, and the actual segmentation of the sentence is an essential condition of equivalent translation and a series of new arguments. Balhuduff makes it clear that translation changes the speech product of one language to another while keeping the content unchanged, that is, the translator does not deal with the language system, but with the language product.In addition, he discussed translationability, the nature of translation theory, semantics and translation, translation units, and translation methods.

(Balhudarov, 1975: 187)

In 1976, Chernhovskikaya (Л.А.Черняховская) published the book "Translation and the Semantic Structure" ("Перевод и смысловая структура"), the only Soviet work that conveys the logical focus and real semantic segmentation of sentences in translation.

That same year, Levitskaya (Т.Р.Леницкая) and Fejelman (А.М.Фетерман) published the book "translation problem" ("Проблемы перевода"), the book discusses English and Russian due to different vocabulary, grammar, rhetorical structure and the main translation problems, its focus is not the translation process itself and general translation methods and skills, but for the difficulty of English translation into Russian method.

In 1977 Lambimov (Н.М.Любимов) highlighted in "Translation is Art" ("Перевод - искусство") that literary translation is an art that pursues artistic accuracy rather than literal slave-style fidelity.At the same time, it is also proposed that words as language units can only be reflected in, or through words, so the objective reality of language existence is the overall —— discourse of the work. The basic category of translation is the discourse.

And 1978 Venogradov (В.С.Виноградов) pointed out in "The Lexical Problems of Literary Prose Translation" ("Лексические вопросы перевода художественнои прозы") that words are the basic unit of language, so, it is also the starting point of translation.

(Wu, 2006: 359)

In 1978, Komisarov edited and published the collection of "Translation Theory Issues in Foreign Linguistics" ("Вопросы теории перевода в зарубежнои лингвистике"), It fairly fully introduces the state of Western linguists studying translation theory, The book is divided into four themes, Both: the general linguistics problem of translation, Translation equivalent, translation process, Translational linguistics and Translational rhetoric; Translating the relevant discourse of some famous western linguists, For example, Jacobson (R.Jackbcon), one of the founders of the Prague School, British linguist J.R.Firch (J.R.Firch) and others.The influence of this collection is evident from the later writings of translation theorists of the Soviet language school.

In 1980, Komisarov published the book "translation linguistics" ("Лингвистика перевода"), which pointed out that the perspective of linguistics is entering a new stage, turned out to regard the linguistics translation theory as a part of applied linguistics, for the translation practice of service, its focus is on the translation process, its task is to study the linguistics mode of translation and determine the principle of translation. The results of studying translation from the perspective of linguistics show that translation is an integral part of linguistics, and the theoretical analysis of interlanguage communication phenomenon is necessary for the development of linguistics itself. Therefore, translation should be regarded as a special form of language function, which is a special method of its speech practice, and our knowledge of the essence and function of language is incomplete. That is, linguistic analysis of translation can not only serve translation practice, but also promote development of linguistics itself. It is under the guidance of this idea that the book discusses the general linguistics theory of translation, translation semantics, translation linguistics, translation rhetoric, translation mode, translation standards. Therefore, it provides a new perspective for the study of translation theory.

(Cai & Duan, 2000: 20)

In the same year, the Minyal. Bellolluchev (Р.К.Миньяр - Белоручев) published the book "Translation" ("Общая теория перевода и устныи перевод").The book regards translational science as an independent subject on the grounds that it has its own subjects, content and a complete set of terms; thinks that translation research is beyond the scope of linguistics, it is a subject of linguistics, psychology, semiotics, sociology intersection, mainly applicable to translation between any two languages; proposes the discourse information theory, the main method of translation and the classification of language means in translation and so on.The book first used the interpretation as a research subject.

'''(In the same year, the Minyal. Bellolluchev (Р.К.Миньяр - Белоручев) published the book "Translation" ("Общая теория перевода и устныи перевод").This book regards translational science as an independent subject on the grounds that it has its own subjects, content and a complete set of terms; Besides, it presents that translation research is beyond the scope of linguistics. It is a subject of linguistics, psychology, semiotics, sociology intersection, mainly applicable to translation between any two languages; And this book also proposed the discourse information theory, the main method of translation and the classification of language means in translation and so on.The book first used the interpretation as a research subject. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 02:11, 14 December 2021 (UTC))'''

In 1981, Ratshev (Л.К.Латышев) published the "Translation Tutorial —— Translation equivalent and achieve the equivalent Method" ("Курс перевода: Эквивалентность перевода и способы ее достижения"), which divided the translation equivalent into formal and functional equivalent two types, and proposed the specific methods to achieve the translation equivalent.

In 1983, Feodorov published the collection of "Translation Art and Literary Life" ("Искусство перевода и жизнь литературы."), indicating from the preface entitled "A Window to Another World" ("Окнов другои мир") that Feodorov partially accepted the other's views through disputes with the school of translation theory and literature.At the same time, he argued that Gaczrazzer greatly limited the role of language in translation, seeing language as mere technical means.

(Cai &Duan, 2000: 22)

In 1985, Lvorskaya (З.Д.Львовская) published the book "Theoretical Issues of Translation"(Теоритическая проблема перевода”), which based on the theory of communicative function, believing that discourse meaning is divided into linguistic and verbal categories. The equivalent of translation is not the absolute invariance of the semantic, pragmatic, and environmental components in the meaning structure, but only the equivalence of pragmatic and environmental components.
The 20th century school of literature in the translation theory of outstanding events is in the journal "literary review" ("Литературное обозрение") continuously on the discussion of translation problem, the content involves: the necessity of the translation theory, how to overcome the two extreme, how to treat the original aesthetics, time color, translation can really convey "the spirit of the original" and the creation of the translator, etc.

In 1988, Shvzzer, a translation theorist of the language school, published the book "Translation Theory: Status, Problems and Face"(“Теория перевода : Статус, проблема, аспекты”). The author combines the latest achievements in linguistics in the field of speech linguistics, sentence semantics, communication linguistics and psychological linguistics, the status of translation theory, the essence of translation, equivalent, similarities, interpretability, translation semantic, language, discourse and translation and other six issues, the language school translation theory research mentioned a new stage.

In 1990, Komisarov's book "Translation Theory (Linguistics)" ("Теория перевода (линвистические вопросы") clearly stated in his preface that translation theory is an important part of the training of future translators. As a textbook, the book aims to introduce the basic principles of translational linguistics theory.
In the 1980s, the Soviet theory of scientific and technological translation developed rapidly, and published a lot of articles and monographs.

(Cai & Duan, 2000: 37)

In all, the Soviet theory of translation has been developed from scratch, from sporadic to systematic, constantly enriched, and constantly deepening step by step.

===5. The Literary School of Translation===
===5.1 Realistic Translation pioneered by E.A.Kashkin===

Kashkin Ivan Alexandrovich - literary critic, translator and critic. He brought up a significant group of translators from the English language. He translated J. Chaucer's The Canterbury Tales (1946, with O. Rumer). Promoter of the best achievements of modern English and American poetry (R. Frost, K. Sandberg) and prose (E. Hemingway, E. Caldwell, J. Wayne, etc.). Aslo, he is the author of historical and literary studies about J. Conrad, L. Stevenson, W. Faulkner, E. Hemingway and others.

Some translators believe that they must obey the "absolute authority" of the original text and pursue the following word by word. Other translators advocate for loyalty to the original text. And Kashkin believes that realism in art is a complex and diverse phenomenon, which is restricted by history. Realism in art is real and poetic. Exactly, to feel and reflect world —— realism through inspiration is reflected in artistic life itself.

( Kashkin, 1977: 177)

'''(Some translators believe that they must obey the "absolute authority" of the original text and translate the original text word by word in order to be completely faithful. Other translators advocate for loyalty to the original text. And Kashkin believes that realism in art is a complex and diverse phenomenon, which is restricted by history. Realism in art is real and poetic. Exactly, to feel and reflect world —— realism through inspiration is reflected in artistic life itself. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 02:38, 14 December 2021 (UTC))'''

In order to accurately convey the ideological content of the original work, and creatively reproduce the artistic characteristics and national characteristics of the original work, it must adopt the realistic translation method. The translator must respect the reality of the text, but not simply copy the text symbols of the original text, but strive to reproduce the objective reality expressed by the text and give it life.

'''(In order to accurately convey the ideological content of the original work and creatively reproduce the artistic characteristics and national characteristics of the original work, it must adopt the realistic translation method. The translator must respect the reality of the text and strive to reproduce the objective reality expressed by the text and give it life, not simply copying the text symbols of the original text. corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 02:38, 14 December 2021 (UTC))
''

Translators should understand the author of the original text's direct feelings of reality through the barrier of the syntactic structure of a foreign language. Only in this way could he reproduce the original in the same powerful and clear language, as did the original author did. The translator should see the phenomena, thoughts, things, behaviors and conditions through the words of the original work, and specifically reproduce this reality in the eyes of the original author.
Reality in art is the image to reflect the essential characteristics in reality.

( Kashkin, 1977: 185)

The truth in literary translation is not a final pursuit that the surface is similar to the original text, nor does it simply copy all the unimportant details.The truth in literary translation is based on the internal logic of the image, and first, to faithfully translate the essence of the original text.The translator should faithfully understand the author's conception and creative intention, and retain the artistic characteristics of the original work, the historical reality and the atmosphere of The Times.

Otherwise, Kashkin believes that there must be a strict distinction between artistic images that should be conveyed and verbal images that occasionally occur in translation.Because language is the basic means of expressing all literature, but the basic task and main difficulty of literary and artistic translation is not to copy the language of the original text, including the language structure elements, but in the artistic reproduction of the original image, considering the differences of the language system.

( Kashkin, 1977: 205)

===5.2 Gaczilaser’s realistic view of translations===

Professor Givi Razhdenovich Gaczilaser is one of the largest specialists in the field of literary translation theory, the author of the famous monograph "The Problem of Realistic Translation", a translator of Shakespeare, Byron, Shelley and other English poets into Georgian. In the book offered to the reader's attention, he continued to develop in depth the theory and practice of literary translation. Proceeding from Lenin's theory of reflection, G. Gachechiladze considers literary translation as a form of cognition, as a creative act that helps the reader approach not only a foreign language work, but also the living reality reflected in this work.
Gaczilaser believes that the principles of literary translation have been swinging between the two extremes.One is word-by-word translation, and the other is artistically equivalent but written away from the original text. He thought it would be easy to combine the two principles, but it was impossible in practice. Because different means of expressing ideas are very different languages, word-by-word translation and artistic quality are always contradictory.

If the translator is limited to the original and not to reproduce what the author sees in the imagination, he is not a creative person. The translator should take the author's thoughts as the starting point, the original text serve the deep understanding of artistic reality. The translator should see the real life reflected in the original work behind the artistic reality, and it is not to create his own work.Realistic translation method refers to realists following the law of realistic art, reflecting the artistic reality of the original, and consistent with the original, more specifically, rhetorical consistency, only help to achieve linguistic loyalty, but should not let this affect their own will. Loyal to the author's artistic truth is the goal of the realistic translator.The artistic reality of the original includes both content and form, and even the unity of form and content.

(Gaczilaser, 1964: 120)

It is undoubtedly correct to compare the two language systems in the translation process.However, this contrast has certain limitations, as each language has its characteristic means of rhetoric.Just as there is no unified language, there is no unified rhetoric of all languages, nor the unified grammar of all languages. The application of rhetorical rules to any specific language would rise to a national, independent rhetorical system. Thus, the rhetorical rule can only be judged based on the character of some language.

===6. The Linguistic School Translation===
===6.1 Balhuadov’s Translation Concept===

Balhuarov was a famous translation theorist in the Soviet Union in the 20th century, one of the representatives of the language school and a doctor of Soviet philology, and has been engaged in translation teaching and translation theory research for many years. It is represented as the Language and Translation ("Язык и перевод").

From the perspective of the research subjects of the translation theory, Balhudav believes that the task of the linguistics theory of the translation is to pattern the translation process and put forward some scientific diagram for the translation process, which can more accurately reflect the important aspects of this process. In the view, on the one hand, translation theory, like any other theoretical model, reflects only some of the most important features of its subjects, rather than all features. Translation theory studies not all the relationship between the original language and the translation language, but the regular relationship between the two, that is, the typical and recurrent correspondence.On the other hand, translation theory, like any other discipline theory, stipulates not only a pattern, but many patterns that reflect the translation process in different ways as well as various characteristics.

(Balhudarov, 1975: 250)

From the essence of translation, Balhuudaf believes that translation is the process of converting a speech product into another language while keeping the content level (i. e., meaning) unchanged. Among them, the term “meaning” refers to the various relationships of language units. Translation is a process of changing one language discourse into another language discourse. The object of translation is not a language system, but a discourse.For translation, it is not the equivalent of the individual word, but the equivalent of the full text.Thus, the semantic differences between the two languages are not an insurmountable barrier in translation.
In addition, from the discussion of semantic problems of translation, Balhudv believes that the semantic problem of translation must be studied and conveyed from three aspects: meaning, pragmatic meaning and internal meaning.But on semantic issues, he presented no substantive content, with similar views mentioned by Jackson and Nida et al. in the late 1920s and early 1960s.But Balhudaf's interpretation is more detailed and fulfilling, and more generalized in some places.

Balhudaf also establishes equivalent translation from six levels: phonemic, phoneme, word, phrase, sentence, and discourse layer. The six levels are applied more systematically to translation theory.

(Balhudarov, 1975: 255)

'''(Balhudaf also establishes equivalent translation from six levels: phonemic, phoneme, word, phrase, sentence, and discourse layer, which are applied more systematically in translation. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 02:48, 14 December 2021 (UTC))'''

===7. Conclusion ===

To sum up, by introducing the historical evolution of the development of translation theory in the Soviet Union, we and the representatives of the school of translation literature and art and the translation language school can draw the following conclusions:

First of all, the developmental foundation of the Soviet translation theory was weak. By the beginning of World War II, the discussion of translation theory had formed no systematic and complete theories and they were all carried out from the perspective of literature and art. Only translation textbooks and translation instructional references are exceptional and are conducted from a linguistic perspective .After World War II, the Soviet Union began a new period of studying the translation theory from the perspective of linguistics. Its main feature was to connect the translation theory with the comparative linguistics, and to reveal the correspondence of the two languages on the basis of comparing the two languages. In 1954, translator Kaskin proposed that translation should not be separated from literature and art. Since then, the Soviet theory of translation has gradually formed two major schools, namely, the school of literature and art and the linguistic school. The two factions had long debated, culminating after the late 1950s and 1960s, with numerous papers and monographs each published.

(Cai & Duan, 2000: 168)

(Wu, 2006: 325)

'''(First of all, the developmental foundation of the Soviet translation theory was weak. At the beginning of World War II, the discussion of translation theory wasn’t systematic and comprehensive and they were all carried out from the perspective of literature and art. Only translation textbooks and translation instructional references are exceptional and are conducted from a linguistic perspective .After World War II, the Soviet Union began a new period of studying the translation theory from the perspective of linguistics. Its main feature was to connect translation theory with comparative linguistics, and to reveal the correspondence of the two languages on the basis of comparing the two languages. Corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 02:11, 14 December 2021 (UTC))
'''

Secondly, from the perspective of the literary school of translation, Kashkin, the theorist of translation, founded the realistic concept of translation, believing that the translation should pay attention to understanding the feelings of the original author, and believing that we must strictly distinguish the artistic image that should be conveyed and the occasional language image in the translation. Translation theorist Gaczirze believes that the principles of literary translation have been swinging between the two extremes. One is word-by-word translation, and the other is artistically equivalent but written away from the original text. He thought it would be easy to combine the two principles, but it was impossible in practice.

Thirdly, from the perspective of the language school of translation, the translation theorist Balhudarov believes that the task of the linguistics theory of translation is to pattern the translation process and put forward some scientific diagram for the translation process, which can more accurately reflect the important aspects of this process.He made great contributions to the linguistic school of translation.

(Wu, 2006: 325)

All in all, the translation theory of the Soviet period has its own unique development path. The Soviet translation theorists in this period made great contributions to the history of Soviet translation, also, the translation theory of the Soviet period became an indispensable part of the world translation theory map.

===8. References ===

Cai, Yi 蔡毅，Duan,Jinghua, 段京华. Translation Studies in USSR苏联翻译理论.湖北教育出版社，2000

Liu Miqing刘宓庆，Translation Basics 翻译基础.上海.华东师范大学出版社，2008

Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜.Translation Studies 翻译学.复旦大学出版社，2017

Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜.History of Western Translation 西方翻译简史.北京.商务印书馆，1991

Wu, Keli 吴克礼.The Translation Methods and Studies in USSR 俄苏翻译理论流派综述. 上海外语教育出版社，2006

Xu, Jun 许均. Translation Theories 翻译论. 湖北教育出版社，2003

Balhudarov Бархударов Л.С. Language and Translation: Collation said Partial theory of Translation Язык и перевод: Вопросы общей и частной теории перевода, Международные отношения, 1975

Gaczilaser Гиви Гачечиладзе. Problems of Literary Theory Вопросы теории художественного перевода. Тбилиси: Литература да хлебовнеба, 1964

Kashkin Иван Кашкин. Articles and Studies Статьи и исследования. Москва. Советский писатель, 1977

--[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 08:41, 12 December 2021 (UTC)

History of Translation Theories

2021-12-19T12:59:21Z

Wu Jingyue: /* History of Translation Theories in the Soviet Union */

'''History of Translation Theories'''

[[History_of_Translation_Theories|Overview Page of History of Translation Theories]]

30 Chapters（0/30)

[[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_1]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_2]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_3]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_4]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_5]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_6]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_7]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_8]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_9]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_10]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_11]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_12]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_13]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_14]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_15]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_16]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_17]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_18]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_19]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_20]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_21]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_22]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_23]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_24]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_25]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_26]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_27]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_28]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_29]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_30]] ...

[[Book_projects|Back to translation project overview]]

[[DCG-To-Do|To the To Do List]]

=1 李瑞洋 A Brief Introduction of Contemporary Chinese Translation Theories--from 1949 to Present=

'''当代中国翻译理论简史（1949至今）'''

李瑞洋 Li Ruiyang, Hunan Normal University, China

[[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_1]]

=2 陈心怡 History of Translation Theories of Russia after the collapse of Soviet Union =

'''苏联解体后的俄罗斯翻译理论史'''

陈心怡 Chen Xinyi, Hunan Normal University, China

[[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_2]]

=An Overview of Contemporary American Translation Theory——The American Translation Workshop=
'''当代美国翻译理论概述——美国翻译研讨班流派'''

Zhang Yang, 张扬，Hunan Normal University, China

[[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_3]]

=An Overview of the Development of Western Translation Theories =
'''西方翻译理论发展概述'''

Zeng Junlin，曾俊霖, Hunan Normal University, China

[[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_4]]

=History of Translation Theories from early Russia to the Soviet Union=

'''从古罗斯到苏联前的翻译理论史'''

张怡然 Zhang Yiran,Hunan Normal University,China

[[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_5]]

=A Brief Introduction of Contemporary American Translation Theory——Examplified mainly by Nida=
'''简析当代美国翻译理论——以奈达为例'''

尹媛 Yin Yuan, Hunan Normal University, China

[[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_8]]

=History of translation theory of France from 20th century to the present=
'''20世纪至今的法国翻译理论史'''

李双 Li Shuang, Hunan Normal University, China

[[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_9]]

=French Translation Theories from 16th Century to 18th Century =

'''十六世纪至十八世纪法国翻译理论'''

杨堃 Yang Kun,Hunan Normal University,China.

[[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_10]]

=A Brief Introduction to Translation Theories of Ancient Rome=

'''古罗马翻译理论
'''

Liu Yunxin,刘运心, Hunan Normal University, China

[[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_11]]

=12 魏兆妍 The Humanistic Trend in Western Translation Theory from the 14th to the 19th Century=
[[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_12]]

=History of Translation Theories in the Soviet Union=
苏联时期翻译理论史

吴婧悦 WuJingyue, Hunan Normal University, China

[[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_13]]

=14 杨爱江 History of Chinese Translation Theories from 1919 to 1949=

[[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_14]]

History of Translation Theories

2021-12-19T12:58:46Z

Wu Jingyue: /* History of Translation Theories in the Soviet Union */

'''History of Translation Theories'''

[[History_of_Translation_Theories|Overview Page of History of Translation Theories]]

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[[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_1]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_2]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_3]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_4]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_5]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_6]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_7]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_8]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_9]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_10]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_11]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_12]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_13]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_14]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_15]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_16]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_17]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_18]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_19]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_20]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_21]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_22]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_23]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_24]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_25]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_26]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_27]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_28]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_29]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_30]] ...

[[Book_projects|Back to translation project overview]]

[[DCG-To-Do|To the To Do List]]

=1 李瑞洋 A Brief Introduction of Contemporary Chinese Translation Theories--from 1949 to Present=

'''当代中国翻译理论简史（1949至今）'''

李瑞洋 Li Ruiyang, Hunan Normal University, China

[[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_1]]

=2 陈心怡 History of Translation Theories of Russia after the collapse of Soviet Union =

'''苏联解体后的俄罗斯翻译理论史'''

陈心怡 Chen Xinyi, Hunan Normal University, China

[[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_2]]

=An Overview of Contemporary American Translation Theory——The American Translation Workshop=
'''当代美国翻译理论概述——美国翻译研讨班流派'''

Zhang Yang, 张扬，Hunan Normal University, China

[[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_3]]

=An Overview of the Development of Western Translation Theories =
'''西方翻译理论发展概述'''

Zeng Junlin，曾俊霖, Hunan Normal University, China

[[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_4]]

=History of Translation Theories from early Russia to the Soviet Union=

'''从古罗斯到苏联前的翻译理论史'''

张怡然 Zhang Yiran,Hunan Normal University,China

[[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_5]]

=A Brief Introduction of Contemporary American Translation Theory——Examplified mainly by Nida=
'''简析当代美国翻译理论——以奈达为例'''

尹媛 Yin Yuan, Hunan Normal University, China

[[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_8]]

=History of translation theory of France from 20th century to the present=
'''20世纪至今的法国翻译理论史'''

李双 Li Shuang, Hunan Normal University, China

[[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_9]]

=French Translation Theories from 16th Century to 18th Century =

'''十六世纪至十八世纪法国翻译理论'''

杨堃 Yang Kun,Hunan Normal University,China.

[[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_10]]

=A Brief Introduction to Translation Theories of Ancient Rome=

'''古罗马翻译理论
'''

Liu Yunxin,刘运心, Hunan Normal University, China

[[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_11]]

=12 魏兆妍 The Humanistic Trend in Western Translation Theory from the 14th to the 19th Century=
[[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_12]]

=History of Translation Theories in the Soviet Union=
苏联时期翻译理论时史

吴婧悦 WuJingyue, Hunan Normal University, China

[[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_13]]

=14 杨爱江 History of Chinese Translation Theories from 1919 to 1949=

[[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_14]]

History of Translation Theories

2021-12-19T12:58:21Z

Wu Jingyue: /* 13 吴婧悦 History of Translation Theories in the Soviet Union */

'''History of Translation Theories'''

[[History_of_Translation_Theories|Overview Page of History of Translation Theories]]

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[[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_1]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_2]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_3]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_4]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_5]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_6]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_7]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_8]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_9]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_10]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_11]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_12]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_13]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_14]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_15]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_16]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_17]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_18]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_19]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_20]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_21]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_22]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_23]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_24]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_25]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_26]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_27]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_28]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_29]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_30]] ...

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[[DCG-To-Do|To the To Do List]]

=1 李瑞洋 A Brief Introduction of Contemporary Chinese Translation Theories--from 1949 to Present=

'''当代中国翻译理论简史（1949至今）'''

李瑞洋 Li Ruiyang, Hunan Normal University, China

[[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_1]]

=2 陈心怡 History of Translation Theories of Russia after the collapse of Soviet Union =

'''苏联解体后的俄罗斯翻译理论史'''

陈心怡 Chen Xinyi, Hunan Normal University, China

[[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_2]]

=An Overview of Contemporary American Translation Theory——The American Translation Workshop=
'''当代美国翻译理论概述——美国翻译研讨班流派'''

Zhang Yang, 张扬，Hunan Normal University, China

[[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_3]]

=An Overview of the Development of Western Translation Theories =
'''西方翻译理论发展概述'''

Zeng Junlin，曾俊霖, Hunan Normal University, China

[[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_4]]

=History of Translation Theories from early Russia to the Soviet Union=

'''从古罗斯到苏联前的翻译理论史'''

张怡然 Zhang Yiran,Hunan Normal University,China

[[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_5]]

=A Brief Introduction of Contemporary American Translation Theory——Examplified mainly by Nida=
'''简析当代美国翻译理论——以奈达为例'''

尹媛 Yin Yuan, Hunan Normal University, China

[[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_8]]

=History of translation theory of France from 20th century to the present=
'''20世纪至今的法国翻译理论史'''

李双 Li Shuang, Hunan Normal University, China

[[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_9]]

=French Translation Theories from 16th Century to 18th Century =

'''十六世纪至十八世纪法国翻译理论'''

杨堃 Yang Kun,Hunan Normal University,China.

[[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_10]]

=A Brief Introduction to Translation Theories of Ancient Rome=

'''古罗马翻译理论
'''

Liu Yunxin,刘运心, Hunan Normal University, China

[[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_11]]

=12 魏兆妍 The Humanistic Trend in Western Translation Theory from the 14th to the 19th Century=
[[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_12]]

=History of Translation Theories in the Soviet Union=
苏联时期翻译理论时史
吴婧悦 WuJingyue, Hunan Normal University, China
[[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_13]]

=14 杨爱江 History of Chinese Translation Theories from 1919 to 1949=

[[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_14]]

Hist Trans Theo EN 13

2021-12-13T14:27:35Z

Wu Jingyue: /* 7. Conclusion */

<nowiki>Insert non-formatted text here</nowiki>'''History of Translation Theories'''

[[History_of_Translation_Theories|Overview Page of History of Translation Theories]]

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[[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_1]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_2]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_3]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_4]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_5]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_6]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_7]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_8]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_9]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_10]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_11]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_12]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_13]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_14]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_15]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_16]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_17]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_18]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_19]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_20]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_21]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_22]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_23]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_24]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_25]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_26]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_27]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_28]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_29]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_30]] ...

[[Book_projects|Back to translation project overview]] [[DCG-To-Do|Zur To-Do-Liste]]

=Chapter 13 History of Translation Theories in the Soviet Union=
===苏联时期的翻译理论史===
Wu Jingyue 吴婧悦 Hunan Normal University

===1. Abstract===
As is well know, the Soviet translation theory plays a prominent role in the world translation theory. Firstly, we discuss about the overall situation of the development of the Soviet period, the history of the Soviet period and discusses the characteristics of the Soviet translation theory. Finally, we introduce the famous translation theorist like: S. G. Barkhudarov (С. Г. Бархуда́ров) and I. A. Kashkin (И. А. Кашки́н) and so on.

===2. Key words===
Translation theories, Western translation theories, Soviet Translation theories

===3. Introduction===
The Soviet translation theory played a pivotal role in the world translation theory. This paper firstly introduces the historical evolution of the development of the Soviet translation theory, which divides the Soviet Union into two periods: the development history of translation theory before World War II and the development history of translation theory after World War II. In introducing the history of translation theory before World War II, the source of the history of Soviet translation theory, the development of Soviet translation theory, namely linguistics and the contribution of Kamisarov, Liubimov and others.Secondly, the representatives of the translation literature and art school and the translation language school are introduced specifically.When introducing the school of translation literature, the views of translator Kashkin and Gachzzeraz are introduced; in introducing the language school of translation, they are mainly introduced.

===4. The evolution of Translation Theories in the Soviet Union.===
===4.1 History of translation theory development before World War II===
The Soviet translation theory occupies a very prominent position in the world translation theory.The Soviet study of translation theory began shortly after the October Revolution, began with literary translation.

In 1918, Gorky (А.М.Горький) founded the World Literature Press (Издательство "Всемирная литература") in conjunction with the help of Lenin(В.И.Ленин). The publisher's task is to introduce world classics, improve the translation art, and train translators.At this stage, nearly 100 professors and writers attended the work.In order to unify the thinking, discuss the theory of literary translation, and stipulate some clear rules, Gorky handed the burden to Chukowsky(К.И.Чуковский). Therefore, after a short effort, Chukowski wrote the book "The Principles of Literary Translation" ("Прицины художественного перевода") in 1919.He first proposed that the translator of the novel should be an artist and a master of language.Chukowski believed that a good translation can reproduce the artistic characteristics of the original text in vivid and rich Russian.But at that time, there was a very popular view in literary and theoretical criticism that translation was essentially impossible work.

(Cai & Duan, 2000: 5)

In 1930, The Principles of Literary Translation was collected in Chukowski's "The Art of Translation" ("Искусство переводов").It suggests that translators must understand the social environment.In addition, the communication of the structural characteristics and rhetorical characteristics of the original text, as well as the principles of translation and expression, are also discussed.

In 1934 Translation theorist Smirnov (А.А.Смирнов) made the first proposal of the concept of "equivalent translation" in the term "Soviet Literature Encyclopedia", "translation" (Перевод).The "equivalent translation" here means "conveying the ideological content, feelings, and written structure of the original work", that is, "conveying the full creative intention of the original author". Smirnov suggested that not only can use the direct counterpart of the original in translation but also can use the functional approximation of the original in translation.

(Cai & Duan, 2000: 16)

In 1936, Loginski (М.Л.Лозинский) reported at the first National Conference of Translators, "The Art of the Translation of Poetry" ("Искусство стихотворного перевода"), and pointed out that poetry translation should be the same in aesthetics as the original poetry works, highlighting the equivalent aesthetic function of literary and artistic translation.

Also in 1936, Kashkin (И.А.Кашкин) proposed the theory and became the founder of the Soviet theory of realism. His translation method is: translators should try their best to reproduce the objective reality expressed in the original text, rather than words; they should see, experience, and perfectly reproduce the reality in the eyes of the author from behind the original text. He equated the realistic method of translation with the socialist realism in literary creation.In the Soviet Union, he was hailed as "a theorist representing a entire era in the history of Russian translation". He believes that translators should be loyal to the original, to their readers, to reality, and that the three are inseparable. () Kashkin believes that without a theory, translators are just a craftsman, and can never become a translator or artist.

( Kashkin, 1977)
(Cai & Duan, 2000: 25)

Also in 1936, Kashkin (И.А.Кашкин) proposed the theory and became the founder of the Soviet theory of realism. His translation method is: translators should try their best to reproduce the objective reality expressed in the original text, rather than words; they should see, experience, and perfectly reproduce the reality in the eyes of the author from behind the original text. He equated the realistic method of translation with the socialist realism in literary creation.In the Soviet Union, he was hailed as "a theorist representing a entire era in the history of Russian translation". He believes that translators should be loyal to the original, to their readers, to reality, and that the three are inseparable. Kashkin believes that without a theory, translators are just a craftsman, and can never become a translator or artist.
It is worth noting that by the beginning of World War II, the discussion of translation theories did not form systematic and complete theories, and they were all carried out from a literary point of view. Only translation of textbooks and translation instructional references are exceptional and are conducted from a linguistic perspective.

(Cai & Duan, 2000: 120)

===4.2 History of translation theory development after World War II===
Since the 1950s, a new period of studying translation theory from the perspective of linguistics began. Its main characteristic is to link translation theory with comparative linguistics, and on the basis of comparing the phenomenon of the two languages, to reveal the law of the two languages.

In 1950, "Theory and Methods of Translation Teaching" ("Вопросы теории и методики учебного перевода"), which played a considerable role in the development of translation theory. For example, in Gary Palin(И.Р. Гпльперии) 's article, "Translation and Rhetoric" ("Перевод и стилистика"), shares Shakespeare's original Othello with Morosov’s (М.М.Морозов) translation, noting the similarities and differences between English and Russian in terms of meaning and aesthetic functions. Meanwhile, the book Lezkel(Я.И.Рецкер) ’s article, "On the regularity and correspondence in Russia" ("О закономерных соответствиях при переводе на роднои язык"), divides the language regularity correspondence into three categories: equivalent, approximation and equivalent substitution.These three methods are applied to scientific and technological translation, the translation of political articles, and literary translation.

(Wu, 2006: 325)

1953 Feodorov (А.В.Фёдоров) 's book "An Introduction to the Translation Theory" ("Введение в теорию перевода") was published.The book discusses the translation theory from the perspective of the linguistics theory, and proposes that the translation theory is a branch of the linguistics, and the translation problem can only be solved in the field of linguistics. In addition, the book stipulates the content of the concept of "translation", the object of theoretical research, the content, etc., and discusses the vocabulary issues, grammar issues and stylistic issues of translation, respectively.The book made Feyodorov the founder of the language school of translation theory. In addition, the book received wide attention in the Soviet translation circle, especially the translation teaching circle, but it also caused a heated controversy in the literary and art school of translation theory.

However, translators from the school of literature and art believe that Feodorov studied translation problems almost completely from a linguistic perspective, while ignoring that the first thing of literary translation should be involved in the problem of literature and art.

(Wu, 2006: 354)

In 1954, Kashkin put forward in "Methods and Genres of Soviet Literary Translation" ("О методе и школе советского художественного перевода") that the theory of literary translation should be a broad language discipline, that is to say, the study of translation and literary problems should be combined.
In 1955 the collection of "Literary Translation" ("Вопросы художественного перевода") questions Feydorov's views, believing that studying translation theory from a linguistic perspective may lead to formalism and word-by-word dead translation in translation practice.

Since then, the Soviet theory of translation has gradually formed two major schools, namely, the school of literature and art and the language school.The two factions had long debated, culminating after the late 1950s and 1960s, with numerous papers and monographs each published."Translation Skills" ("Мастерство перевода"), published by the Soviet Writers Publishing House, focuses on the views of the literary school. The language school is based on the "Translation Worker Notes" ("Тетрадь переводчика") edited by Balhudarov, making comments and summarizing the translation experience.Most belong to the literary school are writers; the language school are linguists and college teachers.

( Kashkin, 1977: 163)

In 1958, Feodorov made some additions and modifications to the original book in the second edition of the Introduction to Translation Theory. Although he also admitted that the problems in the field of translation could not all be explained by linguistic methods, it was correct to study the translation problem from the perspective of linguistics, otherwise, there would be no real theory of translation art.He stressed that literary and artistic translation does have its own characteristics, and should highlight its aesthetic aspects, but literary images are created by language means, and must also be conveyed by another language means. Therefore, the study of translation and theory from the perspective of linguistics is the basis.

(Wu, 2006: 366)

In 1962, the collection of "Translation Theory and Review" ("Теория и критика перевода"), including two groups of translation theorists.Linguist Larin (Б.А.Ларии) In the preface to the collection, "Our Mission" ("Наши задачи"), proposed that the theory of literary translation must be established on the basis of linguistics and literature.He believes that it is impossible not to combine linguistics and literary methods organically, whether in linguistics, rhetoric, or translation theory. Any translation should begin with analysis, and finally finish with literary creation.

1963 Aitkin (Е.Т.Эткин) published the book "Poetry and Translation" ("Поэзии и перевод"), which analyzed and commented on a large number of foreign-language poems translated into Russian language in the early 19th century, concerning the translation of literary and artistic theory.He believes that the linguistic means of poetry translation are closely related to the reproduced artistic characteristics of the original poetry, and the two should not be opposed.In his opinion, translation is like rhetoric, which is both a problem of literature and art and linguistics, because rhetoric is a science of language synonymous, and it belongs to the two fields of linguistics. Ignoring the theory of the form of literary works will actually make the translator helpless.

(Tan，1991: 246)

In 1964, Gachzrazawa (Г.Р.Гачечиладзе) published the book "The Theory of Literary Translation" ("Вопросы теории художественного перевода"), in which he based on Lenin's reaction theory, proposing that the translator directly reflects the original text, namely the artistic reality of the original text, rather than the specific reality directly reflected by the original text.

That same year, Levzin (И.И.Ревзин) and Rosenzwig (В.Ю.Розенцвейг) has published "Principles of General Translation and Machine Translation" ("Основы общего и машинного перевода") to study translation issues from a structural linguistics perspective.It was the first work in the world to combine the concepts and principles of translational theory with the category of structural linguistics.

(Wu, 2006: 430)

In 1968, Feodorov made a new revision and supplement to the new situation, publishing the third edition of the book and renamed "Basic Translation" ("Основы общеи тоерии перевода").The rationale is that this can highlight the basic principles of translation theory —— studies various translation phenomena and various kinds of translation, revealing their commonalities and respective characteristics, comparing from a linguistic perspective.In the book, Feodorov makes it clear that it should never be forgotten that the ultimate task is to establish a common theory of philology.It is now outdated to insist that literary translation is studied only through literature and art, or only through linguistics. Contemporary era is an era of close cooperation between different disciplines. In philology, the distance between the two branches of literature and linguistics is not very large, and its differences are inevitable, but can be overcome, that is to say, the two can be combined all together.

The 1970s were called the "harvest years" of Soviet translation theory, and the debate entered a new stage.

In 1972, Gabriel's book "Literary Translation and Literary Exchange" ("Художественныи перевод и литературные взаимосвязи") can be regarded as a representative work of the school of literature and art, which more comprehensively expounded the translation theory views of the Soviet school of literature and art.Once published, the book immediately aroused widespread response from the Soviet translation theory community.In the book, he pointed out that literary and artistic translation belongs to the category of artistic creation, and studying literary translation from the perspective of linguistics inevitably leads to the dead translation of auxiliary words. As a result, the translation is linguistically correct and low in art. Because from a linguistic point of view, the decisive factor is not the translator's creative attitude towards the original text, but the linguistic correspondence principle.Thus, translation becomes some technical process, not creation. Literary and artistic translation should reproduce the aesthetic value of the original text.

1963 Komizarov (В.Н.Комиссаров) presents its unique theory of "equivalent levels" in his book on translation ("Слово о переводе").According to this theory, the meaning structure of discourse is a complex that can be divided into content, namely the level of language symbols, discourse level, notification structure level, scenario description level and the level of communication purpose.The principle of translation equivalence to the original text should be based on these levels during translation.

(Wu, 2006: 456)

The same year, Shvzel (В.Н.Комиссаров) published the book "Translation and Linguistics" ("Перевод и лингвистика"), suggesting that translation is not only the contact between two language systems, but also between two different cultures, and sometimes between two different civilizations.In addition, he raises questions about the invariant values of the translation function.Shvzel believes that translation functional invariant values include both semantic and grammatical aspects.
In 1974 Lezkel (Я.И.Рецкер) has published the book "Translation Theory and Translation Practice (An Introduction to the Theory of Linguistics of Translation)" ("Теория перевода и переводическая практика - Очерки лингвистическои теории перевода"), which discusses some key issues in the linguistics theory of translation, which are directly related to the translation practice.The book compares the lexical grammar and rhetorical characteristics of English with its functional counterpart in Russian, and reveals the logical semantic basis of using various translation techniques and methods in the translation process.

1975 Balhudarov (Л.С.Бархударов) published the book "Language and Translation" ("Язык и перевод"), which aroused widespread response in the Soviet translation community and was considered the representative work of the Soviet language school translation theory in the 1970s. The biggest characteristic of the book is to link the translation theory with the latest achievements in linguistics in the world, and put forward the linguistics theory of translation is comparing discourse linguistics, more specifically, is the semantic discourse in different languages, and the actual segmentation of the sentence is an essential condition of equivalent translation and a series of new arguments. Balhuduff makes it clear that translation changes the speech product of one language to another while keeping the content unchanged, that is, the translator does not deal with the language system, but with the language product.In addition, he discussed translationability, the nature of translation theory, semantics and translation, translation units, and translation methods.

(Balhudarov, 1975: 187)

In 1976, Chernhovskikaya (Л.А.Черняховская) published the book "Translation and the Semantic Structure" ("Перевод и смысловая структура"), the only Soviet work that conveys the logical focus and real semantic segmentation of sentences in translation.

That same year, Levitskaya (Т.Р.Леницкая) and Fejelman (А.М.Фетерман) published the book "translation problem" ("Проблемы перевода"), the book discusses English and Russian due to different vocabulary, grammar, rhetorical structure and the main translation problems, its focus is not the translation process itself and general translation methods and skills, but for the difficulty of English translation into Russian method.

In 1977 Lambimov (Н.М.Любимов) highlighted in "Translation is Art" ("Перевод - искусство") that literary translation is an art that pursues artistic accuracy rather than literal slave-style fidelity.At the same time, it is also proposed that words as language units can only be reflected in, or through words, so the objective reality of language existence is the overall —— discourse of the work. The basic category of translation is the discourse.

And 1978 Venogradov (В.С.Виноградов) pointed out in "The Lexical Problems of Literary Prose Translation" ("Лексические вопросы перевода художественнои прозы") that words are the basic unit of language, so, it is also the starting point of translation.

(Wu, 2006: 359)

In 1978, Komisarov edited and published the collection of "Translation Theory Issues in Foreign Linguistics" ("Вопросы теории перевода в зарубежнои лингвистике"), It fairly fully introduces the state of Western linguists studying translation theory, The book is divided into four themes, Both: the general linguistics problem of translation, Translation equivalent, translation process, Translational linguistics and Translational rhetoric; Translating the relevant discourse of some famous western linguists, For example, Jacobson (R.Jackbcon), one of the founders of the Prague School, British linguist J.R.Firch (J.R.Firch) and others.The influence of this collection is evident from the later writings of translation theorists of the Soviet language school.

In 1980, Komisarov published the book "translation linguistics" ("Лингвистика перевода"), which pointed out that the perspective of linguistics is entering a new stage, turned out to regard the linguistics translation theory as a part of applied linguistics, for the translation practice of service, its focus is on the translation process, its task is to study the linguistics mode of translation and determine the principle of translation. The results of studying translation from the perspective of linguistics show that translation is an integral part of linguistics, and the theoretical analysis of interlanguage communication phenomenon is necessary for the development of linguistics itself. Therefore, translation should be regarded as a special form of language function, which is a special method of its speech practice, and our knowledge of the essence and function of language is incomplete. That is, linguistic analysis of translation can not only serve translation practice, but also promote development of linguistics itself. It is under the guidance of this idea that the book discusses the general linguistics theory of translation, translation semantics, translation linguistics, translation rhetoric, translation mode, translation standards. Therefore, it provides a new perspective for the study of translation theory.

(Cai & Duan, 2000: 20)

In the same year, the Minyal. Bellolluchev (Р.К.Миньяр - Белоручев) published the book "Translation" ("Общая теория перевода и устныи перевод").The book regards translational science as an independent subject on the grounds that it has its own subjects, content and a complete set of terms; thinks that translation research is beyond the scope of linguistics, it is a subject of linguistics, psychology, semiotics, sociology intersection, mainly applicable to translation between any two languages; proposes the discourse information theory, the main method of translation and the classification of language means in translation and so on.The book first used the interpretation as a research subject.

In 1981, Ratshev (Л.К.Латышев) published the "Translation Tutorial —— Translation equivalent and achieve the equivalent Method" ("Курс перевода: Эквивалентность перевода и способы ее достижения"), which divided the translation equivalent into formal and functional equivalent two types, and proposed the specific methods to achieve the translation equivalent.

In 1983, Feodorov published the collection of "Translation Art and Literary Life" ("Искусство перевода и жизнь литературы."), indicating from the preface entitled "A Window to Another World" ("Окнов другои мир") that Feodorov partially accepted the other's views through disputes with the school of translation theory and literature.At the same time, he argued that Gaczrazzer greatly limited the role of language in translation, seeing language as mere technical means.

(Cai &Duan, 2000: 22)

In 1985, Lvorskaya (З.Д.Львовская) published the book "Theoretical Issues of Translation"(Теоритическая проблема перевода”), which based on the theory of communicative function, believing that discourse meaning is divided into linguistic and verbal categories. The equivalent of translation is not the absolute invariance of the semantic, pragmatic, and environmental components in the meaning structure, but only the equivalence of pragmatic and environmental components.
The 20th century school of literature in the translation theory of outstanding events is in the journal "literary review" ("Литературное обозрение") continuously on the discussion of translation problem, the content involves: the necessity of the translation theory, how to overcome the two extreme, how to treat the original aesthetics, time color, translation can really convey "the spirit of the original" and the creation of the translator, etc.

In 1988, Shvzzer, a translation theorist of the language school, published the book "Translation Theory: Status, Problems and Face"(“Теория перевода : Статус, проблема, аспекты”). The author combines the latest achievements in linguistics in the field of speech linguistics, sentence semantics, communication linguistics and psychological linguistics, the status of translation theory, the essence of translation, equivalent, similarities, interpretability, translation semantic, language, discourse and translation and other six issues, the language school translation theory research mentioned a new stage.

In 1990, Komisarov's book "Translation Theory (Linguistics)" ("Теория перевода (линвистические вопросы") clearly stated in his preface that translation theory is an important part of the training of future translators. As a textbook, the book aims to introduce the basic principles of translational linguistics theory.
In the 1980s, the Soviet theory of scientific and technological translation developed rapidly, and published a lot of articles and monographs.

(Cai & Duan, 2000: 37)

In all, the Soviet theory of translation has been developed from scratch, from sporadic to systematic, constantly enriched, and constantly deepening step by step.

===5. The Literary School of Translation===
===5.1 Realistic Translation pioneered by E.A.Kashkin===

Kashkin Ivan Alexandrovich - literary critic, translator and critic. He brought up a significant group of translators from the English language. He translated J. Chaucer's The Canterbury Tales (1946, with O. Rumer). Promoter of the best achievements of modern English and American poetry (R. Frost, K. Sandberg) and prose (E. Hemingway, E. Caldwell, J. Wayne, etc.). Aslo, he is the author of historical and literary studies about J. Conrad, L. Stevenson, W. Faulkner, E. Hemingway and others.

Some translators believe that they must obey the "absolute authority" of the original text and pursue the following word by word. Other translators advocate for loyalty to the original text. And Kashkin believes that realism in art is a complex and diverse phenomenon, which is restricted by history. Realism in art is real and poetic. Exactly, to feel and reflect world —— realism through inspiration is reflected in artistic life itself.

( Kashkin, 1977: 177)

In order to accurately convey the ideological content of the original work, and creatively reproduce the artistic characteristics and national characteristics of the original work, it must adopt the realistic translation method. The translator must respect the reality of the text, but not simply copy the text symbols of the original text, but strive to reproduce the objective reality expressed by the text and give it life.

Translators should understand the author of the original text's direct feelings of reality through the barrier of the syntactic structure of a foreign language. Only in this way could he reproduce the original in the same powerful and clear language, as did the original author did. The translator should see the phenomena, thoughts, things, behaviors and conditions through the words of the original work, and specifically reproduce this reality in the eyes of the original author.
Reality in art is the image to reflect the essential characteristics in reality.

( Kashkin, 1977: 185)

The truth in literary translation is not a final pursuit that the surface is similar to the original text, nor does it simply copy all the unimportant details.The truth in literary translation is based on the internal logic of the image, and first, to faithfully translate the essence of the original text.The translator should faithfully understand the author's conception and creative intention, and retain the artistic characteristics of the original work, the historical reality and the atmosphere of The Times.

Otherwise, Kashkin believes that there must be a strict distinction between artistic images that should be conveyed and verbal images that occasionally occur in translation.Because language is the basic means of expressing all literature, but the basic task and main difficulty of literary and artistic translation is not to copy the language of the original text, including the language structure elements, but in the artistic reproduction of the original image, considering the differences of the language system.

( Kashkin, 1977: 205)

===5.2 Gaczilaser’s realistic view of translations===

Professor Givi Razhdenovich Gaczilaser is one of the largest specialists in the field of literary translation theory, the author of the famous monograph "The Problem of Realistic Translation", a translator of Shakespeare, Byron, Shelley and other English poets into Georgian. In the book offered to the reader's attention, he continued to develop in depth the theory and practice of literary translation. Proceeding from Lenin's theory of reflection, G. Gachechiladze considers literary translation as a form of cognition, as a creative act that helps the reader approach not only a foreign language work, but also the living reality reflected in this work.
Gaczilaser believes that the principles of literary translation have been swinging between the two extremes.One is word-by-word translation, and the other is artistically equivalent but written away from the original text. He thought it would be easy to combine the two principles, but it was impossible in practice. Because different means of expressing ideas are very different languages, word-by-word translation and artistic quality are always contradictory.

If the translator is limited to the original and not to reproduce what the author sees in the imagination, he is not a creative person. The translator should take the author's thoughts as the starting point, the original text serve the deep understanding of artistic reality. The translator should see the real life reflected in the original work behind the artistic reality, and it is not to create his own work.Realistic translation method refers to realists following the law of realistic art, reflecting the artistic reality of the original, and consistent with the original, more specifically, rhetorical consistency, only help to achieve linguistic loyalty, but should not let this affect their own will. Loyal to the author's artistic truth is the goal of the realistic translator.The artistic reality of the original includes both content and form, and even the unity of form and content.

(Gaczilaser, 1964: 120)

It is undoubtedly correct to compare the two language systems in the translation process.However, this contrast has certain limitations, as each language has its characteristic means of rhetoric.Just as there is no unified language, there is no unified rhetoric of all languages, nor the unified grammar of all languages. The application of rhetorical rules to any specific language would rise to a national, independent rhetorical system. Thus, the rhetorical rule can only be judged based on the character of some language.

===6. The Linguistic School Translation===
===6.1 Balhuadov’s Translation Concept===

Balhuarov was a famous translation theorist in the Soviet Union in the 20th century, one of the representatives of the language school and a doctor of Soviet philology, and has been engaged in translation teaching and translation theory research for many years. It is represented as the Language and Translation ("Язык и перевод").

From the perspective of the research subjects of the translation theory, Balhudav believes that the task of the linguistics theory of the translation is to pattern the translation process and put forward some scientific diagram for the translation process, which can more accurately reflect the important aspects of this process. In the view, on the one hand, translation theory, like any other theoretical model, reflects only some of the most important features of its subjects, rather than all features. Translation theory studies not all the relationship between the original language and the translation language, but the regular relationship between the two, that is, the typical and recurrent correspondence.On the other hand, translation theory, like any other discipline theory, stipulates not only a pattern, but many patterns that reflect the translation process in different ways as well as various characteristics.

(Balhudarov, 1975: 250)

From the essence of translation, Balhuudaf believes that translation is the process of converting a speech product into another language while keeping the content level (i. e., meaning) unchanged. Among them, the term “meaning” refers to the various relationships of language units. Translation is a process of changing one language discourse into another language discourse. The object of translation is not a language system, but a discourse.For translation, it is not the equivalent of the individual word, but the equivalent of the full text.Thus, the semantic differences between the two languages are not an insurmountable barrier in translation.
In addition, from the discussion of semantic problems of translation, Balhudv believes that the semantic problem of translation must be studied and conveyed from three aspects: meaning, pragmatic meaning and internal meaning.But on semantic issues, he presented no substantive content, with similar views mentioned by Jackson and Nida et al. in the late 1920s and early 1960s.But Balhudaf's interpretation is more detailed and fulfilling, and more generalized in some places.

Balhudaf also establishes equivalent translation from six levels: phonemic, phoneme, word, phrase, sentence, and discourse layer. The six levels are applied more systematically to translation theory.

(Balhudarov, 1975: 255)

===7. Conclusion ===

To sum up, by introducing the historical evolution of the development of translation theory in the Soviet Union, we and the representatives of the school of translation literature and art and the translation language school can draw the following conclusions:

First of all, the developmental foundation of the Soviet translation theory was weak. By the beginning of World War II, the discussion of translation theory had formed no systematic and complete theories'''(the meaning is ambiguous, my suggestion:the discussion of translation theory wasn't systematic, corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 14:13, 13 December 2021 (UTC))''' , and they were all carried out from the perspective of literature and art. Only translation textbooks and translation instructional references are exceptional and are conducted from a linguistic perspective .After World War II, the Soviet Union began a new period of studying the translation theory from the perspective of linguistics. Its main feature was to connect the translation theory with the '''(the should be deleted,corrected by--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 14:13, 13 December 2021 (UTC))''' comparative linguistics, and to reveal the correspondence of the two languages on the basis of comparing the two languages. In 1954, translator Kaskin proposed that translation should not be separated from literature and art. Since then, the Soviet theory of translation has gradually formed two major schools, namely, the school of literature and art and the linguistic school. The two factions had long debated, culminating after the late 1950s and 1960s, with numerous papers and monographs each published.

(Cai & Duan, 2000: 168)

(Wu, 2006: 325)

Secondly, from the perspective of the literary school of translation, Kashkin, the theorist of translation, founded the realistic concept of translation, believing that the translation should pay attention to understanding the feelings of the original author, and believing that we must strictly distinguish the artistic image that should be conveyed and the occasional language image in the translation. Translation theorist Gaczirze believes that the principles of literary translation have been swinging between the two extremes. One is word-by-word translation, and the other is artistically equivalent but written away from the original text. He thought it would be easy to combine the two principles, but it was impossible in practice.

Thirdly, from the perspective of the language school of translation, the translation theorist Balhudarov believes that the task of the linguistics theory of translation is to pattern the translation process and put forward some scientific diagram for the translation process, which can more accurately reflect the important aspects of this process.He made great contributions to the linguistic school of translation.

(Wu, 2006: 325)

All in all, the translation theory of the Soviet period has its own unique development path. The Soviet translation theorists in this period made great contributions to the history of Soviet translation, also, the translation theory of the Soviet period became an indispensable part of the world translation theory map.

===8. References ===

Cai, Yi 蔡毅，Duan,Jinghua, 段京华. Translation Studies in USSR苏联翻译理论.湖北教育出版社，2000

Liu Miqing刘宓庆，Translation Basics 翻译基础.上海.华东师范大学出版社，2008

Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜.Translation Studies 翻译学.复旦大学出版社，2017

Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜.History of Western Translation 西方翻译简史.北京.商务印书馆，1991

Wu, Keli 吴克礼.The Translation Methods and Studies in USSR 俄苏翻译理论流派综述. 上海外语教育出版社，2006

Xu, Jun 许均. Translation Theories 翻译论. 湖北教育出版社，2003

Balhudarov Бархударов Л.С. Language and Translation: Collation said Partial theory of Translation Язык и перевод: Вопросы общей и частной теории перевода, Международные отношения, 1975

Gaczilaser Гиви Гачечиладзе. Problems of Literary Theory Вопросы теории художественного перевода. Тбилиси: Литература да хлебовнеба, 1964

Kashkin Иван Кашкин. Articles and Studies Статьи и исследования. Москва. Советский писатель, 1977

--[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 08:41, 12 December 2021 (UTC)