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2020-12-27T12:35:16Z

Xu Jia: /* Xu Jia 徐佳 */

==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==
'''Zhu Ziqing'''

A third example, where an author shows another face in his essays is Zhu Ziqing. He is known as the author of the most often reprinted story-like Chinese essay "''Back View''" (Beiying), a standard school text. The success of this essay lies in the fact, that it applies to filial pity. From the reported fare-well scene with his father at the train station, he learned that his father loved him and that he had grown-up too now.
==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==
This self-reflective essay helped Zhu to find himself through the observation of the other (here his father). The 2nd often printed essay is also from Zhu. Parallelistic and repetitive structures are the driving factor in the atmospherical nebulous lyrical landscape desription "''The Moonlit Lotus Pond''", whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader.

Zhu Ziqing supposedly opposed all political engagement and, wrote about unspectacular things. In Taiwan he became a type of substitute for the categorically refused state writer of the People’s Republic, Lu Xun, mainly because of Zhu’s supposed political independence.
==Chen Han 陈涵==
I would like to show with three examples that Zhu had absolutely clear political ideas: He had taken part in the demonstration March 18, 1926, which ended in a massacre. Zhu described this in ''"Report On the Massacre of the Government''"[ (Zhizhengfu da tusha ji).].

''Shots were still being fired, and the entrance of the east gate was packed with people. [...] Pushing and shoving, we climbed over them with great effort. We must have lost our senses then, not seeing, to our shame, the grotesqueness of our action. ''

我想用三个例子说明，朱自清有绝对明确的政治思想。1926年3月18日，他参加了示威游行，这场游行最终以屠杀告终。朱自清在《执政府大屠杀记》中对此进行了描述。

''这时枪声未歇，东门口拥塞得几乎水泄不通。[...] 我们便推推搡搡，拥挤着，挣扎着，从他们身上踏上去。那时理性真失了作用，竟恬然不以为怪似的。'' --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:39, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Hui 陈惠==
''[...]I was still walking on top of the people. No one dared to miss a single step, filing through the gate that divided safety from danger, one that would give us life or take our lives away. [...] My efforts finally brought me down to the ground, sealing my fate as I rolled down from the human pile. [...] I learned later that some of the people by the gate were dead, killed by the pistol squad firing from the other side of the gate. When I recall stepping over dead bodies, I cannot help but tremble with fear. [...]''
==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==
From this experience, Zhu addresses directly the repsonsible political leaders:

''Duan Qirui, you must think about it! [...] How could we explain this to the world? [...] Granted, Duan Qirui and others could commit such atrocities without a thought; but how could we, the people of China, face the world with such a shameless government? [...] We, [...], must ask, „So many were killed—what should we do?“''
==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==
In contrast, Lu Xun has portrayed the same massacre with sighing undertone and Zhou Zuoren bitter-humorously in his "''Ways to die''"[ (Si fa).] - in which he finds "to be shot" the best method to die. The supposedly less politically engaged Zhu shows here more engagement.

The essay "''Facing the New China''"[ (Xin Zhongguo zai wang zhong).] is Zhu's political manifest: He asks for democracy, enlightenment and an increase of the education level.
==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==
''China has to be born again through democratization. [...] The people should express their own will, concentrate on their own strength. Every level of administration should build up on the expressed will and strength of the people and struggle for the majority and its greatest happiness. This means that the people govern, the people own, the people enjoy.''

A few weeks before his death, he demanded in the speech ''"Today's duty of the Intellectuals''"[ (Zhishifenzi jintian de renwu).] the participation of the intellectual in the struggle for a better society.

“中国必须通过民主化重生。[...]人们应该表达自己的意志，集中自己的力量。各级行政机关都应该建立在人民的意志和力量的基础之上，并且为大多数人及其最大化的幸福而奋斗。也就是民治，民有，民享。”

在他去世的几周前，他在 “知识分子今天的职责”的演讲中要求知识分子参与建设更好的社会。--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 11:31, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing

==Chen Sha 陈莎==
With only a handful of essays I have demonstrated, that the picture of these three authors changes substantially, if we read carefully also their less known essayistic work. Imagine now how the picture of 20th century Chinese literature might change, if the literary histories and anthologies would not only tell the history of drama, fiction and poetry, but would also grant the essay its proper place. The following part of my paper are results of my monograph on the 20th century Chinese essay.
==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==
'''The essay boom as a mirror reflecting growing individuality, participation in the public sphere, and the giddy-paced character of modern Chinese society'''

Acquiring an overview of the essay and assessing its essence has required extensive research in bookstores and libraries, in the People's Republic of China, Taiwan, Hong Kong and the United States for available resources in the form of essay book collections as well as secondary literature dealing with the essay.
==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==
I built a database for a statistical analysis to rank more than 5000 essays and 1400 essayists. It turned out that out of the top 60 most famous Chinese essays only 14 had been translated into English so far. The forthcoming collection of Tam King-fai adds 4 and my own one the remaining 42.

Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report[ (baogao wenxue) (Klaschka 1998).].

我建立了一个用于统计分析的数据库，对5000余篇散文和1400名散文家进行排名。事实证明，迄今为止，在中国最著名的60篇论文中，只有14篇被翻译成英文。谭景辉即将出版的散文选集另有新翻译的4篇，我自己则翻译余下的42篇。

分析表明，自1979年以来，总体上来说，散文发表有所增加，在“文化大革命”之后还出现了两次热潮，在1990年达到了新的高度。首次增加出现在20世纪20年代和30年代，此后便被报告文学所取代（Klaschka 1998）。--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:41, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Cheng Yusi 成于思==
The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous essay bookseries[ sanwen congshu 散文叢書.].

The reason for the increase in essay production, which we can date right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in the sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for the survey. There are three reasons for the increase in Chinese essay production and popularity in the mid-1990s:
==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==
1, The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts, as Hall has put it: “[...] we live in an age of exposition”[ (Hall 1984:xiii).].

2, The increasing consciousness of individuality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands.

3, A revival of interest in discussing socio-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.
==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==
If we look carefully at essay collections not only published in the United States, but also in Hong Kong, Taiwan and the People’s Republic, we find the following three reasons for the under- and overestimation of single essayists or essays which correspond to regional differences:

1, EXOTIC In the United States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones.

如果我们仔细观察在美国出版的，以及在香港、台湾和中华人民共和国出版的散文集，我们会发现以下三个原因导致人们低估和高估了回应地域差异的单个散文家或散文:

1、异国情调在美国，散文往往是根据西方人的口味来选择的，完全不知名的作者和老牌作家拥有一样多的空间。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 09:37, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

如果我们细细研读在美国出版的，以及在中国香港、台湾和大陆出版的散文集，我们会发现以下三个原因导致人们因地域差异而低估或高估了某些散文家或散文:

1、异国情调在美国，散文往往是根据西方人的口味来选择的，名不见经传的作者和著名的作家拥有同样多的市场。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling

==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==
2, SOCIO-POLITICAL In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, as the mentioned survey proofs, he ranks 12th among modern authors there. Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.

3, PERSONAL Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by his disciple Huang Weiliang in favor for Yu.[ (see Lin Yaode 1989:50).]

Having named reasons for the essay boom and for the support for and the suppression of different actors in the cultural field of the essay, I would like to finish my paper by naming a few trends of the essay as they appear at the eve of the century.
==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==
The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consumer-orientation of the masses. The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educational claim with the exception of essays which claim to be "art pourt l'art".
==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==
The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing ("''On dreams''"[ "Shuo meng 說夢" On dreams in: Zhu Ziqing 1928.]) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 ("''My own garden''"[ 9.1923.], "''The Fly''"[ 1924.], "''Reading on the Toilet''"[ 1936.]), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the newly encountered world of mass consumerism.
==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==
In the end of this century not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. Among the upper list places of the political essay after 1949 there are critical essays. For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain.
==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==
A sign for the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publishing houses with an orientation for customers (former: "readers"). Following the emotional essays of Zhu Ziqing who rank 1st and 2nd, ''nostalgia'' is the element of emotional identification in "''Wild vegetables of my home region''" by Zhou Zuoren, which ranks 3rd[ In Jia Pingwa's "Moon traces", which ranks 11, and in Ba Jin's "''Paradise for Birds''", which ranks 19]. Therefore one can state, that moving essays form the top.
==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==
In 1927, Chinese literature took the form of 'engaged literature'. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics in daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology. In the later half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of individuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife.
==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==
In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only remiscent element left is the patriotism.[ ''Trends like the use of ordinary language'', which one finds in novels since 1993 (''Jia Pingwa'', Feidu; ''Gu Cheng'', Yingger) and New Borderlessness since 1995, cannot be proven in the essaywriting.The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable ''object d'art''.]

上个世纪90年代，80年代的政论文随笔文化逐渐隐没了，唯一剩下留有想象空间的元素就是爱国主义。[“比如使用普通语言的趋势”，这是从1993年以来在小说中发现的（“贾平凹”）费杜，古格，英格）以及自1995年以来，《新无边际》都无法在论文写作中得到证明，我们之所以没有找到后现代小说意义上的后现代散文，是因为文章的直接性：随笔作为一种体裁，是作者和读者之间的对话，而不是想要引起不同解释的原因或可能依赖于特殊形式或内容甚至是按顺序引用前现代特征的艺术品，这使它成为一个与众不同的“艺术品”。]--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 13:06, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

'''References''' [partly mentioned with German translation] （不用翻）

Vera Schwarcz 1996, Vera Schwarcz, "The pain of sorrow: public uses of personal grief in modern China", in Daedalus: Journal of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (Winter 1996)

Ba Jin 1982, Ba Jin: "Yi feng huixin 一封回信" (Ein Antwortbrief (26.10.1982)), in: Bing zhong ji 病中集 (Auf dem Krankenlager), Hongkong 香港 1984(?) (Series Suixiang lu 隨想錄 (Thoughts) Bd 4), 147 pp.

Ba Jin 1982a, Ba Jin: "Yi pian xuwen 一篇序文" (Ein Vorwort) [dated 1982.9/10], in: Ba Jin: Auf dem Krankenlager 1984

Ba Jin 1956, Ba Jin 巴金: "Duli sikao 獨立思考" (Unabhängig denken), in: Li Jisheng 李濟生, Li Xiaolin 李小林 (Hgg.): Ba Jin liushi nian wenxuan (1927 - 1986), Suixiang lu, zagan, sanwen, xuba, yanjiang, shuxin 巴金六十年文選（１９２７－１９８６）隨想錄·雜感·散文·序跋· 演講·書信 (Ba Jin. Werkauswahl aus 60 Jahren (1927 - 1986), Gedanken, vermischte Gefühle, Essays, Vor- und Nachworte, Reden, Briefe), Shanghai 上海: Shanghai wenyi chubanshe 上海文藝出版社 (Literatur- und Kunstverlag Shanghai), 1986.12, S. 461 - 462 [Datiert auf 1956.]

Ba Jin 1962, "Zuojia de yongqi yu zerenxin 作家的勇氣與責任心" (Mut und Verantwortungsbewußtsein der Schrifsteller) 1962; der Essay von Zhou Zuoren 周作人: "Wenxue tan 文學談" (Über Literatur), in: Tan long ji 談龍集 (Über Drachen. Sammlung), Shanghai 上海: Kaiming shudian 開明書店 (Kaiming Buchladen) 1927.12, Nachdruck: Hongkong 香港: Shiyong shuju 使用書局 (Praxisverlag) 1972.1, 310 S., S. 165 - 167

Zhou Zuoren 1919, Zhou Zuoren, "Zuxian chongbai 1919 (Ancestor Worship)," in Early Essays, op.cit., pp. 78

Zhou Zuoren 1920: Zhou Zuoren 周作人, Xin wenxue de yaoqiu 新文學的要求" (The demand of the New Literature) [lecture], in Beiping shaonian xuehui 北平少年學會 (Beiping youth conference) 1920.1.6, in: Zhang Ruoying 長若英: Xin wenxue yundong shi ziliao 新文學運動史資料 (Material on the history of the New Literature movement), Shanghai 上海: Guangming shuju 光明書局 (Guangming bookstore) (1934.9) ²1936.9, 291-296

Zhou Zuoren 1923, Zhou Zuoren: Yanzhicao ba (Preface to Yu Pingbo's Yanzhicao), in: Yongri ji (Book of Eternal Day), Shanghai: Beixin shuju 1929, 180-181

Zhou Zuoren 1929, Zhou Zuoren: Ertong de shu (The books of children), in: Chenbao fukan (1923.8.17)

Zhou Zuoren yuanliu, Zhou Zuoren: Zhongguo xin wenxue de yuanliu (Sources of New Chinese Literature), p 71

Zhou Zuoren 1932, Zhou Zuoren: Lun baguwen 1932, in: Kanyun ji p. 148

Source: NEAAS annual meeting 10/09/1999 New Haven (Yale University)

==Guo Lu 郭露==
'''Modern Chinese Literature and the Essay Genre: A New Perspective'''

''Martin Woesler''

In this paper, I will not recount the contents and propose interpretations of any essays, nor will I outline the main topics or styles of essaywriting in China, but I would like to take the opportunity to reflect a little bit on the phenomenon of the genre itself and discuss some conclusions and hypotheses with the attentive and critical audience which can be found at only a few places on earth, EALC at Harvard definitely being one of them.

《中国现代文学与散文体裁：以新视角》

''吴漠汀''

在本文中,我将不再赘述任何文章的内容和提出的观点,我也不会列出其主要主题或风格,但是我想借此机会,反映一些现象本身的类型，并与包括哈佛大学学生在内的观众对一些结论和假设进行探讨。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:16, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

《中国现代文学与散文体裁：新视角》

吴漠汀

本文将不再赘述或解释任何文章的内容，也不会列出中国散文的主要主题或风格。我想借此机会，反思体裁现象，同乐于助人、至关重要且世间少有的读者，包括哈佛大学东亚语言和文化学院的学生，对一些结论和假设进行探讨。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:28, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==
'''1. The unknown genre'''

The literary-historical narrative told by anthologies and collections of the 20th century has drawn an incomplete picture of Chinese literature: The genre of the essay was lacking. In my paper I will ask, if the picture of literature can remain unchanged, if we take into consideration also the essay. The genre has been neglected for a long time as a genre of merit (Margouliès 1949, Schmidt-Glintzer 1990) or overlooked (McNaughton 1974, Leiden 1988-90, McDougall 1998);

'''1.未知体裁'''

二十世纪文选和选集里的文学史的叙述对于整个中国文学来说是不完整的：散文题材是缺失的。在我的论文里我将要探寻是否文学整个文学框架依旧保持不变，是否把散文体裁考虑进去。作为一种具有优势的体裁它已经被忽视了很久了。（马古烈 1949，施寒薇 1990）或者被省略（约翰·麦克诺顿 1974，莱顿 1988-90，杜博妮 1998）；--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 11:09, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

'''1.未知体裁'''

20世纪选集所讲述的文学历史叙事，描绘了一幅不完整的中国文学图景:：散文题材是缺失的。在我的论文里我将要探寻是否文学整个文学框架依旧保持不变，是否把散文体裁考虑进去。作为一种具有优势的体裁它已经被忽视了很久了。（马古烈 1949，施寒薇 1990）或者被省略（约翰·麦克诺顿 1974，莱顿 1988-90，杜博妮 1998）；--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 12:30, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==
whereas its elder brother, fiction, has been prized ever since the valuing of fictional literature and the vernacularisation of writing in early Republican China, which followed from the master narrative established by the May 4th movement. Modern anthologies would have the reader believe that a triumvirate of poetry, fiction and drama forms the backbone of modern Chinese literary output.
==He Changqi 何长琦==
'''Excursion: Defining the essay as a non-fictional subjective representation in a free form'''

Similar to international literature, the basic subdivision of literature in China in general is one in three types: epic (with xiaoshuo (fiction), sanwen (non-fictional prose)), lyrics (shige) and drama (xiqu). Though there is no pure epic form, fiction and prose are often jointly addressed with the Chinese term "wu yunwen" which corresponds to the term "epic" in the West. The types may be distinguished roughly by their nature in the following way: In the epic, bygone events are retold, a broad, filled story dominates the foreground.
==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==
In the lyrics, the reader is encouraged to feel the current sensations and often confessionlike feelings of the poet. The drama recalls a self-contained action directly in monologue or dialogue and in this way unburdens the re-creative imagination of the readers/spectators through it. The essay as a genre of the epic is a detached non-fictional subjective representation in a free form.
在抒情诗中，读者被鼓励去感受当下的感觉，并且常常是诗人的忏悔式的感觉。戏剧直接在独白或对话中回忆起一个自足的动作，以这种方式释放了读者/观众重新创造的想象力。散文作为史诗的一种体裁，是一种超脱的、非虚构的、自由形式的主观表现。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 02:29, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

在抒情诗中，鼓励读者感受诗人当下的感觉，且这种感觉常常是诗人的忏悔。戏剧直接以独白或对话的方式回忆一个自足的动作，并通过这种方式释放了读者/观众再创造的想象力。散文作为史诗的一种体裁，是以自由的形式进行的一种分离的非虚构的主观表现。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 07:11, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==
"Essay", Chinese mostly ''sanwen'', is a genre term for shorter, self-contained non-fictional prose texts, in which the author tries to mediate individual experiences on an object or a question out of subjective I-perspective. This it tries associatively and from different sides, not as a text for daily use, but with artistic or educationally demanding means of language, nevertheless in an accessible form. The resource is mastered by the essayist sovereignly and the topic is seen in a larger context and can even be presented humorously. Freedom in form and content is essential for the essay.
==Hu Jin 胡瑾==
Different perspectives range in the international genre of the essay: Genres are primarily divisions of literature through the scholarship of literature for specialized contemplation and in order to be able to compare similar texts more easily. On the other hand, a subcategorization in numerous small entities, like Zheng Mingli does with the essay, questions the sense of such subdivisioning in reference to hermeneutic findings. One must also stay aware of the changing nature of literature itself and the relativity of the scientific perspective, which is still a timely one, even if its accepted internationally.
==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==
Regional deviations seem less important for the essay than for established genres like short stories, novels etc., and far less important than for poems. All these other genres are seen as international genres. My hypothesis, that the Chinese and the Western essay also belong to the same international genre maybe proved by the crosscultural mutualities both in form and content.
==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==

In the 21st century, the world is growing together and culture is mainly determined by the grade of modernization. The Chinese essay, as we find it in newspapers today, has taken on the form and content of the Western essay and is aimed at a target group comparable to that of the Western essay. This is a second hint that the modern Chinese essay belongs to the international genre of the essay.

在21世纪，世界共同发展，文化主要决定于现代化的水平。今天我们在刊物上看到的中国散文，已经具备了西方散文的形式和内容，而且其目标群体与西方散文相当。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文类别的第二个暗示。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 07:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

在21世纪，世界上的国家趋向于走到一起，而文化则主要取决于现代化水平。正如我们从现今报纸里面看到的那样，中国散文采用了西方散文的形式和内容，而且其目标群体与西方散文相当。这是中国现代散文开始趋同于国际散文体裁的第二个标志。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 09:27, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

21世纪，世界在共同成长，文化主要由现代化程度决定。我们今天在报纸上看到的中国散文，在形式和内容上都与西方散文相似，其目标群体也与之相似。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文的第二个暗示。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 09:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

在21世纪，世界共同发展，文化主要决定于现代化的水平。我们今天在报纸上看到的中国散文，已经呈现出西方散文的形式与内容，并且其目标群体也与西方散文不相上下。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文体裁的第二个迹象。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 11:17, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Jiang Hao 姜好==
Even though the translation of ''duanpian xiaoshuo'' with ''short stories'' is commonly accepted, both are less closely related than the Western essay and its Chinese counterpart. The definition, which I developed out of a sample of more than 5000 modern Chinese essays, fits also the special international understanding of the essay (following Bolz 1992 13:269-272 on the development of the western essay; Butrym 1989 on the theory of the western essay).

尽管人们普遍接受用短小故事来翻译短篇小说，但两者的关系不如西方的散文和中国的同类文章密切。这个定义是我从5000多篇中国现代散文样本中发展出来的，也符合国际上对散文的特殊理解（继博尔兹1992年13:269-272论西方散文的发展；布特莱姆1989年论西方散文的理论）。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 11:01, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

尽管人们普遍接受用“短小故事”来翻译“短篇小说”，但两者的关系并不如西方散文与其中国同类文章密切。这个定义是我从5000多篇中国现代散文样本中得出的，也符合国际上对散文的特殊理解（继博尔兹于1992年 13:269-272 论西方散文的发展；布特莱姆于1989年论西方散文的理论）。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==
Besides the trend towards a globalized society, first expressed in Zhou Zuoren's call to adopt the English essay style, there are special local characteristics of the Chinese essay. How is the Chinese essay to determine culturally, what makes it "Chinese"? In the occidental essay the form seems to be a more important criterion of differentiation than in its Chinese counterpart. In China even those texts are included, which have only a similar content, but cross the borders of the formal generical framework.

除了首先由周作人表达出来的社会全球化趋势，号召采用英语散文风格，中文散文有独特本土的特征。中文散文如何形成其特有文化，其中文性又由何组成？和中文散文相比，西方散文的文章形式似乎是更重要的分类标准。在中国，甚至有些文章内容相似，但形式和类别大相径庭。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 02:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

除了最初由周作人表达出来的社会全球化趋势，号召采用英语散文风格，中文散文具有独特的本土特色。中文散文如何形成其特有文化，其中文性又由何组成？与中文散文相比，西方散文的形式分类标准似乎更重要。在中国，有些文章甚至是内容相似，但形式和类别大相径庭。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:18, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

除了周作人提倡采用英语散文风格所体现的全球化社会趋势外，中文散文还具有独特的本土特色。中文散文如何在文化上定义，其中国性又是什么？在西方文章中，形式似乎是比中国文章更重要的区分标准。在中国，甚至包括那些只有类似内容，却跨越了形式上的属相框架的文本。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 11:05, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==
This can be shown with Zheng Mingli, who subcategorises the "unfinished diary" or the "unfinished letter". Those texts belong - within the Western context - to texts of personal use and therefor to the non-fictional prose works. Only after they have been altered into essays (Zheng Mingli: "essay in diary form" and "essay in letter form"), they are accepted as essays.
==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==
'''The Chinese understanding of the genre is tendencially broader'''

This tendencial broader understanding of the essay in China can be traced back directly to the connotation, that the term ''sanwen'' possesses in Chinese: ''wú yùnwén'' "non-rhythmic prose", which originally meant all non-fictional prose. In this broader meaning, also texts for personal or everyday use are included. However I deal only with ''sanwen'' in the narrower meaning "short literary essay pieces".

Further differences are that Chinese essays often have ideological contents and show stylistic characteristics like repetitions and the usage of sayings.
==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==
'''The Chinese essay is booming again in the 1980s and 1990s'''

Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report (''baogao wenxue'').[ Klaschka 1998.] The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous ''sanwen congshu'' 散文叢書 (essay bookseries).
==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==
The increase in essay production right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in a sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for a survey.

Thanks to the work of some major Chinese editors, the whole essay culture was compiled from magazines and newspapers and was published in a flood of anthologies since the 1970s. This boom is comparable to the cultural fever of undigging xiangtu literature, which rose in Taiwan in front of the background of the movement of self-identification and independance.
==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==
'''2. Why is the essay as abundant as fiction?'''

Let me name a few reasons, why the essay in fact is as abundant as its prose brother, fiction, and its lyrical sister, poetry, and why it must be valued as highly:

- The essay had a direct impact on Chinese society throughout history (the reform ideas from the end of the Qing dynasty through the May Fourth period with the literary theorethical pieces and the daily political zawen of Lu Xun, until today are mostly presented in essay form). The impact on literary reflection and theory is shown in the collection "Modern Chinese Literary Thought" 1996. The effect of the essay genre with its direct language, its connection to life (e.g. its role in the coming to terms with the cultural revolution), and its direct access to the individual reader through newspapers. This impact is larger than the indirect one of fiction or poetry. The poem is the genre of retreat from social life, from political issues and time references.
==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==
Hu Shi argues, that ''poetry'' is most important in the process of modernity, since poetry rises emotions. But it relies also on images and on linguistic rhythm. Liang Qichao stresses the role of novel and opera in the changing society. But ''sanwen'' is able to name things, it reflects life, caleidoscopic. Modern subjectivity is constructed with the tool of ''sanwen''.

- The essay also reflects trends in the society better than poetry and fiction: Individualism is expressed in the essay more directly than in the poem with its limitation in content and form. Ephemerality is reflected in the short form of the essay, which may be read in the subway on the way to work, where poems may not be so spontaneously enjoyed.

胡适认为“诗”在现代化的过程中是最重要的，因为诗会升华情感。但诗歌依赖于形象和语言节奏。梁启超强调小说和戏曲在社会变迁中的作用。但“三文”却能命名事物，它反映生活千变万化。现代主体性是以“三文”为工具来建构的。

-散文也比诗歌和小说更能反映社会的趋势。个人主义在随笔中表现得比在诗歌中更直接，但在内容和形式上都有局限性。短文的短暂性体现在短文的形式上，可以在上班路上的地铁里读，而在地铁里读诗，可能就不能那么随性的享受了。--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 13:48, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi

胡适认为“诗”在现代化的过程中是最重要的，因为诗歌升华情感。但诗歌也依赖于意象和语言节奏。梁启超强调小说和戏曲在社会变迁中的作用。但“散文”却能给事物命名，反映千变万化的生活。现代主体性就是以“散文”为工具建构的。

- 随笔也比诗歌和小说更能反映社会的发展趋势。个人主义在随笔中的表现比在诗歌中更直接，因为诗歌在内容和形式上对此有所限制。随笔的短暂性体现在随笔的形式上，人们可以在上班路上的地铁里阅读，而在地铁里读诗，可能就没有那么随性的享受。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:55, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Haiquan 李海泉==
- The essay reaches a larger part of the population than poetry, the amount of time spended on reading novels goes back, too. The essay itself a genre of high actuality, if not simply the genre of today.

- The essay tells us more about an author and his time than fiction or poetry, because in this genre, we encounter the author himself without metrical restrictions. We look trough authentic eyes on his contemporary society. Many authors turned to essay writing in the later periods of their lifes, like Lu Xun, Ba Jin, and Wang Meng.
[[Media:Example.ogg]]==Li Lili 李丽丽==
- The volume of ''essay'' production exceeds the volume of ''xiaoshuo'' production: Chinese newspapers since the 1870s on[ Shenbao, Shibao etc. Liang Qichao sees the role of the newspaper both as liberal and authoritative: He understands the press as an institution to control the government, on the other hand he favors censorship.] and as a mass media from the early 20th century presented only one or two fictional stories in a serialized form, but invented essay columns like ''zagan'' (from which Lu Xun developed his ''zawen''), ''suibi'' or ''suixiang'' (from which famous collections like Ba Jin's ''Suixiang lu'' derived).

“随笔”的产量超过了“小说”的产量：从19世纪70年代开始，中国的报纸就在《申报》、《时报》等杂志上发表。梁启超认为报纸既自由又权威：他认为报纸是控制政府的机构，另一方面，他主张审查制度，作为20世纪初的一个大众媒体，他以连载的形式呈现一两个虚构的故事，但却发明了散文专栏，如“扎根”（鲁迅从中发展了他的“札文”）、“随笔”或“随想”（巴金的《随想录》就是从中衍生出来的）。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 12:54, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

“随笔”的产量超过了“小说”的产量：从19世纪70年代开始，中国的报纸就在《申报》、《时报》等杂志上发表。梁启超认为报纸既自由又权威：他认为报社是控制政府的机构；另一方面，他主张审查制度，报纸作为20世纪初的一个大众媒体，以连载的形式呈现一两个虚构的故事，但却发明了散文专栏，如“扎根”（鲁迅从中发展了他的“札文”）、“随笔”或“随想”（巴金的《随想录》就是从中衍生出来的）。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 10:19, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Lingyue 李凌月==
'''3. Let us assign the essay its proper place'''
The consequence which must be driven from the above presented contrast between value and valuing of the essay is: Let us assign the essay its proper place! I will describe the beginnings of the discovery of the essay.
Despite the increase in essay writing from 1979 on, it took a decade for the first theoretical reflections on this phenomenon to appear. It took another decade before the international scholarship of Chinese Studies became aware of the phenomenon of the essay.

3.让我们为散文指定其适当的位置，
由此得出的结论是:让我们为散文指定其适当的位置!我将描述发现这篇文章的开始。尽管从1979年开始，论文写作有所增加，但对这一现象的第一次理论反思却花了10年时间才出现。又过了10年，中国研究的国际学者才意识到这一现象。

==Li Liqin 李丽琴==

In the 1980s, Chinese scholarship made a first major approach to reflect on essay literature by writing essay histories and collecting papers, which concentrated first on the essayistic work of single authors like Lu Xun. Also two essay conferences in the 1990s showed no move towards international scholarship. Not before 1995 did international scholarship started to use common philological methods to explore single essayists (on Gaylord Leung [Liang Xihua] 梁錫華 Kubin 1995, on Wang Meng 王蒙 Woesler 1995, on Liu Zaifu 劉再復 Mansberg 1995 [unpublished]) or essays of groups (on 'Xīnyùe pài 新月派' Wagner 1996).

20世纪80年代，中国学术界首次以撰写散文史和散文集的方式对散文文学进行了重大的反思，这首先集中在鲁迅等单个作家的散文作品上。另外90年代的两次会议也没有趋于国际学术研究的动向。直到1995年，国际学术界才开始使用共同的语言学方法来探讨单个散文家（比如1995年Kubin的《关于梁漱溟》；Woesler的《关于王蒙》；Mansberg的《关于刘再复》[未发表]）或探讨某个群体的散文（1996年瓦格纳的《关于新月派》）。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 12:54, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Luyi 李璐伊==
Not before the second half of the 1990s, did a history of the Chinese essay using the means of Western philology appear (Woesler 1998) and for the first time, the essay was included in Western anthologies of literature as a genre equal to fiction and poetry (''The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature'' 1995, ''Modern Chinese Literary Thought'' 1996).

Regarding the valuing of essays in China, Taiwan and the West, there are regional differences: In the States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones.

在不早于上个世纪90年代下半叶之时，出现了使用西方语言学方法撰写的中国散文史（Woesler 1998），并且散文首次作为与小说和诗歌同等的体裁被纳入西方文学选集。（《哥伦比亚现代中国文学选集》 1995，《现代中国文学思想读本》 1996）。

关于中国大陆，台湾地区和西方的散文评价，存在地区差异：在美国，人们通常根据西方人的喜好来选择散文，给予完全不知名的作家与知名作家同等的篇幅。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

上世纪90年代后半期以前, 出现了使用西方语言学方法撰写的中国散文史（Woesler 1998），并且散文首次作为与小说和诗歌同等的体裁被纳入西方文学选集。（《哥伦比亚现代中国文学选集》 1995，《现代中国文学思想读本》 1996）。中国大陆，台湾和西方对散文的评价，存在地区差异：在美国，人们通常根据西方人的喜好来选择散文，给予完全不知名的作家与知名作家同等的篇幅。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 12:24, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Meng 李梦==
In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, in my survey, which Chinese essayists are printed the most in the 1990s, he ranks 16th. If one only take modern authors into account, he even ranks 12th. Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by Huang Weiliang in favor for the first (see Lin Yaode 1989:50), and Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.

Still it remains a ''desideratum'' to get the most important Chinese essays in Western translation.
在台湾,鲁迅很早就被禁了,但今天,在我的调查里,上世纪90年代中国散文家印刷量最大的时候,鲁迅排在了第16位。如果只考虑现代作家,甚至排在了第12位。香港关于余光中文学的评论,被黄伟良第一次看中(见林耀德1989:50),王蒙因政治职务在中华人民共和国被高估。
然而,要获得西译中最重要的中国散文,还需要一个参考文献。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 12:16, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==
Currently at least three essay collections in English translation are in the reviewing process (Tam King-Fai, Woesler) or already published (Pollard 1999). Pollard's selection is a highly subjective and eclective choice of essays, covering even the premodern essay. This year, scholars will meet on a first international conference on the essay (Achern, Germany August 25-26). In the years to come, a new ''Bonn History of Chinese Literature'' will grant the essay its proper place with two to three volumes only dedicated to the ''biji, youji'' and other essays.
==Li Yu 李玉==
'''4. Taking into consideration the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature'''

I will give a few hints, what the essay can contribute to the picture of Chinese Literature, which so far is overshadowed by fiction through the narrative of C.T. Hsia, Prusek and Anderson.

We are used to established narratives, like the emergence and success of the May-Fourth literature. But this view neglects the role, that for example the ''yuanyang hudie pai'' played in the choir of different voices in the awoken intellectual debate in the beginning of this century.
==Lin Min 林敏==
The May-Fourth group at that time was one voice among many and only succeeded because of its agitation and polemic in the public sphere, so we have to use new means to assign the Chinese essay its proper place. We learn from simplifiying narratives, that it is absolutely necessary to differentiate, and to reconstruct the complex time background. Having understood Chinese literature as determined by the development of fiction and poetry only, a broader understanding will change the whole appearance of Chinese literature. A scholarly endeavour is the use of modern literary theories in the approach to this genre.
==Lin Xin 林鑫==
In the following, I will name three aspects (chronologically sorted by past, modern and contemporary time) to hold the argument, that the taking into consideration of the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature and change our current understanding of it.

'''5. The classical and premodern essay documents Chinese philosophy, early subjectivity and still, a native Chinese tradition is questioned'''

How is the Chinese essay to be positioned historically, how did it emerge, what is its generic background? Generically, the ancestors of the essay are both in China and the West notes written on the margins of books, they are letters and travel notes.

下面，我将从三个方面(在时间顺序上按过去、现代、当代排序)来论述对散文的考量将改写中国文学史，改变我们目前对它的认识这一论点。

5. 古典和前现代散文记录了中国哲学，其早期的主体性，仍然是对中国本土传统的质疑。
中国散文在历史上要如何定位，它是如何产生的，它的共有背景是什么？一般来说，中国和西方的散文都是起源于写在书本空白处的笔记，是书信和游记。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:18, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==
These notes differed from the canonized literature through its informal style, its expression of individuality und subjectivity, a much earlier document for subjectivity than the first autobiographical Chinese novel, ''The Dream of the Red Chamber''.

From the very beginning, the essay was valued lower than poetry: the oldest reference this far for the term ''sanwen'' that I found is Luo Dajing's 羅大經 (? - after 1248) statement from 1240: “Shī sāomiào tiānxià, ér sǎnwén pōjué suǒsuì júcù.
==Liu Bo 刘博==
詩騷妙天下，而散文頗覺瑣碎局促。” (Poetry is moving mankind in a wonderful way, prose inquires into incoherent bagatels, is limited.) (''Helin yulu''). Another reproach Luo Dajing mentions, is a formal one: In comparison to the highly artistic and century-long tradition of poetic writing, the direct and often vernacular langage of the essay in his eyes had less value.

In the West, a real 'art of the essaywriting' came up in the late 16th century as a medium for the newly reorganized knowledge.

“詩騷妙天下，而散文頗覺瑣碎局促。”罗大京提到的另一个骂名，是形式上的：与具有高度艺术性和长达一个世纪传统的诗歌写作相比，散文中直接的、白话文式的语言在他看来并不那么有价值。
在西方，16世纪晚期出现了一种真正的“散文写作艺术”，作为一种传播重组知识的媒介。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 00:50, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

“诗騷妙天下，而散文颇觉瑣碎局促。”罗大经提出的另一个责难，是形式上的。在他看来，与高度艺术化的百年诗词写作传统相比，散文直接的、白话文式的语言没有什么价值。
在西方，真正的 “散文写作艺术 ”是在16世纪末作为重组知识的一种媒介出现的。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:30, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==
The reorganization originated from the observations of Kopernikus, which destroyed the whole conception of the world of the Middle Age.

In China, particularly the debates on Buddhism in the 4th and 5th century A.D. saw the origination of a tradition of letters. The Chinese tradition of the ''sanwen'' 散文 (essay) however, in the understanding of sǎn 散 as (to dispel, leisure, loose, relaxed, irregular, independant style, free prose, can be seen not before the detachment from the dialogue - or aphorism, which is still visible in the philosophical ''Lunyu''.
==Liu Liu 刘柳==
Xunzi delivered the prototype of the later essay with his philosophical treatises. They are an early form of philosophical didactical essays, in which general theorems are derived not only from quotations of the canonized classical works, but for the first time also from his own individual experience. The individuality is still a main characteristic of the essay today.

During the dynasties the essay manifested itself further in certain subcategories: From reading-notes written at the paper margins originated the ''biji'' µ§°O (occasional notes), flourishing in the Ming Dynasty.

荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形，它们是哲学教学论文的早期形式。其中的一般定理不仅来自于经典著作的引用，而且第一次从他的个人经验中得出。个性仍是现今散文的主要特点。

历朝历代，散文在某些子类中进一步得以表现，如从写在纸边的读书笔记产生了明朝盛行的偶记。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 02:25, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形。其作品是哲学论教散文的早期形式，这些散文中传授的普遍定理不仅有引用经典著作，还首次借鉴其个人经历。这种个体性在当代的散文中仍有保留。

历朝历代，散文通过一些子类别得以呈现，如明朝盛行的在书页边上写的读书注释，它就是源于笔记。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 08:47, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形。其作品是哲学论教散文的早期形式，其中的一般定理不仅来自于经典著作的引用，而且第一次从他的个人经验中得出。个性仍是现今散文的主要特点。

历朝历代，散文在某些子类中进一步得以表现，如从写在纸边的读书笔记产生了明朝盛行的偶记。--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:20, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Ou 刘欧==
The marginalism is a link between Western and Chinese tradition of early essays. Occasional notes could contain private historical notes, anecdotes, communications and contemplations. However, the consciousness of the essay as a genre of its own originated in China not before the Qing ²M dynastie, when numerous essay anthologies were compiled.

Taking into consideration the social-historical background draws a different picture of the old society than short stories and novels: Essays are much closer to real life, since they express individual problems and experiences.

边缘主义是中西早期散文的一个纽带。散见的笔记包含了私人的历史记录，轶事，交谈和个人沉思。然而，尽管当时的散文选集众多，但将视散文作为一种文体的意识，清朝之前并没有出现。

考虑到当时的社会历史背景，人们在旧社会时，对短篇故事和小说的看法不同：散文更接近现实生活，因为它们表达了个人的困惑和经历。--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 04:15, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

边缘主义是中西早期散文传统的一个纽带。偶尔的笔记可以包含私人的历史笔记，轶事，交流和沉思。然而，尽管当时中国散文选集有很多，一直到清朝之后我们才将散文视作一种文体意识。
考虑到当时的社会历史背景，人们对旧社会的看法与短篇小说和小说不同：散文更接近现实生活，因为它们表达了个人的问题和经历。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 07:43, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==
Until now, the Chinese pre-''Hongloumeng'' individual literature spoke only through the indirect language of poems to us. Rediscovering the essays, we have a splendid source of opinions, social-historical pictures etc.

Premodern essay literature consists of much more than its most well-known example, the formally restrictive ''baguwen''. Lu Xun himself wrote some of his essays in ''baguwen'' style, but on the other hand took it as a synonym for the ancient society. Zhou Zuoren saw the rhythm of the language of the "Eight legged essay" as as appealing and intoxicating as the "pleasure of doing opium.'' (Zhou 1932:148).

目前为止，中国红楼梦前的个体文学还只是通过诗中的间接语言与我们对话。通过重拾散文，我们可以知晓不同观点和社会历史状况等文学创作的丰富源泉。
现代散文之前的文学并不限于形式上受限制的八股文，一方面鲁迅本人也有一些散文是用八股文写成的，但另一方面他又把八股文当作古代社会的代名词。周作人把 "八股文 "的语言节奏看作是 "做鸦片的快感 "一样令人陶醉。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 08:42, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

直到现在，中国前“红楼梦”的个体文学只能通过诗歌的间接语言与我们对话。重新发掘这些散文，我们可以拥有丰富的观点来源，社会历史图片等。

前现代散文文学不仅仅包括它最为人所知的例子，正式的、有限制性的“八卦文”。鲁迅自己的一些文章就是用“八卦文”写的，但是在另一方面又把它当作古代社会的同义词。周作人认为《八股文》的语言节奏就像“吸鸦片的快感”一样令人陶醉。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 09:07, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Yi 刘艺==
But he considered it also as a prevalent genre implicit in the modern writings as ''yang bagu'' (westernized bagu) and ''dang bagu'' (party-line bagu) (borrowing from Wu Zhihui, Zhou Yuanliu:71).

Neo-Confucianism stressed ''wen'' (prose) as the most important tool to transmit the ''dao'' (way): ''Wenyi zai dao'' (Literature as the carrier of the way). If we reinterprete this diction in the perspective of genre, we can say, that the essay then has been regarded as an important tool to express truth, subjectivity and Self.

但他认为这也是隐含在现代著作中的''洋包谷''（西化包谷）和''党行包谷''（借用吴稚晖、周远流的说法：71）的一种普遍的文体。

新儒家强调''文''（散文）是传播''道''的最重要工具：''文以载道''（文以载道）。如果我们从文体的角度来重新解读这句话，我们可以说，当时的散文已经被视为表达真理、主体性和自我的重要工具。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:01, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

但他认为这也是隐含在现代著作中的''洋包谷''（西化包谷）和''党行包谷''（借用吴稚晖、周远流的说法：71）的一种普遍的文体。

理学强调“文”（散文）是传播“道”的最重要工具：“文以载道”。（以文学为载体的方式）。如果我们从体裁的角度来重新解读这一措辞，可以说，散文已成为表达真理、主体性和自我的重要工具。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 00:53, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==
Liang Qichao developed a ''xīn wéntǐ'' 新文體 (new prose style), which was influenced by Western languages, but the essay became popular not before the newspapers became mass media, and the language changed into ''baihua''.

'''6. The essay as the medium of modernity, the questioning of the genuiness of the Chinese essay'''

To solve first of all the dispute on whether the Chinese essay grew out of a native tradition or was influenced by Western translations, one finds both traditions relevant: The occidental essay was introduced to the writers of the literature reform movement from 1907 on by translations in Chinese (Lin Shu: ''Irving'' 1907, ''Addison'' 1911).
==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==
The current form of the genre is mostly based on the influence of Western essay translations. First developed a Chinese essay tradition, which consciously leaned upon the Western model in language, form and terminology, its own proponents succumbed soon to the temptation to derive a tradition of the Chinese essay from Chinese history only. A seemingly unbroken Chinese tradition of the native Chinese ''wenyan sanwen'' is presented in Chinese textbooks (Yu Zaichun 1978-82, Li Xishang 1985).

This is older than the ones referred to in the ''Large Chinese Dictionary'' of Morohashi (Morohashi undated) and in the ''Encyclopaedic Dictionary of the Chinese Language'' 1966.

==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==
Still, the value of the native tradition of essay writing and the role of the Western influence upon it is discussed controversially among the scholars. Some admit that Western impact played a key role in what we understand as Chinese essays nowadays: Wang Bin 1992, Fan Peisong 1993; for Western impact in general see Průšek 1964, Gálik 1966, McDougall 1971. Other scholars think that Western influence is overestimated - Denton 1996 showed that the theoretical background was missing for understanding Western theories of literature in China, - and recommended that we understand the essay first by its national tradition.

然而，对于本土论文写作传统的价值以及西方对其的影响，学者们争论不休。有些人承认西方的影响在我们今天所理解的中国散文中起了关键作用:王斌1992，范培松1993;对西方总的影响参考。还有一些学者认为，西方的影响被高估了——Denton 1996表明，中国缺乏理解西方文学理论的理论背景，并建议我们首先从其民族传统来理解这篇文章。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:57, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

然而，对于本土论文写作传统的价值以及西方对其的影响，学者们争论不休。有些人承认西方的影响在我们今天所理解的中国散文中起了关键作用:王斌1992，范培松1993;对西方总的影响参考。还有一些学者认为，西方的影响被高估了——Denton 1996表明，中国缺乏理解西方文学理论的理论背景，并建议我们首先从其民族传统来理解这篇文章。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 15:07, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==
How far personal opinion may influence the narrative of historical facts can be seen by the example of the legendary authors of the May Fourth movement. All of them considered the English essay as the father of the Chinese essay: Zhou Zuoren 1921, Lu Xun 1933, the anarchist and later member of the Guomindang Wu Zhihui [1934]. Later, some of these authors changed their minds to support their own theories on the essay by looking for proof of a native Chinese essay tradition:
==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==
for example, Lu Xun with his theory "'Zhǎnkāi' shuō yǔ 'méngyá' lùn “展開”說與“萌芽”論"" (Theory of "Starting" and "Blossoming") came to see the fighting and critical character of the essay of the Jin dynasty (265 - 420) as the 'father' of the Chinese essay, and Zhou Zuoren first the English essay (1921) and later the ''biji'' (occasional notes) of the Ming, although he still tried to integrate the English essay in his "Gonganpài yu Yīngguo xiaopin 'hecheng' lun 公安派與英國小品“合成”論" (Theory of the Synthesis of the Gongan School and the English Essay).
==Ma Juan 马娟==
Wang Zengqi regrets that the national Chinese tradition of the essay at the time of the 'May Fourth Movement' has not been taken up again and has not continued in contemporary essays (Wang Zengqi 1993). The Chinese essay is an accommodating object of study, because one may look to it to prove any theory of the essay. One can find examples for each topic in almost every period, simply because the essay has a wide range of subjects.
==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==
When Zhou Zuoren showed that only seven months after the incident at Marco Polo bridge it was again possible to write about a candy seller (1924), he was critizised as "paralyzing" (Lu Xun 1934, Zhu Zhaoluo 1943). When he wrote a piece on the "Fly", he was reproached with dealing with subjects of minor importance. Reproaches like this lie in the very nature of the genre, since ''marginalism'' is substantial to the essay. The mentioned formal reproach of Luo Dajing can be found again in the 1990s, Hong Kong students critisized the literary style as it appears in Ba Jins "Thoughts" (Suixiang lu) as too direct and too less artful. But this perspective does not recognize the very nature of the essay, which is a very individual expression of an author's thoughts and not bound to tradition, and therefore much more free also in content.
==Ma Zhixing 马智星==
The essay - from its very nature free and independant - almost disappeared in the time of the Cultural Revolution and - except for the ideologically influenced essays - had a hard struggle between Yan'an and the loss of moral legitimacy by the leadership in 1989.

The essay was ''the'' genre of the modernizing society of the early 20th century. Many writers had to define and often redefine their position and self-understanding in reaction to war and warlordism and later in the modernizing society, often burying their own ideals, in the larger perspective for the seeming "needs" of society, which also claimed the author to be one of its products.
==Meng Ying 孟莹==
But from its very nature, the essay set new boundaries in form and content, and therefore not only survived the ideological restrictions, but also established its own critical subculture within. The essay was not only a medium of discussion and a documentation of the social-political background for us today, but also a documentation of the personal struggle of the writers finding a position in a changing environment, since the essay is "a genre of self-reflection". Some essays even deconstructed master narratives like the one of leftist ideology, often simply by confronting it with subjective experience, reality or art.

I want to mention another position on literature, which stresses the impact of literature on life, especially on the eve of revolutions - following this view, all literature is political (Jameson).
==Mo Ling 莫玲==
Not only the understanding of literature as a whole changes if we take into consideration the essay, also the view of single authors shifts, if we see not only their novels or poems, but also their essays. I mention only Zhou Zuoren. His ideas connected him spiritually to his contemporary collegues in Europe, Japan and America, but these where ideas for which China turned out to be not yet ready. At that time, China had taken a road which led away from progress, wealth, freedom and spiritual enlightenment. The consequences have yet to be overcome.

除开关注作家的小说和诗歌之外，如果我们对他们的散文有所涉猎，就会发现他们不仅对文学整体的理解发生了变化，单个作者的观点也发生了变化。仅就周作人来说，他的思想在精神上把他和他在欧洲、日本和美国的同伴们联系在一起，但是这些设想在中国行不通。当时的中国走的是一条远离进步、财富、自由和精神启蒙的道路，这一现状还并没有得到改变。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:34, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling

==Mo Nan 莫南==
In 1927, Chinese literature has taken the form of 'engaged literature'. The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics of daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology.
==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==
Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consume-orientation of the masses. The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educational claim with the exception of essays which claim to be "art pourt l'art".
==Ou Rong 欧蓉==
The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing ("Shuo meng 說夢" On dreams in: Zhu Ziqing 1928) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 (My own garden 9.1923, "The Fly" 1924, "Reading on the Toilet" 1936), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the new found world of mass consumerism.
==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==
I mentioned the lack of translations in Western languages. One of the reasons might be the impression of some scholars that many of the Chinese essays were just propaganda. This might be true for the 1940s and even the 1950s, but nowadays this has changed, as the overwhelming majority of publications prove. This demands a closer look: Since 1949, politically affirmative literature has been encouraged by the government, resulting in a statistical paradox: not the affirmative authors and their texts form the majority of the essayists read in the 1990s, but the critical essayists, whose texts oppose the order to serve politics through their apolitical, sometimes even defiant character.
==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==
In the 1990s, the texts of 1920s/1930s Republican China are still as often reprinted as their contemporary counterparts. Obviously we can conclude that the politically affirmative essay of the 1950s only survived in special political essay collections and is no longer written by famous contemporary authors nor read by the Chinese audience in the beginning of the 21st century.

Taking into account of a genre shifts the whole perspective on literature, taking into account the essayistic works of an author shifts also the view of the author. I will name only one author as an example for a modern essayist: Zhou Zuoren.

20世纪90年代，20、30年代民国时期的文本和当代的文本一样也经常被重印。显然，我们可得出一个结论：20世纪50年代的那些政治宣传文只能留存在特殊的政治文章选集当中，到了21世纪初，就不再有作者去写这类文章，也不会有中国读者去看这类文章了。

考虑到整个体裁对整个文学角度的转变，以及散文作品反映出的作者观点的变化，我只举一位现代散文家的例子：周作人。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 07:47, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

20世纪90年代，20-30年代民国时期的文章仍然和当代的同类文章一样经常被重印。显然，我们可以得出一个结论：20世纪50年代的政治宣传类散文只保存在专门的政治散文集中，到21世纪初，不再有人去写，也不再有人读这类文章了。

一种文学体裁会转变整个文学的视角，一位作家的散文作品，同样也会转变对这个作家的看法。我只以一位现代散文家为例：周作人。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 09:02, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Peng Dan 彭丹==
'''Zhou Zuoren'''

I mentioned already his theoretical contribution to the Chinese essayism, but still, his essays have been neglected until the 1980s. The reason does not lie in literary quality, but in political valuing. The master narrative of the offical literary history of the People's Republic on Zhou Zuoren is, that the theoretical May Fourth genius "degenerated" and later became a "traitor". Publishing in the Japanese sponsored magazines ''Reminiscences'',* and ''Chinese Literature'', he was blamed together with Zhu Pu and Yuan Xi of collaboration. An unanswered question is, why another author, who published there, Zhang Ailing, was never reproached with collaboratorship. The difference between all of them is that Zhang Ailing tried to avoid political committments, whereas Zhou felt guilty, Zhu justified it and Yuan simply accepted it.
==Peng Juan 彭娟==
''The 'mainstream' writers took an affirmative approach in their writing, whereas the other writers formed a minority. The individual authors did not necessarily belong to either one of these groups throughout their life, but may have moved between them. Since the essay is a medium which enables the individual to express thoughts directly, the writers chosen for this paper can be classified according to their position.''

''Yu Guangzhong's essay'' "The wolves are coming" ''shows that the ideological perspective did not only harm mainland essaywriting.''
==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==
In his small literary pieces, Zhou tried to aesthetizise the little things of the everyday life out of the subjective experience of his private space. The major contribution of Zhou Zuoren is, that he set the turning point in Chinese essay writing with his call for writing short literary pieces (''Meiwen'' 1921).

In foreign literature there is the so-called ''lunwen'' 論文 (treatise), which is roughly divided into two groups: the reflecting ones, piping 批評 (critical), are scientific articles. The others are ''jishu'' 記述 (descriptive) and ''yishuxing'' 藝術性 (artistic), they are also called ''meiwen'' 美文 (aesthetic essay). Within these texts, one can distinguish between ''xushi'' 敘事 (narrative) and ''shuqing'' 抒情 (lyric). But there are also mixed texts. [...] I hope that the aesthetical essay is encouraged to come back, and will open up a new field for the New Literature. Wouldn’t that be wonderful?
==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==
With these words from the essay "''The aesthetic essay''" this new vernacular form was defined. This starting point founded a whole new tradition of essay writing in China. Contemporary writers called this piece the "king of essays".

In order to bring this new form to his compatriots, he tried to find similiarities with the ''xiaopinwen'' of the Ming dynasty. He further discussed these thoughts in his essay theory. In his own essays, he profited a lot from ancient ''suibi''. Later he further developed his literary theory towards an up and down of two trends. In the modernizing society, he advocated the liberation of women and asked to "treat children as full subjects with their own external and internal lives" and to "make children the essence of children's literature" (Zhou 1923). He promoted the ''baguwen'' and the independance of literature from politics and effected the literary scene and the development towards a modern Chinese society especially between 1917 and 1938.

“美学散文”中的这些词语定义了这种新的白话形式。这个起点在中国建立了一种新的散文写作传统。当代作家称此作品为“散文之王”。

为了将这种新形式带给他的同胞，他试图找到其与明朝“小品文”的相似之处。他在散文理论中进一步讨论了这些思想。他自己的散文也从古代的“随笔”中受益匪浅。后来，他将文学理论朝着上下两种趋势进一步发展。在现代化社会中，他呼吁解放妇女、“将儿童看作具有外在和内在生命的完整主体”以及“让儿童成为儿童文学的本质”（Zhou 1923）。他提倡“八股文”和文学脱离政治的独立性，这对文学界产生了影响，并推动了中国向近代社会尤其是1917年至1938年的发展。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 09:48, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==
With this theoretical foundation and his own vo'luÉminous essayistic work, Zhou Zuoren through the example of his own form of short literary pieces within this genre, fought at that stage of the development of his literary theory like Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque 130 years ago in France for the idea "l'art pour l'art" , for individuality and independance of the writer, for disinterested literature. The jugdment, that Zhou was an apolitical author cannot be proved with his essays. Instead, he wanted his abstinence of political statement to be understood as a political statement by itself. For him, literature was a mean not for revolution, but for resistance (Zhou 1929:180-181).
==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==
In fact he saw himself as ‘patriotic underground fighter’ and looked at the collaboration with the Japanese puppet regime as a forced one, following his attempted assasination, through which his driver had lost his life. His own concept of essay writing served less the needs of the building of a nation-state and comes closer to the ideal of the individual.

"I don't really know why, but I am feeling as if I am born into a dark age. I admit, that our forests are not inhabited by dragons, tigers and wolves, but shapeless "monsters" and "goblins" are still creeping around and try to swallow our souls. [...] What alarms me most, is the absence of freedom in this prison, into which we writers have been thrown."
==Qi Kai 漆凯==
Confronting tradition and progress in the essay "''Ancestor Worship''", he is in favor of the latter, since past could only become present through changes (Zhou 1919:7-8).

Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque (1767 - 1830) war französischer Romanschriftsteller und liberaler Politiker, der neben der Freiheit der Kunst nach der Französischen Revolution die Einführung der konstitutionellen Monarchie nach englischem Vorbild forderte.

==Qu Miao 瞿淼==
Siehe ''Journal'' (10.2.1804). Die "Kunst um der Kunst willen" propagierte die Zweckfreiheit der Kunst. Im Gegensatz dazu versteht sich die engagierte Literatur. Die Parallele zwischen Zhou Zuorens Literaturverständnis und dem Konzept "Kunst um der Kunst willen" zieht auch Wolff: ''Chou Tso-jen'' 1971, S. 84.

Siehe Zhou Zuoren: ''Der Ursprung der neuen chinesischen Literatur'' 1934, S. 95 - 98; vgl. auch Chen Zizhan: ''Vorträge zur chinesischen Literaturgeschichte'' 1937, Bd 3, pp. 416 - 422, besonders S. 422. Hinweis in: H. Martin: "''Liang Qichao on Poetry Reform''" 1996, Bd 1, S. 213.
==Quan Meixin 全美欣==
Regarding Zhou Zuoren, I want to correct the official assessment of the People’s Republic, that his work would have experienced a caesura in 1938. In order to explain his opposition of the propaganda to build up national heroes about 1937 and his collaboration from 1939, it has been said officially, that his thoughts had "duoluo 墮落" (degenerated) at that time (Zhu Jinshun 1990:59). In fact, this caesura, namely the change in the style and subject in his essays on literature, art etc. to ''zhengjing'' 正經 (serious, intentional essays), and ''xianshi'' 閑適 (essays for one’s own enjoyment) is located not before his outlawing through Mao Zedong (1942), and his arrest through the Guomindang (1945).
==Sagara Seydou ==
Therefore not the Japanese suppressors are responsible for the retreat of this great writer, but his Chinese compatriots'.

On the basis of the stigma of the 'traitor', he has been undervalued until now. That his work in the 1990s is almost as often published as Lu Xun's and Zhu Ziqing's shows that his texts finally experience a more positive literaric evaluation through the audience, which now must be registered also by scholars.

==Shi Diwen 石迪文==
Another example of a misread Zhou Zuoren is his short essay on "''The Fly''", where he describes his changing attitude towards flies, which he had played with as child but later disgusted when he learned about their danger of passing on diseases. ”''The fly''” shows Zhou Zuoren’s strength to describe details and make them a real topic by recalling memories on them or describing a change of perspective on them. Zhou summarized the philosophical wisdom he learnt from this, that people did not judge on things objectively, but were likely to praise or damn things.
==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==
The official reading re¬proaches Zhou that he "saw only the fly and not the cosmos" , a quotation of the young Zhou about a position he himself clearly opposed.

His ability to chat about the more pleasent things in life is displayed in his essay ”Birds’ twitter”. In ”''Peking cakes and sweet-meat''” and in ”''Wild vegetable of my home region''”, Zhou Zuoren shows his ability to make the reader feel at home at a region, where he feels at home himself, by describing the customs and special regional food.

Siehe Zhou Zuoren: "Cangying 蒼蠅" (Die Stubenfliege), in: ''Chenbao fujuan'' 晨报副镌 (Beilage zur Morgenpost) (1924.7.13). Eine Zu¬sammenfassung des Inhalts findet sich in: Yu Daxiang (Hg.): ''Auswahllexikon chinesischer Essays mit Inhaltsangaben und Analysen'' 1993.

''Siehe Vollständige chinesische Anthologie der Wissenschaften - Bd Chinesische Literatur'' 1988, Bd 2, S. 1300. Dies spielt auf den Essay "''Cangying'' 蒼蠅" (Die Stubenfliege), in: Zhou Zuoren: ''Zhi Tang. Sammlung'' 1933 an.（文献无需翻译）

==Si Yu 司妤==
His piece ”''Bitter rain''” shows the atmosphere, for what his essays had been labelled ”bitter tea”: There remains a taste in one’s mouth after reading. If you compare Lu Xun’s ”''On tea drinking''” (Yang/Yang 1961 3:325-326) with Zhou Zuoren’s essay with the same title, you see the difference of ”short and to the point” and ”eloquent and well-read”. ”''First love''” is more hilarious. The essay ”''Three different ways to die''” shows that Zhou Zuoren can compete with his elder brother in sarcasm. Lu Xun's essay on the same subject, the massacre on March 18, 1926, was a sight.
==Song Jianru 宋建茹==
Zhou asks for the ”best” way to die and favors the short and painless one. In ”''On alcohol''” and ”''The awning bunk boat''” Zhou Zuoren continues the tradition of late Ming ''biji''.

'''7. The essay as a snapshot of contemporary thoughts'''

''What is the state of contemporary essay writing in China? Its position should be brought into its proper relationship to recent approaches, perspectives and terms of categorization, like post-modernist elements, post-colonial thinking, deconstructivism etc.''

==Su Lin 苏琳==
The increase of the essay production after the ‘Cultural Revolution’ might be explained with the ability of the essay, to express personal experiences much more authentically than other genres because of its immanent claim of historical truth. But the essay is not a guarantee for objective truth: In the same time it is subjective, the essayist mediates his image consciously. This restricts the reported truth to a subjective one and bears the risk of a consciously “corrected” truth.
==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==
The individualism of the Republican era has been based on the common feeling to stand at a historical turning point and directed towards common targets like the creation of a New Literature and a new Chinese society. In the 1980s and especially in the 1990s, individualism asks for a critical reflection on the satisfaction of personal consumption needs and tries to give personal orientation, essayists plead for moral virtues (Wang Meng: "''Anxiang'' 安详" (Serene) 1992, "''Zuohao ni ziji de shi'' 做好你自己的事" (First make your own things in a good way) 1994).
==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==
These essays, mainly published in newspapers and magazines, are widely read by people in the rapidly changing, anonymous, alienating and consume-oriented mass cultural society.

Other essays in the 1980s and 1990s are in a kind of new subjectivism targeted away from contemporary contradictions but apply to the feelings of the audience by creating an either positive ("''Shanxi opera''", Jia Pingwa 1984) or negative world ("''The nightmare''", Si Yu 1995).

From the essay, we can see contemporary trends of literature, which are also reasons for the increase in volume of this genre in the 1990s:
这些散文主要发表在报刊和杂志上，在瞬息万变、匿名、疏离和消费导向的大众文化社会中广为人们阅读。
20世纪80年代和90年代的其他散文虽是一种新的主观主义，其目标是摆脱当代的矛盾，但是通过创造一个积极的世界（“秦腔”，贾平凹，1984)或消极的世界(“噩梦”，思羽，1995)来迎合观众。
从这篇文章中，我们可以看到当代文学的趋势，这也是20世纪90年代这种文学体裁增加的原因:--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 12:30, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==
- The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts: “[...] we live in an age of exposition” (Hall 1984:xiii);

- The increasing consciousness of indivi¬duality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjecti¬ve expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands;

- A revival of interest in discussing social-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.

- The banality of everyday life becomes conscious through becoming a literary topic, most commonly in the genre of everyday life, the essay.

- 当下中国社会的浮躁节奏，对转折性和短文的要求。"[...]我们生活在一个论述的时代"(Hall 1984:xiii)。

- 越发增加的独立意识，对其而言，文章是最直接的主体表达形式，甚至比诗的格律和形式要求更直接。

- 通过散文这一媒介讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复苏，就像20世纪20/30年代的情况一样。

- 日常生活的平庸性通过成为文学话题而变得自觉，最常见的是日常生活的文体--散文。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

-当前中国社会节奏轻快，要求有趣味的短文：“[…]我们生活在一个博览会时代”（大厅1984:xiii）；

-对于个人二元性意识的增强，散文是主体性表达的最直接形式，甚至比诗歌的韵律和形式要求更直接；

-通过这篇文章讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复复苏，如同20世纪20年代或30年代的情况一样。

-日常生活的平庸通过成为一个文学主题而变得有意识，最常见的是日常生活的体裁——散文。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 12:59, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Tang Bei 汤蓓==
- The De-ideologization of Chinese society. Today not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. The mostly read political essays after 1949 are critical essays.

- Regarding the compiling of essay collections: For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain.
==Tang Ming 唐铭==
This is a sign of the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publis¬hing houses with an orientation toward customers (former: "readers").

- The criteria for essay best sellers in the P.R. of China are the following: In the most often printed essay "''The Back View''", filial piety is the driving factor, parallelistic and repetitive structures in the atmospherical nebulous "''The Moonlit Lotus Pond''", both written by Zhu Ziqing, whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader.
==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==
Nostalgic home feelings are the emotional identification element in "''Wild vegetables of my home region''" by Wang Zengqi. Therefore one can state, that moving es¬says form the top.

- ''In the latter half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of in¬dividuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife. Time loses worth, since more and more of the daily acctivities are filled with mechanical and autistic actions.''

==Tao Ye 陶冶==
''In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only political replique is the patriotism, for example expressed in the 1996 published monograph'' China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war (''No''! 1996).

- ''The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable object d'art.''
==Wang Meiling 王美玲==
''Also trends like the use of ordinary language, which one finds in novels since 1993 (Jia Pingwa, Feidu; Gu Cheng, Yingger) and'' New Borderlessness ''since'' 1995, ''cannot be pro-ven in the essaywriting. ''

- Also the fictional realism David Der-Wei Wang sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proves helpful for the understanding of some essays, one being "''The Small Dog Baodi''", written by Ba Jin 1981, in which the author turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in allegoric instead of in descriptive truth as before ("''In memoriam of Xiao Shan II''", Ba Jin 1984).
==Wang Xuan 王轩==
Similar is the concept of imaginery nostalgia, as Wang calls the fictional truth in Shen Congwen's work (David Der-Wei Wang 1992), helpful for the reading of Wang Zengqi's "''Rain in Kunming''" as well as for Jia Pingwa's "''Shanxi opera''".
类似的还有想象怀旧的概念，正如王功权所说的沈从文作品中虚构的真实（王大卫·德维王1992），有助于解读汪曾祺的《昆明雨》，也有助于贾平凹的《山西剧》。

- The Schwarcz' concept of ''personal grief'' expressed in a ''metaphorical discourse'' helps us to understand how Ba Jin was able to overcome the ''truth of being'' he was known for, only to reach a more convincing fictional truth through the metaphor of his dog Baodi.
施瓦茨在“隐喻话语”中所表达的“个人悲伤”概念，有助于我们理解巴金是如何克服他以“存在的真理”而闻名的，却通过他的狗“宝坻”的隐喻而获得更具说服力的虚构真相。

Xin zhuangtai xiaoshuo 新狀態小說 new borderless fiction, represented by Chen Dong 韓東, Lu Yang 魯羊, Zhu Wen 朱文, Lin Bai 林白, Chen Liang 陳梁, Zhang Mei 張梅.（文献无需翻译）

''Post-colonialist thinking (Williams et al. 1994), which is to be seen as part of the social-political discourse, appears in essays, especially in the less critical political, but patriotic essays of the 1990s. Kafkaism helps us understand the essay "The nightmare", where Si Yu appears as a de-constructionist, the I-narrator even is drawn near to suicide.''（文献无需翻译）

And maybe for Xie Bingxins* reflections on her experience as one of the chosen voluntaries of the Wuhan military academy: She insisted to remain a lifelong "woman soldier" .（文献无需翻译）

==Wang Yu 王煜==
'''8. Discussion: Is the genre of the essay the form of literary expression in 21st century China?'''

Regarding the future of the Chinese literature, we can only speculate. But out the risk of being wild and provocative, I would like to suggest some questions for considering the place of the essay in the field of Chinese literature and literary studies.

- People have less time for actions like reading, and get used to reduced visualized information through the Internet. Will the brevity of the essay make it the ideal medium?

==Wang Yuan 王源==
- If the Chinese people are rediscovering their individuality, will the essay allow them to express individual thoughts more directly?

- Modern societies are characterized by TV culture, mass consumption, and the loss of consciousness of one's own tradition, often partly due to the American impact on national cultures. Is the essay less bound to the restrictions of tradition, especially compared to the poem and thus more adaptable to the modern phenomenon of mass consumption?

==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==
- The alienation and the anonymity of citylife worldwide, in China is combined with a loss of traditional values like ideology, family, solidarity etc. in favor of the concept of profit for oneself, - if this has produced a longing for new orientation, will it possibly be filled by morally guiding essays or nationalistic thinking?

- 在中国，世界范围内城市生活的异化和互相不认识的现象与传统价值观如意识形态、家庭、团圆等的丧失结合在一起，有利于为自己谋利的观念，如果这已经产生了对新方向的渴望，这个领域能否被道德指导性文章或民族主义思想所填补呢？--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 11:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

《红楼梦》与其他世界文学作品的相似性——推荐《红楼梦》列入世界记忆遗产名录

'''Commonness between the Red Chamber Dreams and other World Literature Novels – Proposing the Red Chamber Dreams to the World Documentary Heritage List'''（修改）

吴漠汀，湖南师范大学 Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University

Source: Lecture at Harvard University, Cambridge, MA USA, 14.3.2000（文献无需翻译）

==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==
'''Abstract'''

In every culture, readers associate the literature they know with new literature they read. So literature is always cumulative, it grows out of existing literature and can refer back to it. When Western readers read the Red Chamber Dreams, they foremost associate novels and other pieces of literature of their own cultural tradition with the Dreams. This has also influenced the first full translation into German.

Cao Xueqin and even more his protagonist Jia Baoyu both are early humanists, universalists and world citizens. ''The Red Chamber Dreams'' function worldwide.

摘要

在每一种文化中，读者都会把他们读到的新文学与已知文学联系起来，所以文学总是积累的，它从现有的文学中生长出来，并以已有文学为参考。西方读者在阅读《红楼梦》时，首先会把《红楼梦》与自身文化传统中的小说和其他文学作品联系起来，这也影响了首次德语全译本。

曹雪芹，尤其是他的主人公贾宝玉，都是早期的人文主义者，普世主义者和世界公民。《红楼梦》具有普世价值。（修改）

在每一种文化中，读者都会把他们读到的新文学与已知文学联系起来，所以文学总是积累的，它从现有的文学中衍生出来，并以已有文学为参考。西方读者在阅读《红楼梦》时，首先会把《红楼梦》与自身文化传统中的小说和其他文学作品联系起来，这也影响了首次德语全译本。

曹雪芹，甚至于他的主人公贾宝玉，都是早期的人文主义者，普世主义者和世界公民。《红楼梦》具有普世价值。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:09, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==
''The Dream'' is a complex showroom of diverse aspects of Chinese cultures and is the embodiment and essence of Chinese cultures, but it has also a global impact, therefore it should be honoured as “World Documentary Heritage”.

红楼梦》综合展示了中国的多元文化，是中国文化的集中体现和精华，同时在全球范围内产生影响，理应列入世界记忆遗产名录。（修改）

多元一体

'''Key words'''

Western culture, reception tradition, German translation, Embodiment of Chinese cultures, global compatibility, World Documentary Heritage

“红楼梦”是一个多元的中国文化综合体，是中国文化的体现和精髓，但它也具有全球影响力，因此应该被授予“世界文献遗产”的荣誉。（修改<nowiki>Insert non-formatted text here</nowiki>）

多元一体

'''Key words'''

Western culture, reception tradition, German translation, Embodiment of Chinese cultures, global compatibility, World Documentary Heritage
--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 10:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

《红楼梦》是一个中国文化综合体，展示着中国文化的精髓的同时也极具全球影响力，理应被列入世界记忆遗产名录。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:00, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==
'''1. Chinese Ethics'''

To help the poor and disadvantaged belongs to the traditional core values of Chinese culture.

When we sit in the Beijing Subway today, the loudspeaker announcement reminds us, that it is Chinese traditional ethics to give seats to the disadvantaged (老弱病残孕让座是中国传统道德). We know of Cao Xueqin, that he supported the poor and disadvantaged, and that he made kites for children.

However, when we look closer at these “Chinese Ethics”, we discover, that they are claimed also in Indian Buddhism “karuna” and in the Christian tradition of “caritas” and in almost every civilization. Therefore, we might call these values “human ethics”.

==Wu Kai 吴恺==
'''2. Compatibility
'''
Why do the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' function worldwide and have achieved world literature status even in their translations?

First of all, the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' are, like novels worldwide, a piece of entertainment literature. In comparison to the drama, in which every element is compulsory and plays its part in the overall structure, in the novel the line of action itself is simpler and not so important, most of the scenes or episodes are loosely put together and fit in the broader theme of the novel.
==Wu Qi 吴琪==
However, the lose arrangement of episodes of the ''Dreams'' comes from the tradition of almost unconnected episodes like in the ''Shuihuzhuan'' and is a step towards the greater coherence of the episodes, the aligning into a story line and the greater concentration on fewer protagonists. Therefore, the ''Dreams'' show clearly a step towards the Western tradition of novels, maybe because of growing Western influence in Qing dynasty.

'''3. Impact of translator’s native culture on the translation process'''

There are intercultural parallels between the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' and Western works of literature.

然而，《红楼梦》章回结构不连续来自于《水浒传》中几乎没有联系的章回的传统，这是朝着章回更连贯、与故事线一致以及更集中于较少主角的方向迈出的一步。因此，《红楼梦》明显向西方小说传统迈进了一步，可能是因为西方对清代的影响越来越大。

'''3.译者的本土文化对翻译过程的影响'''

《红楼梦》和西方文学作品之间有跨文化的相似之处。
--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 11:54, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wu Qiong 吴琼==
These parallels are fundamental for the translation and were explicitly and implicitly fundamental for the German translator Martin Woesler during his translation and editorial work on the first full German translation. In the following, I will mention some of the Western novels and pieces of literature, which the Western reader of the ''Dreams'' will immediately think of.

'''4. The novel as embodiment of “Zeitgeist”'''

According to Georg Lukács’ ''Theory of the Novel'', while the Epos (like Homer’s ''Ilias'', which like the ''Dream'' reasons the stories in the divine realm) displayed a holistic world experience, a complete, self-contained culture, the novel displays, that the modern world has become infinitely large and has lost its homely quality.
==Wu Xiang 邬香==
The novel as a genre is no longer documenting just one culture, but represents, with the words of Walter Benjamin, the Organon of History. So the understanding of the novel changed with Lukacs to historical-philosophically. A novel is understood as typical for its historical era, the novel embodies the spirit of the epoch (Zeitgeist).

The ''Red Chamber Dreams'' are written in front of the background of the Manchu minority having taken over the power in formerly Han-shaped Ming-China (which was a multi-ethnic and crosscultural society) and families suffering the changing favor of changing emperors, with the Cao family being fostered by Kangxi and being persecuted by Yongzheng.
==Wu Yilu 吴一露==
While the author in his time could not criticize the system and power of emperors, in the novel he came to terms with this life by seeking the guilt for the persecution in the growing decadence of the family (engaging in Daoism, leisure, poetry-writing, arts and music instead of learning for being able to earn a living) and in himself not fulfilling the expectations as the family heir. This description of decadence of a declining family reminds us of the novels of Tschechov (and e.g. in the ''Buddenbrooks'' by Mann, including the turn to arts and music).

虽然作者在他的时代无法批判皇帝的制度和权力，但在小说中，他通过家族的日益衰败（修行道教、休闲、写诗、艺术和音乐，而不是为了能够谋生而学习）和自己没有实现作为家族继承人的期望中寻找受迫害的罪责，来接受这种生活。这种对没落家庭颓废的描述，让我们想起了契诃夫的小说（如曼恩的《布登布鲁克》，包括对艺术和音乐的转向）。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 12:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==
Moreover, with the detailed description of life on all social levels in early Qing Dynasty, the Dream appears as a documentary historical novel very much like Günter Grass’ The Tin Drum 1959.

'''5. Coming-of-age and Alienation'''

Abandoning the paradise-like garden in the Red Chamber Dreams is a symbol for leaving the protected childhood and arriving in the complex world of adults. With George Lukács theory of the novel, the protagonist starts to problematize the sense of his life, in the novel, the protagonist’s self permanently struggles with his environment.
==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==
However, Cao Xueqin’s message is not simply the one of “Paradise Lost”, instead he himself made the best out of his life. Although being less wealthy than when his family still enjoyed the favour of the emperor, there was a payroll system and a social net intact in Early Qing China, where he received enough income to be independent from his rich relatives, to be selective on accepting jobs, to live a relaxed life in a small house in the nature, spending time with his family and friends, follow his own interests, like reading, writing and drinking wine, making kites for the children and thinking of the disadvantaged.

然而，曹雪芹的信息不仅是“失乐园”的信息，而是他本人的一生。尽管不如他的家人仍然享有皇帝的宠爱时富裕，但清初中国有一个工资体系和一个完整的社会网络，在那里他获得了足够的收入以独立于自己的富裕亲戚，可以有选择性地接受工作在大自然的小房子里过着轻松的生活，与家人和朋友共度时光，遵循自己的兴趣，例如读书，写作和喝酒，为孩子们放风筝和思考处境不利的人。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:38, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

然而，曹雪芹所传达的信息并不是简单的“失乐园”，相反，他把自己的生活过得很好。虽然比起他的家族享受皇帝的宠爱，他过得没有那么富裕，但清初中国有一套薪俸制度和一张完整的社会网，他获得了足够的收入，可以独立于富贵亲戚，可以有选择性地接受工作，可以在大自然的小房子里过着悠闲的生活，可以与家人和朋友共度时光，可以追随自己的兴趣，例如读书，写作和饮酒，可以为孩子们做风筝，可以为弱势群体着想。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 11:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xiao Ting 肖婷==
Cao Xueqin was fully aware of his time and China’s cultural achievements, he was familiar with the different levels of society, he was a detailed observer and skilful narrator. He may have conceptualized the ending of the novel as a discussion about the different personalities of the characters in the novel and therefore displaying his reflection about life and his psychological understanding of the diversity of human nature. He was able to grasp the “spirit of time” (Zeitgeist) and with his autobiographical experience create an eternal coming-of-age novel not just for his family, for the Qing-Chinese, for Chinese people, but for mankind.

曹雪芹对自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就有充分的认识，他熟悉社会的方方面面，他观察细致，叙事娴熟。他能把小说的结尾构思为对小说中人物不同性格的探讨，从而体现出他对人生的思考和对人性多样性的理解。他能够把握 "时间精神"(Zeitgeist)，并以他的亲身经历为材料创造了一部成熟的绝世之作，这不仅是为他的家庭、为清人、为中国人，更是为全人类。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 11:29, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

曹雪芹充分了解自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就，熟悉社会的不同层次，是一个细致的观察者和娴熟的叙述者。他可能将小说的结局概念化为对小说中人物不同性格的讨论，从而表现出他对生活的反思和对人性多样性的心理理解。他能够把握“时代精神”(时代精神)，并以他的自传体经历，为他的家庭，为清朝人，为中国人，为人类创造了一部永恒的成长小说。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 12:01, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

曹雪芹对自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就了如指掌，他熟悉社会的不同层面，他是一个细致的观察者和娴熟的叙述者。因此，他在小说中对人的不同个性的理解和对小说中人物性格的多样性进行了概念化的探讨。他能够把握“时代精神”，用他的自传体经历，不仅为他的家庭，为清朝的中国人，为中国人民，而且为人类，创作了一部永恒的成人小说。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:43, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

==Xiao Xi 肖茜==
This tradition of Coming-of-age novels is also a European one, like enlightenment philosopher Voltaire’s novel ''Candide or Optimism''《老实人》shows at the very same time (1759) in Europe. Also Voltaire’s Candide has to leave the luxurious paradise of his childhood and strives for true love, but his main learning is more pessimistic, since Voltaire wrote the novel in opposition to Leibniz, who optimistically looked to China as “the best of all worlds”. Recent research findings show that China had a much larger influence on European enlightenment philosophers and we can be sure, that also Cao Xueqin was aware of some European literary traditions.
==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==
Also the German readership is familiar with the chronological following of the life of the protagonist and his development, the fate of a family over generations, the German readership knows this type of novel as the “Education novel” or “Coming-of-age-novel”. In Germany, the genre of the coming-of-age novel has a long tradition and it is shaped more by single characters, who appear as teachers (Goethe: ''Wilhelm Meister’s Apprenticeship''威廉·麦斯特的学徒岁月 1795-96, Novalis 诺瓦利斯: ''Heinrich von Ofterdingen''《海因利·封·歐福特丁根》1802).
==Xie Fan 解帆==
Wilhelm Meister, parallely to Jia Baoyu, is struggling with the traditional education, in ''Wilhelm Meister'' this is represented with the classics revived in Shakespeare’s dramas. Tradition can give orientation, but the personality of the protagonist needs to develop through emancipation is a wisdom, we can learn from all mentioned novels including the ''Dreams''.

'''6. Pornography and True Love, female rivals'''

Sexuality is a basic human need and has developed into different shapes in all cultures. The German audience is familiar with erotic topics from the Middle Ages, in which sexuality was stylized. In the “Schwänke” of the 15th century (Wittenwielers Ring), erotic scenes are described sexually explicit.

与贾宝玉一样，威廉·迈斯特也在与传统教育作斗争，这通过莎士比亚的经典戏剧得以体现。传统可以作为方向标，但主人公的个性需要通过解放才能发展，这是一种智慧，我们可以以上提过包括《梦》的所有小说中学习。
“6.色情与真爱，女性对手"
性是人类的一种基本需求，在不同文化中展现出不同的形态。德国观众熟悉中世纪的情色话题，在这些话题中，性是有固定程式的。在15世纪的“Schwanke”(Wittenwielers Ring)中，情色场景被描述为露骨的性。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:37, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

与贾宝玉一样，威廉·迈斯特也在与传统教育作斗争，在《威廉·迈斯特》中，莎士比亚戏剧中复兴的经典作品代表了这一点。传统可以给予导向，但主人公的个性需要通过解放来发展是一种智慧，我们可以从包括《梦》在内的所有小说中学习。
“6。色情与真爱，女性对手"
性是人类的一种基本需求，在各种文化中形成了不同的形态。德国观众熟悉中世纪的情色话题，在这些话题中，性是程式化的。在15世纪的“Schwanke”(Wittenwielers Ring)中，情色场景被描述为露骨的性。--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 01:37, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==
In the barock literature of the 17th century even the physical act is described extensively.

According to „cumulativity“, every human being is a product of history and literature is based on previous literature, therefore the author of this pager thinks that this background has to be taken into account while translating.

The best study on ''qing'' passion in the Dreams is the one by Anthony Yu, who understood it as ''desire'' and as the central motif of the ''Dreams''. „The centrality of qing in shaping virtually every aspect of The Story of the Stone’s structure and meaning cannot be denied [...].“ (Anthony Yu 2001, 54).

==Xu Jia 徐佳==
In the framework story of the Dreams, the narrator consciously takes a stand against low-action and stereotypical pornographic literature as well as against the widespread romance novels (with the classic roles of the beautiful, talented woman and the poor scholar who finally achieves a respected position and prosperity by passing a civil service exam).

In chapter 1 he says: ”of the true feelings of young people [...] nobody has reported about so far.”

Erotic scenes are described in a decent and associative way (“Game of clouds and rain”), while displaying another quality in its openness e.g. towards bisexuality.

在《梦》的框架故事中，叙述者有意识地站在了反对低级动作和刻板色情文学的立场上，也站在了反对普遍存在的言情小说的立场上（以美丽的才女和通过公务员考试最终获得地位和财富的穷书生为经典角色）。

在第一章中，他说："年轻人的真情实感......至今无人报道"。

"情色场面以体面和联想的方式描述（"云和雨的游戏"），同时表现出另一种开放性，例如对双性恋的开放。--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 12:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia

==Xu Jing 许晶==
The ''Dreams'' narrate the story of unfortunate lovers. Unfortunate lovers also in the West have a literary tradition, they constitute an archetype, such as Hero and Leander, Pyramus and Thisbe, Tristan and Isolde, Flore and Blanscheflur as well as Troilus and Cressida, the latter being considered the model for Arthur Brookes, who wrote Romeo and Juliet in 1562 and thus directly influenced Shakespeare.

While Marián Galik saw as the central topic of both, the ''Dream'' and ''Faust'', the eternal feminine, which draws us on high, Gu Cheng called it the “eternal virgine”.

==Xu Jing 许静==
In Goethe’s coming-of-age novel ''Wilhelm Meisters Wanderjahre'', we find a similar motif of female rivals, in the Keller 凯勒 ''The Green Henry'' 《绿衣亨利》1855, the hero turns away from an emphatically sexually designed figure and turns to the 'real' woman. In Jane Austen’s ''Pride and Prejudice'' 1813 Elizabeth and Lin Daiyu are similar, e.g. they both strive for real love (Zhuang 2011).
==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==
'''7. Feudal society and slavery'''

A widespread interpretation is that Jia Baoyu’s equal treatment of family members and slaves would be a manifesto to free the slaves. I also do not share this interpretation, since Aristotle, when he demanded democracy, would exclude slaves from the right to vote. So we cannot use modern concepts to judge on the past. In my understanding, Jia Baoyu was not fighting inequality, but looked at the people as humans and individuals.

封建社会和奴隶
一种普遍的解释是，贾宝玉对家庭成员和奴隶一视同仁，这将成为奴隶解放的宣言。我并不同意这个解释，因为亚里士多德的民主就排除了奴隶的投票权。所以，我们并不能用现代观念去评判过去。在我看来，贾宝玉并不是和不平等作斗争，而是把人视作群体和个人。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 09:55, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie

一种普遍的解释是，贾宝玉对家庭成员和奴隶的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我也不同意这种解释，因为亚里士多德，当他要求民主的时候，会排除奴隶的投票权。所以我们不能用现代的概念来判断过去。在我的理解中，贾宝玉并不是在与不平等作斗争，而是把人看成是群体和个人。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 10:31, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

许多人认为，贾宝玉对家庭成员和仆人的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我也不同意这种看法。因为当亚里士多德要求民主时，奴隶并没有投票权。所以我们不能用现代的概念来判断过去发生的事。在我的理解中，贾宝玉并不是在与不平等作斗争，而是把人分为是群体和个人。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 11:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

人们普遍认为贾宝玉对待家庭成员和奴隶的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我不同意这种解释，因为亚里士多德吁民主时，会将奴隶从投票权中剔除。所以我们不能用现代观点评判古人。我认为，贾宝玉并不是在为不平等而做斗争，而是将人区分为人或是个体。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 12:02, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==
Also the understanding of the servants as slaves does not match the description in the Dream, since some servants had servants themselves, the family took care after they left the Jia family to find a match for them and Jia Zheng refers to his daughter Yingchun as „yatou 丫头“, so it is inappropriate to translate this expression with slave. Therefore, the translator preferred “servant” over “slave” in the translation.

另外，把仆人理解为奴隶也与《红楼梦》中所描述的不符，因为有些仆人自己也有仆人，他们离开贾家后，家人会照顾他们，为他们婚配，并且贾正把女儿迎春称为“丫头”，所以用奴隶来翻译这个词是不合适的。因此，译者在翻译中更倾向于“仆人”而不是“奴隶”。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 09:14, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

而且把仆人理解为奴隶与《红楼梦》中的描写不符，因为有些仆人自己还有仆人，贾府会在她们离府的时候为她们寻一门亲事，作为贾府对她们的照料；贾政也把自己的女儿迎春喊作 “丫头”，所以把这些翻译成奴隶是不合适的。因此英文翻译中采用“servant”会比“slave”更为合适。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 10:08, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie

==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==
Mo Yan in his speech at the Frankfurt Bookfair in 2009, when China was the guest of honor, draws the (similarly) parallel between the ''Dream'' and Goethe’s ''Sorrows of the Young Werther'', that both expressed the wish to abandon feudal society. My own impression is that both do not express this wish, but that this is a later concept and interpretation and we should not apply this to judge the past.

2009年，莫言代表中国作为主宾国参加法兰克福书展时，他在演讲中把《梦》和歌德的《少年维特之哀》画上了约等号，表达了抛弃封建社会的愿望。我自己的印象是，两者都没有表达这个愿望，但这是后来的概念和解释，而我们不应该以此来判断过去。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:36, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting

2009年，莫言代表中国作为主宾国参加法兰克福书展时，在演讲中把《梦》和歌德的《少年维特之哀》画上了约等号，表达了抛弃封建社会的愿望。我自己的感觉是，两者都没有表达这个愿望，但这是后来的概念和解释，我们不应该以此来判断过去。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:43, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Hairong 杨海容==
'''8. Tragedy of all tragedies'''

Aristotle explained in ''On the Tragedy'' (Poetics VI), that tragedies move people more than comedies because they “imitate [mimēsis] an action that is serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude” (Aristotle 1971, 51), This high esteem of the tragedy in Europe is partly ascribed to the loss of Aristotle’s work ''On the Comedy''.

8.所有悲剧的悲剧成分

亚里士多德在《悲剧论》（诗学VI）中解释说，悲剧使人们比喜剧更能吸引人，因为他们“模仿（mimēsis）一种严肃、完整和有程度的行动”（Aristotle 1971，51）。欧洲的悲剧部分归因于亚里斯多德作品《喜剧》的丢失。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 10:16, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Hui 阳慧==
While Europe has the Hamlet as its tragedy of all tragedies, the lack of tragic literature in Chinese literary tradition has long been lamented. Wang Guowei sees the Dream as "tragedy of all tragedies". To Wang Guowei the suffering of Faust and Jia Baoyu is central in the novels. However, many scholars contest that Faustianism is central for Chinese culture.

In 18th century Europe, we saw a new development in the genre of the drama, to establish a “bourgeois tragedy”.

==Yang Yi 杨逸==
It developed as an emancipatory movement in the 18th century in London, Paris and Germany, and demonstrated that tragedy was not reserved to rulers, but was also imagineable for lower noblemen and ordinary citizens. The ''Dream'' at the same time as the bourgeois tragedy in Europe shows a tragic story of a mid-level noble family which loses its titles and privileges.

==Yang Yue 杨悦==

'''9. “Non-Binary” Novels'''

One of the things attracting Western readers is the adorable but mysterious protagonist Jia Baoyu. With his open bisexual orientation and his interest in his mates regardless of their social status, he appears “modern” or at least displaced in time. His struggle with traditional learning makes him appear sympathetic, his long states of rapture out of the world give him both the aura of a timeless character and of mystery.

9. “非二进制小说”

可爱而神秘的主角贾宝玉是吸引西方读者的其中一点。由于他开放的双性恋倾向以及对同伴的兴趣，无论他们的社会地位如何，他彰显“现代”气质或至少不属于那个时代。他与传统学习的斗争使他显得富有同情心，他与世隔绝的漫长状态使他既具有永恒的品格又具有神秘感。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:17, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==
With the bisexual orientation of the Dreams’ protagonist, the novel appears non-binary.
According to Karl-Heinz Pohl, binaries are just superficial, ultimately decisive is the ''Heart Sutra''. Today, the novel is listed among the genre of non-binary literature (see e.g. the bibliographical list on https://www.goodreads.com/list/tag/non-binary), in which contrasts are dissolved deconstructivistically.

==Yao Cheng 姚诚==
'''10. Foreign Cultures in the Red Chamber Dreams'''

Foreign Cultures frequently appear in the Dreams in all kinds of varieties, like exoticism with the many objects in the household and presented to the household as novelties, especially the blond girl of the same age as Baoyu referred to in person (combining different origins and cultures, including European, Japanese, Chinese) or several times on paintings, one time shown with wings as an angel.

==Yao Jia 姚佳==
The playful combination of different traditions we can see also when a religious dress is described, which carries characteristics of different religions. Similarly, the Daoist monk and the Confucian priest appear together. Cao Xueqin wanted to show the richness and diversity, also with the many topics and societal levels of the novel. Even a variety of Christian motifs can be found, like when Jia Baoyu is not recognized by his father in chapter 120 and when he disappears, all parallel to Jesus Christ.

==Yi Huan 易欢==
The variety of cultures is paralleled with the variety of elements of different dynasties, which makes it timeless and therefore even more a masterpiece of Chinese art and a masterpiece of human art. Therefore I would like to nominate the Red Chamber Dreams as “World Documentary Heritage”.

'''References'''（参考文献不用翻译）

Anthony, C. Yu. (2001). ''Rereading the Stone: Desire and the Making of Fiction in Dream of the Red Chamber''. Princeton University Press.

Aristotle. (1971). ''Poetics''. Trans. S. H. Butcher. Ed. Hazard Adams. Critical Theory since Plato. ew York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 48-66.

Woesler, Martin, ed., Cao Xueqin, Gao E et al. (2016). ''Der Traum der Roten Kammer oder Die Geschichte vom Stein'' [''Red Chamber Dreams or The Story of the Stone''], Peking: Foreign Languages Press, ISBN 9787119094120, 4813 pages, 6 vols., hardcover, transl. by Rainer Schwarz and Martin Woesler; Chinese-German bilingual edition

Woesler, Martin. (2011). “Being Explicit About the Implicit – John Minford’s Translation of the last Forty Chapters of The Story of the Stone with a Field Study on two Sexually Arousing Scenes”. ''Hong lou meng xue kan'' 6: 274-289

Woesler, Martin. (2010). “ ’To Amuse the Beaux and Belles’ The Early Western Reception of the Hongloumeng”. ''Journal of Sino-Western Communications'' 2 (2010.12) 2:81-107

Zhuang, Xiuhua. (2011). Self, Ideal and Salvation: A Comparative Study of Jane Austen’s Elizabeth and Cao Xueqin’s Lin Daiyu. ''Journal of Language Teaching and Research'', Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 420-423, March 2011. Fulltext: http://www.academypublication.com/issues/past/jltr/vol02/02/19.pdf.

==Yi Zichu 义子楚==
'''Virtual Communication Between Machines with the Human as Their Object
'''

A new stage of multimodal communication after oral, written, printed, electronic and machine-human communication

Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University

'''Abstract'''

Luhmann and Baecker described the development of communication from orality (media epoch 1.0) to script (2.0), through print (3.0) and finally to digital communication (4.0). In all these stages, technology played only an assisting role.

==You Yuting 游雨婷==
This paper argues, that there is a fundamentally new media epoch of “virtual communication” (communication 5.0), in which artificial intelligence (initialized by humans) has taken over and humans have become the object of analysis and manipulation (as customers, voters etc.).

Algorithms do not only listen to oral or read written human communication (between humans or between humans and bots), but they analyze multimodal communication (including likes, behaviour, surfing habits, mobility profile, values, dreams, aims, beliefs etc.), compare them with Big Data (e.g. cloud data) and base decisions of manipulation on a prediction of behavior according to a personality profile and correlations.

本文认为，“虚拟传播”(5.0传播版本)是一个全新的媒体时代，在这个时代，人工智能(由人类初始化)已经接管，人类成为分析和操纵的对象(如顾客、选民等)。

算法不仅听人类口头或书面沟通(在人类之间或人类和机器人之间),但他们分析多通道通信(包括喜欢、行为、上网习惯,流动剖面,价值观,梦想,目标,信念等),比较他们与大数据(例如云数据)和基础操作的预测行为的决策根据个性特征和相关性。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 12:34, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

本文认为，“虚拟传播”(5.0传播版本)是一个全新的媒体时代，在这个时代，人工智能(由人类初始化)已经接管世界，人类成为分析和操纵的对象(如顾客、选民等)。

算法不仅听人类口头或书面沟通(在人类之间或人类和机器人之间),但他们分析多通道通信(包括喜欢、行为、上网习惯,流动剖面,价值观,梦想,目标,信念等),比较他们与大数据(例如云数据)和基础操作的预测行为的决策根据个性特征和相关性。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 10:47, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yu Ni 余妮==
These algorithms target not only the explicit communications, but the emotions and thoughts of humans too and predict future behavior, therefore allowing simulations of reality. Mightier algorithms have also taken over decision-making roles in societies where they: replace human court decisions, fine tune just-in-time and on-demand production, censor chatrooms etc. Sets of algorithms help to manage smart cities and a whole society.

这些算法不仅针对明确的交流，也针对人类的情绪和思想，并预测未来的行为，因此允许模拟现实。更强大的算法也在社会中占据了决策角色：取代人类法庭的判决，及时微调和按需制作，审查聊天室等。一套算法有助于管理智慧城市和整个社会。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 10:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

----

==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==
Although the human is still part of the communication, especially as the analyzed object and the target of the manipulation, the human is often unaware of the virtual communication and a passive receiver of the machine’s decisions, while the main actors in the virtual communication are machines.

虽然人仍然是通信的一部分，特别是作为被分析的对象和操纵的目标，但是人往往没有意识到虚拟通信和机器决策的被动接受者，而虚拟通信的主要参与者是机器。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 08:55, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

尽管人类仍然是交流活动的一个组成部分，特别是作为被分析的对象和操纵的目标，但是人类往往没有意识到，自己是虚拟沟通和机器决策的被动接受者，而虚拟沟通的主导者是机器。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:11, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

虽然人仍然是构成通信的一部分，尤其是作为分析对象和操纵目标，但人往往没有意识到人们在虚拟通信中扮演机器决策的被动接受者，而机器才是主要参与者。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:42, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==
Research describes these forms of virtual communication, finds evidence in social management systems and credit systems (in Germany, we have the “Schufa”, in the USA there are big players in credit history, which leads to credit-orientation and gamification of human life) or customized (fake) news filter bubbles and in customized consumption offers (Amazon, Facebook, Google, Netflix) and analyzes benefits, including security enhancements through such virtual communication.

研究对这些形式的虚拟沟通进行了描述，在社会管理系统、信用系统（定制的（虚假）新闻筛选泡沫）和定制的消费商（亚马逊、脸书、谷歌、网飞）里面找到了证据（德国有“Schufa”，美国则因为信用史有重大人物而使得社会信用至上并日趋游戏化），并对益处加以分析，这些益处包含通过这类虚拟沟通提升安全。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 09:20, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

研究描述了这些虚拟通信的形式，在社会管理系统和信用系统中找到证据（在德国，我们有 "Schufa"，在美国有信用记录的大玩家，这导致了信用导向和人类生活的游戏化）或定制化（假）新闻过滤气泡，以及在定制化的消费优惠中（亚马逊，Facebook，谷歌，Netflix），并分析了好处，包括通过这种虚拟通信增强安全性。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:03, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==
But research also has the duty to warn of abuse or harmful developments and to raise ethical questions. Exoskeletal ethics, imposed by gamifications like credit systems, especially need to be valued against intrinsic ethics.

'''Introduction'''

In this paper dealing with machine to machine communication, I skip the machines assisting humans to make their life more convenient (ranging from “The milk is out, please add the usual amount of milk to the delivery list,” to “The old lady has not left her bed this morning, I’ll better call the doctor”).

但研究也有责任对滥用或有害的发展发出警告，同时要对引起的伦理问题也要承担责任。特别是信用体系游戏化所造成的外骨骼伦理问题更需要得到重视，要反对内在的伦理问题。

引言

本论文在涉及机器与机器之间的交流时，我不考虑那些帮助人类让生活更便捷的机器（从“牛奶没了，请在送货单上加平常剂量的牛奶”到“老太太今早卧床不起，我最好叫医生吧”）。
--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:10, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

但研究也有责任对滥用或有害的发展提出警告，并提出伦理问题。特别是信用体系等游戏化所强加的外骨骼伦理，更需要对照内在伦理加以重视。

引言

在本文中涉及机器与机器之间的交流，我跳过了机器协助人类提高生活便利的内容（从 "牛奶没了，请把平时的牛奶量加到送货单上"，到 "老太太今天早上还没下床，我还是叫医生吧"。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 11:40, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==
Instead, I deal with communication like: “Let’s create a user personality profile and compare it with Big Data to learn how I can best catch this user’s attention and make him/her vote for presidential candidate A or B.”; “Let’s check this users’ mouse movements and compare it with Big Data to get a correlation to estimate if (and if “yes” when) he will get Parkinson, to decide whether or not to deny him the loan or health insurance.”
实际上，本人研究涉及的方面如下：比如，“让我们创建一名用户的个性化主界面，并将其与大数据进行比对，学习如何最好的吸引该用户的注意，让他/她投票给总统候选人甲或乙。”“让我们检查这名用户鼠标的运动轨迹，通过与大数据进行比对，建立关联，来估计他是否会得帕金森。如果他患有帕金森疾病，我们会决定是否需要对他的贷款或医疗保险的申请予以拒绝。”--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:41, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Liang 曾良==
“Let’s check this users sexual orientation, religious beliefs, fears, secrets like adultery etc. to blackmail him to get ransom money for my programmer.”; or even “Let’s use this user’s location to aim the killer drone.”

The current neoliberal system with Amazon, Facebook, WhatsApp, Instagram, Google, Netflix etc. provides incentives to collect as much user data as possible and to abuse user data for manipulation, which creates huge profits.

“让我们检查该用户的性取向、宗教信仰、恐惧、诸如通奸之类的秘密去勒索他为我的程序员去获取赎金”。或者甚至“使用用户的位置瞄准杀手无人机。”

当前具有亚马逊、脸谱网、瓦茨艾普、照片墙、谷歌、奈飞等的新自由主义系统激励人们尽可能多地收集用户信息，并滥用用户信息进行操纵，从而创造可观利益。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:04, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

"让我们查一查这个用户的性取向、宗教信仰、恐惧、通奸等秘密，以勒索他为我的程序员获取赎金。"；甚至"利用这个用户的位置来瞄准杀手无人机。"
目前亚马逊、脸书、WhatsApp、Instagram、谷歌、奈飞等的新自由主义体系，为收集尽可能多的用户数据，并滥用用户数据，从而创造了巨大的利润。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:39, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting

“让我们检查该用户的性取向、宗教信仰、惧怕的事物、诸如通奸之类的秘密，从而勒索他让我的程序员获取赎金”。更有甚时，“让我们使用用户的位置让攻击机瞄准他。”

当前亚马逊、脸书、联络电话、Instagram、谷歌、网飞等的新自由主义的系统软件，激励人们尽可能多地收集用户信息，并滥用用户信息进行操纵，从而创造可观利益。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==
Very much like the financial crisis, which was caused by the unregulated use of derivatives, this is a systemic development, which currently follows a path to enslave the human race under the control of algorithms for the benefit of tech companies. The enslavement has already begun, as we can see from the world wide addiction to social media, from the growing mass of conspiracy theorists and from the polarization of the USA over Trump or the polarization of Great Britain over the Brexit.

==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==
'''1 History of Media Epochs'''

Luhmann and Baecker described the development of communication from orality (media epoch 1.0) to script (2.0), through print (3.0) and finally to digital communication (4.0). In all these stages, technology played only an assisting role.

This paper argues, that there is a fundamentally new stage of “virtual communication” (media epoch 5.0), in which artificial intelligence (initialized by humans) has taken over and humans have become the object of analysis and manipulation (as customers, voters etc.).

卢曼和贝克尔描述了从口头（媒体时代1.0）到文字（2.0）的通讯发展，再到印刷（3.0）数字通讯（4.0）
在所有这些阶段中，科技都只起到了协助作用。

本文认为，从根本上来说，“虚拟沟通”处于新阶段（媒体时代5.0），其中人工智能（由人类初始化）已被接管，人类已成为分析和操纵的对象（如顾客，选民等）--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 14:56, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Hu 张虎==
While Luhmann would still summarize this under digital communication, I see a full new quality here, and have therefore coined the term “communication 5.0” or “virtual communication” for it. In Luhmann’s view, the computer consists out of the “surface” of the machine (the visible interfaces like screen, keyboard, mouse) and the “depth” of the machine (the invisible, often incomprehensive inside).

虽然卢曼仍然会在数字通信中总结这一点，但我在这里看到了一个全新的品质，因此创造了术语“通信5.0”或“虚拟通信”。在卢曼看来，计算机是由机器的“表面”(屏幕、键盘、鼠标等可见界面)和机器的“内里”(看不见的、内部不全面的部分)组成的。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:41, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Hui 张慧==
However, we are almost constantly producing data, with our chats and geotracked movements, with our addiction to social media, our carrying of cell phones and more and more smart devices at all times, and we are therefore an object of analysis by algorithms.

The traditional setting of a communicative act blurs: The machine can directly communicate with the human (there the Turing test marks a threshold), and, after a certain complexity, it can hide its machine nature.

但是，我们几乎一直在通过聊天和地理位置追踪运动，不断沉迷于社交媒体，携带手机以及越来越多的智能设备来生成数据，因此，我们一直是通过算法进行分析的对象。

交流行为的传统设置变得模糊：机器可以直接与人类交流（图灵测试标记了阈值），并且在经过一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏机器的本质。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 11:49, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

然而，我们几乎在不断地产生数据，我们的聊天和地理追踪的动作，我们对社交媒体的沉迷，我们随时携带手机和越来越多的智能设备，因而成为算法分析的对象。

传统的交流行为的设定模糊了。机器可以直接与人类交流（图灵测试标志着一个门槛），在一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏自己的机器本质。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:03, 25 December 2020 (UTC)
然而，我们几乎是在不断地产生数据，我们的聊天和追踪移动，我们对社交媒体的沉迷，我们无时无刻都带着手机和越来越多的智能设备，因此我们是算法分析的对象。
传统的交流行为设定是模糊的:机器可以直接与人类交流(图灵测试在这里标记了一个阈值)，并且在一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏自己的机器本质。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 10:49, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Ling 张玲==
The machine can also indirectly communicate with the human by simply analyzing humans’ verbal communication, non-verbal multimodal communication, behavior, personality etc. and interacting with the human with, or without, revealing its existence. A human, growing up in a filter bubble and believing in conspiracy theories is one such example: The human has been manipulated by social media and news which prefer lies over truth.

机器还可以通过简单地分析人类的语言交流、非语言的多模态交流、行为、个性等，并与人类进行交互，从而间接地与人类进行交流，从而揭示人类的存在。一个在过滤器泡沫中成长并相信阴谋论的人就是这样一个例子：人们被社会媒体和新闻操纵，而这些媒体和新闻更喜欢谎言而不是真相。 --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 08:33, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==
Without even noticing that there was an interaction taking place between the human and the machine, the human has lost his/her independence to the machine.

'''2 Types of communicative acts'''

1.Texts (oral and written comments/chat texts/blogs/emails)

2.Surf behavior (websites visited)

3.Consumer behavior (purchases)

4.Likes (see OCEAN, UEBA)

5.Duration/Attention (see UEBA)

6.habits/repetitiveness/occurrences (is an element of analysis in different AI apps/tools)
甚至没有注意到人与机器之间发生的互动，人已经失去了他/她对机器的独立性。

"两种类型的交际行为"

1.
文本(口头和书面评论/聊天文本/博客/电子邮件)

2.
上网行为(浏览网站)

3.
消费者行为(购买)

4.
喜欢(参见OCEAN, UEBA)

5.
持续时间/关注(见UEBA)

6.
习惯/重复/出现(是不同AI应用/工具的分析元素)--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 10:46, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Qi 张琪==
7.Unconscious, often unique data allowing identification (way of writing, mouse movements pattern, see Raj Kannan 2020)

8.social interaction incl. friendships, sexual relationships

9.mobility behavior/pattern (e.g. immediate environment – e.g. unconsciously recording the inside of houses while playing “Pokemon Go”), travel: Travel Behavior (Yu Cui et al. 2018)

==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==
'''3 Types of analysis'''

1.General (User and Entity Behavior Analytics UEBA: AI-assisted cybersecurity tools like by Gartner, Inc.)

2.True identity (e.g.: mouse movements, face recognition, find real name) (Verschuere 2016)

3.Personality profile: Big Five Personality Inventory: Openness to Experience, Consciousness, Extroversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism “OCEAN” (Golbeck 2011), by only analyzing the users' likes, Facebook can generate personality profiles (AI-Demand 2020)

4.Mobility profile/pattern

==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==
5.Health situation (health apps, ai supported disease research, see Daley 2020)

6.Job situation/job market (Talent Search People 2020 analyzes the job market, and classifies 4 different AI systems: 1. systems that think like humans, 2. systems that act like humans, 3. systems that think rationally, and 4.) systems that act rationally.)

5.健康状况（由疾病研究提供AI支持的健康应用程序，见 Daley 2020)

6.就业形势/就业市场（2020年《人才搜索人》分析了就业市场，并将人工智能系统分为四类：1.像人类一样思考的系统。2.像人类一样行动的系。3.理性思考的系统。4.理性行动的系统。）--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 11:33, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

5.健康状况（由疾病研究提供AI支持的健康应用程序，见 Daley 2020)

6.就业形势/就业市场（《人才搜索人 2020》分析了就业市场，并将人工智能系统分为四类：1.像人类一样思考的系统。2.像人类一样行动的系。3.理性思考的系统。4.理性行动的系统。）--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 11:58, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==
7.Financial credit-worthiness: E.g. German Schufa company uses AI in addition to human expertise for evaluations, see Banken-Technologie 2020. Banken-Technologie 2020. Schufa’s attempt to gain access to customers’ bank account transfer information was discussed in the news.

8.Consumer Behavior: e.g. the "clickworker" company analyses and optimizes customers' searches in respect to a client company's goals/products with the help of AI (clickworker 2019)

9.Secrets (like adultery)

==Zhang Yu 张瑜==
'''4 Unique quality of media epoch 5.0'''[ I have coined the terms “media epoch 5.0” and “virtual communication” I have developed it from concepts like „Industry 4.0“ in Germany and the four media epochs Luhmann and Baecker developed (by Baecker called 1.0 … 4.0). There are several authors speculating about the media epoch 4.0, like Ray Kurzweil. The Age of Intelligent Machines. 1990.]

1.the human switches from active to passive

2.the human switches from subject to object

3.the human becomes addicted to social media, which enhances depression (Van Den Eijnden et al. 2016, Jasso-Medrano et al. 2018, Shensa et al. 2017)

4.the human switches from puppeteer, or entity with seemingly free will, to puppet

5.nature of the internet turns from freedom to surveillance

4.媒介5.0时代的独特品质 [我创造了 "媒介5.0时代"和 "虚拟通信 "这两个词，它们是从德国的“工业4.0”以及卢曼和贝克提出的媒介4.0时代（贝克称之为1.0...4.0）等概念发展而来的。一些作者揣测媒介4.0时代这个词的含义，比如1990年出版的雷-库兹韦尔的《灵魂机器时代》]

1.人从主动到被动的转换

2.人从主体到客体的转换

3.人沉迷于社交媒体，提高了患抑郁症的风险

4.人从木偶操纵者或看似拥有自由意志的实体到木偶人的转换

5.互联网的性质从自由到监测的转换--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 01:25, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==
6.direct communication turns into indirect communication (humans may not be aware of this communication/analysis)

7.explicit communication (voice, words) turns into implicit communication (preferences/thoughts/dreams/wishes/ values (first experiments with brain scanners in worker hats have started in Shanghai and Peking))

8.man-man communication turns to man-machine communication (phone bot) to machine-machine

9.4.0 was from centralization to decentralization, 5.0 is partial centralization and partial decentralization, but also concentration

6，直接交流变成间接交流（人们自己可能没有意识到这种交流/分析）。

7，明确的交流（声音，文字）变成隐性的交流（偏好/想法/梦想/愿望/价值观（上海和北京已开始在工人的帽子上使用脑扫描仪进行首次实验））。

8，人与人之间的通信变成了人与机器之间的通信（电话机器人）再到机器与机器之间的通信。

9.4.0是从集中到分散，5.0是部分集中和部分分散，也有集中。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 10:52, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==
So far, mass media has been considered one-way. The interaction and processing of data of millions of individual users seemed simply too much work. In the age of virtual communication, the media epoch 5.0, mass media is individualized and interactive and therefore even more influential.

'''5 Types of manipulation (consciously or unconsciously, sometimes half-consciously)
'''

1.Priming by unconscious advertisements: Influencing consumer decisions

2.Filter bubbles => supports conspiracy theories, influences judgments

到目前为止，大众媒体一直被认为是单一的。数百万个人用户数据的交互和处理似乎太费力。在虚拟传播时代，即媒体时代5.0，大众传媒是个性化和互动的，因此更具影响力。

'''5 种操纵类型（有意识或无意识，有时是半意识的）'''

1.无意识广告发布：影响消费者决策

2.过滤泡沫=>支持阴谋论，影响判断--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:08, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhao Xi 赵茜==
3.Nature of social media: lies spread 6 times faster than truth. (Vosoughi et al. 2018).

4.Change of political attitude: Case Cambridge Analytica: Helped minority to win election by manipulating young people of majority not to vote (Do so: Don’t vote campaign, Oddleifson 2020); Trump election and Brexit were won by manipulation

5.Use of private information/dependencies to obtain advantages (blackmailing for money or for conducting crimes etc.)

6.Identity theft

3.社交媒体的本质：谎言的传播速度比真理快 6 倍。（Vosoughi等人，2018年）。

4.改变政治态度：案例剑桥分析：通过操纵多数年轻人不投票帮助少数民族赢得选举（这样做：不要投票竞选。奥德利夫森 2020年）；特朗普选举和英国脱欧通过操纵获胜

5.利用私人信息/依赖关系获取好处（勒索钱财或犯罪等）

6.身份盗窃--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 05:18, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3.社交媒体的性质：谎言传播速度是真相的6倍。（Vosoughi等人，2018年）。
4.政治态度的改变：剑桥分析案例：通过操纵大多数年轻人不投票帮助少数人赢得选举（Do Do Do:Do not vote campaign，Oddleifson 2020）；特朗普选举和脱欧是通过操纵赢得的
5.利用私人信息/依赖性获取利益（勒索钱财或犯罪等）
6.身份盗窃--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==
'''6 Consequences'''

1.Virtual Communication is mostly “hidden”, the human is mostly unaware of it, but may endure the consequences (policeman may detain suspect simply because the face recognition glass recognizes a pedestrian passing by and assesses him/her as “dangerous”; loan is declined; insurance company declines to accept new customer)

6.后果

1.虚拟通讯大多是 "隐蔽 "的，人多半不知道，但可能会承受后果（警察可能仅仅因为人脸识别玻璃识别出路过的行人，并评估其为 "危险 "而拘留嫌疑人；贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新的客户）--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:02, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

6.后果

1.虚拟通信通常是“隐藏的”，人类大多数情况下是不知道的，但可能会承受后果（警察可能只是因为面部识别玻璃杯识别出行人经过并将他/她评估为“危险”而拘留嫌疑人；贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新客户）。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 12:05, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

'''6.后果
'''

1.大多情况下，虚拟通信是“隐藏的”，人类也没有意识到这一点，但可能会承担由此带来的后果（警察可能会因为面部识别玻璃检测到行人通过，并将其评估为“危险人物”而将嫌疑犯拘留‘贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新客户）。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 09:29, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==
2.User becomes transparent (government can fight terrorism, any user can be blackmailed, jealous spouse can check on adultery)

3.Less will to communicate and discuss (since positions are too far apart)

4.Populists and populist views gain supporters

5.Polarization of Society

6.There is an incentive not to reveal how much one knows about the object, because the object then could question the legality, the system etc.

7.Last resort, the thinking, is tackled: Machine interprets “real” attitudes, not lip-service words

2.用户变得透明化（政府可以反恐，任何用户都可以被拉黑，嫉妒的配偶可以查奸情）

3.交流讨论意愿较弱（因为立场相差太远）

4.民粹主义者和民粹主义观点获得支持者

5.社会的两极分化

6.有动机不透露自己对对象了解多少，因为对象就可能质疑合法性、制度等。

7.最后的手段—思维，已经被破解：机器解释的是 "真实 "的态度，而不是口头禅--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 07:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2.用户变得透明（政府可以反恐，任何用户都可以被勒索，嫉妒的配偶可以调查奸情）

3.缺乏沟通和讨论的意愿（因为立场相差太远）

4.民粹主义者和民粹主义观点获得支持者

5.社会两极分化

6.有动机不透露自己对客体了解多少，因为客体可能会质疑其合法性、制度等。

7.最后一个办法是思考：机器解释的是“真实”的态度，而不是口头禅--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 11:42, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==
8.The knowing ones (algorithms, hackers, controllers of algorithms) have power over the unknowing ones (victims)

9.Exoskeleton ethics (like points/awards for measurable performances) reduce incentives to build inner ethics
'''
7 Simulation of the imminent future'''

1.The imminent future behavior of a human can be predicted

2.With many analyzed humans, the imminent future of reality can be predicted => simulation

8.知道的人（算法、黑客、算法的控制者）比不知道的人（受害者）更有力量
9.外骨骼伦理（如可衡量绩效的积分/奖励）减少了建立内在道德的动机
'''
7模拟即将到来的未来
1.人类即将发生的未来行为是可以预测的
2.有了许多被分析的人类，现实的即将到来的未来可以被预测=>模拟--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:00, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

8.已知的人（算法、黑客、算法的控制者）比未知im min的人（受害者）更有力量
9.外骨骼伦理（如可衡量绩效的积分/奖励）减少了建立内在道德的动机
'''
7模拟迫近的未来
1.人类的迫近未来行为是可以预测的
2.在分析了许多人类后，我们便可预测现实的迫近未来=>模拟--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:22, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==
Is this an Orwellian dystopia or reality? Some cases of the above listed phenomena have been documented. However, we are still at the beginning of “little” AI development (optimizing existing processes) and on the brink of a much more powerful development, that of “big” AI (rethinking whole industries, being able to reproduce and enhance itself). (cf. Euchner 2019).

==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==
'''8 Conclusion and Outlook'''

Data has succeeded oil as the most valuable resource for today’s economy. Big Tech companies already use users’ data and make big profits with it while legislation is delayed and national boundaries (which do not exist for the Tech companies) are struggled over.
Although input-legitimized liberal democracies and market economies, like that of the European Union, still protect privacy and data security, US- and China-based technology companies are already penetrating the European market.

'''8 结论与展望'''

数据已经取代石油成为当今经济中最有价值的资源。大型科技公司已经在使用用户的数据并从中牟取暴利，与此同时，立法被拖延，国界（不存在科技公司）正在为之苦苦挣扎。

尽管像欧盟这样的以输入合法化的自由民主国家和市场经济，仍然保护着隐私和数据安全，但是中美两国的科技公司已经开始渗透欧洲市场。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 11:59, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==
We need to raise awareness and guide the youth to be careful with screen time and what they share online. We need to avoid addiction to social media.

'''The algorithms do not just check which film to suggest viewing next, they have started to invade the innermost sanctum of personality, our thoughts, dreams, wishes, visions, hopes, fears and secrets.
'''
'''
The listed consequences document a fundamental change of paradigms:
'''
我们需要提高意识，引导青少年注意屏幕时间和他们在网上分享的东西。我们需要避免沉迷于社交媒体。

'''算法不只是检查建议接下来看哪部电影，它们已经开始侵入人格、我们的思想、梦想、愿望、愿景、希望、恐惧和秘密的最深处的圣殿。'''

所列出的后果证明了范式的根本变化:--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 01:38, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

我们需要提高意识，引导青少年留意屏幕时间和网上分享，需要避免沉迷于社交媒体。

'''算法不只是检查建议接下来看哪部电影，它们已经开始侵入人格、我们的思想、梦想、愿望、愿景、希望、恐惧和秘密的最深处的圣殿。'''

所列出的后果证明了范式的基本变化:--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:11, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==
'''The cause-based decision-making by humans with established institutions like politicians, judges etc. is being replaced with correlation-based decision-making by algorithms which often serve the profit interests of tech companies or the political interests of election-manipulators.
'''

AI took the wrong development path, when it changed from serving humans to trying to manipulate humans for economic or political profit. When AI is used to educate citizens – like helping German customers to keep a clean credit history and a good credit score – then it changes the behavior of citizens to an exoskeletal ethic.

人类通过建立政治、法官等制度所形成的原因导向的决策方法正在被算法形成的关联导向的决策方法所取代，算法通常为科技公司的利润利益或选举操纵者的政治利益服务。

人工智能走上了错误的发展道路，它从为人类服务变成了试图为了经济或政治利益而操纵人类。当人工智能被用于教育公民——比如帮助德国客户保持干净的信用历史和良好的信用评分——它就会改变公民的行为，使其成为一种外骨骼伦理。--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 08:42, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==
However, animals with an exoskeleton reduce their inside muscles and develop a soft inside, making them totally incapable of living without the exoskeleton. An exoskeletal ethic, giving reward points, for example, for behavior which is deemed positive and subtracting points for behavior which is deemed negative, deprives the human of the natural learning and developing process, in a social environment, of his responsibility and inner ethical judgment. If you were to meet a human with exoskeletal ethics and one who has inner ethics, whom would you trust more?

==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==
If we want to avoid the consequences listed in point 6, the public needs to become aware of this and nations and supranational organizations need to define legislation to a) protect privacy and data security, and b) give the user the control over his/her data including the commercial use of it where they earn a share from the profit made with the usage of his/her data.

==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==
'''9 Outlook'''

We need to accept, that the development is irreversible. Every new technology has created fears. Important is, that we become aware of the developments and adjust where the development heads into the wrong direction. We need set the right framework and incentives that the new technology stays on track to serve humanity.

==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==
New developments open new possibilities. We need to make sure that not only a few tech companies and terrorists use this powerful new technology to achieve their goals, but that the mass of smart device users emancipate themselves from addiction to and manipulation by technology and gain back their dignity, privacy and free will.

'''References
'''
（参考文献不用翻译）

AI-Demand. (2020). www.ai-demand.com/insights/data/big-data/big-data-and-facebook-the-heavenly-pair-that-isnt-quite-in-heaven/

Baecker, Dirk. (2007). ''Studien zur nächsten Gesellschaft''. Frankfurt 2007

Banken-Technologie. (2020). 26. Handelsblatt Jahrestagung. Banken-Technologie. „New Normal” in der Finanzwirtschaft: digital – intelligent – automatisiert – hybrid. 2. und 3.12.2020, Digital [Conference Announcement] https://veranstaltungen.handelsblatt.com/bankentechnologie/ki-machine-learning-finanzanalyse/

Booth, T. "Cambridge Analytica controversy must spur researchers to update data ethics." ''Nature'' 555.7698 (2018): 559-560.

Clickworker. (2019). www.clickworker.com/2019/04/30/ai-for-ecommerce/

Cui, Yu, Qing He, and Alireza Khani. (2018). Travel behavior classification: an approach with social network and deep learning. ''Transportation research record'', 2672(47), 68-80. https://par.nsf.gov/servlets/purl/10109453

Daley, Sam. (2020). 32 Examples of AI in Healthcare that Will Make you Feel better about the Future (July 4, 2019, updated July 29, 2020). builtin.com/artificial-intelligence/artificial-intelligence-healthcare

Euchner, Jim. (2019). Little ai, Big AI—Good AI, Bad AI. Terminology Management 62:3, 10-12. pdf:

https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/08956308.2019.1587280?needAccess=true

Golbeck, Jennifer, Cristina Robles, and Karen Turner. (2011). "Predicting personality with social media." ''CHI'11 extended abstracts on human factors in computing systems''. 2011. 253-262.

Jasso-Medrano, José Luis, and Fuensanta Lopez-Rosales. (2018). "Measuring the relationship between social media use and addictive behavior and depression and suicide ideation among university students." Computers in Human Behavior 87: 183-191.

Luhmann, Niklas. (1997). ''Die Gesellschaft der Gesellschaft''. 1997

Oddleifson, Evan. 2020, The Effects of Modern Data Analytics in Electoral Politics: Cambridge Analytica’s Suppression of Voter Agency and the Implications for Global Politics, ''Political Sciences Undergraduate Review'' 5 (2020) 7, 1-7.

https://journals.library.ualberta.ca/psur/index.php/psur/article/view/130/90/130-Article%20Text-642-1-10-20200401.pdf

Raj Kannan, J., Sabitha, R., Karthik, S., & Shanthini, J. (2020). Mouse Movement Pattern Based Analysis of Customer Behavior (CBA-MMP) Using Cloud Data Analytics. ''Wireless Personal Communications'', OnlineFirst, 1-17.

Ruan, Lotus, et al. "One App, Two Systems: How WeChat uses one censorship policy in China and another internationally." (2016).
Shensa, Ariel, et al. (2017). "Problematic social media use and depressive symptoms among US young adults: A nationally-representative study." ''Social Science & Medicine ''182: 150-157.

Talent Search People. (2020). How Will Artificial Intelligence Affect the Job Market? www.talentsearchpeople.com/en/blog/494-how-will-artificial-intelligence-affect-the-job-market/.

Van Den Eijnden, Regina JJM, Jeroen S. Lemmens, and Patti M. Valkenburg. (2016). "The social media disorder scale." ''Computers in Human Behavior ''61: 478-487.

Verschuere, Bruno, and Bennett Kleinberg. "ID‐check: Online Concealed Information Test reveals true identity." ''Journal of forensic sciences'' 61 (2016): S237-S240.

Vosoughi, Soroush, Deb Roy, and Sinan Aral. (2018). The spread of true and false news online. Science 359.6380: 1146-1151.. science.sciencemag.org/content/359/6380/1146

==Zhu Xu 朱旭==
'''Bio'''

Martin Woesler, PhD, is Jean Monnet Chair in European Studies with Hunan Normal University since 2020. At its Foreign Studies College, he is Distinguished Professor of Chinese Studies, Translation Studies and Comparative Literature since 2019. Woesler was elected Academian of the European Academy of Sciences and Arts, Salzburg in 2019.
Woesler has co-edited the books "China's Digital Dream", "Ethics of Information Society" and Springer has scheduled to publish the book "Diverse Voices in Chinese Translation and Interpretation" including his book chapter "Modern Interpreting with Digital and Technical Aids" in February 2021.

个人简历

自2020年起，吴漠汀（Martin Woesler）博士是湖南师范大学欧洲研究的讲座教授。自2019年来，他在湖师大外国语学院担任中国文化研究、翻译研究和比较文学的特聘教授。2019年，吴教授当选萨尔茨堡欧洲科学与艺术学院院士。吴教授曾与人合编《中国的数字梦想》、《信息社会伦理学》等书。施普林格（Springer）已计划于2021年2月出版《中国笔译与口译中的多种声音》一书，其中包括他的《数字与技术辅助的现代口译》一章。--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 09:26, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==
Woesler was a Senior Fellow of the German Science Foundation's (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft) Research College "Media Cultures of Computer Simulations" 2019‐2020 and hosted a related workshop with Bertelsmann Foundation in 2020. Woesler is also a researcher with Witten/Herdecke University, Germany, investigating the impact of daily screen time of children and of young people on their health.

20201228 cult

2020-12-27T01:28:10Z

Xu Jia: /* Xu Jia 徐佳 */

==Alsied, Saffana==

==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==

==Chen Han 陈涵==

==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==

==Dashkin, Gennadii==

==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==

==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==

1.老子曾做过周朝守藏史，后退隐，作《道德经》，其思想的核心是“道”。

Lao Zi once worked as an archivist in the imperial library of the Zhou Dynasty before he retired from public life. It is widely believed that he was the author of Tao Te Ching and the core of Lao Zi's thought is "Tao".--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:52, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

2.《论语》记录了孔子的言行。它涵盖了广泛的主题，从政治、哲学、文学和艺术到教育再到道德修养。

The Analects of Confucius records the words and deeds of Confucius. It covers a wide variety of subjects, ranging from politics, philosophy, literature and art to education to moral cultivation.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:52, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

3.惠能禅学思想的主要特点是“识心见性”和“顿悟成佛”。

The main features of Hui Neng's Zen thoughts are "knowing the heart and seeing the nature" and "becoming Buddha by epiphany".--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:52, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

4.《生活的艺术》是一本洗涤心灵的书籍，是一杯好茶，是一种良药。阅读此书能使我们被尘沙玷污的心灵洗涤，使我们能在嚣闹的城市中得到宁静。

The Importance of Living is a book for washing the soul, a good cup of tea and a good medicine. Reading this book can wash our hearts polluted by dust and sand, and make us get peace in the noisy city.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:52, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==
1.《道德经》是中国历史上最伟大的名著之一，对传统哲学、科学、政治、宗教等产生了深刻影响。

Tao Te Ching is one of the greatest masterpieces in Chinese history, which has a profound influence on traditional philosophy, science, politics and religion. --[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 15:13, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

As one of the greatest masterpieces in Chinese history, Tao Te Ching has a profound influence on traditional philosophy, science, politics and religion.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:59, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

2.《论语》较为集中地体现了孔子及儒家学派的政治主张、伦理思想、道德观念及教育原则等。

The Analects embodies the political ideas, ethical thought, moral concepts and educational principles of Confucius and Confucianism. --[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 15:13, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

The Analects embodies the political ideas, ethical thoughts, moral concepts and educational principles of Confucius and Confucianism.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:59, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

3.《慧能经》主张世上一切事物空幻不实，即对于现实世界不应执著或留恋。

The Sutra of Hui-neng holds that everything in the world is empty and unreal, that is, it should not be persistent or nostalgic for the real world.--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 15:13, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

The Sutra of Hui-neng holds that everything in the world is illusory, that is, it should not be persistent or nostalgic for the real world.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:59, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

4.《生活的艺术》是林语堂旅美专事创作后的第一部书，该书于1937年在美国出版，次年便居美国畅销书排行榜榜首达52周。

The Importance of Living is Lin Yutang's first book, which was published in the United States in 1937 and topped the bestseller list for 52 weeks.--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 15:13, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

The Importance of Living is Lin Yutang's first book after his study in the United States, which was published in the United States in 1937 and topped the bestseller list for 52 weeks.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:59, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==

==Grosheva, Anna==

==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==

==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==

==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==

==Guirou, Barthelemy==

==Guo Lu 郭露==

==Ha, Thi Thu Hang==

==He Changqi 何长琦==

==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==

==Hu Jin 胡瑾==
1. 《道德经》简称老子，是中国的经典文本。根据传统，它是由公元前6世纪的圣人老子所写，老子是周朝的一位记录者，在中国广为人知。尽管最早出土的文字可以追溯到公元前4世纪晚期，但文字的真正作者和撰写或编纂日期仍有争议。

1. The Tao Te Ching simply referred to as the Laozi，is a Chinese classic text. According to tradition, it was written around 6th century BC by the sage Laozi, a record-keeper at the Zhou dynasty court, by whose name the text is known in China. The text's true authorship and date of composition or compilation are still debated, although the oldest excavated text dates back to the late 4th century BC.

2. 《论语》是儒家学派的经典著作之一，由孔子的弟子及其再传弟子编撰而成。它以语录体和对话文体为主，记录了孔子及其弟子言行，集中体现了孔子的政治主张、论理思想、道德观念及教育原则等。

2. The Analects is one of the classical works of Confucianism, compiled by the disciples of Confucius and his disciples. It is mainly in the style of discourses and dialogues, recording the words and deeds of Confucius and his disciples, concentrating on Confucius' political ideas, theoretical thoughts, moral concepts and educational principles.

3. 《慧能经》附有慧能对《金刚经》的逐条注释——这是它有史以来第一次出版的英文译本。他的谈话集也被称为《六祖坛经》，是唯一的禅宗记录，一般被尊称为经，或经文。

3. The Sutra of Hui-neng is here accompanied by Hui-neng's verse-by-verse commentary on the Diamond Sutra—in its very first published English translation ever.This collection of his talks, also known as the Platform or Altar Sutra, is the only Zen record of its kind to be generally honored with the appellation sutra, or scripture.

4. 《生活的艺术》是林语堂旅美专事创作后的第一部书，也是继之后再获成功的又一英文作品。该书于1937年在美国出版，次年便居美国畅销书排行榜榜首达52周，且接连再版四十余次，并为十余种文字所翻译。

4. “The Art of Living” was Lin Yutang's first book after he had traveled to the U.S. and was another successful work in English. It was published in the United States in 1937 and topped the American bestseller list for 52 weeks the following year, and was reprinted more than forty times and translated into more than a dozen languages.--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 07:31, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

4. 《生活的艺术》是林语堂旅美专事创作后的第一部书，也是继《吾国与吾民》之后再获成功的又一英文作品。该书于1937年在美国出版，次年便居美国畅销书排行榜榜首达52周，且接连再版四十余次，并为十余种文字所翻译。

''The Art of Living'' was Lin Yutang's first book after he had traveled to the U.S. and was another successful English work after ''My Country and My People''. It was published in the United States in 1937 and topped the American bestseller list for 52 weeks at the following year. Besides, it was reprinted more than forty times and translated into more than a dozen languages.--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:20, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling

==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==

==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==

==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==

==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==

==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==
1、丝绸之路被认为是连结亚欧大陆的古代东西方文明的交汇之路，而丝绸则是最具代表性的货物。数千年来，游牧民族或部落、商人、教徒、外交家、士兵和学术考察者沿着丝绸之路四处活动。

The Silk Road is considered to be the ancient crossroads of eastern and western civilizations linking Asia and Europe, with Silk being the most iconic cargo. For thousands of years, nomadic peoples or tribes, merchants, religious, diplomats, soldiers and academic researchers moved around along the Silk Road.

2、郑和七次奉旨率船队远航西洋，航线从西太平洋穿越印度洋，直达西亚和非洲东岸，途经30多个国家和地区。他的航行比哥伦布发现美洲大陆早87年，比达·伽马早92年，比麦哲伦早114年。在世界航海史上，他开辟了贯通太平洋西部与印度洋等大洋的直达航线。

Zheng He was ordered to lead seven voyages to the Atlantic Ocean, with routes from the western Pacific Ocean across the Indian Ocean to West Asia and the east coast of Africa, passing through more than 30 countries and regions. His voyage was 87 years before Columbus discovered the American continent, 92 years before Da Gama, and 114 years before Magellan. In the history of world navigation, he opened up a direct route through the western Pacific Ocean and the Indian Ocean and other great oceans.

3、西学书籍的翻译和著述，是西学东渐相当重要的媒介，在当时出现了大量的由教士及士大夫合著合译的书籍，但这些书籍未能受到当时一般社会的重视，也未能打入晚明已十分发达的商业出版界，因此虽西学书籍有刻印出版，但主要仍仅流通于少数有兴趣的士大夫阶层。

The translation and writing of books on Western studies was an important medium for the gradual expansion of Western studies to the east. A large number of books co-authored and translated by clergy and scholars emerged at that time, but these books were not taken seriously by the general society at that time, nor did they penetrate into the commercial publishing world, which was already well developed in the late Ming Dynasty.

4、随着军事工业的创办，洋务派认识到，强大的国防基础在于整个国家经济的发展，要求能源、钢铁等工业与之配套。同时，为了维护民族利益，也必须发展民族经济，与洋人"商战"、"争利"。于是，他们提出了求富的口号，民用工业和新式交通运输业也发展起来了。

With the founding of the military industry, the School of Westernization realized that the basis of a strong national defense lay in the development of the entire national economy, requiring energy, steel and other industries to go along with it. At the same time, in order to safeguard national interests, it was also necessary to develop the national economy and to "negotiate" and "compete for profits" with the foreigners. Thus, they put forward the slogan of seeking wealth, and the civil industry and new transportation industry were developed.--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 14:10, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi

==Li Lili 李丽丽==
1.1417年，永乐皇帝下令郑和将使节送回国内。郑和和他的舰队再次回到海上启航，进行他的第五次远征（1417-1419）。他在许多相同的地方停留，包括爪哇岛、苏门答腊岛，还为他遇到的不同的统治者带来了信件和财富。

By 1417, the Yongle Emperor ordered Zheng He to return the envoys home. Once more back on the seas, Zheng He and his large fleet set sail for his fifth expedition (1417-1419). He stopped in many of the same places, including Java, Sumatra, and also brought letters and riches to the different rulers Zheng He met.

In 1417, Emperor Yongle ordered Zheng He to send the envoys back home. Zheng He and his fleet returned to sea again to set sail on his fifth expedition (1417-1419). He stopped at many of the same places, including Java and Sumatra, and also brought letters and wealth to the different rulers he met. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

2.海上丝绸之路从福建泉州开始, 是秦汉时期形成、三国时期发展到隋朝、盛唐宋朝、明清衰落的最早航程航线。

Starting from Quanzhou Fujian Province, the maritime Silk Road was the earliest voyage route that was formed in the Qin and Han dynasties, developed from the Three Kingdoms Period to the Sui Dynasty, flourished in the Tang and Song dynasties, and fell into decline in the Ming and Qing dynasties.

The Maritime Silk Road began in Quanzhou, Fujian Province, and was the earliest voyage route formed during the Qin and Han dynasties, developed during the Three Kingdoms Period to the Sui dynasty, flourished in the Tang and Song dynasties, and fell into decline in the Ming and Qing dynasties. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

3.西学东渐不仅客观上促成了马克思主义哲学在中国的广泛传播, 构成了马克思主义哲学中国化的一个重要历史前提, 而且引发了中国哲学历史发展过程中的重大变革, 推动了中国哲学从古代传统向近代传统的转变。

The spread of Western learning to the East objectively promoted the dissemination of Marxist philosophy, forming an important historical precondition for its Sinicization. Moreover, it triggered a great transformation in the historical development of Chinese philosophy and facilitated its transition from an ancient to an early modern tradition.

The eastward spread of Western learning has not only objectively contributed to the widespread dissemination of Marxist philosophy in China, constituting an important historical premise for the Chineseization of Marxist philosophy, but also triggered a major change in the historical development of Chinese philosophy, promoting the transformation of Chinese philosophy from the ancient to the modern tradition. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

4.鸦片战争、不平等条约和19世纪中叶的大规模起义的残酷现实，使清朝朝臣和官员认识到壮大中国的必要性。自19世纪40年代以来，中国学者和官员一直在研究和翻译“西学”。

The rude realities of the Opium War, the unequal treaties, and the mid- 19th century mass uprisings caused Qing courtiers and officials to recognize the need to strengthen China. Chinese scholars and officials had been examining and translating "Western Learning" since the 1840s.--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 13:05, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

The harsh realities of the Opium War, the unequal treaties, and the mass uprisings of the mid-19th century made courtiers and officials of the Qing Dynasty realize the need to strengthen China. Since the 1840s, Chinese scholars and officials had been studying and translating "Western Learning". --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Liqin 李丽琴==

==Liu Liu 刘柳==

1.《道德经》是中国历史上最伟大的名著之一，对传统哲学、科学、政治、宗教等产生了深刻影响。

As one of the greatest masterpieces in Chinese history, ''Tao Te Ching'' has a profound impact on traditional philosophy, science, politics, and religion.

Tao Te Ching, as one of the greatest masterpieces in Chinese history, has a profound impact on traditional philosophy, science, politics and religion.--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 13:16, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

2.孔子因材施教，对于不同的对象，考虑其不同的素质、优点和缺点、进德修业的具体情况，给予不同的教诲，表现了诲人不倦的可贵精神。

Confucius taught students in accordance with their aptitude. He gave different instructions to different students, taking into account their different qualities, strengths and weaknesses, and the specific circumstances of their advancement and cultivation, showing the valuable spirit of tireless teaching.

Confucius taught students in accordance with their aptitude. For different objects, he considered their different qualities, advantages and disadvantages, and the specific situation of moral education, and gave different instructions, which showed the valuable spirit of tireless teaching.--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 13:16, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

3.近年来，中国大多数学者都认为《坛经》的基本内容代表了慧能思想，同时其中也有后人增益的成分。

In recent years, most Chinese scholars believe that the basic content of the ''The Sutra of Huineng'' represents the thought of Huineng, while there are also some elements of later additions to it.

In recent years, most Chinese scholars believe that the basic content of Tanjing represents Huineng's thought, and it also contains the later additions.--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 13:16, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

4.《生活的艺术》是林语堂旅美专事创作后的第一部书，也是继《吾国与吾民》之后再获成功的又一英文作品。该书于1937年在美国出版，次年便居美国畅销书排行榜榜首达52周，且接连再版四十余次，被翻译为十余种文字全球发行。

''The Importance of Living'' was the first book after Lin Yutang had traveled to the United States and was another successful work in English after ''My Country and My People''. It was published in the United States in 1937 and topped the American bestseller list for 52 weeks the following year, and was republished more than forty times and translated into more than a dozen languages for global distribution.--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 07:14, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

''The Art of Life'' is the first book written by Lin Yutang after his trip to the United States. It is also another successful English work after ''My Country and My People''. The book was published in the United States in 1937. The following year, it ranked the top of the best seller list in the United States for 52 weeks. It has been reprinted for more than 40 times and has been translated into more than 10 languages for global distribution.--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 13:16, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Ou 刘欧==

==Liu Yi 刘艺==
1、传统的丝绸之路，起自中国古代都城长安，经中亚国家、阿富汗、伊朗、伊拉克、叙利亚等而达地中海，以罗马为终点，全长6440公里。这条路被认为是连结亚欧大陆的古代东西方文明的交汇之路，而丝绸则是最具代表性的货物。

The traditional Silk Road, which started from Chang'an, the ancient capital of China, and reached the Mediterranean Sea via Central Asian countries, Afghanistan, Iran, and Syria, and ended in Rome, was 6,440 kilometers long. This road is considered to be the intersection of ancient eastern and western civilizations linking Asia and Europe, and silk is the most representative cargo. The road reached the Mediterranean Sea from Iraq, Syria, etc. and ended in Rome, with a total length of 6,440 kilometers. This road is considered to be the crossroads of ancient civilizations between East and West, linking Asia and Europe, and silk is the most representative cargo.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 12:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

2、东海航线，也叫“东方海上丝路”。春秋战国时期，齐国在胶东半岛开辟了“循海岸水行”直通辽东半岛、朝鲜半岛、日本列岛直至东南亚的黄金通道。唐代，山东半岛和江浙沿海的中韩日海上贸易逐渐兴起。宋代，宁波成为中韩日海上贸易的主要港口。

The East Sea Route, also known as the "Eastern Sea Silk Road". During the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, the State of Qi opened up a golden route on the Jiaodong Peninsula, which led to the Liaodong Peninsula, the Korean Peninsula, the Japanese islands and Southeast Asia. During the Tang Dynasty, the maritime trade between China, Korea and Japan on the Shandong Peninsula and the coast of Jiangsu and Zhejiang gradually emerged. During the Song Dynasty, Ningbo became the main port for maritime trade between China, Korea and Japan.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 12:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

3、东学西渐指的是一个和西学东渐互相补充的东西方文化交流过程。东学西渐有一千多年的历史，对世界文化的发展有十分深远的影响。

Eastern learning and Western learning refers to a process of cultural exchange between East and West that complements Western learning and Eastern learning. With a history of over a thousand years, East to West has had a profound impact on the development of world culture.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 12:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

4、洋务运动虽然在客观上刺激中国资本主义发展、并且在一定程度上抵制了外国资本主义的经济输入，但并没有使中国走上富强之路。

Although the foreign affairs movement objectively stimulated the development of Chinese capitalism and to a certain extent resisted the economic import of foreign capitalism, it did not put China on the road to wealth and power.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 12:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==

==Lo, Minh Thao==

==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==

==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==

==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==

==Mo Ling 莫玲==

1.“道”作为《道德经》中最抽象的概念范畴，是天地万物生成的动力源。

The way, as the most abstract concept in Tao Te Ching, is the power source for the creation of all things.

As the most abstract conceptual category in Tao Te Ching, "Tao" is the source of power for the creation of heaven and earth.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 13:21, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

2.《论语》主要以语录和对话文体的形式记录了孔子及其弟子的言行，集中体现了孔子的政治、审美、道德伦理和功利等价值思想。

The Analects of Confucius mainly records the words and deeds of Confucius and his disciples in the form of quotations and dialogues, which embodies Confucius' political, aesthetic, moral and utilitarian values.

3.若欲修行，在家亦得，不由在寺。

If people are sincerely keen on the practice,it is no need for them to practise in the temple and they can be successful even at home.

4.林语堂的翻译特点是通畅易懂，少用“行语”，中等文化的读者都能看懂。

The translation works of Lin Yutang are characterized by fluency and transparency since he hardly adopt jargons,so that his works can be understood by less-educated readers.--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:11, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling

==Ngo, Thi Minh Huong==

==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==

==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==

==Phyo, Su Kyi==

==Pingki, Tanchangya==

==Qu Miao 瞿淼==

==Rajabov, Anushervon==

==Seydou, Sagara==

==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==

==Si Yu 司妤==

==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==

1.汉武帝刘彻即位时，张骞已在朝廷担任名为“郎”的侍从官。据史书记载，他“为人强力，宽大信人”。即具有坚韧不拔、心胸开阔，并能以信义待人的优良品质。建元三年，即公元前138年，张骞“以郎应募，使月氏”。“郎”，是皇帝的侍从官，没有固定职务，又随时可能被选授重任。

When Emperor Wu of Han Dynasty Liu Che assumed the throne, Zhang Qian was already working at the court as a retainer named "Lang". According to historical records, he was "a strong, generous and trustworthy". In other words, he was tough, open-minded, and could treat people with faith and justice. In the third year of Jian Yuan, that is, 138 B.C., Zhang Qian was recruited to make a mission to the Moon Dynasty. The "Lang", the emperor's retainer, has no fixed position, and may be chosen at any time to reappoint.

2.有观点认为，明初时海外威胁受到重视，故有郑和下西洋之事。然而，或许郑和过于成功了，“他的海军满载荣誉胜利归来，并确认帝国没有来自海上的威胁”，因此“郑和与他的随从也可以说失去了继续远航的意义。”

It has been argued that the overseas threat was taken seriously at the beginning of the Ming Dynasty, hence Zheng He's voyage to the West. However, perhaps Zheng He was too successful, "his navy returned triumphantly laden with glory and confirmed that there was no threat to the empire from the sea", so "Zheng He and his entourage could be said to have lost the point of continuing their voyage".

3.甲午战争以后，由于中国当时面临着国破家亡的命运，许多有识之士开始更积极全面地向西方学习，出现了梁启超、康有为、谭嗣同等一批思想家。他们向西方学习大量的自然科学和社会科学的知识，政治上也要求改革。这一时期大量的西方知识传入中国，影响非常广泛。许多人以转译日本人所著的西学书籍来接受西学。进入民国时期，由于对政治的不满又进一步导致知识分子们提出全盘西化的主张，在五四时期这种思想造成了很大的影响。这一波的西学东渐，一直持续到当代而未止。

After the First Sino-Japanese War, as China was facing the fate of national ruin, many learned people began to learn more actively and comprehensively from the West, and a group of thinkers emerged, such as Liang Qichao, Kang Youwei and Tan Sitong. They learned a lot of natural and social science knowledge from the West, and also demanded reforms in politics. A great deal of Western knowledge was introduced into China during this period, and its influence was very widespread. Many people embraced Western learning by translating Western books written by the Japanese. In the Republican period, dissatisfaction with politics further led intellectuals to advocate wholesale Westernization, which had a great impact in the May Fourth period. This wave of Western learning continued into contemporary times.

4.洋务派前期创办的军事工业，经费由清政府调拨，产品分配给军队使用，管理方式是封建衙门式的。虽然这些企业采用机器生产，但本质上属于带有资本主义因素的封建官办企业。

The military industries founded by the foreign affairs faction in the early period were financed by the Qing government, and the products were allocated to the army for use, and managed in a feudal government office style. Although these enterprises adopted machine production, they were essentially feudal government-run enterprises with capitalist elements.--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:23, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Tang Bei 汤蓓==

==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==

==Wang Meiling 王美玲==

==Wang Xuan 王轩==

==Wu Qiong 吴琼==

==Wu Yilu 吴一露==

==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==

==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==
1.老子认为世界上的任何事物都是相比较而存在的。美丑、善恶、有无、难易、长短都是相互依存的，有此才有彼，有是才有非，有善才有恶。表面看来，正相反对的两个方面是相互对立的，而实际上又是相互包含、相互渗透的。

1.Laozi believes that everything in the world exists by comparison. Beauty and ugliness, good and evil, existence and existence, difficulty and difficulty, length and length are interdependent. There is one and there is another, there is yes and there is no, there is good and there is evil. On the surface, the two opposite aspects are opposite, but in fact they are mutually contained and permeated.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 13:16, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

2.《论语》既是语录体又是若干断片的篇章集合体。这些篇章的排列不一定有什么道理；就是前后两章间，也不一定有什么关联。而且这些断片的篇章绝不是一个人的手笔。

2.The Analects of Confucius is a collection of quotations and fragments. The arrangement of these chapters does not necessarily make sense; Even between the two chapters, there is not necessarily a connection. And these fragmentary passages are not the work of one man.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 13:16, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

3.毛泽东还谈到过惠能的思想在佛教史上的地位。他说，惠能主张佛性人人皆有，创顿悟成佛之学，一方面使繁琐的佛教简易化，一方面也使从印度传入的佛教中国化。因此，他被视为禅宗的真正创始人。

3.Mao Zedong also talked about the position of Huineng's thought in the history of Buddhism. He said that Huineng advocates that everyone has the Buddha nature and creates the theory of enlightenment to become a Buddha, which, on the one hand, simplifies the tedious Buddhism and, on the other hand, makes the Buddhism introduced from India Chinese. Therefore, he is regarded as the real founder of Zen.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 13:16, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

4.林语堂早年已立志发明“中文打字机”。当时科学严谨的汉字检索系统仍未建立起来；又由于汉字本身是符号文字而非字母文字，长期以来人们对制成中文打字机的可能性多持怀疑态度。

4.In his early years, Lin yutang aspired to invent the "Chinese typewriter". At that time, the scientific and rigorous Chinese character retrieval system had not yet been established. Because Chinese characters are symbolic characters rather than alphabetic characters, people have long been skeptical of the possibility of making Chinese typewriters.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 13:14, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

==Xiao Ting 肖婷==

==Xie Fan 解帆==

==Xu Jia 徐佳==

1.《道德经》主要论述“道”与“德”：“道”不仅是宇宙之道、自然之道，也是个体修行即修道的方法；“德”不是通常以为的道德或德行，而是修道者所应必备的特殊的世界观、方法论以及为人处世之方法。

Tao Te Ching mainly discusses "Dao" and "De" : "Dao" is not only the way of universe and nature, but also the method of individual cultivation; "De" is not the morality or virtue as commonly thought, but the special world view, methodology and way of dealing with people that a monastic should have.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 01:26, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia

2.《论语》是儒家经典之一，是一部以记言为主的语录体散文集，主要以语录和对话文体的形式记录了孔子及其弟子的言行，集中体现了孔子的政治、审美、道德伦理和功利等价值思想。

The Analects, one of the Confucian classics，is a collection of quotations and essays, which records the words and deeds of Confucius and his students. It embodies Confucius' thoughts in politics, aesthetics, moral ethics and utilitarianism.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 01:26, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia

3.《坛经》的思想对禅宗发展起到了重要作用。中国佛教著作被尊称为“经”的，仅此一部。

The Sutra of Huineng, the only one Buddist work that has been honored as "sutra", contributes a lot to the development of Zen.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 01:26, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia

4.林语堂在书中谈论了庄子的淡泊，赞扬了陶渊明的闲适，诵读了《归去来辞》，还讲解了《圣经》故事，谈及中国人如何品茗，如何行酒令，如何观山，如何玩水，如何看云，如何鉴石，如何养花、蓄鸟、赏雪、听雨、吟风、弄月，等等。

In his book, Lin talked about the unworldliness of Chuang Tzu, praised the leusure of Tao Yuanming，and read one of Tao's prose named On Returning Home. He also explained the stories of the Bible, talked about how the Chinese people taste tea,play drinking games, watch mountains and waters, observe clouds and rocks, raise flowers and birds, enjoy the snow, listen to rain, and enjoy the air and the moon.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 01:26, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia

==Xu Jing 许静==

==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==

==Yang Hairong 杨海容==

==Yang Hui 阳慧==

==Yang Yue 杨悦==

==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==

==Yi Zichu 义子楚==

==You Yuting 游雨婷==

==Yu Ni 余妮==

==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==

==Zeng Liang 曾良==
1.公元前123年，张骞随大将军卫青出使匈奴，在他的引导下，平息了多年来北方匈奴对汉王朝的骚扰，张骞因此被封为博望侯。

In 123 B. C. , Zhang Qian followed General Wei Qing in a major military raid against the Xiongnu. His guidance led to a number of victories, which succeeded in ending the harassment by the Xiongnu of the Han Dynasty. Zhang Qian was therefore conferred the title of Marquis of Bowang.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

In 123 B.C., Zhang Qian accompanied the great general Wei Qing on a mission to the Xiongnu. Under his guidance, the Xiongnu harassment of the Han dynasty in the north for many years was quelled, and Zhang Qian was thus made the Marquis of Bowang.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:00, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

2.郑和的船队由三百艘大船及三万多名水兵组成，船队中最大的一艘船被称为“宝船”，其船身长达133米，船桅多达九根，可搭载一千人。郑和和汉人与穆斯林船员一起打开了中国在非洲、印度及东南亚的贸易航线。

Zheng He’s fleet had more than 300 ships and 30,000 sailors. The largest vessels, 133-meter-long “treasure ships”, had up to nine masts and could carry a thousand people. Along with a Han and Muslim crew, Zheng opened up trade routes in Africa, India, and Southeast Asia.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

Zheng He's fleet consisted of 300 ships and more than 30,000 sailors, the largest ship in the fleet was called the "treasure ship", with a hull length of 133 meters and as many as nine masts, which could carry 1,000 people. Zheng He and the Chinese and Muslim crews together opened up Chinese trade routes in Africa, India and Southeast Asia.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:00, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

Zheng He’s fleet had more than 300 ships and 30,000 sailors. The largest vessels(also called “treasure ships”),133-meter-long ,had up to nine masts and could carry a thousand people. Along with a Han and Muslim crew, Zheng opened up trade routes in Africa, India, and Southeast Asia.--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:26, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

3.清末时，在“西学东渐”浪潮的冲击下，传统儿童教育踏入近代的门槛。

In late Qing dynasty, impacted by the wave of “ The Eastward Spread of Western Learning”, traditional children education stepped into the threshold of modern education. --[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

At the end of the Qing Dynasty, under the impact of the wave of "Western learning", traditional children's education entered the threshold of modern times.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:00, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

4.西进运动促进了农业、工业、交通业的飞速发展，也促进了美国城市化的进程。

The Westernization Movement promoted the rapid devepment of agrilucture, industry, transportation and the urbanization process of the United States as well. --[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

The westward movement contributed to the rapid development of agriculture, industry, and transportation, as well as to the urbanization of the United States.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:00, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==

==Zhang Hui 张慧==

1.张骞出使西域,接触到西域各国的风土人情，是汉朝开始对西域各国有所了解，使汉朝与西域建立了友好关系，为后来西汉政府设置西域都护府，使西域正式归西汉政府管辖打下了基础。

Zhang Qian’s mission to the Western Regions brought in contact with the customs of the Western Regions. It was the Han dynasty that began to understand the Western Regions countries, which enabled the Han dynasty to establish friendly relations with the Western Regions. Later, the Western Han government set up the Western Regions Protectorate and made the Western Regions officially returned to the Western Han government. Jurisdiction laid the foundation.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 11:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

Zhang Qian's mission to the Western Regions brought him into contact with the customs and traditions of the countries in the Western Regions, and enabled the Han Dynasty to establish friendly relations with the Western Regions, which later laid the foundation for the Western Han government to set up the Western Regions Capital Protection Office, making the Western Regions officially under the jurisdiction of the Western Han government.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:12, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

2.海上丝绸之路自秦汉时期开通以来，一直是沟通东西方经济文化交流的重要桥梁，而东南亚地区自古就是海上丝绸之路的重要枢纽和组成部分。

Since the opening of the Maritime Silk Road during the Qin and Han Dynasties, it has always been an important bridge for the economic and cultural exchanges between the East and the West. Southeast Asia has been an important hub and part of the Maritime Silk Road since ancient times.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 11:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

Since the opening of the Maritime Silk Road during the Qin and Han dynasties, it has been an important bridge to bridge the economic and cultural exchanges between the East and the West, and the Southeast Asian region has been an important hub and part of the Maritime Silk Road since ancient times.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:12, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

3.西学东渐将西方近代各种学术上的新成果带入了中国，深深影响到各种学术的发展，而许多在传统中国不被重视甚至不存在的学科也在此影响下得到发展。

Western learning has brought various new academic achievements in modern Western modern times into China, deeply affecting the development of various academics, and many disciplines that are not valued or even existed in traditional China have also been developed under this influence.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 11:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

The gradual expansion of Western learning brought various new achievements in modern Western scholarship into China, which deeply influenced the development of various academic disciplines, and many disciplines that were not valued or even did not exist in traditional China also developed under this influence.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:12, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

4.洋务运动虽然在客观上刺激中国资本主义发展、并且在一定程度上抵制了外国资本主义的经济输入，但并没有使中国走上富强之路。

Although the Westernization Movement objectively stimulated the development of Chinese capitalism, and to a certain extent resisted the economic import of foreign capitalism, it did not make China embark on a path of prosperity.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 11:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

Although the foreign affairs movement objectively stimulated the development of Chinese capitalism and to a certain extent resisted the economic import of foreign capitalism, it did not put China on the road to wealth and power.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:12, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Ling 张玲==

==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==

==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==

==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==

==Zhang Yu 张瑜==
1.除了朴素的唯物主义观点，《道德经》一书中还包括大量朴素辩证法观点，如一切事物均具有正反两面。

In addition to the simple materialistic view, ''Tao Te Ching'' also includes a large number of simple dialectical views, such as all things have positive and negative sides.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:36, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

Apart from the simple materialistic views, ''Tao Te Ching'' also includes a large number of simple dialectical views, for example, every coin has two sides.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 09:50, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

2.《论语》较为集中地体现了孔子及儒家学派的政治主张、伦理思想、道德观念及教育原则等。

''The Analects'' embodies the political ideas, ethical thoughts, moral concepts and educational principles of Confucius and the Confucianism in a more concentrated manner.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:36, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

''The Analects'' embodies the political views, ethical thoughts, moral ideas and educational principles of Confucius and the Confucianism in a relatively concentrated manner.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 09:50, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

3.经文主要记载慧能的生平事迹和言教。《坛经》的思想对禅宗发展起到了重要作用。

The Sutra mainly records the life story and teachings of Hui-neng. ''The Sutra of Hui-neng'' played an important role in the development of Zen Buddhism.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:36, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

The Sutra mainly recorded the life story and teachings of Hui-neng. The thought in ''The Sutra of Hui-neng'' played an important role in the development of Zen Buddhism.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 09:50, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

4.林语堂先生在《生活的艺术》中将中国人旷怀达观、陶情遣兴的生活方式和浪漫高雅的东方情调充分传达出来。

In ''The Importance of Living'', Lin Yutang fully conveys the Chinese way of life of being open-minded and broad-minded, and the romantic and elegant oriental sentiment.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:36, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

In ''The Importance of Living'', Lin Yutang fully conveys the Chinese lifestyle of open-mindedness and broad-mindedness, and the oriental sentiment of romance and elegance.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 09:50, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==

==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==

==Zhao Xi 赵茜==

==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==

1.先秦时期，连接中国东西方交流的通道已经存在，丝绸正式西传始于西汉通西域，丝绸之路真正形成始于西汉张骞凿空。

The pre-Qin period, connecting China's East and West exchange channel has existed, the official western transmission of silk began in the Western Han Dynasty through the Western Regions, the Silk Road really formed from the Western Han Dynasty Zhang Qian chiseling.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 11:53, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

In the pre-Qin period, a channel connecting China's east and west already existed. The official spread of silk to the west began in the Western Han Dynasty, and the real formation of the Silk Road began when Zhang Qian's hollowed out in the Western Han Dynasty.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 12:01, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

2.海上丝绸之路，是古代中国与外国交通贸易和文化交往的海上通道，也称"海上陶瓷之路"和“海上香料之路”，1913年由法国的东方学家沙畹首次提及。

The Maritime Silk Road, also known as the "Maritime Route of Ceramics" and the "Maritime Route of Spices", was first mentioned by the French orientalist Chavannes in 1913, and is a maritime route for traffic, trade and cultural exchanges between ancient China and foreign countries.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 11:53, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

The Maritime Silk Road was an ancient maritime channel for communication and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries. It was also called the "Sea Ceramic Road" and "Sea Spice Road". It was first mentioned in 1913 by the French orientalist Shawan.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 12:01, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

3.明代万历年间，以利玛窦为代表的西书七千部传教士来华传教，同时带来西方科技、文化等。这对中国传统思想文化有所触动。

During the Wanli period of the Ming Dynasty, the seven thousand missionaries of the Western Book, represented by Matteo Ricci, came to China to preach, and at the same time brought Western technology and culture. This has touched the traditional Chinese thought and culture.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 11:53, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

During the Wanli period of the Ming Dynasty, 7,000 missionaries represented by Matteo Ricci came to China to preach, and at the same time brought Western technology and culture. This has touched traditional Chinese thought and culture.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 12:01, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

4.洋务运动，又称自强运动，是19世纪60年代到90年代晚清洋务派所进行的一场引进西方军事装备、机器生产和科学技术以挽救清朝统治的自救运动。

The Foreign Affairs Movement, also known as the Self-Strengthening Movement, was a self-help movement conducted by the Foreign Affairs faction of the late Qing Dynasty from the 1860s to the 1990s to introduce Western military equipment, machinery production and science and technology to save the Qing Dynasty.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 11:53, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

The Westernization Movement, also known as the Self-Strengthening Movement, was a self-rescue movement carried out by the Westernization Movement from the 1860s to the late Qing Dynasty that introduced Western military equipment, machine production, and science and technology to save the Qing rule.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 12:01, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==

==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==

==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==

==Zhu Xu 朱旭==

==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==

==Zubareva, Ekaterina==

20201228 cult

2020-12-27T01:26:42Z

Xu Jia: /* Xu Jia 徐佳 */

==Alsied, Saffana==

==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==

==Chen Han 陈涵==

==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==

==Dashkin, Gennadii==

==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==

==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==

1.老子曾做过周朝守藏史，后退隐，作《道德经》，其思想的核心是“道”。

Lao Zi once worked as an archivist in the imperial library of the Zhou Dynasty before he retired from public life. It is widely believed that he was the author of Tao Te Ching and the core of Lao Zi's thought is "Tao".--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:52, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

2.《论语》记录了孔子的言行。它涵盖了广泛的主题，从政治、哲学、文学和艺术到教育再到道德修养。

The Analects of Confucius records the words and deeds of Confucius. It covers a wide variety of subjects, ranging from politics, philosophy, literature and art to education to moral cultivation.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:52, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

3.惠能禅学思想的主要特点是“识心见性”和“顿悟成佛”。

The main features of Hui Neng's Zen thoughts are "knowing the heart and seeing the nature" and "becoming Buddha by epiphany".--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:52, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

4.《生活的艺术》是一本洗涤心灵的书籍，是一杯好茶，是一种良药。阅读此书能使我们被尘沙玷污的心灵洗涤，使我们能在嚣闹的城市中得到宁静。

The Importance of Living is a book for washing the soul, a good cup of tea and a good medicine. Reading this book can wash our hearts polluted by dust and sand, and make us get peace in the noisy city.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:52, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==
1.《道德经》是中国历史上最伟大的名著之一，对传统哲学、科学、政治、宗教等产生了深刻影响。

Tao Te Ching is one of the greatest masterpieces in Chinese history, which has a profound influence on traditional philosophy, science, politics and religion. --[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 15:13, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

As one of the greatest masterpieces in Chinese history, Tao Te Ching has a profound influence on traditional philosophy, science, politics and religion.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:59, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

2.《论语》较为集中地体现了孔子及儒家学派的政治主张、伦理思想、道德观念及教育原则等。

The Analects embodies the political ideas, ethical thought, moral concepts and educational principles of Confucius and Confucianism. --[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 15:13, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

The Analects embodies the political ideas, ethical thoughts, moral concepts and educational principles of Confucius and Confucianism.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:59, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

3.《慧能经》主张世上一切事物空幻不实，即对于现实世界不应执著或留恋。

The Sutra of Hui-neng holds that everything in the world is empty and unreal, that is, it should not be persistent or nostalgic for the real world.--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 15:13, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

The Sutra of Hui-neng holds that everything in the world is illusory, that is, it should not be persistent or nostalgic for the real world.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:59, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

4.《生活的艺术》是林语堂旅美专事创作后的第一部书，该书于1937年在美国出版，次年便居美国畅销书排行榜榜首达52周。

The Importance of Living is Lin Yutang's first book, which was published in the United States in 1937 and topped the bestseller list for 52 weeks.--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 15:13, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

The Importance of Living is Lin Yutang's first book after his study in the United States, which was published in the United States in 1937 and topped the bestseller list for 52 weeks.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:59, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==

==Grosheva, Anna==

==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==

==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==

==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==

==Guirou, Barthelemy==

==Guo Lu 郭露==

==Ha, Thi Thu Hang==

==He Changqi 何长琦==

==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==

==Hu Jin 胡瑾==
1. 《道德经》简称老子，是中国的经典文本。根据传统，它是由公元前6世纪的圣人老子所写，老子是周朝的一位记录者，在中国广为人知。尽管最早出土的文字可以追溯到公元前4世纪晚期，但文字的真正作者和撰写或编纂日期仍有争议。

1. The Tao Te Ching simply referred to as the Laozi，is a Chinese classic text. According to tradition, it was written around 6th century BC by the sage Laozi, a record-keeper at the Zhou dynasty court, by whose name the text is known in China. The text's true authorship and date of composition or compilation are still debated, although the oldest excavated text dates back to the late 4th century BC.

2. 《论语》是儒家学派的经典著作之一，由孔子的弟子及其再传弟子编撰而成。它以语录体和对话文体为主，记录了孔子及其弟子言行，集中体现了孔子的政治主张、论理思想、道德观念及教育原则等。

2. The Analects is one of the classical works of Confucianism, compiled by the disciples of Confucius and his disciples. It is mainly in the style of discourses and dialogues, recording the words and deeds of Confucius and his disciples, concentrating on Confucius' political ideas, theoretical thoughts, moral concepts and educational principles.

3. 《慧能经》附有慧能对《金刚经》的逐条注释——这是它有史以来第一次出版的英文译本。他的谈话集也被称为《六祖坛经》，是唯一的禅宗记录，一般被尊称为经，或经文。

3. The Sutra of Hui-neng is here accompanied by Hui-neng's verse-by-verse commentary on the Diamond Sutra—in its very first published English translation ever.This collection of his talks, also known as the Platform or Altar Sutra, is the only Zen record of its kind to be generally honored with the appellation sutra, or scripture.

4. 《生活的艺术》是林语堂旅美专事创作后的第一部书，也是继之后再获成功的又一英文作品。该书于1937年在美国出版，次年便居美国畅销书排行榜榜首达52周，且接连再版四十余次，并为十余种文字所翻译。

4. “The Art of Living” was Lin Yutang's first book after he had traveled to the U.S. and was another successful work in English. It was published in the United States in 1937 and topped the American bestseller list for 52 weeks the following year, and was reprinted more than forty times and translated into more than a dozen languages.--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 07:31, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

4. 《生活的艺术》是林语堂旅美专事创作后的第一部书，也是继《吾国与吾民》之后再获成功的又一英文作品。该书于1937年在美国出版，次年便居美国畅销书排行榜榜首达52周，且接连再版四十余次，并为十余种文字所翻译。

''The Art of Living'' was Lin Yutang's first book after he had traveled to the U.S. and was another successful English work after ''My Country and My People''. It was published in the United States in 1937 and topped the American bestseller list for 52 weeks at the following year. Besides, it was reprinted more than forty times and translated into more than a dozen languages.--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:20, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling

==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==

==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==

==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==

==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==

==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==
1、丝绸之路被认为是连结亚欧大陆的古代东西方文明的交汇之路，而丝绸则是最具代表性的货物。数千年来，游牧民族或部落、商人、教徒、外交家、士兵和学术考察者沿着丝绸之路四处活动。

The Silk Road is considered to be the ancient crossroads of eastern and western civilizations linking Asia and Europe, with Silk being the most iconic cargo. For thousands of years, nomadic peoples or tribes, merchants, religious, diplomats, soldiers and academic researchers moved around along the Silk Road.

2、郑和七次奉旨率船队远航西洋，航线从西太平洋穿越印度洋，直达西亚和非洲东岸，途经30多个国家和地区。他的航行比哥伦布发现美洲大陆早87年，比达·伽马早92年，比麦哲伦早114年。在世界航海史上，他开辟了贯通太平洋西部与印度洋等大洋的直达航线。

Zheng He was ordered to lead seven voyages to the Atlantic Ocean, with routes from the western Pacific Ocean across the Indian Ocean to West Asia and the east coast of Africa, passing through more than 30 countries and regions. His voyage was 87 years before Columbus discovered the American continent, 92 years before Da Gama, and 114 years before Magellan. In the history of world navigation, he opened up a direct route through the western Pacific Ocean and the Indian Ocean and other great oceans.

3、西学书籍的翻译和著述，是西学东渐相当重要的媒介，在当时出现了大量的由教士及士大夫合著合译的书籍，但这些书籍未能受到当时一般社会的重视，也未能打入晚明已十分发达的商业出版界，因此虽西学书籍有刻印出版，但主要仍仅流通于少数有兴趣的士大夫阶层。

The translation and writing of books on Western studies was an important medium for the gradual expansion of Western studies to the east. A large number of books co-authored and translated by clergy and scholars emerged at that time, but these books were not taken seriously by the general society at that time, nor did they penetrate into the commercial publishing world, which was already well developed in the late Ming Dynasty.

4、随着军事工业的创办，洋务派认识到，强大的国防基础在于整个国家经济的发展，要求能源、钢铁等工业与之配套。同时，为了维护民族利益，也必须发展民族经济，与洋人"商战"、"争利"。于是，他们提出了求富的口号，民用工业和新式交通运输业也发展起来了。

With the founding of the military industry, the School of Westernization realized that the basis of a strong national defense lay in the development of the entire national economy, requiring energy, steel and other industries to go along with it. At the same time, in order to safeguard national interests, it was also necessary to develop the national economy and to "negotiate" and "compete for profits" with the foreigners. Thus, they put forward the slogan of seeking wealth, and the civil industry and new transportation industry were developed.--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 14:10, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi

==Li Lili 李丽丽==
1.1417年，永乐皇帝下令郑和将使节送回国内。郑和和他的舰队再次回到海上启航，进行他的第五次远征（1417-1419）。他在许多相同的地方停留，包括爪哇岛、苏门答腊岛，还为他遇到的不同的统治者带来了信件和财富。

By 1417, the Yongle Emperor ordered Zheng He to return the envoys home. Once more back on the seas, Zheng He and his large fleet set sail for his fifth expedition (1417-1419). He stopped in many of the same places, including Java, Sumatra, and also brought letters and riches to the different rulers Zheng He met.

In 1417, Emperor Yongle ordered Zheng He to send the envoys back home. Zheng He and his fleet returned to sea again to set sail on his fifth expedition (1417-1419). He stopped at many of the same places, including Java and Sumatra, and also brought letters and wealth to the different rulers he met. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

2.海上丝绸之路从福建泉州开始, 是秦汉时期形成、三国时期发展到隋朝、盛唐宋朝、明清衰落的最早航程航线。

Starting from Quanzhou Fujian Province, the maritime Silk Road was the earliest voyage route that was formed in the Qin and Han dynasties, developed from the Three Kingdoms Period to the Sui Dynasty, flourished in the Tang and Song dynasties, and fell into decline in the Ming and Qing dynasties.

The Maritime Silk Road began in Quanzhou, Fujian Province, and was the earliest voyage route formed during the Qin and Han dynasties, developed during the Three Kingdoms Period to the Sui dynasty, flourished in the Tang and Song dynasties, and fell into decline in the Ming and Qing dynasties. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

3.西学东渐不仅客观上促成了马克思主义哲学在中国的广泛传播, 构成了马克思主义哲学中国化的一个重要历史前提, 而且引发了中国哲学历史发展过程中的重大变革, 推动了中国哲学从古代传统向近代传统的转变。

The spread of Western learning to the East objectively promoted the dissemination of Marxist philosophy, forming an important historical precondition for its Sinicization. Moreover, it triggered a great transformation in the historical development of Chinese philosophy and facilitated its transition from an ancient to an early modern tradition.

The eastward spread of Western learning has not only objectively contributed to the widespread dissemination of Marxist philosophy in China, constituting an important historical premise for the Chineseization of Marxist philosophy, but also triggered a major change in the historical development of Chinese philosophy, promoting the transformation of Chinese philosophy from the ancient to the modern tradition. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

4.鸦片战争、不平等条约和19世纪中叶的大规模起义的残酷现实，使清朝朝臣和官员认识到壮大中国的必要性。自19世纪40年代以来，中国学者和官员一直在研究和翻译“西学”。

The rude realities of the Opium War, the unequal treaties, and the mid- 19th century mass uprisings caused Qing courtiers and officials to recognize the need to strengthen China. Chinese scholars and officials had been examining and translating "Western Learning" since the 1840s.--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 13:05, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

The harsh realities of the Opium War, the unequal treaties, and the mass uprisings of the mid-19th century made courtiers and officials of the Qing Dynasty realize the need to strengthen China. Since the 1840s, Chinese scholars and officials had been studying and translating "Western Learning". --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Liqin 李丽琴==

==Liu Liu 刘柳==

1.《道德经》是中国历史上最伟大的名著之一，对传统哲学、科学、政治、宗教等产生了深刻影响。

As one of the greatest masterpieces in Chinese history, ''Tao Te Ching'' has a profound impact on traditional philosophy, science, politics, and religion.

Tao Te Ching, as one of the greatest masterpieces in Chinese history, has a profound impact on traditional philosophy, science, politics and religion.--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 13:16, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

2.孔子因材施教，对于不同的对象，考虑其不同的素质、优点和缺点、进德修业的具体情况，给予不同的教诲，表现了诲人不倦的可贵精神。

Confucius taught students in accordance with their aptitude. He gave different instructions to different students, taking into account their different qualities, strengths and weaknesses, and the specific circumstances of their advancement and cultivation, showing the valuable spirit of tireless teaching.

Confucius taught students in accordance with their aptitude. For different objects, he considered their different qualities, advantages and disadvantages, and the specific situation of moral education, and gave different instructions, which showed the valuable spirit of tireless teaching.--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 13:16, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

3.近年来，中国大多数学者都认为《坛经》的基本内容代表了慧能思想，同时其中也有后人增益的成分。

In recent years, most Chinese scholars believe that the basic content of the ''The Sutra of Huineng'' represents the thought of Huineng, while there are also some elements of later additions to it.

In recent years, most Chinese scholars believe that the basic content of Tanjing represents Huineng's thought, and it also contains the later additions.--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 13:16, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

4.《生活的艺术》是林语堂旅美专事创作后的第一部书，也是继《吾国与吾民》之后再获成功的又一英文作品。该书于1937年在美国出版，次年便居美国畅销书排行榜榜首达52周，且接连再版四十余次，被翻译为十余种文字全球发行。

''The Importance of Living'' was the first book after Lin Yutang had traveled to the United States and was another successful work in English after ''My Country and My People''. It was published in the United States in 1937 and topped the American bestseller list for 52 weeks the following year, and was republished more than forty times and translated into more than a dozen languages for global distribution.--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 07:14, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

''The Art of Life'' is the first book written by Lin Yutang after his trip to the United States. It is also another successful English work after ''My Country and My People''. The book was published in the United States in 1937. The following year, it ranked the top of the best seller list in the United States for 52 weeks. It has been reprinted for more than 40 times and has been translated into more than 10 languages for global distribution.--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 13:16, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Ou 刘欧==

==Liu Yi 刘艺==
1、传统的丝绸之路，起自中国古代都城长安，经中亚国家、阿富汗、伊朗、伊拉克、叙利亚等而达地中海，以罗马为终点，全长6440公里。这条路被认为是连结亚欧大陆的古代东西方文明的交汇之路，而丝绸则是最具代表性的货物。

The traditional Silk Road, which started from Chang'an, the ancient capital of China, and reached the Mediterranean Sea via Central Asian countries, Afghanistan, Iran, and Syria, and ended in Rome, was 6,440 kilometers long. This road is considered to be the intersection of ancient eastern and western civilizations linking Asia and Europe, and silk is the most representative cargo. The road reached the Mediterranean Sea from Iraq, Syria, etc. and ended in Rome, with a total length of 6,440 kilometers. This road is considered to be the crossroads of ancient civilizations between East and West, linking Asia and Europe, and silk is the most representative cargo.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 12:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

2、东海航线，也叫“东方海上丝路”。春秋战国时期，齐国在胶东半岛开辟了“循海岸水行”直通辽东半岛、朝鲜半岛、日本列岛直至东南亚的黄金通道。唐代，山东半岛和江浙沿海的中韩日海上贸易逐渐兴起。宋代，宁波成为中韩日海上贸易的主要港口。

The East Sea Route, also known as the "Eastern Sea Silk Road". During the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, the State of Qi opened up a golden route on the Jiaodong Peninsula, which led to the Liaodong Peninsula, the Korean Peninsula, the Japanese islands and Southeast Asia. During the Tang Dynasty, the maritime trade between China, Korea and Japan on the Shandong Peninsula and the coast of Jiangsu and Zhejiang gradually emerged. During the Song Dynasty, Ningbo became the main port for maritime trade between China, Korea and Japan.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 12:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

3、东学西渐指的是一个和西学东渐互相补充的东西方文化交流过程。东学西渐有一千多年的历史，对世界文化的发展有十分深远的影响。

Eastern learning and Western learning refers to a process of cultural exchange between East and West that complements Western learning and Eastern learning. With a history of over a thousand years, East to West has had a profound impact on the development of world culture.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 12:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

4、洋务运动虽然在客观上刺激中国资本主义发展、并且在一定程度上抵制了外国资本主义的经济输入，但并没有使中国走上富强之路。

Although the foreign affairs movement objectively stimulated the development of Chinese capitalism and to a certain extent resisted the economic import of foreign capitalism, it did not put China on the road to wealth and power.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 12:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==

==Lo, Minh Thao==

==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==

==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==

==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==

==Mo Ling 莫玲==

1.“道”作为《道德经》中最抽象的概念范畴，是天地万物生成的动力源。

The way, as the most abstract concept in Tao Te Ching, is the power source for the creation of all things.

As the most abstract conceptual category in Tao Te Ching, "Tao" is the source of power for the creation of heaven and earth.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 13:21, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

2.《论语》主要以语录和对话文体的形式记录了孔子及其弟子的言行，集中体现了孔子的政治、审美、道德伦理和功利等价值思想。

The Analects of Confucius mainly records the words and deeds of Confucius and his disciples in the form of quotations and dialogues, which embodies Confucius' political, aesthetic, moral and utilitarian values.

3.若欲修行，在家亦得，不由在寺。

If people are sincerely keen on the practice,it is no need for them to practise in the temple and they can be successful even at home.

4.林语堂的翻译特点是通畅易懂，少用“行语”，中等文化的读者都能看懂。

The translation works of Lin Yutang are characterized by fluency and transparency since he hardly adopt jargons,so that his works can be understood by less-educated readers.--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:11, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling

==Ngo, Thi Minh Huong==

==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==

==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==

==Phyo, Su Kyi==

==Pingki, Tanchangya==

==Qu Miao 瞿淼==

==Rajabov, Anushervon==

==Seydou, Sagara==

==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==

==Si Yu 司妤==

==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==

1.汉武帝刘彻即位时，张骞已在朝廷担任名为“郎”的侍从官。据史书记载，他“为人强力，宽大信人”。即具有坚韧不拔、心胸开阔，并能以信义待人的优良品质。建元三年，即公元前138年，张骞“以郎应募，使月氏”。“郎”，是皇帝的侍从官，没有固定职务，又随时可能被选授重任。

When Emperor Wu of Han Dynasty Liu Che assumed the throne, Zhang Qian was already working at the court as a retainer named "Lang". According to historical records, he was "a strong, generous and trustworthy". In other words, he was tough, open-minded, and could treat people with faith and justice. In the third year of Jian Yuan, that is, 138 B.C., Zhang Qian was recruited to make a mission to the Moon Dynasty. The "Lang", the emperor's retainer, has no fixed position, and may be chosen at any time to reappoint.

2.有观点认为，明初时海外威胁受到重视，故有郑和下西洋之事。然而，或许郑和过于成功了，“他的海军满载荣誉胜利归来，并确认帝国没有来自海上的威胁”，因此“郑和与他的随从也可以说失去了继续远航的意义。”

It has been argued that the overseas threat was taken seriously at the beginning of the Ming Dynasty, hence Zheng He's voyage to the West. However, perhaps Zheng He was too successful, "his navy returned triumphantly laden with glory and confirmed that there was no threat to the empire from the sea", so "Zheng He and his entourage could be said to have lost the point of continuing their voyage".

3.甲午战争以后，由于中国当时面临着国破家亡的命运，许多有识之士开始更积极全面地向西方学习，出现了梁启超、康有为、谭嗣同等一批思想家。他们向西方学习大量的自然科学和社会科学的知识，政治上也要求改革。这一时期大量的西方知识传入中国，影响非常广泛。许多人以转译日本人所著的西学书籍来接受西学。进入民国时期，由于对政治的不满又进一步导致知识分子们提出全盘西化的主张，在五四时期这种思想造成了很大的影响。这一波的西学东渐，一直持续到当代而未止。

After the First Sino-Japanese War, as China was facing the fate of national ruin, many learned people began to learn more actively and comprehensively from the West, and a group of thinkers emerged, such as Liang Qichao, Kang Youwei and Tan Sitong. They learned a lot of natural and social science knowledge from the West, and also demanded reforms in politics. A great deal of Western knowledge was introduced into China during this period, and its influence was very widespread. Many people embraced Western learning by translating Western books written by the Japanese. In the Republican period, dissatisfaction with politics further led intellectuals to advocate wholesale Westernization, which had a great impact in the May Fourth period. This wave of Western learning continued into contemporary times.

4.洋务派前期创办的军事工业，经费由清政府调拨，产品分配给军队使用，管理方式是封建衙门式的。虽然这些企业采用机器生产，但本质上属于带有资本主义因素的封建官办企业。

The military industries founded by the foreign affairs faction in the early period were financed by the Qing government, and the products were allocated to the army for use, and managed in a feudal government office style. Although these enterprises adopted machine production, they were essentially feudal government-run enterprises with capitalist elements.--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:23, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Tang Bei 汤蓓==

==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==

==Wang Meiling 王美玲==

==Wang Xuan 王轩==

==Wu Qiong 吴琼==

==Wu Yilu 吴一露==

==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==

==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==
1.老子认为世界上的任何事物都是相比较而存在的。美丑、善恶、有无、难易、长短都是相互依存的，有此才有彼，有是才有非，有善才有恶。表面看来，正相反对的两个方面是相互对立的，而实际上又是相互包含、相互渗透的。

1.Laozi believes that everything in the world exists by comparison. Beauty and ugliness, good and evil, existence and existence, difficulty and difficulty, length and length are interdependent. There is one and there is another, there is yes and there is no, there is good and there is evil. On the surface, the two opposite aspects are opposite, but in fact they are mutually contained and permeated.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 13:16, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

2.《论语》既是语录体又是若干断片的篇章集合体。这些篇章的排列不一定有什么道理；就是前后两章间，也不一定有什么关联。而且这些断片的篇章绝不是一个人的手笔。

2.The Analects of Confucius is a collection of quotations and fragments. The arrangement of these chapters does not necessarily make sense; Even between the two chapters, there is not necessarily a connection. And these fragmentary passages are not the work of one man.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 13:16, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

3.毛泽东还谈到过惠能的思想在佛教史上的地位。他说，惠能主张佛性人人皆有，创顿悟成佛之学，一方面使繁琐的佛教简易化，一方面也使从印度传入的佛教中国化。因此，他被视为禅宗的真正创始人。

3.Mao Zedong also talked about the position of Huineng's thought in the history of Buddhism. He said that Huineng advocates that everyone has the Buddha nature and creates the theory of enlightenment to become a Buddha, which, on the one hand, simplifies the tedious Buddhism and, on the other hand, makes the Buddhism introduced from India Chinese. Therefore, he is regarded as the real founder of Zen.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 13:16, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

4.林语堂早年已立志发明“中文打字机”。当时科学严谨的汉字检索系统仍未建立起来；又由于汉字本身是符号文字而非字母文字，长期以来人们对制成中文打字机的可能性多持怀疑态度。

4.In his early years, Lin yutang aspired to invent the "Chinese typewriter". At that time, the scientific and rigorous Chinese character retrieval system had not yet been established. Because Chinese characters are symbolic characters rather than alphabetic characters, people have long been skeptical of the possibility of making Chinese typewriters.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 13:14, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

==Xiao Ting 肖婷==

==Xie Fan 解帆==

==Xu Jia 徐佳==

1.《道德经》主要论述“道”与“德”：“道”不仅是宇宙之道、自然之道，也是个体修行即修道的方法；“德”不是通常以为的道德或德行，而是修道者所应必备的特殊的世界观、方法论以及为人处世之方法。

Tao Te Ching mainly discusses "Dao" and "De" : "Dao" is not only the way of universe and nature, but also the method of individual cultivation; "De" is not the morality or virtue as commonly thought, but the special world view, methodology and way of dealing with people that a monastic should have.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 01:26, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia

2.《论语》是儒家经典之一，是一部以记言为主的语录体散文集，主要以语录和对话文体的形式记录了孔子及其弟子的言行，集中体现了孔子的政治、审美、道德伦理和功利等价值思想。

The Analects, one of the Confucian classics，is a collection of quotations and essays, which records the words and deeds of Confucius and his students. It embodies Confucius' thoughts in politics, aesthetics, moral ethics and utilitarianism.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 01:26, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia

3.《坛经》的思想对禅宗发展起到了重要作用。中国佛教著作被尊称为“经”的，仅此一部。

The Sutra of Huineng, the only one Buddist work that has been honored as "sutra", contributes a lot to the development of Zen.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 01:26, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia

4.林语堂在书中谈论了庄子的淡泊，赞扬了陶渊明的闲适，诵读了《归去来辞》，还讲解了《圣经》故事，谈及中国人如何品茗，如何行酒令，如何观山，如何玩水，如何看云，如何鉴石，如何养花、蓄鸟、赏雪、听雨、吟风、弄月，等等。

In his book, Lin talked about the unworldliness of Chuang Tzu, praised the leusure of Tao Yuanming，and read one of Tao's prose named On Returning Home. He also explained the stories of the Bible, talked about how the Chinese people taste tea,play drinking games, watch mountains and waters, observe clouds and rocks, raise flowers and birds, enjoy the snow, listen to rain, and enjoy the air and the moonand.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 01:26, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia

==Xu Jing 许静==

==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==

==Yang Hairong 杨海容==

==Yang Hui 阳慧==

==Yang Yue 杨悦==

==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==

==Yi Zichu 义子楚==

==You Yuting 游雨婷==

==Yu Ni 余妮==

==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==

==Zeng Liang 曾良==
1.公元前123年，张骞随大将军卫青出使匈奴，在他的引导下，平息了多年来北方匈奴对汉王朝的骚扰，张骞因此被封为博望侯。

In 123 B. C. , Zhang Qian followed General Wei Qing in a major military raid against the Xiongnu. His guidance led to a number of victories, which succeeded in ending the harassment by the Xiongnu of the Han Dynasty. Zhang Qian was therefore conferred the title of Marquis of Bowang.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

In 123 B.C., Zhang Qian accompanied the great general Wei Qing on a mission to the Xiongnu. Under his guidance, the Xiongnu harassment of the Han dynasty in the north for many years was quelled, and Zhang Qian was thus made the Marquis of Bowang.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:00, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

2.郑和的船队由三百艘大船及三万多名水兵组成，船队中最大的一艘船被称为“宝船”，其船身长达133米，船桅多达九根，可搭载一千人。郑和和汉人与穆斯林船员一起打开了中国在非洲、印度及东南亚的贸易航线。

Zheng He’s fleet had more than 300 ships and 30,000 sailors. The largest vessels, 133-meter-long “treasure ships”, had up to nine masts and could carry a thousand people. Along with a Han and Muslim crew, Zheng opened up trade routes in Africa, India, and Southeast Asia.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

Zheng He's fleet consisted of 300 ships and more than 30,000 sailors, the largest ship in the fleet was called the "treasure ship", with a hull length of 133 meters and as many as nine masts, which could carry 1,000 people. Zheng He and the Chinese and Muslim crews together opened up Chinese trade routes in Africa, India and Southeast Asia.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:00, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

Zheng He’s fleet had more than 300 ships and 30,000 sailors. The largest vessels(also called “treasure ships”),133-meter-long ,had up to nine masts and could carry a thousand people. Along with a Han and Muslim crew, Zheng opened up trade routes in Africa, India, and Southeast Asia.--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:26, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

3.清末时，在“西学东渐”浪潮的冲击下，传统儿童教育踏入近代的门槛。

In late Qing dynasty, impacted by the wave of “ The Eastward Spread of Western Learning”, traditional children education stepped into the threshold of modern education. --[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

At the end of the Qing Dynasty, under the impact of the wave of "Western learning", traditional children's education entered the threshold of modern times.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:00, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

4.西进运动促进了农业、工业、交通业的飞速发展，也促进了美国城市化的进程。

The Westernization Movement promoted the rapid devepment of agrilucture, industry, transportation and the urbanization process of the United States as well. --[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

The westward movement contributed to the rapid development of agriculture, industry, and transportation, as well as to the urbanization of the United States.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:00, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==

==Zhang Hui 张慧==

1.张骞出使西域,接触到西域各国的风土人情，是汉朝开始对西域各国有所了解，使汉朝与西域建立了友好关系，为后来西汉政府设置西域都护府，使西域正式归西汉政府管辖打下了基础。

Zhang Qian’s mission to the Western Regions brought in contact with the customs of the Western Regions. It was the Han dynasty that began to understand the Western Regions countries, which enabled the Han dynasty to establish friendly relations with the Western Regions. Later, the Western Han government set up the Western Regions Protectorate and made the Western Regions officially returned to the Western Han government. Jurisdiction laid the foundation.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 11:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

Zhang Qian's mission to the Western Regions brought him into contact with the customs and traditions of the countries in the Western Regions, and enabled the Han Dynasty to establish friendly relations with the Western Regions, which later laid the foundation for the Western Han government to set up the Western Regions Capital Protection Office, making the Western Regions officially under the jurisdiction of the Western Han government.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:12, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

2.海上丝绸之路自秦汉时期开通以来，一直是沟通东西方经济文化交流的重要桥梁，而东南亚地区自古就是海上丝绸之路的重要枢纽和组成部分。

Since the opening of the Maritime Silk Road during the Qin and Han Dynasties, it has always been an important bridge for the economic and cultural exchanges between the East and the West. Southeast Asia has been an important hub and part of the Maritime Silk Road since ancient times.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 11:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

Since the opening of the Maritime Silk Road during the Qin and Han dynasties, it has been an important bridge to bridge the economic and cultural exchanges between the East and the West, and the Southeast Asian region has been an important hub and part of the Maritime Silk Road since ancient times.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:12, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

3.西学东渐将西方近代各种学术上的新成果带入了中国，深深影响到各种学术的发展，而许多在传统中国不被重视甚至不存在的学科也在此影响下得到发展。

Western learning has brought various new academic achievements in modern Western modern times into China, deeply affecting the development of various academics, and many disciplines that are not valued or even existed in traditional China have also been developed under this influence.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 11:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

The gradual expansion of Western learning brought various new achievements in modern Western scholarship into China, which deeply influenced the development of various academic disciplines, and many disciplines that were not valued or even did not exist in traditional China also developed under this influence.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:12, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

4.洋务运动虽然在客观上刺激中国资本主义发展、并且在一定程度上抵制了外国资本主义的经济输入，但并没有使中国走上富强之路。

Although the Westernization Movement objectively stimulated the development of Chinese capitalism, and to a certain extent resisted the economic import of foreign capitalism, it did not make China embark on a path of prosperity.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 11:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

Although the foreign affairs movement objectively stimulated the development of Chinese capitalism and to a certain extent resisted the economic import of foreign capitalism, it did not put China on the road to wealth and power.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:12, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Ling 张玲==

==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==

==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==

==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==

==Zhang Yu 张瑜==
1.除了朴素的唯物主义观点，《道德经》一书中还包括大量朴素辩证法观点，如一切事物均具有正反两面。

In addition to the simple materialistic view, ''Tao Te Ching'' also includes a large number of simple dialectical views, such as all things have positive and negative sides.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:36, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

Apart from the simple materialistic views, ''Tao Te Ching'' also includes a large number of simple dialectical views, for example, every coin has two sides.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 09:50, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

2.《论语》较为集中地体现了孔子及儒家学派的政治主张、伦理思想、道德观念及教育原则等。

''The Analects'' embodies the political ideas, ethical thoughts, moral concepts and educational principles of Confucius and the Confucianism in a more concentrated manner.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:36, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

''The Analects'' embodies the political views, ethical thoughts, moral ideas and educational principles of Confucius and the Confucianism in a relatively concentrated manner.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 09:50, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

3.经文主要记载慧能的生平事迹和言教。《坛经》的思想对禅宗发展起到了重要作用。

The Sutra mainly records the life story and teachings of Hui-neng. ''The Sutra of Hui-neng'' played an important role in the development of Zen Buddhism.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:36, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

The Sutra mainly recorded the life story and teachings of Hui-neng. The thought in ''The Sutra of Hui-neng'' played an important role in the development of Zen Buddhism.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 09:50, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

4.林语堂先生在《生活的艺术》中将中国人旷怀达观、陶情遣兴的生活方式和浪漫高雅的东方情调充分传达出来。

In ''The Importance of Living'', Lin Yutang fully conveys the Chinese way of life of being open-minded and broad-minded, and the romantic and elegant oriental sentiment.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:36, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

In ''The Importance of Living'', Lin Yutang fully conveys the Chinese lifestyle of open-mindedness and broad-mindedness, and the oriental sentiment of romance and elegance.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 09:50, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==

==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==

==Zhao Xi 赵茜==

==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==

1.先秦时期，连接中国东西方交流的通道已经存在，丝绸正式西传始于西汉通西域，丝绸之路真正形成始于西汉张骞凿空。

The pre-Qin period, connecting China's East and West exchange channel has existed, the official western transmission of silk began in the Western Han Dynasty through the Western Regions, the Silk Road really formed from the Western Han Dynasty Zhang Qian chiseling.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 11:53, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

In the pre-Qin period, a channel connecting China's east and west already existed. The official spread of silk to the west began in the Western Han Dynasty, and the real formation of the Silk Road began when Zhang Qian's hollowed out in the Western Han Dynasty.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 12:01, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

2.海上丝绸之路，是古代中国与外国交通贸易和文化交往的海上通道，也称"海上陶瓷之路"和“海上香料之路”，1913年由法国的东方学家沙畹首次提及。

The Maritime Silk Road, also known as the "Maritime Route of Ceramics" and the "Maritime Route of Spices", was first mentioned by the French orientalist Chavannes in 1913, and is a maritime route for traffic, trade and cultural exchanges between ancient China and foreign countries.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 11:53, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

The Maritime Silk Road was an ancient maritime channel for communication and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries. It was also called the "Sea Ceramic Road" and "Sea Spice Road". It was first mentioned in 1913 by the French orientalist Shawan.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 12:01, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

3.明代万历年间，以利玛窦为代表的西书七千部传教士来华传教，同时带来西方科技、文化等。这对中国传统思想文化有所触动。

During the Wanli period of the Ming Dynasty, the seven thousand missionaries of the Western Book, represented by Matteo Ricci, came to China to preach, and at the same time brought Western technology and culture. This has touched the traditional Chinese thought and culture.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 11:53, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

During the Wanli period of the Ming Dynasty, 7,000 missionaries represented by Matteo Ricci came to China to preach, and at the same time brought Western technology and culture. This has touched traditional Chinese thought and culture.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 12:01, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

4.洋务运动，又称自强运动，是19世纪60年代到90年代晚清洋务派所进行的一场引进西方军事装备、机器生产和科学技术以挽救清朝统治的自救运动。

The Foreign Affairs Movement, also known as the Self-Strengthening Movement, was a self-help movement conducted by the Foreign Affairs faction of the late Qing Dynasty from the 1860s to the 1990s to introduce Western military equipment, machinery production and science and technology to save the Qing Dynasty.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 11:53, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

The Westernization Movement, also known as the Self-Strengthening Movement, was a self-rescue movement carried out by the Westernization Movement from the 1860s to the late Qing Dynasty that introduced Western military equipment, machine production, and science and technology to save the Qing rule.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 12:01, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==

==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==

==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==

==Zhu Xu 朱旭==

==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==

==Zubareva, Ekaterina==

20201221 cult

2020-12-27T01:14:35Z

Xu Jia: /* Xu Jia 徐佳 */

==Alsied, Saffana==
1. Their king was killed and his skull turned into a drinking vessel. As a result, the Rouzhi fled and bore a constant grudge against the Xiongnu. At this time, the Han became increasingly strong, and Emperor Wu was determined to defeat the Xiongnu.--[[User:SAFFANA ALSIED 2|SAFFANA ALSIED 2]] ([[User talk:SAFFANA ALSIED 2|talk]]) 12:11, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

他们的国王被杀，他的头骨变成了饮酒器。结果，柔脂逃走了，对熊怒不断地怀恨在心。这时，汉人变得越来越强大，吴皇帝决心打败匈奴。

2.They even carried on their ships many foreign heads of state and envoys to China. On the voyage of 1423 alone, they brought 1,200 envoys from 16 countries to China, some of whom even preferred not to go back. --[[User:SAFFANA ALSIED 2|SAFFANA ALSIED 2]] ([[User talk:SAFFANA ALSIED 2|talk]]) 12:11, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

他们甚至还搭载了许多外国国家元首和特使前往中国。仅在1423年的航行中，他们就将来自16个国家的1200名使节带到了中国，其中一些人甚至不愿回国。

3.In the second half of the 16th century, foreign missionaries from the Society of Jesus came to China. They spread religious doctrines on the one hand and introduced on the other hand works on astronomy, mathematics, physics, geography, paintings, and music to China. Meanwhile, they brought to the West Chinese Confucian and Daoist doctrines, and made contributions to cultural exchanges between China and the West.

16世纪下半叶，耶稣会的外国传教士来到中国。他们一方面传播宗教学说，另一方面向中国介绍天文学，数学，物理学，地理，绘画和音乐方面的著作。同时，他们把西方的儒道思想带到了西方，为中西文化交流做出了贡献。

4.After the Second Opium War (1856-1860), Yi Xin (Prince Gong) and local officials realized that China had lagged far behind the West in weaponry and military technology, and advocated learning advanced production technology and troop training methods from the West so as to build a modern national defense. Known as the School of Westernization, these people launched a movement to learn from Western powers.

第二次鸦片战争（1856-1860）之后，巩义王子和当地官员意识到中国在武器装备和军事技术方面远远落后于西方，并主张从西方学习先进的生产技术和部队训练方法，以便建立现代国防。这些人被称为洋务派，他们发起了向西方列强学习的运动。

第二次鸦片战争（1856-1860）之后，奕䜣（恭亲王）和国内官员意识到中国在武器装备和军事技术方面远远落后于西方，因而他们主张从西方学习先进的生产技术和部队训练方法，旨在建立一支现代化的国防军队。这些人被称为洋务派，他们发起了一场向西方列强学习的运动。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 11:40, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling

==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==

==Chen Han 陈涵==

1.汉政府在西域设置常驻官员，派士卒屯田，设校尉统领保护，使汉族同新疆少数民族交往更加密切。汉朝在西域设立西域都护府为标志，丝绸之路进入繁荣时代。

The government of the Han Dynasty set up permanent officials in the Western Regions, dispatched soldiers to garrison the fields, and assigned a captain to lead the protection, so that the Han people had closer exchanges with ethnic minorities in Xinjiang. Marked by the establishment of Protectorate of the Western Regions by the Han Dynasty, the Silk Road entered the era of prosperity. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:39, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

2.三国时代，魏、蜀、吴均有丝绸生产，而吴雄踞江东，汉末三国正处在海上丝绸之路从陆地转向海洋的承前启后与最终形成的关键时期。

During the Three Kingdoms Period, the states of Wei, Shu and Wu all produced silk. And Wu stood firmly on the east bank of the Yangtze River. In the late Han Dynasty, the three states were at a crucial period when the Maritime Silk Road shifted from the land to the sea and eventually took shape. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:39, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

3.澳门由于在明嘉靖年间由朝廷让与葡萄牙人，因此在明末清初的西学东渐中，西方传教士常以澳门为中继站，而一些学术思想亦经由此逐渐传入中国内地，而许多与西人打交道的中国人亦在澳门及广州等地学习西方语言及文化。

Since Macau was ceded to the Portuguese by the imperial court during the years of Jaijing in the Ming Dynasty, Western missionaries often regarded it as a transition for eastward spreading of Western learning during the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, and some academic ideas were gradually introduced to the Chinese mainland, while many Chinese who had dealings with Westerners also learned Western languages and cultures in Macau and Guangzhou. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:39, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

4.洋务派后期创办的民用工业，投资大多采取官督商办和官商合办形式，产品主要作为商品投放市场，管理上采取劳动雇佣制，所以其本质上属于带有封建因素的资本主义性质的企业。

The civil industry founded by Westernization Group in the late period of the Movement was funded mostly by taking the government-supervised and merchant-managed form and the government-merchant cooperation. Its products were mainly put on the market as commodities and its management adopted the labor-employment system, so that it belongs to capitalist enterprises in essence featuring feudalism. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:39, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==

==Dashkin, Gennadii==

==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==

==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==

1.丝绸之路沿途的大批历史文物、引人入胜的自然风景以及富有情趣的地方文化，使这一长途远游成了世界上最精彩的旅游项目之一。

A wealth of historical relics, fascinating scenery and interesting local cultures along the Silk Road make this long trip one of the world’s most exciting tourist attractions.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 13:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

2.作为一个具有野心的拥有回族血统的穆斯林太监、一个典型的游离于儒家学者精英体制之外的人，郑和在1405到1433年间七下西洋，其中六次都在永乐帝的支持下进行。

An ambitious Muslim eunuch of Hui descent, a quintessential outsider in the establishment of Confucian scholar elites, Zheng He led seven expeditions from 1405 to 1433 with six of them under the auspices of Yongle.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 13:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

As an ambitious Muslim eunuch of Hui descent and a quintessential outsider in the establishment of Confucian scholar elites, Zheng He led seven expeditions from 1405 to 1433, with six expeditions under the auspices of Yongle.--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:26, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

3.从19世纪下半叶到20世纪初,伴随着“西学东渐”的进程,西方妇女生活现状、人权思想及女权理论渐次传入中国,引起了中国思想界的关注。

From the second half of 19th century to the beginning of 20th century, with the progress of the eastward spread of western learning, western women's living situations, thoughts of human rights and feminist theories were gradually introduced into China and attracted the attention of the Chinese ideological circle.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 13:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

4.在具有现代性思维的汉家学者的引导下，人们学习了西方的科学和语言，一些大城市开设了特殊的学校，军械库、工厂和船坞也参照西方的模型得到了建造。

Under the direction of modern-thinking Han officials, western science and languages were studied, special schools were opened in the larger cities, and arsenals, factories, and shipyards were established according to western models.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 13:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==
1.张骞被誉为伟大的外交家、探险家，是“第一个睁开眼睛看世界的中国人”、“丝绸之路的开拓者”、“东方的哥伦布”。

Zhang Qian, rated as a great diplomat and explorer, is "the first Chinese to open his eyes to see the world "," the pioneer of the Silk Road" and "Columbus of the East ". --[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 14:51, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

2.郑和下西洋，是15世纪初叶世界航海史上的空前壮举，对中外经济、文化交往起到了积极作用。

Zheng He's voyage to the West was an unprecedented feat in the history of world navigation in the early 15th century and played a positive role in economic and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries.--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 14:51, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

3.西学东渐，是指从明朝后期到近代的西方学术思想向中国传播的历史过程。

The Eastward World Spread of Western Learning refers to the historical process of spreading western academic thought to China from the late Ming Dynasty to modern times. --[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 14:51, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

4.洋务运动，又称自强运动。是19世纪60年代到90年代晚清洋务派所进行的一场引进西方军事装备、机器生产和科学技术以挽救清朝统治的自救运动。

Westernization Movement, also known as self-strengthening movement. It is a self-help movement that introduced western military equipment, machine production and science and technology to save the rule of Qing Dynasty from 1860s to 1990s by Westernization School. --[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 14:51, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==

==Grosheva, Anna==

==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==

==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==

==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==

==Guirou, Barthelemy==

==Guo Lu 郭露==

1. 丝绸之路是古代横贯亚欧的通道。其起点一般认为是长安（今西安），其实它随朝代更替政治中心转移而变化。长安（今西安）、洛阳、平城（今大同）、汴梁（今开封）、北京曾先后为丝路起点。

The Silk Road is an ancient across of asia-europe. Its starting point is usually ascribed to Changan (now xian), actually the starting point is changed according to the changed political center. Changan (now Xian), Luoyang, Pingcheng (now Datong), Bianliang (today Kaifeng), and Beijing has been the starting point of the Silk Road.

2. 海上丝绸之路较之陆上，有共性，也有特性；有优势和潜力，也有难度和挑战。要推进21世纪海上丝绸之路建设，要在对接合作上下功夫。

Compared with the Silk Road, the Maritime Silk Road shares similarities but also has its unique characters. It has its own set of advantages, potentials, as well as difficulties and challenges. Going forward, I believe the success of the Maritime Silk Road of the 21st Century would require effective efforts to coordinate our cooperation.

Compared with the Silk Road, the Maritime Silk Road shares similarities but also has its unique characteristics. It has its own set of advantages, potentials, as well as difficulties and challenges. Going forward, the success of the Maritime Silk Road of the 21st Century would require effective efforts to coordinate cooperation.--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:14, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

3. 在西学东渐大潮中兴起的近代报刊改变了传统的审美机制，使美学从内容到形式都发生了根本性的变化，从而促成了中国美学的现代转型。

The rising modern press during the period of the Eastward Spread of Western Learning deeply transformed the traditional aesthetic mechanism from the content to the form. Then the modern press has facilitated the modern reforms of Chinese esthetics.

4. 这场运动由士大夫们领导，比如李鸿章（1823——1901）和左宗棠（1812——1885），他们曾在太平起义中与政府军作战。1861到1894年间，现在成为大臣们的这些人负责建立了现代的机构，发展基础工业、通信和交通业并是军队现代化。

The movement was championed by scholar-generals like Li Hongzhang (1823—1901) and Zuo Zongtang (1812—1885), who had fought with the government forces in the Taiping Rebellion. From 1861 to 1894, leaders such as these, now turned scholar-administrators, were responsible for establishing modem institutions, developing basic industries, communications, and transportation, and modernizing the military.
--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 03:01, 24 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ha, Thi Thu Hang==

==He Changqi 何长琦==

==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==

==Hu Jin 胡瑾==

==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==

==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==
1.张骞（前164年-前114年），字子文，西汉外交家、探险家，是“丝绸之路的开拓者”“东方的哥伦布”。前139年，张骞奉汉武帝之命，出使西域，打通了汉朝通往西域的道路，即赫赫有名的丝绸之路，促进了东西方文明的交流。汉武帝以军功封其为博望侯。史学家司马迁高度称赞了其出使西域。

Zhang Qian( B.C. 164- B.C. 114), whose style name is Ziwen, was the diplomat and explorer in Western Han dynasty. He was called as the pioneer of the Silk Road and the Columbus of the East. In B.C. 139, at the command of Emperor Wu of Western Han dynasty, Zhang Qian visited Western Regions and carved out a way, advancing the communication between the Eastern and Western civilization. Therefore, Emperor Wu of the Han dynasty granted him the title of Marquis Bowang with military merit. And Historian Sima Qian highly praised his work.--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:12, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

2.海上丝绸之路是古代中国与外国交通贸易和文化交往的海上通道，分为东海航线和南海航线两条线路，主要以南海为中心。海上丝路萌芽于商周，发展于春秋战国，形成于秦汉，兴于唐宋，转变于明清，是已知最为古老的海上航线。海上丝绸之路途经100多个国家和地区，是中国与外国贸易往来和文化交流的海上大通道，推动了沿线各国的共同发展。

The Maritime Silk Road was a maritime route for traffic, trade and cultural exchanges between ancient China and foreign countries. It was divided into two routes, the East China Sea route and the South China Sea route, with the South China Sea as the center. The Maritime Silk Road originated in the Shang and Zhou dynasties, developed in the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods, formed in the Qin and Han dynasties, flourished in the Tang and Song dynasties, and transformed in the Ming and Qing dynasties. And it is the oldest known maritime route. The Maritime Silk Road, passing through more than 100 countries and regions, is a major maritime corridor for trade and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries and has promoted the common development of countries along the route.--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:12, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

3.西学东渐是指近代西方学术思想向中国传播的历史过程，通常而言是指在明末清初以及晚清民初两个时期之中，欧洲及美国等地学术思想的传入。

The Eastward Spread of Western Learning refers to the historical process of the spread of western academic ideas to China in modern times. Generally speaking, it is the introduction of academic ideas from Europe and America in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties and the early Ming and Early Ming Dynasties.--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:12, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

4.洋务运动是19世纪60到90年代晚清洋务派进行的一场引进西方军事装备、机器生产和科学技术以挽救清朝统治的自救运动。前期，洋务派以“自强”为旗号，创办了一批近代军事工业。后期，以“求富”为旗号，兴办了一批民用工业。甲午中日战争中，北洋海军全军覆没，洋务运动宣告破产。洋务运动虽然没有使中国富强起来，但期间引进了西方先进的科学技术，客观上促进了民族资本主义的产生和发展。

The Westernization Movement was a self-help movement carried out by the Westernization Group of the Qing Dynasty from the 1960s to the late 1990s, which introduced western military equipment, machine production and science and technology to save the Qing dynasty. In the early stage, the Westernization Movement established a number of modern military industries under the banner of "self-improvement". In the later period, under the banner of "seeking wealth", lots of civil industries were set up. In the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895, the entire Beiyang Navy was wiped out, and the Westernization Movement was bankrupt. Although Westernization Movement did not make China rich and powerful, it drew in advanced science and technology from the West, which objectively promoted the emergence and development of national capitalism.--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:12, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==

==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==

==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==

==Li Lili 李丽丽==

==Li Liqin 李丽琴==

1. 汉通西域，虽然起初是出于军事目的，但西域开通以后，它的影响，远远超出了军事范围。这条通道，就是后世闻名的“丝绸之路”。丝绸之路则成为“一带一路”的重要历史符号，使得我们高举和平发展的旗帜，积极发展与沿线国家的经济合作伙伴关系。

Although the missions to the western Regions in the Han Dynasty were originally aimed for military purposes, their influence went far beyond the military scope. This passageway was later known as the Silk Road. The silk road has become an important historical symbol of "One Belt And One Road", which makes us hold high the banner of peaceful development and actively develop economic partnership with countries along the route.--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:03, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

2. 郑和当时率领着世界上最强大的船队下西洋，带去的不是血与火、掠夺与殖民，而是瓷器、丝绸、茶叶。下西洋是世界航海史上的壮举，现在东南亚一带还有许多几年内郑和的建筑物，表达了人们对他的尊敬。

Leading the most powerful fleet in the world, Zheng He made seven voyages to the Western Seas, bringing there porcelain, silk and tea, rather than bloodshed, plundering or colonialism. Zheng He's voyages were a great feat in the world's navigation history. There are still many buildings in present Southeast Asia dedicated to his memory.--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:03, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

3. 自十七世纪开始的西学东渐，对明清之际实学思潮的兴起起到了催生作用。

Since the 17th century, the west knowledge spread to the east gradually, which accelerated the rise of ideological trend during the period of Ming and Qing dynasty.--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:03, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

4. 洋务运动的历史作用不仅仅表现在经济上，其对中国近代思想启蒙的影响也是巨大的。洋务教育是洋务派为了满足洋务运动的需要，培养洋务人才进行的教育变革。

The effect of Westernization Movement in history is not only on economy but also greatly on contemporary ideological enllightenment in China. Westernization education was an education reformation launched by Westernization Faction intending to meet the needs of cultivating new-type talents.--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:03, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Liu 刘柳==

1.张骞先后两次出使西域，打开了中国与中亚、西亚、南亚以至通往欧洲的陆路交通，从此中国人通过这条通道向西域和中亚等国出售丝绸、茶叶、漆器和其他产品，同时从欧洲、西亚和中亚引进宝石、玻璃器等产品。

Zhang Qian has made two missions to the Western Regions, opening up the land transportation between China and Central Asia, West Asia, South Asia and even Europe. Since then, the Chinese have sold silk, tea, lacquerware and other products to the Western Regions and Central Asia and other countries through this road, while importing gems, glassware and other products from Europe, West Asia and Central Asia.

2.“海上丝绸之路”是古代中国与外国交通贸易和文化交往的海上通道，该路主要以南海为中心，所以又称南海丝绸之路。海上丝绸之路形成于秦汉时期，发展于三国至隋朝时期，繁荣于唐宋时期，转变于明清时期，是已知的最为古老的海上航线。

The Maritime Silk Road was a maritime route for traffic, trade and cultural exchanges between ancient China and foreign countries, which was mainly centered on the South China Sea, so it was also known as the South China Sea Silk Road. The Maritime Silk Road was formed during the Qin and Han Dynasties, developed during the Three Kingdoms to the Sui Dynasty, flourished during the Tang and Song Dynasties, and transformed during the Ming and Qing Dynasties, which is the oldest maritime route known to people.

3.西学东渐将西方近代各种学术上的新成果带入了中国，深深影响到各种学术活动的发展，而许多在传统中国不被重视甚至不存在的学科也在此影响下得到发展。

The Eastward Spread of Western Learning brought various new academic achievements in modern West into China, which deeply influenced the development of various academic activities, and many academic disciplines that were not valued or even did not exist in traditional China also developed under this influence.

4.洋务运动虽然在客观上刺激了中国资本主义发展，并且在一定程度上抵制了外国资本主义的经济输入，但并没有使中国走上富强之路。

Although the Westernization Movement objectively stimulated the development of Chinese capitalism and to a certain extent resisted the economic input of foreign capitalism, it did not make China become prosperous and strong.--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 06:42, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Ou 刘欧==

==Liu Yi 刘艺==

==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==

==Lo, Minh Thao==

==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==
1 陆上丝绸之路起源于西汉（前202年—8年）汉武帝派张骞出使西域开辟的以首都长安（今西安）为起点，经甘肃、新疆，到中亚、西亚，并连接地中海各国的陆上通道。东汉时期丝绸之路的起点在洛阳，它的最初作用是运输中国古代出产的丝绸。

The Overland Silk Road originated from the Western Han Dynasty (202-8 BC), when Emperor Wudi of the Han Dynasty sent Zhang Qian on a mission to the western Regions. Starting from the capital Chang 'an (now Xi 'an), it passed through Gansu and Xinjiang, reached central Asia and West Asia, and connected the Mediterranean countries on land. In the Eastern Han Dynasty, the starting point of the Silk Road was Luoyang. Its primary function was to transport silk produced in ancient China.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

2 郑和具备军事才能，并且得到朱棣的信任。在朱棣决策下西洋时，郑和正当壮年。朱棣曾询问袁忠彻以郑和率军出使是否合适，袁忠彻认为合适。

Zheng He had military talents and Zhu Di trusted him. When Zhu Di was planning to the West, Zheng He was in his prime. Zhu Di had asked Yuan Zhongche whether Zheng was the right person on such massion. Yuan Zhongche thought he was appropriate.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

3 徐光启较早师从利玛窦学习西方的天文、历法、数学、测量和水利等科学技术，毕生致力于科学技术的研究，勤奋著述，是介绍和吸收欧洲科学技术的积极推动者，为17世纪中西文化交流作出了重要贡献。

Xu Guangqi studied western science and technology such as astronomy, calendar, mathematics, measurement and water conservancy under Matteo Ricci. He devoted his whole life to the research of science and technology and wrote assiduously. He was an active promoter in introducing and absorbing European science and technology and made important contributions to the cultural exchanges between China and the West in the 17th century.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

4 曾国藩的崛起，对清王朝的政治、军事、文化、经济等方面都产生了深远的影响。在曾国藩的倡议下，建造了中国第一艘轮船，建立了第一所兵工学堂，印刷翻译了第一批西方书籍，安排了第一批赴美留学生。

Zeng Guofan's rise had a profound influence on the politics, military affairs, culture and economy of the Qing Dynasty. At Zeng's initiative, He built China's first ship, established the first military academy, printed and translated the first batch of Western books, and arranged for the first batch of overseas students to go to the United States.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==

==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==

==Mo Ling 莫玲==

1.汉通西域，虽然起初是出于军事目的，但丝绸之路开通以后，它的影响，远远超出了军事范围。

Although the Han Dynasty connected with the Western Regions for military purposes at first, its influence was far beyond the military scope after the opening of the Silk Road.

Although the Han Dynasty connected with the Western Regions for military purposes at first, its influence was far-reaching, well beyond the military scope after the opening of the Silk Road.--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 12:38, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

2.明初工商业的恢复和发展，宋、元以来中国海外贸易的发达，对外移民的增加，所有这一切，都为郑和下“西洋”准备了坚实的经济基础和物质条件。

The recovery and development of industry and Commerce in the early Ming Dynasty, the development of China's overseas trade since the song and Yuan Dynasties, and the increase of foreign immigrants all prepared a solid economic foundation and material conditions for Zheng He's "western" voyage.

3.利玛窦向中国社会传播了西方的几何学、地理学知识以及人文主义的观点，开了晚明士大夫学习西学的风气。

Matteo Ricci spread the western knowledge of geometry, geography and humanism to the Chinese society, which initiated the practice for the literati to absorb western learnings in the late Ming Dynasty.

Ricci spread western knowledge of geometry and geography as well as humanist views to Chinese society, opening the way for scholars in the late Ming Dynasty to absorb western studies.--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:07, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

4.江南制造局虽是清末洋务派创办的规模最大的兵工厂，但是技术上仍是由外国技师垄断．

Although Jiangnan Manufacturing Bureau was the largest arms factory founded by Westernization Group in the late Qing Dynasty, it was still monopolized by foreign technicians in the aspect of technique.--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 11:33, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling

Although Jiangnan Manufacturing Bureau was the largest arsenal founded by the Westernization Group in the late Qing Dynasty, the technology was still monopolized by foreign technicians.--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:07, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ngo, Thi Minh Huong==

==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==
1.建元二年（前139年），张骞率领100多名随行人员，由匈奴人堂邑父为向导从长安出发前往西域。西行进入河西走廊。这一地区自月氏人西迁后，已完全为匈奴人所控制。正当张骞一行匆匆穿过河西走廊时，不幸碰上匈奴的骑兵，他们全部被抓获。

In the second year of Jianyuan(139 B.C.), Zhang Qian set off to the Western Regions leading an entourage of more than 100 men from Chang'an under the guidance of Tang Yifu who is a Hun. They travelled westward into the Hexi Corridor which had been completely controlled by the Huns since they moved westward. When they tried to hurry through this region, unfortunately they met the Hun cavalry, and they were all captured.

2.郑和下西洋所到之处主要是开展贸易活动，以“朝贡贸易”为基本形式，同时推行“官方贸易”、带动“民间互市”等。

Zheng He's voyages are mainly to carry out trade activities, during which they took "tribute trade" as the basic activity, and at the same time promoted "official trade" and "non-governmental trade".

3.在明末清初的一波西学东渐中，传教士扮演著相当重要的角色，当时主要以天主教耶稣会为主的传教士们，在试图将天主教传入中国的同时，引介了西方的科技学术思想，译著了大量的西方学术相关书籍。

From the late Ming Dynasty to the early Qing Dynasty, missionaries played an important role in the Eastward Spread of Western Learning. While trying to introduce Catholicism into China, the missionaries mainly composed of the Catholic Jesuits introduced western scientific and technological thoughts and translated a large number of western academic books.

4.在洋务运动存续的35年里，文化出版事业的发展达到了一个前所未有的水平。译书经历了由单纯的西方科技著作和书籍，向自然科学和社会科学，人文科学等著作并重，甚至后者略占上风的过程。

During the 35 years of Westernization Movement, the development of cultural publishing reached an unprecedentedly high level. The translation of books experienced a process from the dominance of western scientific and technological works to the emphasis laid equally on works of natural and social sciences and humanities, and even the latter took the majority.--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 12:15, 24 December 2020 (UTC)

1. In the second year of Jian Yuan (139 BC), Zhang Qian led more than 100 serve men, with the Xiongnu man Tang Yi as the guide, to set off from Chang’ an to the West. This area has been completely controlled by the Xiongnu since the westward migration of the Ziyue people. Just as Zhang Qian passed through the Hexi Corridor, they unfortunately ran into the Xiongnu cavalry, who captured them all.

2. Zheng He mainly carried out trade activities in all the places he visited, taking “tribute trade” as the basic form. At the same time, he also promoted “official trade” and “private mutual market”.

3. In the wave of Western learning in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, missionaries played an important role, mainly the Jesuit missionaries, who tried to introduce Catholicism into China, introduced Western scientific and academic ideas, and translated a large number of Western academic books.

4. During the 35 years’ Westernization Movement, the development of publishing reached an unprecedented level. The translation of books went through a process from purely Western scientific and technological works and books to works on natural sciences and social sciences, humanities, etc., with the latter even slightly prevailing.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:54, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting

==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==

==Phyo, Su Kyi==
1-张谦出生于西汉（公元前206年至公元24年）的城固县（今陕西省城固县）。他是中国历史上杰出的使节和探险家，开辟了古老的丝绸之路，并带来了有关西部地区的可靠信息.

Zhang Qian was born in Chenggu (the present Chenggu County of Shaanxi Province) of Western Han Dynasty (206 BC-24 AD). He was an outstanding envoy and explorer in Chinese history, opening up the ancient Silk Road and bringing reliable information about the Western Regions.

Zhang Qian was born in Chenggu (the present Chenggu County of Shaanxi Province) of Western Han Dynasty (206 B.C.-24 A.D.). He was an outstanding envoy and explorer in Chinese history, opening up the ancient Silk Road and bringing reliable information about the Western Regions to China.--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 09:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

2-郑和（1371-1433）是一位伟大的中国探险家和舰队司令。他进行了七次主要探险，以探索中国皇帝的世界并在新地区建立中国贸易。

Zheng He (1371 - 1433) was a great Chinese explorer and fleet commander. He went on seven major expeditions to explore the world for the Chinese emperor and to establish Chinese trade in new areas.

Zheng He, a great Chinese explorer and fleet captain, has carrried out 7 major explorations to broaden Chinese emperor's world and establish Chinese trade in new regions.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 10:02, 24 December 2020 (UTC)

3-西方的儒道教说，为中西文化交流做出了贡献。

The West Chinese Confucian and Daoist doctrines, and made contributions to cultural exchange between China and the West.

The Chinese Confucian and Daoist doctrines in the West, and made contributions to cultural exchange between China and the West.--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 09:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

4-自强运动，又称为洋务运动（西洋运动或西洋运动）（约1861年至1895年），是鸦片战争的军事灾难后在清朝后期在中国发起的体制改革时期。

The Self-Strengthening Movement, also known as the Westernization or Western Affairs Movement ( c. 1861–1895), was a period of institutional reforms initiated in China during the late Qing dynasty following the military disasters of the Opium Wars.--[[User:Phyo Su Kyi 1|Phyo Su Kyi 1]] ([[User talk:Phyo Su Kyi 1|talk]]) 09:43, 24 December 2020 (UTC)Phyo Su Kyi

The Self-Strengthening Movement, also known as the Westernization Movenment or Western Affairs Movement ( c. 1861–1895), was a period of institutional reforms initiated in China during the late Qing Dynasty following the military disasters of the Opium Wars.--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 09:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Pingki, Tanchangya==

==Qu Miao 瞿淼==

==Rajabov, Anushervon==

==Seydou, Sagara==

==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==

==Si Yu 司妤==

==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==

==Tang Bei 汤蓓==

==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==

==Wang Meiling 王美玲==
1.陆上丝绸之路起源于西汉（前202年—8年）汉武帝派张骞出使西域开辟的以首都长安（今西安）为起点，经甘肃、新疆，到中亚、西亚，并连接地中海各国的陆上通道。

The land Silk Road originated from the Western Han Dynasty (BC 202-AD 8 ) when Emperor Wu of Han Dynasty dispatched Zhang Qian to the western regions to open up a land passage from Chang'an (today's Xi'an), the capital, to Central Asia and West Asia via Gansu and Xinjiang, with connection to Mediterranean countries.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 10:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

2.向西航行的郑和七下西洋：这是明朝政府组织的大规模航海活动，曾到达亚洲、非洲39个国家和地区，这对后来达·伽马开辟欧洲到印度的地方航线，以及对麦哲伦的环球航行，都具有先导作用。

Westward sailing of Zheng He's seven voyages was a large-scale sailing activity organized by the Ming government, which travelled 39 countries and regions in Asia and Africa, which had a pioneering effect on the Da Gamma’s opening up the local route from Europe to India, as well as on Magellan's worldwide voyage.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 10:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

3.西学东渐所造成中国思想文化的影响和变化之大，在中国历史上只有百家争鸣可以与之媲美。中国人经过西学的洗礼，对于世界、历史发展、政治、经济、社会、自然界万事的看法，都有了巨大的改变。

The impact and the changes in Chinese thought and culture caused by Western learning can be rivaled only by the Hundred Schools of Thought in the history of China. After the baptism of Western learning, tremendous changes have been made on Chinese people's views on the world, historical development, politics, economy, society, and the whole nature.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 10:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

4.清政府统治集团内的一些开明人士为了维护清政府的封建统治，而采取了一系列“自强”“求富”的措施，虽然其目的是为了维护封建统治，但这一运动是符合历史潮流的。

Some enlightened people in the Qing government adopted a series of measures for "self-improvement" and "seeking wealth" in order to maintain the feudal rule of the Qing government. Although they were aimed to maintain the feudal government, this movement was in line with the historical trend.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 10:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wang Xuan 王轩==
1. 张骞出使西域，既是一次极为艰险的外交旅行，同时也是一次卓有成效的科学考察。张骞对广阔的西域进行了实地的调查研究工作。
Zhang Qian's mission to the western regions was not only an extremely difficult diplomatic trip, but also an effective scientific investigation. Zhang Qian made a field investigation on the vast western regions.

Zhang Qian's mission to the Western Regions was not only an extremely difficult and dangerous diplomatic trip, but also a fruitful scientific investigation. Zhang Qian conducted field investigation and research work on the vast Western Regions.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:59, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

2. 十五世纪初期，郑和下西洋作为军事史上一项意义重大的事件，当前学术界从郑和下西洋的政治、经济及文化等角度对该事件的作用及影响进行了分析，鲜少从历史意义层面进行研究。郑和七次下西洋所到达的地区、实施的措施在人类航行史上占据至关重要的地位，了解郑和下西洋的历史意义非常必要。
At the beginning of the 15th century, Zheng He's voyages to the West was a significant event in the military history. At present, the academic circles have analyzed the role and influence of Zheng He's voyages from the political, economic and cultural perspectives, but rarely from the perspective of historical significance. The area Zheng He arrived at and the measures he took during his seven voyages to the West occupy an important position in the history of human navigation. It is necessary to understand the historical significance of Zheng He's voyages to the West.

At the beginning of the 15th century, Zheng He's voyages to the West was a significant event in the military history. At present, the academia have analyzed the role and influence of Zheng He's voyages from the political, economic and cultural perspectives, but rarely from the perspective of historical significance. The area Zheng He arrived at and the measures he took during his seven voyages to the West occupy an important position in the history of human navigation. It is necessary to understand the historical significance of Zheng He's voyages to the West.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:49, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

3. 明代万历年间，以利玛窦为代表的西方传教士来华传教，同时带来西方科技、文化等。这对中国传统思想文化有所触动。此时的西方科学技术开始迅速发展，而中国这时科学技术的发展较缓慢，相对落后于同时期的欧洲。
During the Wanli period of the Ming Dynasty, Western missionaries represented by Matteo Ricci came to China to preach, bringing Western technology and culture. This has touched the traditional Chinese ideology and culture. At this time, Western science and technology began to develop rapidly, while the development of science and technology in China was relatively slow, lagging behind Europe in the same period.

During the Wanli period of Ming Dynasty, western missionaries represented by Matteo Ricci came to China to preach and bring western technology and culture. This has touched the traditional Chinese ideology and culture. At this time, western science and technology began to develop rapidly, while The development of Science and technology in China was relatively slow and lagged behind that in Europe at the same time.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:59, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

4. 随着经济全球化的发展，国与国之间的界限已经减少了。中国不断引进西方的文化，外国也不断引进中国的文化。在这个过程中，中国从最原始的封建社会，也逐步走向西化。
With the development of economic globalization, the boundaries between countries have been reduced. China is constantly introducing western culture, and foreign countries are also constantly introducing Chinese culture. In this process, China gradually moved from the most primitive feudal society to Westernization.
--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 10:38, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan

With the development of economic globalization, the boundaries between countries have been reduced. China continues to introduce Western culture, and foreign countries continue to introduce Chinese culture. In this process, China has gradually moved from the most primitive feudal society to Westernization.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:59, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

==Wu Qiong 吴琼==

==Wu Yilu 吴一露==

==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==

==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==
1.陆上丝绸之路起源于西汉（前202年—8年）汉武帝派张骞出使西域开辟的以首都长安（今西安）为起点，经甘肃、新疆，到中亚、西亚，并连接地中海各国的陆上通道。东汉时期丝绸之路的起点在洛阳。它的最初作用是运输中国古代出产的丝绸。

1.The land Silk Road originated from the Western Han Dynasty (202-8 BC) when Emperor Wu of Han Dynasty sent Zhang Qian to the western regions to open up a land passage from Chang'an (today's Xi'an), the capital, to Central Asia and West Asia via Gansu and Xinjiang, and to connect Mediterranean countries. The starting point of the Silk Road in the Eastern Han Dynasty was Luoyang. Its original function was to transport silk from ancient China.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:55, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

2.“海上丝绸之路”是古代中国与外国交通贸易和文化交往的海上通道，该路主要以南海为中心，所以又称南海丝绸之路。海上丝绸之路形成于秦汉时期，发展于三国至隋朝时期，繁荣于唐宋时期，转变于明清时期，是已知的最为古老的海上航线。

2.The "maritime Silk Road" is a maritime channel for communication, trade and cultural exchanges between ancient China and foreign countries. The road is mainly centered on the South China Sea, so it is also called the South China Sea Silk Road. The maritime silk road was formed in the Qin and Han Dynasties, developed from the Three Kingdoms to the Sui Dynasty, flourished in the Tang and Song Dynasties, and transformed into the Ming and Qing Dynasties. It is the oldest known maritime route.

3.除了传教士之外，许多来华的官员、探险家等也成为传入西学的重要媒介，例如将领戈登对于中国洋务时期军事的影响。主持海关总税务司的赫德对于西方管理制度的引入，以及译介书籍、最早西方军乐队的引入都有影响。

3.Besides missionaries, many officials and explorers who came to China also became important media for the introduction of Western learning, such as general Gordon's influence on China's military during the Westernization period. Hurd, who presided over the General Revenue Department of customs, had an influence on the introduction of Western management system, the translation of books and the introduction of the earliest Western military band.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:55, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

4.洋务运动内容涉及军事、政治、经济、外交等，以“自强”为名，兴办军事工业并围绕军事工业开办其他企业，建立新式武器装备的陆海军。洋务派经营的这些近代企业，是在不改变封建统治为前提下所办企业，具有很强的对外依赖性、封建性和一定程度的垄断性。

4.The Westernization Movement involved military affairs, politics, economy, diplomacy and so on. In the name of "self-improvement", the Westernization Movement set up military industry and other enterprises around the military industry to establish the army and Navy with new weapons and equipment. These modern enterprises managed by the Westernization clique were established on the premise of not changing the feudal rule, and had strong external dependence, feudalism and a certain degree of monopoly.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:55, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

==Xiao Ting 肖婷==

==Xie Fan 解帆==
1.张骞第一次虽然没有完成出使目的，但是对西域诸国的山川地理、风土民情等重要信息，有了非常细致全面的掌握。

Although Zhang Qian did not reach the destination for the first time, he had a very detailed and comprehensive grasp of important information such as mountains, rivers, geography, people and local conditions of the western countries.--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 16:05, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

Although Zhang Qian did not arrive at the destination for the first time, he had a very detailed and comprehensive grasp of important information such as mountains, rivers, geography, people and local conditions of many western countries.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 11:00, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

2.郑和下西洋，是15世纪初叶世界航海史上的空前壮举。郑和本人也在这一历史事件中展现出其外交才能、军事谋略以及精神品质，并赢得世人的尊重和纪念。

Zheng He's voyage was an unprecedented achievement in the world's maritime history in the early 15th century. Zheng He, showed his diplomatic skills, military strategies and spiritual qualities in this historical event, and won the respect and honor of the world.--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 16:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

Zheng He's voyage was an unprecedented achievement in the world's maritime history in the early 15th century. Zheng He himself showed his diplomatic skills, military strategies and spiritual qualities in this historical event who has won the respect and honor of the world.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 11:00, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

3.甲午战争以后，由于中国当时面临着国破家亡的命运，许多有识之士开始更积极全面地向西方学习，出现了梁启超、康有为、谭嗣同等一批思想家。

After the War of 1894, as China was reduced to separation, many people of insight began to learn from the West more actively and comprehensively. At that time appeared Liang Qichao, Kang Youwei, Tan Si-tong and other thinkers.--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 16:05, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

After the War of 1894, as China was reduced to separation, many people of insight began to learn from the Western countries more actively and comprehensively. At that time appeared Liang Qichao, Kang Youwei, Tan Si-tong and other thinkers.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 11:00, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

4.戊戌变法是一次具有爱国救亡意义的变法维新运动，是中国近代史上一次重要的政治改革，也是一次思想启蒙运动。

The Hundred Days' Reform is a movement with the significance of patriotic salvation, an important political reform in modern China's history, as well as an ideological enlightenment movement.--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 16:05, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

The Hundred Days' Reform is a movement with the significance of patriotic salvation, a significant political reform in modern China's history, as well as an ideological enlightenment movement.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 11:00, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xu Jia 徐佳==

1.丝绸之路是古代中国联系中亚、西亚、非洲和欧洲的交通要道。19世纪，德国一个地理学家首次使用“丝绸之路”这一术语，一直沿用到今天。期初，它指从中国新疆到中亚的陆地通道。

The Silk Road was a general name for the ancient strategic transportation channel which started from China and passed through Central Asia, West Asia, Africa and Europe. In the 19th century, when the name of Silk Road was first used by a German geographer, it just included the land road from China’s Xinjiang to Central Asia.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 01:14, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia

2.海上丝绸之路在时间和空间上经过了长期的发展，在东方各国共同的经营下，形成了东方历史上一道独特而壮丽的风景，至今仍然承载着东方文明的传统。

The Maritime Silk Road has gone through long-term development in time and space. Under the joint management of eastern countries, it has formed a unique and magnificent scenery in the history of the East and still carries the tradition of eastern civilization.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 01:14, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia

3.中华文明是古代六大原生文明之一，由于所处的独特地理位置，中华文明的发展一直具有极强的独立性，较少受到其他文明的影响。但随着历史向前发展，中国与世界的联系也更为密切，直到明末清初“西学东渐”，中国人才第一次系统地接触到西方文明。

The Chinese civilization is one of the six ancient civilizations. Due to its unique geographical location, the development of the Chinese civilization has always been highly independent and less influenced by other civilizations. As history progressed, however, China became more connected with the rest of the world. It was not until the eastward spread of western learning in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasty that Chinese people formed systematic knowledge about western civilization.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 01:14, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia

4.洋务运动创办了近代中国由国人自办的最早一批军用和民用近代企业，揭开了中国资本主义生产方式的序幕。

The Westernization Movement established the first modern military and civilian enterprises run by Chinese people in modern China, which provided an opening for capitalist production in China.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 01:14, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia

==Xu Jing 许静==

==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==

1. 丝绸之路经济带，是在古丝绸之路概念基础上形成的一个新的经济发展区域。包括西北五省区陕西、甘肃、青海、宁夏、新疆。

1. Silk Road Economic Belt is a new economic development region formed on the basis of the ancient Silk Road. It includes the five northwestern provinces—Shaanxi, Gansu, Qinghai, Ningxia and Xinjiang.

The Silk Road Economic Belt is a new economic development region based on the ancient Silk Road. It includes the five northwestern provinces—Shaanxi, Gansu, Qinghai, Ningxia and Xinjiang. --[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 03:03, 24 December 2020 (UTC)

The Silk Road Economic Belt is a new economic development region based on the ancient one. It covers the five northwestern provinces—Shaanxi, Gansu, Qinghai, Ningxia and Xinjiang. --[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 16:08, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

2. 海上丝绸之路，是古代中国与外国交通贸易和文化交往的海上通道，也称"海上陶瓷之路"和“海上香料之路”，1913年由法国的东方学家沙畹首次提及。

2. Maritime Silk Road is a maritime route of trade and cultural exchanges between ancient China and foreign countries, also known as “Maritime Ceramic Road” and “Maritime Spice Road”, first mentioned by the French orientalist Chavan in 1913.

3. 西学东渐是指从明朝末年到近代的西方学术思想向中国传播的历史过程，虽然也可以泛指自上古以来一直到到当代的各种西方事物传入中国，但通常而言是指明末清初以及晚清民初两个时期之中，欧洲及美国等地学术思传入。

3. The Eastward Spread of Western Learning is a historical process of spreading Western academic thought to China from the late Ming Dynasty to modern times. Although it can also refer to the introduction of various Western things into China from ancient times to contemporary times, but usually refers to the introduction of academic thought from Europe and the United States in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties.

4. 鸦片战争后，他们的基本思想就是了解夷情,“师夷长技以制夷”。这些卓识远见表明近代向西方学习的思潮的始初就和爱国精神交融在一起。

4. After the Opium War, their basic idea was to understand the situation of the barbarians and “learn from them in order to control them”. These insights show that the modern trend of learning from the West was intertwined with the spirit of patriotism from the very beginning.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 02:34, 24 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

==Yang Hairong 杨海容==

==Yang Hui 阳慧==

==Yang Yue 杨悦==

==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==

==Yi Zichu 义子楚==

==You Yuting 游雨婷==

1.张骞出使西域本为贯彻汉武帝联合大月氏抗击匈奴之战略意图，但出使西域后汉夷文化交往频繁，中原文明通过"丝绸之路"迅速向四周传播。

Zhang Qian's mission to the Western regions was to implement the strategic intention of emperor Wudi of the Han Dynasty to unite with the Yuezhi clan to fight against the Xiongnu. However, after his mission to the Western regions, there were frequent cultural exchanges between the Han and The Barbarians, and the civilization of the Central Plains rapidly spread around through the "Silk Road".

2.海上丝绸之路自秦汉时期开通以来，一直是沟通东西方经济文化交流的重要桥梁，而东南亚地区自古就是海上丝绸之路的重要枢纽和组成部分。

Since its opening in the Qin and Han Dynasties, the Maritime Silk Road has been a significant bridge for economic and cultural exchanges between the East and the West, and Southeast Asia has been an important hub and part of the Maritime Silk Road since ancient times.

3.西学东渐所造成中国思想文化的影响和变化之大，在中国历史上只有百家争鸣可以与之媲美。

The influence and change of Chinese ideology and culture brought by the eastward dissemination of Western learning can only be matched by the contention of a hundred schools of thought in Chinese history.

4.洋务运动推动了近代中国生产力的发展，促使了中国民族资本主义的产生。

Westernization movement advanced the development of productive forces in modern China and the emergence of Chinese national capitalism.--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 12:47, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

1.Zhang Qian's mission to the Western regions was originally to implement the strategic intention of emperor Wudi of the Han Dynasty to unite with the Yuezhi clan to fight against the Xiongnu. However, after his mission to the Western regions, there were frequent cultural exchanges between the Han and the Barbarians, and the civilization of the Central Plains rapidly spread around through the "Silk Road".--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:09, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

2.Since the opening of the Maritime Silk Road in Qin and Han Dynasties, it has been a significant bridge for economic and cultural exchanges between the East and the West, and Southeast Asia has been an important hub and part of the Maritime Silk Road since ancient times.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:09, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

3.In Chinese history, only contention of a hundred schools of thought can match the great influence and change of Chinese ideology and culture caused by the the eastward spreading of western learning.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:09, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

4.The Westernization Movement promoted the development of productive forces in modern China and the emergence of Chinese national capitalism.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:09, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yu Ni 余妮==

==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==

唐代丝绸之路的畅通繁荣，也进一步促进了东西方思想文化交流，对以后相互的社会和民族意识形态发展，产生了很多积极、深远的影响。

The smooth and prosperous development of the Silk Road in the Tang Dynasty also further accelerated the ideological and cultural exchanges between the East and the West, causing a lot of positive and far-reaching influences on the development of mutual social and national ideologies in the future.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 10:00, 24 December 2020 (UTC)

宋代海上丝绸之路的持续发展，大大增加了朝廷和港市的财政深收入，一定程度上促进了经济发展和城市化生活，也为中外文化交流提供了便利条件。

The continuous development of the Maritime Silk Road in the Song Dynasty greatly increased the deep financial income of the imperial court and the port city, promoted the economic development and urban life to a certain extent, and also provided convenient conditions for the cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 10:00, 24 December 2020 (UTC)

西学东渐将西方近代各种学术上的新成果带入了中国，深深影响到各种学术的发展，而许多在传统中国不被重视甚至不存在的学科也在此影响下得到发展，

The eastward spread of Western learning brought various new academic achievements of modern Western learning into China, which deeply influenced the development of various academic disciplines. Under such an influence, many disciplines that were not valued or even did not exist in traditional China also developed.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 10:00, 24 December 2020 (UTC)

甲午中日战争中，北洋海军全军覆没，标志着清朝海军实力的完全丧失，也标志着35年的洋务运动宣告破产。

The total annihilation of the Beiyang Navy in the Sino-Japanese War marked the complete loss of naval power in the Qing Dynasty and the bankruptcy of the 35-year-old Westernization Movement.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 10:00, 24 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Liang 曾良==

==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==

==Zhang Hui 张慧==

==Zhang Ling 张玲==

==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==

==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==

==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==

==Zhang Yu 张瑜==
1.通过张骞的外交实践，构建了汉朝与西方国家友好交往的桥梁，促进了东西方文化、经济的交流和发展，为中国汉代昌盛和后世的对外开放奠定了坚实的基础。

Through Zhang Qian's diplomatic practice, he built a bridge of friendly relations between the Han Dynasty and the West, promoting cultural and economic exchanges and development between the East and the West, and laying a solid foundation for the prosperity of the Han Dynasty and the opening up of China to the outside world in later generations.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:33, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

2.郑和下西洋折射出的中国先进航海科技光辉，表现了中国古代人的伟大智慧，从而创造了郑和下西洋的伟大航程。

Zheng He's voyage to the West reflected the glory of China's advanced navigation technology and demonstrated the great wisdom of ancient Chinese people, thus creating the great voyage of Zheng He to the West.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:33, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

3.西学东渐，是指从明朝末年到近代的西方学术思想向中国传播的历史过程。

The Eastward Spread of Western learning refers to the historical process of the spread of Western academic thoughts to China from the end of the Ming Dynasty to modern times.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:33, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

4.甲午中日战争中，北洋海军全军覆没，标志着清朝海军实力的完全丧失，也标志着35年的洋务运动宣告破产。

In the Sino-Japanese War of the First Sino-Japanese War, the Beiyang Navy was wiped out, marking the complete loss of the Qing Dynasty's naval power and the bankruptcy of the 35-year Westernization Movement.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:33, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==

==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==

1. 张骞出使西域本为贯彻汉武帝联合大月氏抗击匈奴之战略意图，但出使西域后汉夷文化交往频繁，中原文明通过“丝绸之路”迅速向四周传播。

Zhang Wei out of the Western Region to carry out the Han Wu Emperor United Moon's strategic intention to fight against the Hunnu, but out of the Western Region after the Hanyi cultural exchanges frequent, the Central Plains civilization through the "Silk Road" spread rapidly around.

2. 郑和下西洋是中国古代规模最大、船只和海员最多、时间最久的海上航行，也是15世纪末欧洲的地理大发现的航行以前世界历史上规模最大的一系列海上探险。

Zheng He's Voyage to the West Was the largest, largest and longest maritime voyage in ancient China, and the largest series of maritime expeditions in the history of the world before the great geographical discovery of Europe at the end of the 15th century.

3. 在明末清初的一波西学东渐中，传教士扮演著相当重要的角色，当时主要以天主教耶稣会为主的传教士们（较晚亦有方济各会、多明我会等的教士），在试图将天主教传入中国的同时，引介了西方的科技学术思想，译著了大量的西方学术相关书籍。

Missionaries played a very important role in a wave of Western studies in the late Ming and early Qing years, when the missionaries, mainly Catholic Jesuits (later franciscans, polyseigns, etc.), introduced Western scientific and technological academic ideas and translated a large number of Western academic books while trying to introduce Catholicism to China.

4. 甲午战争的结果给中华民族带来空前严重的民族危机，大大加深了中国社会半殖民地化的程度；另一方面则使日本国力更为强大，为其跻身列强奠定了重要基础。

The result of the Sino-Japanese War brought unprecedented serious national crisis to the Chinese nation, which greatly deepened the degree of semi-colonization of Chinese society, and on the other hand, made Japan stronger and laid an important foundation for its ranks among the great power.--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:22, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhao Xi 赵茜==

==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==

==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==

==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==

==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==

==Zhu Xu 朱旭==

==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==

==Zubareva, Ekaterina==

20201221 trans

2020-12-20T13:34:34Z

Xu Jia: /* Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞 */

==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==
The idea that tones discerned in verbal art will reflect the mood of the relationship between the people and the state makes frequent appearances through Chinese literary philosophy, and it frequently enters the world of modern politics, as work on the modern Chinese folklore movement will attest (Hung).

Another more recent sample is the expression “setting the tone” [定調子] describes the degree of condemnation in a Cultural Revolution era Big Character poster. This modern example displays a relatively cynical view of the function of tone; the power to set tone is in the hands of the accuser, but its strength reflects the crime of the victim.In the world of literature and arts policy, “New Tone” 新基調 became the standard Chinese socialist line against precisely such works as our “provincial leader” above castigated as “pei pei pei-ing”.

在言语艺术中辨别出的音调会反映出人民与国家关系的情绪，这一观点通过中国文艺哲学频繁出现，并且频繁进入现代政治的世界，关于中国现代民俗运动的工作将证明这一点。--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 12:20, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==
The term “tone” (particularly as diao) has acquired negative connotations over the past two of decades, at least in part because of its role in politicoliterary battles. Even editors sympathetic to “new tone” values distance themselves from the term (Yang, Zhu). In a parallel strategy, contemporary zawen are written in covert form, more like “East Station,” than like “Pei pei pei!”?, which so revealingly displays the mechanics of the declamatory modal trope. In contrast to the late 1980's, contemporary zawen have in recent years receded to hide in other types of writing. This strategy is a familiar one in the context of zawen history; the necessity to hide only increases the effect the “involuntarily” discordant tone, which is held to be, biting and kicking, reflecting the truth.
==Chen Han 陈涵==
When zawen were first fashioned as a modern genre, it was the involuntary expression of responsive emotions that were explicitly invoked as zawen's purpose. When Hu Shih published the first major newspaper column devoted to the serial publication of zawen in 1918, the “Record of Spontaneous Feeling,” the introductory essay was entitled “什麼話,” literally “What speech.” This title also provides a demonstration of a modal trope on the level of syntax. In this original title there was no punctuation, as “shenme” already indicates the question “what” in the standard form, before European punctuation was imported as a regular feature of written vernacular Chinese.

杂文首次作为一种现代文体出现时，明确是为了不自主地表达随即反应的情感、感想。1918年，胡适发表了首个专门连载杂文的主要报刊专栏《随感录》，他将导论的标题命名为“什么话”，字面意思是“什么讲话”。这个标题也在句法层面上提供了一个模态修辞的范例。在原题中，并没有标点符号，因为在引入欧洲标点符号作为白话文的一般特征之前，"什么"已经在标准形式中表达了"what"的意思。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 08:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

当杂文最开始作为一种现代文体流行起来时，其明确的目的是为了无意识地表达随即反应的情感。1918年，胡适发行了首个专门连载杂文的主要报刊专栏《随感录》，他将导论的标题命名为“什么话”，字面意思是“什么讲话”。这个标题也在句法层面上提供了一个模态修辞的范例。在原题中，并没有标点符号，因为在引入欧洲标点符号作为白话文的一般特征之前，"什么"已经在标准形式中表达了"what"的意思。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 10:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling

==Chen Hui 陈惠==
Beyond the interrogative function, however, “hua,” [“speech” or “talk”] has the declamatory effect of objectifying speech, and holding it up for dramatic examination. For an idiomatic English translation I would offer “What!?” including both exclamation and question mark. The contents of essay describe the purpose of zawen as a venue for explosive emotional responses, linked to the other, “regular” items printed in newspapers everyday. This ordinary newspaper fare “gives people goose flesh [disgusts them] makes them sigh, or elicits a cold smile or an outright laugh” (Hu Shih, Shen Bao 1918). Zawen were thus launched in the early modern Chinese newspaper as the nearly physical expression of these feelings or moods in the form of literary essays.
==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==
Hu Shih's formulation emphasizes zawen's role as a response to “life itself.” Like most poetry, but unlike most fiction and drama, zawen is itself a first person voice, not a representation of voices. Yet unlike poetry, which may need to be at least imagined to be read out loud, repeated and savored for full effect, zawen's ideal is to appear for a fleeting moment on the back page of a newspaper, to be received with the accompaniment of an enigmatic laugh, sigh or snort from the reader, and then thrown away quickly, before anyone can “find their seat and sit in it,” or take offence.
胡适在其阐述中强调说杂文这一角色是对生活本身的一种回应。像大多数的诗歌，而不是小说或戏剧那样，杂文本身就是先发者的声音，而非是各种声音的再现。但它不像诗歌那样，可能会需要想象一下大声读出来的场景，不断重复并推敲，才能充分发挥作用。杂文能够达到的理想效果只显现在报纸背面的那一瞬间，在任何人可以“在杂文里找到座位然后坐下来”或因为杂文而冒犯他人之前，伴随着读者神秘莫测的笑声、叹气声或是不屑地发出哼声，人们早就将其抛诸脑后了。

胡适的表述强调了杂文对“生活本身”的回应。像大多数诗歌一样，但与大多数小说和戏剧不同的是，杂文本身就是第一人称的声音，而不是声音的代表。然而，与诗歌不同的是，诗歌是在大声朗读，重复和品尝中才能充分发挥作用，而杂文则是在报纸的背面短暂地出现，并伴随着诗歌的出现。在任何人都可以“找到自己的座位并坐在座位上”或冒犯他人之前，令人迷惑不解的笑声，叹息声或打喷嚏然后迅速被扔掉。--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 05:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==
Generic categories are not the only aspect that zawen tend to mix; they characteristically contain sudden shifts in tone, style and voice, moving from a snippet of stray “overheard” conversation to an elegant, classical allusion. Echoing Hu Shih's 1918 idea of zawen as a “response” to the articles on other pages of the newspaper, the zawen, still characteristically the back page of most newspapers, nearly always contains a “foil” in the form of a direct quote from the author has read or heard. In addition to creating a microcosmic social dialogue, this split between two voices, the writer's and that of the “foil” also allows for dizzying clashes of style and voice that enclose unlikely combinations of syntax and grammar, as well as ideas, a single text.
==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==
Tone in an essay is an ironic figure of speech; how can you channel that which is carried in sound through the ink of print? In this paper I have tried to illustrate the trope of tone through the “sonorous” work, particularly that of ShaoYanxiang, an official poet who in retirement is better known for the essays in which he collapses poetry into polemic, his zawen. The distinct and beleaguered social and cultural space for zawen in contemporary China reveals the mechanics, ideology and significance of tone in Chinese writing. Even more than other literary genres, zawen depends upon something within the earthy noise of moody, mulish voices to carry its messages.

文章中的语调是一种讽刺性的表达手法；你如何通过印刷油墨来传达声音中所承载的一切?在本文中，我试图通过“铿锵的”作品来说明语调的隐喻，特别是邵燕祥的作品，他是一位诗人，退休后他将诗歌化为论战的杂文即他的杂文并因此闻名。在当代中国，杂文所处的独特而饱受困扰的社会和文化空间揭示了中文写作语调的体系，意识形态和意义。比其他文学体裁相比，杂文更依赖于用喜怒无常，固执己见的声音中蕴含的某种东西来传达其信息。--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 10:23, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing

==Chen Sha 陈莎==
While readers love to hate their morally and politically provocative zawen-of-the-moment, writers string zawen across stretches of time and publishing organs to construct heavily intertextualized conversations. Eventually they even preserve zawen, long after the dizzying minutia of allusions, jokes and digs are forgotten, often compiling a career's worth of them into small print runs of volumes that they give away to friends and admirers as discursive portraits of themselves. Lu Xun's genre of the “dagger and spear” is thus not only a sly political weapon, but also a complex sculpture of the culturally shaped self, chiseled by the cantankerous tones of contentious social dialogue.
==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==
'''Appendix: Translations of two primary texts: “'Pei Pei Pei!'? ” and “East Station”'''

'''“Pei Pei Pei! ”?'''

A friend from outside literary circles asked me to find him some “pei pei pei!” essays to read, and I had to stare at him blankly with nothing to say. He then explained that he had read in a newspaper that a certain provincial leader had announced at a banquet that there must not be “pei pei pei – ing” all over the place, and so clearly there must be pei pei pei-ing all over the place.
Have I gotten so insensitive? Out of self-abrogation, and also out of curiosity, I rushed to seek it out.And so it was, what had been said was “there must not be pei pei pei -ing all over the place, it must not always be the language of mockery, sarcasm and scornful dismissal that is used to write about the party, the nation and the people, dispersing a gray mood that makes people pessimistic and disappointed.” It is like this all over the place, and not in just in one particular place, things are always this way, and not just at a certain time, you can see how widespread and serious the problem is.
==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==
A long time ago in the liberated areas, it was advocated that the entire party should publish newspapers. After the establishment of the nation, when everything was “operated on a large scale with the entire people” I did not pay attention to whether or not it was advocated that all the people should publish the newspapers. But getting all people to read the newspapers is the goal of all those who follow the newspaper profession. In that way, newspapers are not merely published for leading institutions and leaders to read, but rather at the same time (actually this should be primary) for the masses to read. They are published for all the people -- among the people there are illiterates and partially literate, but through listening to the newspapers being read, the broadcasters and televisions have accepted the responsibility of getting the newspaper read, and this segment of the masses also figures as indirect readers of the newspapers.

很久以前，在解放区，有人主张全党应该出版报纸。建国后，当一切都“与全体人民一起大规模地运转起来”时，我没留意是不是所有人都主张出版报纸。但是，让所有人阅读报纸是所有从事报纸行业的人的目标。这样，出版报纸不只是供给领导机构和领导人阅读，还能同时供群众阅读（实际上这应该是主要的）。报纸是为所有人出版的—包括文盲和半文盲，通过听来阅读报纸。广播公司和电视承担了阅读报纸的责任，这部分群众也是报纸的间接读者。--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 12:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

很久以前，在解放区，有人主张全党应该出版报纸。建国后，当一切都“与全体人民一起大规模地运转起来”时，我没留意是不是所有人都主张出版报纸。但是，让所有人阅读报纸是所有从事报纸行业的人的目标。这样，出版报纸不只是供给领导机构和领导人阅读，还能同时供群众阅读（实际上这应该是主要的）。报纸是为所有人出版的—包括文盲和半文盲，通过听来阅读报纸。广播公司和电视承担了朗读报纸的责任，这部分群众也是报纸的间接读者。--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 13:40, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Cheng Yusi 成于思==
The readers have the greatest right of criticizing the newspapers, and I wonder how many readers have discovered this phenomenon of there being “pei pei pei -ing” all over the place.

I am one of these readers, subscribing on my own to several “large” newspapers (newspaper publications have not been classified as large or small, but I follow convention here) there are in addition a few newspapers that people send to me; as to “small” newspapers, I have not the leisure nor the money to buy the papers in the Beijing area, not to mention nearby Tianjin and Hebei. Even so, just taking the 10 to 20 different newspapers I often look over, including the cultural newspapers, I have not discovered these “always using the language of mockery, sarcasm and scornful dismissal to write about the party, the nation and the people” sorts of “pei pei pei” pieces.

读者拥有最大的权力对报纸进行批评，我想有多少读者发现了某个地区遍地都是“呸呸呸”的现象。

作为一名读者，我订阅了许多大型报纸（报社并没有大小之分，我只是遵循的一般传统作出的判断），此外，还有一些其他人寄的报纸。至于小型报纸，即使是北京区的报纸，我也无闲心和闲钱去购买，，更不用说天津和河北附近。即使如此，看看我常翻阅的十到二十种不同的报纸，包括文化报，我也未曾发现这些“总是使用嘲笑，讥讽，轻蔑驳斥的语言描写党，国家和人民”的“呸呸呸”的文章。--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 14:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==
I could only hand back to my friend a blank report. But naturally my not having seen them does not mean they do not exist. What one person can see is limited. I hope that the extra sensitive speaker on this matter can openly point them out, or even offer examples of eight or ten articles, or even hold up just three to five articles as models of this kind of work, so as to allow us to be enlightened and improve our discriminating ability in seeing which essays are those called “pei pei pei,” perhaps at the same time clearing up a related matter by analogy, that of understanding what kind of essays constitute “ba ba ba” as well.

我只能把空白的报告交给我的朋友。但是当然，我没有看到它们并不意味着它们不存在。一个人只能看到有限的内容。我希望对此事特别敏感的发言人可以公开指出，甚至提供八到十篇文章的示例，或者只举三到五篇文章作为此类工作的典范，以启发我们并提高我们的辨别能力，以了解哪些论文被称为“呸呸呸”，或者同时通过类推来清理相关问题，即理解哪种论文也构成“ 叭叭叭”。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 13:32, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

我只能把空白的报告交给我的朋友。但是当然，我没看到它们不等于它们不存在。一个人能看到内容有限。我希望对此事特别敏感的发言人可以公开指出，甚至提供八到十篇文章的示例，或者只举三到五篇文章作为此类工作的典范，以启发我们并提高我们的辨别能力，以了解哪些论文被称为“呸呸呸”，或者同时通过类推来清理相关问题，即理解哪种论文也构成“ 叭叭叭”。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 13:40, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

我只能向朋友交回一份空白报告。当然，我没有见过他们并不代表他们不存在。一个人所能看到的是有限的。我希望在这个问题上特别敏感的发言者能公开指出它们，甚至举出八篇、十篇的文章示例，或者只举出三五篇作为这类作品的范本，让我们提高我们的辨别能力，为我们区分哪些文章是那些所谓的 "呸呸呸"的文章是提供启发，或许同时也能通过类比澄清相关的问题，就是让人明白构成 "叭叭叭"的文章是什么样的。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 13:44, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==
This suggestion is sincere, not just the usual politeness. In order for literary arts, newspaper publications and literary publications to develop better social effects and to help unite the ways of our times with the people's hearts, newspaper editors, newspaper readers, and those in charge of this occupation should all be able to directly express their own views, and upon making mistakes should help each correct and make up for them, nobody needs to be polite about this.

这个建议很真诚，不仅仅是平时的礼貌。为了使文学艺术、报纸出版物和文学出版物发挥更好的社会效果，同时将我们这个时代的生活方式与人民的心灵结合起来，报纸编辑、报纸读者和负责这一领域的人都应该能够直接表达自己的观点，在犯错误时，他们应该相互帮助纠正和弥补错误，没有人需要对此保持礼貌。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 03:07, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

这个建议是真诚的，而不是出于寻常的客套。为了使文学艺术、报纸出版物和文学出版物发挥更好的社会效应，同时将我们这个时代的生活方式与人民的心灵结合起来，报纸编辑、报纸读者和负责这一领域的人都应该要能直接表达观点，在犯错误时，他们应相互帮助纠正和弥补错误，不必维持客套。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 08:11, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

这一建议是真诚的，而不是出于礼貌的客套话。为了使文艺、报刊、文学作品发挥更好的社会价值，将时代特性与人民内心相连，报社编辑和读者，以及该领域的负责人应该直截了当地表达自己的观点。在犯错误时，各方应互相帮助，纠正和弥补错误，在这一过程中无需礼貌的客套话。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 08:49, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

这个建议很真诚，不仅仅是出于礼貌客套。为了让文学艺术，报纸刊物和文学作品发挥更好的社会效果，也为了将时代特性与群众心灵结合起来，报纸编辑，读者，以及那些该领域的负责人应该直接表达自身观点，犯错误时，彼此应该互相纠正并弥补，这时谁也没必要客套了。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 06:17, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==
After reading this speaker's comments, there is another matter that mystifies me. According to what was said, “from the next (meaning this and next) two years of discipline and rectification, there will be more new challenges and problems, and literary publications should be of assistance in stabilizing the people's minds, increasing faith, and not demoralizing the people's will.” In reading all these newspapers, this is the first time I have seen this “stabilize the peoples mind” proposition. If there is a need to stabilize the people's hearts, it must proceed from the assumption that the peoples hearts are not stable. As for the reason why people's minds are not stable, it comes back to the “discipline and rectification and the new challenges and problems” of these two years.
==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==
I am confused again. These “challenges and problems” that so vex people, do they result from the “discipline and rectification” or is it because of these “challenges and problems” that the need arises to “discipline and rectify”? If the more you “discipline and rectify” the more you provoke “many new challenges and problems” in people's minds, then why do all this “discipline and rectifying”? Moreover, I do not understand what “discipline and rectification” refers to nor what the “new challenges and problems” are, and I cannot figure out what “stabilize people minds” means very precisely, nor can I see what concrete request is being made. This is my request for instruction.

我又困惑了。这些令人恼火的“挑战和问题”是由于“纪律和纠正”产生的，还是正因为“挑战和问题”的需要才产生了“纪律和纠正”。如果你“纪律和纠正”越多，脑子里的“诸多新挑战和新问题”也越多，那为什么所有人还要去“纪律和纠正呢”？而且，我不明白“纪律和纠正”到底是什么，也不知道“新挑战和新问题”又是什么，我还特别搞不懂“稳定人们思想”到底具体指什么，我也看不到提了什么具体要求。这就是我的要求，需要得到指导。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 06:39, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

我又困惑了。这些令人恼火的“挑战和问题”是由于“纪律和纠正”产生的，还是正因为“挑战和问题”的需要才产生了“纪律和纠正”。人们总是认为如果“纪律和纠正”越多，“新挑战和新问题”也就越多，那为什么所有人还要去做“纪律和纠正呢”？而且，我不明白“纪律和纠正”到底是什么，也不知道“新挑战和新问题”又是什么，我搞不懂“稳定人们的思想”具体指什么，我也看不到任何具体要求。所以，我需要指导。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 11:47, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==
The Literature Journal column “Literature and the People's Lives” has been asking for a manuscript from me many times, but I have never been able to take up the assignment. As I write to this point, I suddenly thought that this piece should be called “Literature and the Peoples' Minds”? But that is a big topic, something that a thousand characters can not manage to capture. 1989.2.21.
Shao Yanxiang 1993 in 自己的酒 [My Own Wine] pages 181-183, 群眾出版社

文学期刊《文学与人民生活》向我讨要了很多次我的手稿，但我一直没有答应。写到这里，我突然想到这一部分是不是应该叫做“文学与人民思想”？但这是一个很大的话题，一千个字都没办法讲完。（1989.2.21，邵燕祥1993年发表在群众出版社的文章“自己的酒”，181-183页）--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 01:51, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

'''East Station'''

Thirty years ago in Beijing, if you mentioned “East Station,” everybody would know that referred to the Beijing East Station that lies to the outer east side Front City Gate. Today this unremarkable construction, built in a half-westernized architectural style and sandwiched between the tall buildings of this noisy and busy city, supports a little sign that reads “Railway Workers Club.” It is already an “ancient artifact,” long gone are the prosperous and glorious days of old.

'''东站'''

在30年前的北京，如果你提到“东站”，大家都会知道你指的是建在北京前城门东边外缘的北京东站。今天，这个不起眼的带有半西式风格的，矗立在喧闹的高楼大厦之间的建筑，挂着一个小牌子，上面写道：“铁路工人俱乐部”。它俨然已是一件“过时的老物件”了，而它过去那些繁荣与光辉也不在了。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 01:51, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==
This train station was once a symbol of bustling urgency, day and night swallowing and spewing out the many different hues of travelers who come to and leave the old capitol. Outsiders that have been to Beijing may not have wandered on Fragrant Mountain or not even have visited the Imperial Museum, but none would not remember this railway station.

This train station, like any other place in Beijng, has experienced everything, cycles of prosperity and demise passing before its watch. It has greeted both the voluntary and the involuntary travelers to Beijing, and also the powerful it welcomed, as well as those it did not welcome. It sent off the happy people on their first [train] voyages, and also the broken hearted people who were departing; how many of them left this place never to come back?
==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==
When 20-year-old Shen Congwen arrived in Beijing after his roundabout journey from Phoenix in Hunan Province, he may have walked out of the station and stood for a while at the square in front of it. He would have seen, because in those years there was still a space in front, first the uniformly arranged buildings, and the colorfully carved gate of Zhengyang tower. His senses would have been struck with awe at the deep and solemn beauty. Did he think of the way Kang (youwei) and Liang (qiqiao) were in the depths of an inescapable trap when they embarked their train to flee, in the midst of their hurry without even the time to look back upon the winged palace roofs of their beloved capitol?
==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==
That year in July the canons sounded at Lugou Bridge. When the railroad was restored between Beiping and Tianjin, the first trainload was the “four thousand refugee reds fleeing to Tianjin,” that was how the Tianjin newspaper put it. When those travelers entered East Station, they took their first step on the road of flight; were there any among them that that could predict that long after their own “fortuitous rescue,” in 1958 there would be another group making their unseemly departure from the Beijing station, submitting their fates to the unpredictable road?
==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==
Recently I looked through Liu Meng's “Reminiscences on a Rainy Day” in which he writes of the rainy day April of 1958, when [he along with] a group was sent to the great northern wilderness. The platform in the rainy day, the locomotive in the rainy day; he deliberately reminisced calmly, saying it was like this memory had also been washed clean by the rainy rain. At that time Liu Meng had been young, but traveling along with him were many people who had fallen into this hardship in their old age, certainly each of them had their own earlier “at that time.”

Head hanging, walking upon the rain-wet road; this is someone who has far to travel. Every window is weeping; this is someone reminiscing in the rain.
==Guo Lu 郭露==
And in March of 1949, when Guo Moruo and his democrats gathered together and arrived in Beijing, they were received with grand ceremonious welcome; the tears they wept were of joy. At the time he composed a poem “How much of the people's blood was spilled for this honor. Thinking of it, the tears fall, and happy laughter is unable to articulate in sound.” -- I don't know why, but this poem was not collected in any of his later collections.

The platform of Beijing East Station, from the end of the last century to the middle of this century, has been a stage of constantly revolving action, no matter whether the security forces patrolling the edges of the stage were armed police of the North Coast Warlords, or the Japanese Army Police, or the Nationalist soldiers, police, M.P.’s or special agents, or the “People's Traffic Police.”

而在1949年3月，当郭沫若和他的民主人士到达北京时，他们受到了隆重的欢迎仪式，他们流的是喜悦的泪水。当时郭沫若作了一首诗："为了这个荣誉，洒了多少人民的血。想着想着，眼泪就掉下来了，幸福的笑声无法用声音来表达。" --不知道为什么，这首诗在他后来的作品集里都没有收录。

北京东站的站台，从上世纪末到本世纪中，不管在舞台边缘巡逻的保安部队是北洋军阀的武警还是日本军警，又或者是国民党的士兵、警察、宪兵或特务，还是 "人民交通警察"，它一直是一个不断变幻的舞台。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 03:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

1943年3月，当郭沫若和他的民主人士到达北京时，他们收到了隆重的欢迎仪式，他们流的是喜悦的泪水。当时郭沫若作了一首诗：“为了这个荣誉，洒了多少人民的血。想着想着，眼泪就掉下来了，幸福的笑声无法用言语来表达。”--我不知道为什么，但是这首诗在他后来的作品里都没有收录。

从上世纪末到本世纪中，北京东站的站台已然成为一个不断轮回的舞台，在那里有边界巡逻的保安部队不论是武装的北洋军阀还是日本军警，又或者是国民党的士兵、警察、宪兵或者是特务，还是“人民交通警察。”

==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==
But because nearly everybody “performed” there in one way or another, at least having passed across that stage, everything about it was forgotten. Literary works pass through it with a single stroke, only the ending of the novel “Golden Powder Dynasty” provided a scene for it. This leftover architectural structure does not even rate a “district preservation unit” marker. This is because there are too many ancient traces in Beijing, how could an object merely one hundred years of age be considered antique?

Today will also become history. And every inch of Beijing earth will provide proof of its history.

1989. 9. 13

Please don't cut or change this date. The new railway station began operation in 1959, and this fits in parallel with “more that thirty years ago” at the beginning of the essay.

但是因为几乎所有人不管怎样都在那“表演过”，最起码从那个舞台上经过，于关于它的一切全部都被遗忘。文学作品在这个舞台上浮光一掠，只有小说《金粉世家》的结局算作是上演了一幕。遗留的建筑结构都没有被评为“保护区”的标志。这是因为在北京像这样的古老残留建筑有很多，才拥有一百多年历史又怎么能被算作是古老建筑呢？

今天也依然会成为历史。北京的每一寸土地都可以为此证明。

1989.9.13

请不要删除或改变这个日子。这个新的火车站于1959年开始工作，同时，也是这部散文的开始之言“三十年之前”。

但因为几乎每个人都在那里或多或少地 "表演 "过，至少是经过了那个舞台，关于它的一切都被遗忘了。文学作品一气呵成地经过它，只有小说《金粉王朝》的结局为它提供了一个场景。这座遗留下来的建筑结构，连 "区级保护单位 "的标志都评不上。这是因为北京的古迹太多，仅仅百年的物件怎么能算作古董呢？

今天也将成为历史。而北京大地的每一寸土地都将为其历史提供证明。

1989. 9. 13

请不要删减或更改这个日期。新火车站于1959年开始运营，这与文章开头的 "三十多年前 "相吻合。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 07:34, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==
'''Nostalgia without Memory: Reading Zhang Wei’s Essays
In the Context of Fable of September'''

Jie Lu

'''Abstract'''

In this paper I will discuss what can be called agrarian nostalgia in Zhang Wei's essays collected in his Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey, published in 1995 as a part of Resisting Compromise Book Series. I will examine his nostalgia as a critical and moral stance in the literary context of his highly claimed novel The Fable of September. In the novel, history is mythologized, essentialized, and therefore erased to embody an agrarian being associated with land. If land in Zhang's novel represents an idealized existence, then in his essays, it becomes both a social and literary metaphor to symbolize moral purity and literary elitism. It is posed as a means to achieve individual, social and literary salvation, and an absolute standard to critique social reality and popular culture in the age of commercialization.

'''没有记忆的怀恋：阅读张炜的散文集
以九月寓言为背景'''

吕杰

'''摘要'''

在本文中，我将讨论张炜的散文中可以被称为农业乡愁的东西，这些散文收录在他的《焦急而愤懑的归途》中，该书于1995年出版，是《抗妥协书系》的一部分。我将在他备受称道的小说《九月寓言》的文学语境中，考察他作为一种批判和道德立场的乡愁。在小说中，历史被神话化、本质化，从而被抹杀，体现出一种与土地相关的农业存在。如果说土地在张的小说中代表了一种理想化的存在，那么在他的文章中，土地就成为一种社会和文学的隐喻，象征着道德的纯洁和文学的精英。它被摆在了实现个人、社会和文学救赎的手段上，也是商业化时代批判社会现实和大众文化的绝对标准。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 07:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==He Changqi 何长琦==
Nostalgia as an indication of fundamental condition of human estrangement or alienation has been exacerbated by the speeds and scopes of modernization and globalization in contemporary China. This nostalgic sentiment is intensely experienced by intellectual elites who wish to maintain their traditional role as society's moral guardians or as society's conscience, and by literary writers who wish to sustain the distinction between pure and popular literature. It is exactly this moral absolutism and literary elitism that have been undermined by cultural and socioeconomic changes. What nostalgia in Zhang's writings reveals is not so much a resistance to modernization process as incapability of deep understanding the complexity of Chinese modernity.
==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==
At the turn of the twenty-first century in China, with modernization and globalization gaining full momentum, it is interesting to find many writers turning their gaze backward to the past rather than singing the praises of this new global age. Among writers such as Liang Xiaosheng, Zhang Chengzhi, and Zhang Wei, nostalgia has become their dominant literary mode, through which to both critique commercialism and globalism and express the authors’ moral and literary ideals. In this paper I wish to focus on the moral and literary implications of nostalgia in Zhang Wei’s essays, as collected in his Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey (youfen de guitu), published in 1995 as a part of the Resisting Compromise Book Series (dikang touxiang shuxi). [* Jie Lu is an Assistant Professor of Chinese at the University of the Pacific. The author is grateful to Martin Woesler, the organizer of the conference on The Modern Chinese Literary Essays (August, 2000, Germany) where this paper was presented, and Michelle DiBello for her insightful comments and careful editing of the whole text.
Resisting Compromise Book Series (Dikang touxiang shuxi) includes collections of essays by Zhang Chengzhi, Zhang Wei, Han Shaogong, Yu Qiuyu, Li Ri, and Shi Tiesheng respectively. ]

在二十一世纪之交的中国，随着现代化和全球化的全面推进，许多作家将目光转向过去，而不是歌颂这个新的全球化时代，这是一个有趣的现象。在梁晓声、张承志、张炜等作家中，怀旧已成为他们的主流文学模式，通过它既批判商业主义，又批判全球化，表达作家的道德理想和文学理想。本文旨在探讨张炜散文中怀旧的道德和文学意蕴，这是1995年出版的《反抗妥协丛书》（迪康头像书西）的一部分。（陆洁是太平洋大学中文系助理教授。本文作者感谢2000年8月在德国举行的中国现代文学随笔会议的组织者马丁·韦斯勒和米歇尔·迪贝洛对全文的深刻评论和精心编辑。《抗争妥协丛书》（迪康头像书西）收录了张承志、张炜、韩少功、余秋雨、李日、史铁生的散文集。）--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 08:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

在二十一世纪之交的中国，随着现代化和全球化的全面推进，出现了一个有趣的现象，许多作家没有歌颂这个全球化的新时代，反而将目光转向过去。如梁晓声、张承志、张炜等作家，怀旧已成为他们的主流文学模式，通过这种文学模式他们既批判商业主义，又批判全球化，表达作家的道德理想和文学理想。本文旨在探讨1995年出版的《反抗妥协丛书》（迪康头像书西）一书中的怀旧的道德和文学意蕴。（陆洁是太平洋大学中文系助理教授。本文作者感谢2000年8月在德国举行的中国现代文学随笔会议的组织者马丁·韦斯勒和米歇尔·迪贝洛对全文的深刻评论和精心编辑。《抗争妥协丛书》（迪康头像书西）收录了张承志、张炜、韩少功、余秋雨、李日、史铁生的散文集。）--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 02:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==
Instead of putting Zhang’s writings in the larger context of contemporary intellectual debates over radicalism (radical intellectual/cultural discourse) and (new) conservatism (anti-radical),[ Regarding the major theoretical discourses in contemporary intellectual debates in China, see Xu Ben’s “Contesting Memory for Intellectual Self-Positing: The 1990s’ New Cultural Conservatism in China” in Modern Chinese Literature and Culture, Vol.11 (Spring, 1999) 157-193; Jianhua Chen’s “Local and Global in Narrative Contestation: Liberalism and the New Left in Late-1990s China” in Journal of Asian Pacific Communication, Vol. 9 113-129; Intellectuals’ Positions (Zhishi fenzi lichang) in three volumes, edited by Li Shitao, published by Shidai wenyi chubanshe, 2000. ] I will examine it in the literary context of his highly acclaimed novel Fable of September published in 1992.
Fable of September represents history in a way that mythologizes, essentializes, and therefore erases it in the name of an idealized agrarian existence. Indeed, the idea of “the land” (tudi) is a transcending and all-encompassing concept in Zhang Wei writings, representing an idealized pure state uncontaminated by industrialization and modernization. In his essays, the land is transformed into a social and literary metaphor that symbolizes moral purity and literary elitism against what the author perceives as the contemporary backdrop of general moral decadence and literary chaos. This ideal is posed as a means to achieve nothing less than social, moral and literary salvation, raised as a kind of absolute standard to critique social reality and popular culture.

而不是将张的作品在当代知识争论激进主义的大背景(激进知识/文化话语)和(新)保守主义(anti-radical),(关于当代知识辩论的主要理论话语在中国,看到徐本的“争夺记忆知识Self-Positing: 1990年代在中国的新的文化保守主义”在中国现代文学和文化,Vol.11(春天,1999)157 - 193;陈建华“叙事论争的本土与全球:90年代末中国的自由主义与新左派”，载于《亚太传播》第9卷113-129;李世涛主编《知识分子的地位》三卷，《时代文艺社》2000年出版。我将从他1992年出版的广受赞誉的小说《九月寓言》的文学背景来探讨这个问题。
《九月寓言》以一种神话化、本质化的方式展现了历史，并因此以理想化的农业存在的名义抹去了历史。实际上，“土”在张维的著述中是一个超越的、包罗万象的概念，代表着一种理想化的、未受工业化和现代化污染的纯净状态。在他的文章中，这片土地被转化为一种社会和文学隐喻，象征着道德纯洁和文学精英主义，而不是作者所认为的普遍道德颓废和文学混乱的当代背景。这一理想被认为是实现社会、道德和文学救赎的一种手段，被提升为一种批判社会现实和大众文化的绝对标准。--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 11:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Hu Jin 胡瑾==
My argument, however, is that Zhang’s reification of “land” as a transcendental metaphor in his essays only betrays the author’s lack of any profound historically informed understanding of the complexity of Chinese modernity. He simply refuses to accept social and cultural dilemmas and contradictions as permanent fixtures of the intellectual and cultural landscape. At the same time, Zhang’s outright criticism of consumerism and globalism suggests an underlying ambivalence about modernization. As China’s post-socialist social reality grows more complex and demanding, with more diversified and unstructured cultural formation, any clear-cut moral solution to social evils based on pre-modern social relationship and norms (positing the utopian vision of a transcendental realm) can no longer be effective. Nor is it sufficient to solve the sense of cultural crisis brought on by the progression of both modernization and globalization.

然而，在我看来，张炜在他的散文中把“土地”具化为一个先验的隐喻，这只能暴露出作者对中国现代化的复杂程度缺乏深刻的认识。他只是拒绝接受社会和文化困境和矛盾作为知识和文化领域的永久固定装置。与此同时，张炜对消费主义和全球主义的直接批判表明了他对现代化的矛盾心理。随着中国后社会主义的社会现实变得越来越复杂和越来越严苛，文化形态也越来越多样化和无组织化，任何明确的道德解决方案，不管是基于前现代社会关系和规范(设想一个先验领域的乌托邦愿景)还是针对社会罪恶，都不再有效。也不足以解决现代化和全球化进程带来的文化危机。--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 06:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==
The contemporary Chinese intellectual and cultural scene is a complex one, with major conflicting trends – one toward the commercialization of knowledge/literature and another in strong resistance to the very same. A new diversity of voices can be heard in intellectual debates at the more abstract conceptual level, and a number of Chinese writers have also joined the scene – whether consciously or unconsciously -- with their own distinct literary voices. The Resisting Compromise Book Series in fact embodies these writers’ own effort of resistance to commercialism and globalism, which they perceive as corrosive forces in their culture and society.

当代中国的知识文化环境是复杂的，其主要冲突趋势有两种，一种是知识/文化的商业化，另一种是对该商业化的强烈抵制。在更抽象的概念层面的知识分子的辩论中，可以听见各种不同的新声音，许多中国作家也加入了这一环境中——有意或无意地——带着他们自己独特的文学声音。《抵抗妥协》系列实际上体现了这些作家反对商业主义和全球主义的努力，他们认为商业主义和全球主义侵蚀了他们的文化和社会。--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 13:51, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

当代中国的知识文化环境是复杂的，主要的冲突趋势——一种是走向知识/文学商业化的趋势和另一种对知识/文学商业化的强烈抵制趋势。在更抽象的概念层面的知识分子辩论中，可以听到新的多元化的声音，许多中国作家也加入了这个舞台——有意或无意地——带着他们自己独特的文学声音。《抵抗妥协》系列丛书实际上体现了这些作家反对商业主义和全球主义的努力，他们认为商业主义和全球主义侵蚀了他们的文化和社会。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 14:24, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==

As the series’ editor-in-chief states in the preface, the work is devoted to those contemporary “literary heroes” (Xiao 1995, II), that is, certain literary idealists such as Zhang Wei, Zhang Chenzhi, Han Shaogong, Yu Qiuyu, Shi Tiesheng, and Li Rui. These literary heroes are recognized for daring to stand up and raise the banner of “literature of resistance” (Xiao 1995, II), attacking the literary degeneration and moral decay of the times.

正如丛书主编在序言中所说，这部作品是专门写给那些当代 "文学英雄 "的（萧 1995，二），即某些文学理想主义者，如张炜、张震之、韩少功、余秋雨、史铁生、李锐等。他们之所以被认可，是因为他们敢于站出来，高举 "反抗文学 "的大旗（萧 1995，二），抨击当代的文学堕落和道德沦丧。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 09:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

正如丛书主编在序言中所说，该作品是专门写给那些当代 "文学英雄 "的（萧 1995，二），即某些文学理想主义者，如张炜、张震之、韩少功、余秋雨、史铁生、李锐等。这些文学英雄之所以被认可，是因为他们敢于站出来，高举 "反抗文学 "的旗帜（萧 1995，二），抨击了当时的文学堕落和道德沦丧。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 12:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Jiang Hao 姜好==
In publishing the Resisting Comprises series, its creators were responding to a growing domination of the literary arena by a so-called “Hooligan Movement.” According to the editor, literary hooliganism, as it were, is essentially a “language game” -- represented first and foremost by the irreverent writer Wang Shuo – with its various forms of “literary trash” including “literature of sexual promiscuity” (xingluan), “literature of leisure” (xianshi), “hack literature” (bangxian) and “sneezing literature” (penti) (Xiao 1995, II).

在出版《反抗》系列时，它的创作者是在回应所谓的流氓运动对文学领域日益增长的统治。编者认为，文学流氓，实质上是一种 “语言游戏”——首先以不敬的作家王朔为代表——其形式多样的 “文学垃圾 ”包括 “性乱文学”、“闲适文学”、“黑客文学”和 “喷嚏文学”（萧1995，二）。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 12:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

通过出版《反抗》系列，创作者回应了所谓的“流氓运动”对文学领域日益增长的统治。编者认为，文学流氓主义的实质是一种 “语言游戏”——首先以不敬的作家王朔为代表，他有形式多样的 “文学垃圾 ”，包括 “性乱文学”、“闲适文学”、“黑客文学”和 “喷嚏文学”（萧 1995，二）。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:21, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==
But there are several larger social and literary issues that this project essentially addresses, namely: the loss of literary/cultural/social dominance by the intellectual elite to mass/commercial culture; the commercialization of knowledge/literature; erosion of the “humanist spirit;” abandonment of ultimate human concerns; desertion of idealism, enlightenment and such modernist projects. In the face of such upheaval, the editor describes the contemporary cultural/literary scene in China as dark and degenerate. The age is “cursed,” “tragic,” an age of “betrayal” and “surrender” (Xiao 1995, IV). And the targets of the literary/moral resistance are postmodernism, commercialism, and mass culture.

但本质上，这个计划旨在设法解决几个更重要的社会和文学问题，即文学、文化、社会的主导地位由知识精英转移到大众及商业文化;知识文学的商业化;对“人文精神”的侵蚀;对人类终极关怀的抛弃;对理想主义、启蒙主义和诸如此类的现代主义计划的放弃。面对这样的剧变，编者将中国当代文坛描述为黑暗和堕落的。这个时代是“被诅咒的”、“悲剧性的”，是一个“背叛”和“投降”的时代(肖，1995，IV)。文学和道德反抗的对象是后现代主义、商业主义和大众文化。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

但本质上，这个计划旨在设法解决几个更重要的社会和文学问题，即文学、文化、社会的主导地位由知识精英转移到大众及商业文化;知识文学的商业化;对“人文精神”的侵蚀;对人类终极关怀的抛弃;对理想主义、启蒙主义和诸如此类的现代主义计划的放弃。面对这样的剧变，编者将中国当代文坛描述为黑暗又堕落的时期。这个时代是“被诅咒的”、“悲剧性的”，是一个“背叛”和“投降”的时代(肖，1995，IV)。文学和道德反抗的对象是后现代主义、商业主义和大众文化。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 04:31, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==
Zhang Wei is primarily known as a novelist. His major novels include Ancient Boat, Fable of September, My Countryside, Clan, and novelle include Meditation in Autumn, Anger in Autumn, and Vineyard. [ Ancient Boat (Guchuan), Fable of September (Jiuyu yuyan), My Countryside (Wode tianyuan), Clan (Jiazu), Meditation in Autumn (Qiutian de sisuo), Anger in Autumn (Qiutian de fennu), and Vineyard (Putaoyuan) are all included in Zhang Wei wenji (Collected Writings of Zhang Wei) (Shanghai: Shanghai wenyi chubanshe, 1997).] He has also published many collections of essays. His writings collected in Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey include essays, talks, and interviews. These essays do not express this uncompromising stance in such a strong voice and straightforward manner. Instead, Zhang poses a literary persona of moral integrity as a kind of self-representation. He appears as an idealized individual, embodying in every way pure moral qualities of both a human being and artist/writer. This idealized individual is a fighter, fighting a lonely and heroic battle against fashionable trends and any and all forms of evil (Xiao 1995, 6).[ Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey includes both Zhang Wei’s essays as well as critical articles by various critics. In this paper I will use Xiao Xialin, the editor of this collection as the reference to provide in-text citations to essays by both Zhang Wei and other critics. ]

张炜主要以小说家闻名。他的主要小说包括《古船》、《九月寓言》、《我的田园》、《家族》、《秋天的思索》、《秋天的愤怒》和《葡萄园》。【《古船》、《九月寓言》、《我的田园》、《家族》、《秋天的思索》、《秋天的愤怒》和《葡萄园》均收录于《张炜文集》(上海:上海文艺出版社，1997)。]他还出版了许多散文集。他在《焦虑和愤怒的归途》中收集的作品包括散文、谈话和采访。这些文章没有用如此强烈的声音和直白的方式表达这种不妥协的立场。相反，张提出了以一个文学人格作为一种自我表现。他表现为一个理想化的个体，在各方面都体现了一个人和艺术家或作家的纯粹道德品质。这个理想化的人是一个战士，与时尚潮流和各种邪恶势力进行着孤独而英勇的斗争(肖 1995，6)。【《焦虑和愤怒的归途》既包括张炜的散文，也包括各种评论家的评论文章。在这篇论文中，我将使用这本文集的编辑萧夏林作为参考，为张炜和其他评论家的文章提供文本内引文。]--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 04:09, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==
As a generous humanitarian, he loves and helps all good people. As a socially committed artist, he takes upon himself a great responsibility to all humanity. And as a serious writer, he self-consciously pursues high literature. He is also represented as an honest laborer, making a living through hard labor and sweat. As part of this self-representation, Zhang criticizes those who succumbed to moral and artistic degradation, such as those writers who choose to “enter the commercial world” (xiahai), or cater to popular low-brow tastes by writing “trash literature.”

作为一个慷慨的人道主义者，他热爱并帮助所有善良的人。作为一名致力于社会事业的艺术家，他主动承担起对人类的重大责任。作为一个严肃的作家，他自觉地追求高雅文学。他也被描绘成一个务实的劳动者，辛勤劳作、挥洒汗水维持生活。作为自我表现的一部分，张批评了那些屈从于道德和艺术堕落的人，比如那些选择“走进商业世界”(夏海)的作家，或者为了迎合大众低级趣味而写“垃圾文学”的作家。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

作为一个慷慨的人道主义者，他热爱并帮助所有善良的人。作为一名致力于社会事业的艺术家，他主动承担起对人类的重大责任。作为一个严肃的作家，他自觉地追求高雅文学。他也是务实的劳动者的代表，他辛勤劳作挥洒汗水来维持生活。作为自我表现的一部分，张批评了那些屈从于道德和艺术堕落的人，比如那些选择“走进商业世界”(夏海)的作家，或者为了迎合大众低级趣味而写“垃圾文学”的作家。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 02:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==
He points out in his essay “Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey” several “lacks” in many contemporary writers. First, many of today’s writers lack “self-reflexivity” (which really refers more to moral “self-reflection” or “self-consciousness” rather than intellectual self-reflexivity). They lack “conservatism,” an ability to hold to a certain kind of spirit, in which he also sees as a lack of real avant-guard spirit. They lack “intolerance,” meaning they are overly tolerant of vices and decadent practices, and rarely engage in serious, genuine, and frank criticism and debate. Finally, they lack “stable emotions” -- the definition of which is rather ambiguous.

张炜在散文《忧愤的归途》中指出了当代很多作家存在的一些“缺憾”。首先，如今的很多作家缺乏“自我反思”(实际上更多地是指道德上的“自我反思”或“自我意识”，而非理智上的自我反思)。其次他们缺乏“守旧精神”，即坚持某种精神的能力，于此张炜还看到当代作家前卫精神的缺失。他们也还不够“偏执”，过度容忍恶习和堕落的行为，很少进行严肃、真诚和坦率的批评和辩论。最后，他们缺乏“稳定的情绪”——尽管这种情绪的定义相当模糊。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 02:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

他在《焦急愤懑的回家之旅》一文中指出了许多当代作家的“不足”。首先，当今许多作家缺乏“自我反省性”（这实际上更多指的是道德上的“自我反省”或“自我意识”，而不是智力上的自我反省）。他们缺乏“保守精神”，这是一种坚持某种精神的能力；并且他认为作家缺乏真正的前卫精神。他们不能够坚持自我，这意味着他们对恶习和腐朽行径过于宽容，很少进行严肃、真诚和坦率的批评和辩论。最后，他们缺乏“稳定的情绪”——尽管他对于稳定这一定义相当模糊。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 08:22, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==
Zhang’s self-representation, then, is also a form of self-legitimization. It endows him with legitimacy through a kind of literary aura and the staking out of high moral ground. From this privileged stance, he proceeds to interpret, represent, articulate, define and judge the essence, meaning and criteria of literature, society, and human life. Throughout his essays, including interviews, talks, and lectures, we find Zhang, like a self-styled guru, constantly giving advice to college students, young writers, and literature fans on what to read, how to write, and how to live. This advice is based exclusively on a clear distinction between high and popular literature, and on his unabashed criticism of mass culture (represented by television).

接着，张炜的自我体现也是一种自我合法化形式，这种形式赋予他一种文学氛围和声明高尚的道德立场的合法性。从这个特权立场的立场出发，他继续诠释、再现、明确表达、定义以及评价了文学、社会和人类生活的本质、意义和标准。通过他全部的文章包括采访、会谈和讲座，我们可以发现，张炜就像一位有自我风格的专家，不断地给大学学生、年轻作家和讲座迷关于写什么、如何写以及怎样生活的问题提供建议。这些建议完全基于高雅文学和通俗文学之间鲜明的区别以及他对大众文学（以电视节目为代表）的毫不掩饰的批判。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 05:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==
In a broader sense, we can see his self-representation as an essential reaffirmation of the traditional role that Chinese intellectuals played in society. The claim to an authoritative voice is fundamental to maintaining the privileged position of the intellectual elite within a structure of knowledge and power. Zhang’s self-representation, then, is nothing less than an attempt to reestablish the intellectual elite’s role in literature and society based on a clear distinction between high and popular literature. This power struggle for cultural dominance and hegemony in the ongoing reformation of intellectual/cultural discourse largely defines China’s socio-cultural condition in the wake of socialism.
==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==
Perhaps the most important part of Zhang’s essays is his use and development of the concept of “land” (tudi), which strongly conveys his self-representation as a simple yet serious “rural intellectual” (xiangcun zhishi fenzi). In his well-known essay “Immersion in the Wild Field” (rongru yiedi), the land in fact functions as a transcending metaphor. As a signifier of nature – wild fields, mountains, bushes, green crops, the ocean -- the land symbolizes all that is morally good in social and cultural realms as well as in individual’s life. The land represents a mother figure, where one can always find comfort, wisdom and inspiration. As an eternal backdrop, the land embodies eternity itself. It serves as an aesthetic standard through which the author defines the social and aesthetic functions of “pure literature,” and criticizes various aspects of cultural reality.

在张炜的文章中，最重要的部分可能是他对 "土地 "概念的使用和发展，这强烈地表达了他作为一个朴素而严肃的 "农村知识分子 "的自我形象。在他的名篇《融入野地》中，土地实际上是一个超越性的隐喻。作为自然的象征--野地、山川、灌木、绿色的庄稼、海洋--土地象征着社会、文化领域和个人生活中所有道德上的美好事物。土地代表着母亲的形象，在那里人们总能找到安慰、智慧和灵感。作为一个永恒的背景，土地体现了永恒本身。它作为一种审美标准，作者通过它来界定 "纯文学 "的社会功能和审美功能，对文化现实的各个方面进行批判。--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 08:22, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi

在张炜的文章中，最重要的部分可能是他对 "土地 "概念的使用和发展，这强烈地表达了他作为一个朴素而严肃的 "农村知识分子 "的自我形象。在他的名篇《融入野地》中，土地实际上是一个超越性的隐喻。野地、山川、灌木、绿色的庄稼、海洋是自然的象征，而土地象征着社会、文化领域和个人生活中所有道德上的美好事物。土地代表着母亲的形象，在那里人们总能找到安慰、智慧和灵感。作为一个永恒的背景，土地体现了永恒本身。它作为一种审美标准，作者通过它来界定 "纯文学 "的社会功能和审美功能，对文化现实的各个方面进行批判。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 04:12, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Haiquan 李海泉==
Zhang associates popular literature and TV culture with low class and uneducated tastes, and criticizes current literary Chinese criticism for being overly influenced by foreign literary jargons. His concept of the land is even a moral criterion through which he criticizes many aspects of contemporary modern society -- from commercialization in which money is the source of all evils, to globalization marked by domination of transnational corporations and bad influence of some foreign literature, as well as modernization represented by cellular phones, cars, and high technology.

张将通俗文学与电视文化这种低级的和未受过教育的品味联系在一起，并批评当前中国文学评论过度受到了外国文学术语的影响。他的领域概念甚至是一种道德标准。通过这种道德标准，他批判了现当代社会的各个方面——从金钱是万恶之源的商业化，到以跨国公司统治的和一些外国文学的不良影响为标志的全球化，以及以手机、汽车和高科技为代表的现代化。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 12:41, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

张将通俗文学与低级、无文化品位的影视文化联系在一起，并批评当代中国文学批评过度受外国文学术语影响。他的领域概念甚至是一种道德标准，他运用这种道德标准批判了现当代社会的方方面面——从商金钱是万恶之源的商业化，到以跨国公司统治的和一些外国文学的不良影响为标志的全球化，以及以手机、汽车和科技为代表的现代化。--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 14:56, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

张将大众文学和电视文化与低级趣味和没有文化的品味联系在一起，并批评当前中国的文学批评过于受外国文学术语的影响。他的领域观念甚至是一种道德标准，通过这种标准，他批评了现当代社会的许多方面——从以金钱为万恶之源的商业化，到以跨国公司的支配和一些外国文学的不良影响为标志的全球化，以及以手机、汽车和高科技为代表的现代化。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 12:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

张将通俗文学与低级、无文化品位的影视文化联系在一起，批评当前的中国文学批评过分受外国文学术语的影响。他的领域观甚至是一种道德标准，他的领域概念甚至是一种道德标准。通过这种道德标准，他批判了现当代社会的各个方面——从金钱是万恶之源的商业化，到以跨国公司统治的和一些外国文学的不良影响为标志的全球化，以及以手机、汽车和高科技为代表的现代化。--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 05:28, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Lili 李丽丽==
But most of all, Zhang’s concept of land symbolizes an ideal based on ages old dichotomy between city and countryside. At the beginning of the essay, he tells us: “[The] city is a willfully and recklessly modified wild field, and I will eventually leave it” (Xiao 1995, 19). Later he claims that a real artist should be “a worshiper of land” (Xiao 1995, 60). To Zhang, the spirit of “land” should be the spirit of the age (Xiao 1995, 241). Seen in the context of his criticism of modernization, it is evident that this dichotomy is built around the moral distrust of the city – a psychological complex that traces back to Chinese agrarian tradition and Mao’s revolutionary heritage. At the same time, it reveals a profound nostalgia for a pre-modern rural existence.
但最重要的是，张先生对于土地的概念象征着一种古老的城乡对立的观念。在文章的开头，他告诉我们。"[城市]是一片被肆意改造的野地，我终将离开它"（萧1995，19）。后来他声称，一个真正的艺术家应该是 "土地的崇拜者"（萧1995，60）。在张先生看来，"土地 "的精神应该是时代的精神（萧1995，241）。从他对现代化的批判来看，这种二元对立显然是基于对城市道德不信任而建立起来的--这种心理情结可以追溯到中国的农耕传统和毛泽东的革命传统。同时，它也透露出对现代社会以前农村生活的深刻怀念。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 15:07, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili

但最重要的是，张先生的土地概念象征着一种基于古老的城乡对立的理想。在文章的开头，他告诉我们。"[城市]是一片被肆意改造的野地，我终将离它而去"（萧1995，19）。后来他声称，一个真正的艺术家应该是 "土地的崇拜者"（萧1995，60）。在张先生看来，"土地 "精神就是时代精神（萧1995，241）。从他对现代化的批判来看，这种二元对立显然是围绕着对城市的道德不信任建立起来的--这种心理情结可以追溯到中国的农耕传统和毛泽东的革命传统。同时，也透露出对先前农村生活的的深刻怀念。--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 00:57, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Lingyue 李凌月==
The Land, then, points to an ideal transcendent realm, closed to contamination by the modern world. But represented only in highly literary, allusive, emotive language and nature images and analogies, the idea of the Land only comes across as very abstract and unreal. The author himself asks: “What exactly is the wild field? Where does it exist? Does it really contain my innocent world I imagine?” (Xiao 1995, 30). Indeed, as an all-encompassing and pervasive metaphor, The Land is never once in his essays clearly and objectively defined. Whether expressed as a personification of the mother figure, an embodiment of eternal being, or as a constellation of various ideal qualities and values, Zhang’s “land” lacks the substantial tour-de-force as a moral and social metaphor. But if we are to discover an ontological anchoring for this concept, it can only be found, I would argue, in his well-known novel Fable of September.

于是，这片土地指向了一个理想的超然境界，不受现代世界的污染。但只有在高度文学化、暗示性、情感化的语言和自然意象和类比中，土地的概念才显得非常抽象和不真实。作者自己问：“野地到底是什么？它在哪里存在？它真的包含了我想象中的纯真世界吗？”（肖1995，30）。事实上，作为一个无所不包、无所不在的隐喻，土地在他的散文中从来没有一次被清晰、客观地定义过。无论是表现为母亲形象的人格化、永恒存在的化身，还是各种理想品质和价值观的组合，张的“土地”缺乏作为道德和社会隐喻的实质性的力量。但是，如果我们要为这个概念找到一个本体论的锚定，只能在他著名的小说《九月寓言》中找到。

==Li Liqin 李丽琴==
In reading this novel, I will focus on the dialectic between its strikingly postmodernist form -- which he criticizes and whose influences he constantly denies --and its pre-modern content (in terms of the primitive agrarian existence represented and the mode of storytelling used). I find nothing to criticize in Zhang’s use of magic realism and certain postmodernist techniques to recapture the so-called original world of pre-modern existence. I do find a glaring contradiction, however, in the author’s repeated denial of any positive influence of postmodernism. This, together with his unqualified valorization of “The Land” as a metonymy of a primitive utopia, only betray not so much his literary hypocrisy as his limited ability to understand modernity, postmodernism and even history itself.

阅读此书时，我将重点关注后现代主义形式——虽然他一直予以批判并极力否认其影响——与前现代主义内容之间的辩证关系（主要从其所代表的原始农业生活与文章使用的叙事模式这两个方向进行阐述）。张炜运用魔幻现实主义和某些后现代主义的手法再现了所谓的现代以前的原始世界，这一点无可厚非。然而，作者一再否认后现代主义的积极影响，这是我觉得矛盾点所在。这一矛盾点，再加上他毫无保留地将《远河远山》隐喻为原始乌托邦这一行为，与其说暴露了他的文学虚伪性，不如说这暴露了他在理解现代性、后现代主义乃至历史本身的不足。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 14:41, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

在读这本书的过程中，我将重点关注后现代主义的形式——虽然他一直对其予以批判并极力否认其影响——与前现代主义内容之间的辩证关系（主要从其所代表的原始农业生活与文章使用的叙事模式这两个方向进行阐述）。张炜运用魔幻现实主义和某些后现代主义的手法再现了所谓的原始世界，这一点无可厚非。然而，作者一再否认后现代主义的积极影响，这就是矛盾所在。这一矛盾之处，再加上他毫无保留地将《远河远山》隐喻为原始乌托邦的行为，与其说暴露了他的文学虚伪性，不如说这暴露了他在理解现代性、后现代主义乃至历史本身的不足。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 03:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Luyi 李璐伊==
In contrast to his essays, which tend to be didactic, long-winded, condescending, and full of literary clichés, Zhang’s novel ''Fable of September'' is a fascinating and imaginative piece of writing. It is best situated in the genre of fictional history -- not a fictionalized account of real historical figures and events, but a pure fiction, written in a historical mode. Other examples of this way of, say, tracing the fictional history of a person, a family, or a village, include Su Tong’s Maple Tree Village series, or Ge Fei’s fictional biography, ''Marginality.'' Given its fragmented, incoherent story and sophisticated narrative plot, it is a challenge to give the novel a concise, accurate description.

与说教、长篇大论、屈尊俯就、充满文学陈词滥调的散文不同，张炜的小说《九月寓言》是一篇引人入胜、富于想象力的作品。这是一篇典型的虚构历史类型的文学作品——不是对真实历史人物和事件的虚构叙述，而是以历史的模式写成的纯粹虚构的作品。运用这种方法的其他例子，如追溯一个人、一个家庭或一个村庄的虚构历史，包括苏童的“枫杨树村”系列和格非的虚构传记小说《边缘》。考虑到小说中支离破碎、不连贯的故事和复杂的叙事情节，给这部小说一个简洁、准确的描述是一个挑战。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 14:08, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

与他那些倾向于说教、长篇大论、屈尊俯就、陈词滥调的散文不同，《九月寓言》这部小说引人入胜。这是一篇典型的虚构历史文学作品——不对真实的历史人物和事件进行虚构叙述，而是一篇以历史的模式写成的虚构作品。这种手法同样运用于追溯某个人、某个家庭或某个村庄的虚构历史，包括苏童的“枫杨树”系列作品与格非的虚构传记小说《边缘》。由于这部小说故事叙述支离破碎、叙事情节复杂，因此简洁准确地描述它着实是一个挑战。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 14:58, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Meng 李梦==
In general, the novel depicts a “historical” picture in which a small pre-modern, self-contained village is obliterated by industrialization. But what the novel really focuses on, instead of village’s fall itself, are certain memorable events and people that are part of the last 30-40 years of its existence (though the exact length of time remains questionable and unclear).
The novel is divided into seven parts, each focusing on stories of a single character or family. These stories are mutually connected, and at the same time intermingled with myths, legends, anecdotes and magical or strange occurrences, which in turn map out a sort of “history” of the village.
==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==
Ironically, however, history is not quite the right term here to describe the village’s temporal contour, for what stand out as the central features in the life of the village are “land”/food (more specifically sweet potatoes), the tradition of staying with the village, and a certain mode of storytelling used in the village to recall past suffering. As quintessential indexes in the village’s existence, these features mark not a temporal movement but an eternal being. Centered on these three essentials, life in the village is hard, simple, unchanging, and close to the archetypal. The only way for the young to use up their abundant and restless energy is to run and play in the wild fields at night, and the married to beat their wives and do “cupping” (''ba huoguan'').
然而,具有讽刺意味的是,在描述村庄的时间轮廓时,历史并不是太正确的术语。因为突出村庄生活的主要特征是“土地” /食物（更具体地说是地瓜）与村庄在一起，并在村庄中使用某种讲故事的方式来回忆过去的苦难。这些特征作为村庄存在的精要指标，不是暂时的运动，而是永恒的存在。围绕这三个要素，村庄的生活艰苦，简单，不变且与原型亲密。年轻人要用尽他们充沛而烦躁的精力的唯一方法是晚上在野外奔跑和嬉戏，已婚夫妇殴打妻子并做“托杯”（“ ba houguan”）。--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 15:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

讽刺的是，历史并不是一个描述村庄时间轮廓的正确术语，因为村庄生活突出的中心特征是“土地”/食物（更确切地说是番薯）、留在村子里的传统想法和一种村里常用的回忆过往苦难的特殊的讲故事的方式。就像村庄得以存在的典型标志，这些特征标志的是一个永恒的存在，而不是一个暂时的运动。以这三个要素为中心，村里的生活艰苦、简单、始终如一、并接近典型的村庄生活。夜里，在野外奔跑、玩耍成了年轻人将充沛且静不下来的精力耗尽的唯一的方法，而已经结婚的人则是通过殴打他们的妻子以及拔火罐来消耗其精力。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 06:03, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Yu 李玉==
Thus what Zhang Wei aims to represent in this novel is a pure, simple, close-to-primitive life, uncontaminated by modern civilization. But he is also representing a sense of eternal being, long lost as it may be in our modern age.
The novel is undoubtedly imaginative and fascinating. My sense of fascination as a reader, however, is derived largely from its mode of literary representation than from what is actually depicted in Zhang’s fictional world. Part reality, part myth, part legend, the story is at once mythical and real. It is a synthesis of straightforwardness and artifice, primitivism and mannerism, thematic simplicity and formal sophistication. In other words, in order to represent a pre-modern agrarian existence – Zhang’s utopian vision of pure being – he relies on quite sophisticated modernist/postmodernist literary devices.
==Lin Min 林敏==
Perhaps the most striking feature of the novel, as many critics have noted, is its formal manipulation of temporality, or to be more specific, the narrative negation of temporality. It is almost impossible for the reader to discern the actual timeline of the village’s history. Even the time span running from the 1930s to 1970s and temporal progression within the narrated world (which can only be pieced together after repeated readings), are unreliable, full of unexplainable loopholes. [ For the full discussion on the novel’s temporal scheme, see Chen Sihe’s “Huanyuan minjian: tan Zhang Wei ''Jiuyue Yuyan''”(Returning to the people: on Zhang Wei’s ''Fable of September'') collected in Youfen de guitu (Indignant Homeward Journey) 260-267.]

This unusual narrative stance achieves a number of thematic effects. First, it cuts the village off from the larger movement of history. The novel mentions no political movements, significant historical events, or chronology of dates other than “September.”

正如许多批评家所指出的那样，可能这部小说最引人注目的特征是对时间性的形式化操纵，或更具体地说，是对按时间叙事的否定。读者几乎不可能分辨出该村历史的实际时间表。即使是从三十年代到七十年代的时间跨度，以及叙述世界中的时间进展（只能在反复阅读后才能拼凑起来）也是不可靠的，充满了无法解释的漏洞。 [有关小说的时间安排的完整讨论，请参见陈四河的《还原民间：谈张炜的〈九月寓言〉》，收录于《忧愤的归途》260-267 ]

这种不寻常的叙事手法实现了许多主题效果。首先，它使村庄脱离了更大的历史潮流。小说没有提及“九月”以外的任何政治运动，重大历史事件或日期顺序。--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 13:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

正如许多批评家所指出的那样，可能这部小说最引人注目的特征是对时间性的形式化操纵，或更具体地说，是对时间性的叙事否定。读者几乎无法了解到该村历史发展的实际进程。即使是从二十世纪三十年代到七十年代的时间跨度，以及所叙述的世界中的时间进展（只能在反复阅读后才能拼凑起来）也是不可靠的，充满了无法解释的漏洞。 [有关小说的时间线索布局的详尽讨论，请参见陈四河的《还原民间：谈张炜的〈九月寓言〉》，收录于《忧愤的归途》260-267 ]

这种不寻常的叙事手法实现了许多主题效果。首先，它使村庄脱离了更大的历史潮流。小说没有提及“九月”以外的任何政治运动，重大历史事件或日期顺序。--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 01:19, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Lin Xin 林鑫==
The only other temporal indicators are rainy seasons, or periods of winter when the snow is as sharp as strong acid, or autumn when the field is abundant with sweet potatoes and beans. These seasonal markers indicate changes more in nature than in the human world where chronological dates mark time. These markers of nature serve to draw the story further away from a real historical framework and closer to the pre-modern agrarian mode of existence, as if human life was “timed” by nature itself. Furthermore, this kind of temporal negation also foregrounds eternity in the land itself. Wherever any historical hint or political implication may crop up in the story, it is immediately dissolved into one of many village legends.

唯一的时间指标是雨季，抑或是冬季鹅毛大雪，或者是秋季田野里盛产红薯和豆子的时期。这些季节性标志比人类世界中的时间标志，比如年、月、日，更能在本质上表明变化。这些自然界的标志物的作用是使故事进一步远离真实的历史框架，而更接近于前现代的农业生存模式，仿佛人类的生活是由自然本身"定时"的。此外，这种时间性的否定也预示着土地本身的永恒性。凡是故事中可能出现的任何历史暗示或政治意味，都会立即被消解为众多乡村传说中的一种。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 13:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

唯一的时间指标是雨季，或是下起鹅毛大雪的冬季，或田野里红薯和豆子丰收的秋季。这些季节性标志比人类世界中的时间顺序标志，更能在本质上表明变化。这些自然界的标志物使故事进一步远离真实的历史框架，而更加接近前现代的农业生存模式，仿佛人类的生活由自然本身“定时”。此外，这种时间性的否定也预示着土地本身的永恒性。凡是故事中可能出现的任何历史暗示或政治意味，都会立即隐入为众多乡村传说中的一种。 --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 08:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==
For instance, “recalling past suffering” (yiku), an important collective activity of the village, is transformed from a political discourse used during the Cultural Revolution into a form of storytelling for binding the village community together, and for producing oral history and creating legends. In essence, history is erased from the village’s background all together.
The novel’s detachment from historical background also means a metaphysical negation of historical paradigm of interpretation and signification, characterized by such notions as causality, progress and teleology. This allows the author to have a larger space for interaction of diverse configurations. As critic Chen Sihe points out, Zhang’s village exists in three forms: in reality, in legend/myth, and in oral storytelling (Xiao 1995, 265).

如“忆苦”，作为村落重要的集体活动，从“文革”时期的政治话语，转变为凝聚村落社群、口述历史、创造传说的叙事形式。从本质上说，历史被从村庄的背景中抹去了。

小说脱离历史背景也意味着形而上学地否定解释和意义的历史范式，其特征是诸如因果关系、进步和目的论等概念。这使得作者有更大的空间进行不同配置的交互。正如评论家陈思和指出的那样，张的村庄存在三种形式:现实中的，传说/神话中的，口头讲故事的(Xiao 1995,265)。--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 14:41, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

如“忆苦”，作为村落重要的集体活动，从“文革”时期的政治话语，转变成为了凝聚村落社群、口述历史、创造传说的叙事形式。本质上，人们将历史完全从村庄的背景中抹去了。

小说脱离历史背景也意味着形而上学地否定了解释和意义的历史范式，其特征是诸如因果关系、进步和目的论等概念。这使得作者有更大的空间进行不同配置的交互。正如评论家陈思和指出的那样，张的村庄以三种形式存在着:现实中的，传说和神话中的，口头故事中的(Xiao 1995,265)。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 03:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Bo 刘博==
However, the absence of a clear-cut time framework only blurs and transgresses the ontological boundaries among reality, myths, legends, the magic and storytelling. The novel abounds with magical, mythical, and supernatural figures and events: Niugan’s body was air-dried for a period of time before his actual death. A man named Jinyou can squeeze milk from his breasts. Another man’s eyeball jumps out and changes into a frog, disappearing into grass. The mother of Longran does not die after drinking pesticide; instead, her hairs have become darker, and skin softer. Very much like in Gabriel Garcia Marquez’s ''One Hundred Years of Solitude'', these magical events are presented in a realistic mode on the same ontological level as other “real” events.
==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==
In other words, the magic is approached through the everyday. And the transgression of ontological levels of representation thus further negates historical temporality.

The absence of historical time in the novel also negates historical interpretation. Instead, myths and legends assume the function of historical explanation. The origin of the small village is explained in a myth about a group of vagrants who, exhausted after a long journey, stopped, and settled on a piece of land that could provide them with food. The story of the monkey spirit with the ability to carry things becomes a mythic explanation of social stratification and exploitation, a further departure from historical and positive discourses.

换句话说，魔法是每天都有的。因此,本体论表示形式进一步否定了历史的时间性。
小说中缺少的历史时间也否定了历史解释。相反，神话和传说承担着历史解释的功能。神话中解释了这个小村庄的起源，这个神话是关于一群流浪者的，这些流浪者经过漫长的旅程已经精疲力尽了，他们停下来，然后定居在一块可以为他们提供食物的土地上。具有承载能力的猴子精神的故事成为对社会分层和剥削的神话解释，这进一步背离了历史语境。--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 10:37, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

换句话说，魔法每天都有，而本体论表征层面的越轨，进一步否定了历史时间性。
小说中历史时间的缺失也否定了历史解释。相反，神话和传说承担了历史解释的功能。小村子的由来在一个神话中得到了解释，这个神话讲述了一群流浪汉经过长途跋涉后疲惫不堪，停了下来，在一块可以为他们提供食物的土地上定居下来。故事中具有承载能力的猴子精神成为社会分层和剥削的神话阐释，这进一步背离了历史和正面的论述。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 12:42, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Liu 刘柳==
These myths and legends are presented as part of the village’s everyday reality. Thus different ontological levels within the text – reality and myth/legend/oral storytelling/magical events -- in which the village exists collapse into one. It is a world in which past and present become all-at-once. In other words, the past is the present, the myth is reality, and vice versa. The timeless place is like a sentence without tense. And herein lies the author’s profound sense of nostalgia for a fundamental, archetypal existence in its complete nakedness, beyond modern historical and rational configurations.

As Nan Fan points out, though the temporal span of the novel is not long, its content is massive, filled as it is with various stories (Xiao 1995, 253).

这些神话和传说是作为村庄日常现实的一部分呈现的。因此，文本中不同的本体论层面—现实和神话/传说/口头故事/神奇事件—村庄存在于其中，合二为一。这是一个过去和现在都成为一体的世界。换句话说，过去就是现在，神话就是现实，反之亦然。永恒的地方就像一个没有时态的句子。而作者对一种完全赤裸裸的、超越现代历史和理性配置的根本性、原型性存在的深刻怀念感就在于此。

正如南帆所指出的，虽然小说的时间跨度不长，但其内容却是庞大的，充满了各种故事（萧1995，253）。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 13:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

这些神话和传说作为村庄日常现实的一部分呈现出来。因此，文本中不同的本体论层次——现实和神话/传说/口头讲故事/魔法事件——村落的存在瓦解为一个整体。这是一个过去和现在同时成为一切的世界。换句话说，过去就是现在，神话就是现实，反之亦然。永恒的地方就像一个没有时态的句子。在这里，作者对一种基本的、原型的、完全赤裸的、超越现代历史和理性结构的存在有着深刻的怀旧之情。
南帆指出，小说的时间跨度虽然不长，但内容却很宏大，充满了各种各样的故事(肖1995,253)。--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 14:43, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Ou 刘欧==
If the macro-structure of the novel is characterized by narrative strategies of postmodernist fragmentation and transgression, then at the micro-structure of individual stories the pre-modern form of Benjaminian storytelling becomes the dominant mode of narrative. “Recalling past suffering” is in fact in the typical mode of storytelling. The narrative tells us that in those long and cold winter nights when rain turned into snow, when there were nothing else to do for the rural folks, all villagers of the Small Village would gather together to listen to Jinxiang, one of the principal storytellers in the village, to recall past suffering. Here Jinxiang functions in the role that Water Benjamin describes: the giver of stories, of counsel, the link to a mythic but necessary past.
==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==
Through storytelling, the storyteller’s personal experiences mixed with the mythic and magic become the collective experiences of the village, binding the village together, and providing it not only with a sense of community but also a sense of identity. Interestingly, the villagers prefer only the storytellers in their own village to tell of past. Thus, in relating his own experience and that reported by others, the storyteller in turns makes it the experience of those who are listening to his tale (Benjamin 1968, 87). In a way, Jinxiang perfectly embodies Benjaminian storyteller as the one who, in his storytelling, also gives counsels to the listeners -- the young in this context -- to value the happiness of the present and therefore stay with the tradition.
通过讲故事，叙述者个人经历与神话、魔法混合在一起，与村子紧密联系，成为村民的共同经历，这样增添了社区感和认同感。有趣的是，村民们只喜欢自己村子里的叙述者讲述过去。因此，叙述者在讲述他自己的经历和别人的经历时，同样也在讲述那些听他讲故事的人的经历（Benjamin 1968，87）。在某种程度上，金祥完美地运用了本雅明式的叙述者，他在讲故事的同时，也劝告听故事的人--在此背景下的年轻人--珍惜当下的幸福，从而保持传统。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 12:34, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Yi 刘艺==
Jinxiang’s story telling demonstrates the power of the oral, in that his performance has potential for moving beyond rational control. He tells stories spontaneously and with great emotion, often with tears and slobbers and shouts at each stop. His dynamic orality controls the whole atmosphere of the meeting and carries the listeners to multiple emotional climaxes. Thus in the highly emotionally charged atmosphere of telling and listening marked by crying and shouting, the teller and listeners identify completely with one another. As a storyteller “in his living immediacy” (Benjamin 1968, 83), Jinxiang is thus an integrate part of the pre-modern rural existence based on its closely-knit community, the shareable experiences, and a fund of stories and lore.

金祥的讲故事展现了口述的力量，他的表演具有超越理性控制的潜力。他讲故事时自然而然，感情充沛，每到一站，往往泪流满面，口水直流，大呼小叫。他的动态口述控制了整个会场的气氛，并将听众带入多个情感高潮。因此，在以哭和喊为标志的高度情绪化的讲和听的氛围中，讲者和听者完全相互认同。作为一个 "活生生的即时性 "的讲故事的人（Benjamin 1968, 83），金乡是前现代农村生活的一个组成部分，其基础是其紧密联系的社区、可分享的经验以及故事和传说的基金。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)
金祥的故事讲述展现了口述的力量，他的表演具有超越理性控制的潜力。他很自然地讲述故事，感情充沛，一停下来，往往泪流满面，口水直流，大呼小叫。他那充满活力的口述控制了整个会场的气氛，并将听众带入多个情感高潮。因此，在以哭和喊为标志的高度情绪化的讲和听的氛围中，讲者和听者完全相互认同。作为一个 "活生生的即时性 "的讲故事的人（Benjamin 1968, 83），金乡是现代以前农村生活的一个组成部分，以前的农村整个乡村紧密联系、人们互相交流经历，还流传着大量的传说和故事。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 15:24, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili

==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==
And this pre-modern rural existence can only be narrated and made sense of through the mode of storytelling, for the specific sense of historicity and experience of reality as mixed with myth, legend, the magical transgress normal parameters of our modern and rational paradigm of representation.

Thus the synthesis of the pre-modern, marked by both its existence and the mode of storytelling, and postmodernist mannerism with its sophisticated narrative strategies also points to an irony, in that this natural, pre-modern world can only be re-presented in very stylized devices. Here Zhang Wei encounters a similar paradox as the famous Taoist icon, Zhuang Zi. In spite of his distrust of language, Zhuang Zi could only envision the ineffable Way through language.

而这种前现代的乡村只有通过故事的方式才能被叙述和理解，因为与神话、传说、魔幻混杂在一起的特定的历史感和现实体验，超过了我们现代和理性表述模式的正常感受。

因此，前现代的存在和故事模式，以这两者为标志的前现代与后现代主义方式主义以其复杂的叙事策略综合，也偏向了讽刺，即这个自然的、前现代的世界只能用非常风格化的手段来重新呈现。在这里，张炜遇到了与著名道教代表人物庄子类似的悖论。庄子尽管怀疑语言，但他只能通过语言来设想不可言说的道。--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 08:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

这种前现代的乡村生活只有通过讲故事的方式来进行叙述，因为与神话、传说、还有魔幻的事物混杂在一起的历史感和现实体验超越了我们现代化和理性表达模式下的正常感受。

因此，前现代主义以生活和讲述模式为特点，后现代主义方式拥有复杂叙事策略，这两者的结合也指向了讽刺，而只有通过讽刺才能通过风格化的手段重新呈现这个自然的前现代世界。这里张玮遇到了与著名道教代表人物庄子类似的悖论。尽管庄子怀疑语言，但是他也只能通过语言来想象一些又不能言表的道。--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:00, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==
In other words, it was through language, given humanity’s permanent separation and alienation from nature, that Zhuang Zi could imagine the existence of something beyond. Zhang Wei’s pre-modern being is by no means ineffable. Yet, its “otherness” and its alterity vis a vis the modern world can only be perceived in our modern world, and represented through sophisticated devices of modernism/postmodernism. The absolute irony that the primitive or the pre-modern cannot be envisioned and represented except in our modern cultural condition in fact exists in the very center of this utopian text, though unrealized by the author himself as he repeatedly criticizes postmodernism and denies its inevitable influence.
==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==
So the natural or the pre-modern state of being as eulogized by the author is no longer the first order of naturalness, but the second order, for it is only through an elaborate narrative architecture that such primitivism and naturalness can be re-enacted. To put it in another way, in resurrecting the primitive in our postmodernist age, the author in fact brings out, though unconsciously, a fundamental truth about primitivism. The natural, organic and a-temporal world of agrarian existence represented by the Small Village is not, in fact, a utopia from which we have fallen. Rather, it derives its meaning only through its opposition to a temporal world of modern civilization. Only in contrast to this temporal world can the primordial, the timeless take on meaning as negation of historical time.

因此，作者所赞颂的自然或现代化之前的存在状态不再是自然的第一阶，而是第二阶，因为只有通过一种精心设计的叙述架构，这种原始主义和自然才能重现。换句话说，在后现代主义时代，作者在复活原始事物的过程中，实际上无意识地揭示了原始主义的一个基本真理。事实上，以小村所代表的自然的、有机的、非时间的农业世界的存在并不是我们所堕落的乌托邦。相反，它之所以有意义，是因为它与现代文明的现世世界是对立的。只有与这个短暂的世界相对比，原始的、不受时间限制的事物才能被赋予否定历史时间的意义。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==
Thus the ideal of a timeless, primordial rural past beyond modern civilization is only an ideal created in our modern times.

In my discussion of modernist/postmodernist literary devices, I do not mean to label and categorize Zhang’s text as a modernist/postmodernist. Nevertheless, as seen in the above analysis, his formal strategies do share some strong features of postmodernism, or to be specific, magical realism. These features include boundary transgression, fusion and coexistence of different ontological worlds, and atemporal narrative structure. There is no doubt that Zhang Wei has succeeded in creating a world, a state of being beyond the reach of modern civilization. But his “world,” in the final analysis, can only be represented through modernist/postmodernist techniques.
==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==
It is evident that the creation of this archetypal village embodies the author’s profound nostalgia for the pre-modern past and his utopian search for an ideal state of being. And this timeless place represents the author’s attempt to re-orient geographical and cultural nostalgia in China’s contemporary times from commercially stimulated nostalgia to the rural past as the fundamental Chinese root. Yet the lack of direct temporal and spatial references in the presentation of the Small Village makes his nostalgia closer to imagination, or to what David Wang called, imaginary nostalgia (1993, 107). In other words, his nostalgic representation of the Small Village is devoid of actual memory. This is particularly demonstrated in his deliberately designed a-temporal narrative structure, his foregounding of myth, legends and those magical events.

显而易见的是，这一原型村落的创作体现了作者对前现代过去的深切怀旧和对理想存在状态的乌托邦式追求。这个永恒的地方代表了作者试图从商业刺激性的怀旧到作为根本的中国根的农村的过去，重新定位中国当代的地理和文化怀旧。然而，在小村庄的表现中缺乏直接的时空参照，使得他的怀旧更接近于想象，或者更接近王大卫所说的想象怀旧（1993，107）。换言之，他对这个小村庄的怀旧表现缺乏真实的记忆。这一点在他精心设计的一种时间叙事结构、对神话传说和那些神奇事件的预言上表现得尤为明显。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

很明显，这个原型村的创建体现了作者对前现代历史的深刻怀旧和他对理想状态的空想。这个永恒的地方代表了作者试图重新定位中国当代地理和文化怀旧情怀，从商业刺激的怀旧情怀到农村作为中国人的根本根基。然而，在《小村庄》的呈现中缺乏直接的时空参考，使他的怀旧感更接近于想象，或者更接近于大卫·王所说的虚构怀旧（1993：107）。换句话说，他对小村庄的怀旧表现缺乏实际记忆。在他精心设计的时空叙事结构，对神话，传说和那些神奇事件的预言中，这尤其得到了证明。--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 12:28, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong

==Ma Juan 马娟==
Moreover, as the title indicates, the whole novel is intended by the author as a fable, rather than a history, even though it is written in a historical mode. The village’s mythic origin, its lack of sense of time, and its sudden and catastrophic ending all point to the negation of historical progression. The elaborate narrative structure betrays the imaginative and fantastic construction of this mythic past. Thus Zhang Wei’s Small Village is less a historical object of nostalgia than a topographical/textual locus where imagination and utopian discourse intermingle. In other words, as a literary construction, this phantom village comes less from the actual yearning for what has been lost than from the desire for what has never been there (Wang 1993, 130).
==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==
The striking incongruity indicates the nature of nostalgia as both a textural stance as well as a structure of feeling.

Nevertheless, the incongruity between formal sophistication and primitive existence is a very hallmark of literary and cultural production in our postmodernist China. In discussing the Fifth Generation Films, Rey Chow points out that primitivism is often associated with modernism/postmodernism. The “primitive passion,” according to Chow’s definition, emerges at “a moment of cultural crisis.” It is an invented fact, fabrication of a sense of the primordial, rural rootedness that occurs in the post-construction (1995, 22-23). Chow’s theory of primitive passion is based on her study of new Chinese cinema.
==Ma Zhixing 马智星==
However it does shed light on our discussion of Zhang’s profound nostalgia for the rural past at the age of globalization, and on the ironic rupture between postmodernist sophistication and the pre-modern/primordial world presented in his novel. Read in intertextual relation with his essays, it is more than clear that Zhang’s re-imagining of the primordial Chinese rural past is meant to correct what he perceives as the diseased modernity and to rejuvenate Chinese culture. As a response to the cultural crisis in our globalized age, Zhang Wei has chosen the past to measure the present.

The nostalgic return in Zhang Wei’s writings is in fact a kind of self-exile. Zhang Wei actually spent five years in a rustic country house (soon to be torn down) near his hometown to write this novel.
==Meng Ying 孟莹==
There he was literally cut off from the outside world, expecting that this exile away from modern cities would get him spiritually closer to the land and nature so as to feel anew the vitality of the Chinese people, and rediscover the historical/rural root of Chinese culture. As agreed by all critics, this novel’s representation of the primordial past succeeds in bringing out a native naiveté and simplicity, a sense of gushing life force and animal virility -- the ideal form of being. However, in de-historicizing the past in order to re-imagine the golden age of the rural innocence and plenitude of meaning, the author had no alternatives but to simply let narrative play out its historical inevitability.
==Mo Ling 莫玲==
The pre-modern agrarian existence embodied by the Small Village is ultimately destroyed by modern industrialization. History then, though negated and erased by the narrative form of the novel, reasserts itself at the end. This leaves us not with a story about the slow decline of this pre-modern agrarian existence, but of its catastrophic fall. The structure of the village’s existence was in no way able to change and transform itself. This is demonstrated by the villagers’ strong resistance to outside influences represented by coal mining industry. As a result, rather than gradual transformation, the village is suddenly destroyed by industrial machine power.

最终，现代工业化抹杀了小村庄所展现出的前现代农业文化。那时的历史虽因小说的叙事形式而遭否定和抹去，但在结尾时又重新跃然纸上。它为我们展现的并不是前现代农业文化缓慢地销声匿迹，而是其灾难性的衰落。这个村庄的存在结构决定了它无法自变，村民强烈抵制受到来自外界煤矿业的影响就是一个很好的证明。结果，这个村庄并没有逐步转型，而是突然摧毁于工业机器的动力。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 07:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling

小村庄所体现的前现代农业生存最终被现代工业化所摧毁。那么，历史虽然被小说的叙事形式所否定和抹杀，但却在结尾处重新出现。这给我们留下的不是这个前现代农业缓慢衰落的故事，而是它灾难性的崩溃。村庄的生存结构是无论如何无法自变的，这表现在村民对以采煤业为代表的外界影响的强烈抵制。结果，这个村子不是逐步转型，而是突然被工业机器力量所摧毁。--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Mo Nan 莫南==
The moral dilemma Zhang faces in re-enacting of the Chinese rural past is similar to those encountered by root-seeking writers: the quest for the essence of “Chineseness” also leads to the discovery of unpleasant aspects in its society and cultural tradition. This moral dilemma is also reflected in the novel’s narrative form. While magical events serve to deconstruct the realist paradigm of historical representation, they at the same time also create a picture of rural life as something exotic. As David Wang points out, the object of nostalgia is also easily associated with the exotic (1993, 109).

So if we have found some substance in Zhang’s novel to support his transcendent, yet empty metaphor of “land,” this “substance” remains less than compelling and appealing.
==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==
A primitivistic village life can be little more than that: it is basic and instinctual, centering on food and sex. The meaning of land is closely related to food; indeed the reason the villagers stick to this land is because it can produce rich food enough to preserve their community. The carnivalesque scenes describing the village young romping in the wild fields at night, while highly acclaimed by many Chinese critics, do not, to my mind, represent an infinite solitude or a simple form of joy as much as the poverty of these lives in an extremely closed and impoverished world. This strikes an even more pathetic chord when knowing that this form of exercise will soon be transformed into wife beating and cupping when these young people grow into adulthood.
==Ou Rong 欧蓉==
The extremely stable pattern of the village’s social customs, mindset, and traditions is incapable of absorbing new things, or initiating any transformation. So the static and cyclical form of existence is simply erased by the outside forces of industrialization. In a broader sense, the history of the Small Village, or rather, its fate can be seen as an allegory for Chinese traditional society which was also forced into fundamental change from the outside. Thus the Small Village reflects the broader historical impotence and lack of cultural flexibility in traditional rural China. Many critics, including the author himself, argue that the idea of Land is meant to represent a certain spirit. Nevertheless, unless located somewhere, this spirit can only remain an empty structure.

村庄的社会习俗，思维方式和传统极为稳定，无法吸收新事物或发起任何转变。因此，工业化的外在力量简单地消除了静态和周期性的存在形式。从广义上讲，小村庄的历史，或者说它的命运，可以看作是中国传统社会的寓言，中国传统社会也被迫从外部进行了根本性的改变。因此，小村庄反映了中国传统农村地区更广泛的历史影响力和缺乏文化灵活性。许多批评家，包括作者本人在内，都认为土地的意思是代表某种精神。但是，除非位于某个地方，否则这种精神只能保持一种空洞的结构。--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 12:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong

==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==
Nevertheless, it is precisely this structural emptiness that enables Zhang Wei to fill in many meanings throughout his essays.

''Fable of September'', as well as Zhang’s essays, embody his search for truth and a moral ground based not on the rationally constructed modern world of scientific knowledge and market economy represented by urban centers, but on the simplicity of rural life. This search is rooted in the author’s disenchantment with certain aspects of modern civilization. To Zhang Wei, “Modern industrial civilization represents a form of beauty; yet this form is prone to hurt another more fundamental, more eternal beauty. Idealists all hope that these two forms of beauty can exist in harmony, without much conflict.
==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==
But of course, this hope is only a dream” (Xiao 1995, 193). This distrust of modern civilization also reflects in him what Raymond Williams called “rural-intellectual radicalism” (1973, 36). Indeed, as a rural intellectual (as many critics have labeled him), Zhang demonstrates many aspects of rural-intellectual mentality: hostile to modern capitalism, opposed to commercialism, and attached to country ways and feelings (Williams 1973, 36). Without doubt, ''Fable of September'' is a fascinating novel and has uttered our deepest longings and profoundest nostalgia for a pre-modern simplicity of existence free of modern-day ills like alienation and corruption.

......当然，这份希望只是幻梦一场”（萧夏林 1995,193）。张炜的作品也体现了对现代文明的不信任，雷蒙德·威廉姆斯称之为“乡村知识分子激进主义”(威廉姆斯 1973, 36)。确实，张炜作为一名乡村知识分子（许多批评家如此标榜他），在作品中展现了乡村知识分子的多个心理面貌：对现代资本主义的敌意，对商业主义的反抗，对乡村风情的依恋(威廉姆斯 1973, 36)。毋庸置疑，《九月寓言》是一部引人入胜的小说，它表达出了现代人对过去的那种简单生活浓浓的渴望和怀旧之情，那个时候不像现代社会这样，存在人与人之间的疏离和腐败。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 07:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

但当然，这种希望只是一个梦想“（萧夏林 1995，193）。这种对现代文明的不信任也反映了雷蒙德·威廉姆斯所谓的“农村-知识分子激进主义”（威廉姆斯 1973，36）。事实上，作为一名农村知识分子（正如许多评论家给他贴上的标签），张炜展示了农村知识分子心态的多个方面：敌视现代资本主义，反对商业主义，对乡村风情的依恋(威廉姆斯 1973，36)。毫无疑问，《九月寓言》是一部引人入胜的小说，它表达出了现代人对过去的那种简单生活深切的渴望与怀念，那个时候不像现代社会这样，存在人与人之间的疏离和腐败。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 11:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Peng Dan 彭丹==
Nevertheless, Zhang’s use of the central concept of “land” (referring to an idealized being) as the basis for his critique of modern civilization – decrying moral decay, consumerism, dominance of popular literature and commercialization of knowledge – and his rural intellectual mentality this concept reveals betray the author’s simple-minded, essentialist, and absolutist approach to the complexity of an ever changing social and cultural reality. The reification of land in his essays lacks a broad and deep historical perspective on Chinese modernity. Commercialism and its culture have by all means contributed to the general moral decay and erosion of basic humanistic values in society, and global cultural effects lead to profounder cultural crisis.

然而，张使用“土地”的中心概念（指理想化的存在）作为他批判现代文明的基础-谴责道德沦丧、消费主义、大众文学的主导地位和知识的商业化-以及他的知识分子心态-这一概念揭示了作者对不断变化的社会和文化现实的复杂性的朴素、本质主义和绝对主义的态度。在他的散文中，土地的再化缺乏对中国现代性的广泛而深刻的历史视角。商业主义及其文化通过各种手段促成了社会基本人文价值的普遍道德沦丧和侵蚀，全球文化效应导致了严重的文化危机。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 11:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

然而，张把“土地”（指理想化的存在）的中心概念作为他批评现代文明的基础——谴责道德沦丧，消费主义盛行，流行文学盛行，知识商业化——这一概念揭示了他作为农村知识分子的心态，思想单纯，本质主义，以及对不断变化的社会和文化现实的复杂性采用绝对主义方法。他散文中土地的物化缺乏对中国现代性采用广阔而深刻的历史视角。商业主义和它的文化无疑导致了道德上的沦丧，也侵蚀了社会中基本的人文价值，全球文化效应导致了更深层次的文化危机。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 01:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie

==Peng Juan 彭娟==
However, the absolute rejection of consumerism, globalism, and postmodernism fails to recognize their power and inevitability in restructuring contemporary Chinese society. The problems created by these developments have already moved the issue of solution beyond a discourse on morality. China’s ever more complex and changing social and cultural reality requires a more sophisticated and mature understanding. And finally, I would suggest that in today’s post-Cold War age in which socialism-capitalism antithesis has lost its relevance and meaning, the intellectual paradigm of confrontation must be replaced by one of negotiation. Nostalgia may always be pulling at us, and we may always be willing to indulge in a trip to the imagined past with stories like ''Fable of September.'' But as a critical stance, it does not equip us to effectively address the complex process of cultural reformation happening in contemporary Chinese and the world.
然而，对消费主义、全球主义和后现代主义的绝对排斥，未能认识到它们在当代中国社会重构中的力量和必然性。这些发展所造成的问题已经使得解决问题超越了道德论述的范畴。中国日益复杂和不断变化的社会和文化现实需要更加深刻和成熟的理解。最后，我认为，在今天的后冷战时代，社会主义与资本主义的对立，已经失去了其相关性和意义，对抗的思想范式必须被谈判的范式所取代。怀旧之情也许总是在吸引着我们，我们也许总是愿意沉浸在想象中的过去之旅中，讲一些像“九月寓言”这样的故事但作为一个批判的立场，它并没有装备我们有效地处理复杂的进程，文化改革发生在当代中国和世界。--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 12:29, 20 December 2020 (UTC)penguan

Works Cited（不用翻）

Chow, Rey, Primitive Passions, (New York: Columbia University Press, 1995)

Benjamin, Walter, Illuminations, (New York: Schocken Books, 1968)

Widmer, Ellen, and Wang, David Der-Wei, ed., From May Fourth to June Fourth, (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1993)

Williams, Raymond, The Country and the City (New York: Oxford University Press, 1973)

Xiao Xialin, Youfen de guitu (Anxious and indignant homeward journey) (Beijing: Huayi chubanshe, 1995)

Zhang Chengzhi 1991, History of the Soul (Guangzhou: Huacheng chubanshe, 1991) 311.

Zhang Chengzhi 1994a, The Heroes’ Paths in Wilderness (Shanghai: Zhishi Publishing House, 1994)

Zhang Chengzhi 1994b, “Poets, Why aren’t you indignant?”, in Wenhui Bao (Wenhui Daily, Shanghai) (August 7, 1994)

Zhang Chengzhi 1999a, Wuyuan de sixiang (Unassisted Thoughts) (Human wenyi chubanshe, 1999)

Zhang Chengzhi 1999b, “My Method of Tearing up those Business Cards,” in Zhang 1999a

Zhang Chengzhi 1999c, “Zaizhi xiansheng,” in Zhang 1999a 100-105

Zhang Wei, Jiuyue yuyan (Fable of September), in Zhang Wei wenji (Collected works of Zhang Wei). Vol. 2 (Shanghai: Shanghai wenyi chubenshe, 1992)

==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==
'''Deciphering the Populist Gadfly: Cultural Polemic around Zhang Chengzhi's "Religious Sublime"'''

''Xinmin Liu

''
'''Abstract
'''

Since mid-1990s the Chinese Sanwen has witnessed an upsurge by way of frantic polemics over social and cultural issues in journals, newspaper fueillton, book series and forums. In this "war of words," no writer has been as prolific, as provocative and as problematic as Zhang Chengzhi.

Zhang's essays feature a scathing critique of Chinese intellectuals' lack of spiritual faith, their surrender to global consumerism and the postmodern. Driven by a populist zeal, Zhang extols Chinese muslims' devotion to their religious faith, defiance of material affluence and bond to their harsh yet unsullied habitat. His populist approach to religious transcendence in opposition to what he perceives as today's intellectual disenchantment is ambiguous and ambivalent.

“”破译民粹：围绕张承志“宗教崇高”的文化论战”

刘新民

''
'''摘要
'''

自1990年代中期以来，中国三文通过在期刊，富尔登报纸，系列丛书和论坛上对社会和文化问题的激烈争论而目睹了高涨。在这场“口水战”中，没有哪个作家像张承志那样多产，挑衅和有问题。

张的文章对中国知识分子缺乏精神信仰，他们屈服于全球消费主义和后现代主义提出了严厉的批评。在民粹主义热心的推动下，张赞赞扬中国穆斯林对宗教信仰的热爱，对物质富足的蔑视，并与他们生硬但未受污染的生境联系在一起。他的民粹主义对宗教超越的态度与他认为今天的知识界的对立是模棱两可和矛盾的。

==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==
It wavers between subaltern politics and religious fundamentalism. It falls short of the prospect of constructing a ethnic pluralism that protects cultural differences without yielding to cultural positions that claim unique access to truth.

In a polyglot age in which all has to be contested and negotiated anew, boundary- violating is the rule rather than the exception. Before the last millennium closed out, the Chinese essay thrived in an upsurge of cultural polemics, but in terms of aesthetic and ontological norms, the essayists could ill afford to stay within secure and clear-cut boundaries for long, because they often found themselves bombarded and displaced by a plethora of slippery issues, wacky themes and “roguish dilettantes.”

它在次要政治和宗教原教旨主义之间摇摆。它没有建立一种可以保护文化差异而又不屈服于声称通过独特途径获得真理的文化立场的民族多元主义前景。

在一个必须重新竞争和协商的多语言时代，违反边界是规则而不是例外。在上个千禧年结束之前，中国散文在文化争论中兴起。但就美学和本体论规范而言，由于经常被众多滑溜的问题，古怪的主题和“肮脏的弱势分子”轰炸而流离失所，散文家们无法长期在安全和明确的边界内停留。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 11:51, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

它在低级政治和宗教原教旨主义之间摇摆不定。它未能构建一个保护文化差异，并不屈服于声称有独特途径了解真相的文化立场的民族多元化的前景。

在一个多语言的时代，一切都必须重新竞争和谈判，打破边界是规则而不是例外。在上一个千禧年结束前，中国散文在文化论战的热潮中蓬勃发展，但就美学和本体论规范而言，散文家们无法长期呆在安全和明确的界限内，因为他们常发现自己被一大堆难以捉摸的问题、古怪的主题和“无赖的业余爱好者。”驱逐出去--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:45, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==
With battle lines frequently redrawn and growing ever so fuzzy, this round of cultural polemics took on the characteristics of a wild slugfest, no-holds-barred wrestling and elusive shadow boxing. But true to its essaying (or, alternatively, assaying) role, the essay form rose to the challenge with the right mix of mercurial, discordant and yet self-assured mettle. Thus, it proved most capable of lending expression to chaos, fracture and trivia of the postmodern world. One need not search far to bring this point home: the essay has lately swamped the public media with its newfangled offshoots: in addition to the common literary and political essays appeared the licai (personal financing) essay, the xiuxian (leisure/recreation) essay, the photo essay, the cyber essay and so forth. But it is with the cultural polemics of the 1990s that the readers witnessed the essay form in most amazing novelty, deftness and verve.
==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==
One way to make sense of what essay form enabled the writers to achieve amid the “wars of words” (pizhan) is to take it to task by way of its intrinsic bond with cultural dialogics, i.e. to see how approaches of writing essays lead to the laying of grounds for a dialogic relationship that intersects even the most incendiary issues and dissimilar views of this discursive maze. To that end, we will focus on Zhang Chengzhi’s essays published after mid-1990s to see why a radical intellectual figure like Zhang, considered an intractable loose cannon by most, often contests and mediates, by virtue of his border-violating politics, what the cultural mainstream considers to be polemical and divisive. At once belletristic and carnivalesque, Zhang Chengzhi’s essays stood out with striking clarity and urgency, if also with unnerving uproar.

想要理解散文这一形式让作家们在“文字之战”中做到了什么，一种方法是通过它与文化对话的内在联系来批判它，比如去检视散文的写作方式是如何为一种对话关系打下基础，这一关系甚至贯穿了这一纷乱迷宫的最具煽动性的议题和最具分歧的观点。为此，我们将聚焦张承志在1990年代中期后发表的散文，试图探索何以张承志这样的知识分子，多数人视他为难以控制的麻烦人物，常常通过他过界的策略来抗议和调解主流文化认为是挑起争端和分裂的东西。张承志的散文曾经是纯文艺的，狂欢的，凸显的特点是其令人惊异的明晰和急迫或许还有让人焦虑的骚乱。--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 08:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

想要理解散文这一形式让作家们在“文字之战”中获得了什么，一种方法是通过它与文化对话的内在联系来批判它，比如去检视散文的写作方式是如何为一种对话关系打下基础，这一关系甚至贯穿了这一纷乱迷宫的最具煽动性的议题和最具分歧的观点。为此，我们将聚焦张承志在1990年代中期后发表的散文，试图探索何以张承志这样的知识分子，多数人视他为难以控制的麻烦人物，常常通过他过界的策略来抗议和调解主流文化认为是挑起争端和分裂的东西。张承志的散文曾经是纯文艺的，狂欢的，凸显的特点是其令人惊异的明晰和急迫或许还有让人焦虑的骚乱。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Qi Kai 漆凯==
Extolled by some as the author whose one book single-handedly redeemed Chinese writing of the entire twentieth century, Zhang was riding high on the tailwind of his enormously popular Xinling shi (History of the Soul, 1992) and seemed to have returned to the public forum with his discursive buoyancy revived and his sense of the “sacred” mission renewed. At first glance, this does not seem the same Zhang Chengzhi who was overwhelmed by the spiritual loftiness he had ascended to upon completing ''Xinling shi'' and pleaded to his readers in all earnest, “there will no longer be this “me” from now on. Please banish me from your memory. … I have even taken myself by surprise that with this book I could bring myself to such a screeching halt.”[ Zhang Chengzhi, ''History of the Soul'' (Guangzhou: Huacheng chubanshe, 1991) 311.] But did Zhang ever quit the public forum and banish his voice from the on-going dialogue with his readers afterwards?

称赞为一本书的作者一手救赎整个二十世纪中国写作,张风头正劲的顺风非常受欢迎的新陵史(历史的灵魂,1992)和似乎已经回到了公共论坛和他东拉西扯的浮力重新和他的“神圣”的使命感再次。乍一看，这似乎不是当年的张承志，他在完成《新灵诗》后，因精神上的崇高而狂喜，并真诚地向读者祈祷:“从今以后，不会再有这个‘我’了。”请把我从你的记忆中抹去。……我甚至连自己都感到惊讶，有了这本书，我竟然能让自己停下来。张承志:《灵魂史》(广州:花城初社1991)311。但是章子怡有没有退出公共论坛，在随后与读者进行的对话中抹掉自己的声音呢?--[[User:QiKai|QiKai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 11:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Qi Kai

==Qu Miao 瞿淼==
And did he accidentally join the ranks of those escapist intellectuals who self-righteously beat a retreat in the face of social repression and identity dislocation of the early 1990s?

Indeed, at the height of his unexpected fame in 1992,[ Zhang Chengzhi made repeated statements in his essays written around this time that he had voluntarily terminated his career as a professional writer out of his desire to be embraced by the Muslim community and out of his disgust for what writers and intellectuals in general had failed to do in the face of rampant consumerist values.] Zhang did not hesitate to declare that his career as a professional writer had come to an end, and that he would retreat to the Muslim communities in the barren loess in Northwest China to begin his new life. While it is true that he verbally renounced his faith in and severed his tie with the mainstream intelligentsia, reality has proved otherwise: he could neither disinherit the dialogic potential of his earlier essays the same way as he allegedly cast off his ''Han'' Chinese upbringing, nor disown the intellectual milieu of his growth as though it were those business cards he symbolically tore up in disgust.[ This symbolic act is given an elaborate defense in one of his “position-statement” essays, “My Method of Tearing up those Business Cards,” published in Wuyuan de sixiang (Unassisted Thoughts) (Human wenyi chubanshe, 1999).]
==Quan Meixin 全美欣==
Zhang cannot give up the act of writing through which he once defied the false sanctity of official histories and celebrated the purity and incorruptibility of the ''Jahriyya'' Muslims,[ A sect Chinese Muslims who are often considered the inheritor of mystical Sufis of the religion of Islam.] and to which he owed the stage for exhibiting his extraordinary discursive power as well as his reinvented ethnic identity. While still pursuing his spiritual pilgrimage as a lone warrior, he could hardly remain an intellectual recluse in an imagined sanctuary. Although his views often turned hard-edged due to his combative and self-aggrandizing tone, we need not necessarily be put off by his ill-advised posturing, which is far more rhetorical than substantive. Rather we are urged to see beyond his argumentative mode and detect that ineluctable draw of cultural dialogics that lured him to charge right back to the frontline of the discursive war zones.

Zhang’s essays published since mid-1990s prove most intriguing and forceful when they give vent to his critical views that deliberately blur the boundary between personal commitment with public conscience.
==Sagara Seydou ==
Seldom a believer of easy cultural synthesis, Zhang thrives in getting caught in the crossfire of public debates and wreaking havoc for the intellectual mainstream whose social legitimacy has fed off a complicitous liaison with the official and the ideological center. In a sense, what constituted the identity of his previous self, i.e., the “I” who nimbly narrated a hidden history of a suppressed people in ''History of the Soul'', was a persona already poised on the borders between public outcry and personal misgiving, between official histories and popular memoirs, between discourses of cultural criticism and identity politics. Akin to the self/other-conscious tone of Martin Buber’s ''I and Thou'', Zhang’s resort to “You” side by side with “I” as his discursive partner not only denotes the presence of a dialogic partner cued up by intersubjectivity, but interjects a critical awareness to set off the “unanimous intellectual escapism.”[ Here I am quoting the phrase from Dai Jinhua’s journal article “Hidden Narratives: The Politics of Mass Culture in the 1990s.” Her view is critically assessed by Chen Jianhua in his “Local and Global in Narrative Contestation: Liberalism and the New Left in Late-1990s China” carried in Journal of Asian Pacific Communication, vol. 9, Nos. 1 & 2, 113-29. ]

很少有人相信简单的文化综合，他在公共辩论的交火中fire壮成长，并对知识分子主流人士造成严重破坏，他们的社会合法性已经与官员和意识形态中心进行了复杂的联络。从某种意义上说，构成他以前的自我的身份（即“我”）已经在公开抗议的边界上蓄势待发，该人在“灵魂历史”中灵活地讲述了一个被压迫者的隐藏历史。在官方历史和大众回忆录之间，在文化批评和认同政治的话语之间，还有个人的疑虑。类似于马丁•布伯（Martin Buber）的《我和你》的自我/其他意识语气，张以“我”作为他的话语伴侣并肩地诉诸于“你”，不仅表示存在被主体间性暗示的对话性伴侣. ，但插入了引发“一致的知识逃避现实主义”的批判意识。[在这里，我引用戴金华的期刊文章“隐藏的叙事：1990年代的大众文化政治”这一短语。陈建华在《亚洲及太平洋通讯》第一卷中发表的“叙事竞赛中的本地和全球：自由主义和新左派在1990年代后期的中国”中对她的观点进行了严格的评估. 9号1和2，113-29. ]--[[User:Sagara Seydou 3|Sagara Seydou 3]] ([[User talk:Sagara Seydou 3|talk]]) 08:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Shi Diwen 石迪文==
Initially a survival tactic to avert political repression in post-1989 China, this latter movement gained popular currency in the early 1990s as some intellectuals and professionals who used to pursue political activism now withdrew into enclosed fields of specialist researches where they could claim professional excellence as their new moral high grounds and practice professional elitism as a testimony to their personal spiritual faith. These so-called “New Scholars” valorized scholarly research as “not just a matter of knowledge or profession, but more fundamentally, a form of life choice and value inquiry.”[ Chen Pingyuan, “Thoughts on Research of Scholarship History,” Xueren I, 2-6. ] Alongside this process of self-authorization, they also sported a sweeping disdain toward mass culture or other nonprofessional cultures. Was this a covert strategy of resisting moral degeneration, or a “club-spirit” rally of collective escapism in the guise of professional disinterest?

==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==
Zhang’s answer rebukes the latter. Long before the first public debate over such issues took place, his own self-authorization in writing ''History of the Soul'' brought the “impartial” search for historical truth under critical scrutiny. Positing his ethnic unconscious as the testing site, Zhang launched an assault on the falsely fixed standards in writing ''Hui'' histories whose authority had been complicitous with the chauvinistic State ideology. He berated the methodological status quo in Chinese Muslim scholars’ historiography for tailoring local and ethnic memories to cater to the legitimacy of its hegemonic control. In the same vein, he called into question the validity of collecting and editing historical documents according to empiricist standards, chastising its total submission to a positivist view of historical development in the name of scholarly objectivity.

==Si Yu 司妤==
He specifically targeted the renowned Hui historian Yang Huaizhong whose investigation of ''munafeles'', ''Hui'' collaborators with ''Manchu'' and ''Han'' rulers, had, in Zhang’s view, internalized the reigning codes of power-knowledge alliance. Despite of his fine appraisal and extensive research, Zhang reproves Yang’s aloof stand:

On the one hand, you try to reflect critically yourself and your tradition, on the other, you want to bring to light the suppression and violation committed against the human soul. How can the kind of subject you’re studying still be the same historiography?
If Yang had yet to shake off the false sense of ethnic anonymity, Zhang does not make it any easier for himself when faced with the historical injustice inflicted upon the ''Huis''.

==Song Jianru 宋建茹==
At the Jinji Bao, a historical site of many quelled ''Hui'' uprisings in 19th century, he could hardly help chiding himself for not “avenging the historical wrongs” as a professional historian. He confesses in a 1996 essay entitled “Odes to Waves”:

It so happened that I have the fortune of being a full-fledged academic historian, yet I examined every single detail (of official records) critically but could not offer any rebuttal. It so happened that I was born of ''Hui'' parentage, yet I attempted to skirt around it but could not escape this historical site---the wintry mist shrouding Jinji Bao pounded me wave after wave, pressing me to make a pledge, to declare a ''nietie'', to make good the pledge of being dedicated to the people I took rather casually years ago.

Yang Huizhong, also known as Yang Mohammed Usiar, is a well-known Hui historian who has done crucial research on 18th Century Jahriyya Muslim uprisings. Zhang’s critical comments appear in T''he Heroes’ Paths in Wilderness'' (Shanghai: Zhishi Publishing House, 1994) 125.（文献无需翻译）

==Su Lin 苏琳==
This is not an occasional outburst of emotions for the sake of letting off his own guilt. This is sincere self-reproach to prod himself into keeping his ethnic memory and affective empathy from being worn thin by his years of academic studies, field work and research. Unlike the New Scholars’ chase of “disinterest” and neutrality, Zhang opts valiantly for the direction of racial and social activism: to knock down posts erected by “objective” histories, penetrate the walls of political and religious phobias and uncover the buried truths of ethnic repression and violence. One might query Zhang’s view of historical scholarship as emotive and skewed, thus running the risk of demeaning historiography into personal misgivings.

==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==
But in the era of cultural pluralism and ethnic identities, it is precisely the affective and personal that keep our ethnic awareness alive and urge us not to take boundaries of power and knowledge for granted.

No doubt, Zhang enters the debate of “the ultimate concern” of the mid-1990s, but he does so on his terms. He puts forward an ethnographical approach consisted of a person’s affective propensities (''qinggan''), ethnic lineage (''xuetong'') and a “prefigured destiny” (''qianding''). These are interlocked and reciprocal in variety of ways to enmesh a person in a nexus of cultural dialogics. He then probes the illusion of professionalism in the form of an “originary question” (''yuanchu zhiwen'').

但在文化多元化和民族认同的时代，恰恰是情感和个人因素使我们的民族意识得以保持，并敦促我们不要把权力和知识的界限视为理所当然。

毋庸置疑，张加入了90年代中期关于 "终极关怀 "的讨论，但他是以自己的方式进行的。他提出了一种由一个人的情感倾向、民族血统和乾定命运组成的民族学方法。这些因素相互联系和相互作用，以各种方式使人置身于文化对话的关系中。然后，他以 "原初之问 "的形式来探究专业主义的假象。--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 03:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==
He asks: “How do you account for your being in the face of your own soul when there is nothing scientific or ideological to fend you from this ultimate accountability?” To him what accounts for his ultimate humanist concern is his ''Hui'' ethnicity. Ethnicity, according to Michael Fischer, “ … is something dynamic, often unsuccessfully repressed or avoided. It can be potent even when not consciously taught; … something that institutionalized teaching easily makes chauvinistic, sterile, and superficial.” It is thus the “id-like” sentient and psychological that lay the ground for one’s ethnic/cultural conditioning and in turn bring it to bear upon one’s historical awareness.

A sinicized Islamic term for “taking a devotional vow.” It is also known as Juyi in Chinese.
Zhang 1999a, 37.
Zhang Chengzhi, The Heroes’ Paths in Wilderness (Shanghai: Zhishi Publishing House, 1994) 125.
Michael Fischer, ‘Ethnicity and the post-modern arts of memory,” in James Clifford and George Marcus, eds., Writing Culture: The Poetics and Politics of Ethnography (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986) 195. （文献无需翻译）
他问道:“当没有任何科学或意识形态来保护你逃避终极责任时，面对自己灵魂时你如何解释?”对他来说，对他来说，回族是他终极人文关怀的原因。迈克尔·菲舍尔(Michael Fischer)认为，种族“……是一种动态的东西，往往无法被压制或避免。”即使是没有意识地教育，它也可能是有效的;制度化的教学很容易造成沙文主义、无结果和肤浅的东西。因此，正是“类我”的知觉和心理奠定了一个人的种族/文化条件的基础，并反过来影响一个人的历史意识。
一个中国化的伊斯兰术语，意为“虔诚的誓言”。它在中文中也被称为“Juyi”。--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 12:49, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==
Being ethnically predisposed as an “other” likewise makes Zhang acutely watchful of the State’s covert practice of ethnocentrism in the name of social progress and scientific rationality. Drawing on his renewed ethnic ethos, Zhang has no qualms in issuing a call to all historians: “… disinherit the whole positivist baggage of the conventional historiography, and seek out the complex intuitive faculty of your individual soul.”

What about his image of a lone moral crusader? A great deal of ruckus has been raised over Zhang’s arguably obsessive stress on the “purity” and “truthfulness” of the ''Jahriyya'' Muslims; he is disparaged by some critics as “the most self-pleased” man in China today,” due precisely to his tireless and unsuspecting adoration of the close-knit and reclusive ''Jahriyya'' community.

作为一个 "他者 "的民族倾向，同样也使张先生对国家以社会进步和科学理性的名义，隐蔽地实行民族中心主义的做法产生了敏锐的警惕。借着重新焕发的民族气质，张先生毫无顾忌地向所有历史学家发出号召。"... 摒弃传统史学的全部实证主义包袱" "寻找你个人灵魂的复杂直觉能力" 。

他的一个孤独的道德十字军形象呢？张先生对''贾里雅''穆斯林的 "纯洁性 "和 "真实性 "可以说是执着地强调，引起了很大的骚动；他被一些评论家贬为当今中国 "最自得其乐 "的人，"这正是由于他孜孜不倦地、不怀好意地崇拜着封闭而隐居的''贾里雅''群体。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 13:38, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

作为一个“他者”的民族倾向，同样也使张先生对国家以社会进步和科学理性的名义，隐蔽地实行民族中心主义的做法产生了敏锐的警惕。借着重新焕发的民族气质，张先生毫无顾忌地向所有历史学家发出号召。“……摒弃传统史学的全部实证主义包袱”，“寻找你个人灵魂的直觉能力。”

那么关于他的一个孤独的十字军形象呢？张先生对贾里雅穆斯林的“纯洁性”和“真实性”可以说是不断地进行强调，引起了很大的骚动；他被一些评论家贬为当今中国“最自得其乐的人，”而这正是由于他孜孜不倦地、毫无戒心地崇拜着紧密而又隐居的贾里雅群体。”--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 03:08, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

==Tang Bei 汤蓓==
Does this not make him one of those solitary seekers of moral perfection in a morally promiscuous age? Zhang’s admonishing axioms seem to answer in a seamless fit to Wang Xiaoming’s definition of a self-oriented search for ethical righteousness. As an alternative to the intellectuals’ direct involvement in politics of the 1980s, Wang emphasized the personal quality of ultimate concern and argued: “(1) you can only search for the ultimate value from your personal experience; (2) what you find is your own interpretation of what the ultimate value is, not the ultimate value itself.” Zhang seems to share the solitary seekers’ new sense of priorities in favoring a self-motivated quest for absent moral virtues, albeit transcendental and visionary.

==Tang Ming 唐铭==
But one facet of his writings forcefully rejects that equation: he has all along kept up public-minded criticism of social ills and moral depravities as a free-lance social/cultural critic. What the seekers of personal integrity and sublimation failed to hang onto Zhang has carried on with infinitely sharper insight and fiercer zeal.

Zhang detects and detests the anxiety of these individuals to rise above the laity of social meanings and responsibilities as a way to avoid being an accomplice to ideological repression. And indeed his most scathing exposé has so far been reserved for the mainstream intellectuals rather than the money-grabbing ''New Riches'' or the consumerist mass.

==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==

When readers’ feedback to his ''History of the Soul'' heated up into a media squabble in 1994, Zhang burst onto the scene again with another of his tirades “Poets, why aren’t you indignant?” The essay is brimmed with scorn for the public for its total surrender to consumerism and their frantic drive for worldly pleasures; yet it is the intellectual mainstay who bear the brunt of his verbal onslaught. Zhang accused them of “selling out to monetary gains and worldly repute,” the news media of “swarming up like bees after the ‘big shots’ for petty favors and leftovers, and the cultural critics of “becoming painfully silent on any honest, principled, to-the-point criticism.”

Zhang 1994a, 125.
Zhang Yuanshan, “Zhang Chengzhi---the Most Self-Pleased Writer” at Xin yu si dianzi wenku (www.xys.org), listed under Zhang Yuanshan.
Zhang Rulun et al, “The Humanist Spirit: whether and How Is It Possible?---Reflections on the Humanist Spirit, I” in Dushu 3: 3-13.
For a fine critique of this shift of intellectual paradigm, see also Xu Ben. Disenchanted Democracy: Chinese Cultural Criticism after 1989 (Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 1999) 49-56. （文献无需翻译）

==Tao Ye 陶冶==
For a time, Zhang’s readers felt jabbed by his barbed comments on the gaping “void” of spiritual faith and rampant cynicism, philistinism and moral incompetence among the intellectuals. They were also exacerbated by his unmatched tribute to the ''Jahriyya'' Muslims who remained unperturbed by the hustle and bustle of economic boom elsewhere in China. All this led the public to conclude that Zhang’s posturing was cashing in on the polarization of the Haves and the Have-nots of China’s new social strata, and that with his accolades for “the poor men’s religion” he intended to push for the image of a “Me-alone Spirituality.”

==Wang Meiling 王美玲==
This grave misperception turned out to be the main ground for his detractors like Wang Shuo to lodge a protest, accusing him of getting rich with loyalties for his publications in Japan and overseas while turning hypocritically around to lecture the intellectuals at home in their weakness for cynicism, corruption and bankruptcy.

Nothing could be further from the truth: although feeling at home with the rigid and barren habitat of the poverty-stricken Muslims, Zhang is not necessarily biased against material comforts or social development as some critics have labeled him to be.

这种严重的误解竟然成为王朔等人诋毁他而提出抗议的主要理由，指责他依靠日本和海外出版的刊物事业一心一意地发大财，却还虚伪地反过来教训国内知识分子玩世不恭、腐败潦倒。

这一切都离不开此等事实：即张先生虽然对贫困穆斯林僵化贫瘠的生活环境感到十分亲切，但他并不一定像某些批评家所标榜的那样，会对物质享受和社会发展持有偏见态度。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 14:46, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

This grave misperception turned out to be the main ground for his detractors like Wang Shuo to lodge a protest, accusing him of getting rich with loyalties for his publications in Japan and overseas while turning hypocritically around to lecture the intellectuals at home in their weakness for cynicism, corruption and bankruptcy.

这种严重的错误认识，成了像王朔这样的诋毁者提出抗议的主要理由，他们指责他依靠在日本和海外的出版物一心只想着致富，同时又虚伪地反过来告诫国内知识分子，说他们玩世不恭、腐败潦倒。

Nothing could be further from the truth: although feeling at home with the rigid and barren habitat of the poverty-stricken Muslims, Zhang is not necessarily biased against material comforts or social development as some critics have labeled him to be.

事实并非如此：尽管张先生对贫困穆斯林的僵硬贫瘠的生活环境感到熟悉亲切，但他并不一定像一些批评家所说的那样，对物质享受或社会发展抱有偏见。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 16:09, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining

==Wang Xuan 王轩==
Rather, he is adamant with the intellectuals’ frailties in the face of social malfunction and injustice as a result of harried economic policies, and he is outspoken about what little critical awareness the educated class can foster against the blindly raging “market forces” and the new alliances of wealth and power. In 1999, Zhang wrote a sequel “Again to the Honorable Teacher” to his 1991 tribute to Lu Xun, in which he firmly declares that he will not back down from his previous judgment on Lu Xun’s misfortune---why Lu Xun chose not to leave us a legacy of great volumes of scholarly or professional worth.

Zhang Chengzhi and Zhang Wei initiated a heated round of ''bizhan'' (pen-combats) in the Literary Supplement of ''Wenhui'' Bao (Wenhui Daily, Shanghai) over the issue of mass consumption and culture with many writers who are more sympathetic with the marketized economy and consumerist culture. This essay by Zhang---“Poets, Why aren’t you indignant?” is featured as the leading editorial on August 7, 1994.
Zhang Chengzhi, “Poets, Why aren’t you indignant?” in ''Wenhui'' Bao (Shanghai) (August 7, 1994).
For further detail of this dispute, read Geremie Barmé, ''In the Red: On Contemporary Chinese Culture'' (New York: Columbia University Press, 1999) 304-309. （文献无需翻译）

相反，他坚持知识分子在面对经济政策所导致的社会失灵和不公正时的脆弱性，并直言不讳地说，受过教育的阶层在对抗盲目肆虐的“市场力量”和新的财富和权力联盟方面，能够培养出什么样的批判意识。1999年，张艺谋为纪念1991年的鲁迅写了一部续集《再次献给这位可敬的老师》，在这本书里，他坚定地宣称，他不会放弃先前对鲁迅不幸的判断——为什么鲁迅选择不给我们留下大量学术或专业价值的遗产。张承志、张炜在《文汇报》文艺副刊（上海文汇报）上，与许多对市场化经济和消费主义文化比较同情的作家，就大众消费与文化问题展开了一轮激烈的笔战。--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 02:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan

相反，他坚持知识分子在面对经济政策所导致的社会失灵和不公正时的脆弱性，并直言不讳地说，受过教育的阶层在对抗盲目肆虐的“市场力量”和新的财富和权力联盟方面，能够培养出什么样的批判意识。1999年，张艺谋为纪念1991年的鲁迅写了一部续集《再次献给这位可敬的老师》，在这本书里，他坚定地宣称，他不会放弃先前对鲁迅不幸的判断——为什么鲁迅选择不给我们留下大量学术或专业价值的遗产。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 08:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

==Wang Yu 王煜==
In fact, Zhang now argues, in less sarcastic yet firmer terms, why Lu Xun’s solitary yet relentless social and cultural crusades are gaining rather losing currency in 1990s’ China. He writes:

The populace in this nation have little power or scarce hope. But they are quick to discover: when they suffer and despair under the heavy burden of tyrannical rule of the bureaucratic few, “the intellectual class” turn out to be, after politicians and money, another cruel oppressor. The broad masses want nothing more than being fed and clothed. But they need the intellectuals to keep up the basic and constant criticism of the social elite and the powerful. Otherwise, their plight would be unthinkable.

事实上，张现在用一种不那么讽刺但更坚定的措辞来论证:为什么鲁迅独行而无情的社会文化改革在90年代的中国越来越流行。他写道：

这个国家的人民没有什么力量，也没有什么希望。但他们很快就会发现：当他们在少数官僚专制统治的沉重负担下痛苦绝望时，“知识阶层”就成了继政客和金钱之后的又一个残酷的压迫者。广大群众只想吃穿。但他们需要知识分子不断地对社会精英和权贵进行基本的、持续的批评。否则，他们的困境将是无法想象的。--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 04:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

事实上，张炜现在用不那么讽刺但坚定的措辞来论证为什么鲁迅这种孤僻但无情的社会文化变革在90年代的中国长久不衰。他写道：

这个国家的人民是积弱且缺乏希望的。然而他们很快就会发现：当他们在少数官僚专制统治的沉重负担下痛苦和绝望时，“知识阶层”便成了金钱和政客之后的又一残酷压迫者。广大百姓想要的只不过是吃得饱，穿的暖。但他们需要知识分子对社会精英和权贵保持基本、持续的批判。否则，他们的困境时无法想象的。--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wang Yuan 王源==
We, as readers of Lu Xun’s ''zawen'', are surely struck by the familiar wording, the similar tone, and the unyielding views that have implausibly found their way back into Zhang’s essays over half a century later. We are also surprised at how candid and unaffected he is when making such social commentary from a position comparable to the Great Lu Xun.

One is tempted to ask: is Zhang grandstanding? I think not. However, the causes for leaping to charges against his feisty offensive are worth looking into: they are, ironically, spawned off the same binary frame of mind that has been consistently used by the CCP ideologues to denounce the inroads made by “liberal bourgeois values;” yet such a frame of mind is also replicated by many of Zhang’s critics at home and overseas.

作为鲁迅的读者，我们当然会被超过五十年后在张先生文章里发现那难以置信地熟悉的遣词、语气和坚定不移的想法而打动。我们也会惊讶，当把他放在同一位置和伟大的鲁迅进行比较，做出社会评论时，他是多么的坦率和不受影响。

有人也许想问：张炜是在哗众取宠吗？我认为不是。然而，对于他来势汹汹的攻势的原因却值得探讨：讽刺的是，这些原因是由中共意识形态形态者用来谴责“自由主义资产阶级价值观”入侵的二元思维框架产生的。但是这种思维框架也被海内外许多张炜的批评者们所复制。--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==
Odd bedfellows resting on the same cultural logic, they argue that criticism of the intellectuals’ dislocation and impotence in current China is motivated by the either/or option. One is either directed by a regressive Party-led agenda to exert the authority of socialist ideological legacy while intimating their message amidst the consumerist ambience. Or he/she is motivated by a dissenting political force to jump-start a new round of political subversion while laying itself open to patronage of the West (mainly America)-centered global order. Zhang’s detractors from both these stances see eye-to-eye on his role in today’s cultural politics, following the either/or mode of straightjacket thinking.

==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==
But I believe he is neither a firebrand of old egalitarian idealism nor an extremist with religious fundamentalist zeal. His self-styled apologist persona is neither a haughty custodian of monolithic values, nor a self-righteous model of narcissistic purity and perfection, nor a slick po-mo master showcasing newly imported goods. His is more of a lone outlaw in a “mobile warfare” in the Gramchian sense: preying on the unjust and corrupt elite, yet forever keeping the society at large at bay.

Take the case of Zhang’s attitude towards “the people.” Pervasive social and cultural changes triggered by State-endorsed market economy had been set in place in China by mid-1990s which had led to seismic dislocation and reordering across the entire social spectrum.

==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==
The result is that familiar notions such as “the people” had been stripped of their usual ideological moorings, whereas the newly emerged social grouping was yet to be reckoned with. While the recent cultural warfare has struck a bitter discord between the Liberals and the New Leftists over the definition of the masses (''dazhong''), Zhang has been relentlessly lucid and unambiguous who they are---those of the disadvantaged and the impoverished in China today. He is evidently critical of the Liberals who are eager for China to partake of a global economic order and evolve into a liberal society with a rising middle class as the nucleus of its civic values, but tend to lose sight of how this class of well-off Chinese (most notably the New Riches) can emerge without tipping economic and social imbalances towards those at the lower rungs of the social ladder.

其结果是，人们熟悉的概念，如“人民”，已被剥夺了他们通常的意识形态根基，而新出现的社会群体还有待考虑。虽然最近的文化战争在自由主义者和新左派对“大众”的定义上产生了激烈的分歧，但张却毫不含糊地明确了他们是谁——当今中国的弱势群体和贫困群体。他显然是重要的自由主义者,他们迫切希望中国参与全球经济秩序和发展成一个自由与崛起的中产阶级社会作为其公民价值观的核心,但往往忽视这类富裕的中国人(尤其是新兴富人群体)的出现，而不引爆经济和社会失衡以及影响刚刚起步的社会主义事业。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 13:50, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

其结果是，"人民 "等熟悉的概念已被剥去了惯常的意识形态寄托，而新出现的社会群体却还没有被重视起来。当最近的文化战在自由派和新左派之间就大众（''大中''）的定义发生激烈的争执时，张先生却毫不留情地明确了他们是谁--当今中国的弱势群体和贫困者。他显然对自由派提出了批评，他们渴望中国参与全球经济秩序，并发展成为一个以中产阶级为公民价值核心的自由社会，但却往往忽视了这个富裕的中国阶层（最主要的是新富阶层）如何能够在不使经济和社会失衡向社会底层倾斜的情况下出现。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 14:39, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==
For that matter, he is also adamant with the Po-Mo culturalists whose extreme ''kowtowing'' to the market culture and its mass consumers is, by way of an odd twist, turned into propelling forces for the predominantly ''Han'' Chinese to regain a very ethnocentric mode of self-empowering in a renewed East-West confrontation.

Although Zhang’s view on “the people” is in close proximity to those of the New Leftists, he does not convey them as if they were their carbon copies. Instead he distills the critical efficacy of their combat with the deceptive “mass culture” and implants it in his border-violating strategy as a mobile yet vital critiquing position.

==Wu Kai 吴恺==
Contrary to what he sometimes claims---to jettison the culpable intellectuals in the name of “religious” purity, Zhang has always felt the urge to recharge the power of the intellectual self as expository but not dispossessing, diagnostic but not agnostic, and independent but not self-insulating. The key to his border-crossing self is a dialogic interplay among multiple viable postures of the self while never allowing the self to be tied to a single rigid form of it. It is by negotiating between these individual stances of conviction that Zhang aims to create a vigilant and constructive ambience to see to the redress of social injustice. While revisiting Lu Xun in “Again to the Honorable Teacher,” he avidly called on Chinese intellectuals to embark on a solitary but enduring quest for the interests of the people at the lower rungs of the society.

For further readings on this dispute, read Li Shitao, ed. Zhishi fengzi lichang: ziyou zhiyi zhizheng yu zhongguo xixiangjie de fenghua (The Position of Chinese Intellectuals: The divided intellectual circle over the issue of Liberalism) (Changchun: Shidai wenyi chubanshe, 2000).（文献无需翻译）

与他有时声称的那样——以“宗教”纯洁的名义抛弃应受谴责的知识分子，张先生总有一种冲动，那就是，要把知识分子自我的力量重新注入，做到说教而不是剥夺，诊断而不是不可知论，独立但不自我隔离。他跨越边界的自我的关键是在自我的多种可行姿势之间的对话互动，而不允许自我被束缚在单一的僵硬形式上。正是通过这些个人信念立场之间的协商，张先生旨在创造一种警惕和建设性的氛围，以期纠正社会不公。他在《重温恩师》一书中重温鲁迅时，热切地呼吁中国的知识分子开始一种孤独而持久的追求社会下层人民的利益的道路。

关于这一争议的进一步解读，请阅读李世涛主编《知识分子立场:自由主义之争与中国思想界的分化》（中国知识分子的立场：自由主义问题上的分裂的知识界）(Changchun: Shidai wenyi chubanshe, 2000)。--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 10:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wu Qi 吴琪==
To engage in a dialogue with these masses, he observes, is for the intellectuals “to forever keep a watchful custody of such people against the socially established and the powerful.” And the masses will discover Zhang’s polemical writings, much as they did Lu Xun’s Zawen in 1930s, “there is always someone like Lu Xun who is cussing his heart, all alone in his crusade.”

'''Discussion of this chapter: The ''xiaopin wen'' between ''xianshi sanwen'' and ''zawen'''''

''King-Fai Tam''

I would first of all like to commend the contributors of this chapter for their original, well researched and well articulated papers which represent a diversity of angles of approaching the study of essays, while sharing an interest in the polemical nature of the genre.

Zhang Chengzhi, “Zaizhi xiansheng” in Wuyuan de sixiang (Unassisted Thoughts) (Changsha: Hunan chubanshe, 1999) 100-105.（文献无需翻译）

他发现，与这些民众的对话是为了让知识分子”对反社会和反权利人群永远保持警惕”。而且这些民众会发现张的议论文，就像他们在1930年代对鲁迅《杂文》所做的一样，“总有人像鲁迅一样，独自一人在呕心沥血地讨伐。”

'''本章讨论：实现散文和杂文中的小品文'''

''谭景辉''

首先，我想向为本章提供原始资料作出贡献的人表示感谢，经深度探索且表达清楚的论文可以在分享对散文体裁辩论本质的兴趣时，从多个角度来呈现散文研究现状。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 02:28, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

''谭景辉''

首先，我想对本章贡献原始资料的人表示感谢，这些论文研究深刻、表达清楚，不仅仅为着手研究散文提供了多个角度，还对散文体裁辩论本质拥有相同兴趣。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 06:36, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wu Qiong 吴琼==
Together, they constitute an eye-opener for me, given my interest in ''xiaopin'' wen and other similar works with a lyrical bent that shy away from discursiveness and argumentation. If the ''xiaopin'' wen writers have anything to say about politics and society, it is often with a bemused tone; and the most that one can expect from them is a lamentation of some unjust social phenomenon, accompanied perhaps by an expression of outrage and an ineffectual cry for change. In that sense, ''xiaopin'' wen can be said to have rejected one the basic tenets of the essay as a process of experimentation, questioning, reflection, and, indeed, essaying. Too often, it gestures superficially to the analysis of an issue, only to come down heavily on an emotional response at the end.

鉴于我对 "小品 "文和其他类似的抒情作品的兴趣，这些作品加在一起，让我大开眼界。如果说 "小品 "文对政治和社会有什么要说的话，那往往是带着一种无奈的语气；人们能从他们那里得到的最多的是对某种不公正的社会现象的哀叹，也许还伴随着一种愤怒的表达和对改变的无效的呼喊。在这个意义上，''xiaopin''wen可以说拒绝了散文的一个基本原则，即把散文作为一个实验、质疑、反思的过程，事实上，也是散文的过程。很多时候，它表面上摆出了分析问题的姿态，却在最后重重地落在了情感的回应上。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 13:21, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

这些作品加在一起，让我大开眼界，让我对 "小品 "文和其他类似的抒情作品产生了兴趣，。如果说 "小品 "文对政治和社会有什么要说的话，那往往是带着一种无奈的语气；人们能从他们那里得到的最多的是对某种不公正的社会现象的哀叹，也许还伴随着一种愤怒的表达和对改变的无效的呼喊。在这个意义上，“小品”文可以说拒绝了散文的一个基本原则，即把散文作为一个实验、质疑、反思的过程，事实上，也是散文的过程。很多时候，它表面上摆出了分析问题的姿态，却在最后重重地落在了情感的回应上。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 13:47, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

鉴于我对 "小品 "文和其他类似的抒情作品的兴趣，这些作品加在一起，让我大开眼界。如果说 "小品 "文对政治和社会有什么要说的，那往往是带着一种无奈的语气；人们能从他们那里得到的最多的是对某种不公正的社会现象的哀叹，也许还伴随着一种愤怒的表达和对改变的无效的呼喊。在这个意义上，小品文可以说拒绝了散文的一个基本原则，即把散文作为一个实验、质疑、反思的过程，事实上，也是散文的过程。很多时候，它表面上摆出了分析问题的姿态，却在最后重重地落在了情感的回应上。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 13:53, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

鉴于我对 "小品 "文和其他类似的抒情作品的兴趣，这些作品加在一起，让我大开眼界。如果说 "小品 "文对政治和社会有什么要说的话，那往往是带着一种无奈的语气；人们能从他们那里得到的最多的是对某种不公正的社会现象的哀叹，也许还伴随着一种愤怒的表达和对改变的无效的呼喊。在这个意义上，''小品''文可以说拒绝了散文的一个基本原则，即把散文作为一个实验、质疑、反思的过程，事实上，也是散文的过程。很多时候，它表面上摆出了分析问题的姿态，却在最后重重地落在了情感的回应上。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 14:53, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wu Xiang 邬香==
Yet, the four contributions to this chapter point out that there is a bigger world in the study of essays beyond ''xiaopin'' wen. The essay can, as Mary Scoggin argues, be cantankerous, recalling the image of a spear and a dagger, where one piece of ''zawen'' is more likely to elicit an equally cantankerous response than to put an issue to rest. With good reasons, we describe such exchanges as ''pizhan'' (battling with the pen). The essay is also a site where the essayist can consciously sculpt an image of himself, as Lu Jie and Liu Xinmin show in the cases of Zhang Wei and Zhang Chengzhi.

然而，本章所作的四个贡献指出，在小品文之外散文研究还有一个更广阔的世界。正如玛丽·斯科金所说，这篇文章可能给人不好的感觉，回忆时像一把长矛和匕首，其中一段“扎文”更可能引起同样不愉快的反应，而不是让问题得到解决。我们有充分的理由称这种交流为“笔战”。（用笔作战）正如陆洁和刘新民在张炜和张承志的案例中所展示的那样，这篇文章也是散文家有意识地塑造自己形象的成果。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 14:22, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

然而，本章所作的四个贡献指出，在小品文之外散文研究还拥有一个更广阔的世界。正如玛丽·斯科金所说，散文也可以尖锐凌厉，让人联想到长矛和匕首的形象，其中“扎文”更可能引起尖锐的反应，而不是使问题得到解决。我们有充分的理由将这种交锋称为“笔战”。正如陆洁和刘新民在张炜和张承志的案例中所展示的那样，散文家也是会有意识地将散文作为塑造自己形象的场所。--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 04:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wu Yilu 吴一露==
Moreover, while one single piece of essay is indeed different from a treatise in that its brevity makes it ill-equipped to address an issue in great depth, essayists such as Zhang Wei and Zhang Chengzhi can resort to voluminous output, exhaustively exploring different shades of a question in one essay after another to build up a coherent position. Wang Ban furthermore approaches the essay as a sensibility, or a structuring device, with which a writer tells and retells a story, puts forward a proposition and modifies or denies it. As such, it replaces the novel as the form that best captures the consumerist ethos of urban China in the 1990s.

虽然一篇文章与论文确实存在区别，其简洁性使其不具备解决问题的深度，但是如张伟和张承志一类的作者产出颇丰，详尽探索一篇篇文章中不同深浅的问题，以此来建立一个连贯的位置。在此基础上，王班进一步将文章作为一种情感，或者一种结构化工具，作者可以通过文章来讲述或复述一个故事，提出一个命题，对其进行修饰或否定。因此，它取代了小说，抓住了20世纪90年代中国城市消费主义思潮。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 05:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

尽管一篇论文的确与论文有所不同，因为篇幅简洁，无法充分解决一个问题，但张炜和张承志等作者却可以求助于大量论文，详尽地探讨了不同层次的论文，以此来建立一个连贯的位置。在此基础上，王班进一步将文章作为一种情感，或者一种结构化工具，作者用它来讲述和叙述一个故事，提出一个命题并加以修改或否认。因此，它取代了小说，成为最能体现90年代中国城市消费主义思潮。--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 10:37, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==
Yet, if a literary genre can take up so many shapes and forms, are we still justified to consider these shapes and forms as a uniform entity, to be analyzed and studies with the same methodology ? In my study of the essay, I have often been confronted with this question. In the New England Association of Asian Studies conference in October last year I raised a similar query in response to the presentations of Alexandra Wagner, Martin Woesler and Xinmin Liu: in what way can we consider works as diverse as those of Feng Zhi, Qu Qiubai, and a group of other writers that we discussed that day as essays? Now, in light of the four papers of this chapter, I would like to ask the same question again.

==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==
I will take the clue from Wang Ban when he considers the “polemic pole” for the essay, i.e., that which the essay stands against, and see whether we can understand what essay is but finding out what it is not. At different historical junctures and in different cultural contexts, the essay has served as the voice of the opposition and the marginal. Wang Ban has already alluded to Adorno’s “The Essay as Form” to underscore the institutional system of philosophy, the discourse of scientific positivism, and its attendant socio-cultural conditions of reification, to which the essay stands in opposition. Likewise, one can find a late twentieth-century parallel where the articulation of feminism and decolonization often takes the form of the essay.

我将从王班思考文章的“论战极点”，即文章所反对的东西，来寻找线索，看看我们能否理解文章是什么，但找出它不是什么。在不同的历史节点和文化语境中，散文充当了反对派和边缘者的声音。王班已经提到阿多诺的“文章形式”来强调哲学的制度体系、科学实证主义的话语以及与其相伴随的物化的社会文化条件，而阿多诺的“文章形式”是与之对立的。同样，我们可以找到二十世纪后期的一个平行，女权主义和非殖民化的表述经常以文章的形式出现。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 08:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

我将从王班提出的文章的“论战极点”，即文章所反对的东西入手，看我们能否理解文章而不是发现它的局限。在不同的历史节点和文化语境中，散文充当了反对派和边缘者的声音。王班已经提到阿多诺的“文章形式”来强调哲学的制度体系、科学实证主义的话语以及与其相伴随的物化的社会文化条件，而阿多诺的“文章形式”是与之对立的。同样，我们可以找到二十世纪后期的一个平行，女权主义和非殖民化的表述经常以文章的形式出现。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 08:59, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

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==Xiao Ting 肖婷==
Yet, in the Chinese context, even if we narrow it down to the last two decades of the twentieth century, it is not entirely clear what the polemic pole of the essay is. Wang Ban believes that the polemical pole to contemporary Chinese essays to be identified as the Enlightenment and Marxist paradigm of teleological history and its literary counterpart: the novel of “revolutionary realism.” For the zawen she is examining, Mary Scoggin suggests that ''zawen'' spits in the face of a “discourse of beauty” that serves to mute criticism in ''the'' name of social and rhetorical graciousness, an attitude that essentially forbids ''zawen'' writers to say anything if they cannot think of something nice to say.

然而，在中国的环境之下，即使我们把范围缩小到20世纪最后20年，也不能完全弄清楚散文的极点是什么。王班认为，当代中国散文的论极要确定为启蒙运动和马克思主义的心学史范式及其文学的对应物："革命现实主义 "的小说。玛丽-斯科金在研究杂文以后认为，杂文对所谓“美的篇章”十分唾弃，以直白、朴实的语言来噎住批评，而这种态度实质上是禁止“杂文”作家在想不出好话时再说什么。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 08:49, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

然而，在中国，即使把范围缩小到20世纪最后20年，也不能彻底弄清散文的论极是什么。王班认为，当代中国散文的论极应该定义成启蒙运动和马克思主义的心学史范式及其文学对等物："革命现实主义 "的小说。玛丽-斯科金在研究杂文以后认为，杂文对
唾弃“美的篇章”，通过直白、朴实的语言来噎住批评，而这种态度实质上是防止“杂文”作家在想不出好话时再说些什么别的。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 12:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xiao Xi 肖茜==
Zhang Chengzhi, Xinmin’s subject, has made it abundantly clear that his essays are manifestations of a historical method that deconstructs Han chauvinism even as he has little by way of counter evidence to go by. Like Wang Ban, Lu Jie also pits the essay against the novel, but for a different reason, and with findings intriguingly different from that of Wang Ban. Wang Ban attributes the “metafictional” signs in Wang Anyi’s ''Shushu di gushi'' to the intrusion of the essayist sensibilities. In other words, it is her essayist touch that accounts for the tentativeness of her narrative. On the other hand, Lu Jie succeeds in showing that Zhang Wei the novelist is much more tentative and equivocal than Zhang Wei the essayist.
《新民》的主体，张承志已经非常清楚地表明，他的散文是解构大汉族主义的历史方法的表现，尽管他几乎没有任何相反的证据可供参考。和王班一样，卢杰也把这篇文章与《红楼梦》对立起来，但原因不同，他的发现与王班的截然不同。王班把王安忆《叔叔的故事》中的“元化”符号归结为散文家情感的侵入。换句话说，正是她的散文家风格造成了她的叙述的不确定性。另一方面，卢杰成功地展示了小说家张伟比散文家张伟更加犹豫不决和模棱两可。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 13:49, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

张承志是《新民》的主人公，他非常直白地表明，他的散文是解构大汉族主义的历史方法的表现，尽管他几乎没有任何相反的证据可供参考。如同王班，陆杰也把这篇文章与《红楼梦》对立起来，但原因不同，并且他的发现与王班的完全不同。王班把王安忆《叔叔的故事》中的“元化”符号归结为散文家情感的侵入。换句话说，正是她的散文家风格导致她的叙述带有不确定性。另一方面，陆杰成功地展示了一个事实——小说家张伟，比散文家张伟，更加犹豫不决，更加模棱两可。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 02:30, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==
Even if one were to maintain that ''Jiuyue yuyan'', like ''Shushu di gushi'', is informed by the essayist sensibilities, one still has to consider why Zhang Wei’s essays are more categorical, and hence more simplistic and reductionist, in their assertion than the novel, whose meaning requires considerable teasing out. What is one to make of this discrepancy between Wang Anyi and Zhang Wei? What does it say about the two writers? And what do they have to say, if anything, about the essay and the novel?

即使有人坚持认为《九月寓言》和《叔叔的故事》一样，都是受散文家的情感影响的，但我们还是要思考为什么张炜的散文在论断上比小说更直截了当，也因此更为简单明了，而他的小说的意义却需要相当多的梳理推敲。怎么去理解王安忆和张炜之间的这种差异呢？对于这两位作家有什么看法呢？他们对这篇文章和小说有什么要说的吗？

即使有人坚持认为《九月寓言》和《叔叔的故事》一样，都受散文家的情感影响，但我们还是要思考为什么张炜的散文的论断比小说更直截了当，也因此更为简单明了，而他的小说的意义却需要相当多的梳理推敲。怎么去理解王安忆和张炜之间的这种差异呢？对于这两位作家有什么看法呢？他们对这篇文章和小说有什么要说的吗？

In various ways, our contributors also look into the self-image the essayists construct for themselves as they participate in the cultural polemics at the end of the century.

在本世纪末的文化论战中，我们的撰稿人也从不同的角度审视了散文家为自己建构的自我形象。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 15:56, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining

在20世纪末的文化论战中，我们的撰稿人也从用不同的方法审视了散文家为自己建构的自我形象。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 14:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xie Fan 解帆==
Gone, apparently, is the supercilious pose of the ''xianshi'' essayist who, to paraphrase Lu Xun’s famous translation of Kuriyagawa Hakuson, “sits in a rocking chair by the stove in winter or puts on a bathrobe in summer to drink tea and chat casually with one’s good friends about things that do not give one a headache.” Rather, as our contributors succeed in pointing out, headache is precisely what our essayists aim to provide. Even though they also affect varying degrees of reclusivity or compromise, they always come back later to the polemic fray with renewed vigor. I have in mind such instances as Zhang Wei’s repeated claim to find a monastery in the mountains where he will study all by himself for a year even as he goes around giving advice to his readers on how best to resist the corrupting influences of mass culture.

这显然是散文家高傲的姿势,套用鲁迅翻译Kuriyagawa Hakuson的一句话,“冬天坐在火炉旁的摇椅上或夏天穿上浴袍跟好朋友喝茶聊天不会让人头疼。相反，正如我们的撰稿人所说，散文集作者想让我们头疼。”即使他们有不同程度的隐逸或妥协，但他们总是在之后的论战中重新焕发活力。我记得这样的例子，张维反复声称要在山里找到一个寺院，在那里独自学习一年，甚至到处给读者建议如何最好地抵制大众文化的腐蚀影响。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 12:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

显然，“闲适”散文家那种傲慢的姿态已经消失了，套用鲁迅对厨川白村的著名翻译，"冬天坐在炉子边的摇椅上，或者夏天穿上浴袍，和好朋友喝茶闲聊，谈的都是一些不使人头痛的事情"。相反，正如我们的撰稿人所说，头痛正是要由我们的散文家提供。即使他们也会不同程度地影响到隐忍或妥协，但他们后来总是以新的活力重新回到论战中来。我想到的就是这样的例子，比如张炜反复声称要在山里找一个寺院，在那里独自学习一年，甚至到处给读者建议如何最好地抵制大众文化的腐化影响。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==
Similarly, the ''zawen'' writer distance themselves from the overtly declamatory tone with the sole purpose of making their gripes more readily stomachable, and their voices more readily heard. Zhang Chengzhi’s temporary withdrawal into religious isolation is another example, for, after a brief period of reclusivity, he enters once again the public sphere with deeper conviction and a broader agenda. In light of Wang Ban’s discussion, Wang Anyi’s case is perhaps less clear-cut than the rest. To be sure, she seems to have adapted rather well to the new consumerist society that commodifies literature; yet, it is clear that there is a serious intent in her deployment of the essayist sensibilities.

==Xu Jia 徐佳==
In fact, to the extent that ''Shushu di gushi'' has challenged the master-narrative with which the life’s progress of a rehabilitated rightist is often told, I would argue that the essayist sensibilities, far from being irrelevant to history, can be put to historical use. The works of Zhang Wei, Zhang Chengzhi and Shao Yanxiang can perhaps supply us with a footnote to the historical relevance of the essay.

'''The 20th Century Chinese Essay - Characteristics, Actors, and Trends'''

''Martin Woesler''

'''Abstract'''

In the first part of my paper, which deals with the characteristics of the essay, I will start with a definition of the essay as a non-fictional subjective representation in a free form: “Essay”, in Chinese mostly ''sanwen'' 散文, is a genre term for shorter, self-contained nonfictional prose texts, in which the author tries to mediate individual experiences on an object or a question using a subjective I-perspective.

其实，在某种程度上，《叔叔的故事》挑战了万能叙事模式，这种模式通常讲的是改造后的右翼分子生活得到了改善。在我看来，散文家的敏感性绝不是与历史无关的，它可以用在历史上。张伟、张成志、邵延翔等人的作品或许可以为这篇文章的历史关联性提供一个注脚。

'''20世纪中国论文--特点、角色及其趋势'''

''Martin Woesler''

'''摘要'''

本文第一部分论述散文的特点，首先，我将散文定义为一种自由形式的非虚构性主观表征。"Essay"，中文为''散文''，指较短的、自成一体的非虚构性文体，其作者试图用主观的“我”的视角来表达个人对某一对象或问题的体验。--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 02:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia

==Xu Jing 许晶==
I will introduce the hypothesis that the Chinese and the Western essays belong to the same international genre and try to prove it by showing cross-cultural similarities both in form and content. However, there are special local characteristics of the Chinese essay, which I will name.

In the second part, I try to narrate the beginnings of the rediscovery of the essay in the early 1980s. Not before 1995 did international scholarship start to use common philological methods to explore single essayists or the essays of groups and to write a history of the Chinese essay. Then I will show the topical development of political and apolitical essays.

In the third part, I will ask, who were the major players in the Chinese essayism of the 20th century?

我将会介绍我提出的假设，即中国和西方的散文都属于同一种国际体裁，并尝试通过展示两者在形式和内容上的跨文化相似点来证明这一假说。但是，我也会列举中国散文的一些特殊的本土特色。

在第二部分，我尝试讲述散文在1980年代的复现开始阶段的事情。1995年前，国际学术界开始运用常见的语言学方法来探索单篇散文和散文集，并撰写了中国散文的历史。之后，我将展示政治性散文和非政治性散文的主题发展。

在第三部分，我将提出我的问题，即谁是20世纪中国散文的代表人物？--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 13:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xu Jing 许静==
I will introduce Lu Xun, with his sharp, polemic subgenre for daily-political use, the ''zawen''. Analysis reveals that he still remains the most-read essayist, not because of his ''zawen'', but because of his reminiscences and lyrical essays. Using the examples of the most often reprinted essays, “The Back View” (Zhu Ziqing 1928b), “The Moonlit Lotus Pond” (Zhu Ziqing 1927), “Splashing Oars and Lantern Light on the Qinhuai River” (Zhu Ziqing 1924), “Wild Vegetables of my Home Region” (Zhou Zuoren 1925), “Listening to the Cold Rain” (Yu Guangzhong 1974) and “In Memoriam of Xiao Shan” (Ba Jin 1979b), I will show that moving essays form the top tier of the genre. I will also try to stimulate further analytic works by giving hints for examples of promising intertextual and intersubjective comparison.

我介绍一下鲁迅尖锐的、供日常政治使用的议论性子文--杂文。分析发现，他之所以仍然是作品传阅最广的作家，不是因为他的杂文，而是因为他的回忆文和抒情散文。我将从这类体裁的经典代表作中予以说明，以再版次数最多的散文为例，《背影》（朱自清1928b）、《荷塘月色》（朱自清1927）、《桨声灯影里的秦淮河》（朱自清1924）。"故乡的野菜"（周作人1925年）、"听听那冷雨"（余光中1974年）和《怀念萧珊》（巴金1979b）。我还将试图通过文本间和主体内的比较，来促进进一步的分析。
--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 09:50, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

我将介绍鲁迅尖锐的、供日常政治使用的议论性子文--杂文。分析发现，他之所以一直是读者最多的散文家，不是因为他的杂文，而是因为他的回忆录和抒情散文。我将从这类体裁的经典代表作中予以说明，以再版次数最多的散文为例，《背影》（朱自清1928b）、《荷塘月色》（朱自清1927）、《桨声灯影里的秦淮河》（朱自清1924）。"故乡的野菜"（周作人1925年）、"听听那冷雨"（余光中1974年）和《怀念萧珊》（巴金1979b）。我还将试图通过文本间和主体内的比较，来促进进一步的分析。--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 12:58, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==
In the fourth section, I will name contemporary trends in essay writing. After the Cultural

Revolution essays came from the perspective of an authentic eye. In the 1980s and especially in the 1990s, individualism demanded a critical reflection on the satisfaction of personal consumption needs and tried to give a personal orientation, as essayists pleaded for moral virtues. Other essays in the 1980s and 1990s were written with a kind of new subjectivism, targeted away from contemporary contradictions but appealing to the feelings of the audience by creating either a positive or a negative world.

The fast-paced nature of current Chinese society demands diverting and short texts. There is also increasing consciousness of individuality, for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem which is mediated by its metrical and formal demands.

在第四部分，我将列举当代散文写作的趋势。在文革之后，散文变得写实。尤其是在20世纪80年代和90年代，个人主义对个人消费的满足进行反思；像散文家呼吁美德一般，他们也尝试提供人生导向。其它20世纪80年代和90年代的散文以新主观主义写作，不再聚焦当代矛盾，而是创造出一个或是积极或是消极的世界来和读者产生共鸣。

当今中国社会快节奏的本质需要有趣且简短文本。人们对个性也越来越关注，而散文就是最直观的个人表达形式，诗歌与之相比还受到了格律和形式的限制。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 00:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie

第四部分，我将阐述当代散文写作的趋势。文革后，散文开始写实。从20世纪80年代开始，尤其是在90年代，个人主义对个人消费需求的满足进行批判性的反思；正如散文家呼吁美德一般，他们也尝试提供人生导向。八九十年代的其他散文则以新的主观主义作为写作目标，不再聚焦当代矛盾，而是通过营造一个积极或消极的世界和读者产生共鸣。

当今中国社会快节奏的特点要求文字有趣而简短。人们的个性意识也在不断增强，而散文是最直接的主观表达形式，甚至比要求以格律和形式为中介的诗歌更加直接。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 03:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==
In China we see a renewed interest in discussing social-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s and 30s. We become conscious of the banality of daily life when it is being used as a literary topic, as in the essay, which most commonly treats the genre of everyday life. The de-ideologization of Chinese society led to a rediscovery of the apolitical essays, dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished; the only political relic is patriotism, for example expressed in the monograph published in 1996, ''China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war'' (see ''China can say no''!).

在中国，我们能看到如同二十世纪二十年代至二十世纪三十年代，通过论文这一媒介，人们又有了兴趣讨论社会政治问题。当日常生活被用作文学主题时，我们就会意识到其平庸，就像在散文中一样，散文通常是针对日常生活的体裁。中国社会的去意识形态化，导致了民国时期，特别是1923 - 1928年的非政治性散文的重新发现。20世纪90年代，80年代政治批评的散文式文化消失了;唯一的政治遗迹是爱国主义，例如1996年发表的专著《中国可以说不!》-冷战后政治和情感的可能性”(见《中国可以说不》!)''China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war'' (see ''China can say no''!).--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:35, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

在中国，我们能看到人们通过论文这一媒介，又有了讨论社会政治问题的兴致，就如同上世纪二三十年代那样。日常生活成为文学主题时，我们就会意识到它的平淡无味，就像在散文中表现的那样，散文通常描写的就是日常生活。中国社会的去意识形态化，让人们重新发现自民国时期，特别是1923至1928年以来的非政治性散文。20世纪90年代，80年代用散文进行政治批评的文化已经消失了，唯一留下来的政治痕迹是爱国主义，例如在1996年出版的专论《中国可以说不!-冷战后政治和情感的可能性》中传达的那样(见《中国可以说不！》)。--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 13:34, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia

==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==

'''1. CHARACTERISTICS

1.1 Defining the essay as a non-fictional subjective representation in a free form'''

Similar to international literature, the basic subdivision of literature in China in general is one in three types: epic (with ''xiaoshuo'' (fiction), sanwen (here in the broader meaning non-fictional prose)), lyrics ''shige'' (lyrics) and ''xiqu'' (drama). Though there is no pure epic form, fiction and prose are often jointly addressed with the Chinese term “''wu yunwen''” which corresponds to the term “epic” in the West. The types may be distinguished roughly by their nature in the following way: In the epic, bygone events are retold, a broad, filled story dominates the foreground. In the lyrics, the reader is encouraged to feel the current sensations and often confessionlike feelings of the poet.

1. 特征

1.1将本文定义为一种非虚构的主观自由表现形式

与国际文学类似，中国文学的基本细分一般是三类：史诗（小说、散文（这里指广义的非虚构散文））、诗歌和戏剧）。虽然没有纯正的史诗形式，但小说和散文常常被合称为中文的“无韵文”对应西方的“史诗”一词。从性质上看，这几种类型可以大致区分为以下几种。在史诗中，过去的事件被重述，一个宽广的、充实的故事占据了重要位置。在歌词中，鼓励读者去感受诗人当前的感觉，往往是告白式的感受。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 03:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

'''1. 特征

1.1 将散文定义为一种非虚构的主观自由表现形式'''

和国际文学一样，中国文学一般细分为三类：即史诗（包括小说、散文（这里指广义的非虚构散文））、诗歌和戏剧。小说和散文虽然没有纯正的史诗形式，但人们通常把他们合称为“无韵文”，这里中文的“无韵文”对应西方的“史诗”一词。这三种类型从本质上来说大致可以通过以下方式来区分：在史诗中，过去的事件被重述，一个广阔充实的故事主导了前景。在诗歌中，鼓励读者去感受诗人当时告白式的感觉。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 12:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Hairong 杨海容==
The drama recalls a self-contained action directly in monologue or dialogue and in this way unburdens the re-creative imagination of the readers/spectators through it. The essay as a genre of the epic is a detached non-fictional subjective representation in a free form.

“Essay,” Chinese mostly ''sanwen'' 散文 , is a genre term for shorter, self-contained non-fictional prose texts, in which the author tries to mediate individual experiences on an object or a question out of subjective I-perspective. This it tries associatively and from different sides, not as a text for daily use, but with artistic or educationally demanding means of language, nevertheless in an accessible form. The resource is mastered by the essayist sovereignly and the topic is seen in a larger context and can even be presented humorously. Free-dom in form and content is essential for the essay.

该剧直接在独白或对话中唤起了一个独立的情节，并以此减轻了读者/观众的创造性想象力。这篇散文作为史诗体裁的文章是一种自由形式的超脱的非虚构主观表现形式。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 04:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

“Essay”的中文即散文，主要是较短的、自成体系的非虚构散文的流派，作者试图从主观角度调解对象或问题的个人经验。这样，从不同方面进行了关联性的尝试，而不是作为日常使用的文本，而是通过艺术或教育上要求苛刻的语言手段进行了尝试，但仍以可访问的形式进行。散文内容完全由散文家掌握，并且可以在更大的范围内了解主旨，甚至可以幽默地对其进行介绍。形式和内容的自由对散文来说至关重要。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 04:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Hui 阳慧==
Different perspectives range in the international genre of the essay: Genres are primarily divisions of literature through the scholarship of literature for specialized contemplation and in order to be able to compare similar texts more easily. On the other hand, subcategoring the essay in too many small entities, questions the sense of such subdivisioning in reference to hermeneutic findings. One must also stay aware of the changing nature of literature itself and the relativity of the scientific perspective, which is still a timely one, even if its accepted internationally.

Regional deviations seem less important for the essay than for established genres like short stories, novels etc., and far less important than for poems.

不同的观点在国际类型的文章：体裁主要是文学的分工，通过文学的学术专门思考，为了能够更容易地比较类似的文本。另一方面，在太多的小实体中对这篇文章进行了归类，在解释学的发现中质疑了这种划分的意义。人们还必须意识到文学本身不断变化的性质和科学观点的相对性，这仍然是一个及时的问题，即使它在国际上被接受。

地域差异对文章的重要性似乎不如对短篇小说、小说等已有的体裁那么大，而对诗歌的重要性则要小得多。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 08:45, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

对于文章的国际体裁存在不同的观点：体裁主要是文学的分类，通过对文学进行专门的学术研究，能够更容易地对比相似的文本。另一方面，在太多小实体中进行更小的分类，在解释学的发现中质询了这种细分的意义。人们还必须意识到文学本身不断变化的性质和科学观点的相对性，即使它在国际上得到认可，这仍是一个及时的问题。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 01:20, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Yi 杨逸==
All these other genres are seen as international genres. My hypothesis, that the Chinese and the Western essay also belong to the same international genre maybe proved by the crosscultural mutualities both in form and content.

In the 21st century, the world is growing together and culture is mainly determined by the grade of modernization. The Chinese essay, as we find it in newspapers today, has taken on the form and content of the Western essay and is aimed at a target group comparable to that of the Western essay.

==Yang Yue 杨悦==
This is a second hint that the modern Chinese essay belongs to the international genre of the essay. Even though the translation of ''duanpian xiaoshuo'' with ''short stories'' is commonly accepted, both are less closely related than the Western essay and its Chinese counterpart. The definition, which I developed out of a sample of more than 5000 modern Chinese essays, fits also the special international understanding of the essay (following Bolz 13:269-272 on the development of the western essay; Butrym 1989 on the theory of the western essay).

The choice of the term “''sanwen''” instead of “''suibi''” (familiar essay) or “''xiaopin wen''” (short literary piece) is of course arbitrary, but it corresponds to the present usage. In about 200 essay collections and histories between 1949 and 1996 known to the author, ''sanwen'' turned out to be the common expression, ''xiaopin'' was used only in one out of 25 essay titles of the PR China, in one out of 14 Taiwanese, and one out of ten Hong Kong publications.（文献无需翻译）

这是中国现代散文属于国际散文文体的第二个暗示。尽管写“短故事”的"短篇小说"的翻译被普遍接受，但两者之间的联系却不如西方散文和中国散文紧密。这一定义是我从5000多篇现代中国论文样本中得出的，也符合国际上对这篇论文的特殊理解。

当然，用“散文”代替“随笔”或“小品文”是随意的，但它符合现在的用法。在1949年至1996年作者所知的约200本杂文集和历史中,“散文”更为常见,而只有1/25的中国文章标题、1/14的台湾出版物，以及1/10的香港出版物使用“小品文”。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 02:16, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

这是中国现代散文属于国际散文文体的第二个表现。尽管大众普遍接受“短故事”和"短篇小说"的翻译，但两者之间的联系却不如西方散文和中国散文紧密。这一定义是我从5000多篇现代中国论文样本中得出的，也符合国际上对这篇论文的特殊理解。

当然，用“散文”代替“随笔”或“小品文”是随意的，但它符合现在的用法。在1949年至1996年作者所知的约200本杂文集和历史中,“散文”更为常见,而只有1/25的中国文章标题、1/14的台湾出版物，以及1/10的香港出版物使用“小品文”。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 03:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==
Besides the trend towards a globalized society, first expressed in Zhou Zuoren's call to adopt the English essay style, there are special local characteristics of the Chinese essay. How is the Chinese essay to determine culturally, what makes it “Chinese”? In the occidental essay the ''form'' seems to be a more important criterion of differentiation than in its Chinese counterpart. In China even those texts are included, which have only a similar content, but cross the borders of the formal generical framework. This can be shown with Cheng Ming-Lee, who subcategorises the “unfinished diary” or the “unfinished letter”. Those texts belong - within the Western context - to texts of personal use and therefor to the non-fictional prose works. Only after they have been altered into essays (Cheng Ming-Lee: “essay in diary form” and “essay in letter form,” see Cheng Ming-Lee), they are accepted as essays.

周作人是第一个呼吁采用英语文风来体现全球化社会趋势的，除此之外，中文杂文还具有地方特色。中文杂文如何在文化上定义，是什么让其更加“中国化”？ “形式”在西方杂文里，比在中文散文中，更为一个重要的区分标准。在中国，甚至包括那些内容相似的文本，但都跨越了正式通用框架的边界。程明利（Cheng Ming-Lee）将“未完成的日记”或“未完成的信件”分类，进而证明了这一点。这些文本在西方语境中属于个人使用的文本，因此属于非虚构的散文作品。只有在将其改写之后，人们才称之为杂文。--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 01:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

周作人是第一个呼吁采用英语文风来体现全球化社会趋势的，除此之外，中国散文还具有地方特色。从文化上来看，如何定义中国散文，是什么让其更加“中国化”？与中国散文相比，“形式”在西方散文中似乎是更为重要的区分标准。在中国，甚至包括那些内容相似的文本，但都跨越了正式通用框架的边界。程明利（Cheng Ming-Lee）将“未完成的日记”或“未完成的信件”分类，进而证明了这一点。这些文本在西方语境中属于个人使用的文本，因此属于非虚构的散文作品。只有在将其改写之后，人们才称之为杂文。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 02:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yao Cheng 姚诚==

This tendencial broader understanding of the essay in China can be traced back directly to the connotation, that the term ''sanwen'' possesses in Chinese: ''wú yùnwén''“non-rhythmic prose,” which originally meant all non-fictional prose. In this broader meaning, also texts for personal or everyday use are included. However I deal only with ''sanwen'' in the narrower meaning “short literary essay pieces”.

Further differences are that Chinese essays often have ideological contents and show stylistic characteristics like repetitions and the usage of sayings.

这种对中国论文的倾向性更广泛的理解可以直接追溯到“sanwen（散文）”一词的中文含义：“wúyùnwén（无韵文）”，“非韵律散文”，它最初是指所有非虚构的散文。在这种更广泛的含义上，它还包括个人或日常使用的文本。但是，我只用狭义的“散文”来处理“sanwen”。

进一步的区别是，中国散文往往具有思想内涵，并表现出重复性和俗语性等风格特征。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 13:46, 16 December 2020 (UTC)
在中国，这种对散文更广泛理解的趋势，可以直接追溯到“散文”一词在中文里所具有的内涵:“无韵文”“非韵律散文”，最初指的是所有非虚构的散文。在这个更广泛的意义上，个人或日常使用的文本也包括在内。但我说的“散文”只是狭义的“短篇小片段”。进一步的区别是，中国散文往往具有思想内容，并表现出重复、用语等文体特征。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 13:53, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

==Yao Jia 姚佳==

'''1.2 I will describe the beginnings of the discovery of the essay.'''

Despite the increase in essay writing from 1979 on, it took a decade for the first theoretical reflections on this phenomenon to appear. It took another decade before the international scholarship of Chinese Studies became aware of the phenomenon of the essay.

In the 1980s, Chinese scholarship made a first major approach to reflect on essay literature by writing essay histories and collecting papers, which concentrated first on the essayistic work of single authors like Lu Xun. Also two essay conferences in the 1990s showed no move towards international scholarship. Not before 1995 did international scholarship started to use common philological methods to explore single essayists (on Gaylord Leung [Liang Xihua] 梁錫華 Kubin 1995, on Wang Meng 王蒙 Woesler 1995, on Liu Zaifu 劉再復 Mansberg 1995 [unpublished]) or essays of groups (on 'Xīnyùe pài 新月派' Wagner 1996).

'''1.2我将介绍发现散文的开端'''
从1979年开始，虽然散文写作增多，但却在十年之后才首次产生对这一现象的理论思考。又过了十年，国际汉学界才开始意识到散文现象。

20世纪80年代，中国学术界首次以撰写散文史和收集散文的方式对散文文学进行重大的反思，这些反思首先集中在鲁迅等个别作家的散文作品上。另外，90年代的两次散文会议也没有显示出国际学术研究的动向。1995年以后，国际学术界才开始使用共同的语言学方法来探讨单个散文家（关于梁漱溟[梁锡华] 库宾1995年，关于王蒙沃斯勒1995年，关于刘再复曼斯伯格1995年[未发表]）或群体散文家的散文（关于新月派 "瓦格纳 1996年）。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 07:53, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

'''1.2我将介绍散文是如何开始发现的'''
尽管从1979年开始，散文作品有所增多，但对这一现象的理论反思却用了十年的时间才首次出现。又过了十年，国际汉学界才开始意识到散文现象。

20世纪80年代，中国学术界首次以撰写散文史和散文集的方式对散文文学进行了重大的反思，这些反思首先聚焦于鲁迅等单一作者的散文作品上。另外，90年代的两次散文论坛也没有显示出朝国际学术研究发展的动向。直到1995年以后，国际学术界才开始使用普遍的文献方法来探讨单一散文家（关于梁漱溟[梁锡华]库宾1995年，关于王蒙沃斯勒1995年，关于刘再复曼斯伯格1995年[未发表]）或团体散文家的散文（关于新月派 "瓦格纳1996年）。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yi Huan 易欢==

Not before the second half of the 1990s, did a history of the Chinese essay using the means of Western philology appear (Woesler 1998). For the first time, the essay was included in Western anthologies of literature as a genre equal to fiction and poetry (''The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature'' 1995, see Lau/Goldblatt, ''Modern Chinese Literary Thought'' 1996, see Denton).

Regarding the valuing of essays in China, Taiwan and the West, there are regional differences: In the States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones. In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, in my survey, which Chinese essayists are printed the most in the 1990s, he ranks 16th.
直到90年代后半期，才开始用西方语言学的手段研究中国散文（吴莫汀 1998）。散文第一次作为与小说、诗歌同等的文体被收入西方文学选集（《哥伦比亚现代中国文学选集》1995，见劳/葛浩文《中国现代文学思潮》1996，见丹东）。
中国台湾和西方对散文的重视存在着地区差异。在美国，人们往往按照西方人的口味来选择散文，完全不知名的作家和知名作家一样，都会得到同样多的篇幅。在台湾，鲁迅被雪藏了很久，而如今，在我所进行的关于90年代发行量最多的中国散文家排行榜中，鲁迅排行第16位。--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 15:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

直到90年代后半期，才开始用西方语言学的手段研究中国散文的历史（Woesler 1998）。散文第一次作为与小说、诗歌同等的文体被收入西方文学选集（《哥伦比亚现代中国文学选集》1995，见劳/葛浩文，《中国现代文学思潮》1996，见丹东）。
中国台湾和西方对散文的重视存在着地区差异。在美国，散文往往按照西方人的口味被人们选择，完全不知名的作家和知名作家一样，都会得到同样多的篇幅。在台湾，鲁迅被雪藏了很久，而如今，在我所进行的关于90年代发行量最多的中国散文家排行榜调查中，鲁迅排在第16位。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 03:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yi Zichu 义子楚==

If one only take modern authors into account, he even ranks 12th. Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by Huang Weiliang in favor for the first (see Lin Yaode, 50), and Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.

Still it remains a ''desideratum'' to get the most important Chinese essays in Western translation. Currently at least three essay collections in English translation are in the reviewing process (Tam King-Fai [announced]) or already published (Pollard 1999, Woesler 2000). Pollard's selection is a highly subjective and eclective choice of essays, covering even the premodern essay. Most of the contributors to the collection in hand met in 2000 on a first international conference on the essay.

==You Yuting 游雨婷==

In the years to come, a new ''Bonn History of Chinese Literature'' will grant the essay its proper place with two to three volumes only dedicated to the ''biji, youji'' and other essays.

'''1.3 20th Century Development and Hindrances'''

The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics of daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology.

在未来，新的《波恩中国文学史》将给这篇文章一个合适的位置，它将有两到三卷专供《比集》、《酉集》和其他文章的专供。
“1.3 20世纪的发展与阻碍”
政论散文的专题发展经历了一个从1907年启蒙教育散文到20世纪30年代日政散文的转变，再到20世纪40年代的抗日宣传和20世纪50、60年代的思想宣传。在20世纪80 - 90年代，日常兴趣政治的讨论比20 - 30年代要少。在20世纪80年代所有类型包括诗歌和散文为意识形态服务，被评论家用于反对关于共产主义的叙述或毛泽东主义的艺术理解。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 13:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yu Ni 余妮==

Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consume-orientation of the masses. (Yu Guangzhong's essay “The Wolves are Coming” shows that the ideological perspective did not only harm mainland essaywriting, see Yu Guangzhong 1977.) The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educatio-nal claim with the exception of essays which claim to be “art pourt l'art”.

I mentioned the lack of translations in Western languages. One of the reasons might be the impression of some scholars that many of the Chinese essays were just propaganda.

而在20世纪80年代，政治问题在关于最佳社会制度的讨论（也在一般文学和电影中）中复兴。到了20世纪90年代，散文家们重新定义了自己的角色，首先是与大众的消费取向相对应。（余光中的散文《狼来了》表明，意识形态的视角不仅仅破坏了大陆的散文创作，见余光中1977年）。这篇散文似乎是中国唯一一个保持其教育主张的体裁，除了那些号称“艺术的散文”。
我提到了缺乏西方语言的翻译。其中一个原因可能是一些学者的印象，认为许多中国散文只是宣传。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 03:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

划词翻译
20 世纪 80 年代，在讨论社会的最佳制度时，政治问题又出现了复苏，(也包括在一般的文学和电影中) 在 20 世纪 90 年代变成了纯粹的非政治性和更具哲学性的-道德主题，在那里，散文家定义了他们的角色，首先是要与大众的消费取向相对应。余光忠的“狼来了”一文表明，意识形态的视角不仅损害了中国大陆的文学创作，参见余光中 1977 年的作品) 似乎是中国唯一保留其教育主张的体裁，但主张“艺术是艺术”的论文除外。

我提到缺乏西方语言的翻译。其中一个原因可能是一些学者的印象，许多中国的文章只是宣传。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 08:50, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==

This might be true for the 1940s and even the 1950s, but nowadays this has changed, as the overwhelming majority of publications prove. This demands a closer look: Since 1949, politically affirmative literature has been encouraged by the government, resulting in a statistical paradox: not the affirmative authors and their texts form the majority of the essayists read in the 1990s, but the critical essayists, whose texts oppose the order to serve politics through their apolitical, sometimes even defiant character. In the 1990s, the texts of 1920s/1930s Republican China are still as often reprinted as their contemporary counterparts. Obviously we can conclude that the politically affirmative essay of the 1950s only survived in special political essay collections and is no longer written by famous contemporary authors nor read by the Chinese audience in the beginning of the 21st century.

在20世纪40年代甚至50年代，这可能是真的，但如今，正如绝大多数出版物所证明的那样，情况已经改变了。这需要更仔细的观察:自1949年以来,在政治上积极的文学一直在政府的鼓励下,导致了统计上的悖论:在20世纪90年代的散文家中，大多数人不是持肯定态度的作者而是持批判态度的散文家，他们的文章是非政治的、有时甚至带有挑衅特征，以此来反对为政治服务的秩序。在20世纪90年代，中华人民共和国二三十年代的文本仍然和当代中国的文本一样被重印。显然，我们可以得出这样的结论:20世纪50年代的政治肯定随笔只存在于特殊的政治随笔集中，在21世纪初，当代著名作家的作品和中国读者的阅读都将不复存在。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 01:22, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==

In restrictive regimes, where freedom of speech is not guaranteed, people still have different political ideas. To speak out directly is unhealthy, so in these countries people use art to express their differences. The most direct way of expressing political ideas in art is literature. To trick the censors, one must find indirect ways of expression. In an exhibition of ''Tendency Quarterly'', 16 banned Chinese magazines were displayed. Most of the magazines choose the poem as their favorite form to express political thoughts. After having been banned, some magazines went abroad and now are published in exile. The internet has added a number of underground magazines, which are available also inside mainland China. In the last years of the 20th century, one can find an increase of essays in these magazines. This might be a hint, that the authors dare to speak out more directly.

在限制体制下，言论自由得不到保障，人们仍然有不同的政治观点。直接说出来是不健康的，所以在这些国家，人们用艺术来表达他们的差异。艺术中表达政治思想最直接的方式是文学。要骗过审查者，人们必须找到间接的表达方式。在“趋势季刊”展览中，展出了16本被禁的中文杂志。大多数杂志选择诗作为他们最喜欢的表达政治思想的形式。在被禁之后，一些杂志社搬到了国外，现在以流亡的方式出版。互联网增加了地下杂志数量，这些杂志也可以在中国大陆境内阅读。在20世纪的最后几年里，人们可以在这些杂志上发现散文数量越来越多了。这可能是一个暗示，暗示作者敢于更直接地表达出来。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 02:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==

The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing (“On Dreams,” see Zhu Ziqing 1928c) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 (''My Own Garden'' 1923, “The Fly” 1924, “Reading on the Toilet” 1936), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the new found world of mass consumerism.

非政治性散文在话题上的发展开始于1917年，当时朱自清（见朱自清1928年《说梦》）和周作人（1923年《自己的园地》、1924年《苍蝇》、1936年《在马桶上读书》）谈论的是日常话题，到1927年尾声，政治性散文成为主流，30年代末，非政治性散文在抗日运动中彻底淘汰。直到20世纪70年代，生活步入常态化，这一时期长期不受关注的日常事物反而成为了人们感兴趣的话题，非政治性散文由此得以恢复。同样在90年代，也由于人们对政治问题不怎么感兴趣，加上在大众消费主义的新世界中需要全新的定位，非政治性散文蓬勃发展起来。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==

'''2. Actors: Lu Xun, Zhu Ziqing, Ba Jin, Wang Zengqi, Yu Guangzhong'''

Who were the major players in the Chinese essayism of the 20th century?

Here is not the place to recount the struggle, which many of the today well-known heroes of the May-Fourth Movement had to establish their literary values and narrative. Unlike today, at that time the authors were also editors and publishers of magazines and therefore had a strong position in the cultural field.

One thinks first of Lu Xun, who invented a sharp, polemic subgenre for daily-political use, the ''zawen''. In his own, broad understanding of ''zawen'', it could contain poems, short stories, drama etc. From a genial writer of short stories, he turned to ''zawen'' for the rest of his life, leaving behind a legacy of more than 700 essays.

'''2、参与成员：鲁迅、朱自清、巴金、汪曾祺、余光中'''

20世纪中国散文的主要参与者是谁？

这里不是叙述谁于争雄的地方，而当今许多著名的五四英雄人物必须确立自己的文学价值观和叙事方式。与现在不同的是，当时的作者同时也是杂志的编辑和出版商，因此在文化领域有着很强的地位。

人们首先想到的是鲁迅，他发明了一种尖锐的、具有争议性的日常政治用的亚体裁，即''杂文''。在他自己对''杂文''的广泛理解中，它可以包含诗歌、短篇小说、戏剧等。他从一名亲切的短篇小说作家转向了一名撰写''杂文''的作家，留下了700多篇文章。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 08:02, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

'''2. 参与者：鲁迅、朱自清、巴金、汪曾祺、余光中'''

20世纪中国散文的主要人物有哪些?

这里不会讲述这场斗争，当今许多著名的五四运动英雄不得不建立他们的文学价值和叙事。与当今不同的是，当时，作者同时也是杂志的编辑和出版人，因此在文化领域有很高的地位。

人们首先想到的是鲁迅，他为日常政治生活创造了一个尖锐的、争论不休的亚文体——''杂文''。在他广义理解中，''杂文''包括诗歌、短篇小说、戏剧等。他从一个和善的短篇小说作家，转向成为《杂文》作家，终其一生，留下700多篇散文。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:30, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Liang 曾良==

During his lifetime, with his sharp attacks, he was the most known essayist. But these essays were of daily-political interest only and are seldom read today. Analysis reveals now that he stills stays the most often read essayist until the end of the 20th century. Not his ''zawen'', but the following reminiscences and lyrical essays remain until the end of the century in the top-ten list of essays: “Autumn Night” (Lu Xun 1925b), a lyrical essay from ''Wild Grass'', in “Mr. Fujino” (Lu Xun 1926c), Lu Xun remembers his Japanese teacher, in “The Kite” (Lu Xun 1925a) he remembers how he hurted his younger brother's feelings once, and “From Hundred Plant Garden to Three Flavour Study” (Lu Xun 1926b), which recounts his childhood experience also with classical literature.

在他的一生中，他以尖锐的攻击力成为最著名的散文作家。但是他的这些散文仅仅是处于日常的政治兴趣，在今天很少有人阅读。分析表明，到20世纪末，他的作品仍然是阅读得最多的。直到本世纪末，保留下来的并非是他的杂文，而是以下的回忆录和抒情散文：《野草》中的一篇抒情散文《秋夜》（鲁迅 1925），在《藤野先生》（鲁迅 1926）中，鲁迅仍然记得他的日语老师，在《风筝》（鲁迅 1925）中，鲁迅记得他曾经是如何伤害他的弟弟的，在《从百草园到三味书屋》（鲁迅 1926）中，鲁迅叙述了他的童年经历和经典文学。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 01:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==

The other most often printed essays are from Republican or modern times: The first is “The Back View” (Zhu Ziqing 1928b). With his whole work, this author ranks shortly behind Lu Xun. From this and other essays one can derive the criteria for essay best sellers in the P.R. of China: In “The Back View,” filial piety is the driving factor, parallelistic and repetitive structures in the atmospherical nebulous “The Moonlit Lotus Pond” (Zhu Ziqing 1927), also written by Zhu Ziqing, whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader. In “Splashing Oars and Lantern Light on the Qinhuai River” (Zhu Ziqing 1924) the author describes a beautiful landscape and makes ancient customs alive again. Nostalgic home feelings are the emotional identification element in “Wild Vegetables of My Home Region” (Zhou Zuoren 1925).

==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==

Yu Guangzhong is represented in this list with the nostalgic “Listening to the Cold Rain” (Yu Guangzhong 1974). In Ba Jin's most often reprinted essay “In Memoriam of Xiao Shan” (Ba Jin 1979b) he remembers his wife.

Works of authors who decided to serve an ideology are far less often reprinted than the eight authors found to be leading: Mao Dun and Guo Moruo (rank 15) are mentioned in the average as seldom as Lu Xun in Taiwan and Yang Shuo (ranks 30) appears only half as often.

Therefore one can state, that unpolitical, moving essays form the top.

For a list of the 36 most often (re)printed essayists, and the top 59 essays please see the mentioned monograph (Woesler 1998b).

余光中因其怀旧散文《听听那冷雨》（余光中 1974）而榜上有名。在巴金最常被转载的散文《怀念肖珊》(巴金 1979b）中，他追忆了他的妻子。

决定为某种意识形态服务的作家的作品被转载的次数远远少于处于领先地位的八位作家：茅盾和郭沫若（排名15位）在台湾被提及的平均数与鲁迅一样少，而杨朔（排名30）的出现频率仅为一半。

因此，我们可以说，非政治性的、感人的文章占据了榜首。

有关36个最常（重新）印刷的散文家和排名前59位的散文家的列表，请参见所提到的专着（Woesler 1998b）。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 03:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

余光中因其怀旧散文《听听那冷雨》（余光中 1974）而榜上有名。在巴金最常被转载的散文《怀念肖珊》(巴金 1979b）中，他追忆了他的妻子。

决定为某种意识形态服务的作家的作品被转载的次数远远少于处于领先地位的八位作家：茅盾和郭沫若（排名15位）在台湾被提及的平均数与鲁迅一样少，而杨朔（排名30）的出现频率仅为一半。

因此，我们可以说，非政治性的、感人的文章囊获了榜首。

有关36个最常（重新）印刷的散文家和排名前59位的散文家的列表，请参见所提到的专着（Woesler 1998b）。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 13:41, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Hu 张虎==

The huge number of essays and essayists offer many possibilities for intertextual and intersubjective comparison, out of which only some thoughts can be indicated here due to lack of space. They might stimulate further analytic works. Lu Xun, Zhou Zuoren and Zhu Ziqing wrote about the same occasion, the massacre on March 18, 1926 quite differently. Zhu Ziqing attacks the government directly and promises it a soon collapse (“Report of the Government’s Great Massacre,” Zhu Ziqing [1926]). Lu Xun described the massacre in an unctuous chant instead (“Jinian Liu Hezhen jun” Lu Xun 1926a), and Zhou Zuoren bitter-humorously in his essay “Different Ways to Die” (Zhou Zuoren 1926).

Different ways of coming into terms with the 'Cultural Revolution' we can see in the essays of Ba Jin, Bing Xin, and Wang Meng: Ba Jin enlucidated unsparingly to the extend of self-accusation (Ba Jin 1979a).

大量的散文和散文家为互文性和主体间性的比较提供了许多可能性，但由于篇幅有限，这里只能表达一些想法。它们可能激发进一步的分析工作。鲁迅、周作人、朱自清对同一事件——1926年3月18日的大屠杀——的描写则截然不同。朱自清直接攻击了政府，并断定它很快就会崩溃(朱自清《政府大屠杀报告》[1926])。鲁迅用虚情假意的歌谣(《纪年刘和真君》鲁迅1926a)描述了这次大屠杀，而周作人则在他的散文《不同的死法》(周作人1926)中诙谐而辛辣地描写了这次大屠杀。

从巴金、冰心、王孟等人的文章中，我们可以看到巴金对“文化大革命”的几种不同的看法:巴金的狂热达到了自我谴责的程度(巴金1979a)。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 13:43, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

大量的散文和散文家为互文性以及主体间性的对比提供了多种可能性。但由于篇幅有限，这里只能展示一部分想法。它们或许能够激发进一步的分析作业。鲁迅、周作人和朱自清都描写过同一场景，1926年3月18日的大屠杀，但是描绘的手法不尽相同。朱自清正面攻击政府，并断定它不久就会垮台（《执政府大屠杀记》朱自清 1926）。而鲁迅用谄媚的诗歌描述了这次大屠杀（《几年刘和珍君》鲁迅 1926a)，周作人在他的散文《不同的死法》以幽默而苦涩的手法描写了这次大屠杀。

从巴金、冰心、王蒙的散文中，我们可以看到，巴金对“文化大革命”有着不同的理解方式：巴金不遗余力地自我谴责（巴金1979a）。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 07:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)
大量的散文和散文家为互文性和主体间性的比较提供了许多可能性，但由于篇幅有限，这里只能表达一些想法。它们可能激发进一步的分析工作。鲁迅、周作人、朱自清对同一事件——1926年3月18日的大屠杀——的描写则截然不同。朱自清直接攻击了政府，并断定它很快就会崩溃。而鲁迅用谄媚的诗歌描述了这次大屠杀（《纪念刘和珍君》鲁迅 1926a)，周作人在他的散文《不同的死法》以幽默而苦涩的手法描写了这次大屠杀。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 08:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)
从巴金、冰心、王蒙的散文中，我们可以看到，巴金对“文化大革命”有着不同的理解方式：在自我批评方面，巴金对自己毫不手软。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 08:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Hui 张慧==

Wang Meng dealed with it humorously (Wang Meng 1980), Bing Xin tried to pretend continuity by naming her works after the 'Cultural Revolution' with the same titles as before: The successful collections ''Letter to the Children'' (Bing Xin 1931), and ''Letter to the Children, vol. 2'' containing texts since 1958, were followed by ''Letter to the Children, vol. 3 ''with texts since 1978. In her “Autobiographical Notes” (Bing Xin 1982) she simply skips the 'Cultural Revolution'.

A trip in early August 1923 (Mei/Wu, 46) with Yu Pingbo to the Qinhuai river, which Zhu knew from an earlier visit (Chen Xiaoquan, 68), inspired both to write in the same year at the age of about 24 and 26 an essay with the title “Splashing Oars and Lantern Light on the Qinhuai River” (Zhu Ziqing dated 10/11, 1923, Yu Pingbo dated 8/22, 1923, jointly published in ''Eastern Miscellany''), an English translation by Hu Shiguang can be found in ''Chinese Literature'' 1 (Spring 1988) Yu 162-172, and Zhu 173-182 resp. Zhu Ziqing and Yu Pingbo continue here a tradition of Chinese poets, writing poems on a common experienced journey to compete with each other. I found, that Zhu Ziqing's essays is more persuading.

王萌幽默地处理了这一问题（王萌1980），冰心试图通过在"文化大革命"后用与以前相同的标题命名自己的作品来假装连续性：成功收藏了《给儿童的信》（冰心1931））和“给孩子的信，第一卷， 2”（包含自1958年以来的文字），其次是“给孩子的信”（第一卷）,3”自1978年以来一直使用文字。在她的“自传笔记”（Bing Xin 1982）中，她只是跳过了“文化大革命”。

朱元培在1923年8月上旬（梅/吴，46岁）与秦淮河的一次旅行（陈小泉，68岁）认识了秦淮河，这激发了双方在同年24岁左右写诗的初衷。 26一篇题为“在秦淮河上泼桨和灯笼光”的文章（朱自清1923年10月11日，于平波1923年8月22日，在《东方杂记》上共同出版），英文翻译胡世光的著作可以在《中国文学》 1（1988年春季）中找到Yu 162-172和Zhu 173-182。朱自清和余平伯在这里延续了中国诗人的传统，在经历了共同竞争的共同经历中创作了诗歌。我发现朱自清的论文更具说服力。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 02:22, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

王蒙幽默地处理了这一问题（王蒙1980），冰心试图以'文革'后的作品命名，标题与以前相同，以假装连续性。成功的作品集《给孩子们的信》（冰心1931年）和《给孩子们的信，第二卷》收录了1958年以来的文字，随后又出版了《给孩子们的信，第三卷》，收录了1978年以来的文字。在她的《自述》（冰心1982）中，她干脆跳过了'文革'。

1923年8月上旬（梅/武，46）与俞平伯到秦淮河游玩，朱自清早年曾到过秦淮河（陈孝全，68），激发了两人的灵感，两人在同年分别约24岁和26岁时写了一篇题为《秦淮河上的溅桨和灯火》的文章（朱自清10/11。1923年，俞平伯日期为1923年8月22日，合刊于''东方杂记''），胡世光的英译本见''中国文学''1（1988年春）俞162-172，朱173-182 resp。朱自清和俞平伯在这里延续了中国诗人的传统，在共同经历的历程中写诗，互相竞争。我发现，朱自清的文章更有说服力。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 03:07, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Ling 张玲==

Wang Meng, Jia Pingwa and others wrote essays entitled “Falling leaves” (Jia Pingwa 1981, Wang Meng 1989) on the transitoriness of life in the allegory of falling leafs. It is interesting and surprising to discover the similarity between a, the differences between the description and interpretation of the falling leaves and b, the differences between the different authors' self-understanding and philosophy. One may compare essays entitled “On dreams” with 58 years difference in their origin (Zhu Ziqing 1928c, Bing Xin 1986). Moreover it is interesting to compare conceptions of essayism as we can see in Lu Xun's theory of “emerging” and “blossoming” and Zhou Zuoren's theory of the synthesis of the gongan school and the English essay.

王蒙、贾平凹等人共同撰写了《落叶集》(贾平凹1981、王蒙1989)，论述落叶寓言中生命的短暂。对落叶的描述与解读之间存在的差异以及不同作家的自我理解与人生哲学的差异，这两者之间竟然发现有相似之处，实在令人惊喜。人们可以将《论梦》这篇散文与有58年历史的渊源差异作比较（朱自清1928c，冰心1986）。此外，比较鲁迅的“兴”与“花”与周作人的“公安派”与“英语散文”的综合理论中的散文主义概念，是很有意思的。--[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==

'''3.Trends

3.1 The essay as a snapshot of contemporary thoughts'''

What is the state of contemporary essay writing in China? Its position should be brought into its proper relationship to recent approaches, perspectives and terms of categorization, like post-modernist elements, post-colonial thinking, deconstructivism etc.

The increase of the essay production after the ‘Cultural Revolution’ might be explained with the ability of the essay, to express personal experiences much more authentically than other genres because of its immanent claim of historical truth. But the essay is not a guarantee for objective truth: In the same time it is subjective, the essayist mediates his image consciously. This restricts the reported truth to a subjective one and bears the risk of a wilfully “corrected” truth.
3.潮流与趋势
“中国当代散文写作的现状如何?”
它的地位应该与后现代主义元素、后殖民主义思维、解构主义等最近的分类方法、视角和术语恰当地联系起来。
“文革”后散文增多，因为原因有两点：1.散文比其他文体更真实地表达个人经历的能力 2.它对历史真理的内在诉求。
但散文并不是客观真实的保证:它同时具有主观性，作者有意识地对自己的形象进行调整。
这就会导致所报道的真相只能是主观的，防止有人故意“篡改”真相。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 08:52, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

3.趋势
3.1作为当代思想的快照的散文
中国当代散文创作的现状如何？它的定位应与后现代主义、后殖民主义、解构主义等现代理论方法、视角和术语保持适当的联系。

“文革”后散文产量的增加，这可以用散文的能力来解释，因为它具有内在的历史真理诉求，比其他文体更真实地表达个人经历。但散文并不是客观真实的保证，同时它也是主观的，散文作者有意识地调整自己的形象。这就把报道的真相限制在主观上，并承担着故意“修正”真相的风险。--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Qi 张琪==--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 05:53, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

The individualism of the Republican era has been based on the common feeling to stand at a historical turning point and directed towards common targets like the creation of a New Literature and a new Chinese society. In the 1980s and especially in the 1990s, individualism asks for a critical reflection on the satisfaction of personal consumption needs and tries to give personal orientation, essayists plead for moral virtues (“Serene” Wang Meng 1992, “First make your own things in a good way” Wang Meng 1994). These essays, mainly published in newspapers and magazines, are widely read by people in the rapidly changing, anonymous, alienating and consume-oriented mass cultural society.

共和时代的个人主义建立在站在历史转折点上的共同感觉的基础上，并朝着共同目标发展，例如创建新文学和新中国社会。在1980年代，尤其是1990年代，个人主义要求对个人消费需求的满足进行批判性思考，并试图赋予个人取向，散文学家呼吁道德美德（“ Serene” Wang Meng 1992，“首先用自己的东西制造自己的东西）。好方法”（王萌，1994年）。这些论文主要发表在报纸和杂志上，在瞬息万变，匿名，疏远和消费导向的大众文化社会中被人们广泛阅读。

==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==

Other essays in the 1980s and 1990s are in a kind of new subjectivism targeted away from contemporary contradictions but apply to the feelings of the audience by creating an either positive (“Shanxi Opera,” Jia Pingwa 1984) or negative world (“The Nightmare,” Si Yu 1995).

'''3.2 The essay as the genre of the giddy-paced nature of society, individuality, socio-political discussions, de-ideologization, everyday's profaneity and banality'''

From the essay, we can see contemporary ''trends of literature'', which are also reasons for the increase in volume of this genre in the 1990s:

-The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts: “[...] we live in an age of exposition” (Hall, xiii);

==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==

-The increasing consciousness of individuality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands;

-A revival of interest in discussing social-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.

-The banality of everyday life becomes conscious through becoming a literary topic, most commonly in the genre of everyday life, the essay.

-The De-ideologization of Chinese society. Today not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. The mostly read political essays after 1949 are critical essays. For example Ba Jin complains in “Remembering Xiao Shan” (Ba Jin 1979b) about the death of his wife in the 'Cultural Revolution'.

- 散文是个性意识增强的最直接的主观表达形式，甚至比具有韵律和形式要求的诗歌更直接；
- 通过散文重新唤起人们对讨论社会政治问题的兴趣，如20世纪20年代或30年代。
- 因成为文学话题，日常生活的平庸性变得有意识，最常见的是日常生活文体——散文。
- 中国社会的去意识形态化。今天，不是政府要求的肯定性文本，而是非政治性的散文在最前面，大多可以追溯到共和党时代，特别是1923年至1928年。这一观察结果得到上述统计分析结果的支持。1949年以后，人们阅读最多的政治散文是批评散文。例如巴金在《追忆萧山》（巴金1979）中控诉妻子在“文化大革命”中去世。

- 散文是个性意识增强的最直接的主观表达形式，甚至比具有韵律和形式要求的诗歌更直接；

-通过这篇文章唤起人们对讨论社会政治问题的关注，如20世纪20年代或30年代的情况。

-日常生活的平庸通过成为一个文学主题而变得有意识，最常见的是日常生活的体裁——散文。

中国社会的去意识形态化。今天，不是政府要求的肯定性文本站在最前面，而是非政治性的文章，大多可以追溯到共和党时代，特别是1923年至1928年。这一观察结果得到上述统计分析结果的支持。1949年以后，人们阅读最多的政治论文是批评文章。1949年以后，人们阅读最多的政治散文是批评散文。例如巴金在《追忆萧山》（巴金1979）中控诉妻子在“文化大革命”中去世。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 06:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==

-Regarding the compiling of essay collections: For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain. This is a sign of the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publishing houses with an orientation toward customers (former: “readers”).

-In the latter half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of in-dividuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife. Time loses worth, since more and more of the daily acctivities are filled with mechanical and autistic actions.

==Zhang Yu 张瑜==

In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only political replique is the patriotism, for example expressed in the 1996 published monograph ''China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war'' (see China can say no!).

The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable object d'art. Also trends like the use of ordinary language, which one finds in novels since 1993 (Feidu, Jia Pingwa 1993; ''Ying'er'', Gu Cheng 1993) and ''New Borderlessness'' since 1995, cannot be proven in the essaywriting.

20世纪90年代，80年代受到政治批评的散文文化已经消失，唯一留下的政治产物是爱国主义。例如，1996年出版的专著《中国可以说不——冷战后时代的政治与情感抉择》（见于《中国可以说不》）。

从后现代主义小说的角度来看，我们找不到后现代散文的原因就是散文具有直接性。散文作为一种文体，是沟通作者和读者的桥梁，而不是一种艺术对象。通常艺术对象指企图引起不同的解读，或依靠独一无二的形式或内容，甚至引用前现代主义的特点使其成为一种独特的艺术对象。另外，1993年出版的小说《废都》（贾平凹 1993年）、《英儿》（顾城 1993年）以及1995年出版的《新无界》，作者在这些作品中日常语言的使用趋势在散文写作中也未得到体现。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:18, 17 December 2020 (UTC)
到20世纪90年代，80年代政治批评的散文文化已经式微，唯一留下的政治产物就是爱国主义。……我们之所以没有在后现代小说意义上找到后现代主义论文的原因在于散文的直接性：散文是一种作者与读者之间对话的体裁，而不是一种引起不同解读的艺术体，也不是依赖于独一无二的形式或内容，甚至是为使本身变得独特而引用前现代主义特征的艺术对象。……--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 16:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==

-Also the fictional realism David Der-Wei Wang sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proves helpful for the understanding of some essays, one being “The Small Dog Baodi” (Ba Jin 1981), in which the author turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in allegoric instead of in descriptive truth as before (“In Memoriam of Xiao Shan II,” Ba Jin 1984b). Similar is the concept of imaginery nostalgia, as Wang calls the fictional truth in Shen Congwen's work (David Wang 1992), helpful for the reading of “Rain in Kunming” (Wang Zengqi [1984]) as well as for “Shanxi Opera” (Jia Pingwa 1984).

1 Xin zhuangtai xiaoshuo 新狀態小說 new borderless fiction, represented by Chen Dong 韓東, Lu Yang 魯羊, Zhu Wen 朱文, Lin Bai 林白, Chen Liang 陳梁, Zhang Mei 張梅.

2 Post-colonialist thinking (Williams et al. 1994), which is to be seen as part of the social-political discourse, appears in essays, especially in the less critical political, but patriotic essays of the 1990s. Kafkaism helps us understand the essay “The Nightmare” (Si Yu 1995), where the author appears as a deconstructionist, the I-narrator even is drawn near to suicide.

老舍，茅盾和沈从文作品中呈现的虚构现实主义也被证明有助于理解某些文章，例如文章《小狗包弟》（巴金，1981）中，作者不再像以前那样叙述事实，（如《萧山回忆录》，巴金，1984b）。两者都是对过去的回忆，也就是王在沈从文作品中提出的虚构的真相（David Wang，1992），它有助于阅读《昆明的雨》（王增琪[1984]）和《山西歌剧》（贾平瓦（1984）。--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 12:03, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

另外，王德威在老舍、茅盾和沈从文身上看到的虚构现实主义，也证明了对一些文章的理解是有帮助的。例如，在《小狗包弟》（巴金1981）一文中，作者变成了一个叙述者，用寓言式而不是像以前那样用描述性的真实来叙述'文革'的记忆（《纪念萧山二号》，巴金1984b）。类似的还有想象的怀旧概念，如王家卫所说的沈从文作品中的虚构真相（王家卫1992），对《昆明的雨》（汪曾祺[1984]）以及《山西戏曲》（贾平凹1984）的阅读都有帮助。--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 12:03, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

1辛庄台小说新状态小说，由韩东，鲁羊，朱文，林白，陈梁，张梅代表。

2后殖民主义思维（Williams等，1994）虽然被视为社会政治话语的一部分，却出现在文章中，特别是在1990年代批评性和政治性较弱但提倡爱国主义的论文中。卡夫卡主义可以帮助我们理解《梦m》（Si Yu 1995）一文，在那篇文章中作者是一位解构主义者，而主人公甚至被迫自杀。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 10:08, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==

-The Schwarcz' concept of ''personal grief'' expressed in a ''metaphorical discourse'' helps us to understand how Ba Jin was able to overcome the ''truth of being'' he was known for, only to reach a more convincing ''fictional truth'' through the metaphor of his dog Baodi (Schwarcz 1996).

'''20th Century Chinese Essay - A Survey of the Genre and New Insights Into the Essayists Ba Jin, Zhou Zuoren, Zhu Ziqing'''

Martin Woesler

The narrative established by literary histories and anthologies has drawn a distorted picture of 20th century Chinese literature: The genre of the essay was almost ignored. In my paper I will demonstrate, how the picture of three authors change, if we take into consideration also some of their esayistic work. Here I choose the example of the critical political essay. The essay tells us more about an author than fiction or poetry, because in this genre, we encounter the author himself without metrical restrictions.

施瓦茨的''个人悲伤''概念以''隐喻话语''的方式表达，有助于我们理解巴金是如何克服他所熟知的''存在的真相''，而只是通过对他的狗，宝迪，进行隐喻达到一个更有说服力的''虚构的真相'"（施瓦茨，1996）。

'''20世纪中国散文--散文家巴金、周作人、朱自清的文体调查与新见解'''

吴漠汀

文学史和选本建立的叙事，对20世纪的中国文学进行了歪曲的描绘。文章的体裁几乎被忽略了。在我的论文中将证明，如果我们考虑到他们的一些散文作品，三位作家的形象将如何变化。在此，我选择了批判性政治文章的例子。与小说或诗歌相比，散文更能让我们了解一个作者，因为在这种文体中，我们遇到的是没有格律限制的作者本人。--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 11:58, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhao Xi 赵茜==

In 1927, when the writers were threatened by a massacre among leftists by the National People's Party in Shanghai, a whole generation of writers found a common base in communist ideology, formally expressed in 1930 in the foundation of the "League of Left-Wing Writers".

Many writers had to define and often redefine their position and self-understanding in reaction to the changing political climate, often burying their own ideals, in the larger perspective for the seeming "needs" of society, which also claimed the author to be one of its products. This struggle of finding a position in a politicized environment is best documented in the essay --- "a genre of self-reflection". Moreover, by its very nature, the essay overcomes boundaries of form and content. Therefore there are more essays than there is fiction free from political thoughts. Some essayists even went a step further, deconstructed the master narrative of leftist ideology, like the three writers I will talk about today.

==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==

'''Zhou Zuoren'''

The master narrative of the offical literary history of the People's Republic on Zhou Zuoren is, that a sophisticated May Fourth genius "degenerated" and later became a national "traitor". Zhou's writings were officially considered bad literature, a total elimination of his texts was only prevented, because of the fame of his brother, who became a state author posthumously through the valuing of Mao Zedong. Actually the reception of his essays reaches a new climax now, in the essay collections of the 1990s, his essays rank 3rd, as I was able to proof with a survey of 5000 essays. That makes clear that his political engagement had no effect on the brilliance of his literary works.

周作人

中华人民共和国官方文学史对周作人的主要叙述是，一个卓越的五四天才“退化”，后来成为民族“叛徒”。周的著作被官方认为是不良文学，由于他兄弟的名声，而他的兄弟因高度评价毛泽东死后成为国家作家，这彻底阻止了他的著作的全部出版。实际上，现在他的论文的接受度达到了一个新的高潮，在1990年代的论文集中，他的论文排名第三，正如我通过对5000篇论文的调查所证明的那样。这清楚地表明，他的政治参与对他的文学作品的辉煌没有影响。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 02:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

周作人

民国官方文学史对周作人的主要叙述是，一个老练的五四天才 "堕落 "了，后来成了民族 "汉奸"。周作人的文章被官方认为是劣质文学，彻底消灭他的文字只是因为他兄弟的名气，他通过重视毛泽东而成为国家作家，这彻底阻止了他的著作的全部出版。其实现在对他的散文的接受达到了一个新的高潮，在90年代的散文集中，他的散文排在第三位，这是我对5000篇散文的调查所能证明的。这说明，他的政治参与对他的文学作品的辉煌没有影响。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 02:52, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==

The official assessment of the People's Republic is that Zhou's work experienced a caesura in 1938 due to his "degeneration" and opposition against the patriotic campaign. Zhou kept trying to aesthetizise the little things of the everyday out of the subjective experience of his private space his whole life, only seven months after the incident at Marco Polo bridge he showed that it was again possible to write about a candy seller for which he had been critizised as "paralyzing" . But there was indeed a caesura, namely the change in style and subject in his essays on literature, art etc. to ''zhengjing'' 正經 (serious, intentional essays), and ''xiánshì'' 閑適 (essays for one’s own enjoyment). But this change is located not before his outlawing through Mao Zedong (1942), and his arrest by the Guomindang (1945). Therefore not the Japanese suppressors should be made responsible for the retreat of this great writer, but his Chinese compatriots.

3 C. T. Hsia. [Note: Some of the annotations are in German and are translated into English during the editiorial work for the forthcoming edition.]

4 ("Mai tang 卖糖" 1924).

5 (Lu Xun 1934, Zhu Zhaoluo 1943).

人民共和国官方的评价是，在1938年，由于他自身的 "堕落 "和反对爱国运动，周春芽的作品经历了一个尾声。周作人一生都在试图将日常的小事从私人空间的主观经验中审美出来，在马可波罗桥事件发生七个月后，他才表明，他又可以写一个卖糖的人了，他曾因此被批判为 "麻痹"。但是，他的文章确实有一个高潮，那就是他的文艺文章在风格和主题上发生了变化，变成了严肃的、有意的文章和自娱自乐的文章。但这一变化并非在他被毛泽东取缔（1942年）、被国民党逮捕（1945年）之前。因此，对于这位伟大作家的退隐，不应该由日本的镇压者负责，而应该由他的中国同胞负责。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 13:35, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

人民共和国官方的评价是，在1938年，由于他自身的 "堕落 "和反对爱国运动，周春芽的作品经历了一个尾声。周作人一生都在试图将日常的小事从私人空间的主观经验审美中剥离出来，在马可波罗桥事件发生七个月后，他才表明，他又可以写一个卖糖的人了，他曾因此被批判为 "麻痹"。但是，他的文章确实有一个高潮，那就是他的文艺文章在风格和主题上发生了变化，变成了严肃的、有意的文章和自娱自乐的文章。但这一变化并非在他被毛泽东接力（1942年）、被国民党逮捕（1945年）之前。因此，对于这位伟大作家的退隐，不应该由日本的镇压者负责，而应该由他的中国同胞负责。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 13:43, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==

So the first correction of the narrative is, that his literature was ''not'' effected by socio-political circumstances in quality, but in contents. And there is a second master narrative on Zhou Zuoren, which says that he was an apolitical author. Actually, he wanted his abstinence of political statement to be understood as a political statement by itself. For him, literature was a mean not for revolution, but for resistance . In the modernizing society, he advocated the liberation of women and asked to "treat children as full subjects with their own external and internal lives" and to "make children the essence of children's literature" , literature should make the society more humane.

The second example, where a reading of some of his essays lets us rediscover the author is Ba Jin: He is known for his practical essays with anarchistic and communist background in the 1930s and 40s, for his opportunistic self-criticism, self-censorship and the accusation of a writers' collegue during the cultural revolution. After the 'Cultural Revolution' he seemed to emerge as a righteous character , when he claimed to have done all this under pressure. He then devoted his essays to the working up of the trauma of the 'Cultural Revolution', for example in the self-accusing essay series ''Random Thoughts''.

因此，对叙事的第一个纠正是，他的文学不是在质上受社会政治环境的影响，而是在内容上。还有一个关于周作人的第二个故事，说他是一个不关心政治的作家。事实上，他想把他对政治声明的无欲理解为一种政治声明本身。对他来说，文学不是革命的手段，而是反抗的手段。在现代化社会中，他倡导妇女解放，要求“把儿童作为一个完整的主体，有自己的外在和内在的生命”，“使儿童成为儿童文学的本质”，文学要使社会更加人性化。
第二个例子，读了他的一些文章，我们就可以重新发现这个作者是巴金：他以他在20世纪30年代和40年代写作的具有无政府主义和共产主义背景的实用文章而闻名，因为他在文革期间机会主义的自我批评、自我审查和对作家圈的指责。在“文化大革命”后，当他声称自己是在压力下做这一切的时候，他似乎成了一个正直的人。然后，他把自己的散文归于“文化大革命”的创伤中，例如在自责的系列随笔《随想》中。--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==

Since they were seldom reprinted, two of Ba Jin’s critical essays "''Independent Thoughts''" and "''Writers’ Courage and Sense of Duty''", dating 1956 and 1962 were overlooked. With them, Ba Jin turns out to be a lifelong independant writer. The two essays were criticised. He had to deny their contents and later they were censored. Even nowadays, these texts are not easy to find in anthologies and dictionaries in the P.R.C. and Taiwan.

"''Independant Thoughts''" dated 1956, propagates the freedom of the individual and of thoughts. This essay was written in the '100-Flower-Movement', when criticism was induced officially. Ba Jin corresponded only to the 'mainstream', although his criticism was unusually sharp. Much more distinctly directed against the 'mainstream' was the second text, which I want to introduce shortly.

==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==

"''Writers’ Courage and Sense of Duty''", a speech at the second Shanghai congress of writers and artists in early 1962, has later been censored at seven striking places. In it, Ba Jin judges very hard about himself and his collegues: At different campaigns against literary works they would have followed the political demands opportunistically and therefore were traitors. The second target of Ba Jin's criticism were the censors and critics, who would posess more power than the writers and that without legitimation. Ba Jin interpreted Mao's Yan'an speeches on art and literature in the way, that writers should themselves take over responsibility.

'''"The Small Dog Baodi" as a metaphorical discourse on Ba Jin's personal grief'''

Although Ba Jin is regarded together with Bing Xin as one of the representatives of Republican literature, the more important part of his essayistic work seems to lie after 1949 . Publishing from Hong Kong since 1979, he has spoken out loudly in opposition and in trying to help ease the trauma associated with the 'Cultural Revolution'.

1962年初在上海第二届文艺代表大会上的一篇演讲《作家的勇气与责任感》后来有七个引人注目的部分被删减。在这部小说中，巴金对自己和他的同僚进行了严格的评判：在不同的文学运动中，他们会适时地追随政治要求，因此他们是叛徒。巴金批评的第二个对象是审查员和批评家，他们比作家拥有更多的权力，没有合法性。巴金对毛泽东延安文艺讲话的解读是：作家应该自己承担责任。

'''《小狗包弟》作为一种隐喻讲述了巴金的个人悲痛'''

巴金虽然与冰心一起被视为共和文学的代表人物之一，但其散文作品更重要的部分似乎在于1949年以后。自1979以来从香港出版，他大声反对，并试图帮助缓解与“文化大革命”有关的创伤。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 06:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==

One of this essays is the story-like "''Small Dog Baodi''". Written in 1980, the author remembers his dog, which he had received two decades ago from a Swedish person and which he loved after a while. When the 'Red Gards' raged, the dog was in danger. Ba Jin describes in detail the fate of the animal and his own resignation, when he learned that he could not protect the dog. In order to save him from a torturous death, he finally submitted the dog in 1966 for medical experiments. Revisiting his garden after the 'Cultural Revolution', he remembers painfully how his wife had played here with the dog. I would like to show six points of interpretation:

这篇随笔中有一篇是像故事一样的《小狗宝蒂》。这封信写于1980年，作者回忆起他的狗，这只狗是20年前他从一个瑞典人那里收到的，过了一段时间他就爱上了它。当“红色大革命”流行时，狗处于危险之中。巴金详细描述了这只动物的命运和他自己的辞职，当他得知他不能保护狗。为了把他从痛苦的死亡中拯救出来，他最终在1966年把狗送去做医学实验。“文化大革命”后，他重新回到他的花园，痛苦地回忆起妻子在这里和狗玩耍的情景。我想提出六点解释:--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 00:36, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

这随笔集中，有一篇故事《小狗包弟》。这篇文章写于1980年，作者怀念他的狗，这只狗是作者二十年前从一个瑞典人手中收到的，过了一段时间作者就爱上了它。当'红卫兵'肆虐的时候，这只狗的处境危险。巴金详细描述了小狗包弟的命运和自己得知无法保护狗时的无可奈何。为了让小狗包弟免于折磨而死，巴金终于在1966年将这只狗送去做医学实验。'文革'后巴金重游自家花园，他痛苦地回忆起妻子在这里与狗玩耍的情景。对这篇文章，我想提出六点解读：--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 06:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==

1, The dog is a metaphor. In the beginning Ba Jin seems to report the fate of a dog with relevance only to his owner. But soon it becomes clear that Ba Jin actually mediates to the reader the cruelty of the 'Cultural Revolution'. The reader wonders, "if they did ''this'' with an ''innocent'' dog, what did they do with ''men'', whom they considered ''guilty''?" Ba Jin analogizes himself with the dog, when he sees himself liying on the dissection table. Even Baodi's death is useful, he serves science - could a man be more altruistic?

狗是一个隐喻。在故事的开头，巴金看似在说狗的命运只和主人有关。但很快我们就明白了，巴金实际上是在向读者传达“文化大革命”的残酷。读者想知道，“如果他们对一只“无辜”的狗都能这样做，那么他们对那些他们认为“有罪”的“人”又做会怎样做呢?”当巴金看到自己躺在解剖台上时，他把自己比作狗。就连鲍迪的死也是有用的，他是为科学服务的，一个人还能更无私吗?--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:53, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

狗是个比喻。一开始，巴金似乎在说狗的命运只跟主人有关。但是很快我们就知道了，巴金实际上是在向读者介表述“文化大革命”的残酷。读者想知道，“如果他们对一只“无辜”的狗“都能如此”，对那些视为“有罪”的“人”又会怎样呢？” 当巴金看到自己躺在解剖台上时，他将自己比作狗。就连鲍迪都死得其所，服务了科学---一个人还能更无私吗？--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 01:52, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

狗是一个隐喻。在故事的开头，巴金看似在说狗的命运只和主人有关。但很快我们就明白了，巴金实际上是在向读者传达“文化大革命”的残酷。读者会想，“如果他们对一只“无辜”的狗都能如此，那么他们对那些他们认为“有罪”的“人”又会怎样呢?”当巴金看到自己躺在解剖台上时，他把自己比作狗。就连包弟的死也是有用的，他是为科学服务的，一个人还能更无私吗?--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 11:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==

6 (Zhou 1929:180-181).

7 (Zhou 1923).

8 (The Family in 1951)

9 (1982 Yi pian xuwen).

10 (Suixianglu) The essays of the 1980s are more autobiographical, and deal with literature and questions for society nowadays. Due to the very nature of the essay, we can look through his "Random Thoughts" into the soul of Ba Jin..

11 (Random Thoughts 1978-86, see Ba Jin 1988).

2, Ba Jin expresses the pain of the loss of his wife through the dog. Not before the very end of the essay, Ba Jin mentions his wife in painful remembrance, who became ill and died during those ten years. In the essay "''In Memoriam Xiāo Shān''", which appeared earlier in the collection, he had confessed severe feelings of guilt regarding her death, what haunted him into his dreams. He claimed, that they had withhold her medical treatment because of him.

==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==

3, The essay is an accusation of the 'Cultural Revolution'. The not-mentioning of the 'Cultural Revolution' as the reason for his wife's death makes the pain the more accusatory, especially in front of the comparable unimportant doglife. His terrifying awareness is the powerlessness - he was not able to protect his dog nor his wife. Ba Jin actually wants to illustrate the powerlessness of the individual in front of collective cruelty.

本文是对'文革'的控诉。没有提到“文化大革命”是其妻子去世的原因，这就更让人痛心疾首，尤其是在相对不重要的狗命面前。他可怕的意识是那种无力感-他没有能力保护他的狗和他的妻子。巴金其实是想说明个人在集体的残酷面前的无能为力。--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 00:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

这篇文章是对“文化大革命”的控诉。没有提及“文化大革命”是他妻子死亡的原因，使这种疼痛更具控诉性，尤其是在相对无关紧要的狗的性命面前。他意识到无能为力是多么可怕——他既不能保护他的狗，也不能保护他的妻子。巴金其实是想展示在集体的残酷面前个体的无能为力。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 01:29, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==

4, The significance of this way to deal with the 'Cultural Revolution'. If one compares the mentioned essay with others of the year 1979, it lied within the common trend of criticizing the 'Cultural Revolution'. But there were also authors like Bing Xin denied the 'Cultural Revolution' - soon after its end, she used similar titles for her books than before - in order to pretend continuity. Wang Meng worked up the 'Cultural Revolution' in a humoristic way - ''Ba Jin'''s essays stand out of these, because of their relentlessness and confessing character.

==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==

5, The use of rhetorical means. Ba Jin pretends to be a simple documentarist "I expect from literature [...] that it tells the truth.". In fact he is known for his direct and accusing truth, sometimes his literary style is critizised as too direct and too less artful (a reproach from Hong Kong students). In "''The Small Dog Baodi''" he is using literary means to create emotion in his readers. He uses composition and rhetoric means like animation. The dog Baodi allegorically shows the injustice and inhumanity of the 'Cultural Revolution'. Here, Ba Jin turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in ''allegoric'' instead of in descriptive truth as before . He is longing for a ''fictional truth'', instead of the ''truth of being'' in the sense of Thomas Aquinas. The fictional realism Wang Der-wei sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proofs helpful for the understanding of this piece.

==Zhu Xu 朱旭==

6, Ba Jin's personal grief is much more persuading in the metaphor of the dog than in his direct accusing essays. As Vera Schwarcz (1996) points out

"To speak too much of grief is to blunt its edge. It might even make us deaf to the cry that sparked discourse about suffering in the first place. A cold, calculating intelligence cannot grasp the rough contours of grief. [...] To preserve the significance of personal suffering in public life we need a more indirect approach; one that accepts and, indeed, nourishes AMBIGUITY. This, in the words of Cynthia Ozick, is the discrete province of METAPHOR, "the reciprocal agent, the universalizing force that makes it possible to envision the stranger's heart." [...]
She also mentions that "[...] absence of talk -- or, rather modest use of ''metaphorical discourse'' -- serve us better in the presence of massive grief."

6.巴金的个人悲痛，在狗的隐喻中比他直接指责的文章更有说服力。

正如薇拉·施娃茨（Vera Schwarcz）（1996）所指出的那样"过多地谈论悲痛就是钝化它的锋芒。这种行为甚至可能让我们对最开始引发关于讨论痛苦的呐喊充耳不闻。冷酷、斤斤计较的智慧无法把握悲伤的粗糙轮廓。[...]为了保持个人苦难在公共生活中的意义，我们需要一种更间接的方法；一种接受并且实际上滋生模棱两可的方法。用辛西娅·奥齐克（Cynthia Ozick）的话说，这就是隐喻的分立范畴，"相互作用，普遍化的力量，使得我们能够想象陌生人的心。"[...]她还提到，"[....]保持沉默--或者说适度使用“隐喻性话语”--在巨大的悲痛面前更有利于我们"。--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 07:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==

To sum up, Ba Jin turns out not to be the self-censorer, who tried to make his literature fit into the communist ideology. Instead he was a lifelong fighter for the freedom of speech and the independancy of literature from politics, who spoke out whenever he had the opportunity without endangering himself. He also no longer appears as the "uneducated" writer of simple truth, as he leads us to believe. Yet he has achieved a high rhethoric of ''fictional truth'' and is able to transmit his personal grief even more persuadingly in a ''metaphorical discourse'' throught the metaphor of the dog Baodi.

综上所述，巴金原来并不是一个自我审查者，试图使自己的文学符合共产主义意识形态。相反，他一生都在为言论自由和文学独立于政治而奋斗，只要有机会，他就会大声疾呼，但不会危及自身。他也不再像他引导我们相信的那样，以“不谙世事”的作家形象出现。巴金对虚构事实的修辞手法已经十分高超，能够通过狗宝弟的隐喻，以隐喻性的话语，更有说服力地传递他个人的悲伤。--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 06:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

综上所述，巴金并不是一个试图使自己的文学符合共产主义意识形态的自我审查者。相反，他一生都在为言论自由和文学独立于政治而奋斗，只要一有机会，他就会在不危及自己的情况下畅所欲言。他也不再像他引导我们相信的那样，以“没有受过教育的”作家的形象出现。然而，他实现了“虚构真实”的高度流变，通过狗宝弟的隐喻，在“隐喻话语”中更有说服力地表达了个人的悲伤。
--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 00:41, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Introduction to Translation Studies

2020-12-20T13:12:37Z

Xu Jia: /* Session 16: Final Discussion */

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Welcome to our course website '''Introduction to Translation Studies'''. Whenever you visit this site, please see if there is anything in English not yet translated into Chinese and make a Chinese translation beneath (one paragraph English, one paragraph Chinese). Any correction or improvement of earlier translations is welcome!

欢迎访问我们“翻译导论课”的网页。…………

=Organizational Things=
*Please register for the Course Wiki.
*Please prepare each session during the week before, so that you come prepared to class.

Welcome Message on WeChat: 麻烦各位同学修改一下自己的备注，改成自己的姓名（拼音、汉字、20级、方向）就好。Welcome to our course. I am excited to meet you on Monday online on http://bit.ly/ZOOMCOURSE (573 941 6744, course). First, there are some organizational things to get everybody joining the class.
In preparation, please register with our course wiki http://bit.ly/WIKIREG. Username is your Pinyin Name (“Wang Jianguo” – no Chinese characters) and email, for your real name also write your Pinyin Name (Wang Jianguo), no Chinese characters. Write a sentence about yourself in the bio info. Please check the box that you abide to the Terms of Service and type in the password “wikicaptcha”. You will receive an email with a link. Please confirm the link. After confirmation, please allow a few days that I can approve your username. After that, you can access the course wiki http://bit.ly/TS_INTRO and edit the contents. You need to edit the course website every week to prepare the upcoming session.
Please note that you can only participate with a good internet connection, with a smart device which is able to run Zoom and with a running camera. Therefore, please make sure that you have a working device. If your phone’s camera is broken, please borrow a different phone or contact us that we can help you to get a second hand phone for free.

=Edits=
Every student is required to edit something every week. This can be:
* Translate any English paragraph on this website from English to Chinese.
* Correct an earlier translation.
* Prepare an article (please link to from this page) and/or a powerpoint (please upload here) on a topic you will present during the semester.

=Material=
Please download several pdfs with monographs and articles about translation studies history and theories from our WeChat group.

*Bassnett, Susan. Translation studies. Routledge, 2013
*Bell, Roger T., and Christopher Candlin. Translation and translating: Theory and practice. Vol. 298. London: Longman, 1991
*Catford, John Cunnison. A linguistic theory of translation. Oxford University Press, 1978.
*Chen, Fukang. "Zhongguo yixue lilun shi gao (A History of Chinese Translation Theory)." (1992).
*Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary translation theories. Vol. 21. Multilingual Matters, 2001.
*Holmes, James S. The name and nature of translation studies. Translation Studies Section, Department of General Literary Studies, University of Amsterdam, 1975.
*Huang, Chending黄振定. "文学翻译评价的科学性及其科学论." 外国语 4 (1999): 49-56.
*Huang, Chending 黄振定. "翻译学是一门人文科学." 外语与外语教学 2 (1999): 33-35.
*Huang, Chending 黄振定.翻译学: 艺术论与科学论的统一. 上海外语教育出版社, 2008
*Lefevere, André, ed. Translation/history/culture: A sourcebook. Routledge, 2002.
*Munday, Jeremy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications, Routledge 2013
*Nida, Eugene Albert, and Charles Russell Taber, eds. The theory and practice of translation. Vol. 8. Brill Archive, 1982.
*Nida, Eugene Albert. Toward a science of translating: with special reference to principles and procedures involved in Bible translating. Brill Archive, 1964.
*Pan Wenguo 潘文国. "当代西方的翻译学研究——兼谈 “翻译学” 的学科性问题." 中国翻译 23.1 (2002): 31-34.
*Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜. Translation Studies 翻译学. 复旦大学出版社, 2017
*Toury, Gideon. "Descriptive Translation Studies–and beyond John Benjamins Publishing Company." Amsterdam/Philadelphia (1995).
*Venuti, Lawrence. The translator's invisibility: A history of translation. Routledge, 2017.
*Wilss, Wolfram. The science of translation: problems and methods. Vol. 180. John Benjamins Pub Co, 1982. 翻译学问题与方法 Shanghai: SFLEP (2001).
*Xu, Jun 许钧, Mu Lei 穆雷. "翻译学概论 [Introduction to Translation Studies]." 南京: 译林出版社 10 (2009): 180-192.
*Xu, Jun 许钧. Translation Theories 翻译论. 湖北教育出版社, 2003
*Zhao, Wei 赵巍. "翻译学学科性质与研究方法反思." 解放军外国语学院学报 28.6 (2005): 69-72.

(We use Chicago Social Sciences Citation Style [https://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/tools_citationguide/citation-guide-2.html Chicago Style].)

'''Which paper or book should I read to prepare my presentation?'''

Recommendations:

Topic Book/Paper

1 Introduction

2 Emergence
*Xu, Jun 许钧, Mu Lei 穆雷. "翻译学概论 [Introduction to Translation Studies]." 南京: 译林出版社 10 (2009): 180-192.
*Xu, Jun 许钧. Translation Theories 翻译论. 湖北教育出版社, 2003
*Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜. Translation Studies 翻译学. 复旦大学出版社, 2017

3a History of Translation
*3a History of Western Translation 谭载喜.西方翻译简史[M]. 北京:商务印书馆, 1991年.
*3b History of Translation in China – before May Fourth 马祖毅. 中国翻译简史——“五四”以前部分（修订本）[M]. 中国对外翻译出版公司，1998年.
*3c History of Chinese Translation Theories *陈福康.中国译学理论史稿（修订本）[M]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社，2000年.

4 Early understanding
*Holmes, James. 1972. The Name and Nature of Translation Studies. Papers on Literary Translation and Translation Studies[M]. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1988: 67-80.
*Sourcebook Bassnett, Susan and Andre Lefevere. Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook[M]. London and New York：Routledge,
1990.
*Early linguistic theory Catford, J. A Linguistic Theory of Translation[M]. London: Oxford University Press, 1965.
*Early important understanding Nida, E. A. Toward a Science of Translating[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.

5 Translation Studies
*5a Bassnett, Susan. Translation Studies[M]. London and New York: Methuen, 1980.
* 5b Theories Gentzler, E. Contemporary Translation Theories[M]. London and New York: Routledge, 1993.
*5c Western theory 刘军平. 西方翻译理论通史[M]. 武汉：武汉大学出版社，2009年.
*5d Contemp. West. theories 廖七一. 当代西方翻译理论探索[M]. 南京：译林出版社, 2000年.

6 Translation Theories
* 许钧. 翻译论[M]. 武汉：湖北教育出版社，2003年.
*6a Methods Wilss, Wolfram. The Science of Translation: Problems and Methods[M]. Gunter Narr Verlag Tubinger, 1982.
*6b Style 刘宓庆. 文体与翻译[M]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司：北京，1998年.
*6c Translation Studies 许钧，穆雷. 翻译学概论[M]. 南京：译林出版社，2009年.
*6d TS 谭载喜. 翻译学[M]. 武汉：湖北教育出版社，2000年.

7 Theory and Practise
*7a Bell, Roger T. Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice[M]. London and New York: Longman, 1991.
*7b Theory and Practise Munday, Jermy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications[M]. London and NewYork: Routledge, 2001.
*7c Textbook Newmark, Peter. A Text Book of Translation[M]. UK: Prentice Hall International Ltd, 1988.
*7d Theory and practice Nida, Eugene A. and Charles R. Taber. The Theory and Practice of Translation[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1969.
*7e Translation Basics 刘宓庆. 翻译基础[M]. 上海：华东师范大学出版社，2008年.

8
*8a “descriptive” Toury, Gideon. Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond[M]. Amsterdam/ Philadelphia: John BenjaminB Publishing company, 1995.
*8b Culture Toury, Gideon. Translation Across Cultures[M]. NewDelhi: Bahri Publications, 1987.
*8c Invisibility Venuti, L. The Translator 's Invisibility[M]. London and NewYork: Routledge, 1995.
*8d Constructivism Research 易经. 翻译学体系构建研究[M]. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社，2012年.

9 Theories
*9a East-West comparison 刘宓庆. 中西翻译思想比较研究[M]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司, 2005年.
*9b English-Chinese TS 蒋坚松. 英汉对比与汉译英研究[M]. 长沙：湖南人民出版社，2002年.

=Main class project=
Please help to edit the publication [[History of Translation Studies]].

=Schedule=
'''All sessions''': 1 9/21 Organizational things, 2 Emergence, 3 History, 4 Development, 5 Early literary examples, 6 early theories, 7 (Western) Theories, 8 Methods, 9 Style, 10 Translation Studies, 11 Theory and Practice, 12 Different Aspects, 13 East West comparison, 14 Strategies, 15 Contemporary Translation Theories, 16 Final Discussion

==1st Session==
Introduction to the course. Organizational things. Working with the Wiki.

=== Homework from Session 1 due on Sep 27, 2020 ===

1. Every student should translate 1 sentence of a paper on Qing Translation Policies. Here is the [[20200921_trans|homework page]].

2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20200921_trans|here]].

3. Please pick a topic from the pdf material, the general session topics or your own thoughts to do a presentation on. For the first topics, you need to do the presentation already in 1 week!

===Homework for later===
4. Write a final exam paper as a chapter of the book "Translation Studies". It has to be a new topic, not yet used in the book. I will upload the book here later. You can participate in writing this book.

5. Get familiar with the pdfs I send you on WeChat group as learning material.

==2nd Session: Emergence==

===Session 2, Topic 1: 人类起源 The emergence of translation and interpretation===
*Handout for download [[Media:The_emergence_of_translation_and_interpretation.doc|Global Emergence of Interpretation and Translation]] by 彭锐宏
*Classroom presentation for download [[Media:The_emergence_of_translation_and_interpretation_by_Peng_Ruihong.pptx|Presentation on Emergence of translation]] by 彭锐宏--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 07:05, 28 September 2020 (UTC)

===Session 2, Topic 2: 西方起源 The emergence of translation and interpretation in the West===
*Handout for download:[[Media:The_Emergence_of_Translation_and_Interpretation_in_Western_Countries.docx|Handout on The Emergence of Translation and Interpretation in Western Countries]]--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 05:43, 28 September 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou by 聂晓楼
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The_Emergence_of_Translation_and_Interpretation_in_Western_Countries.pptx|Powerpoint on The Emergence of Translation and Interpretation in Western Countries]]--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 05:43, 28 September 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou by 聂晓楼

===Session 2, Topic 3: 中国起源 The emergence of translation and interpretation in China===
*Handout for download:[[Media:Emergence_of_translation_and_interpretation_in_China.docx| Handout on Emergence of translation and interpretation in China]]--Mashuya by 马淑雅
*Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Emergence_of_translation_and_interpretation_in_China.pptx|PowerPoint on Emergence of translation and interpretation in China]]--Mashuya by 马淑雅

===Session 2, Topic 4: 日本起源 The emergence of translation and interpretation in Japan===
*Handout for download: [[Media:The_Emergence_of_translation_and_interpretation_in_Japan.docx|The Emergence of translation and interpretation in Japan]] by 孟莹 --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 16:10, 27 September 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying
*Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:The_Emergence_of_Translation_and_Interpretation_in_Japan.ppt|Powerpoint on the Emergence of Translation and Interpretation in Japan]] by 孟莹--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 16:10, 27 September 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying

===Homework from Session 2 (Sep 28, 2020), due on (Oct 5, 2020)===
1. Every student should translate 1 paragraph of an English book on Contemporary Chinese Literature INTO CHINESE. Link: [[20200928_trans|here]].

2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20200928_trans|here]].

==3rd Session: History==

===Session 3, Topic 1:中国古代翻译史History of Translation in Ancient China===
*Handout for download：[[Media:Handout for History of Translation in Ancient China.doc]]--[[User:Li Yu|Li Yu]] ([[User talk:Li Yu|talk]]) 09:14, 5 October 2020 (UTC)
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media: History of Translation in Ancient China.pptx]]--[[User:Li Yu|Li Yu]] ([[User talk:Li Yu|talk]]) 09:14, 5 October 2020 (UTC)

===Session 3, Topic 2: 中国翻译史代表人物The Representatives in Chinese Translation History===
*Handout for download: [[Media:Chin_Trans_Hist_Rep.docx|The Representatives in Chinese Translation History]] --[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 11:35, 4 October 2020 (UTC)
*Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:....pptx|The Representatives in Chinese Translation History]] --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:36, 4 October 2020 (UTC)

===Session 3, Topic 3: 中国翻译史的四个阶段 The Four Stages of Chinese Translation History===
*Handout for download: [[Media:The four stages of Chinese translation history.docx|Description of the file]] PLEASE UPLOAD by --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:08, 5 October 2020 (UTC)XX
*Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:The_four_stages_of_Chinese_translation_history.pptx|The Four Stages of Chinese Translation History]] by --[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 16:16, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

===Session 3, Topic 4: 当代中国之翻译 Translation in Contemporary China===
*Handout for download: [[Media:Handout for Translation in Contemporary China.docx|Translation in today's China]] by --[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 02:08, 5 October 2020 (UTC)
*Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Translation in Contemporary China(1).pptx|Presentation on translation in China today]] --[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 01:05, 5 October 2020 (UTC) Zhang Yuxing by 张宇星

==='''Homework from Session 3 (Oct 5, 2020), for Session 4 due on (Oct 12, 2020)'''===

1. Every student should translate 1 sentence of the Introduction of the Book "Translation Studies". Here is the '''[[20201005_trans|homework page]]'''.

2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201005_trans|here]].

==Session 4: Development==

===Session 4, Topic 1: 西方翻译史 Western translation history===
*Handout for download: [[Media:....docx|Western translation history]] by Zhou Siqing--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:57, 5 October 2020 (UTC)
*Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Western translation history.pptx|Western translation history]] by Zhang Qi [[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 07:46, 12 October 2020 (UTC)

===Session 4, Topic 2: 中国佛经翻译的发展 The Develpment of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures===
*Handout for download:[[Media:The Develpment of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures.docx]] by Jiang Qiwei--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 15:26, 10 October 2020 (UTC)
*Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:The Develpment of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures.ppt|The Develpment of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures]] by Hu Jin--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 15:26, 10 October 2020 (UTC)

===Session 4, Topic 3:西方翻译理论史History of Western Translation Theory===
*Handout for download: [[Media:...docx|History of Western Translation Theory]] by --[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 13:19, 4 October 2020 (UTC)XX
* Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:...pptx| Brief History of Western Translation Theory]] by --[[User:Zhou Shiqing|Zhou Shiqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shiqing|talk]]) 13:19, 4 October 2020 (UTC)XX

===Session 4, Topic 4:口译未来的发展 Prospect of Interpreting===
*Handout for download:[[Media:The Prospect of Interpreting.docx]]-by Zhang Yinliu--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 08:30, 12 October 2020 (UTC)
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Prospect of Interpreting.pptx]]--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 08:23, 12 October 2020 (UTC)

===Session 4, Topic 5:新中国成立后翻译的发展 Translation Development of New China===
*Handout for download:[[Media:Translation Development of New China.pdf]] by Li Luyi --[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:47, 10 October 2020 (UTC)
*Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Translation Development .pptx]] by Zheng Huajun--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:47, 10 October 2020 (UTC)

===Session 4, Topic 6:圣经翻译的发展 The Development of Bible Translation===
*Handout for download:[[Media:The Development of Bible Translation.docx]]--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 03:05, 11 October 2020 (UTC)
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Development of Bible Translation.pptx]] by Han Haiyang--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 02:01, 11 October 2020 (UTC)

===Session 4, Topic 7:机器翻译的发展 The Development of Machine Translation===
*Handout for download:[[Media:Handout-The Development of Machine Translation.docx]] by Deng Jinxia----[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 12:42, 19 October 2020 (UTC)
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:PPT The Development of Machine Translation.pptx]] by Han Wanzhen--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 06:31, 11 October 2020 (UTC)

===Session 4, Topic 8:视听翻译的发展 The Development of Audiovisual Translation===
*Handout for download:[[Media:The Development of Audiovisual Translation-Handout.docx]]--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 16:01, 11 October 2020 (UTC)
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Development of Audiovisual Translation-PPT.pptx]] by Cheng Yusi--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 16:04, 11 October 2020 (UTC)

==='''Homework from Session 4 (Oct 12, 2020), for Session 5 due on (Oct 19, 2020)'''===

1. Every student should translate a short passage of a paper on the Chinese essay. Here is the '''[[20201012_trans|homework page]]'''.

2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. [[20201012_trans|here]].

3. Take part in an online survey. The survey is currently prepared by the fellow students.

==Session 5: ==

===Session 5, Topic 1:林纾的翻译 Lin Shu's translation===
*Handout for download:[[Media:Translation by Lin Shu.docx]]--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 08:50, 29 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Translation by Lin Shu(After correcting).pptx]]--Xu Pengfei

===Session 5, Topic 2:茅盾的翻译 Mao Dun's Translation===
*Handout for download:[[Media:Mao Dun's Translation.docx]]--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 02:44, 18 October 2020 (UTC)

[[Media:translations by Mao Dun.pptx]]--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 13:14, 1 November 2020 (UTC)

===Session 5, Topic 3:严复和天演论 Yan Fu and Tianyan Lun===
*Handout for download:[[Media:YAN Fu and Tianyan Lun.docx]]--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 09:53, 18 October 2020 (UTC)Yuan Yuchen
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:YAN Fu and Tianyan Lun.pptx]]--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 10:28, 18 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

Please stick to your 5 minutes with your presentation. We are 3 presentations behind. Thank you for your cooperation.

===Session 5, Topic 4:《红楼梦》的英译 The Translation of ''The Red Chamber Dreams''===
*Handout for download:[[Media:The Translation of ''The Red Chamber Dreams''.docx]]--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 13:38, 18 October 2020 (UTC)
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Translation of ''The Red Chamber Dreams''.pptx]]----[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 03:59, 24 October 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

===Session 5, Topic 5:《圣经》的早期汉译 The Early Translation of the Bible into Chinese===
*Handout for download:[[Media:The Early Translation of the Bible into Chinese.docx]]--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 15:22, 18 October 2020 (UTC)
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Early Translation of the Bible into Chinese.ppt]]--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 14:55, 18 October 2020 (UTC)

===Session 5, Topic 6:梁实秋的翻译 The Translation of Liang Shiqiu===
*Handout for download:[[Media:The Liang Shiqiu's Translation.pdf]]--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]]([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 00:32, 19 October 2020 (UTC)
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media: Liang Shiqiu.pdf]]--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]]([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 00:32, 19 October 2020 (UTC)

==Session 6: Early Theories==

==='''Homework from Session 5 (Oct 19, 2020), for Session 6 due on (Oct 26, 2020)'''===

1. Every student should translate 1 sentence of the Introduction of the Book "Translation Studies". Here is the '''[[20201019_trans|homework page]]'''.

2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201019_trans|here]].

===Session 6, Topic 1: 巴斯奈特文化翻译观 The Cultural Translation Theory of Bassnett===

Handout for download: [[Media:The Cultural Translatioin Theory of Susan Bassnett.pdf]]--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]]([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 16:36, 24 October 2020 (UTC)

Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Cultural Translatioin Theory of Bassnett.ppt]]--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 05:07, 24 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie

===Session 6, Topic 2: 中国早期代表性佛经翻译理论 Early Representative Theories of Buddhist Scriptures Translation in China===

Handout for download:[[Media:Early Representative Theories of Buddhist Scriptures Translation in China.docx]]--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:23, 25 October 2020 (UTC)

Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Early Representative Theories of Buddhist Scriptures Translation in China.pptx]]--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 00:43, 26 October 2020 (UTC)

===Session 6, Topic 3: 两种西方早期翻译模式的比较分析:贺拉斯模式和杰罗姆模式 The Comparative Analysis of Two Early Western Translation Models: Horace Model and Jerome Model===

Handout for download:[[Media:The Comparative Analysis of Two Translation Models.docx]]--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 09:41, 25 October 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing

Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The_Comparative_Analysis_of_Two_Translation_Models.pptx]]--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 09:24, 25 October 2020 (UTC)Gao Mingzhu

===Session 6, Topic 4: 卡特福德的《翻译的语言学理论》 A Linguistic Theory of Translation of J.C.Catford===

Handout for download:[[Media:A Linguistic Theory of Translation of Catford.docx]]--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 12:30, 25 October 2020 (UTC)

Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:A Linguistic Theory of Translation.pptx]]--[[User:Wen Xiaoyi|Wen Xiaoyi]] ([[User talk:Wen Xiaoyi|talk]]) 12:38, 25 October 2020 (UTC)

===Session 6, Topic 5: 中西早期译论对比 The Comparison between Chinese and Western Early Translation Theories===
Handout for download:[[Media:Comparison of Early Translation Theories between China and the West.docx]]--[[User:QiKai|QiKai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 14:04, 25 October 2020 (UTC)

Classroom Presentation for download:[[Media:Chinese and Western Early Theories Comparison.pptx]]--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 13:26, 25 October 2020 (UTC)

===Session 6, Topic 6: 系统翻译理论的早期尝试 Early Attempts at Systematic Translation Theory===

Handout for download: [[Media:Early Attempts at Systematic Translation Theory.docx]]--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 12:40, 25 October 2020 (UTC)

Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Early Attempts at Systematic Translation Theory.ppt]]--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]])03:52, 25 October 2020 (UTC)

=Session 7: Western theories=

===Homework from Session 6 (Oct 26, 2020), for Session 6 due on (Nov 2, 2020)===

1. Every student should translate 1 sentence of the Introduction of the Book "Translation Studies". Here is the '''[[20201026_trans|homework page]]'''.

2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201026_trans|here]].

===Session 7, Topic 1: 奈达功能对等理论 Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory===

Handout for download:[[Media:Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory.docx]]

Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory ppt.pptx]]--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 02:59, 2 November 2020 (UTC)

===Session 7, Topic 2: 多元系统理论 Polysystem Theory===

Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Polysystem Theory ppt.pptx]]--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 11:35, 1 November 2020 (UTC)

Handout for download:[[Media:Polysystem Theory.docx]]--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 11:21, 1 November 2020 (UTC)

===Session 7, Topic 3：后殖民主义翻译理论 Post-colonial Translation Theory===

Handout for download:[[Media:Post-colonial Translation Theory.doc]]--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 12:27, 1 November 2020 (UTC)

Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Post-colonial Translation Theory.pptx]]--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 01:29, 2 November 2020 (UTC)

===Session 7, Topic 4：布拉格学派 Prague School===

Handout for download: [[Media:Prague_School-Handout.doc]]--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 14:48, 1 November 2020 (UTC)

Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Prague School.pptx]]--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:08, 1 November 2020 (UTC)

===Session 7, Topic 5：目的论 Skopos Theory===

Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Skopos Theory.pptx]]--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 07:26, 2 November 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan

Handout for download:[[Media:Skopos Theory.docx]]--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 08:21, 2 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

===Session 7, Topic 6：语言学派 Linguistic School===

Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Linguistic School.pptx]]----[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:26, 2 November 2020 (UTC)

Handout for download: [[Media:Linguistic School-Handout.doc]]----[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:48, 2 November 2020 (UTC)

=Session 8: Methods=

===Homework from Session 7 (Nov 2, 2020), for Session 8 due on (Nov 9, 2020)===

1. Every student should translate 1 sentence of the Introduction of the Book "Translation Studies". Here is the '''[[20201102_trans|homework page]]'''.

2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201102_trans|here]].

===Session 8, Topic 1：正说反译与反说正译 Negation===
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Negation-Gan Fengyu.pptx]][[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 13:01, 6 November 2020 (UTC)

Handout for download:[[Media:Negation.docx]]--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 12:56, 6 November 2020 (UTC)

===Session 8, Topic 2：异化策略下的翻译方法 Translation Methods of Foreignization Strategy ===
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Translation Methods of Foreignization Strategy-Zhao Xiaoyan.pptx]]--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 15:35, 7 November 2020 (UTC)

Handout for download:[[Media:Translation Methods of Foreignization Strategy-Zhang Hui.docx]]--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 15:33, 7 November 2020 (UTC)

===Session 8, Topic 3：交际翻译与语义翻译 Communicative Translation and Semantic Translation===
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Communicative Translation and Semantic Translation.pptx]]by Zhang Yu--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 13:01, 6 November 2020 (UTC)

Handout for download:[[Media:Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation-handout.docx]]--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 13:49, 6 November 2020 (UTC)

===Session 8, Topic 4：直译与意译 Literal Translation and Free translation===
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Literal Translation and Free translation.pptx]]--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 15:45, 8 November 2020 (UTC)
Handout for download:[[Media:Literal Translation and Free translation Handout.docx]]--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 01:22, 9 November 2020 (UTC)

===Session 8, Topic 5：增译与减译 Amplification and Omission===
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Amplification and Omission.pptx]]--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 03:06, 9 November 2020 (UTC)

Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Amplification And Omission.docx]]--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 05:05, 9 November 2020 (UTC)Wensixing

===Session 8, Topic 6：影视字幕的翻译方法-以《肖申克的救赎》为例 The Translation Method of Film and Television Subtitles——Taking Shawshank’s Redemption as an Example===
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Translation Method of Film and Television Subtitles—Taking Shawshank’s Redemption as an Example.pptx]]--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 01:21, 9 November 2020 (UTC)
Handout for download:[[Media:The Translation Method of Film and Television Subtitles—Taking Shawshank’s Redemption as an Example Handout.docx]]--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 01:16, 9 November 2020 (UTC)

=Session 9: Style=

===Homework from Session 8 (Nov 9, 2020), for Session 9 due on (Nov 16, 2020)===

1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. Here is the '''[[20201116_trans|homework page]]'''.

2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201116_trans|here]].

===Session 9, Topic 1: 源语风格和翻译 Style of Source Text and Translation===

Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Style of Source Text and Translation.docx]]--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 06:48, 9 November 2020 (UTC)

Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Style of Source Text and Translation1.pptx]]--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 07:03, 9 November 2020 (UTC)

===Session 9, Topic2 : 科技翻译 Scientific Style===

Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Scientific Style.docx]]--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 01:42, 16 November 2020 (UTC)

Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Scientific Style.pptx]]--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:17, 16 November 2020 (UTC)

===Session 9,Topic 3:不同翻译风格对比 Comparison among Different Translation Styles===

Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Handout Session 9 Comparison among Different Translation Styles.docx]]--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 14:40, 14 November 2020 (UTC)

Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Session 9 Comparison among Different Translation Styles.pptx]]--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 14:40, 14 November 2020 (UTC)

===Session 9,Topic 4: 文学风格可译与不可译 On Literary Style from a Translatable View and Untranslatable View===
Classroom handout for download:[[Media:On Literary Style from a Translatable View and Untranslatable View.docx]]--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:49, 16 November 2020 (UTC)

Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:On Literary Style from a Translatable View and Untranslatable View.pptx]] by Li Yongshan --[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:49, 16 November 2020 (UTC)

===Session 9,Topic 5: 翻译与风格 Translation and Style= ==
Classroom handout for download: [[Media:Translation_and_Style.docx]]--Hu Huifang

Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Translation_and_Style.pptx]]--Zeng Yanhu

[[Media:Example.ogg]]

=Session 10: Translation Studies=

===Homework from Session 9 (Nov 16, 2020), for Session 10 due on (Nov 23, 2020)===

1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. Here is the '''[[20201123_trans|homework page]]'''.

2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201123_trans|here]].

===Session 10,Topic 1: 翻译转换 Translation Shifts===
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Translation_Shifts.pptx]]--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 14:51, 22 November 2020 (UTC)

Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Translation_Shifts_handout.docx]]--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 15:05, 22 November 2020 (UTC)

===Session 10,Topic 2: 解码和重新编码 Decoding and Recoding===
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Decoding and Recoding.pptx]]--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 08:33, 23 November 2020 (UTC)

Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Decoding and Recoding.docx]]--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 04:32, 23 November 2020 (UTC)

===Session 10,Topic 3: 视听翻译 Audiovisual Translation===
Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Audiovisual Translation.docx]]--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 13:19, 22 November 2020 (UTC) - READ BY NIE XIAOLOU

Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Audiovisual Translation.pptx]]--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 00:26, 23 November 2020 (UTC)

===Session 10,Topic 4: 对钱钟书“化境说”的理论研究 The Translation Studies of Qian Zhongshu’s Theory of Huajing===
[[Media:Handout-The Translation Studies of Qian Zhongshu’s theory of Huajing.docx]]--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 05:38, 23 November 2020 (UTC)

[[Media:The Translation Studies of Qian Zhongshu’s theory of Huajing.pptx]]--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 05:40, 23 November 2020 (UTC)

===Session 10, Topic 5: 英汉被动语态对比研究及其翻译策略 Contrastive Studies of Passive Voice(C&E) and its Translation Strategies===
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Contrastive Studies of Passive Voice(C&E) and its Translation Strategies.pptx]] --[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 09:20, 23 November 2020 (UTC)

Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Contrastive Studies of Passive Voice(C&E) and its Translation Strategies.docx]]--[[User:Blank|Zhang Hu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hu|talk]]) 10:23, 23 November 2020 (UTC)

===Session 10,Topic 6: 不可译性及其转化策略 Untranslatability and Translation Strategies====

Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Untranslatability and Translation Strategies.docx]]--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 12:03, 22 November 2020 (UTC)

Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Untranslatability & Translation Strategies.pptx]]--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 12:45, 22 November 2020 (UTC)

=Session 11: Theory and Practice=

===Homework from Session 10 (Nov 23, 2020), for Session 11 due on (Nov 30, 2020)===

1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. Here is the '''[[20201130_trans|homework page]]'''.

2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201130_trans|here]].

===Session 11,Topic 1: 功能对等理论对商标翻译的影响 The Effect of the Equivalence Theory on Trademark Translation===

Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Handout.The Theory and Practice.docx]]--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 07:38, 30 November 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan

Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Effect of the Equivalence Theory on Trademark Translation.pptx]]--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 08:08, 30 November 2020 (UTC)

===Session 11,Topic 2: 归化和异化在翻译中的实践 Translation practice in domestication and foreignization===

Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Handout.The Practice of Foreignization and Domestication.docx]]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 01:21, 30 November 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia

Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Translation practice in domestication and foreignization.pptx]]--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 09:00, 29 November 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi

===Session 11,Topic 3: 目的论及其应用 Skopos Theory and its Applications===

Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Skopos Theory and its Applications.docx]]--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 05:08, 30 November 2020 (UTC)

Classroom presentation for download：[[Media:Skopos Theory and its Applications.pptx]]--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 05:16, 30 November 2020 (UTC)

===Session 11,Topic 4:语义翻译与交际翻译 The Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation===

Classroom handout for download:[[Media:The Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation.docx]]--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 16:30, 29 November 2020 (UTC)

Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation.ppt]]--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 06:56, 30 November 2020 (UTC)

===Session 11,Topic 5: 奈达的功能对等理论及其在科技文英译汉中的应用 Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory and its Application in E-C Translation of EST===

Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Nida’s_Functional_Equivalence_Theory_and_its_Application_in E-C_Translation_of_EST.docx]]--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 02:03, 30 November 2020 (UTC)

Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory and its Application in E-C Translation of EST.pptx]]--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]]--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 03:25, 30 November 2020 (UTC)

===Session 11,Topic 6:女性主义翻译 The Feminist Translation===

Handout for download：[[Media:Feminist Translation.doc]]--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:07, 30 November 2020 (UTC)

Classroom presentation：[[Media:Feminist Translation.pptx]]

=Session 12: Different Aspects=

===Homework from Session 11 (Nov 30, 2020), for Session 12 due on (Dec 7, 2020)===

1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. Here is the '''[[20201207_trans|homework page]]'''.

2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201207_trans|here]].

===Session 12, Topic 1: 政论文翻译 Translation of Political Text===

Classroom handout for download: [[Media:Translation of Political Text.docx]]--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 12:21, 4 December 2020 (UTC)

Classroom handout for download: [[Media:Translation of Political Text.pptx]] By Chen Jiaxin --[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 12:30, 4 December 2020 (UTC)

===Session 12, Topic 2: 诗歌翻译 Poem Translation===
Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Poem Translation.pptx]]--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 14:59, 6 December 2020 (UTC)

[[Media:Poem_Translation_handout.docx]] by Zhang Yujie& Yang Hairong--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 03:14, 7 December 2020 (UTC)

===Session 12, Topic 3: 旅游翻译 Tourism Translation===
Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Tourism Translation.pptx]] by Tan Xinjie & Wei Yafei --[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 09:53, 5 December 2020 (UTC)Weiyafei

[[Media:Tourism_Translation_handout.docx]] by Tan Xinjie & Wei Yafei--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 10:06, 5 December 2020 (UTC)Wei Yafei

=Session 13: East West comparison=

===Homework from Session 12 (Nov 30, 2020), for Session 13 due on (Dec 14, 2020)===

1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. Here is the '''[[20201214_trans|homework page]]'''.

2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201214_trans|here]].

===Topic 1:严复和泰特勒翻译标准之对比 A Comparison between Yan Fu's and Tytler's Translation Criteria===
[[Media:A Comparison Between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s Translation Criteria.pptx]]--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 07:15, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming
[[Media:A Comparison Between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s Translation Criteria.docx]]--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 06:52, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong

===Topic 2:中西翻译发展比较Comparison of the Development of Chinese and Western Translation===

[[Media:Comparison of the Development of Chinese and Western Translation.pptx]] by Liu Yi.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 15:38, 6 December 2020 (UTC)

[[Media:Comparison of the Development of Chinese and Western Translation.doc]] by Tan Yuanyuan.--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 15:47, 6 December 2020 (UTC)

===Topic 3:中西文化差异对翻译的影响The Influence of Chinese and Western Cultural Differences on Translation===
[[Media:Handout-The Influence of Chinese and Western Cultural Differences on Translation.doc]] by Yang Yue--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 05:10, 10 December 2020 (UTC)
[[Media:The Influence of Chinese and Western Cultural Differences on Translation.pptx]] by Yi Zichu--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 05:01, 10 December 2020 (UTC)

===Topic 4:中国佛经翻译与圣经翻译的比较Comparison Between the translation of Buddhist scriptures of China and Bible translation===
[[Media:The Comparison of the Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures and Bible translation.pptx]]by Xiao Ting--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 00:54, 13 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

[[Media:The Comparison of the Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures and Bible Translation.docx]]--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 02:07, 13 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia

===Topic 5:20世纪中叶以来中西翻译理论对比 Comparison of Chinese and Western translation theories since the mid-term of the 20th century===

[[Media:Comparison of Chinese and Western translation theories since the mid-term of the 20th century by Mo Ling.pptx]]--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 09:38, 11 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling

[[Media:Handout of comparison of Chinese and Western translation theories since the mid-term of the 20th century by Yuan Tianyi.doc]]

===Topic 6；中西思维方式差异在翻译中的体现——以习语为例 The Embodiment of the Differences between Chinese and Western Thinking Modes in Translation -- Taking Idioms as an Example===

Classroom handout for download: [[Media:The Embodiment of the Differences between Chinese and Western Thinking Modes in Translation -- Taking Idioms as an Example.docx]]--[[User:Chen Sha|Chen Sha]] --[[User:Chen Sha|Chen Sha]] ([[User talk:Chen Sha|talk]]) 14:43, 5 December 2020 (UTC)

Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:The Embodiment of the Differences between Chinese and Western Thinking Modes in Translation -- Taking Idioms as an Example.pptx]] By Chen Jiangning --[[User:Chen Sha|Chen Jiangning]]--[[User:Chen Sha|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 14:43, 5 December 2020 (UTC)

=Session 14: Strategies=
===Homework from Session 13 (Dec 14, 2020), for Session 14 due on (Dec 21, 2020)===

1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. Here is the '''[[20201221_trans|homework page]]'''.

2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201221_trans|here]].

===Topic 1；阿拉伯大征服时代与翻译学 The Era of Arab Conquest and Translatology===

Classroom handout for download: [[Media:The Era of Arab Conquest and Translatology.docx]] Ma Zhixing＆Wu kai --[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 10:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:The Era of Arab Conquest and Translatology.ppt]] Ma Zhixing＆Wu kai --[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 10:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

=Session 15: Contemporary Translation Theories=
=Session 16: Final Discussion=

==List of topics for presentations and handouts in class==
1 Emergence:
孟莹: 日本起源, 聂晓楼: 西方起源, 马淑雅: 中国起源, 彭锐宏: 人类起源

2 History:
周思庆张琪: 西方翻译史; 马娟刘智伟: 历史上中国著名的翻译家; 解帆张宇星: 现当代中国翻译演变; 凌子瑾李玉: 中国古代翻译史; 杨晨婷余妮: 中国近代翻译史; 周诗卿纪甜甜: 西方翻译理论简史

3 Development:
韩宛真邓锦霞: 机器翻译的发展; 蒋淇玮胡瑾：中国佛经翻译的发展; 吴琼张银柳: 口译未来的发展; 成于思龚钰冕: 翻译实践的发展; 郑华君李璐伊: 新中国成立后翻译的发展; 韩海洋彭育志：圣经翻译的发展

4 Early Literary Examples:
许鹏飞肖伊宁: 林纾的翻译; 许晶李凌月; 袁诗琦姚佳; 邹鑫雨曹润鑫:《红楼梦》的英译; 袁雨晨肖茜: 严复和《天演论》; 苏琳周玉娟

5 Early Theories:
徐梦蝶杨逸; 陈涵曾心媛; 陈静静高明珠; 文晓艺韦洪朗: 严复与林纾的翻译理论; 康浩宇漆凯: 玄奘翻译理论; 刘洋诺邬香: 系统翻译理论的早期尝试

6 (Western) Theories:
康灵凤莫南: 功能对等理论; 吴琪常慧月：多元系统理论; 纪甜甜姜好: 后殖民翻译理论; 许静游雨婷; 布拉格学派; 肖双玲王轩: 目的论; 李丽丽王源: 语言学派

7 Methods:
甘奉玉丁代凤; 赵晓燕张慧: 异化策略下的翻译方法; 张瑜谭星越: 语义翻译和交际翻译; 吴一露司妤: 直译和意译; 文偲荇李梦: 增译和减译; 林敏刘金惺琦

8 Style:
孔祥慧孔亚楠; 罗雨晴娄灿灿; 管钦清：不同翻译风格对比；林鑫李泳珊：文学风格可译与不可译; 曾雁湖胡慧芳

9 Translation Studies:
罗维嘉桂一枝; 彭小玲彭丹; 全美欣宋建茹:视听翻译;石迪文易欢; 姚诚张虎：中英语态对比及其翻译策略; 刘欧陈永相：不可译性及其转化策略

10 Theory and Practice:
彭娟陶冶; 吴子佳雷旷溪: 归化异化在翻译中的实践; 汤蓓王美玲; 蒋凤仪顾东方; 周园曲祝美梅; 阳慧张佩闻;

11 Different Aspects:
周艺文陈佳欣; 谭鑫洁魏亚菲; 张毓婕杨海容;

12 East West Comparison:
唐铭欧蓉; 谭媛媛刘艺: 中西翻译发展史及比较; 杨悦义子楚: 中西文化差异对翻译的影响; 肖婷徐佳：中国佛经翻译和圣经翻译的比较; 莫玲袁天翼; 陈莎陈江宁：中西方思维方式差异在翻译中的体现--以习语为例。

13 Strategies:
吴恺马智星: 阿拉伯大征服时代与翻译学; 汤伊然杨子泠(劳伦斯·韦努蒂的异化翻译策略); 彭永亮谢子熠

14 Contemporary translation Theories:
Sagara Seydo Nguyen, Thuy Hien (Helen)

==List of Topics for final exam papers in Translation Studies==

学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。

Ideas
*literal vs. free
*Faithful/loyal/foreignization/alienation/exotization vs. domestication/localization
*unit of translation
*contrastive analysis
*the equivalence problem (functional, dynamic)
*translatability vs untranslatability
*SLT vs TLT relation
*translation types, strategies, styles, methods
*communication factors, translator role in social setting
*cognitive factors
*machine translation
*translation quality assessment
*translation ethics / manipulation etc.

Suggested topics for final exam papers (chapters of book on translation studies)

Each student needs to prepare one small topic for a 5-min. classroom presentation (with a fellow student, who writes a handout about it) and needs to find a topic for a chapter of a book on Translation Studies. Alternatively to the classroom presentation, the student can also assist the teacher by preparing class, sorting the wiki page etc.

Here is the link to the list: [[Topics in Translation Studies]]

=Final Exam Papers=
The deadline has been extended to '''Dec 21, 2020'''. Please find a paper you want to proof read, contact the author, proof read (by copying each paragraph and make corrections/suggestions in the copy) and sign until Dec 19. The author then finalizes (works in the suggestions) until the final deadline Dec 21!
==Structure==
需要有topic、学生姓名、学号、专业、Abstract、Key words、题目、摘要、关键词、不同的章回（比如1. Introduction、2. Nida’s Theory、3. ……、4.……、5. Conclusion、References)、然后还需要每个阶段以后有来源。一个阶段不要超过100英文词。每个章回会有几个阶段没问题。每个阶段以后需要一个同学的这个阶段的修改。

==Tips for writing your final exam paper: How to indicate your references==
*You can use the existing book chapters here as an example.
*Please write the text and indicate ALL SOURCES with bibliographical references. That means: At least for every paragraph, sometimes for single sentences, you have to indicate at the end, where you have found this information. E.g. (Liu Miqing 2010, 17). This means you have found it in the book or paper written by Ms Liu on page 17. And then, you need to add a section at the end called "References". There you write the full version of the reference: Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学. Similarly, you do it for papers: Jin Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.
*Do '''not''' write any references like in one of the sample chapters:

[1] dsalkfkdsa

[2] adsfadsfag

But only the following way:

(Liu Miqing 2010, 17) in the text

and then

'''References'''
*Jin Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.
*Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学.

Also, please avoid using the three apostrophes like ' ' ' (without spaces). Use the equal signs to mark headers and subheaders instead. If your paper topic has two equal signs at the beginning and end of your topic, then use three equal signs for your sub headers. Example (without spaces):
= = Topic = =
< c e n t e r > Student Name, Student no. < / c e n t e r >
= = = Abstract = = =
This chapter is on ....
= = = Key Words = = =
Egg, Hen
= = = 题目 = = =
= = = 摘要 = = =
= = = 关键词 = = =
= = = Introduction = = =
Here starts the normal text of the chapter. Please remember to indicate the source of EACH PARAGRAPH, sometimes even of single sentences. You can indicate it like this. (Woesler 2020, 345) And don't forget to mention the full bibliographical entry beneath under ''References''.
= = = The Egg = = =
Bla, bla, bla
= = = The Hen = = =
Bla, bla, bla
= = = Conclusion = = =
Bla, bla, bla
= = = References = = =
Woesler, Martin. (2020). Responsibility and Ethics in Times of Corona. Woesler, Martin and Hans-Martin Sass eds. ''Medicine and Ethics in Times of Corona'' Muenster: LIT

==Sample papers==
You can find the full papers also on the Webpage [[History of Translation Studies]]). They are marked with "Sample paper".
* A Comparative Study between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory and My thoughts on the Two Theories
* An Analysis of the Book of Contemporary Translation Theories and Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications
* Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theroy
* Comparison of Derrida’s and Benjamin’s Translation View
* Impacts of Western Translation Theories on The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish
* On the Comparison between "Sublimation" an "Functonal Equivalence" Theories
* Study on Gladys’ Translation of The Border Town from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics
* The Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Chinese-English Communication
* Translators' Views on Translation Influence Their Translation Behavior

==Websites to write your final exam paper on==
The website where everybody wrote their final exam paper on became too big and produced a database error. Therefore we split the website into 10 small websites. They are sorted like the chapters in the book. Please look for your name and find the right of the 10 small websites to edit your book chapter. Everybody also needs to help to improve other book chapters (copy a paragraph, paste it beneath, make your corrections in the paragraph and sign it).

==Here you can write your Final Exam Papers==
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1, (samples)]
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2, (samples)]
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3, students: 蒋凤仪 Jiang Fengyi, 解帆 Xie Fan, 雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi, 郑华君 Zheng Huajun, 文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi, 陶冶 Tao Ye, 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan, 陈江宁 Chen Jiangning, 杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng，杨逸 Yang Yi, 马淑雅 Ma Shuya, 雷方圆 Lei Fangyuan, 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen]
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4, students: 杨海容 Yang Hairong，游雨婷 You Yuting，王源 Wang Yuan，徐佳 Xu Jia，凌子瑾 Ling Zijin，石迪文 Shi Diwen，张玲 Zhang Ling，曾心媛 Zeng Xinyuan，姚诚 Yao Cheng，朱旭 Zhu Xu，许鹏飞 Xu Pengfei，赵晓燕 Zhao Xiaoyan，张琪 Zhang Qi，周园曲 Zhou Yuanqu，孟莹 Meng Ying]
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5, students: 李玉 Li Yu，林敏 Lin Min，文偲荇 Wen Sixing，周诗卿 Zhou Shiqing，朱素瑶 Zhu Suyao，胡百辉 Hu Baihui，马智星 Ma Zhixing, 胡瑾 Hu Jin，张毓婕 Zhang Yujie，顾东方 Gu Dongfang，高明珠 Gao Mingzhu，张虎 Zhang Hu，李璐伊 Li Luyi，袁诗琦 Yuan Shiqi，王美玲 Wang Meiling，康浩宇 Kang Haoyu，王轩 Wang Xuan，陈永相 Chen Yongxiang，莫玲 Mo Ling，袁天翼 Yuan Tianyi，欧阳静兰 Ouyang Jinglan]
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6, students:汤蓓 Tang Bei欧蓉 Ou Rong，谭星越 Tan Xingyue，周罗平 Zhou Luoping，龚钰冕 Gong Yumian，陈惠 Chen Hui，罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing，谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie，周思庆 Zhou Siqing，蒋淇玮 Jiang Qiwei，瞿淼 Qu Miao，韩海洋 Han Haiyang，刘金惺琦 liu jinxingqi，解帆 Xie Fan，刘洋诺 Liu Yangnuo，袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen，邬香 Wu Xiang]
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7, students:曾雁湖 Zeng Yanhu，邓锦霞 Deng Jinxia，姜好 Jiang Hao，管钦清 Guan Qinqing，唐铭 Tang Ming，娄灿灿 Lou Cancan，丁代凤 Ding Daifeng，苏琳 Su Lin，徐佳 Xu Jia，刘艺 Liu Yi，李凌月 Li Lingyue，马娟 Ma Juan，吴琪 Wu Qi，姚佳 Yao Jia，李海泉 Li Haiquan，吴琼 Wu Qiong，杨子泠 Yang Ziling，林敏 Lin Min，彭锐宏 Peng Ruihong ，汤伊然 Tang Yiran，阳慧 Yang Hui，刘智伟 Liu Zhiwei]
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8, students: 王煜 Wang Yu，方洁玲 Fang Jieling，许静 Xu Jing，周书尧 Zhou Shuyao，彭永亮 Peng Yongliang，宋建茹 Song Jianru，韦洪朗 Wei Honglang，魏亚菲 Wei Yafei，张雪仪 Zhang Xueyi，甘奉玉 Gan Fengyu，赵茜 Zhao Xi，吴恺 Wu Kai，周艺文 Zhou Yiwen，张维虹 Zhang Weihong，司妤 Si Yu]
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9, students: 易欢 Yi Huan，曾良 Zeng Liang，义子楚 Yi Zichu，欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling，石海瑶 Shi Haiyao，胡慧芳 Hu Huifang，吴一露 Wu Yilu，纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian, 桂一枝 Gui Yizhi，刘欧 Liu Ou，祝美梅 Zhu Meimei，谭媛媛 Tan Yuanyuan，张银柳 Zhang Yinliu，李泳珊 Li Yongshan，聂晓楼 Nie Xiaolou]
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10, students:陈静静 Chen Jingjing， Thuy Hien Nguyen Thuy Hien，肖茜 Xiao Xi，余妮 Yu Ni，韩宛真 Han Wanzhen，陈佳欣 Chen Jiaxin，成于思 Cheng Yusi，方洁玲 Fang Jieling，张慧 Zhang Hui，吴子佳 Wu Zijia，孔祥慧 Kong Xianghui，许晶 Xu Jing，周玉娟 Zhou Yujuan，邹鑫雨 Zou Xinyu，曹润鑫 Cao Runxin，肖伊宁 Xiao Yining, Sagara Seydou]
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_11 Part 11, students:李丽琴 Li Liqin, 张瑜 Zhang Yu, 刘怡瑜 Liu Yiyu, 李梦 Li Meng, 林鑫 Lin Xin, 罗维嘉 Luo Weijia, 漆凯 Qi Kai, 郭露 Guo Lu，张宇星 Zhang Yuxing, 陈涵 Chen Han, 李丽丽 Li Lili, 刘柳 Liu Liu, 陈莎 Chen Sha, 徐梦蝶 Xu Mengdie,彭丹 Peng Dan，谢子熠 Xie Ziyi，莫南 Mo Nan]
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_12 Part 12, students: 全美欣 Quan Meixin，何长琦 He Changqi，刘博 Liu Bo，刘金惺琦 liu Jinxingqi，谌孙福 Chen Sunfu，曾芳缘 Zeng Fangyuan，肖婷 Xiao Ting，常慧月 Chang Huiyue，彭娟 Peng Juan，彭小玲 Peng Xiaoling，杨悦 Yang Yue，肖双玲 Xiao Shuangling，彭育志 Peng Yuzhi]

=Benefits=
This course is registered as a "EU Expert" diploma supplement course. Collect 10 such courses during your study and you receive a certificate by the Jean Monnet Chair.

History of Translation Studies 4

2020-12-20T13:09:24Z

Xu Jia: /* A Brief Introduction to Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization 徐佳 Xu Jia */

这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第四部分(Part 4)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。

学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。

*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]
*Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].

=Theories=

==Passive and hypotaxis- Chinese Culture and EC translation 杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616==

<center>杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616 </center>

===Abstract===

Under the background of the language differences between Chinese and English and the cultural background of English hypothesis and Chinese parataxis, this thesis discusses how to solve the problem of translation of English passive voice.
It is divided into five parts. The first part of the thesis is about major language differences between English and Chinese; the second part of the thesis is about passive sentences; the third part of the thesis is about parataxis and hypotaxis; the fourth part is about EC translation methods of passive voice; the fifth part is conclusion. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects.

Under the background of the language differences between Chinese and English and the cultural background of English hypothesis and Chinese parataxis, this thesis discusses how to solve the problem of the translation of English passive voice.
It is divided into five parts. The first part of the thesis is about major language differences between English and Chinese; the second part of the thesis is about passive sentences; the third part of the thesis is about parataxis and hypotaxis; the fourth part is about EC translation methods of passive voice; the fifth part is conclusion. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translate English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===Key Words===

parataxis, hypotaxis, passive voice

===题目===

被动与形合——以中国文化和英汉翻译为视角

===摘要===

本文在中英语言文化差异的背景和英文形合与中文意合的文化的背景下，讨论如何解决英文被动语态的翻译问题。
本文分为五个部分。第一部分是关于英语和汉语之间主要语言的差异。论文的第二部分关于被动语态。论文的第三部分关于形合与意合。第四部分是英译汉中被动语态的翻译方法。第五部分是结论。在汉语文化的语境中，翻译者可以以功能对等为指导，通过以下翻译方法来解决英语被动语态问题：可以将英语被动语态翻译为汉语被动句、汉语主动句、汉语判断句和汉语无主语句式。

===关键词===

意合，形合，被动语态

===1.Major Language Differences between English and Chinese===

English emphasizes on structure, while Chinese emphasizes on semantics. The famous Chinese linguist Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang li, 1984) For example:

SL Text 1: This will be particularly true since energy pinch will make it difficult to continue agriculture in the high-energy American fashion that makes it possible to combine few farmers with high yields.

TL Text 1: 这种困境将是确定无疑的，因为能源的匮乏，高能量消耗这种美国耕种方式将很难在农业中继续下去，而这种耕种方式使投入少数农民就可获得高产成为可能。

SL Text 1: The main structure of the sentence “This will be particularly true... since” leads the adverbial clause of reason. In this clause, an attributive clause guided by the relative pronoun that is embedded to modify "the high-energy American fashion". In the attributive clause, “that” is the subject, “makes” is the predicate, and “it” is the formal object. The infinitive phrase "to combine few farmers with high yields" is the real object.

SL Text 2: These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details were it not for the fact that theoretical understanding has reached the stage at which it is becoming possible to indicate the kind of measurements required for reliable weather forecasting.

TL Text 2: 理论上的认识已达到了这样一个阶段，即现在已能指出需要哪种测量方式才能可靠地预报天气。如果做不到这一点，那么上述这些新的观察能力只不过提供了一大堆细节而已。

The frame of the sentence is "These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details...". It is followed by the conditional sentence "were it not for the fact that..." that is, "if it were not for the fact that...;" “that” clause is used as an apposition clause of “the fact”. An attributive clause is embedded in this clause to modify its antecedent “the stage”; "required for reliable weather forecasting" is a past participle phrase that modifies “the kind of measurements”.

The frame of this sentence is "These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details...". It is followed by the conditional sentence "were it not for the fact that..." that is, "if it were not for the fact that...;" “that” clause is used as an apposition clause of “the fact”. An attributive clause is embedded in this clause to modify its antecedent “the stage”; "required for reliable weather forecasting" is a past participle phrase that modifies “the kind of measurements”. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

English prefers long sentences, while Chinese prefers short sentences.Since English is a language emphasizes on structure and ruled by grammar, as long as there are no structural errors, many meanings can often be expressed in a long sentence; Chinese is totally different in this aspect. Because it is ruled by human, the semantics are directly expressed through words, and different meanings are often expressed through different short sentences. It is for this reason that almost 100% of the English-Chinese translation test questions are long and complex sentences, and the translation into Chinese often becomes many short sentences and vice versa.(Cheng Hongzhen, 2003)

English prefers long sentences, while Chinese prefers short sentences. English is a language emphasizes on structure and ruled by grammar. As long as there are no structural errors, many meanings can often be expressed in a long sentence, while Chinese is totally different in this aspect. Because it is ruled by human, the semantics are directly expressed through words, and different meanings are often expressed through different short sentences. It is for this reason that almost 100% of the English-Chinese translation test questions are long and complex sentences, and the translation into Chinese often becomes many short sentences and vice versa. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

English often uses clauses, but Chinese often uses clauses.English sentences can not only use very long modifiers in simple sentences to make the sentence longer, but also use clauses to make the sentence more complex. These clauses are often connected to the main sentence or other clauses through the clause guide. It looks intricate but it is a whole. Chinese originally like to use short sentences, and the expression structure is relatively loose. When translated into Chinese, the clauses in English sentences often become some clauses. (Duan Manfu, 2006)

English often uses clauses, but Chinese often uses short sentences. English sentences can not only use very long modifiers in simple sentences to make the sentence longer, but also use clauses to make the sentence more complex. These clauses are often connected to the main sentence or other clauses through the clause guide. It looks intricate but it is a whole. Chinese originally like to use short sentences, and the expression structure is relatively loose. When translated into Chinese, the clauses in English sentences often become some clauses. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Among nouns such as subject and object, English often uses more pronouns, and Chinese uses more nouns. Moreover, in sentences, nouns and prepositions are more used in English, while verbs are more used in Chinese.English not only has personal pronouns such as we, you, he, they, but also relative pronouns such as that and which. In long and complex sentences, in order to make the sentence structure correct and clear semantics, and to avoid repetition in expression, English Many pronouns are often used. Although Chinese also has pronouns, due to its relatively loose structure and relatively short sentences, too many pronouns cannot be used in Chinese. The use of nouns often makes the semantics clearer. (Xu Jianping, 2003)

Among nouns such as subject and object, English often uses more pronouns, and Chinese uses more nouns. Moreover, in sentences, nouns and prepositions are more used in English, while verbs are more used in Chinese. English not only has personal pronouns, such as "we", "you", "he", "they", but also relative pronouns, such as "that" and "which". In long and complex sentences, in order to make the sentence structure correct and clear, and to avoid repetition in expression, many pronouns are often used in English. Although Chinese also has pronouns, due to its relatively loose structure and relatively short sentences, too many pronouns cannot be used in Chinese. The use of nouns often makes the semantics clearer. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

English often uses passive sentences, while Chinese uses more active sentences. English prefers to use the passive voice, especially in technical English. Although there are words such as ''bei'' (被) and ''you'' (由) in Chinese that indicate that the action is passive, this expression is far less common than the passive voice in English. Therefore, the passive voice in English often becomes active in Chinese translation. (Ni Wei, Shao Zhihong, 2004)

English often uses passive sentences, while Chinese uses more active sentences. English prefers to use the passive voice, especially in scientific texts. Although there are words such as ''bei'' (被) and ''you'' (由) in Chinese that indicate that the action is passive, this expression is far less common than the passive voice in English. Therefore, the passive voice in English often becomes active in Chinese translation. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

English often uses variable words and sentence patterns, while Chinese uses repeated words.When English expresses the same meaning, the way of expression is often changed. For example, the first time you may use "I think", and then the second time if you use "I think" again, it is obviously monotonous and repetitive in English. So it should be replaced by expressions like "I believe" or "I imagine". In contrast, Chinese has less requirements for transformable expressions than English. Many transformable expressions in English can be translated into repetitive expressions. (Wang Jiayi, 2011)

English often uses variable words and sentence patterns, while Chinese uses repeated words. When English expresses the same meaning, the way of expression is often changed. For example, the first time you may use "I think", and then the second time if you use "I think" again, it is obviously monotonous and repetitive in English. So it should be replaced by expressions like "I believe" or "I imagine". In contrast, Chinese has less requirements for transformable expressions than English. Many transformable expressions in English can be translated into repetitive expressions in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

English language mostly uses abstract concepts, while Chinese uses more concrete concepts.The main reason why it is difficult to translate English to Chinese lies in its complex structure and abstract expression. By analyzing the structure of sentences, long English sentences are transformed into Chinese short sentences, and English clauses are transformed into Chinese clauses. In this way, structural problems are often solved. To express abstraction requires the translator to understand the meaning of the original text, layer the meaning of the sentence, and express it in specific Chinese. (Xu Shihong, 2006)

English language mostly uses abstract concepts, while Chinese uses more concrete concepts. The main reason why it is difficult to translate English to Chinese lies in its complex structure and abstract expression. By analyzing the structure of sentences, long English sentences are transformed into Chinese short sentences, and English clauses are transformed into short sentences in Chinese. In this way, structural problems are often solved. To express abstraction requires the translator to understand the meaning of the original text, the deep meaning of the sentence, and express it in specific Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===2.Passive Sentences===

====2.1.The Usage and Reasons of Passive Sentences in English and Chinese====

The structural forms of the predicate and non-predicate of English passive sentences are relatively simple. The predicate of the passive sentence changes with the change of English tense, but its basic structural form is only "be" + "past participle". The complication of the explicit form and structure of the passive voice in Chinese is mainly due to the large number of prepositions in the guiding agent's subject and many changes. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)

The structural forms of the predicate and non-predicate of English passive sentences are relatively simple. The predicate of the passive sentence changes with the change of English tense, but its basic structural form is only "be" + "past participle". The complication of the explicit form and structure of the passive voice in Chinese is mainly due to the large number of prepositions in the guiding agent's subject and many changes. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

There are a total of four prepositional vocabulary signs in the passive voice of modern Chinese, namely ''bei'' (被) , ''jiao'' (叫) , ''rang'' (让) and ''gei'' (给) . Almost every word has a basic form and a non-subject-predicate subject ellipsis .''Bei'' in Chinese can be replaced with ''jiao'', ''gei'' and ''rang''. ''Gei'' is a collocation word used with ''bei'', and is no longer a preposition to guide the agent. In ancient Chinese, the most commonly used prepositions are ''jian'' (见) and ''yu'' (于) . (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)

There are a total of four prepositional vocabulary signs in the passive voice of modern Chinese, namely ''bei'' (被) , ''jiao'' (叫) , ''rang'' (让) and ''gei'' (给) . Almost every word has a basic form and an ellipsis of non-finite subject .''Bei'' in Chinese can be replaced with ''jiao'', ''gei'' and ''rang''. ''Gei'' is a collocation word used with ''bei'', and is no longer a preposition to guide the agent. In ancient Chinese, the most commonly used prepositions are ''jian'' (见) and ''yu'' (于) . --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

English has two voices: active voice and passive voice. In cases where there is no need to mention the perpetrator, unwilling to mention the perpetrator, unable to know the perpetrator, or in order to facilitate contextual cohesion, the passive voice expression method is generally used.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)

English has two voices: active voice and passive voice. The passive voice is generally used in the cases where there is no need to mention the perpetrator, unwilling to mention the perpetrator, unable to know the perpetrator, or in order to facilitate contextual cohesion. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The passive voice is more widely used in English texts for science and technology. According to the statistics of foreign linguists, at least one-third of the finite verbs in English science and engineering textbooks use the passive voice. The reasons for the large use of passive voice in scientific English are following: First of all, Scientific and technological works focus on objective facts, and the passive voice has a lot less subjective color than the active voice; Second, The passive structure highlights the main argument, explains the object, and is eye-catching; Last but not least, In many cases the passive structure is shorter than the active structure. In fact, there are many situations in which the formal English styles, including technical styles, use passive voice in writing.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)

The passive voice is more widely used in English texts for science and technology. According to the statistics of foreign linguists, at least one-third of the finite verbs in English science and engineering textbooks use the passive voice. The reasons for the large use of passive voice in scientific English are following: First of all, Scientific and technological works focus on objective facts, and the passive voice has less subjective color than the active voice; Second, the passive structure highlights the main argument, explains the object, and is eye-catching; Last but not least, in many cases the passive structure is shorter than the active structure. In fact, there are many situations in which the formal English styles, including technical styles, use passive voice in writing. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Passive sentences are rarely used in Chinese. Because the passive words in Chinese are often used in conjunction with verbs that have an adverse effect on the action recipient. The other reason is that many sentences with passive meaning can be expressed in active form. In modern Chinese, the passive type is much narrower than the active type, and its special tasks cannot be replaced by the active type. Passive narratives are usually undesirable or undesirable things, such as being deceived, harmed, or causing unfavorable results. For the passive sentences used in formal English writing, Chinese often uses the form of no subject sentence to express its objectivity.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)

Passive sentences are rarely used in Chinese. Because the passive words in Chinese are often used in conjunction with verbs that have an adverse effect on the action recipient. The other reason is that many sentences with passive meaning can be expressed in active form. In modern Chinese, the passive type is much narrower than the active type, and its special tasks cannot be replaced by the active type. Passive narratives are usually undesirable or negative things, such as being deceived, harmed, or causing unfavorable results. For the passive sentences used in formal English writing, Chinese often uses the form of no subject sentence to express its objectivity. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Therefore, The number of passive sentences in Chinese is far less than in English. However, because of the influence of foreign words, the use of passive sentences in Chinese tends to increase, not only expressing unsatisfactory or undesirable things, many expressions of wish or hope can become passive sentences. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)

Therefore, the number of passive sentences in Chinese is far less than in English. However, because of the influence of foreign words, the use of passive sentences in Chinese tends to increase, not only expressing unsatisfactory or undesirable things, many expressions of wish or hope can become passive sentences. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.2.Various Forms of Passive Meaning in English====

(1)Passive voice
The passive voice is the most common form of expressing the passive meaning of English. Generally speaking, it is composed of "be + past participle", and it can also be composed of "get /become+ past participle". (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)

(1)Passive voice
It usually uses the passive voice to express the passive meaning in English. Generally speaking, it is composed of "be + past participle", and it can also be composed of "get /become+ past participle". --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Passive voice formed by "be+ past participle". As mentioned above, this passive voice expression method is generally used in situations where there is no need to mention the agent, who is unwilling to mention the agent, cannot know the agent, or to facilitate contextual cohesion, etc. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)

Passive voice formed by "be+ past participle". As mentioned above, this passive voice is generally used in the situations where there is no need to mention the agent, who is unwilling to mention the agent, cannot know the agent, or to facilitate contextual cohesion, etc. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Then, Passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". The usage of “get and become” as auxiliary verbs in the passive voice, comprehensively speaking, there are the following points: First, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". It generally refers to the result of the action rather than the action itself, and often contains meanings such as the final, sudden occurrence, and unexpected encounter. For example: (a) She get caught in the storm. (b) He got hurt in the head. (c) Jack and Jane got married finally.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)

Then, passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". The usage of “get and become” as auxiliary verbs in the passive voice, comprehensively speaking, there are the following points: First, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". It generally refers to the result of the action rather than the action itself, and often contains meanings such as the final, sudden occurrence, and unexpected encounter. For example: (a) She get caught in the storm. (b) He got hurt in the head. (c) Jack and Jane got married finally. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Second, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle" can express the "gradual change" of the state and emphasize the action process. For example: (d)This water got /became mixed with these solids.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)

Secondly, the passive voice composed by "get /become+ past participle" can express the "gradual change" of the state and emphasize the action process. For example: (d)This water got /became mixed with these solids. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Third, The passive voice sentence formed by "get + past participle" does not use the word “by” to indicate the agent. For example: (e) The company’s core competition was told by this manager. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)

Thirdly, the passive voice sentence formed by "get + past participle" does not use the word “by” to express the agent. For example: (e) The company’s core competition was told by this manager. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Fourth, The passive voice sentence composed of "get /become + past participle" is generally not suitable for the following structures: double object, "verb + noun + preposition" structure, subject clause structure and structure with sensory verbs. For example: (f) He taught us Chinese cultures in this semester. (g) We were taught Chinese cultures in this semester. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)

Fourthly, the passive voice sentence composed of "get /become + past participle" is generally not suitable for the following structures: double object, "verb + noun + preposition" structure, subject clause structure and structure with sensory verbs. For example: (f) He taught us Chinese cultures in this semester. (g) We were taught Chinese cultures in this semester. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Fifth, The active form expresses the passive meaning. Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)

Fifthly, the active form expresses the passive meaning. Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

(2)The active form expresses the passive meaning
Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning. A Chinese translator, Lin Yutang, called this situation "False Active Sentences".(Tang Guoping, Li Fei, 2003)

(2)The active form expresses the passive meaning
Some verbs in English are active in form, but they actually express passive meaning. A Chinese translator, Lin Yutang, called this situation "False Active Sentences". --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.3.Comparison of Passive meaning in English and Chinese====

(1)"be+ past participle" English form and corresponding Chinese forms: (a)It is equivalent to a passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (b)It is equivalent to the active sentence with passive meaning in Chinese. (c)It is equivalent to the unsubjected sentence in Chinese, especially the passive voice of the formal style in English often corresponds to the unsubjected sentence in Chinese. (d)It is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)

(1)"be+ past participle" English form and corresponding Chinese forms: (a)It is equivalent to a passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (b)It is equivalent to the active sentence with passive meaning in Chinese. (c)It is equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese, especially the passive voice of the formal style in English often corresponds to the sentence without subject in Chinese. (d)It is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

(2)The English "get /become+ past participle" form and the corresponding Chinese forms: (e)They are often equivalent to passive sentences with formal signs in Chinese. (f)Sometimes it is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)

(2)The English "get /become+ past participle" form and the corresponding Chinese forms: (e)They are often equivalent to passive sentences with formal signs in Chinese. (f)Sometimes it is equal to the active sentence in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

(3)English active sentences with passive meanings and corresponding Chinese forms: (g)Basically equivalent to Chinese active sentences with passive meaning. (h)The present continuous tense in the active voice with passive meaning can also be equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese. (i)The active form of some prepositional phrases and be combined with passive meaning is often equivalent to the passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)

(3)English active sentences with passive meanings and corresponding Chinese forms: (g)Basically they are equivalent to Chinese active sentences with passive meaning. (h)The present continuous tense in the active voice with passive meaning can also be equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese. (i)The active form of some prepositional phrases and be combined with passive meaning is often equivalent to the passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.4.The Passive Implicit of English Lexical Means====

The main means of expressing passivity in English is the passive voice of verbs. (a) The following nouns in English imply passivity: one’s assassination, one’s promotion, one’s discharge, one’s conviction, one’s nomination and so on. (b) Prepositional phrases can also be used to express passive states: at a discount, on penalty, on the shelf, in the custody of, in the pay of, under the influence of, under the attack of, under criticism, under constrain and so on. (c) Many adjective phrases can also be used to express passiveness, such as: be welcome, be beneficiary, be accused of...by, be subject to, be deprived of and so on. From this point of view, in English, the use of verb morphological changes to express the passive voice (passivity) is a syntactic means. In inter-language conversion, we must also choose the most suitable way of expression. It is not necessary to express the passive meaning in a sentence with a passive verb.(Liu Miqing, 2006)

The main means of expressing passivity in English is the passive voice of verbs. (a) The following nouns in English imply passivity: one’s assassination, one’s promotion, one’s discharge, one’s conviction, one’s nomination and so on. (b) Prepositional phrases can also be used to express passive states: at a discount, on penalty, on the shelf, in the custody of, in the pay of, under the influence of, under the attack of, under criticism, under constrain and so on. (c) Many adjective phrases can also be used to express passiveness, such as: be welcome, be beneficiary, be accused of...by, be subject to, be deprived of and so on. From this point of view, in English, it is a syntactic means to express the passive voice (passivity) by means of verb morphological changes. In inter-language conversion, we must also choose the most suitable way to express. It is not necessary to express the passive meaning in a sentence with a passive verb. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The passive voice of English is only a grammatical category and has no modal expression function. The active and passive voices of English are generally the same in the deep sense, so they have a conversion relationship. After conversion, the semantics of the two are equivalent. For example: (d)People considered him too conservative. (e)He was considered too conservative. Of course, the conversion between active and passive sentences in English is not unlimited. There are many verbs that cannot be converted from active to passive, such as last, lack, become, ensue, suit, recur, happen and so on. This is a question of customary rules and logic. But one thing is certain, after the English active sentence is converted into a passive sentence, there is no meaning added.(Liu Miqing, 2006)

The passive voice of English is only a grammatical category and has no modal expression function. The active and passive voices of English are generally the same in the deep sense, so there is a conversion relationship between them. After conversion, the semantics of the two are equivalent. For example: (d)People considered him too conservative. (e)He was considered too conservative. Of course, the conversion between active and passive sentences in English is not unlimited. There are many verbs that cannot be converted from active to passive, such as last, lack, become, ensue, suit, recur, happen and so on. This is a question of customary rules and logic. But one thing is certain, after the English active sentence is converted into a passive sentence, there is no meaning added. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

However, the passive voice of Chinese has obvious negative modality. The use of passive sentences in modern Chinese has increased, and some positive colors have also appeared. But the unfortunate modality of the passive voice has always been dominant. Therefore, under the background that Chinese uses less passive voice, the process of Chinese-English translation can appropriately and intentionally express more English sentences in passive sentence patterns or express passive meaning. (Liu Miqing, 2006)

However, the passive voice of Chinese has obvious negative modality. More and more passive sentences are used in modern Chinese, and some positive colors have also appeared. Unfortunately, the unfortunate modality of the passive voice has always been dominant. Therefore, under the background that Chinese uses less passive voice, the process of Chinese-English translation can appropriately and intentionally express more English sentences in passive sentence patterns or express passive meaning. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.5.Pragmatic Analysis of English Passive Voice====

As for the English passive voice, its pragmatic analysis can be conducted from the following aspects. The establishment of a topic requires the use of the passive voice. The topic is the part of the sentence that indicates someone, something, or a concept, and is the object and starting point of the sentence statement. The use of the passive voice has a certain impact on the text structure and the development of the topic. It can make the topic more focused and clear, and it can better predict the development direction of the topic. Topics established by the passive voice are more focused and clearer than those established by the active voice, and can better predict their development direction. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)

As for the English passive voice, its pragmatic analysis can be conducted from the following aspects. The establishment of a topic requires the use of the passive voice. The topic is the part of the sentence that indicates someone, something, or a concept, and it is also the object and starting point of the sentence statement. The use of the passive voice has a certain impact on the text structure and the development of the topic. It can make the topic more focused and clear, and it can better predict the development direction of the topic. Topics established by the passive voice are more focused and clearer than those established by the active voice, and can better predict their development direction. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The coherence of the text requires the use of passive voice. Coherence refers to the semantic connection between sentences in a text. It is a language system and a basic feature of a text. It is not only related to the topic, but also related to the organization of information, and constitutes a part of the textual component of the semantic system. Discourse does not jump from one topic to another in a disorderly manner, but always develops rationally with a certain topic coherence and the possibility of topic development. Therefore, sometimes the passive voice must be used to ensure that the topic unfolds smoothly and naturally. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)

The coherence of the text requires the use of passive voice. Coherence refers to the semantic connection between sentences in a text. It is a language system and a basic feature of a text. It is not only related to the topic, but also related to the organization of information, which constitutes a part of the textual component of the semantic system. Discourse does not jump from one topic to another in a disorderly manner, but always develops rationally with a certain topic coherence and the possibility of topic development. Therefore, it is necessary to use the passive voice to ensure that the topic unfolds smoothly and naturally. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The politeness principle requires the use of the passive voice. Politeness is a symbol of human civilization and an important criterion for human social activities. As a social activity, language activities are also subject to this criterion. The principle of politeness maintains the equal status of both parties in conversation and the friendly relationship between them. Only under this major premise can people communicate. The specific principles of politeness include: strategy guidelines, magnanimity guidelines, modesty guidelines, approval guidelines and sympathy guidelines. The passive voice is sometimes used to follow the principle of politeness. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)

The politeness principle requires the use of the passive voice. Politeness is a symbol of human civilization and an important criterion for human social activities. As a social activity, language activities are also restricted by this standard. The principle of politeness maintains the equal status of both parties in conversation and the friendly relationship between them. Only under this major premise can people communicate. The specific principles of politeness include: strategy guidelines, magnanimity guidelines, modesty guidelines, approval guidelines and sympathy guidelines. The passive voice is sometimes used to follow the principle of politeness. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The balance of sentence structure requires the use of passive voice.English sentences mostly appear in the structure of "S +V +O", often the subject part (S) is shorter, and the predicate part (V +O) is longer. Sometimes the passive voice is used to avoid top-heavy sentence structures (he actor with a longer modifier). The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)

The balance of sentence structure requires the use of passive voice.English sentences mostly appear in the structure of "S +V +O", often the subject part (S) is shorter, and the predicate part (V +O) is longer. Sometimes the passive voice is used to avoid top-heavy sentence structures (he actor with a longer modifier). The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easy to be accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)

The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===3.Parataxis and Hypotaxis===

====3.1.English and Chinese Sentence Characteristics====

English uses form to drive its meaning and English takes form first. Although sentences are ever-changing and many of them have special forms of expression, no matter how they change, no matter how special and complex the formal structure of the sentence is, it is composed of a few basic sentences with subject-predicate structure as the core. In terms of sentence composition, people categorize English sentence patterns into several basic types. On this basis, they use various types of words, phrases, clauses and other language entities to expand. (Li Jingmin, 2012)

As it takes form first, English uses form to drive its meaning. Although sentences are ever-changing and many of them have special forms of expression, no matter how they change, no matter how special and complex the formal structure of the sentence is, it is composed of a few basic sentences with subject-predicate structure as the core. In terms of sentence composition, English sentence patterns are divided into several basic types. On this basis, they use various types of words, phrases, clauses and other language entities to expand. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In terms of sentence types, English sentences expanded on the basis of basic sentence patterns are divided into several basic types according to their structural characteristics, such as simple sentences, compound sentences, compound sentences, and compound sentences. Although their internal structures are also flexible and diverse, the formal structure regulations are also very rigorous, and they still cannot break away from the basic framework centered on the subject-predicate structure. (Li Jingmin, 2012)

In terms of sentence types, English sentences expanded on the basis of basic sentence patterns are divided into several basic types according to their structural characteristics, such as simple sentences and compound sentences. Although their internal structures are also flexible and diverse, the formal structure regulations are also very rigorous, and they still cannot break away from the basic framework centered on the subject-predicate structure. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

This is just like what people often say, English sentences are like trees, in various poses, but they never leave their origins. The main stem is connected to the branches, and the branches are connected with leaves and flowers. In contrast to the rigorous internal structure of the sentence, English speakers are not very constrained on the specific language entity that carries a certain information. (Li Jingmin, 2012)

This is just like what people often say, English sentences are like trees, which have various poses, but they never leave their origins. The main stem is connected to the branches, and the branches are connected with leaves and flowers. In contrast to the rigorous internal structure of the sentence, English speakers have less constraints on the specific language entity that carries a certain information. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Under the premise of complying with the common language conventions, English users will arrange the information they intend to convey to this sentence or a certain language entity in the sentence group according to the specific needs of sentence construction and their respective writing characteristics and preferences. Under normal circumstances, people do not care what kind of language entity should carry a certain layer of information. The logical relationship between the information carried by these language entities is not necessarily determined by their grammatical function, but can be determined by people.(Li Jingmin, 2012)

Under the premise of complying with the common language conventions, English users will arrange the information they intend to convey to this sentence or a certain language entity in the sentence group according to the specific needs of sentence construction and their respective writing characteristics and preferences. Under normal circumstances, people do not care what kind of language entity should carry a certain layer of information. The logical relationship between the information carried by these language entities does not necessarily depend on their grammatical functions, but can be determined by people. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In addition, when arranging information-bearing language entities, English users are often not limited to a single sentence, and may extend beyond the sentence or even a sentence group, but their first consideration is still allowed in the formal structure specification The convenience of making sentences within the scope is the diversification of language expression.(Li Jingmin, 2012)

In addition, when arranging information-bearing language entities, English users are often not limited to a single sentence, and may extend beyond the sentence or even a sentence group. However, their first consideration is still allowed in the formal structure specification. The convenience of making sentences within the scope is the diversification of language expression. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Therefore, the so-called English takes form first, and form controls meaning. Simply put, as long as you observe the premise that the subject-predicate structure is the core of the formal structure convention, and don't try to jump out of the palm of the Buddha, you can cross the sea and show their magical powers. This is the organically unified information transmission mode of English configuration conventions and communication methods, which embodies the basic characteristics of the information transmission mechanism oriented to the formal structure, that is, the actual meaning of the so-called English duplication. (Li Jingmin, 2012)

Therefore, the so-called English takes form first, and form controls meaning. Simply put, as long as you observe the premise that the subject-predicate structure is the core of the formal structure convention, and don't try to jump out of the palm of the Buddha, you can cross the sea and show their magical powers. This is a mode of information transmission in which English construction conventions and communication methods are organically unified, which embodies the basic characteristics of the information transmission mechanism oriented to the formal structure, that is, the actual meaning of the so-called English duplication. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

While Chinese puts meaning first, and is not constrained by the subject-predicate structure like English does. Instead, according to the thinking habits of Chinese users, the information to be transmitted is laid out in the order of logical affair, forming one by one each carrying specific information. The information sections constructed by two language entities are connected by semantic logic as a link to form an information chain. Form and structure of Chinese are far more important than the emphasis on English with the subject-predicate structure as the core formal structure is much more complicated. (Li Jingmin, 2012)

Chinese, on the other hand, focuses on meaning, which is not constrained by the subject-predicate structure like English does. Instead, according to the thinking habits of Chinese users, the information to be transmitted is laid out in the order of logical affair, forming one by one each carrying specific information. The information sections constructed by two language entities are connected by semantic logic as a link to form an information chain. Form and structure of Chinese are far more important than the emphasis on English with the subject-predicate structure as the core formal structure is much more complicated. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====3.2.Definition and Connotation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis====

Wang Li (1984: 310) put forward the two concepts of parataxis and hypotaxis and he said, "In Chinese, the meaning is legal, and the connection component is not necessary; in the West, the form is legal and the connection component is in most cases The next is indispensable". Later, other scholars also elaborated on this concept and its meaning. Lian Shuneng (1993: 48) pointed out that “the so-called hypothesis refers to the connection of words or clauses in a sentence by means of linguistic forms to express grammatical meaning and logical relations. The so-called parataxis refers to Words do not need to be connected by linguistic formal means. The grammatical meaning and logical relationship in the sentence are expressed through the meaning of words or clauses. " (Xu Jun, 2006)

Wang Li (1984: 310) put forward the two concepts of parataxis and hypotaxis and he said, "In Chinese, the meaning is legal, and the connection component is not necessary; in the West, the form is legal and the connection component is in most cases The next is indispensable". Later, many other scholars also elaborated on this concept and its meaning. Lian Shuneng (1993: 48) pointed out that “the so-called hypothesis refers to the connection of words or clauses in a sentence by means of linguistic forms to express grammatical meaning and logical relations. The so-called parataxis refers to Words do not need to be connected by linguistic formal means. The grammatical meaning and logical relationship in the sentence are expressed through the meaning of words or clauses. " --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

According to our understanding, the same communication content, using different language expressions, there must be differences in the form of expression. English is different from Chinese. English uses conjunctive elements (such as conjunctions and logical connection elements) to express more and more obvious semantic relationships than Chinese. Foreign scholars have also noticed these differences. For example, Nida (1982: 16) pointed out that the most important distinguishing feature between English and Chinese is no more than hypotaxis and parataxis. In a sense, hypotaxis and parataxis are not only reflected in the differences in the composition of Chinese and English texts, but also in the Chinese-English language context and way of thinking. (Xu Jun, 2006)

According to our understanding, there must be differences in the form of expression when using different language expressions to express the same communication content. English is different from Chinese. English uses conjunctive elements (such as conjunctions and logical connection elements) to express more and more obvious semantic relationships than Chinese. Foreign scholars have also noticed these differences. For example, Nida (1982: 16) pointed out that the most important distinguishing feature between English and Chinese is no more than hypotaxis and parataxis. In a sense, hypotaxis and parataxis are not only reflected in the differences in the composition of Chinese and English texts, but also in the Chinese-English language context and way of thinking. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====3.3.Cultural Explanation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis====

From the perspective of cultural linguistics, the characteristics of Chinese emphasizing parataxis and English emphasizing hypothesis are not only a reflection of the differences in the expression patterns of the two languages, but also a manifestation of the differences between Chinese and English cultures. Therefore, in the comparative analysis of Chinese and English parataxis, it will naturally involve the differences between the two modes of thinking and their cultural background. (Li Jingmin, 2012)

From the perspective of cultural linguistics, the characteristics of Chinese emphasizing parataxis and English emphasizing hypothesis are not only a reflection of the differences in the expression patterns of the two languages, but also the embodiment of cultural differences between China and English. Therefore, the comparative analysis of parataxis between Chinese and English will naturally involve the differences between the two modes of thinking and their cultural background. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The holistic and intuitive thinking habits of Chinese nation are expressed in language, which is the emphasis on parataxis of Chinese. On the whole, the holistic thinking habits of the Chinese people have a strong integration function. Therefore, although the Chinese sentence patterns formed by meaning and legally lack the vocabulary to express the grammatical relationship within the sentence, the Chinese people can quickly grasp with the holistic thinking habits. Staying at the fulcrum of meaning, integrating the sentence with the peripheral semantic components in the context, and then supplementing the overall content of the sentence with experience, so as to understand the exact connotation of the sentence. (Li Jingmin, 2012)

The holistic and intuitive thinking habits of Chinese nation are expressed in language, which is the emphasis on parataxis of Chinese. On the whole, the holistic thinking habits of the Chinese people have a strong integration function. Therefore, although the Chinese sentence patterns formed by meaning and legally lack the vocabulary to express the grammatical relationship within the sentence, the Chinese people can quickly grasp them with the holistic thinking habits. Staying at the fulcrum of meaning, integrating the sentence with the peripheral semantic components in the context, and then supplementing the overall content of the sentence with experience, so as to understand the exact connotation of the sentence. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Moreover, the Chinese people are very good at understanding the true meaning hidden in the words and between the lines, relying on the overall grasp of things. The famous Chinese scholar Professor Wang Li once said: "Western languages are hard and inflexible; Chinese grammar is soft and flexible. So Chinese grammar is mainly expressive." It can be seen that Chinese, which is legally constituted by the Chinese people, is characterized by emphasizing comprehension and subtle meaning, savoring illocutionary meanings, and even emphasizing subtlety and pursuing using parataxis to integrate the whole article. (Li Jingmin, 2012)

Moreover, the Chinese people are very good at understanding the true meaning hidden in the words and between the lines, relying on the overall grasp of things. The famous Chinese scholar Professor Wang Li once said: "Western languages are hard and inflexible; Chinese grammar is soft and flexible. So Chinese grammar is mainly expressive." It can be seen that Chinese, which is legally constituted by the Chinese people, is characterized by emphasizing comprehension and implication, savoring illocutionary meanings, and even emphasizing subtlety and pursuing using parataxis to integrate the whole article. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===4.EC Translation Methods of Passive Voice===

When translating the passive voice from English to Chinese, one should not blindly translate it literally and can translate from the perspective of functional equivalence.Functional equivalence theory is the famous American linguist and translator-Eugene Nida proposed. In the 1980s, Eugene Nida published ''From One Language to Another'', in which he proposed functional equivalence, which is the core of Nida's theory. Functional equivalence means that in the process of translation, one-to-one correspondence between the text forms is not forced, but functional equivalence between the two languages should be achieved. It requires the translator to express the content and meaning of the original work, but also try to be equal in form, because some styles are also one of the content that the original author wants to express. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)

When translating the passive voice from English to Chinese, one should not blindly translate it literally, but can translate from the perspective of functional equivalence. Functional equivalence theory is the famous American linguist and translator-Eugene Nida proposed. In the 1980s, Eugene Nida published ''From One Language to Another'', in which he proposed functional equivalence, which is the core of Nida's theory. Functional equivalence means that in the process of translation, one-to-one correspondence between the text forms is not forced, but functional equivalence between the two languages should be achieved. It requires the translator to express the content and meaning of the original work, but also try to be equal in form, because some styles are also one of the content that the original author wants to express. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

(1)Translate into Chinese Passive Sentences

In order to emphasize the action, or do not know the person who sent the action, or in a specific context, or to keep the subject of the clause before and after it is consistent, or to make the key point, English passive sentences can be translated into Chinese passive sentences . In addition to using the word bei(被) in expression, you can also choose words such as zao(遭), ai(挨), gei(给), shou(受) and wei...suo (为……所) according to the needs of Chinese collocation. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example:

In order to emphasize the action, or do not know the person who sent the action, or in a specific context, or in order to maintain the consistency of the subject clause, or to make the key point, English passive sentences can be translated into Chinese passive sentences. In addition to using the word bei(被) in expression, you can also choose words such as zao(遭), ai(挨), gei(给), shou(受) and wei...suo (为……所) according to the needs of Chinese collocation. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

SL Text 1: I was touched by warmhearted stories during the pandemic.

TL Text 1: 我为疫情期间发生的感人故事所感动。

(2)Translate into Chinese Active Sentences

Since Chinese habitually uses active sentences, many passive sentences can be translated into Chinese active sentences. When translating, it can be translated into a formally active and passive Chinese sentence, and it can also change the original predicate verb to translate it into a complete active sentence in Chinese, and it can also directly translate the passive voice of the original text into the active voice. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example:

Since Chinese habitually uses active sentences, many passive sentences in English can be translated into active sentences in Chinese. When translating, it can be translated into a formally active and passive Chinese sentence, and it can also change the original predicate verb to translate it into a complete active sentence in Chinese, and it can also directly translate the passive voice of the original text into the active voice. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

SL Text 2: In all, at least 600 people have been declared dead and another 650 missing.

TL Text 2: 总计至少六百人已证实死亡，另有六百五十人失踪。

(3)Translate into Chinese Judgment Sentences

Those English passive sentences that focus on describing the process, nature and state of things are very similar to the table structure, so they can be translated into Chinese judgment sentences, which are expressed by the structure of Chinese judgment sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example:

Those English passive sentences that focus on describing the process, nature and state of things are very similar to the table structure, so they can be translated into Chinese judgment sentences and expressed by the structure of Chinese judgment sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

SL Text 3: Beauty cannot be measured by any absolute standard.

TL Text 3: 美是不可能用任何绝对标准来衡量的。

(4)Translate into Chinese Sentences without Subjects

Chinese emphasizes harmony and loose structure, while English emphasizes form and compact structure. Therefore, the most basic sentence structure in English is the subject-predicate structure. In other words, there must be a subject in any English sentence pattern, but Chinese is often eclectic and does not require a subject. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example:

Chinese emphasizes harmony and loose structure, while English emphasizes form and compact structure. Therefore, the most basic sentence structure in English is the subject-predicate structure. In other words, any English sentence pattern must have a subject,, but Chinese is often eclectic and does not require a subject. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

SL Text 4: The cost can not be met unless the region has ample food resources.

TL Text 4: 除非该地区具有丰富的食物资源，否则无法满足这种消耗。

In the completion of an action, there are usually actors and recipients. If you want to introduce the perpetrator in English passive sentences, you usually use by to elicit it. But it is not difficult to find that many English sentences do not lead to the perpetrator. Therefore, such sentences can be translated into Chinese without subject sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)

In the completion of an action, there are usually actors and recipients. If you want to introduce the perpetrator in English passive sentences, you usually use "by" to elicit it. But it is not difficult to find that many English sentences do not lead to the perpetrator. Therefore, such sentences can be translated into Chinese without subject sentences. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===5.Conclusion===

As Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang Li, 1984) Through combing the differences between English and Chinese in language expression, sentence structure, and passive voice, explaining the relationship between hypotaxis and parataxis, and using teleology as the guiding theory, the method of translating English passive voice is obtained and examples are given. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects.

As Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang Li, 1984) Through combing the differences between English and Chinese in language expression, sentence structure, and passive voice, explaining the relationship between hypotaxis and parataxis, and using teleology as the guiding theory, the method of translating English passive voice is obtained and examples are given. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive sentences, Chinese active sentences, Chinese judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===6.Reference===
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Xu Jun徐珺. (2006). 汉英语篇意合与形合的文化阐释 [Cultural Explanation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis in Chinese and English Text]. 外语与外语教学 Foreign Languages and Their Teaching. (12) 26-29.

Li Jingmin 李靖民. (2012). 英汉语形合和意合研究中的几个问题 [Several Issues in the Study of Hypotaxis and Parataxis in English and Chinese]. 外语研究 Foreign Languages Research. (02) 45-50+112.

Liu Mingdong刘明东. (2001). 英语被动语态的语用分析及其翻译 [Pragmatic Analysis and Translation of English Passive Voice]. 中国科技翻译Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal. (01) 1-4.

Kui Xueyan, Wang lei 隗雪燕,王雷. (2012). 英语与汉语的被动含义 [Passive Meaning in English and Chinese]. 外语教学 Foreign Language Education. (05) 18-23.

Tang Fenfen汤芬芬. (2012). 英汉被动含义句式的对比及翻译 [Comparison and Translation of English and Chinese Sentences with Passive Meaning]. 海外英语 Overseas English. (21) 139-141.

Tang Guoping, Li Fei 唐国平,李斐. (2003). 主动形式表被动含义的探讨 [Discussion on the Passive Meaning of Active Form]. 攀枝花学院学报 journal of pzhzhihua university. (03) 51-55.

Xiao Zhonghua, Dai Guangrong 肖忠华,戴光荣. (2010). 语料库在语言教学中的运用——中国英语学习者被动句式习得个案研究 [The Use of Corpus in Language Teaching: A Case Study of Chinese English Learners' Acquisition of Passive Sentences]. 浙江大学学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Zhejiang University(Humanities and Social Sciences). (04) 189-200.

Cheng Hongzhen 程洪珍. (2003). 英汉语差异与英语长句的汉译 [The Differences Between English and Chinese and the Chinese Translation of English Long Sentences]. 中国科技翻译 Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal. (04) 21-22.

Duan Manfu 段满福. (2006). 从英汉语句子结构的差异看英语定语从句的翻译 [On the Translation of English Attributive Clauses from the Differences in the Substructure of English and Chinese Sentences ]. 大学英语(学术版) College English( Academic Edition). (01) 267-270.

Xu Jianping许建平. (2003). 英语人称代词的翻译问题 [On the Translation of English Personal Pronouns]. 清华大学教育研究 Research On Education Tsinghua University. (S1) 106-110.

Ni Wei, Shao Zhihong 倪巍,邵志洪. (2004). 英汉被动句认知对比研究 [A Cognitive Comparative Study of English and Chinese Passive Sentences]. 四川外语学院学报 Journal of Sichuan International Studies University. (05) 128-133.

Wang Jiayi 王家义. (2011). 英语同义词辨析的多视角透视 [A Multi-Perspective Perspective on the Differentiation and Analysis of English Synonyms]. 外国语文 Journal of Sichuan International Studies University. 27(05) 79-83.

Xu Shihong 徐世红. (2006). 论英语习得中英语思维的培养和建立 [On the Cultivation and Establishment of English Thinking in English Acquisition]. 盐城师范学院学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Yancheng Teachers University(Humanities & Social Sciences Edition). (02) 67-70.

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==On Metaphors - 游雨婷 You Yuting, 202070080619==
<center>游雨婷 You Yuting </center>
===Abstract===
Metaphor is not only a simple linguistic phenomenon, but also closely related to human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should analyze the psychological causes of metaphor and its hidden cultural information, and adopt corresponding translation strategies in order to accurately and vividly convey the basic information of the original language. If we ignore metaphor in English-Chinese translation, it will not only fail to achieve the translation effect, but also make readers confused or even misunderstood, resulting in an immeasurable consequence.

This thesis aims to discuss the development and issues of metaphor translation. Then, in comparison of the differences between Chinese and English in various aspects, the author aims to seek the most appropriate and effective metaphor translation strategies and skills, and lastly through the comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor help translators to overcome translation obstacles resulted from metaphors. By truly integrating the language into the specific cultural context, one can help promote the quality of translation.

===Key words===
Metaphor cultural differences translation strategies different perspectives

===题目===
论隐喻

===摘要===
隐喻不只是一种简单的语言现象，它与人类的思维方式、文化传统紧密相连。在英汉隐喻翻译中，译者应分析隐喻产生的心理原因及其隐藏的文化信息，采取相应的翻译策略，以求准确而生动地传达原语言的基本信息。如果忽略英汉中的隐喻翻译问题，不仅达不到翻译效果，还会令读者费解甚至误解，造成无法估量的后果。

本文旨在从隐喻切入，讨论英汉隐喻翻译的发展及问题。其次通过从多个方面比较中英文的差异，从而寻求最合适有效的隐喻翻译策略和技巧，最后从结构隐喻和本体隐喻两个视角对《白杨礼赞》英译本的隐喻翻译进行比较分析，帮助翻译工作者克服由于隐喻带来的翻译障碍。真正将语言融入特定的文化语境，促进翻译质量的提高。

===关键词===
隐喻文化差异翻译策略不同视角

===1. Introduction===
Given the prospect of word economic integration, translation between two languages is in great need. Especially in English-Chinese metaphor translation, the original information could be wrongly transmitted or even lost. The reason for this is that metaphor translation is more a cultural conversion, rather than a simple language shift. So in this thesis, the author focuses on analysing the reasons and proposing strategies for metaphor translation and comparing metaphor translation of different English versions from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).

Given the background of word economic integration, translation between two languages is in need. Especially in English-Chinese metaphor translation, the original information could be wrongly transmitted or even lost. The reason for this is that metaphor translation is more a cultural conversion, rather than a simple language shift. So in this thesis, the author focuses on pointing out the reasons and proposing strategies for metaphor translation and comparing metaphor translation of different English versions from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

There will be three parts. The first chapter is to give a general picture of metaphor translation which involves its definition, development and reflections. In the second chapter, the author will discuss about the factors affecting metaphor translation, such as geographical and environmental conditions and so on. The third chapter is about strategies and skills to solve problems arose in metaphor translation, such as literal translation, and so on. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).

There will be three parts. The first chapter is to give a general picture of metaphor translation which involves its definition, development and reflections. In the second chapter, the author will discuss about the factors affecting metaphor translation, such as geographical and environmental conditions and so on. The third chapter is about strategies to solve problems arose in metaphor translation, such as literal translation, and so on. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===2. The Overview of Metaphor===
A metaphor is a figurative rhetoric, the use of one thing to denote another. It is the psychological behavior, linguistic behavior and cultural behavior of perceiving, experiencing, imagining, understanding and talking about such things under the suggestion of other kinds of things. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).

A metaphor is a figurative rhetoric, the use of one thing to denote another. It is a kind of a psychological behavior, linguistic behavior and cultural behavior of perceiving, experiencing, imagining, understanding and talking about such things under the suggestion of other kinds of things. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)
===2.1 Definition of Metaphor===
In different periods of history, people have different definitions for metaphor. In ancient Greece, Aristotle named the rhetorical phenomenon metaphorical language, believing that it, like simile, is a contrast between different things and a phenomenon requiring the use of modification. (Shu Dingfang 2000,11).

In different periods of history, people have different ideas for metaphor. In ancient Greece, Aristotle named the rhetorical phenomenon metaphorical language, believing that it, like simile, is a contrast between different things and a phenomenon requiring the use of modification. (Shu Dingfang 2000,11). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

In the early period of China, there was no specific concept of metaphor, only the Chinese words such as "譬", "比" that generally referred to figurative rhetoric appeared in the literature. (Hu Zhuanglin 2004,207), which showed that there was no clear concept of metaphor. At present, the study of metaphor exists in linguistics, pragmatics, semantics, cognitive psychology and other disciplines. American linguist Lakeoff and others hold that metaphor is not only a linguistic phenomenon, but fundamentally a cognitive one. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).

In the early period of China, there was no concrete concept of metaphor, only the Chinese words such as "譬", "比" that generally referred to figurative rhetoric appeared in the literature. (Hu Zhuanglin 2004,207), which showed that there was no clear concept of metaphor. At present, the study of metaphor exists in linguistics, pragmatics, semantics, cognitive psychology and other disciplines. American linguist Lakeoff and others hold that metaphor is not only a linguistic phenomenon, but a cognitive one. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)
Modern metaphor theory advocates that the essence of metaphor is a cognitive phenomenon, language is one of the main forms of metaphor, and metaphor in language has many forms. Understanding the definition of metaphor and distinguishing it from the concept of simile can help translators to deal with the problems in metaphor translation.(Shu Dingfang 2000,2).
Modern metaphor theory advocates that the essence of metaphor is a cognitive phenomenon, language is one of the main forms of metaphor, and metaphor in language has many. Understanding the definition of metaphor and distinguishing it from the concept of simile can help translators to deal with the problems in metaphor translation.(Shu Dingfang 2000,2)--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Therefore, we should have a clear understanding of metaphor before discussing the metaphor translation skills. The comprehension of metaphor becomes a process of cognitive reasoning of language, understanding the pragmatic intention of the writer through association and inference.(Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian 2020,6).Poetry, especially the modern poetry, has a prominent feature in the collocation of words and sentences. Considerable imageries, which contains numerous metaphorical meanings, are existed in Chinese poetry, therefore, metaphor translation must be accurate, complete and expressive.(ZHANG Jie 2020,84).

Therefore, we should have a clear understanding of metaphor before discussing the metaphor translation strategies. The comprehension of metaphor becomes a process of cognitive reasoning of language, understanding the pragmatic intention of the writer through association and inference.(Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian 2020,6).Poetry, especially the modern poetry, has a prominent feature in the collocation of words and sentences. Considerable imageries, which contains numerous metaphorical meanings, are existed in Chinese poetry, therefore, metaphor translation must be accurate and complete.(ZHANG Jie 2020,84). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===2.2 The Development of Metaphor Translation===
For a long time, how to realize the transformation of metaphor has been an important topic in the field of text translation. In 1918, for example, the western translators and translation theorist Peter Newmark paid great attention to metaphor translation, whose understanding of metaphor translation strategies are based on language form and the semantic equivalence, as well as the discussion of metaphor translation from rhetoric perspective. The criteria for the result of metaphor translation is determined by the rhetoric function usually from the form and semantic level.（Wang Bo 2016,115）.

For a long time, how to realize the transformation of metaphor has been a topic in the field of text translation. In 1918, for example, the western translators and translation theorist Peter Newmark paid great attention to metaphor translation, whose understanding of metaphor translation strategies are based on language form and the semantic equivalence, as well as the discussion of metaphor translation from rhetoric perspective. The criteria for the result of metaphor translation is determined by the rhetoric function usually from the form and semantic level.（Wang Bo 2016,115）.

Newmark believes that metaphor is a figure of speech. He regarded all the extended expression of meaning as metaphors and thought that all the words with multiple meanings were potential metaphors. The shift of the meaning of a metaphor or a specific word, or the personification of an abstract concept, or the use of some words or phrases, do not indicate their literal meaning; rather all imply another meaning. Metaphor can stand alone,which means we can use one word to achieve the rhetorical effect. Extendability refers to phrases, sentences, idioms, proverbs, fables, or even the whole part that can evoke the imagination.(Wang Bo 2016,115).

Newmark believes that metaphor is a figure of speech. He regarded all the extended expression of meaning as metaphors and thought that all the words with many meanings were potential metaphors. The shift of the meaning of a metaphor or a specific word, or the personification of an abstract concept, or the use of some words or phrases, do not indicate their literal meaning; rather all imply another meaning. Metaphor meaning we can use one word to achieve the rhetorical effect. Extendability refers to phrases, sentences, idioms, proverbs, fables, or even the whole part that can evoke the imagination.(Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Based on the above views, he proposed several ways to guide metaphor translation: retaining the same metaphorical images, that is, literal translation, on the condition that it makes target language readers feel natural; turning into simile; replacing the metaphor with the equivalent metaphor in the target language; retaining the same metaphorical image and simpifying the similarity; conducting Interpretive translation. (Wang Bo 2016,115).

Based on the above views, he proposed several ways to solve problems in metaphor translation: retaining the same metaphorical images, that is, literal translation, on the condition that it makes target language readers feel natural; turning into simile; replacing the metaphor with the equivalent metaphor in the target language; retaining the same metaphorical image and simpifying the similarity; conducting Interpretive translation. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

However, Maalej points out that there are two main criticisms of such prescriptive methods: one is that translators do not know how to choose metaphor translation methods, for it is not clear which method should be chosen under what kid of circumstances; Secondly, the translation of metaphor cannot be carried out according to a set of abstract rules, and it must be dealt with according to the structure and function of a specific metaphor in a specific context.(Wang Bo 2016,116).

However, Maalej points out that there are two main drawbacks of such prescriptive methods: one is that translators do not know how to choose metaphor translation methods, for it is not clear which method should be chosen under what kid of circumstances; Secondly, the translation of metaphor cannot be carried out according to a set of abstract rules, and it must be dealt with according to the structure and function of a specific metaphor in a specific context.(Wang Bo 2016,116).

Compared with Nida, he sees metaphor as a figurative meaning of vocabulary, and it is equivalent in rhetorical function to idiomatic methods. Nida put forward the metaphor translation strategy earlier, that is, translating metaphor into metaphor; turning metaphor into simile; shifting non-metaphor into metaphor. These strategies are relatively general in concept and do not go far in discussion for many aspects of metaphor translation. While Newmark further pointed out that metaphor translation is the epitome of translation of all languages, because it gives translators' various choices: expressing practical meaning, reproducing image, or making appropriate modifications to achieve the perfect combination of meaning and image.(Wang Bo 2016,116).

As for Nida, he sees metaphor as a figurative meaning of vocabulary, and it is equivalent in rhetorical function to idiomatic methods. Nida put forward the metaphor translation strategy earlier, that is, translating metaphor into metaphor; turning metaphor into simile; shifting non-metaphor into metaphor. These strategies are relatively general in concept and do not go far in discussion for many aspects of metaphor translation. While Newmark further pointed out that metaphor translation is the epitome of translation of all languages, because it gives translators' various choices: expressing practical meaning, reproducing image, or making appropriate modifications to achieve the perfect combination of meaning and image.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The metaphor translation emerged in the early period from Four Books and Five Classics and classic poetry.The problem is that metaphor translation is included in the translation of figurative rhetoric.We seldom take the metaphor as a kind of independent system with its own translation methods and strategies and its internal cause analysis. because of the particularity and complexity of Chinese language and characters, it’s hard to trace its translation results.(Wang Bo 2016,115).

The metaphor translation emerged in the early period from Four Books and Five Classics and classic poetry.The problem is that metaphor translation is included in the translation of figurative rhetoric.We seldom take the metaphor as an independent system with its own translation methods and strategies and its internal cause analysis. because of the particularity and complexity of Chinese language and characters, it’s hard to trace its translation results.(Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===2.3 Reflections on Metaphor Translation Studies===
The research on metaphor translation in the past 50 years has made remarkable achievements both at home and abroad. Scholars have conducted detailed and in-depth studies on how to translate metaphor from multiple perspectives and disciplines. Through sorting out, we find that there are still some problems in the study of metaphor translation, and some aspects need to be strengthened. The following are some views on the study of metaphor translation:(Wang Bo 2016,116).
The research on metaphor translation in the past 50 years has made achievements both at home and abroad. Scholars have conducted detailed and in-depth studies on how to translate metaphor from many perspectives and disciplines. Through sorting out, we find that there are still some problems in the study of metaphor translation, and some aspects need to be strengthened. The following are some views on the study of metaphor translation:(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The first one is the center or the focus of the research on metaphor translation. The core of metaphor translation research should be "how to translate". In the study stage of rhetoric-oriented metaphor translation, although there are many thesis in China in terms of the strategies and methods of metaphor translation, great efforts have been made on "how to translate" and some significant progress have been made. In foreign countries, metaphors are considered untranslatable by scholars such as Nida and Dagut. So generally speaking, there are few research thesis in this field during this period.(Wang Bo 2016,116).

The first one is the focus of the research on metaphor translation. The core of metaphor translation research should be "how to translate". In the study stage of rhetoric-oriented metaphor translation, although there are many thesis in China in terms of the strategies and methods of metaphor translation, efforts have been made on "how to translate" and some significant progress have been made. In foreign countries, metaphors are considered untranslatable by scholars such as Nida and Dagut. So generally speaking, there are few research thesis in this field during this period.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

In the stage of cognition-oriented metaphor translation, foreign researches are relatively pragmatic. Most of them not only provide explanation for metaphor translation, but also put forward specific methods on how to translate metaphor. Making a comprehensive analysis of the research on metaphor translation in the cognition-oriented stage in China, it is not difficult to see that a great deal of space has been devoted to the interpretation of metaphor translation from different perspectives. There are many research thesis on this aspect, but relatively insufficient research thesis on how to translate metaphor.(Wang Bo 2016,116).

In the stage of cognition-oriented metaphor translation, foreign researches are relatively pragmatic. Most of them not only provide explanation for metaphor translation, but also put forward specific methods on how to translate metaphor. Making a comprehensive analysis of the research on metaphor translation in the cognition-oriented stage in China, it is not difficult to see that a great deal of efforts have been devoted to the interpretation of metaphor translation from different perspectives. There are many research thesis on this aspect, but relatively insufficient research thesis on how to translate metaphor.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The second is the originality of research. Since the 1980s, there has been a linguistic shift from source language to target language center in translation studies. In this context, domestic scholars still can closely grasp the development of translation studies and study metaphor translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. Especially since the cognitive view of metaphor has become the mainstream paradigm of metaphor research. However, if we look at the obtained results, there are few achievements coming from self-creation. Thus, domestic research on metaphor translation lacks originality.(Wang Bo 2016,116).

The second is the originality of research. Since the 1980s, there has been a linguistic shift from source language to target language center in translation studies. Domestic scholars still can closely grasp the development of translation studies and study metaphor translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. Especially since the cognitive view of metaphor has become the mainstream paradigm of metaphor research. However, if we look at the obtained results, there are few achievements coming from self-creation. Thus, domestic research on metaphor translation lacks originality.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The third is that blind spots exist in the research field. What are the criteria or standards for a good metaphor translation? At present, there is no unified and specific understanding, and few people have been dedicating themselves to this field of research. We can strengthen relevant research. For example, we can try to study the evaluation system of metaphor translation. It is also advisable to strengthen the research on the acceptability of translation metaphor readers and examine the effectiveness of Chinese culture transmission in English-speaking countries. Describing the translation methods adopted by Chinese translators when translating metaphors is also a feasible way. (Wang Bo 2016,116).

The third is that blind spots exist in the research field. What are the standards for a good metaphor translation? At present, there is no unified criteria and few people have been dedicating themselves to this field of research. We can strengthen relevant research. For example, we can try to study the evaluation system of metaphor translation. It is also advisable to strengthen the research on the acceptability of translation metaphor readers and examine the effectiveness of Chinese culture transmission in English-speaking countries. Describing the translation methods adopted by Chinese translators when translating metaphors is also a feasible way. (Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Overall, in research on metaphor translation, we see progress as well as shortcomings which are waiting to be coped with along the way we explore a wider space for metaphor translation.(Wang Bo 2016,116).

===3. Reasons for Metaphor Translation===
Metaphor is not just a simple linguistic phenomenon, but also is concerned with human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should analyze the reasons of metaphor translation and its hidden cultural information so as to accurately convey the general information of the original language.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122).

Metaphor is not just a linguistic phenomenon, but also is concerned with human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should find out the reasons of metaphor translation and its hidden cultural information so as to accurately convey the general information of the original language.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===3.1 Geographical and Environment Factors===
It’s clear that metaphor is closely associated with culture. And culture reflects the local conditions and is the representative of a region. With the extension of time, the local cultural characteristics shaped by geography and environment will become more distinct. It is called regional culture. It’s a symbol of specific ecology, folk customs, habits, and civilization. The regional culture bears the brand of the targeted region with uniqueness and stability for it integrated into the environment and formed something special. At the same time, people in different areas create various cultures. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).

It’s clear that metaphor is closely associated with culture. And culture reflects the local conditions. With the extension of time, the local cultural characteristics shaped by geography and environment will become more distinct. It is called regional culture. It’s a symbol of specific ecology, folk customs, habits, and civilization. The regional culture bears the brand of the targeted region for it integrated into the environment and formed something special. At the same time, people in different areas create various cultures. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Regional culture exerts great influence on vocabulary, sentence patterns, as well as the way people use metaphor. Different regional cultures enable different nations to produce various cognitions toward the same thing. One may find it hard to exchange conversations with different groups of people, yet still see it as a beautiful regional feature. Because of their different life experiences, geographical locations, and political environments, English and Chinese nations are bound to boast their own national personalities, adding a strong national color into their languages. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).

Regional culture exerts influence on vocabulary, sentence patterns, as well as the way people use metaphor. Different regional cultures enable different nations to produce various cognitions toward the same thing. One may find it hard to exchange conversations with different groups of people, yet still see it as a beautiful regional feature. Because of their different life experiences, geographical locations, and political environments, English and Chinese nations are bound to boast their own national personalities, adding a strong national color into their languages. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

For example, the “east wind” in Chinese literature reminds people of the genial warmth, while “the west wind” goes the opposite way, recalling a taste of bitterness. People across the national boundary tend to make use of “east wind” and “west wind” to imply something else in their literary works yet with different or even totally opposite meanings. And that meaning gap in metaphor translation is caused by different features of geography and environment. Thus, translators should attach great attention to the geography and environment when they do metaphor translation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).

For example, the “east wind” in Chinese literature reminds people of the genial warmth, while “the west wind” implies a taste of bitterness. People across the national boundary tend to make use of “east wind” and “west wind” to imply something else in their literary works yet with different or even totally opposite meanings. And that meaning gap in metaphor translation is caused by different features of geography and environment. Thus, translators should attach great attention to the geography and environment when they do metaphor translation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Each nation's unique natural environment and regional characteristics make its language contain typical national characteristics. China has been a major agricultural country since ancient times. In the long feudal society, people lived a self-sufficient life that men did farm work and women engage in spinning and weaving.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122).

Each nation's unique natural environment and regional characteristics make its language contain typical national characteristics. China is a major agricultural country. In the long feudal society, people lived a self-sufficient life that men did farm work and women engage in spinning and weaving.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Therefore, the famous proverbs of our people bear bright agricultural colors, for example: Fishing industry and navigation industry play an important role in boosting British economy. The life style of sailing and fishing has left a deep mark on English language, such as: when the ship comes home(好运来临); Ships that pass in the night(萍水相逢). Here, we use ship to imply opportunity, luck and people, instead of using its literal meaning. Therefore, attention must be paid to the regional differences, and treat metaphor translation in a right way. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).

Therefore, the proverbs of our people bear bright agricultural colors, for example: Fishing industry and navigation industry play an important role in boosting British economy. The life style of sailing and fishing has left a deep mark on English language, such as: when the ship comes home(好运来临); Ships that pass in the night(萍水相逢). Here, we use ship to imply opportunity, luck and people, instead of using its literal meaning. Therefore, attention must be paid to the regional differences, and treat metaphor translation in a right way. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===3.2 Religious Belief Factors===
Westerners have a deeply rooted Christian tradition, while Chinese have long believed in Buddhism and Confucianism, which determines the difference between two languages in terms of metaphorical expression. For example, in Chinese, there are sayings like "Laying down the butcher’s knife to become the Buddha" (放下屠刀，立地成佛) and "Saving a life is better than building a seven-win Buddha"(救人一命胜造七级浮屠). In English, there are sayings such as "Every dog has his day and Every his hour", which reflects the equality doctrine of Christianity.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).

Westerners have followed Christian tradition, while Chinese have long believed in Buddhism and Confucianism, which determines the difference between two languages in terms of metaphorical expression. For example, in Chinese, there are sayings like "Laying down the butcher’s knife to become the Buddha" (放下屠刀，立地成佛) and "Saving a life is better than building a seven-win Buddha"(救人一命胜造七级浮屠). In English, there are sayings such as "Every dog has his day and Every his hour", which reflects the equality doctrine of Christianity.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Religious belief can be regarded as the universal cultural characteristics of all mankind. Religious culture constitutes an important part of the whole national culture, formed by religious consciousness and religious belief of a certain nation. The differences of religious culture reveal itself in respect of worships and taboos and languages are more or less affected by the religious differences.Most of the Westerners believe in Christianity; thus their language is closely linked to this religion. Thus, in English, some idioms are often related to Christianity, while in Chinese, some things connected to Buddhism are often borrowed for figurative rhetoric. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).
Religious belief can be regarded as the cultural characteristics of all mankind. Religious culture constitutes an important part of the whole national culture, formed by religious consciousness and religious belief of a certain nation. The differences of religious culture reveal itself in respect of worships and taboos and languages are more or less affected by the religious differences.Most of the Westerners believe in Christianity; thus their language is closely linked to this religion. Thus, in English, some idioms are often related to Christianity, while in Chinese, some connected to Buddhism are often borrowed for figurative rhetoric. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

For example, "as patient as Job", "as poor as Lazarus", "as rich as Croesus". The characters as “Job”, “Lazarus”, and “Croesus” in these idioms used as metaphors originate from the Bible. However, some Chinese idioms derive from Buddhism such as "not enough to go round"(粥少僧多). (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).

Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism, these three religions prevailed in ancient China, and they still have a profound influence on the Chinese people now, therefore it’s no wonder that one can find many religious words such as “Buddha” and “Bodhisattva” “the Jade Emperor”, “Avalokitesvara”, in daily life. Then they gradually evolve into some typical phrases like “presenting Buddha with borrowed flowers,” “random acts of kindness”, “do not burn incense in spare time, but cram for the moment” and so on. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).

Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism, these three religions prevailed in ancient China, and they still influenced Chinese people now, therefore it’s no wonder that one can find many religious words such as “Buddha” and “Bodhisattva” “the Jade Emperor”, “Avalokitesvara”, in daily life. Then they gradually evolve into some typical phrases like “presenting Buddha with borrowed flowers,” “random acts of kindness”, “do not burn incense in spare time, but cram for the moment” and so on. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

And a majority of people in many western countries regard the Bible as their behavioral standard because of their belief in Christianity. One can find many English idioms from the Bible, such as “sell one’s birth right for a mess of pottage”, “God helps those who help themselves” and so on. The Bible as a classic work of Christianity has played an immeasurable role in the development of western language. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).

And a majority of people in many western countries regard the Bible as their behavioral standard because of their belief in Christianity. One can find many English idioms from the Bible, such as “sell one’s birth right for a mess of pottage”, “God helps those who help themselves” and so on. The Bible as a classic work of Christianity has played a role in the development of western language. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Through a comparative analysis of Some Chinese idioms and English idioms derived from religions, historical stories, fairy tales or fables, it is not difficult to find that there are many cultures in both Chinese and English that share the same meaning though in different forms. For example, this English sentence “sow the wind and reap the whirlwind” can be expressed as “善有善报，恶有恶报” in Chinese. Both of them stress karmic retribution. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).

Through a comparative analysis of Some Chinese idioms and English idioms derived from religions, historical stories, fairy tales or fables, it is not difficult to find that there are cultural common ground in both Chinese and English though in different forms. For example, this English sentence “sow the wind and reap the whirlwind” can be expressed as “善有善报，恶有恶报” in Chinese. Both of them stress karmic retribution. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Take the English phrase "to meet one's Waterloo" as an another example, it refers to this historical fact that Napoleon was defeated at The battle of Waterloo. In Chinese, there is a similar allusion, "败走麦城". Different historical allusions are quoted, but the meanings of the two expressions are identical. When using idiomatic expressions to carry out metaphorical meaning, we should pay special attention to the significance of the vehicle in English culture and the basic principle of its image transformation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).

Take the English phrase "to meet one's Waterloo" as an another example, it refers to this historical fact that Napoleon was defeated at The battle of Waterloo. In Chinese, there is a similar allusion, "败走麦城". Different historical allusions are quoted, but the meanings of the two expressions are similar. When using idiomatic expressions to carry out metaphorical meaning, we should pay special attention to the significance of the vehicle in English culture and the basic principle of its image transformation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

In the metaphor translation practice, one should take the religious differences of different ethnic groups into consideration, lifting the mysterious veil of religion. At the same time, one should avoid forcing foreign religious culture and belief to combine with others, which would end up like a big or even absurd joke. Only based on the full understanding of different religious belief, can one successfully complete the metaphor transformation that is agreeable and acceptable to readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).

In the metaphor translation practice, one should take the religious differences of different ethnic groups into consideration, lifting the mysterious veil of religion. At the same time, one should avoid imposing foreign religious culture and belief on other cultures, which would end up like a big or even absurd joke. Only based on the full understanding of different religious belief, can one successfully complete the metaphor transformation that is agreeable and acceptable to readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===3.3 Cultural Background Factors===
From the process of the generation of metaphor, we can know that metaphor is the creation of national psychology based on the similarity of things. This kind of national psychological creation contains rich cultural connotation, and different life customs and cultural background will inevitably lead to the difference of metaphor（Xu Aihua 2019,64）. Metaphors are frequently used to constitute strong emotional expressions within human communication. The sentiment of a metaphor is decided by many factors, including its context, target, cultural background, etc(.Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33).

From the process of the generation of metaphor, we can know that metaphor is the creation of national psychology based on the similarity of things. This kind of national psychological creation contains rich cultural connotation, and different life customs and cultural background will inevitably lead to the difference of metaphor（Xu Aihua 2019,64）. Metaphors are frequently used to deliver strong emotional expressions within human communication. The sentiment of a metaphor is decided by many factors, including its context, target, cultural background, etc(.Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese Metaphor Translation, cultural differences should be considered first. In the process of metaphor translation, one should not only be familiar with the culture of the source language, but also with the culture of the target language, so as to achieve the purpose of communication.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）.
Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese Metaphor Translation, cultural differences should be considered first. In the process of metaphor translation, one should be familiar with the culture of the source language and the target language, so as to achieve the purpose of communication.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

People tend to use idioms and simple words serving as metaphorical expressions to deliver imaginary effect in literary works. There are also cultural differences between Chinese idioms and English idioms that contain figurative rhetoric. The difference of cultural background between Chinese and Western countries determines the difference of metaphor in English and Chinese. For example, the Chinese expression “杀鸡取卵” can be spelled as "To kill the goose that lays golden eggs " in English, while the Chinese word for chicken turns into a goose. The corresponding Chinese idiom “雨后春笋” is turned into "spring up like a mushroom" in English. Translators should take cultural factors into account when doing metaphor translation.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）.
For example, the Chinese expression “杀鸡取卵” can be translated as "To kill the goose that lays golden eggs " in English, while the Chinese word for chicken turns into a goose. The corresponding Chinese idiom “雨后春笋” is turned into "spring up like a mushroom" in English. Translators should take cultural factors into account when doing metaphor translation.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Of course, this kind of difference caused by cultural background doesn’t only appear in idioms, but also in a single word as follows: The word “death” in almost all languages is a taboo. Euphemistic expressions for death in English and Chinese both have its own characteristics, showing cultures of different nations. For example, in China, Buddhism calls it “圆寂”, and Taoism names it “仙逝”. The death of the elderly is called “寿终”, “谢世”; the death of the young is called “夭折”, and the death of the middle-aged is called “早逝”. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）.

Of course, this kind of difference caused by cultural background doesn’t only appear in idioms, but also in a single word as follows: The word “death” in almost all languages is a taboo. Euphemistic expressions for death in English and Chinese both have its own characteristics, showing cultures of different nations. For example, in China, Buddhism calls it “圆寂”, and Taoism names it “仙逝”. The death of the elderly is called “寿终”, “谢世”; the death of the young is called “夭折”, and the death of the middle-aged is called “早逝”. Therefore, regarding social status, age, gender of the dead, attitude of the living toward the dead are all presented in the euphemism used.(Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Therefore, regarding social status, age, gender of the dead, attitude of the living toward the dead are all presented in the euphemism used. While in English, they replace “death” with “go to west”, “to be taken to paradise”, and “to be asleep in the arms of God”. Because the westerners hold the view that every man must give to God an account of what he has done on earth at the final judgment. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）.

While in English, they describe “death” by using expressions as “go to west”, “to be taken to paradise”, and “to be asleep in the arms of God”. Because the westerners hold the view that every man must give to God an account of what he has done on earth at the final judgment. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）.--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Another example is that getting old is the law of nature, but people tend to have different psychological reactions to this word “old” given different cultural backgrounds. In China, the word “old” is a positive word and symbolizes one’s wisdom and rich experience, and one often refer it to the senior who is high above in the company management. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).
Another example is that getting old is the law of nature, but people tend to have different psychological reactions to this word “old” given different cultural backgrounds. In China, the word “old” is a somewhat positive word and symbolizes one’s wisdom and rich experience, and one often refer it to the senior who is high above in the company management. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The word “old” gradually becomes some positive idioms like “an old hand is a good hand”. Sometimes, one addresses someone as the old man in order to show respect to the elderly, so the meaning of age is reduced. While in English, “old” appears to be a negative word, which means useless and worthless. So it’s kind of a taboo in English. When translating, translators should replace “old” with “elderly” or “senior”. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).
The word “old” gradually becomes idioms like “an old hand is a good hand”. Sometimes, one addresses someone as the old man in order to show respect to the elderly, so the meaning of age is reduced. While in English, “old” appears to be a negative word, which means useless and worthless. So it’s kind of a taboo in English. When translating, translators should replace “old” with “elderly” or “senior”. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Unfamiliar with the cultural back ground, mistakes are usually made in using metaphor or doing metaphor translation. Take “cowboy” as an example. In China, many translators think cowboy literally as someone outstanding, so they interpret it as one running a business as a cowboy. The fact is that the genuine image of the cowboy is someone who is independent, unconstraint and act on its own will in westerner’s mind. The real meaning goes opposite that he runs business with dishonesty and a lack of experience and is sloppy in work. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).

Unfamiliar with the cultural back ground, mistakes are usually made in using metaphor or doing metaphor translation. Take “cowboy” as an example. In China, many translators think cowboy literally as someone outstanding, so they interpret it as one running a business as a cowboy. The fact is that the genuine image of the cowboy is someone who acts on its own will in westerner’s mind. The real meaning goes opposite that he runs business with dishonesty and a lack of experience and is sloppy in work. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

It’s obvious that in the translation progress, the primary issue to be dealt with is to overcome and solve cultural differences so as to avoid cultural shock. Impossible as it may be to achieve the exact equivalence between the source culture and the target culture, one may realize the equivalence of sense through the means of perspective conversion.(Guo Huiqing 2013,124).

It’s obvious that in the translation progress, the primary issue to be dealt with is to solve cultural differences so as to avoid cultural shock. Impossible as it may be to achieve the exact equivalence between the source culture and the target culture, one can realize the equivalence of sense through the means of perspective conversion.(Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

To sum up, errors made in metaphor translation are not only brought by the vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, but by the fact that translators’ sole attention to the equivalence of language forms yet ignoring the underlying cultural meaning. In cross-culture communication, cultural background, thinking patterns, conventional habits and behaviors all have a role to play. Translators must respect the readers’ aesthetic psychology. It is essential for translators to strengthen learning in culture. Through contrast one can find the appropriate metaphor translation skills and strategies to improve the quality of translation so as to the same metaphorical effect to the target reader. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).

To sum up, errors made in metaphor translation are not only brought by the vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, but by the fact that translators’ sole attention to the equivalence of language forms while ignoring the underlying cultural meaning. In cross-culture communication, cultural background, thinking patterns, conventional habits and behaviors all have a role to play. It is essential for translators to strengthen learning in culture. Through contrast one can find the appropriate metaphor translation skills and strategies to improve the quality of translation so as to the same metaphorical effect to the target reader. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===4. Translation Strategies for English-Chinese Metaphor Translation===
Throughout the development of human society, due to the geographical and environmental differences and other reasons, a rich civilization system has been formed. But objectively speaking, due to the similarity of human external living environment, there are many similarities in terms of people’s thoughts and cognition. Thus, there are feasible ways to address problems in English-Chinese metaphor translation known as translation strategies.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).

===4.1 Literal Translation===
Literal translation is the first stage of translation in which we simply transfer words from one language to another. It is also called “word-for-word” translation. Strictly speaking, it strives "to keep the sentiments and style of the original". We usually resort to this kind of translation when we want the reader in the target language to understand the overall meaning of the text in the source language. This is different from the higher levels of translation in which the interpretation of the source text varies from one person to another person as the style, linguistic expressions and undertones differ.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).

Throughout the development of human society, due to the geographical and environmental differences and other reasons, a rich civilization system has been formed. But objectively speaking, due to the similarity of human external living environment, there are many similarities in terms of people’s thoughts and cognition. Thus, there are translation strategies to address problems in English-Chinese metaphor translation.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Mangy differences exist between languages. As far as English and Chinese are concerned, they also have some commonalities in some aspects which is also the application basis of literal translation. For translation, the most common and simplest method is literal translation. It is not easy for a translator to quickly catch the hidden meaning of metaphor and translate it. It requires a certain cultural accumulation. It is worth emphasizing that literal translation does not mean translating the sentence literally. The translator should keep the rhetorical devices and language structure of the original text and adopt literal translation to make it easier for readers to understand. (Xu Aihua 2019,64).

Mangy differences exist between languages. As far as English and Chinese are concerned, they also have some commonalities in some aspects which is also the application basis of literal translation. It is not easy for a translator to quickly catch the hidden meaning of metaphor and translate it. It requires a certain cultural accumulation. It is worth emphasizing that literal translation does not mean translating the sentence literally. The translator should keep the rhetorical devices and language structure of the original text and adopt literal translation to make it easier for readers to understand. (Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

For example, the English sentence “An eye for An eye and a tooth for a tooth” can be translated into “以眼还眼，以牙还牙” in Chinese. This kind of idiom containing metaphor is straightforward with less complicated metaphorical meaning. Thus, as long as the literal meaning of the source language is delivered and understood, the corresponding target language can be well understood, which is relatively simple for most readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).

For example, the English sentence “An eye for An eye and a tooth for a tooth” can be translated into “以眼还眼，以牙还牙” in Chinese. This kind of idiom containing metaphorical meaning is straightforward with less complicated metaphorical meaning. Thus, as long as the literal meaning of the source language is delivered and understood, the corresponding target language can be well understood, which is relatively simple for most readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

To sum up, when the translator adopts the strategy of literal translation in metaphor translation, the translator needs to have a deep understanding of Chinese and Western cultural background and find the similarities between them, so as to make readers understandable with metaphorical and vivid effect.(Xu Aihua 2019,65)

To sum up, when the translator adopts the strategy of literal translation in metaphor translation, the translator needs to have a deep understanding of Chinese and Western cultural background and find the similarities between two languages, so as to make readers understandable with metaphorical and vivid effect.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===4.2 Free Translation===
Free translation aims to convey the meaning and spirit of the original without paying much attention to the lexical details. The unequal information is caused by the cultural background, and so on. In this case, free translation can be adopted. In the process of metaphor translation, it is necessary to make appropriate trade-offs when the metaphorical images cannot be fully preserved and cannot be replaced. Therefore, in the process of translation, we should carefully examine the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the source language and the target language. And we should adopt free translation to effectively maintain the information transmission and aesthetic value of metaphor. (Li Chunying 2020,1).

Free translation aims to convey the meaning and spirit of the original without paying much attention to the lexical details and grammatical structure. The unequal information is caused by the cultural background, and so on. In this case, free translation can be adopted. In the process of metaphor translation, it is necessary to make appropriate trade-offs when the metaphorical images cannot be fully preserved and cannot be replaced. Therefore, in the process of translation, we should carefully observe the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the source language and the target language. And we should adopt free translation to effectively maintain the information transmission and aesthetic value of metaphor. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

For example, the sentence “Don't show the white feather to the enemy”. In the original text "white feather " implies " weakness and cowards ", but in Chinese "white feather "has no such meaning. If “white feather” is translated as " white feather of some animal ", readers will definitely have no clue of what the whole sentence means. (Li Chunying 2020,1).

For example, the sentence “Don't show the white feather to the enemy”. In the original text "white feather " implies " weakness and cowards ", but in Chinese "white feather "has no such metaphorical meaning. If “white feather” is translated as " white feather of some animal ", readers will definitely have no clue of what the whole sentence means. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Therefore, it is necessary to interpret the meaning and transfer its metaphorical meaning. Take another example, when we integrate literal translation with free translation in metaphor translation, then the English sentence “Like a duck to water” can be translated as “如鱼得水” in Chinese. Here, we’ve managed to achieve the goal of conveying both original meaning and its metaphorical message. (Li Chunying 2020,1).

Therefore, it is necessary to interpret the meaning and transfer its metaphorical meaning. Take another example, when we adopt free translation in metaphor translation, then the English sentence “Like a duck to water” can be translated as “如鱼得水” in Chinese. Here, we’ve managed to achieve the goal of conveying both original meaning and its metaphorical message. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Besides, in the process of free translation, we should not stick to the form but pay attention to the harmony of the form and structure of language. From the point of view of purpose, free translation mainly conveys the idea of the original text to the reader, and it should realize the flexible processing of the words and texts according to the context. For example, "To face the music" can be translated as" 面对现实" in Chinese. Here, “music” stands for “reality” instead of its literal meaning.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).

Besides, in the process of free translation, we should not stick to the form but pay attention to the harmony of the form and structure of language. From the point of view of purpose, free translation mainly conveys the idea of the original text to the reader, and it should realize the flexible processing of the words and texts according to the context. For example, "To face the music" can be translated as" 面对现实" in Chinese. Here, “music” stands for “reality” instead of its literal meaning, a piece of melody.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Therefore, free translation can fill in the blanks where literal translation doesn’t fit in. When translators do metaphor translation, free translation can help deliver the metaphorical meaning more vividly.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).

===4.3 Metonymy Translation===
Due to the different yet similar natural and social environments, including climate, geographical environment, cultural tradition and religious belief, many metaphorical vehicles in English and Chinese are almost the same, although they are actually different. Some scholars have pointed out that different nations may have different perspectives toward the same world, which leads to the synonymy music of different forms. In short, the vehicle is different but has common ground. Metaphor not only contains the characteristic connotation of the language itself, but also the words that cannot be expressed in a straightforward manner(Li Chunying 2020,1).

Due to the different yet similar natural and social environments, including climate, geographical environment, cultural tradition and religious belief, many metaphorical vehicles in English and Chinese are different yet similar. Some scholars have pointed out that different nations may have different perspectives toward the same world, which leads to the synonymy music of different forms. In short, the vehicle is different but has common ground. Metaphor not only contains the characteristic connotation of the language itself, but also the words that cannot be expressed in a straightforward manner(Li Chunying 2020,1). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

At this time, according to the custom of the target language, the vehicle in the original language can be changed into the vehicle familiar to the target readers. Therefore, we can adopt the strategy of metonymy translation. For example, the Chinese words “傻笑” can be expressed in English as "grin like a Cheshire cat" . This shift is successful because the Cheshire cat is kind of silly but a very lovely cat in England. The Chinese idioms "多此一举" can be expressed in English as “carry coals to Newcastle”, as the “Newcastle” once was a famous British coal port. (Xu Aihua 2019,65).

According to the custom of the target language, the vehicle in the original language can be changed into the vehicle familiar to the target readers. Therefore, we can adopt the strategy of metonymy translation. For example, the Chinese words “傻笑” can be expressed in English as "grin like a Cheshire cat" . This shift is successful because the Cheshire cat is kind of silly but a very lovely cat in England. The Chinese idioms "多此一举" can be expressed in English as “carry coals to Newcastle”, as the “Newcastle” once was a famous British coal port. (Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

In summary, using the strategy of metonymy translation is a good solution to problems arose in metaphor translation as it takes advantage of different and familiar vehicles to convey clear information to the target readers.(Li Chunying 2020,1).

In summary, using the strategy of metonymy translation is a good solution to problems arose in metaphor translation as it takes advantage of different and familiar vehicles to convey clear information to the target readers for their better understanding.(Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===5. Metaphor Translation in English Versions of Tribute to White Poplar As An Example===
Metaphor is not only a rhetorical device, but also a way of thinking, which can guide people's actions. Lakoff believes that human beings' understanding of the objective world is based on their own experiences, and metaphor belongs to the conceptual system, which is ubiquitous. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).

Metaphor is not only a rhetorical device, but also a way of thinking. Lakoff believes that human beings' understanding of the objective world is based on their own experiences, and metaphor belongs to the conceptual system, which is ubiquitous. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===5.1 Theoretical Framework===
In 1980, he and Johnson put forward the concept of conceptual metaphor for the first time in the book Metaphors We Live by, which became an important symbol of the birth of conceptual metaphor. Although conceptual metaphor is ubiquitous, it also depends on the context.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).
In 1980, he and Johnson put forward the concept of conceptual metaphor for the first time in the book Metaphors We Live by, which became a symbol of the birth of conceptual metaphor. Although conceptual metaphor is ubiquitous, it also depends on the context.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Lakoff divides conceptual metaphors into three categories: orientational metaphor, ontological metaphor and structural metaphor. This classification can be said to cover almost all the conceptual metaphors. Orientational metaphor is the basis and an image schema metaphor, that is, it takes the spatial concept as the original domain and constructs other non-spatial target domains (Lan Chun 1990, 4).
Lakoff divides conceptual metaphors into three categories: orientational metaphor, ontological metaphor and structural metaphor. This classification cover all the conceptual metaphors. Orientational metaphor is the basis and an image schema metaphor, that is, it takes the spatial concept as the original domain and constructs other non-spatial target domains (Lan Chun 1990, 4).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Ontological metaphor refers to describing abstract concepts with the certain physical entities. Structural metaphor refers to the construction of another concept with the structure of one concept, and the words that talk about various aspects of one concept are used to talk about another concept, thus producing the phenomenon of polysemous word. Based on the comprehensive analysis of the reasons affecting metaphor translation and the strategies of metaphor translation by many scholars, we’ll then analyse metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).

Ontological metaphor refers to describing abstract concepts with the certain physical entities. While structural metaphor refers to the construction of another concept with the structure of one concept, and the words that talk about various aspects of one concept are used to talk about another concept, thus producing the phenomenon of polysemous word. Based on the comprehensive analysis of the reasons affecting metaphor translation and the strategies of metaphor translation by many scholars, we’ll then analyse metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===5.2 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Structural Metaphor===
Structural metaphors play the most important role because they allow us to go beyond orientation and referring and give us the possibility to structure one concept according to another. Here are some examples.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).

E.g.1

SL text:白杨树实在是不平凡的，我赞美白杨树。(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).

TL text 1: The white poplar is no ordinary tree. Let me sing its praises.(Zhang Peiji 2007)

TL text 2: The white poplar tree is by no means a common tree. I praise it!(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)

E.g.2

SL text:让那些看不起民众、贱视民众、顽固的倒退的人们去赞美那贵族化的楠木(那也是直挺秀颀的)，去鄙视这极常见、极易生长的白杨树罢，我要高声赞美白杨树!(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).

TL text 1: The reactionary diehards, who despise and snub the common people, can do whatever they like to eulogize the elite nanmu (which is also tall, straight and good-looking) and look down upon the common, fast-growing white poplar. I, for my part, will be loud in my praise of the latter!(Zhang Peiji 2007)

TL text 2: Let those who look down upon the masses, disrelish them and are stubborn to retrograde the duke nanmu, which is also a straight and graceful tree. They may go on despising this white poplar tree, which is frequently seen and grows so very easily. But as for me, I’ll continue to praise the white poplar tree!(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)

A core idea of these sentences is that “树是人”. People's cognition and understanding of trees originates from people. When people talk about trees, they will think of a series of words to describe people, such as “不平凡”、“婆娑”、“好女子”、“赞美”、“贵族化”、“鄙视” in the text. This refers to the "cross-domain mapping" of conceptual metaphors, which draws an analogy between the concepts of "tree" and "people". In the first source text, to translate “平凡 ”, Zhang Peiji uses "ordinary", while Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen use "common". (Li Yanhong 2015, 19).

A core idea of these sentences is that “树是人”. People's cognition and understanding of trees originates from people. When people talk about trees, they will think of a series of words that describe people, such as “不平凡”、“婆娑”、“好女子”、“赞美”、“贵族化”、“鄙视” in the text. This refers to the "cross-domain mapping" of conceptual metaphors, which draws an analogy between the concepts of "tree" and "people". In the first source text, to translate “平凡 ”, Zhang Peiji uses "ordinary", while Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen use "common". (Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Although they choose different words, they are both used to describe people. Both sides adopt literal translation to restore the metaphor in the original text and translate the metaphor into the same metaphor. In the second example, although the words used by both sides were different, Zhang Peiji's "Eulogize", "elite", "look Down Upon", as well as Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen's "Praise", "Duke" and "despising" were all used to describe people. Therefore, they both restored the meaning of the original text and retained the images in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).

Although they choose different words, they are both used to describe people. Both sides adopt literal translation to restore the metaphor in the original text and translate the metaphor into the same metaphor. In the second example, although the words used by both sides were different, Zhang Peiji's "Eulogize", "elite", "look Down Upon", as well as Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen's "Praise", "Duke" and "despising" were all used to describe people. Therefore, they both restored the meaning of the original text and retained the images.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===5.3 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Ontological Metaphor===
Ontological metaphor, also called entity metaphor, also plays an important role.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).

E.g.3

SL text:当汽车在望不到边际的高原上奔驰，扑入你的视野的，是黄绿错综的一条大毡子。(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).

TL text 1: When you travel by car through Northwest China’s boundless plateau, all you see before you is something like a huge yellow-and-green felt blanket.(Zhang Peiji 2007)

TL text 2: When your car is speeding along a boundless highway, what meets your eyes is a huge blanket of yellows and greens mingled together.(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)

When the car is driving on the plateau, the people in the car see the scene. When Zhang Peiji translated this sentence, he added the element of "something like" to adapt to the English context and changed the metaphor into simile, which not only retained the image and meaning of the original, but also made the translation more convenient. Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen , on the other hand, adopted literal translation and retained the metaphorical structure in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).

When the car is driving on the plateau, the people in the car see the scene. When Zhang Peiji translated this sentence, he added the element of "something like" to adapt to the English context and changed the metaphor into simile, which not only retained the image and meaning of the original, but also made the translation more smooth. Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen , on the other hand, adopted literal translation and retained the metaphorical structure in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).

--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

E.g.4

SL text:然而同时你的眼睛也许有点倦怠, 你对当前的 “ 雄壮 ” 或 “ 伟大 ” 闭了眼，而另一种味儿在你心头潜滋暗长了———“单调”！可不是？单调，有一点儿吧？(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).

TL text 1: Meanwhile, however, your eyes may become weary of watching the same panorama, so much so that you are oblivious of its being spectacular or grand. And you may feel monotony coming on. Yes, it is somewhat monotonous, isn’t it?(Zhang Peiji 2007).

TL text 2: However, at the same time, your eyes may feel somewhat tired and close before the “magnificent” and the “great” that lie in front of you. And another sensation rises in your heart monotonous! Isn’t it monotonous, maybe a bit?(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999).

The metaphor used in this sentence materializes the words “雄伟”、“壮大”、“单调”, and gives them characteristics that you can close your eyes to when you are tired; They can also grow in your mind and make for interesting reading. In Zhang Peiji's translation, we can see that the translation does not use metaphor, but translate directly according to people's normal thinking, and adopt the strategy of "translating metaphor into non-metaphor".(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).

The metaphor used in this sentence materializes the words “雄伟”、“壮大”、“单调”, and gives them characteristics that you can close your eyes to when you are tired; They can also grow in your mind. In Zhang Peiji's translation, we can see that the translation does not use metaphor, but translate directly according to people's normal thinking, and adopt the strategy of "translating metaphor into non-metaphor".(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).

Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen retain the organic structure of the metaphor in the original text, personify the two words “伟大”、“雄壮”, and retain the "container metaphor" in the ontological metaphor in the second half of the sentence, which not only retains the thinking and cognitive characteristics of the original text, but also conveys the effect of semantic rhetoric.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).

Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen keep the organic structure of the metaphor in the original text, personify the two words “伟大”、“雄壮”, and retain the "container metaphor" in the ontological metaphor in the second half of the sentence, which not only retains the thinking and cognitive characteristics of the original text, but also conveys the effect of semantic rhetoric.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===6. Conclusion===
To sum up, metaphor translation is not merely a transformation of one language to another. It’s a complexity involving multiple factors. The purpose of metaphor translation is to re-express the original information, faithful to its style, geographical and environmental condition, cultural environment, religious belief and so on. Still, people shouldn’t impose thoughts on the translators and deny their role in language transformation only in pursuit for the full fidelity to the original text, for there is no exactly identical thing in the world. (Wang Bo 2016,117).

To sum up, metaphor translation is not merely a transformation of one language to another. It’s a complexity involving many factors. The purpose of metaphor translation is to re-express the original information, faithful to its style, geographical and environmental condition, cultural environment, religious belief and so on. Still, people shouldn’t impose thoughts on the translators and deny their role in language transformation only in pursuit for the full fidelity to the original text, for there is no identical thing in the world. (Wang Bo 2016,117--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

As language is the shell of ideas, shaped by cultural background in particular, applying the method of metaphor translation helps better convey the information carried by the source language. Conversion Strategies like literal translation, free translation and metonymy translation are applicable. And the analysis of metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor will give readers an understanding of metaphor translation. (Wang Bo 2016,117).

As language is the shell of ideas, shaped by cultural background in particular, applying the method of metaphor translation helps better convey the information carried by the source language. The analysis of metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor will give readers an understanding of metaphor translation. (Wang Bo 2016,117).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

At long last, the author of this thesis hopes the above discussion gives readers a better understanding of the role of metaphor in cross-cultural translation and gives translators an insight into future translation practice. However, for the author has little talent and learning, the argument may be superficial. The author will keep learning from predecessors and peers.(Wang Bo 2016,117).

At long last, the author of this thesis hopes the above discussion gives readers a clear understanding of the role of metaphor in cross-cultural translation and gives translators an insight into future translation practice. However, for the author has little talent and learning, the argument may be superficial. The author will keep learning from predecessors and peers.(Wang Bo 2016,117).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===7. References===
*Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian. Cognitive-Pragmatic Strategies for English Translation of Colloquial Metaphors in Political Discourse.[J]. International Journal of Applied Linguistics and Translation. 2020, 6(3)-12.

*Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al. Chinese metaphor sentiment computing via considering culture.[J]. Science Direct. 2019, 352:33-41.

*Li Chunying. Translation of Metaphor from the Perspective of Cognitive Linguistics.[J]. Education, Society and Human Studies. 2020, 1(1)-11.

*ZHANG Jie. Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor Theory: Based on the Analysis of Imagery“Hong Sushou”in Song Ci. [J]. Studies in Literature and Language. 2020, 21(1):84-87.

*Guo Huiqing. 郭卉青.(2013). 浅议影响隐喻翻译的主要因素.[A Brief Discussion on the Main Factors Affecting Metaphor Translation].[J]. 晋中学院学报[Journal of Jinzhong College], 30(05):122-124.

*Hu Zhuanglin. 胡壮麟.(2004). 认知隐喻学.[Cognitive Metaphor].[M]. 北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].

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==A Comparative Study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s Translation Views 王源 Wang Yuan==
===Abstract===
Both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun are productive writers and translators. They hold different translation views. Lu Xun have adopted literal translation and hard translation in different periods, claiming “rather be faithful than smooth”. He translation views are highly consistent with his political views, that is changing people’s conservative and old thinking pattern. Liang Shiqiu takes the readers as the first priority and emphasizes the unity of faithfulness and smoothness, which means a text should be both faithful and readable. Having been influenced by Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, Liang put “humanity” as the highest standard of translations. The paper aims to give a comparative study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s translation views.

Both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun were productive writers and translators. They held different translation views. Lu Xun have adopted literal translation and hard translation in different periods, claiming that “tranlsation should rather be faithful than smooth”. His translation views were highly consistent with his political views, that has changed people’s conservative and old thinking pattern. Liang Shiqiu took readers as the priority and emphasized the unity of faithfulness and smoothness, which means a text should be both faithful and readable. Having been influenced by Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, Liang put “humanity” as the highest standard of translation. The paper aims to give a comparative study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s translation views.--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 04:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===keywords===
mean spirit; new humanism; Lu Xun; Liang Shiqiu

===摘要===
鲁迅和梁实秋中国著名文学家、翻译家和思想家。他们两个有着不同的翻译观。鲁迅在不同阶段采用直译和硬译进行文本翻译，主张“宁信而不顺”。他的翻译观和政治观是高度一致的，即改变国民保守而陈旧的思维模式。梁实秋以读者为第一要义，强调“信”“顺”统一，即译文既要忠实于原文，又要通顺可读。在儒家思想和白璧德新人文主义思想影响下，梁实秋成为一名坚定的人性论者，同时也形成了他独特的“中庸翻译观”本文将对梁实秋和鲁迅的翻译观进行对比研究。

鲁迅和梁实秋是中国著名文学家、翻译家和思想家。他们两个有着不同的翻译观。鲁迅在不同的时期分别采用直译和硬译的方法进行文本翻译，主张“宁信而不顺”的翻译原则。他的翻译观和政治观是高度一致的，即改变国民保守而陈旧的思维模式。梁实秋以读者为第一要义，强调“信”“顺”统一，即译文既要忠实于原文，又要通顺可读。在儒家思想和白璧德新人文主义思想的影响下，梁实秋成为一名坚定的人性论者，同时也形成了他独特的“中庸翻译观”。本文将对梁实秋和鲁迅的翻译观进行对比研究。--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 04:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===关键词===
中庸、新人文主义、鲁迅、梁实秋

===1. Background===
1.1 The formation of Liang Shiqiu's translation views

1.1 The Formation of Liang Shiqiu's Translation Views--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Liang Shiqiu's view of translation is homogeneous and heterogeneous with his literary thought, which in turn is closely related to his philosophy of life. Liang’s philosophy of life can be concluded into “mean”, and is the mixture of Confucianism, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and his aristocratic and gentle temperament. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008,29)

Liang Shiqiu's view of translation was homogeneous and heterogeneous with his literary thought, which in turn was closely related to his philosophy of life. The essence of Liang’s philosophy of life was "moderation", which was derived from Confucianism, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and his aristocratic and gentle temperament. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008,29)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Confucianism has deeply rooted in Liang’s mind when he was young, and the experience of going abroad for further study helped him accepted Babbitt’s new humanism, as both of them have shared some similar ideas.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008,30)

Confucianism has been deeply rooted in Liang’s mind when he was young, and the experience of further study aboard helped him accept Babbitt’s new humanism, as both of them have shared some similar ideas.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008,30) --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

First, “mean” is the core of Confucianism and new humanism. The doctrine of “mean” has existed in different aspects, such as in education, ethics, politics and aesthetics. For example, Confucius said “To learn without thinking is confusing, to think without learning is dangerous”, which is to emphasize the balance of learning and thinking. “Pleasure but not lust, sorrow but not injury” also tell us the danger of being extreme. Irving Babbitt also put “mean” as the best philosophy of life. Liang believes that Babbitt’s conclusion of humanity shows his view of “mean”. In his opinion, life has three states, which are natural, humanistic and religious. Naturalism advocates indulgence, religion the extinction of desire and humanism abstinence. Babbitt attempted to find a balance between material and spirit, and his philosophy had been greatly influenced by ancient Greek philosophy, who had the similar concept of “mean”. Liang Shiqiu knew the “mean” spirit had long been existed in human civilization and he himself was also deeply influenced by the “mean” spirit. In his opinion, literature should have certain independence and also educational function. (Yan Xiao Jiang, 2008,32)

First, “moderation” was the core of Confucianism and new humanism. The doctrine of “moderation” had great influences on different fields, such as education, ethics, politics and aesthetics. For example, as Confucius' saying goes: “To learn without thinking is confusing, to think without learning is dangerous”, which was to emphasize the balance of learning and thinking. The saying, “Pleasure but not lust, sorrow but not injury”, also told us the danger of being extreme. Irving Babbitt also regarded “moderation” as the best philosophy of life. Liang believed that Babbitt’s conclusion of humanity showed his view of “moderation”. In his opinion, life had three states, which were natural, humanistic and religious. Naturalism advocated indulgence, religion the extinction of desire and humanism abstinence. Babbitt attempted to find a balance between material and spirit, and his philosophy had been greatly influenced by ancient Greek philosophy, who had the similar concept of “moderation”. Liang Shiqiu knew the spirit of “moderation” had long been existed in human civilization and he himself was also deeply influenced by the spirit of “moderation”. In his opinion, literature should have certain independence and also educational function. (Yan Xiao Jiang, 2008,32)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Second, humanism is the tradition of Confucianism and new humanism. Confucianism has always been concerned with the social reality and life, reflecting the idea of "putting people first". Confucius' basic concepts such as "benevolence," "ritual," and "filial piety" have had a profound impact on Chinese culture, not only laying the foundation of humanism for Chinese philosophy, but these ideas can be said to be the foundation of humanism for all times and all peoples. Babbitt believed that humanism is about keeping a balance between the "one" and the "many", and that excessive naturalism and supernaturalism can destroy this balance. He believes that naturalism since the Renaissance and the Enlightenment has misunderstood humanism as a sympathy without choice. Therefore, he opposed Rousseau's "theory of goodness of human nature" and proposed a "dualistic theory of human nature of good and evil. He believed that good and evil have always coexisted, and that it is the constant conflict between good and evil, reason and desire, that causes the suffering of individuals and society. The idea of humanism laid the foundation of Liang Shiqiu's humanistic literary thought, which is somehow in line with the central idea of humanism expressed in Shakespeare's works. Humanist literature focuses on people, looks at people dialectically, and is concerned with people’s fate and future. Besides, both Confucianism and new humanism have shared some similar ideas such as focusing on morality, reason and respecting tradition.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008)

Second, humanism was the tradition of Confucianism and new humanism. Confucianism has always been concerned with the social reality and life, reflecting the idea of "putting people first". Confucius' basic concepts such as "benevolence," "ritual," and "filial piety" have had a profound impact on Chinese culture, not only laying the foundation of humanism for Chinese philosophy, but can be said to be the foundation of humanism for all times and all peoples. Babbitt believed that humanism was about keeping a balance between the "one" and the "many", and that excessive naturalism and supernaturalism could destroy this balance. He believed that naturalism since the Renaissance and the Enlightenment has misunderstood humanism as a sympathy without choice. Therefore, he opposed Rousseau's "theory of goodness of human nature" and proposed a "dualistic theory of human nature of good and evil. He believed that good and evil have always coexisted, and that it was the constant conflict between good and evil, reason and desire, that caused the suffering of individuals and society. The idea of humanism laid the foundation for Liang Shiqiu's humanistic literary thought, which was somehow in line with the central idea of humanism expressed in Shakespeare's works. Humanist literature focused on people, lookd at people dialectically, and was concerned with people’s fate and future. Besides, both Confucianism and new humanism have shared some similar ideas such as focusing on morality, reason and the tradition of respect.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

1.2 The formation of Lu Xun's translation views

1.2 The Formation of Lu Xun's Translation Views--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

1.2.1 The first period (1903-1906)

After the defeat of the Opium War, people began to introduce and learn the advanced ideas and technologies of the West in order to find a way to save their lives. Inspired by the slogan “ Traditional Chinese values aided with modern management and technology”, Westernization Group have translated a large number of works, mainly on military and scientific works. After that, Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao initiated the Reform Movement of 1898, attempting to save China by changing state institution. The focus of translation also shifted from technology to politics, laws and academic research. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)

Around the time of the Sino-Japanese War, two great translators of foreign thought and culture emerged in China, Yan Fu and Lin Shu. Yan Fu was mainly engaged in the translation and interpretation of social science theories. At the same time as Yan Fu, Lin Shu began to translate foreign novels. His translations were mainly Italian, with many abridgements and changes to the original texts. At this time, Lu Xun went to Japan to study, and soon published his maiden translation De la Terre à la Lune. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)

During the period of the Sino-Japanese War, two great translators appeared in China, Yan Fu and Lin Shu. Yan Fu was mainly engaged in the translation and interpretation of social science theories. At the same time, Lin Shu began to translate foreign novels. He mainly translated Italian into Chinese, with many abridgements and changes to the original texts. At this time, Lu Xun went to Japan to study, and soon published his maiden translation De la Terre à la Lune. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Lu Xun’s early translations were deeply influenced by Lin Shu and Yan Fu. When he was studying in Tokyo, he would look for each translation work of Lin Shu. Lin Shu did not know English at all, and his translations were done by listening to the dictations of others and then translated them through his own profound Chinese skills. Therefore, Lin Shu adopted domestication as his major translation technique. Having read dozens of Lin Shu’s translations, Lu Xun also apply domestication into his own translation. What’s more, in some translations, he would made some additions and deletions. (Wang Yixing, 2017, 38)

Lu Xun’s early translations were deeply influenced by Lin Shu and Yan Fu. When he was studying in Tokyo, he would look for and read every translation work from Lin Shu. Lin Shu did not know English at all, and his translations were done by listening to the dictations of other people, understanding them and then translated them through his own profound Chinese skills. Therefore, domestication was his major translation technique. Having read dozens of Lin Shu’s translations, Lu Xun also applied domestication into his own translation. What’s more, in some translations, he would made some additions and deletions. (Wang Yixing, 2017, 38)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

1.2.2 The second period (1907-1927)

With the deepening of the national crisis, Lu Xun gradually realized that the numbness and ignorance of the people is the root of the backwardness and weakness of our country. The national crisis in the modern history of China has made Chinese people face a dilemma: to maintain their own culture, or to learn from the strengths of the West? Lu Xun believed that we have to absorb fresh and new ideas from other countries. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)

With the deepening of the national crisis, Lu Xun gradually realized that the numbness and ignorance of the people was the root of the backwardness and weakness of our country. The national crisis in the modern history of China has made Chinese people face a dilemma: to maintain their own culture, or to learn from the strengths of the West? Lu Xun believed that we had to absorb fresh and new ideas from other countries. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In 1909，Lu Xun and Zhou Zuoren translated “A collection of foreign novels”. The work adopted a new translation method, which not only have maintained the contents and style, but also had done no changes of the chapter and format. In 1918, he wrote to his friend Zhang Shoupeng: “ I think Chinese should accept foreign languages in later translations.” Therefore, we can see Lu Xun adopted literal translation, attempting to accept and absorb foreign languages to develop and enrich Chinese, and to resurrect China. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)

In 1909，Lu Xun and Zhou Zuoren translated “A collection of foreign novels”. The work adopted a new translation method, which not only have maintained the contents and style of the original, but also has done no changes of the chapter and format. In 1918, he wrote to his friend Zhang Shoupeng: “ I think Chinese should accept foreign languages in later translations.” Therefore, we can see Lu Xun adopted literal translation, attempting to accept and absorb foreign languages to develop and enrich Chinese, and to resurrect China. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39) --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

From the perspective of culture, the New Culture Movement, which advocated democracy, science and vernacular Chinese, was prosperous at that time. As one of the leaders of the movement, Lu Xun realized the importance of introducing advanced culture and abandoned the dross of traditional Chinese culture. The reason why Lu Xun chose literal translation was that he wanted to popularize vernacular Chinese and push the development of Chinese. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)

1.2.3 The third period (1928-1937)

In this period, with the deepening of national crisis and the spread of Marxism, it was urgent to establish Chinese proletariat class, Lu Xun’s translation strategy was developing accordingly. After revolution, a general “political anxiety” emerged among people. This kind of anxiety should be released according to some channels, and translating advanced foreign works could erase the anxiety to some extent. (Wang Yanling. 2009, 39)

In his later translation activities, he not only advocated literal translation, but also “hard translation”. By using “hard translation”, he tried to introduce new expressions and syntax to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts. Therefore, the adopting of this extreme translation strategy was not for literary purpose, but political purpose.

In his later translation activities, he not only advocated literal translation, but also “hard translation”. By using “hard translation”, he tried to introduce new expressions and syntax to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts. Therefore, the adoption of this extreme translation strategy was not for literary purpose, but political purpose.--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===2.Translation views===

===2.Translation Views===--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

2.1 Liang Shiqiu's translation views

2.1 Liang Shiqiu's Translation Views

2.1.1 Be a translator caring both readers and original works

Liang Shiqiu advocated that translation activities should start from the need of readers, believing that the purpose of translation is to faithfully express a work in another language for those who do not understand the original. The translator's duty is to make the translation as smooth as possible without losing the original meaning. Therefore, the translation must be faithful and smooth, conform to Chinese norms and must not be translated into Europeanized text. In the course of his debate with Lu Xun, he proposed the unified translation concept of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”. He did not agree with Lun Xun’s idea that “better to be faithful than be smooth” nor Zhao Jingshen’s idea that “better to be smooth than be faithful”. He believed that bad translations include the following. First, it does not match the meaning of the original text. Secondly, it fails to convey the strong tone of the original text. Third, it is unintelligible. If one of these three points is satisfied, it is a bad translation; if all three points are satisfied, it is the worst translation. (Liang Shiqiu 1933)

Liang Shiqiu advocated that translation activities should prioritize the need of readers, believing that the purpose of translation was to faithfully express the meaning of a work in another language for those who do not understand the original language. The translator's duty was to make the translation as smooth as possible without losing the original meaning. Therefore, the translation must be faithful and smooth, conform to Chinese norms and must not be translated into Europeanized text. In the course of his debate with Lu Xun, he proposed the unified translation concept of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”. He did not agree with Lun Xun’s idea that “tranlation is better to be faithful than be smooth” or Zhao Jingshen’s idea that “translation is better to be smooth than be faithful”. He believed that bad translations could be reflected in the following aspects. First, it does not accord with the meaning of the original text. Secondly, it fails to convey the strong tone of the original text. Third, it is unintelligible. If one of these three points is satisfied, it is a bad translation; if all three points are satisfied, it is the worst translation. (Liang Shiqiu 1933)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Liang Shiqiu takes the reader as the first priority and emphasizes the unity of faithfulness and smoothness. He concluded the relationship between “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, “People often say that the best translation is one which does not read like a translation. However, it is only true when the translation is faithful to the original text and also the language of the translation is smooth. If one only knows the general meaning of the text, and then translate it in his native language fluently, it can only be considered as free translation, which is okay using in some normal articles. However, a large part of the value of a literary work lies in the subtlety of its use of words, so the translator must also be careful with the words.” (Liu Tianhua 1900,22)

Liang Shiqiu took the reader as the priority and emphasized the unity of faithfulness and smoothness. He concluded the relationship between “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, “People often say that the best translation is one which does not be read like a translation. However, it is only true when the translation is faithful to the original text and also the language of the translation is smooth. If one only knows the general meaning of the text, and then translate it in his native language fluently, it can only be considered as free translation, which is acceptable to be used in some normal articles. However, a large part of the value of a literary work lies in the subtlety of its use of words, so the translator must also be careful with the words.” (Liu Tianhua 1900,22)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Liu Bingshan once commented on Liang Shiqiu's translation: "Liang's translation is not based on the beauty of the language, but on the purpose of preserving the truth, sticking closely to the original work, not easily changing the original text, not avoiding all kinds of difficulties, and doing his best to convey the original meaning of Shakespeare. His translations are meticulous, euphemistic and clear, and can maintain the original characteristics of Shakespeare's plays. (Liu Bingshan, 1992)

Liang disagreed with Lu Xun’s advocation of “hard trasnaltion”, and regarded it as word-by-word translation. He criticizes Lu Xun's claim that the original shortcomings of the Chinese text was the reason for the difficulty of his translation. “Chinese and foreign languages are different, and there are grammars that are not found in Chinese, so this is where the difficulty of translation lies. If the grammar, syntax and lexis of both languages were exactly the same, would translation still be a job? (Liang Shiqiu, 2002)

Liang disagreed with Lu Xun’s advocation of “hard trasnaltion”, and regarded it as word-by-word translation. He criticized Lu Xun's claim that the original shortcomings of the Chinese text was the reason for the difficulty of his translation. “Chinese and foreign languages are different, and there are grammars that can not be found in Chinese, so this is where the difficulty of translation lies. If the grammar, syntax and lexis of both languages were exactly the same, would translation still be a job? (Liang Shiqiu, 2002)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

2.1.2 Be a translator advocating liberalism literature

Liang Shiqiu is one of the representatives of Chinese liberalism literature theory in 20th century. He claimed that literature is derived from humanism, based on humanism and ended in humanism. He was a determined humanist, denying the class nature of literature and opposing the use of literature as an enlightenment and a political tool. Liang said: “Universal humanity is the basis of all great works .... Pure humanity is the only criterion of literary criticism.” In his mind, literature is literature, and the core of literature is to describe humanity. Liang Shiqiu's literary thought is reflected in the selection of works to be translated, which should be classical works and should reflect "permanent humanity. In his article "On Mr. Lu Xun's "Hard Translation," Liang Shiqiu pointed out that the primary purpose of translation is to introduce first-rate literary works to the nation: "I believe that works of scholarly and permanent value should be given priority in translation." Liang Shiqiu advocated "reading first-class books and translating first-class books" and opposed translating foreign works without discrimination. His translation works, such as the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays, The Wuthering Heights, and Silas Marner, all have met his translation principles.

Liang Shiqiu was one of the representatives of Chinese liberalism literature theory in 20th century. He claimed that literature was derived from humanism, based on humanism and ended in humanism. He was a determined humanist, denying the class nature of literature and opposing the use of literature as an enlightenment and political tool. Liang said: “Universal humanity is the basis of all great works .... Pure humanity is the only criterion of literary criticism.” In his mind, literature was literature, and the core of literature was to describe humanity. Liang Shiqiu's literary thought was reflected in the selection of works to be translated, which should be classical works and should reflect "permanent humanity". In his article "On Mr. Lu Xun's "Hard Translation," Liang Shiqiu pointed out that the primary purpose of translation was to introduce first-rate literary works to the nation: "I believe that works of scholarly and permanent value should be given priority in translation." Liang Shiqiu advocated "reading first-class books and translating first-class books" and opposed translating foreign works without discrimination. His translation works, such as the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays, The Wuthering Heights, and Silas Marner, all have met his translation principles. --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

2.1.3 Be a scholarly translator

Liang Shiqiu taught at several universities and was a rigorous scholar. His strict attitude is reflected in his translation attitude. He pointed out: “ If a translator cannot completely understand what he is going to translator, then he is not a responsible translator. When encountering quotations from the classics, we should take great pains to look them up and annotate them so that the reader can understand.” (Liang Shiqiu 1967) This shows that translation is not only a simple act of translation but also a rigorous academic work for Liang Shiqiu. His translation attitude reflects on translating the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays.

Liang Shiqiu taught at several universities and was a rigorous scholar. His strict attitude was reflected in his translation attitude. He pointed out: “ If a translator cannot completely understand what he is going to translate, then he is not a responsible translator. When encountering quotations from the classics, we should take great pains to look them up and annotate them so that the reader can understand.” (Liang Shiqiu 1967) This showed that translation was not only a simple act of translating but also a rigorous academic work for Liang Shiqiu. His translation attitude reflected on his translating process of the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays. --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In the process of translating Shakespeare’s plays, Liang realized that translation works sometimes should do some research at the same time. “ Translation should properly combine with research, and without researching, one may not know how to translate precisely.” (Liang Shiqiu, 1967) Therefore, he managed to collect different editions of Shakespeare, as well as various sources related to him. Day by day, his collection was more complete than any universities in China. In the end he chose the Oxford edition of the complete works of Shakespeare. Regarding the obscene words and jokes in this version of Shakespeare's play, Liang Shiqiu believed that the gags in the play originally had their own significance in the context of the times. Even though obscene words were involved, they were harmless and could sometimes be considered to have a psychological health implication. In addition to translating the contents of the works, Liang Shiqiu also conducted a large number of studies. In each part of The Complete Works of Shakespeare, there was a preface detailing the history of the edition, the dating of the writings, the sources of the stories, the history of the stage, and the study of the text. The contents of the works or linguistic techniques such as puns and colloquialisms were extensively annotated, a method that some experts called "scholarly translation". Research showed that Liang Shiqiu was "the first expert scholar to introduce the British and American Western traditions of Shakespearean studies, opening the way for the study of Oriental Shakespeare in Taiwan, China." (Chen Shufen 2002)

2.2 Lu Xun

Lu Xun once wrote to Qu Qiubai, “I would rather be faithful than smooth. The importation of new content and new forms of expression advocated by Lu Xun is precisely what makes his translations innovative. He advocates that the reader "must take the trouble to chew", not "a few bites can be swallowed". This process of chewing is precisely the process of understanding and absorption by the reader. Lu Xun’s statement “rather be faither than smooth” indicated his advocation of literal translation. Literal translation requires translators to express the original text faithfully, and remains the language characteristics at the same time. For example, for the names of characters and places in foreign literary works, many translators have been accustomed to make them easy to read for Chinese readers, but Lu Xun thought it was unnecessary to do so, thinking that the exoticism and national color of the original work should be preserved. His early translation version of De la Terre à la Lune contained a large number of names of people and places, all of which were adopted transliteration. In the process of translation, with the introducing of new contents and new expression, we can have a better understanding of the cultural characteristics and social condition hidden in the text.

Lu Xun once wrote to Qu Qiubai, “I would rather be faithful than smooth". The importation of new content and new forms of expression advocated by Lu Xun were precisely what made his translations innovative. He advocated that the reader "must take the trouble to chew", rather "a few bites and then swallowed". This process of chewing was precisely the process of understanding and absorption by the reader. Lu Xun’s statement “rather be faither than smooth” indicated his advocation of literal translation. Literal translation required translators to express the original text faithfully, and remained the language characteristics at the same time. For example, for the names of characters and places in foreign literary works, many translators have been accustomed to make them easy to read for Chinese readers, but Lu Xun thought it was unnecessary to do so, thinking that the exoticism and national color of the original work should be preserved. His early translation version of De la Terre à la Lune contained a large number of names of people and places, all of which were adopted transliteration. In the process of translation, with the introducing of new contents and new expression, we can have a better understanding of the cultural characteristics and social condition hidden in the text. --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In Lu Xun’s translations, he tried hard to reappear the language characteristics of the original text, unique cultures and ethos of the society, all to make sure the “foreignness” of the translations. It not only preserves the characteristics of the original text, but also respects the author and facilitates the readers access to foreign cultures, thus expanding their horizons and enriching their knowledge. In fact, Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only an alternative to "direct translation," and the word "hard" in Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only for certain syntactic lexicons. The "hard translation" advocated by Lu Xun was only intended to be more faithful to the original text. Lu Xun always insisted on translating with an analytical and differentiated attitude, and he advocated different styles of translation according to the content of the translated work (general or theoretical book) and the status of the reader (general reader or expert). (Chen Fukang, 2000,295)

In Lu Xun’s translations, he tried hard to reappear the language characteristics of the original text, unique cultures and ethos of the society, all to make sure the “foreignness” of the translations. It not only preserved the characteristics of the original text, but also respectd the author and facilitates the readers access to foreign cultures, thus expanding their horizons and enriching their knowledge. In fact, Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only an alternative to "direct translation," and the word "hard" in Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only for certain syntactic lexicons. The "hard translation" advocated by Lu Xun was only intended to be more faithful to the original text. Lu Xun always insisted on translating with an analytical and differentiated attitude, and he advocated different styles of translation according to the content of the translated work (general or theoretical book) and the status of the reader (general reader or expert). (Chen Fukang, 2000,295)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Lu Xun had once mentioned in his translation work, “From the translation, Lunakarsky's thesis is clear enough. However, due to incapability of the translator and the original shortcomings of Chinese, there are many obscure points after the translation. If the short sentences in the long sentences are dismantled, the concise and sharp tone of the original is lost. Therefore, there is nothing I can do but to do hard translation.” (Chen Fukang,2000,291)

In response to Liang Shiqiu's criticism of his "hard translation" view of translation, Lu Xun explained his views on "hard translation" from an academic perspective, mainly with the following meanings. First, there is a difference between a "hard translation" and a "word-by-word translation", and it is not a deliberate "distorted translation". Second, The "hard translation" (mainly referring to the translation of scientific literary theories and other revolutionary theoretical works) has its own target audience that needs it. Third, "My translations, which are not intended to be enjoyable but uncomfortable. People who are opposed to my ideas often feel "bored, disgusted, and resentful"; and those "critics" who know little about theories should not be greedy for pleasure but try to study these theories. " Fourth, The "hard translation" is not only for the sake of not losing the original concise and sharp tone, but also for gradually adding new syntax, which will be assimilated into your own after a period of time. Fifth, “there will always be better translators in this world, who can translate without distorted, hard or word-by-word translation. At that time, my translation will be eliminated, and I am just here to fill the space from ‘nothing’ to ‘better’.” (Cheng Kangfu 2000,292-293)

In response to Liang Shiqiu's criticism of his "hard translation" view of translation, Lu Xun explained his views on "hard translation" from an academic perspective, mainly with the following meanings. First, there was a difference between "hard translation" and "word-by-word translation", and it was not a deliberate "distorted translation". Second, The "hard translation" (mainly referring to the translation of scientific literary theories and other revolutionary theoretical works) had its own target audience. Third, "My translations, which are not intended to be enjoyable but uncomfortable. People who are opposed to my ideas often feel "bored, disgusted, and resentful"; and those "critics" who know little about theories should not be greedy for pleasure but try to study these theories. " Fourth, The "hard translation" was not only for the sake of not losing the original concise and sharp tone, but also for gradually adding new syntax, which will be assimilated into your own after a period of time. Fifth, “there will always be better translators in this world, who can translate without distorted, hard or word-by-word translation. At that time, my translation will be eliminated, and I am just here to fill the space from ‘nothing’ to ‘better’.” (Cheng Kangfu 2000,292-293)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===3.Examples===
3.1 Liang Shiqiu
Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare's works is based on the strategy of foreignization, which mainly contains two levels of connotation: the first refers to the linguistic form, and the second refers to the cultural content. On the level of linguistic form, Liang Shiqiu focuses on introducing new expressions and strives to expand and enrich certain norms in the target language culture. On the level of cultural content, Liang mainly introduces the original text without any deletion, allowing readers to appreciate the original and exotic culture as much as possible.

Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare's works takes its artistry, and the strategy of foreignization helps to allow readers to confront the differences of foreign cultures and thus expand their horizons. On the form of names, Liang Shiqiu did not advocate shortening the translation of names in Shakespeare's works to the Chinese style. He said humorously, "Foreigners often have such long, wordy and eccentric names, so why should we bother to give them names and surnames?" In the process of translation, he usually adopted transliteration. For example, he translated “Julius Caesar” into “朱利阿斯西撒”，but not “凯撒大帝”. Likewise, he did not translate Antony and Cleopatra into a title which is charming like movie title, but chose transliterating into “安东尼与克利奥佩特拉”.

Another two examples can show Liang Shiqiu’s loyalty faithfulness to original text.

梁实秋译文：
卡先生，适才发生了这样不幸的事故，我们没有时间劝导我们的女儿：您知道，她对她的表兄提拔特是甚微友爱的，我也是很喜欢那孩子：唉，我们有生即有死。现在很晚了，她今晚不会下楼了：说实话，若非您在这里，我一个小时前就早已经上床了。
巴在这悲伤的时候也不便求婚。夫人，晚安：请代我向小姐致意。

朱生豪译：
凯欧莱特夫人伯爵，舍间因为遭逢变故，我们还没有时间去开导小女；您知道她和她那个表兄提博尔特是友爱很笃的，我也非常喜欢他；唉！人生不免一死，也不必再去说他了。现在时间已经很晚，他今夜不会再下来了；不瞒您说，倘不是您大驾光临，我也早在一个小时以前上床啦。
帕里斯我在你们正在伤心的时候来此求婚，实在是太冒昧了。晚安，伯母；请您替我向令媛致意。
This is a conversation between Madame Capulet, Juliet's mother, and Paris, a young nobleman. Since both speakers are persons of status, both Liang Shiqiu's and Zhu Shenghao's translation use formal style. Zhu Shenghao, following the Chinese tradition of "demeaning oneself and respecting others," uses the terms "伯爵"， "小女" ，"伯母"，"令媛” ， with a flavor of the old Chinese literati. Liang Shiqiu uses the terms "先生" ，"女儿"，"夫人" ，"小姐"，which can be used both in the west and east, with polite and respectful overtones, showing that there is a certain distance in the relationship between people.

PORTIA If I live to be as old as Sibylla, I will die as chaste as Diana, unless I be obtained by the manner of my father’s will. I am glad this parcel of wooers are so reasonable, for there is no one among them but I dote on his very absence, and I prey God grant them a fair departure.

梁实秋译：波如果我活到西逼拉那样老，我也愿意贞洁如戴安娜而死，除非是按照我父亲遗嘱的方法出嫁。我很高兴这群求婚的人如此知趣，因为这些人当中没有一个不是我深愿他快快离开的，我求上帝准他们平安归去吧。
朱生豪译：鲍西娅要是没有人按照我父亲的遗命把我娶去，即使我活到一千岁，也只好终身不字。我很高兴这一群求婚者都是这么懂事，因为他们中间没有一个人不是我唯望其速去的；求上帝赐给他们一帆风顺吧！
This scene is the response of Portia, a rich girl, to Nerissa, a maidservant. In this case, Zhu Shenghao translated “Sibylla” into “living to one thousand years”, which may be easier to be accepted by readers yet the domestication strategy has erased the exotism of original language. Liang Shiqiu translated “Sibylla” literally and added some notes to explain the allusion, which has efficiently expressed the “foreignness” and also helped Chinese readers to learn the allusion. “Diana” is the god of the moon, which has the implication of “chastity”. Zhu Shenghao translated it into “终身不字”，meaning “never get married the whole life, the semantic meaning of which is close to “as chaste as Diana”,yet the important information “chastity” has not been translated, while Liang Shiqiu’s transliteration did not miss the information.

3.2 Lu Xun

Lu Xun's translations can be roughly divided into three stages. The first stage is Lu Xun's early translations, which were mainly adaptation and compilation. In the second stage, literal translations were used. He said in his article ：“ All translations must take into account both sides. On the one hand, it must be easy for readers to read, and on the other hand, it must be faithful to the original work and preserve the foreigness. The third stage is to adopt hard translation. He believed that Chinese was an imprecise language with inherent flaws. And in order to make the translation not lose its precision, new expressions and syntax should be introduced. Lu Xun tried to improve the imprecision of the Chinese language through hard translations, so as to change the national thinking habits and transform the national character. Next, this paper will give two examples to reflect Lu Xun's ideas of literal translation and hard translation.

Er ging durch die gute Stube，wo alles sauber und ordentlich dastand wie immer-die hohen Lehnstühle unter ihren weien berzügen wie Leichen in ihren Totenhemden． An dem einen Fenster hing ein Drahtkfig － aber leer， mit weit geffneter Türe．

“Nastaszia! ”schrie Pater Ignatius， und grob hallte seine Stimme durch die stillen Ｒume，die verlegen schienen，da er gleich nach der Tochter Beerdigung so schreien konnte．

“Nastaszia，”rief er leiser，“wo ist der Kanarienvogel?”

Die Kchin，so verweint da ihr die Nase rot wie eine Ｒübe im Gesichte glnzte，erwiderte grob: “Wo soll er sein? -weggeflogen ist er．”

“Weshalb habt ihr ihn hinausgelassen?” Pater Ignatius zog die Brauen drohend zusammen．
Nastaszia brach in Trnen aus，und die Augen mit den Zipfeln ihres Kopftuches wischend，stammelte sie:

“Fruleinchens Seele hat ．．． ihn ．．． gerufen ．．．，wie durften ．．． wir ．．． ihn denn ．．． halten?”

鲁迅译：伊革那支入客室，见全室整洁，弗殊平时，几衣纯白，卓立如死人临敛。呼其婢曰，“那思泰娑，”则自觉声在虚室中，至复犷厉。窗外悬鸟笼，阑槛已启，其中虚矣。因复微呼曰: “那思泰娑，鸟安在?”婢哀毁，鼻已如芦萉，嗫嚅对曰， “自……自然去矣! ”伊革那支蹙额曰， “胡为纵之?”婢复泣失声，掣韨角拭其目，咽泪曰，“此性命，……此女士性命， ……何可留耶! ”

Although the translation adopted Classical Chinese, yet readers have a basic knowledge of Classical Chinese can feel the fluency and elegance of the translation. Lu Xun abandoned the practice of arbitrary additions or deletions and rewrites in the translation field at that time, and faithfully preserved the spirit of the original work. However, this kind of “faithfulness” is neither word-to-word translation, nor stiffly borrow syntax structure of the original text. For example, he combined seven paragraphs into one. Putting a single sentence as a paragraph is normal in modern Chinese While it is quite wired in Classical Chinese. Therefore, Lun Xun adopting domestication was to cater to the reading habits of Chinese readers. Besides, Lu Xun also made adjustment in some detailed descriptions. For example, the original meaning of "erwiderte Grob" in German,
"replied rudely", but it was translated into “嗫嚅”, meaning “ replied haltingly”. The chef’s attitude changed from impatience into hesitation and fear. Lu Xun probably had fully considered the culture of target language and the receptive ability of readers. Lu Xun’s translation strategies were flexible and was totally different from “hard translation” claimed in his later translation period. (Xie Haiyan, 2020, 52)
In another example, Lu Xun’s “hard translation” had fully in practice.

Maksimowa，hier fragt jemand nach Ihrem Zimmer，” erklrte der Angekommene，ein langer hagerer Student． Er ging als erster durch den Korridor，in dem die Luft sauer und dampferfüllt war， wie in dem schmutzigen Vorraum einer Badeanstalt． Er hrte nicht weiter auf das， was die Greisin sprach，schob sich durch den Korridor，an Koffern und Vorhngen， hinter denen sich irgend etwas rührte，vorbei und verschwand in seinem Zimmer． Erst als er seine Sachen abgelegt hatte und in roter Bauernbluse mit offenem Kragen ohne Gürtel dastand，fiel ihm der neue Mieter wieder ein und er fragte die Alte， die ihm einen siedenden Samowar brachte…

“玛克希摩跋( Maksimova), 这里有人问你的房子呢。”上来的人告诉说，是一个瘦而且长的大学生。他先向那空气又酸又湿，仿佛浴场的腌臜的前房一般的廊下的那边走。他也不再听老女人说什么，一径走过了堆着行李和挂着帐幔，那后面有什么正在蠢动的廊下，躲进他自己的屋子里去了。他放下物件，穿着畅开领口没有带子的红色的农家衣的时候，才又想到新来的客人，便问那老女人，恰恰捧着煮沸的撒摩跋尔进来的……

Both texts are detailed descriptions of dwelling environments, characters and language, but here the translation is stiff, full of Europeanized syntax, and in some places even obscure. The original (German) language is similar to English in that several adjectives can be placed before nouns and a long sentence can contain several finite clauses. These syntactic features are very different from the Chinese syntax, so in the process of translating into Chinese, the translator has to disassemble the text and replace them with multiple phrase structures or phrases. The juxtaposed adjectives should also be either combined or split into phrases as needed. Lu Xun’s translation strictly obeyed the syntax structure of German yet was too “faithful” to read. Besides, Lu Xun also kept heterogeneous information on purpose. For example, the word “Samowar” is a kind of metal teapot in Russia, which has no counterpart in Chinese. A translator can adopt domestication, using a word that Chinese readers are more familiar with, or use the word “teapot”. However, Lu Xun transliterated it into “撒摩跋尔” so that readers may find it hard to know the meaning of it. (Xie Haiyan, 2020, 56)
It can be seen that if the collection of foreign stories adopted literal translation, the labourer Suihuilov should be a hard translation. Excerpt above is clear and easy to understand, even if a mediocre translator can also easily and smoothly translate this paragraph of text, while Lu Xun's translation is quite rigid and stiff. This translation has showed Lu Xun’s typical translation -- hard translation, which has fully reflected his determination to reform Chinese and to change the thinking pattern of Chinese people. (Xie Hai, 2020, 57)

===4.The practical significance of translation views===

===4.The Practical Significance of Translation Views===--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

4.1 Liang Shiqiu

First, cultural conservatism should be opposed, and the principles of openness and absorption should be promoted. Taking the value system of Babbitt’s new humanism and the spirit of classicism as references, Liang advocated freedom and independence of thought, hoping to import new ideas, new literature and new culture through translation activities. This open vision helps the local culture to learn from and absorb the heterogeneous culture. Translation is the bond of cultural communication. Translators should not only consider nationality, but also treat the other with tolerance and openness. Human culture is exactly developing in the process of understanding and communicating. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008,285)

First, cultural conservatism should be opposed, while the principles of openness and absorption should be promoted. Taking the value system of Babbitt’s new humanism and the spirit of classicism as references, Liang advocated freedom and independence of thought, hoping to import new ideas, new literature and new culture through translation activities. This open vision helped the local people to learn from and absorb the heterogeneous culture. Translation is the bond of cultural communication. Translators should not only consider nationality, but also treat the other with tolerance and openness. Human culture is exactly developing in the process of understanding and communicating. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008,285)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Second, cultural radicalism should be opposed, and the principles of filtration and creativity should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu protected traditional culture with reason, and emphasized historical continuity of culture and the values of tradition. Liang tried hard to resurrect Chinese traditional culture by introducing western modern culture. The biggest characteristic of cultural radicalism is that it is more destructive than constructive, and even completely abandons its own tradition and copies western modern culture. Therefore, translators should on the one hand maintain the good of Chinese culture, and also learn new cultures and expressions on the other. (Yan Xaiojiang, 2008, 286)

Second, cultural radicalism should be opposed, while the principles of filtration and creativity should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu protected traditional culture with reason, and emphasized historical continuity of culture and the values of tradition. Liang tried hard to resurrect Chinese traditional culture by introducing western modern culture. The biggest characteristic of cultural radicalism was that it was more destructive than constructive, and even completely abandoned its own tradition and copied western modern culture. Therefore, translators should on the one hand maintain the good of Chinese culture, and also learn new cultures and expressions on the other. (Yan Xaiojiang, 2008, 286)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Third, cultural conflicts should be avoided while hospitality and order should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu combined the artistic spirit of ancient Greece, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and Confucianism’s “mean” spirit, and finally found the juncture between the heterogeneous discourses of Chinese and western traditional culture, and constructed and strengthened the liberal cultural ideal with classical spirit. This principle of compatibility and moderation sets an example for resolving cultural conflicts and realizing the ideal of harmony. An important characteristic of cultural conflictionism is that it exaggerates the conflict of culture and ignores the feature of accommodation and complementarity between cultures. Each culture has its own inherent rules. Differences and collisions are the process of communication between heterogeneous cultures. Only differences can maintain self-identity, only collisions can promote development, and only diversity can present prosperity. However, recognizing differences does not mean erasing consensus, and real consensus does not obliterate differences. We should grasp the problem of contemporary Chinese cultural identity in the tension structure of globalization and localization with understanding, communication and integration, striving to construct the modernity of Chinese literature and culture, participating in the world dialogue with artistic creation with national characteristics, opposing to replace another culture with one culture, and insisting on inheriting foreign culture critically. (Yan Xiaojiang, 2008, 287)

Third, cultural conflicts should be avoided while hospitality and order should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu combined the artistic spirit of ancient Greece, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and Confucianism’s spirit of "moderation", and finally found the juncture between the heterogeneous discourses of Chinese and western traditional culture, and constructed and strengthened the liberal cultural ideal with classical spirit. This principle of compatibility and moderation set an example for resolving cultural conflicts and realizing the ideal of harmony. An important characteristic of cultural conflictionism was that it exaggerated the conflict of culture and ignored the feature of accommodation and complementarity between cultures. Each culture has its own inherent rules. Differences and collisions are the process of communication between heterogeneous cultures. Only differences can maintain self-identity, only collisions can promote development, and only diversity can present prosperity. However, the recognization of differences does not mean erasing consensus, and real consensus does not obliterate differences. We should grasp the problem of contemporary Chinese cultural identity in the tension structure of globalization and localization with understanding, communication and integration, striving to construct the modernity of Chinese literature and culture, participating in the world dialogue with artistic creation with national characteristics, opposing to replace another culture with one culture, and insisting on inheriting foreign culture critically. (Yan Xiaojiang, 2008, 287)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In a word, Liang Shiqiu's “mean” spirit in translation not only formed his own theoretical system by combining observation with cognition, but also put this rational system into practice, which promoted the communication between traditional and modern culture, foreign and local culture, individual and common culture, so as to optimize cultural integration. In today's context of cultural pluralism, we must update our values and ways of thinking, understand the relationship between cultural identity and context with the concept of compound identity, and realize the rationality and effectiveness of cultural integration. （Yan Xiaojiang,2008, 287)

In a word, Liang Shiqiu's spirit of "moderation" in translation not only helped to form his own theoretical system by combining observation with cognition, but also put this rational system into practice, which promoted the communication between traditional and modern culture, foreign and local culture, individual and common culture, so as to optimize cultural integration. In today's context of cultural pluralism, we must update our values and ways of thinking, understand the relationship between cultural identity and context with the concept of compound identity, and realize the rationality and effectiveness of cultural integration. （Yan Xiaojiang,2008, 287)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

4.2 Lu Xun

In the comparison between Chinese and foreign languages, Lu Xun realized the imprecision of Chinese grammar and thus associated it with the "imprecision of Chinese thinking". He tried to introduce the expressions of foreign languages into Chinese through literal translation, and to promote the modernization of the Chinese language. Although there were many difficulties at the time, Lu Xun's efforts did, to a certain extent, contribute to the development of vernacular Chinese and the "Europeanization" of Chinese, and he also succeeded in absorbing the expressions and vocabulary of foreign languages. Even though the foreign grammar that Lu Xun borrowed from his direct translations at that time is not fully used today, and many of the expressions have been completely abandoned today, it is because Lu Xun pioneered the introduction of foreign expressions and persevered with them that modern Chinese today has rich and flexible syntax that can be extended and contracted, and sentences that are long but not chaotic and well-organized. This fully proves Lu Xun's foresight and wisdom. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 38)

Lu Xun’s translation views still have some practical significance in modern society. We can get some inspirations after reviewing Lu Xun’s translation views. On the one hand, western translation theories should be introduced. On the other hand, Chinese translation studies should be systematic, scientific and unique through constantly concluding, digging, refining and sublimating. We should treat translation theories Dialectically and developmentally and only in this way can translation theory studies have some breakthrough and creation. With the accelerated process of globalization, China is ushering in a new round of translation climax, and good academic ethos and translation ethics are the guarantee of translation quality. ( Wang Yanling, 2009, 38)

===Conclusion===

From the analysis of several texts above, we can see clearly that Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu have shared some similarities and differences in their translations practice.
From the perspective of translation views, both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun adopted literal translation. Liang Shiqiu emphasized the consistence of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, claiming that translations should be faithful to the original work and also be readable. With the influence of Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, he has formed “mean” translation view, which means that his translation were not extreme but appropriate and moderate. Lu Xun’s translation works mainly adopted literal translation and even “hard translation”. Compared with Liang Shiqiu, he claimed that translation works should “rather be faithful than smooth". In his opinion, Chinese is not precise enough, thus new syntax and expressions should be introduced to improve and enrich Chinese. The so called “ hard translation” appeared in Lu Xun’s later translations, which were unreadable and unacceptable. However, the political function was more important than its literary purpose.

From the choice of translation works, Liang Shiqiu encouraged translators to translate classics which are based humanity such as Shakespeare’s works. He was a determined humanism advocator, denying the class nature of literature and opposing using literature as the tool of enlightenment and politics. Lu Xun, however, was quite different. He translated a lot of Soviet literary works and wanted Chinese people to learn their rebellious and revolutionary spirit. Most of his translations have political function, aiming to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thinking.

From the choice of translation works, Liang Shiqiu encouraged translators to translate classics which are based on humanity such as Shakespeare’s works. He was a determined advocator of humanism, denying the class nature of literature and opposing regarding literature as the tool of enlightenment and politics. Lu Xun, however, was quite different. He translated a lot of Soviet literary works and wanted Chinese people to learn their rebellious and revolutionary spirit. Most of his translations had political function, aiming to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts. --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

From the purpose of doing translations, Liang Shiqiu put “humanism” as the core of his translation works. His purpose of translation was very pure, that is, to translate western classics, to give the Chinese people the pleasure of aesthetics and spirit. Lu Xun, however, was more “utilitarian”. The purpose of his translations were to bring more new culture and absorb new expressions to enrich Chinese. Lu Xun was living in a era when China was weak and corrupt, he wanted to use his translations as weapons to defeat corruption, ignorance and conservatism.

From the purpose of translating activities, Liang Shiqiu put “humanism” as the core of his translation works. His purpose of translation was very pure,which was to translate western classics, to give the Chinese people the pleasure of aesthetics and spirit. Lu Xun, however, was more “utilitarian”. The purpose of his translations was to bring more new culture and absorb new expressions to enrich Chinese. Lu Xun was living in an era when China was weak and corrupt, he wanted to use his translations as weapons to fight with corruption, ignorance and conservatism.--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Rrferences===
*Fang Mengzhi. 方梦之. (2004). "译学词典". [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 296.

*Yan Xiaojiang. 严晓江. (2008). "梁实秋中庸翻译观研究". [On Liang Shiqiu's View of "mean" in Translation]. 上海译文出版社 [Shanghai Translation Publishing House] 32-52.

*Wang Yanling. 王燕玲. (2009). "鲁迅翻译观的形成及其现实意义". [The Formation of Lu Xun's Translation Theory and its Practical Significance]. 时代教育 [TIME EDUCATION] 39-40.

*Wei Sichao. 魏思超. (2011). "直视鲁迅“硬译”观". [A Direct View of Lu Xun's "Hard Translation"]. 文学教育 [Literature Translation]. 24-25.

*Jin Boya. 金博雅. (2011). "鲁迅和梁实秋的文学翻译对比研究". [A Comparative Study of Literary Translation Between Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu]. 北方文学 [Northern Literature] 118-119.

*Liu Fang. 刘芳. (2014). "论鲁迅直译观的形成及其历史意义". [On the Formation and Historical Significance of Lu Xun's Literal Translation]. 名作赏析 [Masterpieces Review] 123-125.

*Xie Haiyan. 谢海燕. (2020). "协商直译: 重论鲁迅的直译与《域外小说集》". [Negotiating Literal Translation: Ｒeinterpreting Lu Xun’s Literal Translation and Collection of Foreign Short Stories].绍兴文理学院学报 [JOUＲNAL OF SHAOXING UNIVEＲSITY] 51-60.

*Zheng Chun. 郑春. (2017). "再谈鲁迅的翻译以及“硬译”". [The Second Discussion on Lun Xun's Translation and Literal Translation]. 广西师范学院学报 [Journal of Guangxi Teachers Education University] 6-11.

*Chen Fu. 陈芙. (2017). "鲁迅的“硬译”与译者惯习解析". [Analysis on Lu Xun's "Hard Translation" and His Habitus]. 浙江理工大学学报 [Journal of Zhejiang Sci-Tech University] 505-510.

*Song Liulin. 宋柳霖. (2019). "“信”与“顺”的交锋——鲁迅和梁实秋翻译论战的分歧探析". [The Confrontation Between "Faithfulness" and "Smoothness"——On the Differences in the Translation Debate Between Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu]. 校园英语 [Campus English] 241-242.

*Lv Xuemei. 吕雪梅. (2020). "鲁迅翻译思想三大“异”及其价值". [Three Differences in Lu Xun's Translation Thoughts and Their Values]. 江苏外语教学研究 [Research on Foreign Language Teaching in Jiangsu Province] 81-83.

*Yang Xiaohua. 杨小花. (2020). "鲁迅“硬译”思想发展脉络分析". [An Analysis of the Development of Lu Xun's "Hard Translation" Thought]. 文学教育 [Literature Education] 27-29.

==A Brief Introduction to Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization 徐佳 Xu Jia 202070080613 MTI英语笔译==
===Abstract===
Deconstruction, founded in a critique of structuralism, emphasizes the uncertainty of textual meaning and denies the supreme authority of the original author. As a representative figure of deconstruction, Derrida's theories have had a great impact on the Western traditional theories. Under the influence of deconstruction, Venuti proposed the translation strategy of foreignization, criticizing the "invisibility" of translators and arguing that the purpose of translation is to protect and reproduce cultural differences, which contributes a lot to translation studies.

===Key words===
Deconstruction; Domestication; Foreignization

===题目===
解构主义及韦努蒂的异化翻译策略刍议

===摘要===
解构主义是在对结构主义的批判中建立起来的，强调文本意义的不确定性，否认原作者至高无上的权威性。德里达作为解构主义的代表人物，其理论观点对西方理论传统产生了巨大冲击。在其思想影响下，韦努蒂提出异化翻译策略，批判译者“隐身”，认为翻译的目的是要保护再现文化差异，其理论具有一定的进步意义。

===关键词===
解构主义；归化；异化

===Introduction===
Translation has a long history and translation studies have gone through a long journey. In the 20th century, along with the changes in the fields of philosophy and literature, linguistic and cultural shifts emerged in translation studies, and new translation schools have sprung up one after another. Among them, the most controversial one is Deconstruction and its translation views. Deconstructionism is established in the criticism of structuralism, with decomposition as its main feature, systematically deconstructs the concepts of "structure" and "meaning". It focuses on overturning the traditional concept of translation fidelity so as to highlight the central position of the translator, thus opening up new horizons for contemporary translation studies.

===The Emergence of Deconstruction and Derrida’s Theories===
Deconstruction is an all-open critical theory that emerged from France in the late 1960s, which questions rationality and subverts tradition. It takes interpretive philosophy as its philosophical foundation, advocates pluralism, and aims to break the closedness of structure, eliminate logos-centrism, and overturn the western philosophical tradition of binary oppositions.

Jacques Derrida, a French philosopher, is the father of deconstructionism. He wrote an essay named "Structure, Symbols, and Play in the Language of the Humanities" , which was publicly read at Johns Hopkins University in 1966, thus marking the birth of deconstruction. In the United States, it has received unprecedented spread and creative development. Among many scholars, the most influential was the "Yale School" represented by Paul Derman, Geoffrey Hartmann, Hillis Miller and Harold Bloom. They interpreted and popularized the ideas of Deconstruction, leading to its tremendous impact and flourishing in North America.（Wen Hong 2010,185）

Deconstruction is a critical inheritance of structuralism. Structuralism holds that everything has its structure, which determines the essence of things, and to study the essence of things needs to study their deeper structure. Deconstructionists, on the other hand, believe that structuralism is inherited from the dualistic mode of thinking in traditional western philosophy, which always establishes one original and one center for the world, such as the idea, God, man, etc. Around the original and the center, the world is formed and there are a series of two oppositions, such as subject and object, sound and writing, reason and sensibility, truth and error, philosophy and literature, etc. The former always takes precedence and the latter is a kind of derivation, dependence or exclusion of the former.（Xie Tianzhen 2000,314）

Its attack against structralism mainly focuses on the binary opposition between sound and words. The long-standing western tradition of valuing sound over words assumes that meaning comes before words, and that words themselves are of little importance, but merely serves as megaphone for expressing meaning. Derrida called it "logocentrism," which is another name for reason, truth, subject, being, essence, etc. Derrida traced and extensively gave examples that written words had been looked down upon. For example, Plato once claimed that words are the invention of children, while language embodys the wisdom of adults. Aristotle also believed that language are the representation of inner experience, while words, the representation of language, is the medium of medium, so it is in a secondary position.(Ren Shukun 2000, 55)

Derrida, however, introduced the concept of "archetypal words," which raised the status of written words to a new level. In his view, words is the original and prototype of language and it is the prerequisite of all linguistic phenomena and construction of meaning. In addition, Derrida created a new word "differance", which is only one letter different from "difference" and has the same pronunciation. This difference, which can only be seen in words but cannot be told in speech, makes the western tradition of emphasizing sound over writing collapse. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)

Thus, we can see that deconstruction, though based on the criticisim of structuralism, actually points at the western tradition of rationalism. According to Derrida, deconstruction is a thought about being and metaphysics. It thus lead to a discussion of the authority of being, or the authority of essence, and such a discussion or interpretation cannot simply be generalized as a negativistic destruction. (Fan Zhongying 1997, 36)This sentence can be understood in two ways. first, deconstruction represents a spirit of rebellion in that it dares to think about, discuss, and reinterpret authoritative philosophies that have existed for thousands of years.Behind the radical attitude of deconstruction lies a profound spirit of questioning tradition, a determination to destroy any form of rigidity and privilege. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)

Deconstruction has always been regarded as a thoery of merely breaking without establishing. According to Derrida, however, deconstruction cannot simply be generalized as a negative destruction. Actually, breaking itself implies building. Through denying the "truth" of the structuralism and metaphysical traditions, deconstruction aims to create a pluralistic, tolerant and open system. Deconstructionism is undeniably revolutionary for its total rejection of binary opposition. And at the same time, since it acknowledges the coexistence of multiple logics constituted by varied traditional factors, the revolution is relative. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)

Generally speaking, every ideological trend is marginal, fragmented, and even radical at its inception, and so is deconstruction. Compared to structuralism, it is still unmature. Nevertheless, deconstruction, with its continuous negation against the thinking mode of binary opposition and its thoroughness in decomposing it, is an evolving and vigorous ideology.

The first thing Derrida's deconstruction theory wants to eliminate is the concept of "structure", which is the cornerstone of structuralism. He launched a fierce attack on the logos-centralism and instead emphasize the uncertainty of the meaning of the text. In his theory, Derrida created a series of terms that he called "new concepts" such as "trace", "differance","dissemination", "decentering", etc. Take "dissemination" as an example. According to Derrida, dissemination is the inherent ability of all words. It does not convey any meaning, for the production of every meaning is the result of "differance". Every reading is a search for "trace" of the seeds that have been disseminated, and every reading is a re-understanding of what seems to have met before. (Wen Hong 2010, 186)

Roland Barthes, another representative of deconstructionism, compares the text to an onion, which has many layers but no core, no original, and unity is its superficial phenomenon. This metaphor suggests that the meaning of the text is uncertain and that the search for the original meaning of the text is futile. Barthes asserted that "the author is dead", which completely denies the author's creativity and crushes all attempt to trace the author's original meaning. The intertextuality and indeterminacy of textual meaning make reading a concrete act associated with the specific times and reading subjects, which strongly breaks the traditional view that reading is only a passive consumption of texts, and greatly promotes the enthusiasm, initiative and creativity of readers. (Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)

Indeed, apart from literary criticism which necessarily analyses and evaluates the work from the critic's subjective view, the phenomena of distorting the meaning of original for one's own profit are not rare, and even general reading is never a passive absorption of the ideas in the work. This point of view, in fact, has long been embodied in the keynote of reception aesthetics, which explicitly emphasizes the role of human in textual relations and the great initiative of participants in discourse communication. It actually reveals that in the rich and complex history of all language and text, there lies the rich and complex history of human spiritual activity. This process can by no means be summed up in Hegel's rigid dialectical model of "positive-negative-combination".(Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)

Like other fields of the humanities, translation community is inevitably impacted by the ideas of deconstruction. Traditional translation theories regard the original text as an unshakable authority, which is always above the translation and translation activities. Fidelity exists as a supreme standard for translation, and the discussion of equivalence has always been a hot topic in the translation community. Deconstruction reveals the relationship between texts. It argues that since every text is born in a specific historical environment, there is no absolute equivalence between the original text and the translation, and any factors that affect human thinking, such as ideology, values, ethics, morality, cultural traditions, political system, etc., will affect the translation. (Huang Zhending 2005,19)

Therefore, any original text is always in the process of being constantly rewritten, and every reading and translation of the original text means a reconstruction of the original text rather than a tracing of the original meaning. Translation involves two languages and two cultural systems, and deconstructionists believe that the purpose of translation is to pretect and reproduce the differences between languages and cultures instead of eliminating them with sameness. There is no accurate and fixed meaning of translation, and even a detailed retelling can produce new meanings that give life to the original. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)

Before the advent of deconstruction, Walter Benyamin, a German translation theorist, put forward ideas related to deconstruction in his book "The Task of the Translator" in 1923, and thus he has been widely regarded as the founder of deconstructionist translation theory. Benyamin uses the term "pure language" to explain the differences between languages, which refers to the universal language shared by all human beings before they built the Tower of Babel. According to Benjamin, a pure language is complete and abstract, and the many languages used today derive from it. Only when these languages complement each other can it be possible to reproduce the whole picture of a pure language. The essence of language can be grasped only in the differences of specific languages. Therefore, translation should try to reflect these differences. The languages we use today is fragments of pure language, and so are the original text and its translation. Since they are fragments, their main characteristics are fragmentation and mutilation, and the task of the translator is to find and reflect the formal characteristics of the fragments. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 316)

===Venuti’s Translation Theory of Deconstruction ===
In the late 20th century, under the influence of deconstructionism, many translation theorists put forward some new views, including Edwin Gentzler, Ander Lefevere, Susan Bassnett, Theo Hermans, Gideon Toury, Lawrence Venuti, etc. Putting translation in the overall social and cultural context, they reconsidered many factors affecting translation, and tried to build new translation theories. Among them, Venuti's theory has been recognized as a representative one.

In 1992, Venuti compiled a collection of essays on translation named Rethinking Translation. In the preface of the book, he mentioned several neglected issues, mainly the marginal status of translators and its causes, and called for a rethinking of translating. In 1995, he published Translator's Invisibility, a masterpiece on the history of Western translation over 200 years, which is a representative work of foreignizing translation theory that drew much attention in the late 20th century. The book describes the situation and behavior of translators in Anglo-American cultures, traces the history of transparent discourse in English translation that has emerged since the seventh century, and reveals the various cultural hegemonies that originated as smooth discourse. (Zhao Shang2007,76)

The ultimate goal of Venuti's translation theory of foreignization is to have translators and readers reflect on the violence of nationalism in translation, and thus they can have an expectation to feel linguistic and cultural differences when translating and reading translations. Deconstruction has rewritten the history of western translation by rejecting the viewpoint of western-centralism and advocating an equal relationship between national cultures and languages. This naturally links translation studies with power, ideology and colonialism, regarding translations as a political act. Of course, the aim of it is not to raise the value of every foreign culture by treating Anglo-American culture as an object of racial discrimination. It focuses on how to study and practice translation as a site of differences at the theoretical, critical and textual levels rather than emphasizing homogeneity, as is popular nowadays.(Zhao Shang2007,76)

====Objections to Domesticating Translation====
Venuti build his translation theory on the basis of deconstruction, and his definition of translation is as follows: "Translation is a process that the translator replaces the chain of signifier in the source text with that in the target language." (Venuti 1998, 22) Since meaning is produced by relations and differences in a potentially infinite chain, there will always be differences and delays and will never be the whole of an original text. Both the foreign text and the translation are derivative and are made up of different linguistic and cultural materials. Therefore, neither the foreign author nor the translator is the original author, and the meaning of the work is so unstable that it can transcend the intent of the work. This is very different from the traditional concept of translation.

Traditionally, it is believed that the author is the original creator of a unique text where he expresses his own feelings and has absolute authority and ultimate right to interpret it. Given this, the translator's work can only be an imitation of the original text, and the translation is neither self-expressive nor unique, but a derivative of the it. This concept has ruled the translation world for a long time, decisively placing the translator in a subordinate position to the author and the translation to the creation. Translated text has always been compared with the original text, and any deviation from it is considered a flaw or even a shame. In order to increase the faithfulness of the translation, translator goes to great lengths to hide himself, by erasing as much as possible linguistic and cultural differences and assimilating the original text with the linguistic features and values of the target language. A translation based on such a strategy will be immediately accepted by the target language readers. Therefore, the ideal translation that translators have long strived for is one that makes the reader feel as if they were reading the author's original text in the target language.(Ren Shukun 2004,56)

Venuti have different ideas. Under the influence of deconstructionist thinking, Venuti points out in the preface of his book Rethinking Translation that "a translation can never be faithful to the original text, and is always more or less free. It is never definite, and always has an addition to or subtraction from the original. It can never be a transparent representation, but only an interpretive transformation, revealing the multiple meanings and ambiguities of the foreign text and translate them into other multiple and divergent meanings." (Venuti 1992, 67) He began his book, The Invisibility of the Translator, by quoting Norman Shapiro: "I think translation should be transparent and not look like a translation. A good translation is like a piece of glass, you will not notice it without tiny imperfections such as scratches and bubbles. Ideally, of course, there should be no flaws at all. It should not draw attention on itself." (Venuti 1995, 81)

"Invisibility" describes the condition and activities of translators in contemporary Anglo-American culture. According to Venuti, such a smooth and transparent translation gives the reader a sense of fidelity and thus becomes the translator's major pursuit. However, a fluent translation conceals the subjective interpretation of the translator, and also obscures the process of mediation between the original text and the translation and that between the author and the translator. In this way, the hard work of the translator is eclipsed by the authority of the author, and many cultural and linguistic differences are also tucked away.(Huang Zhending 2005,20)

According to Venuti, the meaning of a work is plural. A translation only temporarily fixes one meaning of the work, and it is based on different cultural assumptions and interpretive choices, and subject to the constraints of particular social forms and different historical epochs. Meaning is plural and indefinite, and it is by no means an unchanging and unified whole. Therefore, translation cannot be measured by the mathematical concept of equivalence of meaning or one-to-one correspondence, while the norms of exact translation, the concepts of "fidelity" and "freedom" are historically-determined categories. Translation is built by translation and translation. It is the relationship between the translation and the cultural and social conditions resulting from it that allows the translation to survive.（Feng Yihan 2006,41）

Among contemporary translation schools, Nida's translation theory is a typical one of domestication. Naida argues that the translation of dynamic equivalence is to pursue the complete naturalness of the words, (Nida 2004, 159) the essence of which is to eliminate linguistic and cultural differences in inter-linguistic communication. Venuti, however, pointed out that the so-called communication, which originates from the culture of the target language and is at the same time controlled by it, is in fact a selfish interpretation. Thus, this kind of communication is an appropriation of foreign texts for one's own profit rather than information exchange." Nida's translation theory that takes communication as a starting point does not adequately take into account the ethnocentric distort that is inherent in the translation process. Naida's advocacy to produce the same response in the readers of the target language and in the readers of the source language is a kind of cultural violence that denies the differences between languages and cultures.（Wen Hong 2010,186）

====Advocacy for Foreignizing Translation====
The concept of foreignizing translation goes back to Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher. He put forth two methods of translation in 1813, "The translator should either try not to disturb the author and keep the reader close to him, or he should try not to disturb the reader and keep the author close to the them."(Lefevere 1992, 74) The former refers to the foreignizing method, which advocates deliberately breaking the linguistic and cultural norms of the target language by preserving some exotic expressions in the original text so that the readers can learn and enjoy the foreign culture.

Moreover, foreignizing translation cannot be simply equated with paraphrase. While the latter involves only the linguistic operations of translation, foreignizing translation, as defined by Venuti, involves two links. The first is the selection of materials, which means what to translate, and the second is the language conversion strategy, which means how to translate. As long as one of the two links involves foreignization, the translation strategy can be defined as foreignizing translation. The debate between foreignization and domestication focuses on whether to close to the culture of the source language or to the culture of the target language. According to Venuti, the prerequisite of foreignizing translation is that there are cultural differences and communication is complicated by cultural differences between and within linguistic communities. Foreignizing translation acknowledges and tolerate differences and create cultural differences in the target language.（Ren Shukun 2004,57）

A translator who prefers foreignization may not only change the means of expression of the translated text, but also choose to translate foreign texts that challenge the foreign literary norms in the target language. Translation is a process of finding common ground between languages and cultures, especially in the search for similar information and similar forms or skills of expression. This search which is necessary for the translator is often confronted with differences. But translator can never, and should never, erase all differences. A translation should be a place where different cultures coexist and the reader can learn about them. Therefore, Venuti's translation strategy of Foreignization, to some extent, is a kind of cultural intervention, which challenges and questions the attempts to suppress foreign things, and highlights the linguistic and cultural differences by placing the readers in a foreign-mannered text.（Feng Yihan 2006,42）

Specifically, in the use of translation methods, it reflects a difficult and obscure translation style, and even uses ancient words of the target language to provide readers with a new reading experience. Ezra Pound's translation of Cathay and Nabokov's translation of Pushkin's poetic novel Eugene Onegin both use the foreignizing methods. In the history of English literature, the debate between Arnold and Newman is actually a debate about domestication and foreignization. Newman was dissatisfied with the translation style of Homer's works in Victorian England. He thought this kind of translations were too slender and elegant that were favored by the so-called elite, or "great tradition" culture of England. Instead, He chose the "small tradition," that is, the foreignizing method, translating Homer's works into popular lyrical songs, in which a mixture of ancient words, ballads and awkward sentences replaced the serious and straightforward expressions. (Liu Junping 2019, 416)

====Preference for Minority-oriented Translation====
According to Venuti，the use of any language can mark power relations, and at any historical moment it is the control of the dominant linguistic form over minute variables. (Venuti 2004, 75) These tiny variables are the so-called "residue", which is opposed to the dominant forms of language, including dialects, archaic languages, colloquialisms, technical terms, and so on. Residues are proposed and applied to prevent the rigidity of language use and kept it alive and fresh.

With the existence of residues, language use cannot be completely systematized and regularized. The concept of "residue" suggests that linguistic forms are closely related to specific social and historical environment. Residues have supplemented, corrected, and even subverted the mainstream language by transforming, delegitimizing and denaturalizing it, and thus have promoted its development. In order to release the residues, the translator has to innovate his concept so as to achieve the transformation of linguistic and cultural differences.(Guo Jianzhong 2000,51)

Venuti believed that a good translation is a minority-oriented one, which embraces heterogeneity and allows for the existence of unfamiliar, exotic, non-standard, and marginal languages and rules. "Minority translation" means releasing not only linguistic "residues" but also cultural "residues". The marginal texts and translations, as measured by mainstream values, are what Venuti prefers. He said, "I prefer to translate texts that are marginal and weak in my own culture, and that serve to marginalize the dominant linguistic and cultural forms of the English language.“ (Venuti 1998, 32) Today, with the further development of globalization, the economic and political dominance of the United States has marginalized the languages and cultures of other countries. To oppose the global hegemony of English and its culture is exactly what Venuti's advocacy aims at.(Ren Shukun 2004,57)

Minority translation never to acquire more, never to establish new standards and rules, but to promotes cultural innovation and understanding of cultural differences through the production of more linguistic variables. In resistant translation, "residual" means going beyond transparency in the use of language, even undermining it with varying degrees of violence. Such new ideas reflect the awareness of unequal relations in translation. In Venuti's view, translation cannot be a simple and egalitarian activity. It is racially superior in nature, either out of reverence for a foreign culture or out of pride in one's own culture. (Ren Shukun 2004, 57)

The positive significance of foreignization is that it can introduce and absorb foreign cultural nutrients, bring new elements to local culture and language, and thus promoting communication and penetration among different cultures and languages. At the same time, foreignization strategy makes translation alienate from the target language culture, frees the readers from the cultural spell that has confined their reading and writing, which in essence is a counteraction against the ethnocentrism in the target language culture.

===Application of Foreignization and Domestication===
When it comes to the choice of adopting foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, we should first consider which one is more conducive to cross-cultural communication and mutual understanding between people with different linguistic and cultural backgrounds. Since translation is a process of intercultural communication in nature, the translator should take into consideration the inter-subjectivity and dialogue generation between texts rather than merely foreignizing or domesticating sentences accoring to grammar. They should bear in mind it's a process of cultural interaction.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)

The theory of inter-subjectivity focuses on the consideration of whether or why I, as a subject, can know another subject, and not just regards the cognitive activity of human beings only as a dualistic subject-object cognitive act. Therefore, translating is not a monologue. However, it is important to emphasize that due to the different levels of readers, the translator can not make every reader satisfied and understand the translation. For different readers, the translator may make necessary changes to the translation. It not follows the translator's subjective judgement to adopt foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, but depends on the actual situation.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21）

Since translation services the target readers, the translator should, no matter which translation strategy is adopted, try to think of them and build a bridge across the cultural gap between the original text and the target readers. So how to find a balance between these two strategies? On the technical level, we should stick to one principle when handling the issue of domestication and foreignization, namely a dialectical view of their relationship. With their respective advantages, the two strategies play different roles and satisfy different needs. They are not incompatible just because they have distinctive orientations.(Wang Yingping 2011, 216)

In fact, no translation is completely based on a single approach of domestication or foreignization. As Lu Xun once commented, “there is no such thing as a thoroughly domesticated translation in the world. Those who claim to be so are fuzzy things that, under close examination, should not be considered as translation in proper.” A good translation is always a mix of both domestication and foreignization. Besides, we should avoid any tendency towards extremes in this matter. Only by striking a balance between those two poles can we produce a work with both original flavor and good acceptance.(Wang Yingping 2011, 216)

===Conclusion===
Vernuti's deconstructionist view of translation shows the incoherence between the original text and the translation and that how the translator is involved in cultural production. He analyzes the power relations behind the text and gives us a new perspective on translation studies.

However, the resistant strategy that he put forward is marginalized in the translation community. The reasons are as follows. First, the word "resistant" implys the passive defensive status of this strategy and its weakness to counteract the mainstream. Second, in order to release the residues, the translator usually chooses a marginal text to resist the influence of the mainstream. Third, once the text is selected, the translation would depart from the mainstream and to create something new in terms of language, text, rhythm, narrative mode, etc. Such a translation that defies the translation tradition is hardly accepted by a large number of readers in the short term. Thus, the marginal position of Venuti's foreignizing translation strategy is inevitable.

Translation is never going in an unaffected way. Both foreignization and domestication are in fact the products of influenced translation activities. On theoretical level, it is difficult to say which is better, because translation practice shows that each of them plays an irreplaceable role in the target language and culture and fulfills its own mission.

From the perspective of development, cultural exchanges are becoming more and more frequent, and translation, as one of the forms of it, is actually a process of cultural integration. Culture itself is an open system with an inestimable capacity for tolerance, so It is easy for the target readers to accept new things from the source culture through foreignization. The translator should choose translation strategies with comprehensive considerations and find a balance between cultural equivalence and acceptability, and thus achieving the best effect of cultural exchange and literary appreciation.

There is no specific, prescriptive mode for deconstruction in Derrida’s and Venuti’s theories. The importance lies in their unrestricted thinking and revolutionary spirit, which reminds people to rethink traditions and to consider more complex factors that determine the relationship between languages. However, the deconstructionist view of translation is by no means perfect. Its deliberately pursuit of differences and disregard for unity will inevitably lead to confusion. Therefore, it is undoubtedly beneficial to translation research if we objectively see the advantages and disadvantages of the deconstructionist view of translation.

===Reference===
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Ren Shukun任淑坤. (2004).解构主义翻译观刍议——兼论韦努蒂的翻译思想和策略 [Humble Opinions on Deconstructive Translation and Venuti's Translation Thoughts and Strategies]. ''外语与外语教学'' Foreign Language and Their Teaching (188) 55-58.

Lin Qiuyun 林秋云. (1998).德里达的解构主义理论[Derrida’s Theories of Deconstruction].''外国文学评论''.Foreign Literature Review

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Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2000).''翻译的理论构建与文化透视''[Theoretical Construction and Cultural Perspective of Translation].上海：上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

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When Hong 温弘. (2010).解构主义翻译理论及韦努蒂的翻译策略 [Deconstructive Translation Theory and Venuti's Translation Strategies]. ''甘肃科技'' Gansu Science and Technology 26(15):185-187.

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Bai Xiaohong 白晓红. (2012). 论解构主义翻译观的进步性与局限性[On the Progressiveness and Limitations of the Deconstructionist View of Translation]. ''长春教育学院学报''Journal of Changchun Education Institute 28(6):20-21.

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--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 12:58, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia

=Translation Aesthetics=
==Aesthetic Representation of Two Versions of Wang Wei's "Niao Ming Jian" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics - 凌子瑾 Ling Zijin, 202020080618==
<center>凌子瑾 Ling Zijin </center>
===Abstract===
Wang Wei is a master of landscape poetry, and his poems have important aesthetic value. "Niao Ming Jian" is a representative work of his landscape poetry, which has a relatively high aesthetic significance. Aesthetic reproduction is an important factor to judge the success of a translation. Based on Liu Miqing's theory of translation aesthetics, this paper makes a comparative analysis of the two English translation versions of "Niao Ming Jian" to explore how these two translators make the aesthetic elements in the source text reproduced in the target text.

===Key words===
Translation Aesthetics; Aesthetic Representation; Poetry Translation; Comparative Study

===题目===
翻译美学视角下译本的审美再现——以王维《鸟鸣涧》两译本为例

===摘要===
王维是山水诗的集大成者，其诗歌具有重要的美学价值，《鸟鸣涧》是王维山水诗中的代表作品，具有较高的美学研究意义。审美再现是评判译文是否成功的重要因素。本文从刘宓庆的翻译美学理论出发，对《鸟鸣涧》的两个英文译本进行对比分析，探究不同的译者是如何使得原文中的美学要素在译文中得到再现的。

===关键词===
翻译美学；审美再现；诗歌翻译；对比赏析

===1. Introduction===
With the increasingly close communication between China and the international community, the translation of poetry has become an important part of telling Chinese stories. Translation is the basis for the international dissemination of literary works. Translation is one of the ways of information transmission, which is not only a technology, but also an art. Poetry itself is a literary and artistic form with aesthetic thoughts. Due to the close relationship between poetry translation and beauty, whether the translation can convey the beauty of the original poem has become the main criterion to judge whether the translation is good or not. On this point, Liu Miqing proposed translation aesthetics and systematically explained this subject in his An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics. He incorporated aesthetics into translation and proposed to reproduce the beauty of the original text in translation. (Li Yafeng 2016,4)

With the increasingly close communication between China and the international community, the translation of poetry has become an important part of telling Chinese stories. And translation is the basis for the international dissemination of literary works. Translation is one of the ways of information transmission, which is not only a technology, but also an art. Poetry itself is a literary and artistic form with aesthetic thoughts. Due to the close relationship between poetry translation and beauty, whether the translation can convey the beauty of the original poem has become the main criterion to judge whether the translation is good or not. On this point, Liu Miqing proposed translation aesthetics and systematically explained this subject in his ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics''. He incorporated aesthetics into translation and proposed to reproduce the beauty of the original text in translation. (Li Yafeng 2016,4)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Inheriting from Tao Yuanming and Xie Lingyun and laying a foundation for the landscape poetry in Song Dynasty and Yuan Dynasty, Wang Wei's landscape poetry represents the highest achievement of landscape poetry in the flourishing Tang Dynasty. In the history of the development and the aesthetic formation of Chinese classical poetry, it has an influence and status that cannot be underestimated. "Niao Ming Jian" is the representative work of Wang Wei's landscape poems, so its aesthetic value is self-evident. Written in the stable and unified Tang Dynasty, this poem focuses on the tranquil beauty of the spring mountain at night. In this poem of Wang Wei, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty. (Shi Yue 2002, 3)

Inheriting from Tao Yuanming and Xie Lingyun and laying a foundation for the landscape poetry in Song and Yuan Dynasty, Wang Wei's landscape poetry represents the highest achievement of landscape poetry in the flourishing Tang Dynasty. In the history of the development and the aesthetic formation of Chinese classical poetry, it has an influence and status that cannot be underestimated. "Niao Ming Jian" is the representative work of Wang Wei's landscape poems, so its aesthetic value is self-evident. Written in the stable and unified Tang Dynasty, this poem focuses on the tranquil beauty of the spring mountain at night. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty. (Shi Yue 2002, 3)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Both Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong have made a lot of contributions to translation studies. They are recognized for their translation skills(both of them were awarded Lifetime Achievement in Translation), but they have different views on literary translation, which can be seen from the comparative study in chapter 4. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper takes "Niao Ming Jian" and its two English versions as research objects to explore how the two translators realize the aesthetic representation of the Chinese version in their English translation.(Yan Haifeng 2017)

===2. Translation Aesthetics===
In the history of Chinese literature, the earliest development of translation aesthetics can be traced back to the time of the Three Kingdoms. At that time, someone proposed that "it is necessary to follow the essence without decorations".(Wang Wenjing 2020，7) Up to now, there have emerged such related aesthetic translation theories as "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", "spirit likeness" ,"delivering" and “principle of three beauties”. In A Dictionary of Translation Studies of Fang Mengzhi, translation aesthetics is defined as: revealing the aesthetic origins of translation studies, discussing the special significance of aesthetics to translation studies, interpreting the scientific and artistic nature of translation with the aesthetic point of view, putting forward standards of beauty in translating texts with different style using the basic principle of aesthetics, analyzing and solving the aesthetic problem in dealing with interlingual transference.(Fang Mengzhi 2004:296)

In the history of Chinese literature, the earliest development of translation aesthetics can be traced back to the time of the Three Kingdoms. When someone proposed that "it is necessary to follow the essence without decorations".(Wang Wenjing 2020，7) Up to now, there have emerged such related aesthetic translation theories as "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", "spirit likeness" ,"delivering" and “principle of three beauties”. In A Dictionary of Translation Studies of Fang Mengzhi, translation aesthetics is defined as: revealing the aesthetic origins of translation studies, discussing the special significance of aesthetics to translation studies, interpreting the scientific and artistic nature of translation with the aesthetic point of view, putting forward standards of beauty in translating texts with different style, using the basic principle of aesthetics, analyzing and solving the aesthetic problem in dealing with interlingual transference.(Fang Mengzhi 2004:296)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Translation aesthetics is the marriage of translation and aesthetics. Almost all traditional translation theories in China are related to aesthetics, and translation aesthetics is one of the basic characteristics of Chinese translation studies. Based on Chinese traditional aesthetics, translation aesthetics, starting with the aesthetic subject and object of translation, not only emphasizes the aesthetic information on the level of sounds and words, analysis of the rhythm, rhyme and translation methods, but also explores the aesthetic factors of emotion, aspiration, meaning and image in the non-formal system, thus laying a practical theoretical foundation for translation aesthetics. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the purpose of translation is to achieve aesthetic representation between languages. Translation is an artistic experience of perceiving, understanding, transforming and reproducing the aesthetic information of the translation object (source language).（Yang Yanni 2010,3）

Translation aesthetics is the marriage of translation and aesthetics. Almost all traditional translation theories in China are related to aesthetics, and translation aesthetics is one of the basic characteristics of Chinese translation studies. Based on Chinese traditional aesthetics, translation aesthetics, starting with the aesthetic subject and object of translation, not only emphasizes the aesthetic information on the level of sounds and words, analysis of the rhythm, rhyme and translation methods, but also explores the aesthetic factors of emotion, aspiration, meaning and image in the non-formal system, thus laying a practical theoretical foundation for translation aesthetics. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the purpose of translation is to achieve aesthetic representation between languages.（Yang Yanni 2010,3）--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The concept of translation aesthetics was put forward by Professor Liu Miqing in 1994. At first, it combined aesthetics and translation to examine the aesthetic feeling of ancient poetry translation. In An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics, Liu Miqing specifically explains the general process and specific strategies of translation aesthetics. According to Liu Miqing, "the theories and propositions of traditional Chinese translation theory are basically derived from Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics, especially classical literature and art". In addition, he also stressed that "theoretical proposition and methodology of Chinese translation theory can be traced back in Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics.” The aesthetics as the theoretical basis of translation, not only pay attention to the correspondence at the language level, but also the correspondence of the beauty represented in the target text and that in the original text, in order to show the beauty of the original text as possible.（Liu Miqing 1994）

The concept of translation aesthetics was put forward by Professor Liu Miqing in 1994. At first, it combined aesthetics and translation to examine the aesthetic feeling of ancient poetry translation. In ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics'', Liu Miqing specifically explains the general process and specific strategies of translation aesthetics. According to Liu Miqing, "the theories and propositions of traditional Chinese translation theory are basically derived from Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics, especially classical literature and art". In addition, he also stressed that "theoretical proposition and methodology of Chinese translation theory can be traced back in Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics.” The aesthetics as the theoretical basis of translation, not only pay attention to the correspondence at the language level, but also the correspondence of the beauty represented in the target text and that in the original text, in order to show the beauty of the original text as possible.（Liu Miqing 1994）--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 11:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Translation aesthetics holds that translation contains the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object. The aesthetic subject refers to the reader and translator of the text, while the aesthetic object refers to the target language text and the source language text. By subjectively transforming the source text, the aesthetic subject maximizes the aesthetic value of the source text into the target text in the process of transforming one language text to another, so as to ensure that the aesthetic elements in the source text can be reproduced in the target text.(Wang Wenjing 2020,7) In ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics'', Liu Miqing divides aesthetic object into formal system and non-formal system, that is, aesthetic appreciation of the linguistic form of the original text and the emotion expressed in the text.(Liu Miqing 2005)

The beauty in the linguistic form (including pronunciation) of the original text is aesthetically called the beauty in the form of material existence, which is usually "intuitive and sensible" and generally appeals to people's vision and hearing. In the aesthetic composition of the original text, what opposed to the representational elements is the non-representational elements. The non-formal beauty of the original language has no direct relationship with the language form, and it is usually non-intuitive. Because it is not directly reflected in the structure and form of words, sentences and sentence groups, it is usually "uncounted", which is called "non-quantitative factor".(Liu Miqing 2005)

The aesthetic composition of linguistic forms can often be counted, such as the number of parallel sentences, rhymes and figures of speech in a paragraph. Generally speaking, it can be counted to obtain a number, the non-formal beauty of language can not. It is impossible for us to get any quantitative results after analyzing the temperament of a text, such as artistic conception, beauty, momentum, modality, charm, style and so on. But these elements are crucial to the aesthetic value of a text. In short, from the perspective of aesthetics, these non-formal aesthetic compositions of a language is called non-quantitative obscure collection. In Chinese classical poetry, the concentrated expression of this collection is artistic conception.(Liu Miqing 1986)

The aesthetic composition of linguistic forms can often be counted, such as the number of parallel sentences, rhymes and figures of speech in a paragraph. Generally speaking, it can be counted to obtain a number, the non-formal beauty of language cannot. It is impossible for us to get any quantitative results after analyzing the temperament of a text, such as artistic conception, beauty, momentum, modality, charm, style and so on. But these elements are crucial to the aesthetic value of a text. In short, from the perspective of aesthetics, these non-formal aesthetic compositions of a language are called non-quantitative obscure collection. In Chinese classical poetry, the concentrated expression of this collection is artistic conception.(Liu Miqing 1986)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The "representation" of aesthetic representation is to transform the source language into the target language, and the aesthetic representation is to transform the beauty of source language into the beauty of the target language. The essence of the representation in the art of translation is to transform the introspective understanding of the source language text into an explicit and intuitive form, that is, to find the best artistic expression form for the source language.（Li Qijiu 2009,4）

===3. Appreciation of "Niao Ming Jian"===
The original text of "Niao Ming Jian"

人闲桂花落，

夜静春山空。

月出惊山鸟，

时鸣春涧中。(''Collected Tang Poem'' 1705)

The main idea of this poem is: in this quiet place, sweet osmanthus flowers gently fall in the quiet night, making the spring forest emptier and quieter. As the moon rose, it made the birds who was perching among the trees to sing, with their crisp calls reverberating through the open mountain stream. This poem is supposed to be written between 713 and 741 ( The Flourishing Kaiyuan Reign Periond of the Tang Dynasty), when the poet was in a trip to the regions near the Yangtze River. This poem is the first of five poems written by Wang Wei in yunxi Villa where his friend Huangfuyue lived. It is the work about the poet’s life in Wuyunxi (namely Ruoyexi), southeast of Shaoxing County. The poem describes the quiet and beautiful scenery in the mountain on a spring night, and focuses on the tranquility and calmness of the spring mountain at night. The whole poem is intended to highlight the tranquility, but Wang Wei treated it by moving scenes. This kind of technique of contrast shows the poet's meditative mind to a great extent.(Zhuang Chengyuan 2018)

The main idea of this poem is: in this quiet place, sweet osmanthus flowers gently fall in the quiet night, making the spring forest emptier and quieter. As the moon rose, it made the birds who were perching among the trees to sing, with their crisp calls reverberating through the open mountain stream. This poem is supposed to be written between 713 and 741 ( The Flourishing Kaiyuan Reign Period of the Tang Dynasty), when the poet was in a trip to the regions near the Yangtze River. The poem describes the quiet and beautiful scenery in the mountain on a spring night, and focuses on the tranquility and calmness of the spring mountain at night. The whole poem is intended to highlight the tranquility, but Wang Wei treated it by moving scenes. This kind of technique of contrast shows the poet's meditative mind to a great extent.(Zhuang Chengyuan 2018)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

"人闲桂花落，夜静春山空" is the poet’s depiction of scenery by sound, which skillfully uses the technique of synesthesia to combine the dynamic scene “花落” and "人闲" together. Both the blossom and fall of the flowers belong to the sound of nature. Only people who let their hearts really free down, put down the sincere infatuations to worldly thoughts can promote their spirits to a state of “空”. It was late at night, obviously the viewer could not see the falling scene of osmanthus, but because of the "夜静" and the calmness of heart of the viewer, he can still feel the blooming osmanthus falling off the branches, floating down and landing. And we readers also seem to have entered a "fragrant forest and flower rain" scenery. The "春山" here also leaves room for us to imagine, because it is "春山", we can imagine the noisy picture of the day: singing birds, green trees, lovely flowers, children’s laughter and so on.(Xue Tao 2020)

"人闲桂花落，夜静春山空" is the poet’s depiction of scenery by sound, which skillfully uses the technique of synesthesia to combine the dynamic scene “花落” and "人闲" together. Both the blossom and fall of the flowers belong to the sound of nature. Only people who let their hearts really free down, put down the sincere infatuations to worldly thoughts can promote their spirits to a state of “空”. It was late at night, obviously the viewer could not see the falling scene of osmanthus, but because of the "夜静" and the calmness of heart of the viewer, he can still feel the blooming osmanthus falling off the branches, floating down and landing. And readers also seem to have entered a "fragrant forest and flower rain" scenery. The "春山" here also leaves room for us to imagine, because it is "春山", we can imagine the noisy picture of the day: singing birds, green trees, lovely flowers, children’s laughter and so on.(Xue Tao 2020)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 11:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

When night falls, the environment becomes quiet, the tourists leave, the daytime noise disappeared, the mountains are empty. In fact, "空" not only refers to the empty of the mountain, but also the heart of the poet because only people who have free and easy mood can capture the scene that others can not feel. The last two lines “月出惊山鸟，时鸣春涧中” describe a dynamic scene to highlight the quietness of the mountain stream. “惊” and “鸣” seem to break the tranquility of the night, but in fact serve as a foil to describe the empty and leisure in the mountain by sounds. The moon emerges behind the clouds, quiet moonlight streams down, a few birds awake from their sleep and twitter from time to time. These beautiful things, with the spring streams running in the hill, put a colorful picture in front of the reader and has the similar effect with the "蝉噪林逾静，鸟鸣山更幽" of Wang Ji(a poet of Liang Dynasty). The birds, of course, accustomed to the silence of the mountain, seemed to have a kind of freshness and excitement when the moon rises. But the brightness of the moon changes the landscape immediately before and after its rise.

When night falls, the environment becomes quiet, the tourists leave, the daytime noise disappeared, the mountains are empty. In fact, "空" not only refers to the empty of the mountain, but also the heart of the poet because only people who have free and easy mood can capture the scene that others cannot feel. The last two lines “月出惊山鸟，时鸣春涧中” describe a dynamic scene to highlight the quietness of the mountain stream. “惊” and “鸣” seem to break the tranquility of the night, but in fact serve as a foil to describe the empty and leisure in the mountain by sounds. The moon emerges behind the clouds, quiet moonlight streams down, a few birds awake from their sleep and twitter from time to time. These beautiful things, with the spring streams running in the hill, put a colorful picture in front of the reader. The birds, of course, accustomed to the silence of the mountain, seemed to have a kind of freshness and excitement when the moon rises. But the brightness of the moon changes the landscape immediately before and after its rise.--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Wang Wei was in the heyday of Tang Dynasty. The background of Wang Wei's "月出惊山鸟" is a stable and unified society in the prosperous Tang Dynasty. Although the birds suffer from shock, it is by no means a kind of shock . They will not fly out of the spring stream, or even take off at all, but occasionally chirp among the trees. "时鸣春涧中", they are not so much "startled" as feel fresh to the moon. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with the bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty.

Wang Wei was in the heyday of Tang Dynasty. The background of Wang Wei's "月出惊山鸟" is a stable and unified society in the prosperous Tang Dynasty. Although the birds suffer from shock, it is by no means a kind of shock . They will not fly out of the spring stream, or even take off at all, but occasionally chirp among the trees. "时鸣春涧中", they are not so much "startled" but feel fresh to the moon. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with the bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty.--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===4. Appreciation of Two English Versions of "Niao Ming Jian"===
(1) The Gully of Twittering Birds

translated by Yang Xianyi

Idly I watch the cassia petals fall;

Silent the night and empty the spring hills;

The rising moon startles the mountain bird

Which twitter fitfully in the spring gully.(Wang Dan 2014)

(2) The Dale of Singing Birds

translated by Xu Yuanchong

I hear osmanthus blooms fall unenjoyed;

When night comes, hills dissolve into the void.

The rising moon arouses birds to sing;

Their fitful twitter fills the dale with spring.(Huang Jing 2010)

====4.1 Formal System====

The formal system of poetry mainly consists of rhyme and form, an audible one and a visual one, both of which are objective and perceptive. The existence of the formal system is the basis for poetry, that is, the reason why poetry is poetry rather than any other literary genre is that it has its own unique formal system. Therefore, both the 2 translators Yang Xianyi（Xin Hongjuan 2012,3） and Xu Yuanchong translate poetry by poetry in order to represent the beauty of the poetic form. Below, the author will appreciate the two English versions by Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong from the two aspects of rhyme and form.(Sun Banggen 2007）

The formal system of poetry mainly consists of rhyme and form, an audible one and a visual one, both of which are objective and perceptive. The existence of the formal system is the basis for poetry, that is, the reason why poetry is poetry rather than any other literary genre is that it has its own unique formal system. Therefore, the 2 translators，Yang Xianyi（Xin Hongjuan 2012,3） and Xu Yuanchong, translate poetry by poetry in order to represent the beauty of the poetic form. Below, the author will appreciate the two English versions by Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong from the two aspects of rhyme and form.(Sun Banggen 2007）--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 11:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=====4.1.1 Beauty of Rhyme=====
Zhu Guangqian thinks that "poetry is a pure literary form with melody". In literary works, especially in poetry, sound is the most basic unit of delivering aesthetic value. Although the translator cannot find the phonetic rules corresponding to Chinese poetry in English language, he can reproduce the "phonetic beauty" of the original poem by using English language rules. The beauty of rhyme in poetry mainly includes the beauty of rhythm and rhyme. First of all, in terms of rhythm, the original poem basically conforms to the basic meter of rhythmic poetry. In Yang Xianyi's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 1), the rhythm of the poem is roughly as follows: (Zhu Guangqian 1998)

/--/--/-/-/（11） /--/--/--/-（11）

-/-//--/-/（10） -/-/--/-//-（11）

In dealing with each line, translator basically take the trochaic form. Although its antithesis is not neat but it is easy to read, largely represents the musical aesthetic feeling of the original poetry. Besides, the trochaic rhythm can give readers a kind of feeling that firstly there is a sound, and then fell silent, which is in accordance with the tranquil atmosphere in Niao Ming Jian. The rhythm of Xu Yuanchong's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 2) is roughly as follows:

In dealing with each line, translator basically take the trochaic form. Although its antithesis is not neat but it is easy to read, largely represents the musical aesthetic feeling of the original poetry. Besides, the trochaic rhythm can give readers a kind of feeling that firstly there is a sound, and then fell silent, which is in accordance with the tranquil atmosphere in Niao Ming Jian. The rhythm of Xu Yuanchong's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 2) is roughly as follows:--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 11:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

-/-/-/-/-/（10） -/-/-/-/-/（10）

-/-/-/-/-（9） -/-/-/-/-/（10）

The translator adopts iambic pentameter to translate the poem, which has a strong sense of rhythm and can be called as a standard English metrical poem. In terms of the representation of rhythm, both translation 1 and translation 2 are well done, while the rhythm of translation 2 is more in line with the characteristics of the original poem, so translation 2 is better.

The rhyme in poetry is an important factor at the level of rhythmic beauty. Rhyme can make the rhythm of a poem produce harmonious auditory aesthetic satisfaction. In terms of rhythm, the original poem strictly adheres to the rhyming rules of Lüshi (poetry). The rhyme at the end of the second and fourth lines is used to create a echoing effect of distant bells in the mountains, making the mountain seem emptier and lonelier.(Yang Yanni 2010,3) In translation 1, the translator uses many assonance in his lines, such as "silent", "night" in the second line; "Fitfully" and "gully" in the fourth line. The translator also used alliteration, such as "idly", "I" in the first line; "moon", "mountain" in the third line. However, translation 1 does not rhyme at the end of the line. It has the advantage of being free from the restrictions of meter and the language is accurate and fluent. But it also has disadvantage that it loses the beauty of rhyme to some extent.(Tao Yingnian 2017)

The rhyme in poetry is an important factor at the level of rhythmic beauty. Rhyme can make the rhythm of a poem produce harmonious auditory aesthetic satisfaction. In terms of rhythm, the original poem strictly adheres to the rhyming rules of “Lü Shi”. The rhyme at the end of the second and fourth lines is used to create an echoing effect of distant bells in the mountains, making the mountain seem emptier and lonelier.(Yang Yanni 2010,3) In translation 1, the translator uses many assonance in his lines, such as "silent", "night" in the second line; "Fitfully" and "gully" in the fourth line. The translator also used alliteration, such as "idly", "I" in the first line; "moon", "mountain" in the third line. However, translation 1 does not rhyme at the end of the line. It has the advantage of being free from the restrictions of meter and the language is accurate and fluent. But it also has disadvantage that it loses the beauty of rhyme to some extent.(Tao Yingnian 2017)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

As for the translation 2, we can find the end rhyme of the translation 2: /d/ in the first and second line; /ing/ in the third and fourth line. And the rhyme scheme of this translation is aabb. This scheme type can convey the rhythmic beauty of Chinese traditional poetry for its end rhyme is complete. In addition, the first two lines of poetry end with a phone /d/, giving us a feeling of an abrupt stop. The last two lines end with/ing/, leaving a sense of melody for the reader, which is in line with the /ong/ rhyme in the original poem. It can be said that in terms of conveying the rhythmic beauty of the original poem, translation 2 not only represents the original poem, but also makes the target text sounds better than the original one. Therefore, compared with translation 2, translation 1 is slightly inferior in representing the rhythmic beauty of original poem.(Huang Jing 2010)

=====4.1.2 Beauty of form=====
Liu Miqing (2005) believes that the beauty of symmetry and antithesis in Chinese classical literature can be called "The elegance of Beauty", which is unique to Chinese.(Liu Miqing 2005) Externally, the four lines of the original poem, with five words in each line, form regular rectangles. From the inside, we can see that the first line and the second line form a parallel structure: “人闲” and “夜静”; “桂花” to “春山”; “落” to “空”. (Tao Yingnian 2017,8) Antithesis constitutes the important factor of the beauty at the level of the form.(Liu Miqing 2005)

The beauty of the translated poem at the level of form is that its words and sentences are in accord with the length and symmetry of the original poem in antithesis and meter.In the translation 1, the number of words in each line is 7, 8, 7,and 7. In translation 2, the number of words in each line is 6, 8, 7 and 8. Both versions conform to the formal characteristics of the poem. From the appearance of the two translations, both of them have achieved the demand to translate poetry by poetry ,representing the formal characteristics of the original poem.

In terms of syllables, the number of syllables in each line of translation 1 is 11, 11, 10 and 11. The number of syllables in each line of translation 2 is 10, 10, 9 and 10. Both of the form of the two translations are in compact structure, thus achieving the representation of beauty of the original poem. In addition, the third and fourth lines of translation 2 adopt parallel structure, which to some extent represents the antithesis beauty of the original poem.(Huang Jing 2010)

====4.2 Non-formal System====
The non-formal system of poetry is mainly embodied in the artistic conception of poetry. Artistic conception is an important category in Chinese poetics. Artistic conception consists of two aspects: meaning and context. Meaning refers to subjective thoughts and feelings, while context refers to objective life and scenery. In artistic works, meaning and context blend together to form artistic conception. The conveying of artistic conception is directly related to the intuitive and sensible overall linguistic image, but the essence of its beauty is not intuitive and sensible. It usually comes from the feeling, ambition, intention of the artist and the overall artistic beauty of the work, which can easily remind us of the so-called "不著一字，尽得风流".（Li Qijiu 2009）

In poetry, the meaning that a poet wants to express is often conveyed through the images in ancient poems, which are either embodied in scenery or embodied in things. Therefore, when translating Chinese ancient poems, finding the right images is the key point to catch the artistic conception of the whole poem. In order to achieve the aesthetic representation of artistic conception in the translated poem, the translator's poetic sentiment, knowledge of literature and language skills are indispensable. Sometimes the inaccurate translation of a word will change the whole artistic conception and cause the translation to deviate from the original text. In the process of translating poetry, the representation of rhyme and form is the basic step, and that of artistic conception is the completion of the task of translating poetry.（Wu Tong 2018,16）

In poetry, the meaning that a poet wants to express is often conveyed through the images in ancient poems, which are either embodied in scenery or embodied in things. Therefore, when translating Chinese ancient poems, finding the right images is the key point to catch the artistic conception of the whole poem. In order to achieve the aesthetic representation of artistic conception in the translated poem, the translator's poetic sentiment, knowledge of literature and language skills are indispensable. Sometimes the inaccurate translation of one word will change the whole artistic conception and cause the translation to deviate from the original text. In the process of translating poetry, the representation of rhyme and form is the basic step, and that of artistic conception is the completion of the task of translating poetry.（Wu Tong 2018,16）--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 11:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=====4.2.1 Beauty of artistic conception=====
Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong, the translators of the two translations selected in this paper, have different views on the transfer of the beauty of artistic conception. When talking about the principle of literary translation, Yang Xianyi points out that the general principle is that the content of the original text should not be increased or decreased. He has emphasized the principle of faithfulness for many times, saying that "the translation must be very faithful to the original one". He doesn't think the translator should explain too much when translating. The translator should try to be faithful to the image of the source text. If there is no equivalent in translation, some of the meaning of the original must be sacrificed. Xu Yuanchong, on the other hand, believed that among the beauty of sound, form and meaning, meaning was the most important, followed by sound and form.(Xu Yuanchong 2006)

Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong, the translators of the two translations selected in this paper, have different views on the transfer of the beauty of artistic conception. When talking about the principle of literary translation, Yang Xianyi points out that the general principle is that the content of the original text should not be increased or decreased. He has emphasized the principle of faithfulness for many times and he doesn't think the translator should explain too much when translating. The translator should try to be faithful to the image of the source text. If there is no equivalent in translation, some of the meaning of the original must be sacrificed. Xu Yuanchong, on the other hand, believed that among the beauty of sound, form and meaning, meaning was the most important, followed by sound and form.(Xu Yuanchong 2006)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Translators play two roles in the process of translation: text reader and text producer. Translators must give full play to their subjectivity on the basis of a deep understanding of the content and aesthetic value of the original text, and creatively reproduce the verve and artistic conception of the original text, so that the readers of the translated text can truly experience the beauty in reading. In the following, the author will start from the title and analyze the two translators' representation of the artistic conception of the original poem.

Translators play two roles in the process of translation: text reader and text producer. Translators must give full play to their subjectivity on the basis of a deep understanding of the content and aesthetic value of the original text, and creatively reproduce the verve and artistic conception of the original text, so that the readers of the translated text can truly experience the beauty in reading. In the following, the author will start from the title and analyze the two translators' representation of the artistic conception of the original poem.(Quotation missing)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The title of the original poem is "鸟鸣涧", which is a modifier-head structure. In this structure, "鸟鸣" modifies "涧". This structure emphasizes the static state of the noun "涧". Translation 1 and 2 respectively translate the title as two noun phrases "The Gully of Twittering Birds" and "The Dale of Singing Birds" , which are similar to the modifier-head structure of the original poem. The head nouns "The Gully" and "The Dale" are modified by "of Twittering Birds" and "of Singing Birds", highlighting the quiet state of the mountain, which conforms to the artistic conception of the original poem. Two title is identical structurally, but differ in the words used.(Tao Yingnian 2017)

The translation 1 translates "涧" as "gully", which the Oxford Advanced Learner's English-Chinese Dictionary (hereinafter referred to as "the dictionary") interprets as: "a small, narrow channel, usually formed by a stream or by a rain". "涧" in the Xinhua Dictionary is defines as a gutterway in the mountain, so the translation 1 corresponds to the original poem; Translation 2 translates "涧" into "dale", which is defined as "Valley, ESP, in Nortern England" in the dictionary. But "涧" in original poem just refers to an ordinary mountain stream, which is still far from a dale. Then is the translation of "鸟鸣", defined in the dictionary as "when birds twitter, they make a series of short high sounds"; Translation 2 translates "鸟鸣" as "singing". Translation 1 uses onomatopoeia to translate it, which is more vivid in sensory image; While translation 2 uses personification to highlight the melody of bird songs, which brings people a more graceful feeling and a more harmonious artistic conception.

The translation 1 translates "涧" as "gully", which the Oxford Advanced Learner's English-Chinese Dictionary (hereinafter referred to as "the dictionary") interprets as: "a small, narrow channel, usually formed by a stream or by a rain". "涧" in the Xinhua Dictionary is defines as a gutterway in the mountain, so the translation 1 corresponds to the original poem; Translation 2 translates "涧" into "dale", which is defined as "Valley, ESP, in Northern England" in the dictionary. But "涧" in original poem just refers to an ordinary mountain stream, which is still far from a dale. Then is the translation of "鸟鸣", defined in the dictionary as "when birds twitter, they make a series of short high sounds"; Translation 2 translates "鸟鸣" as "singing". Translation 1 uses onomatopoeia to translate it, which is more vivid in sensory image; While translation 2 uses personification to highlight the melody of bird songs, which brings people a more graceful feeling and a more harmonious artistic conception.--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

It can be said that translation 1 adopts literal translation while translation 2 adopts free translation. Although both of them can reflect the activity of bird, translation 2 compares it to singing, on the basis of being faithful to the original text, adds a more poetic aesthetic feeling from the aesthetic point of view, and the images described are more easily accepted by readers.

Next comes the translation of the poem's first line. First of all, in terms of the treatment of "人", both translation 1 and translation 2 add the subject "I" to translate "人" into the poet himself, because Chinese sentences do not necessarily have the subject while English must indicate the subject. Although it is difficult to achieve complete equivalence, it is also a relatively reasonable translation method. On the translation of "闲", translation 1 cut to the chase, using the word "idly" indicates that the state of the viewer, it is in line with the original text in the idle state of mind; Translation 2, which puts "unenjoyed" at the end of the line, meets the need of rhyme but adds translator's creative content. But there is not unenjoyed feeling in the original poem, so translation 1 is better here. Next, on the translation of "桂花", two translation appear difference. In translation 1, "桂花" is translated into "cassia petals". The author looked it up in the dictionary and discovered that its meaning is the petal of cinnamon tree; in translation 2 it is translated into "osmanthus blooms" , which is almost synonymous to the translation 1. Both translation 1 and translation 2 take the same way to translate it, that is, using the proper noun.

As for the "桂花" in this poem, scholars have different explanations. One explanation is that there are different kinds of "桂花", such as spring flowers, autumn flowers and perpetual flowers. What is written here is a kind of spring flowers. Another view is that literary and artistic creation does not necessarily follow life. It is said that the painting by Wang Wei called Yuan An Lying in the Snow has green plantains in the snow. Things that cannot appear together in real life are allowed in literary and artistic creation. However, this poem is one of five poems that written for his friend's house. Each of these five poems is written in a realistic way, which is similar to the landscape painting. Therefore, it is reasonable to translate "桂花" to the osmanthus that blossoms in spring. However, in English, there is not so fine classification of osmanthus, so it is difficult to find a counterpart. The two translators have tried their best to translate it, and their translations of "桂花" are understandable. In addition, it should be noted that the way the two translators deal with the connection between the viewer and osmanthus. Translation 1 uses "watch" to see the flowers falling down, while in translation 2, the word "hear" is used, which is different from the usual setting of appreciating flowers and is the result of the translator's thoughtful and creative translation. Hearing the sound of falling petals can better reflect the empty of the poet's heart than seeing, thus better representing the tranquility of the mountain stream.（Yan Guoying 2010）

As for the "桂花" in this poem, scholars have different explanations. One explanation is that there are different kinds of "桂花", such as spring flowers, autumn flowers and perpetual flowers. What is written here is a kind of spring flowers. Another view is that literary and artistic creation does not necessarily follow life. It is said that the painting by Wang Wei called Yuan ''An Lying in the Snow'' has green plantains in the snow. Things that cannot appear together in real life are allowed in literary and artistic creation. However, this poem is one of five poems that written for his friend's house. Each of these five poems is written in a realistic way, which is similar to the landscape painting. Therefore, it is reasonable to translate "桂花" to the osmanthus that blossoms in spring. However, in English, there is not so fine classification of osmanthus, so it is difficult to find a counterpart. The two translators have tried their best to translate it, and their translations of "桂花" are understandable. In addition, it should be noted that the way the two translators deal with the connection between the viewer and osmanthus. Translation 1 uses "watch" to see the flowers falling down, while in translation 2, the word "hear" is used, which is different from the usual setting of appreciating flowers and is the result of the translator's thoughtful and creative translation. Hearing the sound of falling petals can better reflect the empty of the poet's heart than seeing, thus better representing the tranquility of the mountain stream.（Yan Guoying 2010）--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 11:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Translation 1 Adopts the parallel structure when translating the second line, using the literal translation method to combine the silent night with the empty mountain stream. It is a static description without the description of the sequence of the events, reproducing a kind of vague beauty; in translation 2, "夜静" and "山空" are in time sequence, belongs to the dynamic description, showing the night's coming and the mountain becomes silent. The stationary state in the original poem becomes a process from a dynamic situation station to static one, successfully represent the hidden grammatical relations in the original poem. Therefore, for the transltion of the second line, both the two translators have strong point.

Translation 1 Adopts the parallel structure when translating the second line, using the literal translation method to combine the silent night with the empty mountain stream. It is a static description without the description of the sequence of the events, reproducing a kind of vague beauty; in translation 2, "夜静" and "山空" are in time sequence, belongs to the dynamic description, showing the night's coming and the mountain becomes silent. The stationary state in the original poem becomes a process from a dynamic situation station to static one, successfully represent the hidden grammatical relations in the original poem. Therefore, for the translation of the second line, both the two translators have strong point.--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In the translation of the third line, the translation of "惊" is of great importance for it serves as a key to show the skills of polishing words of Wang Wei. In translation 1, it is literally translated into "startles", which means"cause a person or animal to feel sudden shock or alarm" in the dictionary. But are birds really startled? According to the appreciation of the original poem in the last chapter, the birds are not startled but only disturbed by the moonrise. "Startles" here is somewhat abrupt and the beauty of the original poem is not respresented, so it is not an appropriate translation; Xu Yuanchong translates it into "arouses", which is defined as "evoke or awaken a feeling, emotion, or response”in the dictionary. Compared to the translation 1, translation 2 is not only more natural but also gives the reader a sense of harmony between human and nature.(Yang Yanni 2010)

In the translation of the third line, the translation of "惊" is of great importance for it serves as a key to show the skills of polishing words of Wang Wei. In translation 1, it is literally translated into "startles", which means"cause a person or animal to feel sudden shock or alarm" in the dictionary. But are birds really startled? According to the appreciation of the original poem in the last chapter, the birds are not startled but only disturbed by the moonrise. "Startles" here is somewhat abrupt and the beauty of the original poem is not represented, so it is not an appropriate translation; Xu Yuanchong translates it into "arouses", which is defined as "evoke or awaken a feeling, emotion, or response”in the dictionary. Compared to the translation 1, translation 2 is not only more natural but also gives the reader a sense of harmony between human and nature.(Yang Yanni 2010)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The last is the translation of the fourth line. The two translations are basically the same in terms of words and translation methods, except the difference in sentence pattern. The translation 1 uses a non-restrictive attributive clause to combine the third line and the fourth line together, which means that the translator deal with the "月出" and "鸟鸣" as two simultaneous events, that is to say, there is no sequence between the moonrise and bird's singing, which is inconsistent with the original poem. The translation 2 deals these two lines with two sentences, perfectly embodying the relationship between the rise of the moon and the song of birds, which fits well with Wang Wei's state of "painting in poetry".(Zhao Dongli 2009)

===5. Conclusion===
By analyzing the two translations above, the author finds that in poetry translation Yang Xianyi attaches importance to form and Xu Yuanchong to meaning. Yang Xianyi prefers literal translation while Xu Yuanchong prefers free translation. In terms of formal system translation, Yang Xianyi's grasp of the beauty of rhyme is a little bit inferior to that of Xu Yuanchong, but in terms of the grasp of antithesis in poetry, both translators have demonstrated exquisite translation skills, each with its own advantages. Therefore, it can be seen that the mastery of source language and target language is very important in translation. In terms of the translation of non-formal systems, namely artistic conception, both translators represent the image beauty of the original poem to a large extent, but Xu Yuanchong's translation is better because Yang Xianyi uses more literal translation, which is slightly rigid. Xu's translation is more cohesive and readable, giving people a dynamic and harmonious aesthetic feeling.

Although there are differences between Chinese and Western cultures, a good translation can still represent the appearance, scenery and feelings of the original poem. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the combination of literal translation and free translation is necessary in order to realize the aesthetic representation of poetry in translation. In terms of translation, both formal system and non-formal system should be taken into account to represent the beauty of poetry in sound, form and meaning. This also gives the corresponding aesthetic requirements for the translator, the translator must constantly improve their language skills and appreciation ability, in order to achieve continuous breakthroughs in aesthetic representation.（Wang Jie 2009,4）

===References===
*Chen Jie. 陈洁. (2015). 王维山水诗的意境美. [The Beauty of Wang Wei's Landscape Poetry]. ''宁波教育学院学报''[Journal of Ningbo Institute of Education] 52-54.

*Fang Mengzhi. 方梦之. (2004). ''译学词典''. [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 296.

*Huang Jing, Li Shijun. 黄婧，李仕俊. (2010). 从翻译美学角度对比《鸟鸣涧》四种译文. [Comparison of Four Translations of "Niao Ming Jian" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. ''外语'' [Foreign Language] 130.

*Lao Qinyao, Luo Zhenting. 劳琴姚，罗正婷. (2017). 翻译美学视角下审美效果的再现——以《醉翁亭记》两译本为例. [ Aesthetic Representation of Two English Versions of "Zui Wen Ting Ji" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics] ''安徽文学'' [Anhui Literature] 49-51.

*Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (2005). ''翻译美学导论''. [An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation].

*Tao Yingnian. 陶迎年. (2017). 从音、形、意三美对比《鸟鸣涧》五种英译本.[Comparison of Five English Translations of “Niao Ming Jian” from Beauty in Sense, Sound and Style]. ''语言应用研究'' [Language Application Research] 143-145.

*Wang Li. 王力. (2000). ''诗词格律''. [The Rhythm of Poetry]. 北京：中华书局[Beijing: Zhonghua Press] 133.

*Wu Tong, Li Shuhua. 吴桐，李淑华. (2018). 从翻译美学角度看中国古诗翻译. [Study of the Translation of Ancient Chinese Poems from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. ''海外英语'' [Overseas English] 151.

*Wang Jie. 王洁. (2020). 杨宪益文学翻译思想探析.[The Study of Yang Xianyi's Thought on Literary Translation]. ''西安文理学院学报'' [Journal of Xi'an College of Literature and Science] 111.

*Xie Wenli. 谢文利. (1989). ''诗歌美学''. [Aesthetics of Poetry]. 北京: 中国青年出版社[Beijing: China Youth Press].

*Yu Shucheng. 余恕诚. (1983).''唐诗鉴赏辞典''. [A dictionary for Appreciating Tang Poetry]. 上海辞书出版社[Shanghai Lexicographical Publishing House] 183-185.

*Zhu Guangqian. 朱光潜. (1998).''诗论''. [Poetry Theory].北京：生活读书新知三联书店[Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company].

==An Chinese Aesthetic Study on Ezra Pound's Four Poems of Departure in ''Cathay'' - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" 石迪文 Shi Diwen==

===Abstract===

At the dawn of the 21st century, Ezra Pound, intrigued by Chinese classical poetry, gave fresh impetus to the American New Poetry Movement. One of his works in this period, ''Cathay'', involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn P eriod (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reached its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. The study is focused on its four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai (李白), including "Separation on the River Kiang", "Taking Leave of a Friend", "Leave-taking near Shoku" and "The City of Choan". Its main contents involve interpretation and further exploration of the Chinese classic aesthetic values in Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" principle, by which it will prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses some Chinese classical aesthetic concepts.

===Key Words===

Ezra Pound, ''Cathay'', Chinese classical aestheticism, Beauty in Sense Principle

===题目===

从许渊冲意美原则来看庞德《华夏集》中离别诗四首的中国美学研究

===摘要===

二十一世纪初，伊兹拉·庞德所领导的新诗运动从中国古典诗歌中寻找推动力，他在此期间所创译的《华夏集》从费诺罗萨笔记中选取了19首中国古典诗，横跨历史千年，从孔子编纂《诗经》的春秋时期(公元前770-公元前476年)到李白诗歌十二首的盛世唐朝(618年-907年)，这段时期中国古典诗达到艺术巅峰, 孔子所提出的诗歌美学观念成为古代诗歌理念主流之一，与道家美学双河并流。本篇论文将聚焦于四首诗人挑选成章的离别诗，均来自李白诗歌，分别是《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》、《送友人》、《送友人入蜀》以及《登金陵凤凰台》。论文主要内容是从许渊冲的意美原则阐释和进一步发现庞德译作中保留的中国古典美学价值。通过这种方式，本文试图证明庞德对中国古诗的创造性翻译中仍具有中国古典美学观念。

二十一世纪初，伊兹拉·庞德所领导的新诗运动从中国古典诗歌中寻找推动力，他在此期间所创译的《华夏集》从费诺罗萨笔记中选取了19首中国古典诗。这19首中国古典诗横跨历史千年，从孔子编纂《诗经》的春秋时期(公元前770-公元前476年)跨越到了李白创作诗歌十二首的盛世唐朝(618年-907年)，在这一段历史时期，中国古典诗达到艺术巅峰。孔子所提出的诗歌美学观念成为古代诗歌理念主流之一，与道家美学双河并流。本篇论文将聚焦于李白的四首离别诗，分别是《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》、《送友人》、《送友人入蜀》以及《登金陵凤凰台》，从许渊冲的意美原则阐释和探索庞德译作中保留的中国古典美学价值，基于这一研究，本文试图证明庞德对中国古诗的创造性翻译中具有的中国古典美学观念。--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 12:22, 18 December 2020 (UTC)
===关键词===

伊兹拉 · 庞德，《华夏集》，中国古典美学，意美原则

===Introduction===

Ezra Pound (1885-1972), one of the most influential and controversial figures in American literature, has received floods of praises and condemnation about his Cathay, a creative translation of nineteen Chinese poems, which introduces Confucian principles of poetry to American Imagist Movement. It not only rose against the exaggerative and mannered expression of Victorian style to boost the development of Western poetry but also set one of the important achievements in the history of Sino-Western cultural exchanges. The work involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with its contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn period (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reaches its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated.

The study concentrates on Four Poems of Departure in Cathay, including "Separation on the River Kiang" (《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》), "Taking Leave of a Friend" (《送友人》), "Leave-taking near Shoku" (《送友人入蜀》) and "The City of Choan" (《登金陵凤凰台》), all of them originally written by the poet Li Bai, who was born in the most glorious age of Tang Dynasty. Its main content involves the reinterpretation of Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" Principle, by which to prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses Chinese classical aesthetic concepts. Besides, the article will testify the reasonability of the application of the principle to the appreciation of Pound’s translation, and deepen the learning of Chinese classical aesthetics.

(格式调整段首应顶格)Ezra Pound (1885-1972), one of the most influential and controversial figures in American literature, has received floods of praises and condemnation since the first appearance of his ''Cathay''（书名格式更改）, a collection of nineteen poems, which introduces Confucian principles of poetry to American Imagist Movement. ''Cathay'' （书名格式更改）was published in 1915 when the Western countries suffered an alarming death toll in the First World War. During that time, litterateurs were so drown in the darkness of terror and suspicion that they felt lost and trapped in despair.（这一句拆分为两句是否更好） While in this period Pound found his Muse in Chinese classic poetry. It not only rose against the exaggerative and mannered expression of Victorian style to boost the development of Western poetry but also set one of the important achievements in the history of Sino-Western cultural exchanges. The work involves nineteen Chinese poems selected(定语前置) and （be动词丢失）translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with its contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn period (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reaches its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated.（最后一句太长，建议拆分为两句）--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 12:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 01:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

(格式调整段首应顶格)The study concentrates on Four Poems of Departure in Cathay, including "Separation on the River Kiang" (《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》), "Taking Leave of a Friend" (《送友人》), "Leave-taking near Shoku" (《送友人入蜀》) and "The City of Choan" (《登金陵凤凰台》), all of them originally written by the poet Li Bai, who was born in the most glorious age of Tang Dynasty. Its （Its指代不明，是指该篇论文吗）main content involves the reinterpretation of Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" Principle, by which to prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses Chinese classical aesthetic concepts. Besides, the article will testify the reasonability of the application of the principle to the appreciation of Pound’s translation, and deepen the learning of Chinese classical aesthetics.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:05, 14 December 2020 (UTC)
--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 01:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)
===The Introduction of Xu Yuanchong’s “Beauty in Sense” Principle===

Beauty in sense in the translation of classical poetry comes first in the Xu Yuanchong’ Three Beauties. Generally speaking, Beauty in sense originates from the similarity in sense when doing the translation work; however, similarity in sense is just the superficial structure and beauty in sense belongs the deep one. (Xu Yuanchong, 1984: 64) Firstly, it puts forward Confucian aesthetic thoughts and Taoist aesthetics: one stresses the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” (温柔敦厚); the other concerns about the imagery beauty of Chinese classical images and its artistic conception. More precisely, Confucius advocates that the personal emotions expressed in poems should not be observed directly or thoroughly but be clouded, or to say, recorded emotional experiences of the real or imagined world should be presented in a roundabout and implicit way and brim with a beauty of moderation in content, i.e. “joyous but not indecent, mournful but not distressing, without resentment and slander ("乐而不淫, 哀而不伤, 怨而不谤"-《论语·八佾》).”
In Taoist thoughts, the Way (“道”) originates from the Nature and the Nature breeds a ultimate beauty as Chuang Tzu said, “Heaven and earth have their great beauties but do not speak of them; the four seasons have their clear-marked regularity but do not discuss it; the ten thousand things have their principles of growth but do not expound them ("天地有大美而不言，四时有明法而不议，万物有成理而不说。圣人者，原天地之美而达万物之理"-《庄子·外篇·知北游》).” Taoism attached importance to the employment of natural images that not only echoes the neutralization beauty in poetic content but also creates an aura of a certain artistic conception(意境), concerned with the Taoist doctrines “object observed by object (以物观物)” , “both subject and object dissolve (物我两忘)” and “Heaven and earth were born at the same time I was, and the ten thousand things are one with me("天地与我并生，而万物与我为一"-《庄子.齐物论》),” as Wai-lim Yip says, “Taoist aestheticism is inspired by the unique technique of expression of observation and experience in Lao Tse (《老子》) and Chuang Tzu (《庄子》)”. (叶维廉，2004: 1) Taoism puts forward that simplicity and plainness come to revive when the subject in poetry actively retreats from the governing place to leave more space for object and in return all objectives create a harmony with the subjective feelings. Thus, the reproduction of images is critically fundamental in the translation of Chinese classical poems and the love for images even contributes to a series of juxtaposition of imagery.

(格式调整段首应顶格)Beauty in sense in the translation of classical poetry comes first in the Xu Yuanchong’ Three Beauties. Generally speaking, Beauty in sense originates from the similarity in sense when doing the translation work; however, similarity in sense is just the superficial structure and beauty in sense belongs the deep one. (Xu Yuanchong, 1984: 64) Firstly, it puts forward Confucian aesthetic thoughts and Taoist aesthetics: one stresses the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” (温柔敦厚); the other concerns about the imagery beauty of Chinese classical images and its artistic conception. More precisely, Confucius advocates that the personal emotions expressed in poems should not be observed directly or thoroughly but be clouded, or to say, recorded emotional experiences of the real or imagined world should be presented in a roundabout and implicit way and brim with a beauty of moderation in content, i.e. “joyous but not indecent, mournful but not distressing, without resentment and slander ("乐而不淫, 哀而不伤, 怨而不谤"-《论语·八佾》).”--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:17, 14 December 2020 (UTC)

(格式调整段首应顶格)In Taoist thoughts, the Way (“道”) originates from the Nature and the Nature breeds a ultimate beauty as Chuang Tzu said, “Heaven and earth have their great beauties but do not speak of them; the four seasons have their clear-marked regularity but do not discuss it; the ten thousand things have their principles of growth but do not expound them ("天地有大美而不言，四时有明法而不议，万物有成理而不说。圣人者，原天地之美而达万物之理"-《庄子·外篇·知北游》).” Taoism attached importance to the employment of natural images that not only echoes the neutralization beauty in poetic content but also creates an aura of a certain artistic conception(意境), concerned with the Taoist doctrines “observing things from every aspects (以物观物)” , “both subject and object dissolve (物我两忘)” and “Heaven and earth were born at the same time I was, and the ten thousand things are one with me("天地与我并生，而万物与我为一"-《庄子.齐物论》)” as Wai-lim Yip says, “Taoist aestheticism is inspired by the unique technique of expression of observation and experience in Lao Tse (《老子》) and Chuang Tzu (《庄子》)”. (叶维廉2004: 1) Taoism puts forward that simplicity and plainness come to revive when the subject in poetry actively retreats from the governing place to leave more space for object and in return all objectives create a harmony with the subjective feelings. Thus, the reproduction of images is critically fundamental in the translation of Chinese classical poems and the love for images even contributes to a series of juxtaposition of imagery.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:17, 14 December 2020 (UTC)

===The Sense Beauty in Four Poems of Departure===

Four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai and concerned with the theme of parting from Pound’s views of point, are " Separation on the River Kiang "(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) , " Taking Leave of a Friend " (《送友人》), " Leave-taking near Shoku " (《送友人入蜀》) and " The City of Choan " (《登金陵凤凰台》) respectively. Li Bai, a famous poet in the Tang Dynasty at its most prosperous time, always had the ambition for political achievement under the influence of Confucianism but with most of his talent in poetry he failed and exiled to the south-west. In his life, he never settled down, and the restless energy of his life found its counterpart both in the speed with which he set down his compositions and in their propulsive sweep while the vigour and flamboyance of much of Li Bai’s poetry hides a deep core of loneliness. (Vikram Seth, 1992: 19) Impacted by Taoism, His emotion always seems to be related with the Nature and even the speaker in poem seemingly becomes superseded by the natural things while the emotion exists, flowing in a harmonious natural space of poetry. What’s more, the four poems following the tradition of Confucian philosophy in poetry turn an emotional surge into trickles of feelings.

====The Sense Beauty in "Separation on the River Kiang"====

"Separation on the River Kiang"(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) is the first poem in Four poems of Departure, telling a story of parting with an intimate friend along the River Kiang. The original poem and Pound’s version are:

黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵
（唐）李白
故人西辞黄鹤楼，烟花三月下扬州。
孤帆远影碧空尽，唯见长江天际流。

Separation on the River Kiang
By Ezra Pound
KO-JIN goes west from Ko-kaku-ro,
The smoke-flowers are blurred over the river.
His lone sail blots the far sky.
And now I see only the river,
The long Kiang, reaching heaven.

In the content of the first two lines, the translator mistranslates “故人”, “黄鹤楼” and to be more exactly he simply transliterates the Japanese version ("こじん" and “こうかくろう”) of the two nouns into their English version（KO-JIN and Ko-kaku-ro). The three words KO-JIN, Ko-kaku-ro, Kiang transliterate the related Japanese Kanji(日语汉字), whose accents originate from ancient Chinese pronouncation. Although the imitation is against its original meaning, it adds a hint of exoticism to the translation. However, Pound maybe not a good Japanese learner because "こじん"(KO-JIN) refers to a dead person but not "故人" (an old friend). Furthermore, “烟花” means fireworks while Pound splits the word into “烟” (smoke) and “花” (flower) and invents a new compound word “smoke-flowers”. As for the last lines, he adopted a strategy of creative translation rather than word-for-word translation.
From the view of Xu’s Beauty in sense, Pound, though careless about the counterparts of culture-loaded words, successively transfers the sense beauty to his readers. Firstly, the translation follows the tradition of the original’s style for there is no intention of directly telling others the unwillingness of departure but the word “lone” betrays all sentiments, not only the solitude of the friend but also that of the poet himself. Besides, the version echoes the Taoist philosophy “object observed by object ” , “both subject and object dissolve ”. The verse like an ink wash painting in which the white river-mist (“smoke-flowers”) unified with sky and river turns into being a Chinese art paper with the lone sail “blotting” while even though the sight of boat is blurred, the poet stands still and gazes at his friend’s receding figure, disappearing into nothing. At this time, all feelings are silent in the rimless mist only with a word “lone” left behind to be pondered on, rising up to a state of relieve and broad mind. In the last two lines, all things except the river vanish from the sight, leaving the world to the speaker and his gentle melancholy. Thus, Pound represented the “gentleness” and “sincerity” in emotional expressions. Moreover, he preserved the imagery beauty of “lone sail”(孤帆) and “far sky”(碧空). A lone sail sets for someplace under the far sky, which seems a metaphor that compares the friend with the boat and the uncertainties with the sky. That shows the speaker is afraid of what the future will be with his friend. From the pespective of spatial structure, the “sail” as a point, the “river” as a line, the “sky” as a plane, all of these get combined and condensed into one sentence, easily transporting readers to the poetic space. While the infinite extension of “river” in the last sentence strengthen the comparison between the vastness of space and the tininess of human, reproducing the Taoist idea in the original that Man is an internal part of the Nature.

Furthermore, it is worthwhile noting that the word “reaching” in the last line to some degree depicts the river flow for the inflectional morpheme “-ing” imitates the movement, unfolding the picture in which river melt into the sky in the mind. All in all, the poem is spiritual alike with the original not only in the style of emotional expression but also in the imagery beauty, both of which are underpinned by the deep understanding of Confucian and Taoist aesthetics in the original.

(格式调整段首应顶格)"Separation on the River Kiang"(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) is the first poem in Four poems of Departure, telling a story of parting with an intimate friend along the River Kiang. The original poem and Pound’s version are:（格式调整，段落之间空格）

黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵

（唐）李白

故人西辞黄鹤楼，烟花三月下扬州。

孤帆远影碧空尽，唯见长江天际流。

Separation on the River Kiang

By Ezra Pound

KO-JIN goes west from Ko-kaku-ro,

The smoke-flowers are blurred over the river.

His lone sail blots the far sky.

And now I see only the river,

The long Kiang, reaching heaven.
--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:22, 14 December 2020 (UTC)

(格式调整段首应顶格)In the content of the first two lines, the translator mistranslates “故人”, “黄鹤楼” and to be more exactly he simply transliterates the Japanese version ("こじん" and “こうかくろう”) of the two nouns into their English version（KO-JIN and Ko-kaku-ro). The three words KO-JIN, Ko-kaku-ro, Kiang transliterate the related Japanese Kanji(日语汉字), whose accents originate from ancient Chinese pronouncation. Although the imitation is against its original meaning, it adds a hint of exoticism to the translation. However, Pound maybe not a good Japanese learner because "こじん"(KO-JIN) refers to a dead person but not "故人" (an old friend). Furthermore, “烟花” means fireworks while Pound splits the word into “烟” (smoke) and “花” (flower) and invents a new compound word “smoke-flowers”. As for the last lines, he adopted a strategy of creative translation rather than word-for-word translation.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:20, 14 December 2020 (UTC)

(格式调整段首应顶格)From the view of Xu’s Beauty in sense, Pound, though careless about the counterparts of culture-loaded words, successively transfers the sense beauty to his readers. Firstly, the translation follows the tradition of the original’s style for there is no intention of directly telling others the unwillingness of departure but the word “lone” betrays all sentiments, not only the solitude of the friend but also that of the poet himself. Besides, the version echoes the Taoist philosophy “object observed by object ” , “both subject and object dissolve ”. The verse like an ink wash painting in which the white river-mist (“smoke-flowers”) unified with sky and river turns into being a Chinese art paper with the lone sail “blotting” while even though the sight of boat is blurred, the poet stands still and gazes at his friend’s receding figure, disappearing into nothing. At this time, all feelings are silent in the rimless mist only with a word “lone” left behind to be pondered on, rising up to a state of relieve and broad mind. In the last two lines, all things except the river vanish from the sight, leaving the world to the speaker and his gentle melancholy. Thus, Pound represented the “gentleness” and “sincerity” in emotional expressions. Moreover, he preserved the imagery beauty of “lone sail”(孤帆) and “far sky”(碧空). A lone sail sets for someplace under the far sky, which seems a metaphor that compares the friend with the boat and the uncertainties with the sky. That shows the speaker is afraid of what the future will be with his friend. From the pespective of spatial structure, the “sail” as a point, the “river” as a line, the “sky” as a plane, all of these get combined and condensed into one sentence, easily transporting readers to the poetic space. While the infinite extension of “river” in the last sentence strengthen the comparison between the vastness of space and the tininess of human, reproducing the Taoist idea in the original that Man is an internal part of the Nature. --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:20, 14 December 2020 (UTC)

(格式调整首段应顶格)Furthermore, it is worthwhile noting that the word “reaching” in the last line to some degree depicts the river flow for the inflectional morpheme “-ing” imitates the movement, unfolding the picture in which river melt into the sky in the mind. All in all, the poem is spiritual alike with the original not only in the style of emotional expression but also in the imagery beauty, both of which are underpinned by the deep understanding of Confucian and Taoist aesthetics in the original.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:20, 14 December 2020 (UTC)

====The Sense Beauty in “Taking Leave of a Friend”====

"Taking Leave of a Friend"(《送友人》) is the most sentimental in the four poems. The original poem and Pound’s version are:

送友人
（唐）李白
青山横北郭，白水绕东城。
此地一为别，孤蓬万里征。
浮云游子意，落日故人情。
挥手自兹去，萧萧班马鸣。

Taking Leave of a Friend
By Ezra Pound
Blue mountains to the north of the walls,
White river winding about them;
Here we must make separation
And go out through a thousand miles of dead grass.
Mind like a floating wide cloud.
Sunset like the parting of old acquaintances
Who bow over their clasped hands at a distance.
Our horses neigh to each other
as we are departing.

The first word “blue” is fabulous for its pun on the sad tone of the whole poem. Likewise, “a thousand miles of dead grass” in the fourth line also reflects the speaker’s mind state by keeping the original exaggeration. However, the translation of “孤蓬” into “dead grass” should be more elaborated for “蓬” is a typical drifting plant, called fleabane. Thus, the original describes it “孤”(lonely) while “dead” in Pound’s version goes too far, though it echoes the sad parting. Pound does not directly describe the speaker but the object, successfully weakening the expression of strong feelings and allowing readers to take a glance at his sorrow. In the fifth line, the parallel of wandering clouds and the setting sun emerge readers in empathy for the parting to come but the expected high-tide is absent, superseded by a shift of perspective:

Our horses neigh to each other
as we are departing.

The poet and his friend wave hands to each other without any words or close contact and leave. In tranquility, the rising sadness of the former part is blocked out by use of personification, providing the time for regaining elegance when the horses’ neighs as tribute to each other. On the whole, the poem realizes the sense beauty for its control of the speaker’s emotional expression. As for imagery beauty, all the images like mountain, river, cloud are well kept. Besides, “ Mind like a floating wide cloud ” misinterprets the original line “浮云游子意”, which means that young men like clouds never be settled instead of on the way for realizing their aspirations. Furthermore, it is a pity that the translating of the line “挥手自兹去” is omitted because the casual and silent action of waving hands by comparison with their horses’ whicker suggests their relationship as Confucius said “The friendship between gentlemen appears indifferent but is pure like water ("君子之交淡如水"-《庄子·山木》)”. Although there are omissions, the imagery beauty is well-interpreted, especially in the last line. The description of horses’ behavior is so realistic that the poem touching a chord with readers at once prints a lifelike painting on their minds and presents their reluctance to part in a roundabout way.
Moreover, Pound conforms to the concise principle of the original and put a series of prepositions into use such as “to” in “mountains to the north” and “ neigh to each other”, in order to amplify the types of sentences and simplify the expression. To be more precise, a long sentence with verbs obviously contrasts with short sentences, which contributes to the formation of natural musical qualities. For example, the first and second line set a context for the parting with specific words to describe like “blue”, “white” and “winding”. However, detailed writing immediately become replaced by the intermission separating a long sentence into a short one ( “Here we must make separation”) and a long one. The former gives readers a chance to slow down the music rhythm, which can also be considered as a suspension of the high tide. Because the latter, the longest sentence in the poem, with exaggerative words like “thousand” and “dead” crystalizes the strongest emotional expression. Like Chopin’s Etudes, op.10 No.3 (Tristesse), the contrast of low and high notes rises up a kind of musical beauty, unique to English language. What is following is a pair of metaphors, alleviating the tension but the second longest sentence does not leading the poetic music to its second high-tide. All of these turbulent feelings are ended by two separate short lines “Our horses neigh to each other” “as we are departing”, echoing the thirds line “Here we must make separation”. On the whole, Pound’s version creatively endowed the poem with the musical qualities of English language and at the same time the compactness and simplicity of Chinese poetic sentence structure still dominate. Overall, its irregularity corresponds to the ups and down of the speaker’s uneasiness.
Furthermore, he broke out the grammatical rules to compact the diction of images, particularly in the first two lines “Blue mountains to the north of the walls, White river winding about them”, which makes use of preposition to replace the two verbs “横” “绕”. Similarly, in the line “浮云游子意，落日故人情”, Li Bai directly juxtaposes the images “浮云” (wandering clouds) “落日” (the setting sun) and personal emotions “游子意”(wanderer’s feeling) “故人情” (nostalgia for old friends) while Pound employs the preposition “like” to connet the nouns and its figurative meaning. Actually, Pound does not really understand Li Bai’s intention that instead of metaphor he just aims to reach a Taoist balance by a simple juxtaposition of natural images and emotion, leaving more uncertainty for readers to imagine.

"Taking Leave of a Friend"(《送友人》) is the most sentimental in the four poems. The original poem and Pound’s version are:

送友人

（唐）李白

青山横北郭，白水绕东城。（格式调整，段落之间空格） --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 01:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

此地一为别，孤蓬万里征。

浮云游子意，落日故人情。

挥手自兹去，萧萧班马鸣。

Taking Leave of a Friend（格式调整，段落之间空格）

By Ezra Pound

Blue mountains to the north of the walls,

White river winding about them;

Here we must make separation

And go out through a thousand miles of dead grass.

Mind like a floating wide cloud.

Sunset like the parting of old acquaintances

Who bow over their clasped hands at a distance.

Our horses neigh to each other as we are departing.
--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)

The first word “blue” is fabulous for its pun on the sad tone of the whole poem. Likewise, “a thousand miles of dead grass” in the fourth line also reflects the speaker’s mind state by keeping the original exaggeration. However, the translation of “孤蓬” into “dead grass” should be more elaborated for “蓬” is a typical drifting plant, called fleabane. Thus, the original describes it “孤”(lonely) while “dead” in Pound’s version goes too far, though it echoes the sad parting. Pound does not directly describe the speaker but the object, successfully weakening the expression of strong feelings and allowing readers to take a glance at his sorrow. In the fifth line, the parallel of wandering clouds and the setting sun emerge readers in empathy for the parting to come but the expected high-tide is absent, superseded by a shift of perspective:

Our horses neigh to each other as we are departing.

(格式调整段首应顶格)The poet and his friend wave hands to each other without any words or close contact and leave. In tranquility, the rising sadness of the former part is blocked out by use of personification, providing the time for regaining elegance when the horses’ neighs as tribute to each other. On the whole, the poem realizes the sense beauty for its control of the speaker’s emotional expression. As for imagery beauty, all the images like mountain, river, cloud are well kept. Besides, “ Mind like a floating wide cloud ” misinterprets the original line “浮云游子意”, which means that young men like clouds never be settled instead of on the way for realizing their aspirations. Furthermore, it is a pity that the translating of the line “挥手自兹去” is omitted because the casual and silent action of waving hands by comparison with their horses’ whicker suggests their relationship as Confucius said “The friendship between gentlemen appears indifferent but is pure like water ("君子之交淡如水"-《庄子·山木》)”. Although there are omissions, the imagery beauty is well-interpreted, especially in the last line. The description of horses’ behavior is so realistic that the poem touching a chord with readers at once prints a lifelike painting on their minds and presents their reluctance to part in a roundabout way. --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)

(格式调整段首应顶格)Moreover, Pound conforms to the concise principle of the original and put a series of prepositions into use such as “to” in “mountains to the north” and “ neigh to each other”, in order to amplify the types of sentences and simplify the expression. To be more precise, a long sentence with verbs obviously contrasts with short sentences, which contributes to the formation of natural musical qualities. For example, the first and second line set a context for the parting with specific words to describe like “blue”, “white” and “winding”. However, detailed writing immediately become replaced by the intermission separating a long sentence into a short one ( “Here we must make separation”) and a long one. The former gives readers a chance to slow down the music rhythm, which can also be considered as a suspension of the high tide. Because the latter, the longest sentence in the poem, with exaggerative words like “thousand” and “dead” crystalizes the strongest emotional expression. Like Chopin’s Etudes, op.10 No.3 (Tristesse), the contrast of low and high notes rises up a kind of musical beauty, unique to English language. What is following is a pair of metaphors, alleviating the tension but the second longest sentence does not leading the poetic music to its second high-tide. All of these turbulent feelings are ended by two separate short lines “Our horses neigh to each other” “as we are departing”, echoing the thirds line “Here we must make separation”. On the whole, Pound’s version creatively endowed the poem with the musical qualities of English language and at the same time the compactness and simplicity of Chinese poetic sentence structure still dominate. Overall, its irregularity corresponds to the ups and down of the speaker’s uneasiness.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)

(格式调整段首应顶格)Furthermore, he broke out the grammatical rules to compact the diction of images, particularly in the first two lines “Blue mountains to the north of the walls, White river winding about them”, which makes use of preposition to replace the two verbs “横” “绕”. Similarly, in the line “浮云游子意，落日故人情”, Li Bai directly juxtaposes the images “浮云” (wandering clouds) “落日” (the setting sun) and personal emotions “游子意”(wanderer’s feeling) “故人情” (nostalgia for old friends) while Pound employs the preposition “like” to connet the nouns and its figurative meaning. Actually, Pound does not really understand Li Bai’s intention that instead of metaphor he just aims to reach a Taoist balance by a simple juxtaposition of natural images and emotion, leaving more uncertainty for readers to imagine.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)

====The Sense Beauty in “Leave-taking near Shoku”====

"Leave-taking near Shoku"(《送友人入蜀》) is written to a friend who has been relegated to a barren territory, called Shu (蜀) and the parting is near:

送友人入蜀
（唐）李白
见说蚕丛路，崎岖不易行。
山从人面起，云傍马头生。
芳树笼秦栈，春流绕蜀城。
升沉应已定，不必问君平。

Leaving-taking near Shoku
By Ezra Pound
THEY say the roads of Sanso are steep,
Sheer as the mountains.
The walls rise in a man’s face,
Clouds grow out of the hill
at his horse’s bridle.
Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin,
Their trunks burst through the paving,
And freshets are bursting their ice
in the midst of Shoku, a proud city.

Men’s fates are already set,
There is no need of asking diviners.

In the original poem, metaphor and exaggeration are used to describe the hostility of the journey in the first five lines, both of which are well-preserved in the translation. Even though the areas of Shu is mountainous with treacherous roads and thousands miles away from the capital city, the speaker positively find scenery beauty: “芳树” “春流”, translated to“sweet trees” and “freshets” respectively by Pound. It is obvious that “春流” is mistranslated for he wrongly equals it with the image of rising river with ice melting. Actually, Shu (蜀) or to say Sichuan Province, has four seasons warm like spring, thus it is impossible for the scene “freshets are bursting their ice” to happen. Briefly speaking, Pound over-translates the line. By and large, the first stanza fundamentally reproduces both the arduous trip to Shu and its enchanting landscapes.
However in the last part, the friend is afraid of uncertainties in making fortune as well as the dangers in the journey, thus always turning to a fortune-teller for suggestions. The last two lines, or to say, an epigram, “升沉应已定，不必问君平” is paraphrased as “Men’s fates are already set, There is no need of asking diviners” . Although “君平”, a Chinese literary allusion to a physiognomist, is unavoidably omitted, the entire translation resonates Confucius’ words “Junzi keeps his elegance and tranquility in distress but the petty will completely lose the morality of human ("君子固穷, 小人穷斯滥矣"-孔子《论语·卫灵公》)” . In purpose to summon up his friend’s courage to face the challenge instead of being a coward who loses gentleman’s elegance, being threatened by the unknown and begging for unrealistic assistance. In a broad sense, this poem encourages people in troubles to conquer fears with optimism and keep the brave spirit in heart no matter what is confronted with, not only brave to be self-reliant in life but also be self-dependent in spirit. All in all, Pound’s version except for some errors is a perfect match for the original in content: (1) the reproduction of images in English language essentially preserves the imagery beauty; (2) the smart and brief interpretation of the last epigram keeps Chinese philosophical beauty.
By analyzing the entire poem, we can find that sentences with link-verb predicative are comparatively increased like “Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin/Their trunks burst through the paving” and “And freshets are bursting their ice” . By using the be form, the verb “burst” directly presents the dominance of trees’ shadowing the track, spiritually alike to the Chinese verb “笼” while its progressive form becomes more dynamic and vivid, which elaborately conveys the vitality of river, though it deviates from the meaning of “绕” (wind). What’s more, other be forms also can be seen in the last line. When people read it, the speaker’s affirmation can make them convinced of his thought, miraculously retelling Li Bai’s encouragement to his friend.

(格式调整段首应顶格)"Leave-taking near Shoku"(《送友人入蜀》) is written to a friend who has been relegated to a barren territory, called Shu (蜀) and the parting is near:

送友人入蜀

（唐）李白

见说蚕丛路，崎岖不易行。

山从人面起，云傍马头生。

芳树笼秦栈，春流绕蜀城。

升沉应已定，不必问君平。

Leaving-taking near Shoku

By Ezra Pound

THEY say the roads of Sanso are steep,Sheer as the mountains.

The walls rise in a man’s face,Clouds grow out of the hill at his horse’s bridle.

Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin, Their trunks burst through the paving, And freshets are bursting their ice in the midst of Shoku, a proud city.

Men’s fates are already set, There is no need of asking diviners.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:30, 14 December 2020 (UTC)

(格式调整段首应顶格)In the original poem, metaphor and exaggeration are used to describe the hostility of the journey in the first five lines, both of which are well-preserved in the translation. Even though the areas of Shu is mountainous with treacherous roads and thousands miles away from the capital city, the speaker positively find scenery beauty: “芳树” “春流”, translated to“sweet trees” and “freshets” respectively by Pound. It is obvious that “春流” is mistranslated for he wrongly equals it with the image of rising river with ice melting. Actually, Shu (蜀) or to say Sichuan Province, has four seasons warm like spring, thus it is impossible for the scene “freshets are bursting their ice” to happen. Briefly speaking, Pound over-translates the line. By and large, the first stanza fundamentally reproduces both the arduous trip to Shu and its enchanting landscapes.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:30, 14 December 2020 (UTC)

(格式调整段首应顶格)However in the last part, the friend is afraid of uncertainties in making fortune as well as the dangers in the journey, thus always turning to a fortune-teller for suggestions. The last two lines, or to say, an epigram, “升沉应已定，不必问君平” is paraphrased as “Men’s fates are already set, There is no need of asking diviners” . Although “君平”, a Chinese literary allusion to a physiognomist, is unavoidably omitted, the entire translation resonates Confucius’ words “Junzi keeps his elegance and tranquility in distress but the petty will completely lose the morality of human ("君子固穷, 小人穷斯滥矣"-孔子《论语·卫灵公》)” . In purpose to summon up his friend’s courage to face the challenge instead of being a coward who loses gentleman’s elegance, being threatened by the unknown and begging for unrealistic assistance. In a broad sense, this poem encourages people in troubles to conquer fears with optimism and keep the brave spirit in heart no matter what is confronted with, not only brave to be self-reliant in life but also be self-dependent in spirit. All in all, Pound’s version except for some errors is a perfect match for the original in content: (1) the reproduction of images in English language essentially preserves the imagery beauty; (2) the smart and brief interpretation of the last epigram keeps Chinese philosophical beauty.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:30, 14 December 2020 (UTC)

(格式调整段首应顶格)By analyzing the entire poem, we can find that sentences with link-verb predicative are comparatively increased like “Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin/Their trunks burst through the paving” and “And freshets are bursting their ice” . By using the be form, the verb “burst” directly presents the dominance of trees’ shadowing the track, spiritually alike to the Chinese verb “笼” while its progressive form becomes more dynamic and vivid, which elaborately conveys the vitality of river, though it deviates from the meaning of “绕” (wind). What’s more, other be forms also can be seen in the last line. When people read it, the speaker’s affirmation can make them convinced of his thought, miraculously retelling Li Bai’s encouragement to his friend.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:30, 14 December 2020 (UTC)

====The Sense Beauty in “The City of Choan”====

The last poem “The City of Choan”(《登金陵凤凰台》) distinct from the previous three poems of departure seems to be more about a contemplation of history in a historical site (called Phoenix Terrace, 凤凰台) than a parting. The reason for why Pound classifies it into Four poems of Departure may be that parting in a broad sense is a farewell to anything such as the speaker’s leave from Choan, which actually misinterprets the original.

登金陵凤凰台
(唐)李白
凤凰台上凤凰游，凤去台空江自流。
吴宫花草埋幽径，晋代衣冠成古丘。
三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲。
总为浮云能蔽日，长安不见使人愁。

The City of Choan
THE phoenix are at play on their terrace.
The phoenix are gone, the river flows on alone.
Flowers and grass
Cover over the dark path
Where lay the dynastic house of the Go.
The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin
Are now the base of old hills.

The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven,
The isle of White Heron
splits the two streams apart.
Now the high clouds cover the sun
And I can not see Choan afar
And I am sad.

In the first two line of the original, by comparing the prosperity of a dynasty to the phoenix, an auspicious sign in the ancient China, the speaker clarifies the truth that a dynasty no matter how powerful it is will not escape from changes in the passage of time (a parallel to the coming and leaving of phoenix) while nature keeps its law functioning, with all that used to be prosperous now reduced to a wilderness. In Pound’s version, the basic meaning and the main image phoenix are well preserved but there is a call for improvement. Explicitly, the culture-loaded words are literally translated, possibly leading to some misunderstandings. For example, “晋代衣冠”(official uniform in Jin Dynasty) is a metonymy for the ruling class in Jin instead of clothing itself. After pondering on the fall of Jin (“Shin”) and the rise of Wu ( “the Go” ) , the speaker casts his sight on the real scene before him: “三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲”, translated as “The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven/ The isle of White Heron splits the two streams apart”, which completely reproduces the geographic space in the original for the translator by describing the vertical space through the use of the verb phrase “fall through” and the planar space “splits...apart”.
In the last line of the original, the image of sun is employed to symbolize the central power of the country while the “high clouds” (a metaphor for treacherous officials ) obscure it, suggesting that corrupted and crafty officials blind the monarch to justice. Thus, as a loyal subject with integrity, he suffers a false charge and “can not see Choan (长安), a capital city here as a metaphor for the ruler) afar”, which implies that his political fantasy goes down. The depression for the monarch’s ignorance is mixed with his growing feeling of disillusionment.Its translation, on the basis of keeping the metaphor, also represents the the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” for his “I am sad” reproduces the meaning of “愁”. The simplest words are the most touching words. All worries for the country and grudges against the tribulations are condensed into the three words. All in all, the original’s sense beauty
Both metaphor and emotional expression is perfectly reproduced in Pound’s translation.
When reading the poem, people can find that the poem is incredibly full of alliteration and repetition, which seems not to be Pound’s free style. In the first part, repetition of Phoenix appears in the beginning of the first two lines, representing the repetitive sound of “凤 (fèng)”. Besides, in the line “The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin/ Are now the base of old hills”, the repetitions of “bright” and the phone [s] in “cloths”, “caps” and “base”give the version some qualities of classical music, which sound suitable for the historical theme. Overall, the translation divides the original into two stanzas: one concerning the contemplation of historical changes; the other about the view of the historical views (The Phoenix Terrace) before his eye and his deep sorrow for his suffering, which explicitly separate the poem into the past and the present. In the poem, time integrates with space and at the same time nature integrates with the speaker’s aspiration, revealing the contradiction between Confucius’ Rushi (入世) and Taoist Chushu (出世). The former refers to the aspiration “To establish intention for the world; to shoulder mission for the people; to inherit discontinued learning for the late saint; and to initiate peace for all ages ("为天地立心，为生民立命，为往圣继绝学，为万世开太平"-张载《横渠语录》)” accepted by Chinese literati throughout generations under the influence of Confucius, which is also presented by the speaker; the latter showed in the historical and natural changes in the poem means transcendence from worldliness and the government should be in harmony with the Nature as Lao Tzu said :

Heaven and Earth are not kind.
They regard all things as offerings.
The sage is not kind.
He regards people as offerings.
Is not the space between Heaven and Earth like a bellows?
It is empty, but lacks nothing.
The more it moves, the more comes out of it.
A multitude of words is tiresome,
Unlike remaining centered.

[ Translated by Stenudd, Stefan. “天地不仁，以万物为刍狗；圣人不仁，以百姓为刍狗。天地之间，其犹橐龠乎？虚而不屈，动而俞出。多闻数穷，不若守于中”(《道德经》第五章) ]

(格式调整段首应顶格)The last poem “The City of Choan”(《登金陵凤凰台》) distinct from the previous three poems of departure seems to be more about a contemplation of history in a historical site (called Phoenix Terrace, 凤凰台) than a parting. The reason for why Pound classifies it into Four poems of Departure may be that parting in a broad sense is a farewell to anything such as the speaker’s leave from Choan, which actually misinterprets the original. --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:44, 14 December 2020 (UTC)

登金陵凤凰台

(唐)李白

凤凰台上凤凰游，凤去台空江自流。

吴宫花草埋幽径，晋代衣冠成古丘。

三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲。

总为浮云能蔽日，长安不见使人愁。

The City of Choan

THE phoenix are at play on their terrace.The phoenix are gone, the river flows on alone.

Flowers and grass cover over the dark path where lay the dynastic house of the Go.

The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin are now the base of old hills.

The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven,The isle of White Heron splits the two streams apart.

Now the high clouds cover the sun and I can not see Choan afar.

And I am sad.

(格式调整段首应顶格)In the first two line of the original, by comparing the prosperity of a dynasty to the phoenix, an auspicious sign in the ancient China, the speaker clarifies the truth that a dynasty no matter how powerful it is will not escape from changes in the passage of time (a parallel to the coming and leaving of phoenix) while nature keeps its law functioning, with all that used to be prosperous now reduced to a wilderness. In Pound’s version, the basic meaning and the main image phoenix are well preserved but there is a call for improvement. Explicitly, the culture-loaded words are literally translated, possibly leading to some misunderstandings. For example, “晋代衣冠”(official uniform in Jin Dynasty) is a metonymy for the ruling class in Jin instead of clothing itself. After pondering on the fall of Jin (“Shin”) and the rise of Wu ( “the Go” ) , the speaker casts his sight on the real scene before him: “三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲”, translated as “The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven/ The isle of White Heron splits the two streams apart”, which completely reproduces the geographic space in the original for the translator by describing the vertical space through the use of the verb phrase “fall through” and the planar space “splits...apart”.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:44, 14 December 2020 (UTC)

(格式调整段首应顶格)In the last line of the original, the image of sun is employed to symbolize the central power of the country while the “high clouds” (a metaphor for treacherous officials ) obscure it, suggesting that corrupted and crafty officials blind the monarch to justice. Thus, as a loyal subject with integrity, he suffers a false charge and “can not see Choan (长安), a capital city here as a metaphor for the ruler) afar”, which implies that his political fantasy goes down. The depression for the monarch’s ignorance is mixed with his growing feeling of disillusionment.Its translation, on the basis of keeping the metaphor, also represents the the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” for his “I am sad” reproduces the meaning of “愁”. The simplest words are the most touching words. All worries for the country and grudges against the tribulations are condensed into the three words. All in all, the original’s sense beauty-both metaphor and emotional expression—is perfectly reproduced in Pound’s translation.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:44, 14 December 2020 (UTC)

(格式调整段首应顶格)When reading the poem, people can find that the poem is incredibly full of alliteration and repetition, which seems not to be Pound’s free style. In the first part, repetition of Phoenix appears in the beginning of the first two lines, representing the repetitive sound of “凤 (fèng)”. Besides, in the line “The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin/ Are now the base of old hills”, the repetitions of “bright” and the phone [s] in “cloths”, “caps” and “base”give the version some qualities of classical music, which sound suitable for the historical theme. Overall, the translation divides the original into two stanzas: one concerning the contemplation of historical changes; the other about the view of the historical views (The Phoenix Terrace) before his eye and his deep sorrow for his suffering, which explicitly separate the poem into the past and the present. In the poem, time integrates with space and at the same time nature integrates with the speaker’s aspiration, revealing the contradiction between Confucius’ Rushi (入世) and Taoist Chushu (出世). The former refers to the aspiration “To establish intention for the world; to shoulder mission for the people; to inherit discontinued learning for the late saint; and to initiate peace for all ages ("为天地立心，为生民立命，为往圣继绝学，为万世开太平"-张载《横渠语录》)” accepted by Chinese literati throughout generations under the influence of Confucius, which is also presented by the speaker; the latter showed in the historical and natural changes in the poem means transcendence from worldliness and the government should be in harmony with the Nature as Lao Tzu said :

Heaven and Earth are not kind.

They regard all things as offerings.

The sage is not kind.

He regards people as offerings.

Is not the space between Heaven and Earth like a bellows?

It is empty, but lacks nothing.

The more it moves, the more comes out of it.

A multitude of words is tiresome,

Unlike remaining centered.

[ Translated by Stenudd, Stefan. “天地不仁，以万物为刍狗；圣人不仁，以百姓为刍狗。天地之间，其犹橐龠乎？虚而不屈，动而俞出。多闻数穷，不若守于中”(《道德经》第五章) ]--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:44, 14 December 2020 (UTC)

===Conclusion===

All the four poems are in a melancholy tone but they are distinct from each other in Beauty in Sense. The first poem “Separation on the River Kiang” in the most gentle but most overwhelming way expresses negative emotions with only one word (“lone”) betraying the speaker’s sorrow while at the same time integrated with the boundlessness of the River Kiang, which keeps and reproduces the original imagery beauty tactfully; In “Taking Leave of a Friend”, Pound adopts a series of figures of speech such as hyperbole and metaphor, essentially representing the artistic conception of the original, though there are some mistakes in comprehension; “Leave-taking near Shoku” perfectly retells the original, or to say, it is the most loyal one to the original text, particularly in the last but the most important lines, which really give the best interpretation of the speaker’s intention; The last poem “The City of Choan” is improperly involved in Pound’s selection of four poems of departure due to the tiny misunderstanding of the last line in the original but the translation excellently reproduces the historical vicissitudes and the beauty of spatial construction in the original.
In China most of the researches on Cathay have been concerned with the translation comparison of selected texts, all of which have attached importance on the aesthetic presentation of the Pound’s version. But actually, Chinese traditional aesthetic philosophy has not been ever further studied by our English learners such as the Confucian and Taoist artistic philosophy. Thus, it is worth noting the problem that the related researches are fixed in form and monotonous in content. To solve it, studies about Cathay in the future should be underpinned by the Chinese cultural learning and new findings will take root in the untrodden soil of Chinese classical culture.

(格式调整段首应顶格)All the four poems are in a melancholy tone but they are distinct from each other in Beauty in Sense. The first poem “Separation on the River Kiang” in the most gentle but most overwhelming way expresses negative emotions with only one word (“lone”) betraying the speaker’s sorrow while at the same time integrated with the boundlessness of the River Kiang, which keeps and reproduces the original imagery beauty tactfully; In “Taking Leave of a Friend”, Pound adopts a series of figures of speech such as hyperbole and metaphor, essentially representing the artistic conception of the original, though there are some mistakes in comprehension; “Leave-taking near Shoku” perfectly retells the original, or to say, it is the most loyal one to the original text, particularly in the last but the most important lines, which really give the best interpretation of the speaker’s intention; The last poem “The City of Choan” is improperly involved in Pound’s selection of four poems of departure due to the tiny misunderstanding of the last line in the original but the translation excellently reproduces the historical vicissitudes and the beauty of spatial construction in the original. --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:45, 14 December 2020 (UTC)

(格式调整段首应顶格)In China most of the researches on Cathay have been concerned with the translation comparison of selected texts, all of which have attached importance on the aesthetic presentation of the Pound’s version. But actually, Chinese traditional aesthetic philosophy has not been ever further studied by our English learners such as the Confucian and Taoist artistic philosophy. Thus, it is worth noting the problem that the related researches are fixed in form and monotonous in content. To solve it, studies about Cathay in the future should be underpinned by the Chinese cultural learning and new findings will take root in the untrodden soil of Chinese classical culture.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:45, 14 December 2020 (UTC)

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[2] Ieong, Sao Leng Sylvia. The Sources of Ezra Pound’s ''Cathay'': Fenollosa’s Notebooks and the Original Chinese Texts[J]. Comparative Literature: East &West, 2001, 2(1): 142-153.
[3] Lin，Yutang．“Chuangtse，Mystic and Humorist” in The Wisdom of China[M]. London: Michael Joseph，1949．（没有标明页码）
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[6] Seth, Vikram. ''Three Chinese Poets: Translations of poems by Wang Wei, Li Bai, and Du Fu''[M]. New York: HarperPerennial, 1992（没有标明页码）--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 01:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)
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==A Study on the Four Levels of Translation Based on Newmark’s Theory 张玲 Zhang Ling, 202070080623==

Zhang Ling, Student no. 202070080623

===Abstract===

Faithfulness, which is regarded as the basic standard of translation, has always been put in the first place in traditional translation standards. To appreciate the quality of a translation, we mainly see whether the translation can accurately express the meaning of the original text and be faithful to the original. On the level of translation, many translators have put forward their own views. British translation theorist Newmark once put forward the view of "textual level, referential level, cohesive level and level of naturalness". According to Newmark's point of view, in the process of expression, the translator must be responsible for the original text and the translation at these four levels, so as to faithfully express the meaning of the original text. From the perspective of level, this paper analyzes the four levels and how the translation should be faithful to the translation.

Faithfulness, which is regarded as the basic standard of translation, has always been put in the first place in traditional translation standards. To appreciate the quality of a translation, we mainly see whether the translation can accurately express the meaning of the original text and be faithful to the original. On the level of translation, many translators have put forward their own views. Peter Newmark, a British translation theorist once put forward the view of "textual level, referential level, cohesive level and level of naturalness". According to Newmark's point of view, in the process of expression, the translator must be responsible for the original text and the translation at these four levels, so as to faithfully express the meaning of the original text. From the perspective of level, this paper analyzes the four levels and how the translation should be faithful to the translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===Key Words===

textual level; referential level; cohesive level; level of naturalness

===题目===

从纽马克的翻译理论看翻译的四个层次

===摘要===

传统的翻译标准一直将“信”摆在首位，即“忠实”，并将其作为翻译的基本标准。鉴赏一篇译文的质量，我们主要会看译文是否能准确表达原文的意思，忠实原文。关于翻译的层次，许多翻译学家都提出了自己的见解，英国翻译理论学家纽马克的曾提出“文本层次、所指层次、粘着层次和自然层次”的说法。按照纽马克的观点，在表达的过程中，译者必须在这四个层次上对原文和译文负责，才能做到忠实地表达原文的意思。本文将具体分析这四个层次，从层次的角度来分析翻译的忠实性。

传统的翻译标准一直将“信”即“忠实”摆在首位，并将其作为翻译的基本标准。鉴赏一篇译文的质量，我们主要会看译文是否能准确表达原文的意思，忠实原文。关于翻译的层次，许多翻译学家都提出了自己的见解，英国翻译理论学家纽马克的曾提出“文本层次、所指层次、粘着层次和自然层次”的说法。按照纽马克的观点，在表达的过程中，译者必须在这四个层次上对原文和译文负责，才能做到忠实地表达原文的意思。本文将具体分析这四个层次，从层次的角度来分析翻译的忠实性。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===关键词===

文本层次所指层次粘着层次自然层次

===Textual Level===

Textual level refers to the literal meaning of the original text. It focuses on determining the specific meaning of a word. In the process of translation, this is the first level that translators should pay attention to, because any translation comes from the original. It is not only the beginning but also the end of translation activities. (Xu Ling, 2005)

Textual level refers to the literal meaning of the original text. It focuses on determining the specific meaning of a word. In the process of translation, it is the first level that translators should concern, because any translation comes from the original. It is not only the beginning but also the end of translation activities. (Xu Ling, 2005)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 11:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

To a great extent, to be responsible for and faithful to the original text is that we must be faithful to the literal meaning of the original. The phenomenon of polysemy exists in both English and Chinese. In the process of understanding the literal meaning of the original text, we often encounter the difficult point of how to deal with polysemy. A polyseme refers to a word has multiple meanings, usually related by contiguity of meaning within a semantic field. Therefore, the same word may have completely different meaning, which will interfere with the understanding of the literal meaning of the original text. Here are some examples. (Luo Jinde, 1998, 78)

To a great extent, to be responsible for and faithful to the original text is that we must be faithful to the literal meaning of the original. The phenomenon of polysemy exists in both English and Chinese. In the process of understanding the literal meaning of the original text, we often encounter the difficult point of how to deal with polysemy. A polyseme refers to a word which has multiple meanings, usually related by contiguity of meaning within a semantic field. Therefore, the same word may have completely different meaning, which will interfere with the understanding of the literal meaning of the original text. Here are some examples. (Luo Jinde, 1998, 78)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

E.g.1

SL text: It is quite another story now.

TL text：现在情况完全不同了。

E.g.2

SL text: The white-haired girl's story is one of the saddest.

TL text: 白毛女的遭遇可算是最悲惨的。

E.g.3

SL text: A young man came to police station with a story.

TL text: 一个年轻人来到警察局报案。

Although these three examples are very simple, they are very instructive. This three sentences all contain the word “story”, but its meaning is different like black and white when it is translated. In the first sentence, “story” means “situation” or “case”, and the sentence means that things are different now. In the second sentence, “story” means “experience”, and the sentence means that the experience of the white-haired girl is one of the saddest. In the third sentences, “story” means “law case”, and the sentence means that a young man came to police station with a case.

Although these three examples are very simple, they are very instructive. This three sentences all contain the word "story", but its meaning is different like "black and white" when it is translated. In the first sentence, "story" means "situation" or "case", and the sentence means things are different now. In the second sentence, “story” means "experience", and the sentence means that the experience of the white-haired girl is one of the saddest. In the third sentences, "story" means "law case", and the sentence means that a young man came to police station with a case.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Another problem involved in the textual level is that the translated text must accord with the convention of the target language. There are great differences between English and Chinese in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary, because English belongs to Indo-European language while Chinese belongs to Sino-Tibetan language, and they are deeply influenced by the culture of their respective countries. If we stick to the original text and translate it word for word according to the literal meaning of the original text, we may produce some sentences that are not in accordance with the convention of the target language or even wrong.

Another problem involved in the textual level is that the translated text must accord with the convention of the target language. There are great differences between English and Chinese in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary, because English belongs to Indo-European language while Chinese belongs to Sino-Tibetan language, and they are deeply influenced by the culture of their respective countries. If we stick to the original text and translate it word for word according to the literal meaning of the original text, we may make some sentences that are not in accordance with the convention of the target language or even wrong. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

E.g.4

SL text:Tom was upsetting the other children, so I show him the door.

TL text 1: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他带到门那去。

TL text 2: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他撵出去了。

E.g.5

SL text: His irritation could not withstand the silent beauty of the night.

TL text 1: 他的烦恼不能承受夜晚宁静的美丽。

TL text 2: 面对着宁静的良宵美景，他的烦恼烟消云散了。

It is not difficult to see from the two translation versions that the second translation is better than the first one, because the former is more in line with the language convention of Chinese. Therefore, it can be seen that literal meaning in the textual level is not simple literal correspondence. It should be adjusted according to the convention of target language.

It is not difficult to see from the two translation versions that the second translation is better than the first one, because the former is more in line with the language convention of Chinese. Therefore, it can be seen that literal meaning in the textual level is not just simple literal correspondence. Instead, it should be adjusted according to the convention of target language.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===Referential Level===

The referential level refers that translators should grasp the referential meaning of the original text. It is the minimum requirement for translation to figure out the referential meaning of the original. Newmark once claimed, “You should not read a sentence without seeing it on the referential level.” The obscure and implied implication of the original text requires the translator to see the true connotation through the text. This is the minimum requirement for translation. However, sometimes the literal meaning of the original text is not very clear. The translator must figure out the real meaning through the literal meaning and describe them accurately in the target language. At this time, due to the differences between the two languages, there may be a certain distance between the translation and the original. (Newmark, 2001, 22)

The referential level refers that translators should grasp the referential meaning of the original text. It is the minimum requirement for translation to figure out the referential meaning of the original. Newmark once claimed, “You should not read a sentence without seeing it on the referential level.” The obscure and implied implication of the original text requires the translator to see the true connotation through the text, which is the minimum requirement for translation. However, sometimes the literal meaning of the original text is not very clear. The translator must figure out the real meaning through the literal meaning and describe them accurately in the target language. At this time, due to the differences between the two languages, there may be a certain distance between the translation and the original. (Newmark, 2001, 22)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

In order to deliver the exact referential meaning, translators should give more attention to the translation of pronouns because pronouns are more frequently used in English than in Chinese. There are personal pronoun, impersonal pronoun, relative pronoun and so on, which can be used repeatedly in the same sentence and appear alternately. Therefore, in the process of translation, we may often encounter the problem of ambiguous reference of pronouns. In this time, we need to make a specific analysis of specific words or sentences, and sometimes even to analyze the definite meaning of a certain context. In the process of translation, we often see that one or several English sentences contain multiple personal pronouns. At this time, the direct application of personal pronouns in the original English text not only affects the readability of the translation, but also causes problems in the collocation of words and the cohesion of sentence patterns, so it is difficult to accurately reflect the meaning of the original text. Here are two examples.(Newmark, 2001, 24)

In order to deliver the exact referential meanings, translators should give more attention to the translation of pronouns because pronouns are more frequently used in English than in Chinese. There are personal pronoun, impersonal pronoun, relative pronoun and so on, which can be used repeatedly in the same sentence and appear alternately. Therefore, in the process of translation, we may often encounter the problem of ambiguous reference of pronouns. In this time, we need to make a specific analysis of specific words or sentences, and sometimes even to analyze the definite meaning of a certain context. In the process of translation, we often see that one or several English sentences contain multiple personal pronouns. At this time, the direct application of personal pronouns in the original English text not only affects the readability of the translation, but also causes problems in the collocation of words and the cohesion of sentence patterns, so it is difficult to accurately reflect the meaning of the original. Here are two examples.(Newmark, 2001, 24)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

E.g. 6

SL text: Knowledge is a comfortable and necessary retreat and shelter for us in an advanced age; and if we don’t plant it while young, it will give us no shade when we grow old. (Philip Chesterfield)

TL text 1：知识是我们老年时舒适而又必需的精神归宿。如果我们年轻时不种它，它就不会在我们年老时给我们提供树荫。

TL text 2：知识是人生老年期舒适而又必需的精神归宿。如果年轻时不种下知识之树，老年时就得不到树荫的遮蔽。

From the two translations, it is not difficult to see that the second translation is better than the first translation. The reason is that there is no need to translate two general pronouns "us" and "we" in the original text, and the meaning of the original text will be clear and accurate only when they are removed. In addition, it is inappropriate to translate "it" into "它". In the original, the metaphor “it” refers to “knowledge”, and the first translation omits this metaphor, which makes readers don’t what it is talking about.

From the two translations, it is obvious to see that the second translation is better than the first translation. The reason is that there is no need to translate two general pronouns "us" and "we" in the original text, and the meaning of the original text will be clear and accurate only when they are removed. In addition, it is inappropriate to translate "it" into "它". In the original, the metaphor "it" refers to "knowledge", and the first translation omits this metaphor, which may makes readers don’t what it is talking about.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

E.g. 7

SL text: Mr. and Mrs. Brown were talking about their neighbors, Mr. and Mrs. Smith, and their new house.

“He must be making a good income to be able to live in a house like that,” said he, “to say nothing of the car they have. It’s a Rolls.”

“Oh,I don’t think he makes much money,” she replied, “but I fancy she has a private income.”

“I wonder whether they paid for it themselves or whether her parents gave it to her,” he said．

She answered, “Yes, they bought it after a lucky week with the football pools. But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.”

“I know which of the two I would sooner have,” was his comment．

TL text：布朗先生和布朗夫人在谈论他们的新邻居———史密斯先生和史密斯夫人，以及他们的新房子。

“他能够住那么好的房子一定收入颇丰，”布朗先生说，“更不必说他们开的车了，是辆劳斯莱斯。”

“哦，我不认为他能赚很多钱，”布朗太太答道， “但我猜史密斯夫人有私人收入。”

“我怀疑这房子是他们自己买的还是史密斯夫人的父母给她的。”布朗先生说。

布朗夫人回答说: “是啊，他们在赢了一次足球六合彩之后买了这房子。但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是史密斯夫人的而不是史密斯先生的。”

“我知道我宁可拥有这二者中哪一个。”布朗先生评论说。

In the original text, Mr. and Mrs. Brown and Mr. and Mrs. Smith are all referred to by personal pronouns he, she, her and his. In order to avoid ambiguous reference of pronouns, many English pronouns, such as he, she, her and his are translated into “布朗先生” and “布朗夫人”, and “史密斯先生” and “史密斯夫人” in this translation version, rather than “他” or “她”. If the sentence “But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.” is translated into “但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是她的而不是他的”，it will cause great misunderstanding for readers and they may feel difficult to understand. This kind of reference can make the characters in the original text correspond to the characters in the translation. At the same time, it also shows that the determination of the referential meaning will affect the accuracy of the whole translation.

In the original text, Mr. and Mrs. Brown and Mr. and Mrs. Smith are all referred to by personal pronouns he, she, her and his. In order to avoid ambiguous reference of pronouns, many English pronouns, such as he, she, her and his are translated into "布朗先生" and "布朗夫人", and "史密斯先生" and "史密斯夫人" in Chinese translation version, rather than "他" or "她". If the sentence "But as for the car, I can't speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his." is translated into "但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是她的而不是他的"，it will cause great misunderstanding for readers and they may feel difficult to understand. This kind of reference can make the characters in the original text correspond to the characters in the translation. At the same time, it also shows that the determination of the referential meaning will affect the accuracy of the whole translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===Cohesive Level===

Cohesive level refers to the connection between sentences in text. Each language has its own unique way of connection which reflects its unique thinking pattern. Therefore, translators can not completely copy the way of connection of the original text in translation, but should organize the translation with the authentic cohesive way of the target language on the basis of a full understanding of the original text. Just as Newmark claimed, “At this level, you reconsider the lengths of paragraphs and sentences, the formulation of the title; the tone of the conclusion”, the cohesive level mainly refers to the faithfulness to the original text at the paragraph and discourse level.(Newmark, 2001, 24)

Cohesive level refers to the connection between sentences in text. Each language has its own unique way of connection which reflects its unique thinking pattern. Therefore, translators may not completely copy the way of connection of the original in translation, but should organize the translation with the authentic cohesive way of the target language on the basis of a full understanding of the original text. Just as Newmark claimed, “At this level, you reconsider the lengths of paragraphs and sentences, the formulation of the title; the tone of the conclusion”, the cohesive level mainly refers to the faithfulness to the original text at the paragraph and discourse level.(Newmark, 2001, 24)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

There are great differences between English and Chinese in grammar, especially in word order. If the word order of the original text is closely followed in translation, the whole text may be distorted. In addition, English sentences are sometimes very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, sentences should be broken at appropriate places and necessary adjustments should be made. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 103)

There are great differences between English and Chinese in grammar, especially in word order. If the word order of the original text is closely followed in translation, the whole text may be distorted. In addition, English sometimes are very long sentences and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, sentences should be broken at appropriate places and necessary adjustments should be made. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 103)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Some SL texts seem to be correct in every sentence, but they are actually unreadable when they are put together. It is like a portrait painting. The eyes, nose, mouth and ears are all well drawn, but when they are put together, they are not like a person's face. Here, in addition to factors such as improper proportion and inconsistent style, there is also an important reason, that is, the "connection" between the five senses is not coordinated. The same problem exists in translation. There are great differences in grammar, especially word order between English and Chinese. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)

Some SL texts seem to be correct, but they are actually unreadable when they are put together. It is like a portrait painting. The eyes, nose, mouth and ears are all well drawn, but when they are put together, they are not like a person's face. Here, in addition to factors such as improper proportion and inconsistent style, there is also an important reason, that is, the "connection" between the five senses is not coordinated. The same problem exists in translation. There are great differences in grammar, especially word order between English and Chinese. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

In addition, the length and punctuation rules of English and Chinese sentences are quite different. Sometimes English sentences may be very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, it is necessary to break sentences in proper places and make necessary adjustments. Chinese sentences are usually short and sometimes need to be combined when translated into English. In short, in order to make the translation expressive, we must take full account of the differences between the two languages and carefully "connect" each sentence to make it a whole. It is like using an invisible silk thread to string pearls together into a beautiful necklace. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)

In addition, the length and punctuation rules of English and Chinese sentences are quite different. When translated English into Chinese, it is necessary to break sentences in proper places and make necessary adjustments. Chinese sentences are usually short and sometimes need to be combined when translated into English. In short, in order to make the translation expressive, we must take full account of the differences between the two languages and carefully "connect" each sentence to make it a whole. It is like using an invisible silk thread to string pearls together into a beautiful necklace. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

E.g. 8

ST text: At the opening banquet, Nixon seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position by saying, “there are of course some who believe that the mere act of saying a statement of principles or a diplomatic conference will bring lasted peace. This is naïve.”

TL text: 尼克松在欢迎宴会上说：“当然，有些人认为只要发表一项声明或举行一次外交会议就能带来持久和平。这是天真的想法。” 他这番话似乎是在阐述东道国的立场。

Here in this sentence, the structure of the source language text has been rearranged and the word order has been changed in order to ensure the fluency of target language, In Chinese, the subject usually comes first and summative words are usually put at the end. Therefore, in the TL text “Nixon” is put at the first and the position of “seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position” is put at the end. (Zhuang Yichuan, 2002, 224)

E.g. 9

ST text: Well, you can imagine how it was with a young fellow who had never been taken notice of before, and now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere; couldn’t sit abroad without constantly overhearing the remark flying from lip to lip, “ There he goes; that’s him!” couldn’t take his breakfast without a crowd to look on; couldn’t appear in an opera-box without concentrating there the fire of a thousand lorgnettes. Why, I just swam in glory all day long -- that is the amount of it.

TL text: 你可以想象得到那是什么滋味：一个年轻小伙子，从来没有被人注意过，现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去；随便到哪走动一下，总不免听见人家一个个辗转相告：“那儿走着的就是他，就是他！”吃早餐的时候，也老是有一大堆人围着看；一到歌剧院的包厢。就会使得无数观众的望远镜的火力都集中到自己身上。哎，我简直就是一天到晚在荣耀中过日子——十足是那个味道。

The source language text is a long sentence, so it is necessary to take sentence segmentation into consideration. Otherwise, it may make the translation cumbersome and unintelligible. It's widely believed that the most important difference between English and Chinese is hypotaxis and parataxis and English belongs to hypotaxis language. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

English sentences take subject and predicate as the core, and then add various modifiers on this basis to form a complex structure with numerous branches. Chinese pays more attention to parataxis, and sentences are stated one by one in chronological order. Chinese uses more than one verb to form multiple short sentences. In this way, the TL text makes “you can imagine how it was” a sentence alone, and “now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere” is rearranged as four short sentences as “现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去”. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 66)

English sentences take subject and predicate as the core, and then add various modifiers on this basis to form a complex structure with numerous branches. Chinese pays more attention to parataxis, and Chinese sentences are stated one by one in chronological order. Chinese uses more than one verb to form multiple short sentences. In this way, the TL text makes "you can imagine how it was" a sentence alone, and "now all of a sudden couldn't say a thing that wasn't taken up and repeated everywhere" is rearranged as four short sentences as "现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去". (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 66)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==='''Level of Naturalness'''===

The level of naturalness is a summary of the above three levels. It is mainly to grasp the natural fluency of the translation as a whole. To some extent, it can be said that the natural level is a process of checking, perfecting and making the translation more perfect. “In all ‘communicative translation’, whether you are translating an informative text, a notice or an advert, ‘naturalness’ is essential” (Newmark, 2001, 26).

The level of naturalness is a summary of the above three levels. It is mainly to grasp the natural fluency of the translation as a whole. To some extent, it can be said that the natural level is a process of checking, perfecting and making the translation more perfect. "In all 'communicative translation', whether you are translating an informative text, a notice or an advert, ‘naturalness’ is essential" (Newmark, 2001, 26). --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

In order to fulfill the level of naturalness, the translator needs to ensure “(a) that your translation makes sense; (b) that it reads naturally, that it is written in ordinary language, the common grammar, idioms and words that meet that kind of situation.” (Newmark, 2001, 24)

In order to fulfill the level of naturalness, the translator needs to ensure the following principles: (a) that your translation makes sense; (b) that it reads naturally, that it is written in ordinary language, the common grammar, idioms and words that meet that kind of situation. (Newmark, 2001, 24) --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

It may be helpful to check the naturalness of the target text by temporarily separating oneself from the source language text. In addition to some technical terms, there is almost no complete equivalence in the target language, and in literal translation, their meanings often overlap or are included in the vocabulary of the source language. Thus, “the enforced shift from generic to specific units or vice versa, sometimes due to overlapping or included meaning, sometimes to notorious lexical gaps in one of the language” is one of the main problems during the translation process.(Newmark, 2001, 34)

It may be helpful to check the naturalness of the target text by temporarily separating oneself from the source language text. In addition to some technical terms, there is almost no complete equivalence in the target language. In literal translation, their meanings often overlap or are included in the vocabulary of the source language. Thus, "the enforced shift from generic to specific units or vice versa, sometimes due to overlapping or included meaning, sometimes to notorious lexical gaps in one of the language" is one of the main problems during the translation process.(Newmark, 2001, 34)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

There are many cases in which the translation is not natural and does not conform to the habits of the target language. In order to eliminate this phenomenon, we must try our best to eliminate the interference of the original text on the basis of understanding the original text, and express the meaning of the original text with idiomatic target language, so as to be faithful to the original text as well as fluent and natural. In translation practice, the translator may as well leave the first draft aside after completing it. After a period of time, from the perspective of the target readers to recheck the translation and to see whether there is any unnaturalness. In this way, many problems can be found. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 78)

There are many cases in which the translation is not natural and does not conform to the habits of the target language. In order to eliminate this phenomenon, we must try our best to eliminate the interference of the original text on the basis of understanding the original text, and express the meaning of the original text with idiomatic target language, so as to be faithful to the original text as well as fluent and natural. In translation practice, the translator could as well leave the first draft aside after completing it. After a period of time, from the perspective of the target readers to recheck the translation work and to see whether there is any unnaturalness. In this way, many problems can be found. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 78)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

E.g. 10

SL text: Then Lieutenant Grub launched into the old recruiting routine, “See, save and serve! Hannigan, free tour to all the ports in the world. A fine ship for a home. Three meals a day without charge... You mustn’t let such a golden opportunity slip by.”

TL text: 于是，格拉布上尉开始说起招兵的老一套了：“见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力！汉尼根，免费周游世界上所有的港口。一艘上好的船为家，一天三餐不要钱。......你千万不要错过这样大好的机会呀！”

English verbs are divided into transitive verbs and intransitive verbs. The object of intransitive verbs is actually hidden behind this verb, which is often needed to express when translated into Chinese. Here in the ST text, the sentence “See, save and serve!” only contains three verbs, while in TL text these three verbs are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!”. Chinese words and phrases tend to be specific and detailed in meaning, thus the verbs “see”, “save”, and “ serve” that refers to “see the world”, “save some money” and “do something for the country” are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!”

English verbs are divided into transitive verbs and intransitive verbs. The object of intransitive verbs is actually hidden behind this verb, which is often needed to express when translated into Chinese. In the above ST text, the sentence "See, save and serve!" only contains three verbs, while in TL text these three verbs are translated into "见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!". Chinese words and phrases tend to be specific and detailed in meaning, thus the verbs "see",
"save", and "serve" that refers to "see the world", "save some money" and "do something for the country" are translated into "见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!". --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

E.g. 11

SL text: The English arrived in North America with hopes of duplicating the exploits of the Spanish in South America, where explores had discovered immense fortunes in gold and silver. Although Spain and England shared a pronounced lust for wealth, differences between the two countries were profound.

TL text 1: 英国人抱着和西班牙人开拓南美洲一样的动机来到北美洲，西班牙的探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。虽然西班牙和英国都同样明显地贪图财富，但是两国的文化却存在着很大的差异。

TL text 2: 当年西班牙探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。英国人来到北美洲的动机也如出一辙。尽管两国对财富的贪欲同样强烈，但是两国在文化上却存在着巨大的差异。

Here in this sentence, the original text contains a attributive clause. The TL text 1 puts it after the main sentence, resulting in a very awkward cohesion between the two sentences, and the whole paragraph is fragmented. According to the convention of the target language, the TL text 2 organizes the original according to the time and space order, and puts the attributive clause in the original text before the main sentence, so that the whole sentence is more coherent.

Here in this sentence, the original text contains an attributive clause. The TL text 1 puts it after the main sentence, resulting in a very awkward cohesion between the two sentences, and the whole paragraph is fragmented. According to the convention of the target language, the TL text 2 organizes the original according to the time and space order, and puts the attributive clause in the original text before the main sentence, so that the whole sentence is more coherent.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

E.g. 12

SL text: Her ascent of the crooked staircase was a slower process, and her face, as it rose into the light above the last stair, encountered the gaze of all the party assembled in the bedroom．

TL text: 她脚步缓慢地攀登着弯弯曲曲的楼梯，当她登上最后一级楼梯、脸膛从暗处进入亮处的时候，意外地发现聚集在室内的人们把目光全都转向了她。

In Chinese sentences, verbs are used more widely and frequently, and a sentence can contain several verbs. Here in this TL text, the sentence structure of the original text "A is B" has been changed and the verbs "上", "走", "攀登" and "放慢" have been added to describe Mrs. Debbie's upstairs movements more clearly and vividly, which does not violate the original meaning but also conforms to the convention of target language. Because English and Chinese belong to two different language families, there are great differences in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. Therefore, if we want to achieve real discourse fluency on the level of naturalness, the main way is to focus on the above three levels, so that the translation can be faithful to the connotation of the original text.

In Chinese sentences, verbs are used more widely and frequently, and a sentence can contain many verbs. In the above TL text, the sentence structure of the original text "A is B" has been changed and the verbs "上", "走", "攀登" and "放慢" have been added to describe Mrs. Debbie's upstairs movements more clearly and vividly, which does not violate the original meaning but also conforms to the convention of target language. Because English and Chinese belong to two different language families, there are great differences in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. Therefore, if we want to achieve real discourse fluency on the level of naturalness, the main way is to focus on the above three levels, so that the translation can be faithful to the connotation of the original text.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==='''Conclusion'''===

Peter Newmark's four levels of translation is used to divide the translation process into four parts. "Four level translation" breaks the limitation of language units and deals with translation from a macro perspective, thus maintaining the integrity of the text.

Peter Newmark's four levels of translation is used to divide the translation process into four parts. "Four level translation" breaks the limitation of language units and deals with translation from a macro perspective, maintaining the integrity of the text. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

In therms of textual level, special attention should be paid to the literal meaning of the original text, expression and word selection in the process of translation. In other words, the words in SL text should not be replaced by synonyms, and the grammatical structure should remain unchanged, unless they are meaningless in the target language. (Xu Ling, 2005)

In therms of textual level, special attention should be paid to the literal meaning of the original text, expression and word selection in the process of translation. In other words, the words in SL text should not be replaced by synonyms, and the grammatical structures should remain unchanged, unless they are meaningless in the target language. (Xu Ling, 2005)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

In the case of referential level, the translator needs to understand the referential meaning clearly. One of the basic principles of translation is to follow the meaning of the source text and the author's intention, especially for highly authoritative expressive texts. However, the meaning of the SL text is not always clear. Therefore, the translator's job is to see through the surface vocabulary of the original text, grasp the implied meaning of the original text, and then translate it accurately. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 29)

In the case of referential level, the translator needs to understand the referential meaning clearly. One of the basic principles of translation is to follow the meaning of the source text and the author's intention, especially for highly authoritative expressive texts. However, the meaning of the SL text is not always clear. Therefore, the translator's responsibility is to see through the surface vocabulary of the original text, grasp the implied meaning of the original text, and then translate it accurately. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 29)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

As far as the cohesive level goes, the connection in the source text can not be transferred to the target language version optionally, because each language has its own way of connection, which reflects the unique way of thinking of native language users. The translator needs to reconstruct the translation on the basis of full understanding to make the translation as coherent as the original. At this level, the the length of paragraphs and sentences, as well as the structure should be taken into consideration again. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 36)

As far as the cohesive level goes, the connection in the source text can not be transferred to the target language version optionally, because each language has its own way of connection, which reflects the unique way of thinking of native language users. The translator needs to reconstruct the translation on the basis of full understanding to make the translation work as coherent as the original. At this level, the the length of paragraphs and sentences, as well as the structure should be taken into consideration again. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 36)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The level of naturalness is the basic standard for the target language text. The translation must be fluent and conform to the habits of the target language. Naturalness is essential for various texts such as informative text, notices and advertisements. The translator needs to make sure that his translation is meaningful and readable by using common language, grammar, idioms and appropriate words. (Newmark, 2001, 20)

The level of naturalness is a basic standard for the target language text. The translation must be fluent and conform to the habits of the target language. Naturalness is essential for various texts such as informative text, notices and advertisements. The translator needs to make sure that his or her translation is meaningful and readable by using common language, grammar, idioms and appropriate words. (Newmark, 2001, 20)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

However, these four levels are not isolated and often overlap in the process of translation. As a result, some examples may be less representative because they are handled at multiple levels. From the perspective of the whole translation process, it is important for translators to understand translation theories.It not only provides translation skills to solve problems, but also helps translators to make self-criticism. Translation under the guidance of theory is much more mature than blind translation.

However, these four levels are not isolated and often overlap in the process of translation. As a result, some examples may be less representative because they are handled at multiple levels. From the perspective of the whole translation process, it is important for translators to understand translation theories.It not only provides translation skills to solve problems, but also helps translators to make self-criticism. Translation works under the guidance of theory are much more mature than blind translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Therefore, in addition to cultivating translation skills, translators also need to have a deeper understanding of translation theory. Due to the limited understanding of translation theory and the lack of understanding of translation theory, there may be a lack of systematic and theoretical analysis and comments. However, translation is only a reflection of the translator's translation ability at this stage. In bilingual translation, it is the translator's lifelong pursuit to improve his translation theory and skills.

Therefore, in addition to cultivating translation skills, translators also need to have a deeper understanding of translation theory. Due to the limited understanding of translation theory and the lack of understanding of translation theories, there may be a lack of systematic and theoretical analysis and comments. However, translation is only a reflection of the translator's translation ability at this stage. In bilingual translation, it is the translator's lifelong pursuit to improve his or her translation theories and skills.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==='''References'''===

[1]. Newmark, Peter. Approaches to Translation [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.

[2]. Newmark, Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.

[3]. Luo Jinde, Chen Anding 罗进德，陈定安. (1998). 英汉比较与翻译 [Comparison and Translation Between English and Chinese]. 中国对外翻译出版公司[China Translation & Publishing Corporation].

[4]. Qian Gechuan 钱歌川. (2011). 翻译的技巧[The Technique of Translation].世界图书出版社[World Book Press].

[5] Xu Ling, Lin Jian, Zhang Ying 许玲, 林健, 张莹. (2005). 浅析翻译的层次[Simple Analysis on Translation Levels]. 天津：天津职业大学[Tianjin: Tianjin Professional College].

[6]. Zhang Peiji 张培基. (2009). 英汉翻译教程[A Course in English-Chinese Translation]. 上海：上海外国语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].

[7]. Zhuang Yichuan 庄绎传. (2002). 英汉翻译简明教程[M]. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社[Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].

==A Study on Translatability and Untranslatability of English and Chinese Puns and Corresponding Strategies of Translation 曾心媛 Zeng Xinyuan 202070080579 英语笔译==

===Abstract===
Pun is a widely used rhetorical device. It is greatly favored by people because of its humor and rich connotation. But pun translation is very difficult due to its particularity and complexity. This paper analyzes the translatability and untranslatability of pun respectively, and explores the relevant translation strategies.

===摘要===

双关语是一种使用广泛的修辞手法。因其幽默诙谐，内涵丰富的语言效果深受人们喜爱，但中英互译时，由于双关语的特殊性和复杂性，双关语翻译显得十分困难。本文分别对双关语翻译中的可译性与不可译性进行了探析，并对其相关翻译策略进行有关探索。

===Key Words===
Key words: puns, translatability, untranslatability, corresponding translation strategies

===关键词===

关键词：双关语可译性不可译性相应翻译策略

=== Introduction ===

Rhetoric is an important part of language and a significant means to improve the effect of language expression, and it is a language form with rich connotation. As one of the rhetorical devices, pun can increase the sense of humor and irony, so it is widely used in poetry, novels, advertisements and riddles. However, due to the particularity of pun, pun translation is often a difficulty. Translation researchers have been arguing about whether puns are translatable for a long time.

This paper firstly introduces the definition of pun—pun is a rhetorical way to make certain words or sentences convey double meanings that is, one meaning on the surface, but another meaning in fact. Secondly, it introduces the three main categories of puns - phonetic, semantic and grammatical puns, and analyzes the three classifications and the three main translation strategies—literal translation, free translation and annotation through examples. Through the analysis of examples, it analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of the three kinds of pun translation strategies, and points out that the translator should not only accurately convey semantic information, but also recreate rhetoric in the translation, providing the same feeling to readers that they have in reading the original text and translation.

=== Definition of pun ===

The word “pun” was originated from a Latin word “paranomasia”, which refers to “similar in look and semantic meaning”. According to Cihai, “pun” is a rhetorical device that intentionally uses homophone or phonogram and polysemy words which can generate equivocality in order to punningly express what the speaker is really trying to say. （Cong Laiting，Xu Luya，2007）So the pun word makes the sentence contain double meaning: the superficial meaning, and deep meaning, because of which pun also can make the language humorous, concise, powerful and meaningful, leaving a deep impression to the audience. It is used widely in our life, such as films and television, advertisements, news, literary works and daily dialogues.

American scholar Archibald A. Hill once said that there are three prerequisites in puns: double context, hinge( which refers to polysemy and homophone), and trigger (motive and background of using puns).（Fan Jiacai，1992:182）For example: “You are not eating your fish, anything wrong with it?” the waitress said to him. “Long time no sea,” the customer replied.(Tong Kaiwen, 2017, 21), In this dialogue, “sea” has the same pronunciation as “see”, providing the hinge. As for the double context, which on the one hand, means that the customer is greeting to the waitress, but on the other hand, what the customer actually want to express is that the fish is not fresh enough as it has left sea for a long time. And the trigger is that the customer want waitress know the fish is not fresh. And there is a famous pun—“ Seven days without water make one weak.” The hinge in the sentence is the word “weak”, a homophone of “ week”. So it can mean “Without water, seven days still equal to a week”, or “Without water for seven days make one weak.” And the trigger is the common sense that we know both of the sentences make sense.

=== Three Main Types of Puns ===

“Pun has many types, including homophonic pun同音双关, paranomasia 近音双关, antalaclasis同词异义双关语,sylleptic pun一词多义双关,asteismus歧解双关语, irony反语,innuendo暗讽,satire讥讽, rhetorical question 修辞问句and allegory讽喻.”（Cong Laiting, Xu Luya, 2007）But we can mainly divided them into three types: phonetic puns, semantic puns, and grammatical puns.

The first type is phonetic puns, which include homophonic pun, paranomasia, and antalaclasis. This kind of pun is created by using words with similar spelling, pronunciation, and even with same pronunciation. It is widely used in humorous stories, and riddles, by using which can make the language more interesting, amusing, and attractive.

Take the following dialogues as examples:

Homophonic pun

Eg. 1. -What is the most contradictory sign in a library?
-To speak aloud is not allowed. (Tong Kaiwen, 2017, 51)
In this dialogue, “aloud” has the same pronunciation with “allowed”, which may sounds like“ To speak aloud is not aloud”, making the dialogue more contradictory, so as to answer the question.

Eg. 2. -King: My cousin Hamlet, and my son—how is it that the clouds still hang on you?
-Hamlet: Not so, my lord. I am too much in the sun.(Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196)
In the dialogue, “son” pronounces the same as “sun”, and Hamlet’s reply seemingly is to directly answer the King, but the true meaning of his words is that “I don’t want to be your son anymore”, expressing his aversion to the king.

Paranomasia

Eg. 3. Drunk drivers put a quart before the hearse.(Yao Jinhong,2001,161)
At first sight, people may misunderstand it as “Drunk drivers put the cart before the horse” which means that the drunk driver did something before another thing that he should have done first. But the original meaning is to ask drivers not to drink alcohol before driving. The misunderstanding results from similar pronunciation of “quart” and “cart”, as well as “hearse” and “horse”.

Antalaclasis

Eg.4. -Teacher: George, can you give Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address?
-George: No, but I can give you his original address—the White House in Washington D.C.
What makes the conversation so funny is that the student misunderstood “address”, which teacher meant to give a speech, but the student thought it stands for the home address. Another possibility is that the student interpreted deliberately the “address” to the wrong meaning, so that he could avoid reciting the speech.

Eg.5. We must all hang together, or we shall all hang separately.
This is a famous remark of Benjamin Franklin, and the word “hang” has different meanings, the previous one means to stay with and support each other, while the latter one means a punishment. Antalaclasis used here not only emphasizes the author’s language, but also leave strong impact on the audiences, making it easier to remember and spread.

Eg.5. We must all hang together, or we shall all hang separately.
This is a famous remark of Benjamin Franklin, and the word “hang” has different meanings, the previous one means to stay with and support each other, while the latter one means a punishment. Antalaclasis used here not only emphasizes the author’s language, but also leaves strong impact on the audiences, making it easier to remember and spread.

The second type is semantic puns, which refer to sylleptic pun. When using this pun, what the author really want to express is the deeper meaning behind the superficial meaning. Semantic puns can make language entertaining, and are also often used to point at someone but actually abuse another, making the language more sarcastic. We can get a better understanding of this kind of puns in following examples.

Eg.6. Money doesn’t grow at trees. But it blossoms at our branches.(Xu Min, 2007, 193)
This is an outdoor road sign advertisement of Lloyd's bank, it uses sylleptic pun that the word branch not only means branch of trees, but also represents the bank itself. The true meaning of the advisement is that if people want their money grown, it would be better to save money in Lloyd's bank. The use of pun in the advertisement makes it more interesting, creative, and attractive.

Eg.7. -What’s the longest sentence in the world?
-Prison for life.
The word “sentence” in the question is a linguistic concept, and it can also mean a punishment given by a court, which add interest.

Eg.8. Women have a wonderful sense of right and wrong, but have little sense of right and left. The “rights” have two meanings in the sentence, the first of which refers to “correct”, being the opposite of wrong, and the second one means a direction. Adding puns here makes language be heavy with sarcasm.

The third type is grammatical puns, in which the structure of the sentence is changed so that the meaning of the sentence is also changed. Here’s an example.

Eg. 9. Time flies like an arrow, fruit flies like an apple. (Zhao Yuqing, 2019, 196）
The word “flies” functions as a predicate, which means circle in the air, while the second “flies” is the subject of the latter sentence, which means a kind of insect. With the change of grammatical puns, the meaning has also been changed.

=== Translatability of Puns ===

Translation of puns has been a challenge throughout the history. Puns are widely accepted and used in many fields because that it convey different meanings in short words, making the language more interesting, thought-provoking, giving people a stronger impression. Considering complexity and specialty of puns, some scholars even think that it is impossible to translate puns because that translator may fail to translate both meanings while keeping the formal equivalence. The British translation theorist Catford argued that some specific cultural things can be recognized and expressed. So in essence they can be translated, but the corresponding ways of expression are missing temporarily, untranslatability resulted from which are temporary, but untranslatability caused by cultural differences was real, which was called relative untranslatability.(Catford, 1965，93 )

The first reason that puns are translatable is that even though every country has its unique history, culture, and language, but human beings share the same emotions, and have similar daily life. Language is a reflection on the reality, so even though the literal symbols that represent one thing vary a lot, the essence, which is the thing itself, does not change. (Li Hanji, 2013,135)

Besides, with the development and advance of Internet and technology, connections between different countries have become closer and closer, enhancing cultural communication and transmission. And the emergence of new things have accompanied with many new words, which enriches languages of different countries, and makes it easier to understand other languages. (An Wenjing, 2010,71)

Last but not least, with unremitting efforts of generations of translators, some words, and sentences have been changed from untranslatable to translatable. All the reasons above indicate that the untranslatability between different languages is temporary, and relative, while translatability is absolute, which is the same when it comes to pun translation. Please look at some examples that show translatability of puns.

Eg.10. Seven days without water make one week.

Some translators translated it into “七天没水使人虚弱”，while others translated into “七天没水就是一周没水”。Although both versions are correct, they changed the structure of one sentence into two sentences, and fail to express the humor.

Here’s another translation. “七天不盈（饮）弱一周”(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jiangping, 2001, 32）In this translation, the translator successfully expressed two meanings in concise, and semi-classical Chinese style. The “不盈” pronounces similar to“不饮”, and the previous one refers to “cannot reach”, while the latter one refers to “do not drink”. The “弱” also conveys two meanings, one of which is “ less than…”, and other is “make…weak”. As we can see, although there are some subtle deficiencies in the last translation, for example, pronunciation of “不盈” is not completely equivalent to that of “不饮”, as the first one has a rising tone, and the second one uses a falling tone, we can not deny it’s a successful translation of puns.

Eg.11. 人曾为僧，人弗可以成佛
女卑是婢，女又何妨称奴

A famous Chinese translator Qian Gechuan thought the two sentences couldn’t be translated, but another excellent translator Xu Yuanchong gave his translation as follows:
A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha,
A maiden may be made a house maid.(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jiangping, 2001, 32）

The original text is a pair of couplets, which originated from such a story.
One day , the great poet Su Shi’s sister Su Zhen heard that Su Shi was talking with a Zen master Foyin about Buddhist ceremony. As Foyin was bragging about the greatness and boundlessness of Buddhist’s power, and advantages of submerging in Buddhism, giving an extravagantly description of studying Buddhist classics, of which Su Zhen disapprove. She wrote the former part of couplet and asked a maid to give it to Foyin. Foyin realized that it’s a refutation of his views that human could never be a Buddha no matter how hard he tried, but he didn’t willing to admit his mistakes, so he replied with the latter line of the couplet.

Although the couplets are full of irony, they are of great literary value and worth pondering carefully. In each couplet, the two words at the beginning of the phrase can be combined to form the word at the end of the phrase. It is a cleverly conceived pun that it looks like a logograph, but it actually aims to refute Zen master.
In Mr. Xu Yuanchong's translation, he not only retained the connotation of the original text, but also successfully reproduced the original text in the form, sound and meaning with “ Buddhist, bud, and Buddha; maiden, made, and maid”, and retained the basic structure and rhyme.

The examples above show that some puns can be translated by changing the pronunciation and form of the words. We can also find that puns that are currently considered translatable have similar cultural backgrounds in target language and original language, so that translators can find the most appropriate words to translate.

=== Untranslatability of Puns ===

Although translators have made unremitting efforts to turn “untranslatable” puns into “translatable”, there are still many people who think that puns are untranslatable. This chapter will discuss the untranslatability of puns.

A Chinese Scholar Liu Miqing put forward the concept of "translatability limit" in Contemporary Translation Theories, in which he proposed that humor and puns in a language are almost untranslatable. Humor often results from the cleverness and skills of using words. Such words and intentions often disappear in translation of puns .(Liu Miqing, 1998:92)
Those who support the view that puns are untranslatable hold that the historical and cultural backgrounds, psychological thinking habits, regional cultures and religious beliefs of different ethnic groups are reflected in their own languages, so that the languages of various nationalities and countries have their own unique personalities. (Xumin, 2007,196)Therefore, it is impossible to find a word in target language which can completely keep the rhetorical devices, styles, and characteristics of original language. Here are some examples.

Eg. 12. What does the lawyer do after he dies?
He lies still.

(1). 那个律师死后干什么？
静静地躺着。
The word “lies” has two meanings, the first of which is to lie down, the second one is to make up a story, and “still” also conveys double meanings, one of which is motionless, another is as usual. However, the translation can only deliver the first meaning of the two words, so that readers can’t feel it interesting.

Eg.13.A professor tapped on his desk and shouted “ Gentlemen—order!”
The entire class yelled: “Beer!”

一位教授敲着桌子喊道：“先生们，安静！”全班一致回答：“啤酒！”
In the original conversation, the students misinterpreted deliberately teacher’s word—order, means quiet here, into “order something to eat”, but in the translation, the answer of students only expressed the meaning of beer, and the punchline was lost, making the whole sentence unintelligible. It seems impossible to express both meanings in one Chinese word here, and perhaps the best way is to add annotations, however, in this way, the translation can’t keep the form of original text.

All the examples above show that there are limitations of translation. As a translator, we should not only blindly conform to the principles of what is translatable, and untranslatable, instead, we need to improve our literacy and translation skills. We should realize that it is true some words may be untranslatable, but try to find the best way to translate them. One small step for puns’s translation is one big step for literature translation.

=== Corresponding Translation Strategies ===

No matter what kind of translation, it is closely related to the context, the translation of pun is no exception. Translators should not only understand the literal meaning of the original text, but also understand its social and cultural background, otherwise, the originality of the author can’t be understood. The translator obtains the basic meaning, or the superficial meaning of the pun through the source text, and understands the deep meaning of the pun through the illocutionary force.

In the translation of puns, the translator mainly adopts three strategies: literal translation, free translation and annotation. We will analyze which method is more appropriate through the translation of examples in the previous text.

1. Literal translation, the simplest and the most direct translation method, which is to translate source languages directly into the target language according to the literal meaning, while maintaining the same semantics as the original pun. However, it is difficult to express the sense of humor in the original text for some puns translation, and the rhetorical devices of polysemy of the original pun may also be lost. Take translation of examples 2 and 6 as examples,

Eg.(2)国王：我的侄儿，哈姆雷特，我的儿。为什么你满目愁云呢？
哈姆雷特：不，陛下。我在太阳下待得太久了。(Zhao Yuqing, 2019, 196)
Although the literal translation does not directly show the relationship between "sun" and "son", the word “太” implies the meaning of complaint in Chinese. Combining with the context, the word "sun" also represents the king in ancient China, so readers can also feel the deep meaning in the literal translation.

Eg. (5) “我们必须抱成一团，否则我们将会被单独绞死。” (Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196) Through literal translation, this sentence is indeed easy to understand. Readers can figure out the content of the sentence at a glance, but it does not form a pun, and lacks a sense of humor.

2. Free translation is more frequently used in pun translation, which mainly emphasizes on the target language, keeping fluency of the target language and retaining a sense of humor to a great extent. Here are the free translation of the 7th, 13rd and 15th examples.

Eg.(6) 树上不能生钱，但我们“枝”行能啊。(This translation is translated by myself.)

Although it is not the best version, it is also an attempt to translate a pun. We may as well analyze its advantages and disadvantages. In this translation, "枝" is used to represent the word branches, corresponding to the “tree” in first half of the sentence. “枝”and “支” are homonymous, and “支行” refers to branch bank. Marking “枝” with quotation marks, which can easily remind readers of the word "branch" and form a homonymous pun with a light tone. The disadvantage is that the word “枝行” does not exist in Chinese, which may lead to incomprehension to some people and the expression is quite colloquial, being informal if the translation is used in formal occasion.

Eg.(12)那个律师死后还能干什么？
躺着说鬼话。（Ma Hongjun, 2000:34）

The beauty of this translation is that the word “鬼话” in Chinese has both meaning of "ghost’s (dead) words" and "untrue words", which not only retains the form of pun in the target language, but also achieves the effect of humor.

Eg.(14)What’s the flower that everyone have? Tulips.
人人都有什么花？泪花(Ma Hongjun, 2009,16)

The translation may be a controversial one as it actually has changed the original meaning, but keeps the form of pun in original text. In the original text, the answer “tulips” consists of two parts— “ tu” which sounds like “two” and “lips”, but “two lips” has nothing to do with “flower” in Chinese. In this translation, the translator kept the “flower” and gave the answer with another special “flower” that everyone had. Readers can actually feel the pun in the translation, so in my personal opinion, it is a good translation.

3. Annotation is often used when literal translation or free translation can not fully express the meaning of the source text. Its advantage is that it can make the reader fully understand the double meaning of the pun in source text, but the disadvantage is that it will greatly lose the sense of humor of the pun. Therefore, adding annotation is often the last choice in pun translation. Take examples 5 and 14 for example.

Eg.(4) 老师：乔治，你能给我们做林肯的葛底斯堡演讲吗？
乔治：不能，但我能给你林肯住址—他以前住在华盛顿白宫。（address在英文中既有演讲也有住址的意思，乔治还以为老师问他要林肯住址呢）

There is no word in Chinese that has both the meaning of speech and address. Therefore, this translation adopts the method of adding notes and explaining the joke, which can make the language humorous and clear to some extent.

13. 一位教授敲着桌子喊道：“先生们，安静！”全班一致回答：“啤酒！”（order既表安静也有点单之义，学生故意曲解教授意思，让教授哭笑不得）

Readers can easily understand the meaning of this translation, but some underlying punchlines are totally imperceptible.

As an important medium of interlingual and cross-cultural communication, translation itself is an extremely difficult and complex task. In addition, as one of the figures of speech, pun translation is more difficult. Among the three translation strategies in this chapter, I think free translation is the best strategy in pun translation. For example, in the translation of the eg.14, if the literal translation method is used to translate tulip, readers may not know its meaning. But Mr. Ma Hongjun retained the word "flower" in the original text and also gave a hilarious answer. Although it is different from the original meaning, it not only keeps the form of pun, but also conveys double meanings, which in my personal opinion is a good translation.

In short, translators need to take many aspects into consideration when translating puns, and take strategies like literal translation, free translation and annotation or combine various translation strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers. The translation should convey the information in the original text to the target readers as much as possible, and reproduce the rhetorical effect of the original language, so as to promote cultural exchange.

=== Conclusion ===

This paper mainly discusses whether pun is translatable or not. By giving examples of some classic puns, this paper elaborates the classification of puns, and analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of three main strategies in pun translation: literal translation, free translation and annotation.

From my perspective, context is very important in pun translation, and translators need to accurately grasp the author’s ingenious conception in the context, and adopt various methods such as changing pronunciation and form of characters in the target language to find the most appropriate words.
Secondly, the author thinks that free translation is the most appropriate strategy in the three strategies of pun translation, because it is more important for readers to have the same feeling when reading the pun in the translation and in the original text, and to realize the humor and deep meaning. Then is literal translation. However, it seems that the best translated puns in literal translation are those with similar cultural backgrounds in both languages. For example, the word "sun" in example 2 has the meaning of emperor or supreme authority in both the original context and the target language. Therefore, readers can also realize that the translation means something other than what it’s saying. The final choice is annotation, which can express the content of the original text directly, but the sense of humor and the form of pun are lost to a great extent.

Of course, there are still many deficiencies in this paper, for example, the examples is not representative enough; the language is not refined; the classification of puns is not explained in detail, and the translatability and untranslatability of puns are not analyzed according to the text type. The paper can be improved through several aspects below: firstly, by analyzing a large number of classic texts, puns in what kind of text type are translatable, and untranslatable can be summarized. Secondly, deepening the depth of this paper by guiding under a specific theory.

=== References ===

Catford, JC.卡特福德 (1965).翻译的语言学理论 [A Linguistic Theory of Translation]牛津大学出版社 Oxford University Press.93

Cong Laiting, Xu Luya丛莱庭，徐鲁亚. (2007).西方修辞学[Wester Rhetoric].上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press

Yao Jinhong姚金红. (2001).英语双关的修辞特点[ The Rhetorical Features of English Puns] 唐都学刊 Tangdu Journal (17) 161

Tong Kaiwen 佟凯文. (2017) 双关修辞的幽默效用及翻译策略[The Humorous Effect of Rhetoric of Pun and Its Translation Strategy] 英语广场English Square.(11) 021-022

Zhao Yuqing赵雨晴. (2019) 浅析英语双关语及其翻译[Brief Analysis on English Puns and Their Translation].青年文学家Youth Literator (30) 196.

Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin张欢,龚晓斌. (2008) 双关语的可译性限度及其翻译补偿策略初探[The Translatability Limit of Pun and Its Translation Compensation Strategies]牡丹江大学学报 Journal of Mudanjiang University (07) 99-101.

Tong Kaiwen, Li Xianjin佟凯文,李先进. (2017)双关修辞的幽默效用及翻译策略[The Humorous Effect of Pun Rhetoric and Its Translation Strategy] 英语广场English Square (11):51-52.

Cao Shunfa, Huang Jianping曹顺发,黄健平.(2001) 浅谈“双关语”的可译性[ On the Translatability of Puns] 重庆交通学院学报(社会科学版) Journal of Chongqing Jiaotong University ( Social Science) (01):31-32.

Xu Min徐敏. (2007)论双关语的可译性及不可译性[ On the Translatability and Untranslatability of Pun]外语教育Foreign Language Education (00):193-197.

Lu Jie吕杰. (2008)浅论双关的不可译性[ On the Untranslatability of Pun] 科技信息Science and Technology Information (31):145+168.

Wei Lingmin魏玲敏. (2009)浅议双关语的可译性[On the Translatability of Pun]科技信息Science and Technology Information (19):98+93.

An Wenjing安文婧. (2010)双关翻译中的可译性和不可译性以及双关翻译方法[Translatability and Untranslatability of Pun and Its Translation Methods] 中国科教创新导刊 China Education Innovation Heral (05):71-72.

Li Hanji李晗佶. (2013) 双关语的可译性探索[Explorations of Translatability of Pun] 青年文学家 Youth Literator (32):135.

==The Untranslatability of Chinese Classic Poems and its Translation Strategies姚诚 Yao Cheng ==

<center> 姚诚 Yao Cheng 202020080661</center>

===Abstract===
It is commonly believed poetry translation, of all kinds of translation, is the most difficult and demanding, yet possibly most worthy of our study. Though poems translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people remain divided over the translatability and untranslatability of poems and even the definition of untranslatability. This paper will discuss the translatability and untranslatability of poems from the perspectives of imagery, “yijing”, the use of allusion, sound and form. Then some corresponding strategies will be given so as to guide our poetry translation practice.

It is commonly believed poetry translation, of all kinds of translation, is the most difficult and demanding, yet possibly most worthy of our studying. Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people remain divided over the translatability and untranslatability of poems and even the definition of untranslatability. This paper will discuss the translatability and untranslatability of poetry from the perspectives of imagery, “yijing”, the use of allusion, sound and form. Then some corresponding strategies will be given so as to guide our poetry translation practice.--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 02:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===Key words===
poetry translation, untranslatability, translatability, translation strategies
===摘要===
通常认为，诗歌翻译是所有文本类型翻译中难度最大，要求最高，甚至可能是最有研究价值的类型。虽然人们一直在进行翻译实践，关于诗歌翻译的理论数量也远远多于散文或者诗歌翻译的理论，但是对于诗歌可译与否甚至是可译性的定义都有很大的争议。此文将首先讨论不可译性的本质，然后分别从诗歌的意象，意境，典故使用，声音和形式这几个方面讨论诗歌的可译性，然后提出一些相应的翻译策略以指导我们的翻译实践。

===关键词===
诗歌翻译，不可译性，可译性，翻译策略
===Introduction===
Poetry is some sort of art that raises our sensuality of beauty through language. Through poetry, poets are able to express their pleasure, anger, sorrow and joy in a specific way which concentrates on sense, sound, rhyme, and now in a direct now in an oblique manner. In poems powerful emotions, remarkable imagination, bountiful rhetoric, and musical rhymes can be easily found. These elements altogether create the uniqueness of poetry. However, facing with the same Muse, an Englishmen, a Germany or a Greek may adapt a different way to present it since poetry owing to its artistic features, is deeply rooted in its native culture. Consequently, poems though may be appreciated by readers, they can be hardly reproduced by translators.(Li Haiyan,2000(04):155-158)

Poetry is a sort of art that raises our sensuality of beauty through language. Through poetry, poets are able to express their pleasure, anger, sorrow and joy in a specific way which concentrates on sense, sound, rhyme, and now in a direct now in an oblique manner. In poetry powerful emotions, remarkable imagination, bountiful rhetoric, and musical rhymes can be easily found. These elements altogether create the uniqueness of poetry. However, facing with the same Muse, an Englishmen, a Germany or a Greek may adapt a different way to present it since poetry owing to its artistic features, is deeply rooted in its native culture. Consequently, poetry though may be appreciated by readers, they can be hardly reproduced by translators.(Li Haiyan,2000(04):155-158)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 03:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people’ opinion about the translatability and untranslatability of poems remain divided. Some translation theorists and translators seem to agree with translatability for the fact that there exist common grounds of culture in different nations. Such common grounds make it possible for people of different nation and culture to communicate with each other and such possibility constitutes the basis of the translatability of poems: these common grounds enables people of different culture and nation to appreciate the meaning and emotion of poems and echo with each other though they are written in different language(Rao Weimin 2012,14).

Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people’ opinions about the translatability and untranslatability of poems remain divided. Some translation theorists and translators seem to agree with translatability for the fact that there exist common grounds of culture in different nations. Such common grounds make it possible for people of different nation and culture to communicate with each other and such possibility constitutes the basis of the translatability of poems: these common grounds enables people of different culture and nation to appreciate the meaning and emotion of poems and echo with each other though they are written in different languages(Rao Weimin 2012,14).--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 03:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

However, different nations also greatly differ from each other in historical reality which bring us to the very discussion of untranslatability. As poems are mainly appreciated from sense, sound and form, the untranslatability will be further argued in these three aspects. Then some corresponding strategies will be discussed to guide our actual translation practice.(Rao Weimin 2012,14(06):27-29)

However, different nations also greatly differ from each other in historical reality which bring us to the very discussion of untranslatability. As poems are mainly appreciated from sense, sound and form, the untranslatability will be further argued in these three aspects. Then some corresponding strategies will be discussed to guide our translation practice.(Rao Weimin 2012,14(06):27-29)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 03:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===The untranslatability of poetry===
====The nature of untranslatability====
Though there are numerous scholars in home and abroad believe that poetry is untranslatable for example Xu Guangqian, Wang Yizhu, Yu Guangzhong, Shelley, Robert Frost etc, people appear to hold different definition of untranslatability. Catford thinks that both language and cultural are untranslatable to some degree. Linguistic untranslatability exists in the inaccurate correspondence of different linguistic structure while cultural untranslatability is shown by the bare correspondence of meaning connoted in different culture.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296)

Though there are numerous scholars at home and abroad believe that poetry is untranslatable for example Xu Guangqian, Wang Yizhu, Yu Guangzhong, Shelley, Robert Frost etc, people appear to hold different definition of untranslatability. Catford thinks that both language and cultural are untranslatable to some degree. Linguistic untranslatability exists in the inaccurate correspondence of different linguistic structure while cultural untranslatability is shown by the bare correspondence of meaning connoted in different culture.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 03:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

But Bassnett holds that the untranslatability nature should be discussed in the role that the context plays during the translation process. Few translations are totally untranslatable while many untranslatable sentences manifested by the lack of cultural correspondence can be compensated or replaced with translation methods.
Some scholar simply maintained that the translatability of poetry means that possibility of poetry translation while equating untranslatability to the difficulties in translation(Rao Weimin 2012,14).

But Bassnett holds that the untranslatability nature should be discussed in the role that the context plays during the translation process. Few translations are totally untranslatable while many untranslatable sentences manifested by the lack of cultural correspondence can be compensated or replaced with translation methods.
Some scholars simply maintain that the translatability of poetry means that possibility of poetry translation while equating untranslatability to the difficulties in translation(Rao Weimin 2012,14).--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 05:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

For example
“人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。女卑为婢，女又可称奴。”
The first part of the couplet was made by Su Xiaomei, sister of Su Dongpo with intention to ridicule Fo Yin and the second part was completed by Fo Yin as a response to Su Xiaomei. This antithetical and net couplet is famous for the meaning connoted in the form and anagram game. It was thought to be totally untranslatable until Xu Yuanchong gave his translation:
“A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha
A maiden maybe made a house maid”(Rao Weimin 2012,14)

For example
“人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。女卑为婢，女又可称奴。”
The first part of the couplet was made by Su Xiaomei, sister of Su Dongpo with intention to ridicule Fo Yin and the second part was completed by Fo Yin as a response to Su Xiaomei. This antithetical and net couplet is famous for the meaning connoted in the form and anagram game. It was thought to be totally untranslatable until Xu Yuanchong gave his translation:
“A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha
A maiden maybe made a house maid”(Rao Weimin 2012,14)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 05:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Xu Yuanchong’s translation is undoubtedly an excellent one no matter in its meaning or antithesis. Thus, they concluded that form the point of historical development, the translatability nature runs though poetry translation while the untranslatability nature is temporary and can be eliminated as long as the difficulties are solved.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)

Xu Yuanchong’s translation is undoubtedly an excellent one no matter in its meaning or antithesis. Thus, some scholars conclude that form the point of historical development, the translatability nature runs though poetry translation while the untranslatability nature is temporary and can be eliminated as long as the difficulties are solved.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

However, Xu Yuanchong himself appears to stand against this idea. In his opinion, a translated poem is the crystallization of the enormous efforts made both by the original poet and translator. when the original poet is compared to a father, the translator can be considered to be the mother and the translated poem a child. The child will never be utterly same to neither his father nor his mother. The same is also true of poem translation. The translated poem won’t be exactly the same as the original poem not will it be reproduced without the influence of the translator. (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)

However, Xu Yuanchong himself appears to stand against this idea. In his opinion, a translated poem is the crystallization of the enormous efforts made both by the original poet and translator. when the original poet is compared to a father, the translator can be considered to be the mother and the translated poem a child. The child will never be utterly same to neither his father nor his mother. The same is also true of poem translation. The translated poem won’t be exactly the same as the original poem not will it be reproduced without the influence of the translator. (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Thus, Xu Yuanchong concluded there is no such question of translatability or untranslatability but the matter of the degree a poem can be translated to. Xu Yuanchong gives the following example:
“流水落花春去也, 天上人间”
Any translation of a poem should take various functions at different levels into consideration. Take meaning for example, what is concerned with the reality or thoughts about the world the poet wants to deliver is commonly regarded as the core of the reproduction. However. The author’s thought is usually connoted in the poem which leads to different interpretation or understanding of the poem. As understanding is the first step in any translation, there would be different kinds of translation of one poem according to the translator’s understanding. And there are at least four versions of translation of this verse:(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)

Thus, Xu Yuanchong concludes there is no such question of translatability or untranslatability but the matter of the degree a poem can be translated to. Xu Yuanchong gives the following example:
“流水落花春去也, 天上人间”
Any translation of a poem should take various functions at different levels into consideration. Take meaning for example, what is concerned with the reality or thoughts about the world the poet wants to deliver is commonly regarded as the core of the reproduction. However. The author’s thought is usually connoted in the poem which leads to different interpretation or understanding of the poem. As understanding is the first step in any translation, there would be different kinds of translation of one poem according to the translator’s understanding. And there are at least four versions of translation of this verse:(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)
--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

(1)“Flowing waters and faded flowers are gone forever
As far apart as heaven is form earth” (Tr. Chu Dagao)

(2)“The river flows –
The blossoms fall –
Spring going – gone
in Heaven as on earth ”(Tr. Lin Tongji)

(3)“One’s spring and youth has passed
never to return
One’s destiny is not of heaven’s
Concern.” (Tr. Xu Zhongjie)

(4)“Without flowers fallen on the waves
Spring’s gone away
So is the paradise of yesterday.” (Tr. X.Y.Z) (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)
--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Xu Yuanchong argues since there are at least 4 versions of translation, poetry is of course translatable. Also, similarities and differences can be easily found in the four translated work. Then similarities represent what the original poet wants to convey and the differences exhibit different expression methods adopted by the translator. Different expression methods also reveal the “translated degree” which means to which degree a poem is subjectively translated by the author within his ability. Then “translatable degree” should be discriminated form “translatable degree” which refers to the degree to which a poem can be objectively translated.(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)

Xu Yuanchong argues since there are at least 4 versions of translation, poetry is of course translatable. Also, similarities and differences can be easily found in the four translated work. Then similarities represent what the original poet wants to convey and the differences exhibit different expression methods adopted by the translator. Different expression methods also reveal the “translated degree” which means to which degree a poem is subjectively translated by the translator within his ability. Then “translatable degree” should be discriminated form “translatable degree” which refers to the degree to which a poem can be objectively translated.(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

When Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。女卑为婢，女又可称奴。” is reassessed with his definition of “translated degree” and “translatable degree”, it is clear that the difficulties that others equate untranslatability to fall into the category of “translated degree”.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)

When Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。女卑为婢，女又可称奴。” is reassessed with his definition of “translated degree” and “translatable degree”, it is clear that the difficulties that others equate untranslatability falls into the category of “translated degree”.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Since Xu Yuanchong solved the problem of meaning and anagram game but the form is not fully translated at least in this point: in the original verse, two short clauses “人曾是僧” and ”人弗能成佛” altogether constitute the whole meaning, but in the translation “A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha“ there is only one complete sentence. In this sense, this couple is only translatable to a certain degree. So our discussion of translatability will be confined to the field of “translatable degree”(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)

Since Xu Yuanchong solved the problem of meaning and anagram game but the form is not fully translated at least to this point: in the original verse, two short clauses “人曾是僧” and ”人弗能成佛” altogether constitute the whole meaning, but in the translation “A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha“ there is only one complete sentence. In this sense, this couple is only translatable to a certain degree. So our discussion of translatability will be confined to the field of “translatable degree”(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====The untranslatability of imagery====
Image is defined by J.A. Cuddon to be a general term that covers the use of language to represent objects, actions, feelings, thoughts, ideas, states of mind and any sensory or ex-sensory experience (1998:413). Qin Xiubai believes, “imagery is the soul of poetry”. This illustrates the critical status of imagery in literary translation, especially in poetry translation. Though Chinese and foreign poets attach great importance to the use of imagery, they, due to disparities in social and cultural background, differ from each other in tradition, ideology and mode of thinking. (Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)

Image is defined by J.A. Cuddon to be a general term that covers the use of language to represent objects, actions, feelings, thoughts, ideas, states of mind and any sensory or ex-sensory experience (1998:413). Qin Xiubai believes, “imagery is the soul of poetry”. It illustrates the critical status of imagery in literary translation, especially in poetry translation. Though Chinese and foreign poets attach great importance to the use of imagery, they, due to disparities in social and cultural background, differ from each other in tradition, ideology and mode of thinking. (Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

When comparison is made between Chinese and Western imagery theory, we can conclude the following features of Chinese imagery:
At first, imageries in ancient Chinese place overwhelming importance on the meaning an imagery delivers rather than the imagery itself. Chinese tend to express their feelings in a very implicit way. The use of imageries consequently became prevalent among Chinese poet. As a result, imageries turn out to be the organic combination of the subjective feeling and an object. For example，“浮云游子意，落日故人情”（李白《送友人》） and “杨柳岸，晓风残月”（柳永《雨铃》）.(Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)

When comparison is made between Chinese and Western imagery theory, we can conclude the following features of Chinese imagery:
First, imageries in ancient Chinese place overwhelming importance on the meaning an imagery delivers rather than the imagery itself. Chinese tend to express their feelings in a very implicit way. The use of imageries consequently became prevalent among Chinese poet. As a result, imageries turn out to be the organic combination of the subjective feeling and an object. For example，“浮云游子意，落日故人情”（李白《送友人》） and “杨柳岸，晓风残月”（柳永《雨铃》）.(Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Chinse imagerys boast unique connoted meaning. “浮云”(floating clouds)”落日” (setting sun)、”杨柳”(willow) 、”晓风”(breeze) 、”残月” (wane moon)are typical imageries that Chinese poets used to express the feeing of farewell. When these imageries are literally translated, it can barely intrigue the same feeling in target readers. Another example can also clearly explain this untranslatability of imageries of Chinese poetry. “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is commonly employed by poets to express the lovesickness while “wild swan” or “wild geese” is but some sort of bird. When “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is simply translated into “wild swan” or “wild geese”, English readers can’t appreciate the translated work as much Chinese reader appreciate the original poem due to the untranslatability of imagery（Yang Qun & Liuyi, 2005(06):93-95+106）.

Chinse imageries boast unique connoted meaning. “浮云”(floating clouds)”落日” (setting sun)、”杨柳”(willow) 、”晓风”(breeze) 、”残月” (wane moon)are typical imageries that Chinese poets used to express the feeing of farewell. When these imageries are literally translated, it can barely intrigue the same feeling in target readers. Another example can also clearly explain this untranslatability of imageries of Chinese poetry. “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is commonly employed by poets to express the lovesickness while “wild swan” or “wild geese” is but some sort of bird. When “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is simply translated into “wild swan” or “wild geese”, English readers can’t appreciate the translated work as much Chinese reader appreciate the original poem due to the untranslatability of imagery（Yang Qun & Liuyi, 2005(06):93-95+106）.--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

On the basis of its appealing to human sense, five types of imagery can be outlined as follows: visual imagery, aural or auditory imagery, tactile imagery, olfactory imagery and other sensory imagery. In addition, since any subject in the globe is either static or dynamic, imageries can also be divided into static and dynamic imagery. Then there come to the other prominent feature of imagery of Chinese poetry: Chinese much prefer static imageries to dynamic ones. Static imagery is comprised of adjectives and adjective phrase, nouns and nouns phrase as well. (Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)

On the basis of its appeal to human sense, five types of imagery can be outlined as follows: visual imagery, aural or auditory imagery, tactile imagery, olfactory imagery and other sensory imagery. In addition, since any subject in the globe is either static or dynamic, imageries can also be divided into static and dynamic imagery. Then there come to the other prominent feature of imagery of Chinese poetry: Chinese much prefer static imageries to dynamic ones. Static imagery is comprised of adjectives and adjective phrase, nouns and nouns phrase as well. (Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

For instance, in the Chinese poem 《早发白帝城》 by Li Bai
“朝辞白帝彩云间，千里江陵一日还。两岸猿声啼不住，轻舟已过万重山。”
At dawn I left the walled city of White King,
Towering among the many-colored clouds;
And came down stream in a day One thousand li to Jiangling.
The screams of monkeys on either bank
Had scarcely ceased echoing in my ear
When my skiff had left behind it
Ten thousand ranges of hills(Tr. Wang Jianjun)(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)

For instance, in the Chinese poem 《早发白帝城》 by Li Bai
“朝辞白帝彩云间，千里江陵一日还。两岸猿声啼不住，轻舟已过万重山。”
At dawn I left the walled city of White King,
Towering among the many-colored clouds;
And came down stream in a day One thousand li to Jiangling.
The screams of monkeys on either bank
Had scarcely ceased echoing in my ear
When my skiff had left behind it
Ten thousand ranges of hills(Tr. Wang Jianjun)(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

“彩云”(colored clouds)、“轻舟”（skiff）、“万重山”（Ten thousand ranges of hills） can be categorized into static imagery. These three images are not only the objects the poet describes, but the very psychology equivalence reflecting the poet’s feeling. The poet express his great delight upon his absolved from exile through the image “彩云”while “轻舟”passing“万重山”shows the poet’ eager to return home. Reading the translated work, readers can hardly grasp the mood of the original poet. Despite the large quantity of static imagery, the use of dynamic is vivid and picture-evoking.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)

“彩云”(colored clouds)、“轻舟”（skiff）、“万重山”（Ten thousand ranges of hills） can be categorized into static imagery. These three images are not only the objects the poet describes, but the very psychology equivalence reflecting the poet’s feeling. The poet express his great delight upon his absolved from exile through the image “彩云”while “轻舟”passing“万重山”shows the poet’ eager to return home. Reading the translated work, readers can hardly grasp the mood of the original poet. Despite the large quantity of static imagery, the use of the dynamic imagery is vivid and picture-evoking.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Dynamic imagery refers to the dynamic description in chinse ancient poems such as imageries presented by the verbs of “还” and “过” use in Li Bai’s《早发白帝城》.There are other abundant examples of dynamic imagery: “绿” in “春风又绿江南岸”(王安石《泊船瓜洲》), “闹” in “红杏枝头春意闹”（宋祁《木兰花》）and “弄” in “云破月来花弄影”（张先《天仙子》）bring enormous vivacities to these verses. But such dynamic imageries can’t be hardly translated since exactly corresponded words can’t be found. Even so, the mood can barely be reproduced as “还” and “过” in examples above are translated into ”came down” and “left behind”.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)

Dynamic imagery refers to the dynamic description in Chinse ancient poems such as imageries presented by the verbs of “还” and “过” use in Li Bai’s《早发白帝城》.There are other abundant examples of dynamic imagery: “绿” in “春风又绿江南岸”(王安石《泊船瓜洲》), “闹” in “红杏枝头春意闹”（宋祁《木兰花》）and “弄” in “云破月来花弄影”（张先《天仙子》）bring enormous vivacities to these verses. But such dynamic imageries can’t be hardly translated since exactly corresponded words can’t be found. Even so, the mood can barely be reproduced as “还” and “过” in examples above are translated into ”came down” and “left behind”.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====The untranslatability of “yijing”====
The artistic kingdom has been sung high of throughout the history of Chinese poetry development, and assigned the name as “意境”(“yijing”). The phrase “意境” was translated into “artistic conception” or “ideorealm” by some. However, both of these two terms fail to fully express the core of “意境”（”yijing” ). ”yijing”, too mysterious and intangible as it is, is deemed to be the sprit of poetry. Though “yijing” originated from imagery, it is never a simple aggregate of images but an organic integration of imagery. Poets us concrete images to express their feeling and these two elements then become fully blended in “yijing” which altogether brings and far-retching philosophical effects.(Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto, 2015(12):5-6+34)

The artistic kingdom has been sung high of it throughout the history of Chinese poetry development, and assigned the name as “意境”(“yijing”). The phrase “意境” was translated into “artistic conception” or “ideorealm” by some. However, both of these two terms fail to fully express the core of “意境”（”yijing” ). ”yijing”, too mysterious and intangible as it is, is deemed to be the sprit of poetry. Though “yijing” originated from imagery, it is never a simple aggregate of images but an organic integration of imagery. Poets use concrete images to express their feeling and these two elements then become fully blended in “yijing” which altogether brings and far-retching philosophical effects.(Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto, 2015(12):5-6+34)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

For example, in 《江雪》(柳宗元)
千山鸟飞绝，万径人踪灭。
孤舟蓑笠翁，独钓寒江雪。”
River Snow
A hundred mountains and no bird,
A thousand paths without a footprint;
A little boat, a bamboo cloak,
An old man fishing in the cold river-snow. （Tr. Witter Bynner）(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87)

For example, in 《江雪》(柳宗元)
千山鸟飞绝，万径人踪灭。
孤舟蓑笠翁，独钓寒江雪。”
River Snow
A hundred mountains and no bird,
A thousand paths without a footprint;
A little boat, a bamboo cloak,
An old man fishing in the cold river-snow. （Tr. Witter Bynner）(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

At first glance, the poem seems to present a snow picture. However, through images including “大雪”、 “孤舟”、 “老渔翁”、 “寒江”、 “鸟飞绝” and “人踪灭”, a vivid picture of an old man fishing alone in the wild cold snow unfolds before our eyes and delivers us the image of the old fishman who exhibits loneliness and pride and forbears no sacrilege. In actuality, this old man by which the poet expresses his thought of getting rid of the secular and holding himself aloof from the world, is an incarnation of the poets’ sprit. Though any single image has no specific meaning, the organic integration of thess simple images attributes to the profound “yijing” which is exactly the charm of Chinese poems. However, in Bynner’s translation, nothing but a snow picture can be seen.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87)

At first glance, the poem seems to present a snow picture. However, through images including “大雪”、 “孤舟”、 “老渔翁”、 “寒江”、 “鸟飞绝” and “人踪灭”, a vivid picture of an old man fishing alone in the wild cold snow unfolds before our eyes and delivers us the image of the old fishman who exhibits loneliness and pride and forbears no sacrilege. Actually, this old man by which the poet expresses his thought of getting rid of the secular and holding himself aloof from the world, is an incarnation of the poets’ sprit. Though any single image has no specific meaning, the organic integration of thess simple images attributes to the profound “yijing” which is exactly the charm of Chinese poems. However, in Bynner’s translation, nothing but a snow picture can be seen.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The other typical example is 《天净沙》（马致远）
“枯藤老树昏鸦，
小桥流水人家，
古道西风瘦马。
夕阳西下，
断肠人在天涯。”
It seems that the poet randomly puts “枯藤”、“老树”、“昏鸦” and other 7 images together, but the last sentence“断肠人在天涯” fully revels the core concept of the poem and leave us roomy space for imagination. When Chinese sentence characterized by parataxis is translated into English features hypotaxis, the beauty of “yijing” of Chinese classical poetry vanishes to a large degree, if not completely.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87)

The other typical example is 《天净沙》（马致远）
“枯藤老树昏鸦，
小桥流水人家，
古道西风瘦马。
夕阳西下，
断肠人在天涯。”
It seems that the poet randomly puts “枯藤”、“老树”、“昏鸦” and other 7 images together, but the last sentence“断肠人在天涯” fully revels the core concept of the poem and leaves us roomy space for imagination. When Chinese sentence characterized by parataxis is translated into English features hypotaxis, the beauty of “yijing” of Chinese classical poetry vanishes to a large degree, if not completely.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====The untranslatability of allusion====
As a gem of Chinese national culture, allusion is characterized by rich cultural connation, highly-concentrated structure and compact expression. In the course of more than five thousand years, numerous Chinese allusions are widely spread. Poets, to avoid direct expression of feeling, would naturally resort to such allusions like myth, legends, or historic event. Due to cultural difference, western reader can hardly understand what is connoted in the poem as much as Chinese reader can appreciate.(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38).

As a gem of Chinese national culture, allusion is characterized by rich cultural connation, highly-concentrated structure and compact expression. In the course of more than five thousand years, numerous Chinese allusions are widely spread. Poets, to avoid direct expression of feelings, would naturally resort to such allusions like myth, legends, or historic event. Due to cultural difference, western reader can hardly understand what is connoted in the poem as much as Chinese reader can appreciate.(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

If these allusions are translated completely translated by explanation, the whole translated poem will be lengthy and no longer be poem in form. On the contrary, if the allusion is simplified, connotations and space for imagination would no longer exist(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38).

If these allusions are translated completely by explanation, the whole translated poem will be lengthy and no longer be poem in form. On the contrary, if the allusion is simplified, connotations and space for imagination would no longer exist(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

For example:
古别离
孟郊
欲去牵郎衣，郎今何处去？
不恨归来迟，莫向临邛去！
You wish to go, and let your robe I hold.
Where are you going- tell me, dear – today.
Your late returning does not anger me,
But the another steal your heart away. (Tr. Fletcher)(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38).
For example:
古别离
孟郊
欲去牵郎衣，郎今何处去？
不恨归来迟，莫向临邛去！
You wish to go, and let your robe I hold.
Where are you going- tell me, dear – today.
Your late returning does not anger me,
But the another steal your heart away. (Tr. Fletcher)(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Undoubtedly, the basic meaning is reproduced when “莫向临邛去” was translated into “But the another steal your heart away.” However, the loss of image leads to the deviation of original information. Actually, “临邛” in the original poem is an allusion which tells the love story between Sima Xiangru, an prominent litterateur of West Han dynasty and an widow Zhuo Wenjun. The widow dared to break tradition hierarchy and ran way with the litterateur and married him at last. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38).

Undoubtedly, the basic meaning is reproduced when “莫向临邛去” is translated into “But the another steal your heart away.” However, the loss of image leads to the deviation of original information. Actually, “临邛” in the original poem is an allusion which tells the love story between Sima Xiangru, an prominent litterateur of West Han dynasty and an widow Zhuo Wenjun. The widow dared to break tradition hierarchy and ran way with the litterateur and married him at last. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Obviously, here “临邛” is no longer a name for a place but a media the poet used to express the widow’s anxiety that her husband would fall in love with someone else in his journey. This anxiety is implicitly express in the original poem. However, the translated poem delivers this feeling in a blunt and frank manner, which doesn’t coincide with the characteristic of ancient Chinese women(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). Thus, the translation is by no means the perfect reproduction of the original poem. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38).

Obviously, here “临邛” is no longer a name for a place but a media the poet used to express the widow’s anxiety that her husband would fall in love with someone else in his journey. This anxiety is implicitly expressed in the original poem. However, the translated poem delivers this feeling in a blunt and frank manner, which doesn’t coincide with the characteristic of ancient Chinese women(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). Thus, the translation is by no means the perfect reproduction of the original poem. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The translation of《琴瑟》（李商隐） can also illustrate this point:
锦瑟无端五十弦, 一弦一柱思年华。
庄生晓梦迷蝴蝶, 望帝春心托杜鹃。
沧海月明珠有泪, 蓝田日暖玉生烟。
此情可待成追忆, 只是当时已惘然。
“Why should the sad zither have fifty strings?
Each string, each strain evokes but vanished springs:
Dim morning dream to be a butterfly;
Amorous heart poured out in cuckoo’s cry.
In moonlit pearls see tears in mermaid’s eyes;
From sunburnt emerald let vaporize!
Such feeling cannot be recalled again:
It seemed lost even when it was felt then.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）

The translation of《琴瑟》（李商隐） can also illustrate this point:
锦瑟无端五十弦, 一弦一柱思年华。
庄生晓梦迷蝴蝶, 望帝春心托杜鹃。
沧海月明珠有泪, 蓝田日暖玉生烟。
此情可待成追忆, 只是当时已惘然。
“Why should the sad zither have fifty strings?
Each string, each strain evokes but vanished springs:
Dim morning dream to be a butterfly;
Amorous heart poured out in cuckoo’s cry.
In moonlit pearls see tears in mermaid’s eyes;
From sunburnt emerald let vaporize!
Such feeling cannot be recalled again:
It seemed lost even when it was felt then.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Five allusion including “琴瑟”、 “庄周梦蝶”、“望帝春心”、“沧海月明”、“蓝天” in used in a poem of only 64 words to express the beaty of obscurity. Though Xu used interrogative and exclamatory sentence as well as such words like “amorous”、”cry” to reproduce this beauty. Butt westers, with little knowledge of Chinese culture will be confused by the relationship between of “string” and ”vanished things” or the connotation of “butterfly”、“cuckoo” and “pearls”.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）

Five allusion including “琴瑟”、 “庄周梦蝶”、“望帝春心”、“沧海月明”、“蓝天” are used in a poem of only 64 words to express the beaty of obscurity. Though Xu used interrogative and exclamatory sentence as well as such words like “amorous”、”cry” to reproduce this beauty. Butt westers, with little knowledge of Chinese culture will be confused by the relationship between of “string” and ”vanished things” or the connotation of “butterfly”、“cuckoo” and “pearls”.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====The untranslatability of sound====
Poetic language has a natural connection with sound. The monosyllable nature and the four tones of Chinese character make it possible for Chinese poets to have a sometime deep, sometime high rhyme and rhythm which however are hardly limited in Chinese poem for the following three aspect: the harmonious balance between level and oblique tones, requirement for antithesis and rhyme which means the regular repetition of the same vowel. However, it is still much more difficult for English poets to enhance the musicality due to the uncertain syllable of words, stress shift between words, and limitation of rhyme. Consequently, the beauty of sound itself of Chinese classical poems can barely reproduced in English(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158).

Poetic language has a natural connection with sound. The monosyllable nature and the four tones of Chinese character make it possible for Chinese poets to have a sometime deep, sometime high rhyme and rhythm which however are hardly limited in Chinese poem for the following three aspect: the harmonious balance between level and oblique tones, requirement for antithesis and rhyme which means the regular repetition of the same vowel. However, it is still much more difficult for English poets to enhance the musicality due to the uncertain syllable of words, stress shift between words, and limitation of rhyme. Consequently, the beauty of sound itself of Chinese classical poems can barely be reproduced in English(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158).--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

For example,
海水朝朝朝朝朝朝朝落,
浮云长长长长长长长消。
Sea waters tide, day to day tide, everyday tide and everyday ebb.
Floating clouds appear, often appear, often appear and often go (Tr. Nida)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)
Though the meaning of the original poem was fully translated, but the reiterative locution, reduplication words and antithesis which can impress the original reader at their first glance disappear.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)

For example,
海水朝朝朝朝朝朝朝落,
浮云长长长长长长长消。
Sea waters tide, day to day tide, everyday tide and everyday ebb.
Floating clouds appear, often appear, often appear and often go (Tr. Nida)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)
Though the meaning of the original poem was fully translated, the reiterative locution, reduplication words and antithesis which can impress the original reader at their first glance disappear.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Here is the other example；
“寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。《声声慢》（李清照）
“Seek, seek, search, search,”
Cold, cold, bare, bare,
Grief, grief, cruel, cruel grief,
Now warm, then like an autumn
Cold again
How hard to calm the heart. (Tr. Clara Candlin)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)

Here is anther example；
“寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。《声声慢》（李清照）
“Seek, seek, search, search,”
Cold, cold, bare, bare,
Grief, grief, cruel, cruel grief,
Now warm, then like an autumn
Cold again
How hard to calm the heart. (Tr. Clara Candlin)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

There are seven couple of reduplication words bring the musicality that remind us the poet’s deep sorrow and grief though no single word regarding to sadness is used. The translated works is pale when compared to the original poem in terms of neither meter nor”yijing”. The word-for-word translation in attempt to maintain the repetition of sound reduces the sense of beauty to the most and can scarcely trigger the deep sorrow and grief in the target reader.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)

There are seven couples of reduplication words bringing the musicality that remind us the poet’s deep sorrow and grief though no single word regarding to sadness is used. The translated works is pale when compared to the original poem in terms of neither meter nor”yijing”. The word-for-word translation in attempt to maintain the repetition of sound reduces the sense of beauty to the most and can scarcely trigger the deep sorrow and grief in the target reader.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====The untranslatability of from====
Since Aristotle, heated debates on the difference of poetry and prose have been hold. Yet, poetry should be discriminated from prose in the first place for its form. A translated poetry must be poetry in form for the following reason: at first, the charm of a poem somewhat lies in the beauty of form. Second, target readers should have accesses to the feature and charm of the original poetry, and it is the supreme duty of the translator to ensure that to happen. Third, the translator should be royal to the original poem. However, because of the opaqueness and connotation pervading in Chinse poems, translator in one way or other are prone to translate them into poetry and thus the beauty of form is lost.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)

Since Aristotle, heated debates on the difference of poetry and prose have been hold. Yet, poetry should be discriminated from prose in the first place for its form. A translated poetry must be poetry in form for the following reason: first, the charm of a poem somewhat lies in the beauty of form. Second, target readers should have accesses to the feature and charm of the original poetry, and it is the supreme duty of the translator to ensure that to happen. Third, the translator should be royal to the original poem. However, because of the opaqueness and connotation pervading in Chinse poems, translator in one way or other are prone to translate them into poetry and thus the beauty of form is lost.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Even though the translator is determined to keep the original form, he can hardly do so. As mentioned earlier, because of implicit character of Chinese, they tend to express their intention or feeling in a direct way so much so that some special form in adopted in classic poetry such as the anagram mentioned earlier.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)

Even though the translator is determined to keep the original form, he can hardly do so. As mentioned earlier, because of implicit character of Chinese, they tend to express their intention or feeling in a direct way so much so that some special forms are adopted in classic poetry such as the anagram mentioned earlier.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

凡鸟偏从末世来，都知爱慕此生才。
一从二令三人木，哭向金陵事更哀。

This bird appears when the world falls on evil times;
None but admires her talents and her skill,
First she complies, then commands, then is dismissed,
Departing in tears to Jinling more wretched still. (Tr. Yang xianyi & Gladys)

This phoenix in a bad time came,
All praised her great ability.
“Two” makes my riddle with a man and a tree,
Returning south in tears she met calamity. (Tr. David Hawkes)(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)

凡鸟偏从末世来，都知爱慕此生才。
一从二令三人木，哭向金陵事更哀。

This bird appears when the world falls on evil times;
None but admires her talents and her skill,
First she complies, then commands, then is dismissed,
Departing in tears to Jinling more wretched still. (Tr. Yang xianyi & Gladys)

This phoenix in a bad time came,
All praised her great ability.
“Two” makes my riddle with a man and a tree,
Returning south in tears she met calamity. (Tr. David Hawkes)(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The original poem was use by Cao Xueqin to make hints of Wang Xifeng’s destiny. Here, “凡” and “鸟” altogether constitute the traditional Chinese character “鳳” which refers to the word “feng” of Lady Wang Xingfeng. Thus, the first couplet tells us though Wang is lady of high caliber but she came at a bad time. Neither “bird” nor “phoenix” can deliver us this hint. Also in the first part of the second couplet, “木” and “人” make the character “休” (“repudiation”) which implies Wang Xifeng would be dismissed by her husband at last. Though the first translation literally tells us her destiny, the anagram is gone. (Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)

The original poem was used by Cao Xueqin to make hints of Wang Xifeng’s destiny. Here, “凡” and “鸟” altogether constitute the traditional Chinese character “鳳” which refers to the word “feng” of Lady Wang Xingfeng. Thus, the first couplet tells us though Wang is lady of high caliber but she came at a bad time. Neither “bird” nor “phoenix” can deliver us this hint. Also in the first part of the second couplet, “木” and “人” make the character “休” (“repudiation”) which implies Wang Xifeng would be dismissed by her husband at last. Though the first translation literally tells us her destiny, the anagram is gone. (Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

It is still worser of the second translation, target reader will be utterly confused when he come to “‘Two’ makes my riddle with a man and a tree,”(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)

It is still worser of the second translation that the target reader will be utterly confused when he come to “‘Two’ makes my riddle with a man and a tree,”(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Translation strategies of Chinese classical poetry===
====Addition of word====
Chinese classical poetry features terse wording so much so that some words are omitted. Thus, considerable words should be added to make the translation more exact in sense. For example,(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)

Chinese classical poetry features terse wording so much that some words are omitted. Thus, considerable words should be added to make the translation more exact in sense. For example,(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

“十年生死两茫茫”
“Ten years now, I’m here, you’re gone. Though not thought, not forgot.”
“For ten long years, the living of the dead knows nought.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)

“十年生死两茫茫”
“Ten years now, I’m here, you’re gone. Though not thought, not forgot.”
“For ten long years, the living of the dead knows nought.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In the second translation, the preposition “for” is added to meet English expression and more importantly, it can strength readers’ feeling the span of time and echo the grief.
Besides, connotation should added to prevent target reader from confusion resulted from culture difference.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)

In the second translation, the preposition “for” is added to meet English expression and more importantly, it can strength readers’ feeling of the span of time and echo the grief.
Besides, connotation should added to prevent target reader from confusion resulted from culture difference.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

For example,
“纤云弄巧，飞星传恨，银汉迢迢暗渡”
“Clouds float like works of art，Stars shoot with grief at heart．
Across the Milky Way the Cowherd meets the Maid ( In a fairy tale in ancient China，the Cowherd and the Maid were married，but theywere restricted by the Queen Mother to meet each other once a year) ”，An allusion is used for the implicit expression of lovesickness, it would be extremely difficult for target readers to appreciate the full sense of this poem.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)

For example,
“纤云弄巧，飞星传恨，银汉迢迢暗渡”
“Clouds float like works of art，Stars shoot with grief at heart．
Across the Milky Way the Cowherd meets the Maid ( In a fairy tale in ancient China，the Cowherd and the Maid were married，but theywere restricted by the Queen Mother to meet each other once a year) ”，an allusion is used for the implicit expression of lovesickness, it would be extremely difficult for target readers to appreciate the full sense of this poem.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====Deletion of word====
Reduplicated and repetitive words are used to trigger strong emotion. Such word can be sometime deleted to avoid redundance in English. For example, in “飞流直下三千尺” and “千锤万凿出深山”， “三千尺” and “千锤万凿” are actually hyperbolized. If they are literally translated into “It flows down three thousand feet” and “Only through tens of thousands of blows，can it be extracted from the mountains”，not only the beauty of sense but space for imagination are totally lost. After fully understanding of the poem, the numbers can be omitted and thus hyperbole is transformed into typical English adjective used for description.: “an incredible height” and “a hard hammer blows”.(Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)

Reduplicated and repetitive words are used to trigger strong emotion. Such words can be sometimes deleted to avoid redundance in English. For example, in “飞流直下三千尺” and “千锤万凿出深山”， “三千尺” and “千锤万凿” are actually hyperbolized. If they are literally translated into “It flows down three thousand feet” and “Only through tens of thousands of blows，can it be extracted from the mountains”，not only the beauty of sense but space for imagination are totally lost. After fully understanding of the poem, the numbers can be omitted and thus hyperbole is transformed into typical English adjective used for description.: “an incredible height” and “a hard hammer blows”.(Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====Conversion of word class====
English and Chinese differ from each other a lot in terms of linguist form and structure. In order to make the translation faithful, Conversion of word class is frequently used. (Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)For example，
“明月几时有，把酒问青天” 《水调歌头·明月几时有》（苏轼）
“How long will the full moon appear?
Wine cup in hand, I ask the sky.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)
“How rare the moon，so round and clear!
With cup in hand, I ask of the blue sky,” (Tr. Lin Yuntang)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)

English and Chinese differ from each other a lot in terms of linguistic form and structure. In order to make the translation faithful, Conversion of word class is frequently used. (Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)For example，
“明月几时有，把酒问青天” 《水调歌头·明月几时有》（苏轼）
“How long will the full moon appear?
Wine cup in hand, I ask the sky.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)
“How rare the moon，so round and clear!
With cup in hand, I ask of the blue sky,” (Tr. Lin Yuntang)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

If “把酒” and “问青天” are separably translated into “hold the wine glass” and “ask the sky”, there will be two predicate which is inconsistent with English expression. When we take a close look to Xu’s and Lin’s translation, it is clear that the verb phrase ”把酒” are translated into prepositional phrase. By doing this, the focus ‘问青天” is empathized so that the sense is closer to the original poem(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)

If “把酒” and “问青天” are separably translated into “hold the wine glass” and “ask the sky”, there will be two predicate which is inconsistent with English expression. When we take a close look to Xu’s and Lin’s translation, it is clear that the verb phrase ”把酒” are translated into prepositional phrase. By doing this, the focus ‘问青天” is empathized so that the sense is closer to the original poem.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

There are of course many other ways for poetry translation such as reconstruction of sentence and the use of annotation. No matter what strategies we adopted, it borders on impossibly for us to 100% translate a poem. But we should also bear it in mind that we can always find a way to make the translated work closer to the original poem with brainstorm and ingenuity.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)

There are of course many other ways for poetry translation such as reconstruction of sentence and annotation. No matter what strategies we adopted, it borders on impossibly for us to 100% translate a poem. But we should also bear it in mind that we can always find a way to make the translated work closer to the original poem with brainstorm and ingenuity.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Conclusion===
In spite of the very fact that poetry translation has been practiced since very long ago and theories of poetry translation have been much produced. Different opinion was still hold of translatability and untranslatability. This paper confined the definition of untranslatability first and then explained the untranslatability from image, “yijing” the use of allusion, sound and form. Some strategies are given not in the fancy of the full reproduction of the original poem but with wish to reproduce it to as much greater degree as possible.

In spite of the very fact that poetry translation has been practiced since very long ago and theories of poetry translation have been much produced. Different opinions were still held of translatability and untranslatability. This paper confined the definition of untranslatability first and then explained the untranslatability from image, “yijing” the use of allusion, sound and form. Some strategies are given not in the fancy of the full reproduction of the original poem but with wish to reproduce it to as much greater degree as possible.--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===References===
He Jun何峻.从译者的再创造看诗歌由不可译性向可译性转化[On the Transformation from Untranslatability to Translatability of Poetry by Recreation]. Journal of Chengdu University成都大学学报(社会科学版),2008(04):124-127.

Li Haiyan李海燕.Beauty in Sense, Sound and Form in Poetry Translation —— Translation of Tang Poems From Chinese to English. Journal of Inner Mongolia Educational Institute 内蒙古教育学院学报,2000(04):155-158.

Li Xinhong李新红.试论中国诗歌之“不可译”[On the untranslatability of Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Lanzhou Education Institute 兰州教育学院学报,2010,26(06):294-296.

Ma QinJun马庆军.中国古典诗歌的不可译因素[On Untranslatable factors of Chinse Classic Poetry ]. Journal of Tianjia Occupational Institute 天津职业院校联合学报,2015,17(01):83-87.

Rao Weimin饶卫民.论诗歌翻译的可译性与不可译性[ On the Translatability and Untranslatability of Poetry]. Journal of Anshun Institute安顺学院学报,2012,14(06):27-29.

Sui Yirong隋荣谊.诗歌翻译[Poetry Translation]. Knowledge of English英语知识,2011(10):35-38.
Sun Huali孙华丽.中国古诗词翻译技巧研究[Translation Methods of Chinese Classical Poetry].Journal of Sanxi University三峡大学学报(人文社会科学版),2020,42(04):113-116.

Wang Jianguo王剑果.论诗歌翻译中形似的重要性[On the Importance of the Similarity of Form in Poetry Translation ]. Journal of Henan Normal University河南师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2012,39(05):149-150.

Xu Yuanchong许渊冲.诗词英译漫谈 [On the English Translation of Chinese Classic Poetry]Chinese Translation中国翻译,1988(03):40-43.

Yang Qun & Liuyi杨群,刘益.中国古典诗歌翻译中的不可译性[On the Untranslatability of Classic Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Nan Hua University南华大学学报(社会科学版),2005(06):93-95+106.

Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto赵旦,陈养桃.戴着镣铐起舞——诗歌翻译为何难的几点分析[On Difficulties of Poetry Translation]. Literature in Anhui Province安徽文学(下半月),2015(12):5-6+34.

==The Untranslatability of Xiehouyu 彭育志 Peng Yuzhi==

<center>彭育志 Peng Yuzhi 202020080635</center>

===Abstract===

Xiehouyu is a typical idiomatic Chinese folk expression, with its first part descriptive, while the second part, sometimes unstated, carrying the massage. However, this kind of expressions is often culturally loaded, and a great number of them are with puns, which accounts for its untranslatability. This paper will concentrate on distinguish 4 key elements of the Chinese fork wisecrack and examine which elements of the 4 are bound to lose and therefore prove to some extent the Xiehouyu is untranslatable. Finally, I will try to find some methods to overcome this untranslatability at best.

Xiehouyu is a typical idiomatic Chinese folk expression, with its first part descriptive, while the second part, sometimes unstated, carrying the massage. However, this kind of expressions is often culturally loaded, and a great number of them are with puns, which accounts for its untranslatability. This paper will concentrate on distinguishing 4 key elements of the Chinese fork wisecrack and examine which elements of the 4 are bound to lose and therefore prove to some extent the Xiehouyu is untranslatable. Finally, I will try to find some methods to overcome this untranslatability at best.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

===摘要===

歇后语是典型的中国民间俗语，它由两部分构成，前半部分是描述性的，后半部分则是对前一部分的解释，传达出说话者真正的意图。歇后语形象生动，又富含中国历史文化之意蕴，而且时常语带双关，这使其具备了不可译性。本文旨在区分歇后语翻译中关键的四要素，来考察何种或哪几种要素在翻译时注定会失去，从而证明歇后语在某种程度上是不可译的。但不可译并不代表就放弃翻译它了，本文探究其不可译性的最终目的还是想要找到合适的翻译策略来尽量弥补这一不可译性。

===Key words===
Xiehouyu; Untranslatability; translation method

Xiehouyu; Untranslatability; Translation Method--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:50, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

===关键词===

歇后语；不可译性；翻译策略

===1.Introduction===

====1.1 Xiehouyu====

The Xiehouyu is a special Chinese expression created by Chinese people according to their everyday experience. It consists of only a few words and often achieves a humorous or ironic effect. Rooted deeply in Chinese conventions and the long history of China, the Xiehouyu is the typical product of unique Chinese Culture.
A Xiehouyu consists of 2 parts, the first part illustrating an image or event, the second parts explaining the meaning the addresser wants to express, and often the second part will not be expressed out, leaving a blank for the addressee to fill in. (Li Gongxue, 2014:12)

The Xiehouyu is a special Chinese expression created by Chinese people according to their everyday experience. It consists of only a few words and often achieves a humorous or ironic effect. Rooted deeply in Chinese conventions and the long history of China, the Xiehouyu is a typical product of unique Chinese Culture.
A Xiehouyu consists of 2 parts, with the first part illustrating an image or event, the second parts explaining the meaning the addresser wants to express, and often the second part will not be expressed out, leaving a blank for the addressee to fill in. (Li Gongxue, 2014:12)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

====1.2 untranslatability====

As Catford distinguishes, there are 2 types of untranslatability: linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. The former occurs when there are no lexical or syntactical substitutes in the TL for the SL; while the latter is due to the absence in the TL culture of a relevant situational feature for the SL.
Even if there is a relevant situational feature in the TL for the SL, like the English words “home” and “democracy”, whose counterparts can be easily found in different languages, these word pairs still have differences in meaning, depending on the contexts and cultural background. So the cultural untranslatability happens because language is the primary modelling system within a culture, it must be de facto implied in any process of translation.(Susan Bassnett, 2002:40)

According to Catford, there are 2 types of untranslatability: linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. The former occurs when there are no lexical or syntactical substitutes in the TL for the SL; while the latter is due to the absence in the TL culture of a relevant situational feature for the SL.
Even if there is a relevant situational feature in the TL for the SL, like the English words “home” and “democracy”, whose counterparts can be easily found in different languages, these word pairs still have differences in meaning, depending on the contexts and cultural background. So the cultural untranslatability happens because language is the primary modelling system within a culture, it must be de facto implied in any process of translation.(Susan Bassnett, 2002:40)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

examples.
The first to be discussed is the linguistic untranslatability. The Chinese characters have only one syllable, and with the change of the 4 different tones, different characters are created and even the same sound can represent different characters, which is a far more common case than that in English. While English is a very different story, an English word can have one, two three or even more syllables and it relies on the position of stresses instead of change of tones to alter the meaning of a word or sentence. This makes the translation of puns and poems in both languages very difficult. For example, one line from a Chinese, “东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。” is untranslatable in that the “晴” (“sunny”)here is a pun, it implies “情” (“love”), but in English, no pair of words can be found with the same pronunciation while the 2 totally different meanings.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)

Considering this thesis mainly deals with the translation of Xiehouyu into English, the untranslatability of Xiehouyu will be further discussed by using English and Chinese as
examples.
The first to be discussed is the linguistic untranslatability. The Chinese characters have only one syllable, and with the change of the 4 different tones, different characters are created and even the same sound can represent different characters, which is a far more common case than that in English. While English is a very different story, an English word can have one, two three or even more syllables and it relies on the position of stresses instead of change of tones to alter the meaning of a word or sentence. This makes the translation of puns and poems in both languages very difficult. For example, one line from a Chinese, “东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。” is untranslatable in that the “晴” (“sunny”)here is a pun, it implies “情” (“love”), but in English, no pair of words can be found with the same pronunciation while the 2 totally different meanings.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

The second to be discussed is the cultural untranslatability. Obviously, due to different cultural and historical background, even a same object in Chinese and English can be quite different. Take the words “dog” and “狗” for example. The word “dog” has a positive or neutral connotation in English, with which, the English speakers show their friendly and intimate relationship with others by saying “he is my dog.” Another English idiom put it that “every dog has its day.”, in which “dog” means ordinary people. While in Chinese, things are quite the opposite. “狗” in Chinese has a negative connotation. Many Chinese idioms can serve as the proof, such as “狗仗人势”, “狗嘴里吐不出象牙”, “落水狗”, “丧家之犬” and so on. If these “狗” or “犬” are all translated into “dog”, the English speakers will find it unacceptable.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)

Then we come to cultural untranslatability. Obviously, due to different cultural and historical background, even a same object in Chinese and English can be quite different. Take the words “dog” and “狗” for example. The word “dog” has a positive or neutral connotation in English, with which, the English speakers show their friendly and intimate relationship with others by saying “he is my dog.” Another English idiom put it that “every dog has its day.”, in which “dog” means ordinary people. While in Chinese, things are quite the opposite. “狗” in Chinese has a negative connotation. Many Chinese idioms can serve as the proof, such as “狗仗人势”, “狗嘴里吐不出象牙”, “落水狗”, “丧家之犬” and so on. If these “狗” or “犬” are all translated into “dog”, the English speakers will find it unacceptable.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

After discussing the untranslatable elements in Chinese and English, when we come back to the translation of Xiehouyu, it is obvious that all the elements the Xiehouyu has them all, which means the Xiehouyu is untranslatable.However, this does not mean the Xiehouyu cannot be translated at all. What we can achieve is an optimal translation. What Xu Yuancong says about the translation of poetry is suitable for the translation of the Xiehouyu, actually to all kinds of translation.
According to him, the translation of a poem is the crystallization of the enormous effort of both the original author and the translator, the former is compared to a father, the latter, mother, then the translation is like their child. The child will never be the same as neither his father, nor his mother. The translation can never be the same as the original work without being affected by the translator. (Xu Yuancong,1988:42)

It is obvious that Xiehouyu features all these untranslatable elements, which means the Xiehouyu is untranslatable.However, this does not mean the Xiehouyu cannot be translated at all. What we can achieve is an optimal translation. What Xu Yuancong says about the translation of poetry is suitable for the translation of the Xiehouyu, actually to all kinds of translation.
According to him, the translation of a poem is the crystallization of the enormous effort of both the original author and the translator, the former is compared to a father, the latter, mother, then the translation is like their child. The child will never be the same as neither his father, nor his mother. The translation can never be the same as the original work without being affected by the translator. (Xu Yuancong,1988:42)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

So there is no absolute translation, the problem of translation is a matter of degree. And therefore, the focus point of this thesis will be to what extent Xiehouyu is untranslatable, or what elements would be lost in translation and what can be done to achieve the optimal translation.
In the following sections, the structure of the Xiehouyu will be analyzed and the function of Xiehouyu will be examined to see what elements in them are untranslatable and what translation methods can be adapted to make up for this untranslatability to the best.(Xu Yuancong,1988:42)

So there is no such thing as absolute translation, and the untranslatability is a matter of degree. Therefore, the focus point of this thesis will be to what extent Xiehouyu is untranslatable, or what elements would be lost in translation and what can be done to achieve the optimal translation.
In the following sections, the structure of the Xiehouyu will be analyzed and the function of Xiehouyu will be examined to see what elements in them are untranslatable and what translation methods can be adapted to make up for this untranslatability to the best.(Xu Yuancong,1988:42)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

===2.1 The structure of Xiehouyu===

The Xiehouyu, as mentioned above, consists of mainly 2 parts, the first part descriptive, the second part explanatory. Between the 2 parts, there is always a comma or hyphen which serves as a link to indicate certain connection between them. In actual use, the second part is sometimes not stated by the speaker. In some cases, this is because the descriptive part is vivid enough, both the speaker and the hearer are very familiar with it, they both know perfectly what the unstated part is and what that actually mean. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)

The Xiehouyu, as mentioned above, consists of mainly 2 parts, the first part descriptive, the second part explanatory. Between the 2 parts, there is always a comma or hyphen which serves as a link to indicate certain connection between them. In actual use, the second part is sometimes not stated by the speaker because the descriptive part is so vivid that both the speaker and the hearer are very familiar with it, they both know perfectly what the unstated part is and what that actually mean. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

Chinese people always say, referring to someone, “狗咬吕洞宾”, leaving the latter part “不识好人心” unstated, for the story of Lv Dongbin and dog is well-known in China, no further explanation is needed. While in other cases, the descriptive part is not that clear and the speaker intentionally leaves a blank to the hearer to fill in. He waits the hearer to ask why such a description is used. Until then the speaker will reveal the latter part to achieve a humorous or ironic effect. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)

Chinese people always say, referring to someone, “狗咬吕洞宾”, leaving the latter part “不识好人心” unstated, for the story of Lv Dongbin and dog is well-known in China, no further explanation is needed. While in other cases, the descriptive part is not that clear and the speaker intentionally leaves a blank to the hearer to fill in. He awaits the hearer to ask why such a description is used. Until then the speaker will reveal the latter part to achieve a humorous or ironic effect. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

If we examine the 2 parts more closely, more details can be found. The descriptive part is either an object or an event. “十月的萝卜” and “外甥打灯笼” can serve as examples respectively. As for the second part, it may serve as an adjective or an adverb to modify the former，or even the action the former part performs if it is an object or some particular person, as the cases in “老九的弟弟—老十（实）” “韩信点兵—多多益善” and “十月的萝卜—冻（动）了心” respectively. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)

When we take a closer look at these 2 parts, more details can be found. The descriptive part is either an object or an event. “十月的萝卜” and “外甥打灯笼” can serve as examples respectively. As for the second part, it may serve as an adjective or an adverb to modify the former，or even the action the former part performs if it is an object or some particular person, as the cases in “老九的弟弟—老十（实）” “韩信点兵—多多益善” and “十月的萝卜—冻（动）了心” respectively. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

In actual use, we can find the former part, the object or the event appearing in the Xiehouyu, is often replaced by the real object or event we want to modify with the Xiehouyu. It is the object or event which the speaker is referring to that is directly modified by the later part of the Xiehouyu. So the function of the Xiehouyu as a whole, in fact depends on the latter part of it. It can serve as an adjective, an adverb or a verb. And therefore, if the aim of translation is only to serve the same function of modifying, the former descriptive part can be simply omitted, only translating the latter descriptive part. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)

It can be easily found in actual use that the former part, the object or the event appearing in the Xiehouyu, is often replaced by the real object or event we want to modify with the Xiehouyu. It is the object or event which the speaker is referring to that is directly modified by the later part of the Xiehouyu. So the function of the Xiehouyu as a whole, in fact depends on the latter part of it. It can serve as an adjective, an adverb or a verb. And therefore, if the aim of translation is only to serve the same function of modifying, the former descriptive part can be simply omitted, only translating the latter descriptive part. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

However, the Xiehouyu is a culture-loaded expression. It is deeply rooted in the soil of unique and colorful Chinese history and culture, which is best embodied in the first half of the Xiehouyu. It often illustrates a famous figure in Chinese history or an image which vividly reflects Chinese outlook of viewing the world. In a word, the first part is more valuable in the aspect of culture than the second part, which when translated, must be kept at best. As for the latter part, though its main function is to explain the true meaning, there is also a noticeable element in it, the pun in Chinese language, which is the difficult point of translation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)

However, the Xiehouyu is a culture-loaded expression. It, deeply rooted in the soil of unique and colorful Chinese history and culture, is best embodied in the first half of the Xiehouyu. It often illustrates a famous figure in Chinese history or an image which vividly reflects Chinese outlook of viewing the world. In a word, the first part is more valuable in the aspect of culture than the second part, which when translated, must be kept at best. As for the latter part, though its main function is to explain the true meaning, there is also a noticeable element in it, the pun in Chinese language, which is the difficult point of translation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

===2.2 The classification of Xiehouyu===

As can be seen in the structure of Xiehouyu above, the first part of Xiehouyu is descriptive which is the basis for the reader in understanding the meaning of it, while the second part is explanative, in which the meaning of the Xiehouyu will be shown to the reader. Some Xiehouyu have only one meaning in the second part, which is the literal meaning; while in other Xiehouyu, there are 2 different meanings in the second part, which are its literal meaning and the extended meaning. In other words, the former do not employ pun, and the latter is punny. The punny ones can be further divided into 2 categories: the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic punny Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:19)

As can be seen in the structure of Xiehouyu above, the first part of Xiehouyu, which is descriptive is the basis for the reader in understanding the meaning of it, while the second part is explanative, in which the meaning of the Xiehouyu will be shown to the reader. Some Xiehouyu have only one meaning in the second part, which is the literal meaning; while in other Xiehouyu, there are 2 different meanings in the second part, which are its literal meaning and the extended meaning. In other words, the former do not employ pun, and the latter is punny. The punny ones can be further divided into 2 categories: the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic punny Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:19)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

So based on the discussion above, the Xiehouyu can be classified in to 3 categories: the literally-stated Xiehouyu, the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic Xiehouyu. To better illustrate the 3 kinds of Xiehouyu, 3 examples are given below respectively:
Literally-stated Xiehouyu:

张飞穿针—粗中有细

Zhang Fei threading a needle – subtle in one’s rough ways

This literally-stated Xiehouyu above literally means that even a rude man like Zhang Fei, a general of Shu regime, is able to thread a needle, it naturally indicates that someone can be subtle in his rough ways. The first is descriptive which gives the reader a hint and imagination and the second part tells the meaning of it directly. The literal meaning is the practical meaning without an extended one.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)

Based on the discussion above, the Xiehouyu can be classified in to 3 categories: the literally-stated Xiehouyu, the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic Xiehouyu. To better illustrate these 3 kinds of Xiehouyu, 3 examples are given below respectively:
Literally-stated Xiehouyu:

张飞穿针—粗中有细

Zhang Fei threading a needle – subtle in one’s rough ways

This literally-stated Xiehouyu above literally means that even a rude man like Zhang Fei, a general of Shu regime, is able to thread a needle, it naturally indicates that someone can be subtle in his rough ways. The first is descriptive which gives the reader a hint and imagination and the second part tells the meaning of it directly. The literal meaning is the practical meaning without an extended one.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

Polysemous punny Xiehouyu:

王妈妈卖了磨，推不了的

Like Dame Wang who sold her grindstone:
You’ve no way to grind your axe any more.

In the Xiehouyu above, “推”(“tui”) is polysemous in Chinese, one meaning to grind, the other meaning to absolve oneself from responsibility. So the Xiehouyu thus has 2 meanings. The literal meaning is that Dame Wang sold her grindstone and the other is that one cannot absolve himself from responsibility now，which is difficult for the target reader to understand, requiring more explanation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)

Polysemous punny Xiehouyu:

王妈妈卖了磨，推不了的

Like Dame Wang who sold her grindstone:
You’ve no way to grind your axe any more.

In the Xiehouyu above, “推”(“tui”) is polysemous in Chinese, one meaning to grind, the other meaning to absolve oneself from responsibility. This Xiehouyu thus has 2 meanings. The literal meaning is that Dame Wang sold her grindstone and the other is that one cannot absolve himself from responsibility now，which is difficult for the target reader to understand, requiring more explanation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

Homophonic punny Xiehouyu:

连着三个观音堂—庙（妙）！（妙）！（妙）！

Three shrines to the goddess Kuan-Yin lined up in a row:
Wonderful! Wonderful! Wonderful!

In the example above, the Chinese characters “庙”and “妙”are homophonic, both pronounced as “miao”. But the former means “temple” the latter means “wonderful.” The meaning “wonderful” is the true meaning that the Xiehouyu wants to convey. (Li Gongxue,2014:22)

Homophonic punny Xiehouyu:

连着三个观音堂—庙（妙）！（妙）！（妙）！

Three shrines to the goddess Kuan-Yin lined up in a row:
Wonderful! Wonderful! Wonderful!

In the example above, the Chinese characters “庙”and “妙”, both pronounced as “miao” are homophonic. But the former means “temple” the latter means “wonderful.” The meaning “wonderful” is the true meaning that the Xiehouyu wants to convey. (Li Gongxue,2014:22)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

After analyzing the structure and classification of the Xiehouyu, 4 key elements of the translation of Xiehouyu are found: cultural connotation, image, sound and meaning. The first 2 elements can mostly be found in the descriptive part of Xiehouyu, and the element of meaning can be found in the explanatory part of Xiehouyu, and if it is a homophonic punny Xiehouyu, the sound element can also be found. Considering the aim of translating Xiehouyu, which is to spread Chinese culture to other countries, the 4 elements need to be saved in the translation. A question is that when translated, can all 4 of the elements be kept without losing a little bit of them? And if any or all of them is doomed to be lost, what method can be adapted to best regain it or them?
The following part will concentrate on the first questions, taking the 4 elements into consideration, examining whether or not will lose and thus prove the untranslatability of the Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:22)

After analyzing the structure and catagorizing the Xiehouyu, 4 key elements of the translation of Xiehouyu are found: cultural connotation, image, sound and meaning. The first 2 elements can mostly be found in the descriptive part of Xiehouyu, and the element of meaning can be found in the explanatory part of Xiehouyu, and if it is a homophonic punny Xiehouyu, the sound element can also be found. Considering the aim of translating Xiehouyu, which is to spread Chinese culture to other countries, the 4 elements need to be saved in the translation. A question is that when a Xiehouyu translated, can all 4 of the elements be kept without losing a little bit of them? And if any or all of them is doomed to be lost, what method can be adapted to best regain it or them?
The following part will concentrate on the first questions, taking the 4 elements into consideration, examining whether or not will lose and thus prove the untranslatability of the Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:22)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

===3. The possible loss of 4 key elements===

===3.1 The loss of cultural connotation===

The cultural connotation in the Xiehouyu results mainly from 3 aspects. The first is the unique Chinese tradition. An example of this category is shown below:

正月十五贴门神—晚了半月

Be too late (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)

The cultural connotation in a Xiehouyu results mainly from 3 aspects. The first is the unique Chinese tradition. An example of this category is shown below:

正月十五贴门神—晚了半月

Be too late (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

The Xiehouyu above demonstrate a unique Chinese tradition, rich in cultural connotation, which is better to be kept in the translation, however the translator failed.
Traditionally, the Chinese people put up the pictures of door-god(门神) on the door on the first day of the lunar new year to get rid of evil things. Usually 2 pictures will be glued on the door, which is often opened from the middle. So the 2 pictures will be stuck on the 2 sides of the door. As the door-gods, no ordinary people can be called as god by the Chinese. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)

The Xiehouyu above demonstrate a unique Chinese tradition, rich in cultural connotation, which is better to be kept in the translation. however the translator failed.
Traditionally, the Chinese people put up the pictures of door-god(门神) on the door on the first day of the lunar new year to get rid of evil things. Usually 2 pictures will be glued on the door, which is often opened from the middle. So the 2 pictures will be stuck on the 2 sides of the door. As the door-gods, no ordinary people can be called as god by the Chinese. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

They were Qin Shubao and Yuchi Gong, both of whom were generals in the Tang dynasty. They were warriors on the battlefield, who once guarded the door for the greatest emperor of Tang dynasty, Li Shimin, to protect him for nightmare.
The picture of door-god should be glued on the first day, which indeed will be too late if glued on the 15th day. The meaning of this Xiehouyu is, as the translation shows, to be too late. But all the translation achieves is conveying solely the meaning of it, which is absolutely inadequate. The translation abandons the former descriptive part, which means the cultural connotation is completely lost.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)

They were Qin Shubao and Yuchi Gong, both of whom were generals in the Tang dynasty. They were warriors on the battlefield and guardian of door for the greatest emperor of Tang dynasty, Li Shimin, to protect him for nightmare.
The picture of door-god should be glued on the first day, which indeed will be too late if glued on the 15th day. The meaning of this Xiehouyu is, as the translation shows, to be too late. But all the translation achieves is conveying solely the meaning of it, which is absolutely inadequate. The translation abandons the former descriptive part, which means the cultural connotation is completely lost.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

The second involves with famous names in Chinese history. As the example shows:

韩信点兵—多多益善

The more the better(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)

he second involves with famous names in Chinese history. As the example below shows:

韩信点兵—多多益善

The more the better(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

In the Xiehouyu above, a famous Chinese name in Chinese, Han Xin(韩信), was mentioned. However, in the translation it disappears. The translator denies the target reader’s access to an interesting anecdote of Han Xin, which is worth-telling. Han Xin was a general in the Han dynasty, the first emperor of which, Liu Bang, once asked him: “how many soldiers do you think can I command?” Han Xin answered, “100000 at most.” “so, what about you?” the emperor asked. Han Xin’s answer was: “the more the better.”, which is what the Xiehouyu actually means.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)

In the Xiehouyu above, Han Xin(韩信), a famous Chinese name in Chinese, was mentioned. However, in the translation it disappears. The translator denies the target reader’s access to an interesting anecdote of Han Xin, which is worth-telling. Han Xin was a general in the Han dynasty, the first emperor of which, Liu Bang, once asked him: “how many soldiers do you think can I command?” Han Xin answered, “100000 at most.” “so, what about you?” the emperor asked. Han Xin’s answer was: “the more the better.”, which is what the Xiehouyu actually means.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

The story is so famous in China that once the first 4 Chinese characters are mentioned the next 4 will automatically appear in the hearer’s mind. But the translation deletes it all, like buying caskets without the jewels. The cultural connotation is missing due to a translation like that.
The third is about Chinese legends, as is shown in the example below:

八仙过海—各显神通

Like the way the eight fairies cross the sea, each displaying his own talent.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)

The story is so famous in China that once the first 4 Chinese characters are mentioned the next 4 will automatically appear in the hearer’s mind. But the translator deletes them all like buying caskets without the jewels. The cultural connotation is missing due to a translation like that.
The third is about Chinese legends, as is shown in the example below:

八仙过海—各显神通

Like the way the eight fairies cross the sea, each displaying his own talent.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

In the translation, “八仙” is literally translated as “eight fairies” without any further explanation. The target reader may be confused wondering who the eight fairies are and how they display their own talent. A note is needed to illustrate how the eight Chinese legendary figures crossed the vast East Sea with their own magic instead of simply stating “each displaying his own talent”. Considering the cultural value, what is in the prior of translation is the story behind the Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)

In the translation, “八仙” is literally translated as “eight fairies” without any further explanation. The target reader may be confused wondering who the eight fairies are and how they display their own talent. Considering its cultural value, what is in the prior of translation is the story behind the Xiehouyu. Thus a note is needed to illustrate how the eight Chinese legendary figures crossed the vast East Sea with their own magic instead of simply stating “each displaying his own talent”. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

===3.2 The loss of image===

The image is lost often when the translation abandons the descriptive and imagery part, as the examples show:

千里搭长棚—天下没有不散的筵席

Even the longest feast must break up at last.

“千里”(“ one thousand Li”) and “长棚”(“ long awning”) are 2 visual images in the Xiehouyu. In the translation, the word “longest” emphasizes more on time rather than space which is stressed by “千里” in the original text. The image of “长棚” is also missing. When Chinese people read the first part, a picture of people seeing off their friends on the 1000-Li awning with wines and dishes appears, which cannot be reproduced by the translation using the phrase “longest feast” which means a feast that last a long time. The special image is undoubtedly missing.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)

The image is lost often when the translation abandons the descriptive and imagery part, as the examples show:

千里搭长棚—天下没有不散的筵席

Even the longest feast must break up at last.

“千里”(“ one thousand Li”) and “长棚”(“ long awning”) are 2 visual images in this Xiehouyu. In the translation, the word “longest” emphasizes more on time rather than space which is stressed by “千里” in the original text. The image of “长棚” is also missing. When Chinese people read the first part, a picture of people seeing off their friends on the 1000-Li awning with wines and dishes appears, which cannot be reproduced by the translation using the phrase “longest feast” which means a feast that last a long time. The special image is undoubtedly missing.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

擀面杖吹火—一窍不通

To know nothing about something

The translation give up an important image “擀面杖”, which means rolling pin in English. It’s a solid stick, through which the air cannot be blown to promote the flame. Blowing air through a rolling pin is actually a very amusing and ridiculous situation. It is imagery and the image connects naturally with the meaning in that the Chinese “一窍不通” literally means “one hole is stuck” in English and it also connotes the real meaning of the phrase that one know nothing about something. It is a pity that the translation fails to reproduce this meaning image in the target reader’s mind.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)

擀面杖吹火—一窍不通

To know nothing about something

The translation gives up an important image “擀面杖”, which means rolling pin in English. It’s a solid stick, through which the air cannot be blown to promote the flame. Blowing air through a rolling pin is actually a very amusing and ridiculous situation. It is imagery and the image connects naturally with the meaning in that the Chinese “一窍不通” literally means “one hole is stuck” in English and it also connotes the real meaning of the phrase that one know nothing about something. It is a pity that the translation fails to reproduce this meaning image in the target reader’s mind.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

But it should be admitted that not all image will lose, when the image itself is not unique to Chinese culture but common to human cognition. It can be explained by the example below:

因风吹火，用力不多。

Let the wind fan the flames
And take the easiest course.

As can be seen in the example above, the literal meaning of the Xiehouyu is its real meaning and the 2 parts of it convey universal knowledge in both source language and target language.(Li Gongxue, 2014:63)

But it should be admitted that not all image will be lost, when the image itself is not unique to Chinese culture but common to human cognition. It can be explained by the example below:

因风吹火，用力不多。

Let the wind fan the flames
And take the easiest course.

As can be seen in the example above, the literal meaning of the Xiehouyu is its real meaning and the 2 parts of it convey universal knowledge in both source language and target language.(Li Gongxue, 2014:63)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

===3.3 The loss of sound===

The loss of sound in the translation of Xiehouyu occurs when translating the ones with a pun. There are 2 kinds of punny Xiehouyu, one is polysemous Xiehouyu, the other is homophonic Xiehouyu. The former contains a word or phrase in its second part that has more than one meaning. It has the literal meaning and the extended meaning at the same time. The polysemous word help convey the extended meaning to the hearer.(Li Gongxue,2014:60)

The loss of sound in the translation of Xiehouyu occurs when the Xiehouyu has a pun. There are 2 kinds of punny Xiehouyu, one is polysemous Xiehouyu, the other is homophonic Xiehouyu. The former contains a word or phrase in its second part that has more than one meaning. It has the literal meaning and the extended meaning at the same time. The polysemous word helps conveying the extended meaning to the hearer.(Li Gongxue,2014:60)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

As for the homophonic Chinese wisecrack, it uses the homophonic or similar homophonic words to achieve a punny effect.
Those punny Chinese wisecracks are regarded as absolutely untranslatable, because it involves the play of sound. Which is clearly demonstrated by the following examples:

外甥打灯笼—照舅（旧）

Things will be back as they were before.

It is a homophonic Xiehouyu. The phrase “照舅” is homophonic to “照旧”, the former meaning “to find uncle with a lantern” while the latter meaning “ the same as before”. The sounds are same, but the meanings are totally different. No 2 English words with the same sound can be found to convey the 2 different meanings as their Chinese counterparts do. The translation has to abandon the sound elements, because it is bound to lose and convey only the meaning of it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)

As for the homophonic Chinese wisecrack, it uses the homophonic or similar homophonic words to achieve a punny effect.
Those punny Chinese wisecracks are regarded as absolutely untranslatable, because it involves the play of sound, which is clearly demonstrated by the following examples:

外甥打灯笼—照舅（旧）

Things will be back as they were before.

It is a homophonic Xiehouyu. The phrase “照舅” is homophonic to “照旧”, the former meaning “to find uncle with a lantern” while the latter meaning “ the same as before”. The sounds are same, but the meanings are totally different. No 2 English words with the same sound can be found to convey the 2 different meanings as their Chinese counterparts do. The translation has to abandon the sound elements, because it is bound to lose and convey only the meaning of it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)

隔着门缝看人—把人看扁了

If you peer at a person through a crack - he looks flat. (pun: Don’t be so prejudiced)

The example above is a polysemous Xiehouyu. The translation conveys the literal meaning of it then adds a note to indicate it is a pun and explain the extended meaning so that the target reader can understand it. However, simply telling the reader it is a pun is not enough, it still cannot achieve to convey the multiple meanings that is easily perceived by Chinese people with a single phrase in English.It is safe to say that the loss of sound element is inevitable when dealing with the punny Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)

隔着门缝看人—把人看扁了

If you peer at a person through a crack - he looks flat. (pun: Don’t be so prejudiced)

The example above is a polysemous Xiehouyu. The translation conveys the literal meaning of it then adds a note to indicate it is a pun and explain the extended meaning so that the target reader can understand it. However, simply telling the reader it is a pun is not enough, it still cannot the multiple meanings that is easily perceived by Chinese people with a single phrase in English.It is safe to say that the loss of sound element is inevitable when dealing with the punny Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

===3.4 The matter of meaning===

Meaning is the only element which can be saved in the translation of all kinds of Xiehouyu. As Nida believes, “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another language unless the form is an essential element of meaning.” While in the case of the Xiehouyu, the only important formal element is pun. It is a linguistic barrier between Chinese and English. Except the punny Xiehouyu, the loss of cultural connotation, the loss of image can be compensated if proper translation methods are adapted. In fact, even the sound image can also be compensated though in very few cases.The next part is to figure out certain methods to reduce the loss of the cultural connotation, the image and sound, though in very few cases, respectively.(Li Qinhua,2018:43)

Meaning is the only element which can be saved in the translation of all kinds of Xiehouyu. As Nida believes, “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another language unless the form is an essential element of meaning.” While in the case of the Xiehouyu, the only important formal element is pun. It is a linguistic barrier between Chinese and English. Except the punny Xiehouyu, the loss of cultural connotation and image can be compensated if proper translation methods are adapted. In fact, even the sound image can also be compensated though in very few cases.The next part is to figure out certain methods to reduce the loss of the cultural connotation, the image and sound, though in very few cases, respectively.(Li Qinhua,2018:43)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

===4 Translation methods to compensate===

===4.1 Method for the loss of cultural connotation===

If the cultural connotation is lost in the translation, only a note is needed to complement the connotation. Therefore, the method of literal translation plus annotation can be adapted in this case, as the example shows:

张飞穿针—粗中有细

Zhang Fei threading a needle - subtle in one’s rough ways

Note: Zhang Fei was a general of Shu (221-263) during the Three Kingdoms era of China. In most matters he was crude and careless but quite subtle at times.

The translation itself is a literal translation without any information of Zhang Fei. But with the note, which depicts who Zhang Fei was and his personalities, the cultural connotation is complemented.

If the cultural connotation is lost in the translation, only a note is needed for compensation. Therefore, the method of literal translation plus annotation can be adapted in this case, as the example shows:

张飞穿针—粗中有细

Zhang Fei threading a needle - subtle in one’s rough ways

Note: Zhang Fei was a general of Shu (221-263) during the Three Kingdoms era of China. In most matters he was crude and careless but quite subtle at times.

The translation itself is a literal translation without any information of Zhang Fei. But with the note, which depicts who Zhang Fei was and his personalities, the cultural connotation is complemented.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

===4.2 Methods for loss of image===

===4.2.1 Borrowing===

To use the method of borrowing in the translation of the Xiehouyu is to use the image familiar to the target reader to replace the image in the source language. So that the original meaning of the source language is saved and the target reader’s understanding to it is deepened, as can be seen in the example below:

猫哭耗子—假慈悲

To shed crocodile tears

Cats are raised in China to catch mouse so “猫哭耗子”(“ cats shed tears for mouse”) means pretending to show mercy. Fortunately, the phrase “to shed crocodile tears in western culture also means the evil person pretends to show his mercy towards the victim, because in western legends the crocodiles shed tears when the eat their prey. The replacement of images helps the Xiehouyu better understood by the target readers and make the translation vivid.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:103)

Borrowing in the translation of the Xiehouyu means using the image familiar to the target reader to replace the image in the source language. So that the original meaning of the source language is saved and the target reader’s understanding to it is deepened, as can be seen in the example below:

猫哭耗子—假慈悲

To shed crocodile tears

Cats are raised in China to catch mouse so “猫哭耗子”(“ cats shed tears for mouse”) means pretending to show mercy. Fortunately, the phrase “to shed crocodile tears in western culture also means the evil person pretends to show his mercy towards the victim, because in western legends the crocodiles shed tears when the eat their prey. The replacement of images helps the Xiehouyu better understood by the target readers and make the translation vivid.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:103)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

4.2.2 Literal-liberal translation
In some translations of Xiehouyu only the liberal translation is adopted, which leads to the loss of the images. So literal translation is necessary in this situation to help keep the image. An example is shown below:

瞎子点灯—白费蜡

Like the blind man lighting the candle – to do something in vain

The translation not only explains the meaning of the Xiehouyu but also keeps the image – blind man lighting the candle by literal translation. This move helps the target read understand the meaning as well as seeing the picture behind it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)

In some translations of Xiehouyu only the liberal translation is adopted, which leads to the loss of the images. So literal translation is necessary in this situation to help keep the image. An example is shown below:

瞎子点灯—白费蜡

Like the blind man lighting the candle – to do something in vain

The translation not only explains the meaning of the Xiehouyu but also keeps the image – blind man lighting the candle by literal translation. This move helps the target reader understand the meaning as well as seeing the picture behind it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

===4.3 Method for loss of sound===

===4.3.1 imitation plus annotation===

Due to linguistic differences, the loss of sound elements is difficult to reproduce in the target language. To achieve this goal, it depends on the translator’s own creativity to imitate the pun in the source language to strive to find a same or similar sound in English which conveys 2 different meanings. Then an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the 2 words in the source language are punned. Below are 2 adequate translations of Xiehouyu which most reproduce the homophonic elements for the target reader:

云端里老鼠—天生的耗（好）

The ‘furry pest’ Heaven has to offer
Annotation: This humorous expression depends for its force on a pun between the word hao, meaning “vermin” and the word hao, meaning “good.” In an attempt to render something of this play on words, I have punned “furry pest” with “very best.”(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)

Due to linguistic differences, It is difficult to reproduce the sound elements in the target language. To achieve this goal, it depends on the translator’s own creativity to imitate the pun in the source language to strive to find a same or similar sound in English which conveys 2 different meanings. Then an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the 2 words in the source language are punned. Below are 2 adequate translations of Xiehouyu which most reproduce the homophonic elements for the target reader:

云端里老鼠—天生的耗（好）

The ‘furry pest’ Heaven has to offer
Annotation: This humorous expression depends for its force on a pun between the word hao, meaning “vermin” and the word hao, meaning “good.” In an attempt to render something of this play on words, I have punned “furry pest” with “very best.”(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

卖盐的做雕銮匠，我是那咸（闲）人

If you endeavor to turn a salt peddler into a sculptor,
He’ll end up making an ‘idle’ use of his time.
Annotation: The point of the second of these two hsieh-hou yv turns on a pun between the expressions hsien-jen meaning “idol of salt” and hsien-jen meaning “idle person”. I have tried to convey this by punning “idol” and “idle”.

The 2 translations above set the example for the translation of homophonic punny Xiehouyu. The translator strives to reproduce the sound in the source language by creative imitation and a detailed note, explaining how the 2 words in Chinese are punned and how the pun is recreated in English.(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)

卖盐的做雕銮匠，我是那咸（闲）人

If you endeavor to turn a salt peddler into a sculptor,
He’ll end up making an ‘idle’ use of his time.
Annotation: The point of the second of these two hsieh-hou yv turns on a pun between the expressions hsien-jen meaning “idol of salt” and hsien-jen meaning “idle person”. I have tried to convey this by punning “idol” and “idle”.

The 2 translations above set the example for the translation of homophonic punny Xiehouyu. The translators strived to reproduce the sound in the source language through creative imitation and a detailed note, explaining how the 2 words in Chinese are punned and how the pun is recreated in English.(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

===Conclusion===

The untranslatability of Xiehouyu results from the difficulty to keep 4 key elements in it. And why the 4 elements need to be saved in translation is justified by the aim to spread Chinese culture overseas. It need to be admitted that not all 4 elements are going to be lost in translation. The cultural connotation element, the image element and the sound element are often to be lost more or less, of which the sound element is almost doomed to be lost. While the element of meaning is to be kept in the translation.

The untranslatability of Xiehouyu results from difficulties to keep 4 key elements in it. And why the 4 elements need to be saved in translation is justified by the aim to spread Chinese culture overseas. It need to be admitted that not all 4 elements are going to be lost in translation. The cultural connotation element, the image element and the sound element are often to be lost more or less, of which the sound element is almost doomed to be lost. While the element of meaning is to be kept in the translation.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

In order to compensate those losses at best, several methods can be adapted in translation. To keep the element of cultural connotation, we can use literal translation plus annotation, telling the cultural background or anecdote behind the Xiehouyu, so that the cultural connotation can be better understood.

To keep the image element, we can also use literal translation plus annotation or borrowing, of which the former depicts the image literally and explains what the image means and the latter replace the image in the source language with another image familiar to the target reader, so as to make the Xiehouyu vivid.

In order to compensate those losses at best, several methods can be adapted in translation. To keep the element of cultural connotation, we can use literal translation plus annotation, telling the cultural background or anecdote behind the Xiehouyu, so that the cultural connotation can be better understood.

To keep the image, we can also use literal translation plus annotation or borrowing, of which the former depicts the image literally and explains what the image means and the latter replace the image in the source language with another image familiar to the target reader, so as to make the Xiehouyu vivid.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

As for the loss of sound element, which is hard to compensate, because of the linguistic difference between Chinese and English, the method of imitation plus annotation can be adapted which imitates the sound elements in Xiehouyu, typically the homophonic punny ones, by creating a new pun in English to achieve the punny effect in Chinese. And an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the words in the source language are punned and how the pun is recreated in the target language. The method reproduces the sound elements in a pun to its best. However, not all Xiehouyu with sound element can be so fortunate that a pair of English words can be found to reproduce the effect.

The sound element, with linguistic differences between Chinese and English, is the hardest to compensate. But the method of imitation plus annotation can be adapted which imitates the sound elements in Xiehouyu, typically the homophonic punny ones, by creating a new pun in English to achieve the punny effect in Chinese. And an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the words in the source language are punned and how the pun is recreated in the target language. The method reproduces the sound elements in a pun to its best. However, not all Xiehouyu with sound element can be so fortunate that a pair of English words can be found to reproduce the effect.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

What is obvious is that annotation is of great importance in the translation of Xiehouyu if the 4 elements are to be kept. But too much annotation will inevitably reduce the lucidness of Xiehouyu: to keep one thing is to lose another. That said, there are still many obstacles standing in the way of Xiehouyu translation.
In a word, Xiehouyu is a combination of image, sound, cultural connotation and meaning, when translated into English, it should be translated not only to simply convey the meaning of it, but also to help the image, sound and most importantly, the culture behind it better perceived, understood and accepted by different countries. Only in this way can we say it is satisfactorily translated if we aim to make Chinese culture spread overseas, which is an extremely important task in today’s era of opening and communication. This thesis proves Xiehouyu is to some extent untranslatable, and provides some methods trying to overcome this untranslatability.

What is obvious is that annotation is of great importance in the translation of Xiehouyu if the 4 elements are to be kept. But too much annotation will inevitably reduce the lucidness of Xiehouyu: to keep one thing means to lose another. That said, there are still many obstacles standing in the way of Xiehouyu translation.
In a word, Xiehouyu is a combination of image, sound, cultural connotation and meaning, when translated into English, it should be translated not only to simply convey the meaning of it, but also to help the image, sound and most importantly, the culture behind it better perceived, understood and accepted by different countries. Only in this way can we say it is satisfactorily translated if we aim to make Chinese culture spread overseas, which is an extremely important task in today’s era of opening and communication. This thesis proves Xiehouyu is to some extent untranslatable, and provides some methods trying to overcome this untranslatability. --[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

===References===

*Egerton, Clement. The golden lotus [T]. London: Routledge & Kcgan Paul, 1939.

*Susan, Bassnett. Translation Studies[M]. London: Routledge, 2002.

*Yang Hsien-yi & Gladys Yang. A dream of Red Mansions [M]: Foreign Language Press, 2003.

*Cao Xueqin & Gao 'E,曹雪芹,高鹗. 红楼梦[A dream of Red Mansions ]［M］．北京；中国戏剧出版社，2002．

*Feng Cuihua,冯翠华.英语修辞大全[English Figures of Speech][M]. 外语教学与研究出版社, 1995.

*Lanlingxiaoxiaosheng,兰陵笑笑生．金瓶梅词话[Chin P'ing Mei]［M］．北京：人民文学出版社，1992．

*Li Gongxue,李宫雪. 芮译本《金瓶梅》歇后语翻译研究[D][A Study of Xiehouyu Translation in the English Version of ''Chin P'ing Mei'' by David Tod Roy] .天津财经大学,2014.

*li Qinhua,李庆华.变译视域下汉语歇后语的英译[J][The Translation of Xiehouyu from the perspective of Transfered Translation].现代交际,2018(04):93-94.

*Tang Rongshan,谭荣珊. 从关联理论看《红楼梦》中汉语歇后语的英译[D][On the Translation of Chinese Folk Wisecracks from the Perspective of Relevance Theory].华中师范大学,2013.

*Xu Yuanchong,许渊冲.诗词英译漫谈 [On the English Translation of Chinese Classic Poetry]Chinese Translation中国翻译,1988(03):40-43.

*Zhao Xiaoyan,赵晓燕. 从文化语境的角度看歇后语的英译 [The translation of Xiehouyu from the perspective of cultural context][J].淮北师范大学学报,2015(06):102-106.

==Study on Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 朱旭 Zhu Xu 202070080631==

<center> 朱旭 Zhu Xu, 202070080631. </center>

===Abstract===
As her later representative work, ''shengshengman'' written by Li Qingzhao, praised by later generations as“the Eternal Farewell”, describes autumn scenery, expresses her feeling which has great aesthetic value. It is necessarily of high significance to analyze English versions of ''shengshengman'', which is full of aesthetic features. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper analyzes Xu Yuanchong’s English version of ''shengshengman'' from four aspects: beauty in image, beauty in sound, beauty in lexis, beauty in form in order to study the application of Translation Aesthetics in literary translation.

As Li Qingzhao's later representative work, ''shengshengman'', praised by later generations as "the Eternal Farewell", describes autumn scenery, expresses her feeling which has great aesthetic value. It is necessarily of high significance to analyze English versions of ''shengshengman'', which is full of aesthetic features. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper analyzes Xu Yuanchong's English version of ''shengshengman'' from four aspects: beauty in image, beauty in sound, beauty in lexis, and beauty in form in order to study the application of Translation Aesthetics in literary translation.--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Key words===
Translation Aesthetics; Sheng sheng man; Xu Yuanchong; Literary Translation

===题目===
翻译美学视角下《声声慢》许渊冲英译本的研究

===摘要===
声声慢是李清照后期代表作，被后人誉为“千古绝唱”。在这首词中，作者描写秋景抒发哀情，全词感情浓烈，文学造诣极高。本文从翻译美学角度入手，从意象美、音韵美、用词美、形式美、四个方面对宋词《声声慢》许渊冲的英译本进行分析，分析研究翻译美学理论在文学翻译中的运用。

===关键词===
翻译美学；许渊冲；声声慢；文学翻译

===1 Introduction===
Literary translation refers to the process of translating a literary work of source language into target language. There is an interactive relationship between literary translation and literary recipients, the influence of literary receiver on literary translation is more obvious. Due to the great differences between Chinese and Western poetry in terms of language and culture, translator wants to make a perfect translation is impractical, that is to say, in literary translation, it is difficult for the translator to completely transform the source language into the target language. This paper, from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics, studies on Xu Yuanchong’s translation version of ''shengshengman'' from the aspects of image, sound, lexis and form, and probes into the application of Translation Aesthetics in the translation of Chinese poetry(''ci''), it further demonstrates the importance of Translation Aesthetics to literary translation.

Literary translation refers to the process of translating a literary work of source language into target language. There is an interactive relationship between literary translation and literary recipients, the influence of literary receiver on literary translation is more obvious. Due to the great differences between Chinese and Western poetry in terms of language and culture, it is impractical that a translator wants to make a perfect translation, that is to say, in literary translation, it is difficult for the translator to completely transform the source language into the target language. This paper, from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics, studies on Xu Yuanchong’s translation version of ''shengshengman'' from the aspects of image, sound, lexis and form, and probes into the application of Translation Aesthetics in the translation of Chinese poetry(''ci''), it further demonstrates the importance of Translation Aesthetics to literary translation.--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===2 An overview of Translation Aesthetics===

Translation is the activity of expressing the information carried by one language in another language, each language has its own characteristics, and its connotation and extension are influenced by different living environment and cultural background.Translation Aesthetics play an important role in translation studies. Translation Aesthetics have long been in connected for a long time, which the basis of Chinese Traditional translation theory includes aesthetics. Translation Aesthetics is an aesthetics origin revealing translation, to study translation from the perspective of aesthetics, which brings a new theoretical basis for the study of contemporary translation theory. (Li Lei, 2011, 83)

Translation is an activity of expressing the information carried by one language into another language. Each language has its own characteristics, connotation and extension that are influenced by different living environment and cultural background. Translation Aesthetics play an important role in translation studies. Translation Aesthetics have long been in connected for a long time, which the basis of Chinese Traditional translation theory includes aesthetics. Translation Aesthetics is an aesthetics origin revealing translation, to study translation from the perspective of aesthetics, which brings a new theoretical basis for the study of contemporary translation theory. (Li Lei, 2011, 83)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in China====

The subset of Chinese history, poetry and painting are in fact the eternal beauty of direct or indirect narrative, Linyi, interpretation, exploration and development of natural beauty, life beauty, human beauty, personality beauty and spiritual temperament. (Liu Miqing, 1994, 56) Based on the linguistic and expression characteristics of Chinese, Chinese translation and aesthetics have a natural connection. Translation and aesthetics have been officially used as an area of translation research since the 1990s. In the Field of Translation in China, the earliest person who systematically combined translation and aesthetics was Xi Yongji, and ''The Comparative Study of Translation Aesthetics'' is the first study of translation aesthetics in China. (Li Jie, 140)

The subset of Chinese history, poetry and painting are in fact the eternal beauty of direct or indirect narrative, Linyi, interpretation, exploration and development of natural beauty, life beauty, human beauty, personality beauty and spiritual temperament. (Liu Miqing, 1994, 56) Based on the linguistic and expression characteristics of Chinese, there is a natural connection between Chinese translation and aesthetics. Translation and aesthetics have been officially used as an area of translation research since the 1990s. In the Field of Translation in China, the earliest person who systematically combined translation and aesthetics was Xi Yongji, and ''The Comparative Study of Translation Aesthetics'' is the first study of translation aesthetics in China. (Li Jie, 140)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Since the 1980s, Western translation theory has occupied a very important position in The Chinese translation circle, new theoretical terms and research methods have dazzled researchers, Western-style logical thought research has entered various fields of scientific research, and the traditional Chinese method of experience is considered unscientific and fragmented. Quite a few researchers have abandoned the traditional Chinese way of study, but Mr. Yu Yongji still thinks calmly, not in the Western way of logical thinking, but by means of Chinese culture's own sense of experience, trying to open up a new way for translation research from the perspective of Chinese traditional aesthetics, so that China's self-made traditional translation theory can be connected by a link, this link is translation aesthetics. In his works, Mr. Yan discusses the aesthetic factors in literary translation from the three aspects of language beauty, imaginary beauty and style beauty. In the translation research methods to the later researchers have brought inspiration.(Yang Xiaoru, 2013, 25);(Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)

Since the 1980s, Western translation theory has occupied a very important position in the Chinese translation circle. New theoretical terms and research methods have dazzled researchers. Western-style logical thought research has entered various fields of scientific research, and the traditional Chinese method of experience is considered unscientific and fragmented. Quite a few researchers have abandoned the traditional Chinese way of study, but Mr. Yu Yongji still thought calmly, not in the Western way of logical thinking, but by means of Chinese culture's own sense of experience, trying to open up a new way for translation research from the perspective of Chinese traditional aesthetics, so that China's self-made traditional translation theory can be connected by a link, this link is translation aesthetics. In his works, Mr. Yan discusses the aesthetic factors in literary translation from the three aspects of language beauty, imaginary beauty and style beauty. In the translation research methods to the later researchers have brought inspiration.(Yang Xiaoru, 2013, 25);(Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Second, Mr. Liu Miqing's book ''Introduction to Translation Aesthetics'' published in Taiwan. This work through argumentative analysis, revealed the aesthetic origin of translation, analyzed the translation aesthetics and the natural connection between Chinese words and text, put forward the basic theoretical framework for the construction of translation aesthetics. Professor Mao Ronggui's book ''Translation Aesthetics'' came out in 2005, which is divided into four parts: the main article, ask the beauty, the hazy article, the practice article.(Yang, 2013, 25)

Second, the development of 1995, Mr. Liu Miqing's book ''Introduction to Translation Aesthetics'' published in Taiwan this work through argumentative analysis, revealed the aesthetic origin of translation, analyzed the translation aesthetics and the natural connection between Chinese words and text, put forward the basic theoretical framework for the construction of translation aesthetics. Professor Mao Ronggui's book ''Translation Aesthetics'' came out in 2005, which is divided into four parts: the main article, ask the beauty, the hazy article, the practice article.(Yang, 2013, 25)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

As the book has a novel layout, the content of the article swept the study of the text of the obscure wind, the language is sometimes eternal, sometimes witty, sometimes thought-provoking, sometimes people can't help but let people understand the study of translation theory at the same time really feel the language beauty. This work suggests that language ambiguity and translation aesthetics can be combined to study, which was rarely mentioned among domestic scholars at that time, opening up new ideas for translation research. In his opinion, the study of language ambiguity and how to compensate in its translation is a topic that translation research can not get around, as far as language ambiguity is concerned, Chinese is more than English. Therefore, Chinese translation theory can not lack the study of language ambiguity and its compensation mechanism in translation. The above three works are the more systematic works in the field of translation aesthetics in China.(Mao Guirong, 2005, 98);(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 56)

As the book has a novel layout, the content of the article swept the study of the text of the obscure wind, the language is sometimes eternal, sometimes witty, sometimes thought-provoking. This work suggests that language ambiguity and translation aesthetics can be combined to study, which was rarely mentioned among domestic scholars at that time, opening up new ideas for translation research. In his opinion, the study of language ambiguity and how to compensate in its translation is a topic that translation research can not get around, as far as language ambiguity is concerned, Chinese is more than English. Therefore, Chinese translation theory can not lack the study of language ambiguity and its compensation mechanism in translation. The above three works are the more systematic works in the field of translation aesthetics in China.(Mao Guirong, 2005, 98);(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 56)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Three works reveal the research significance, research tasks, research methods and research categories of translation aesthetics from different aspects. Throughout these three works, in the course of their discussion, most of the translations listed are concentrated in the field of literary translation. With the guidance of translation aesthetic theory, a large number of academic works and papers on translation have come into being from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Translation aesthetics is a very "young" research field, which needs to be further developed and perfected, and needs to be reconsidered and studied.(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)

Three works reveal the research significance, research tasks, research methods and research categories of translation aesthetics from different aspects. Throughout these three works, in the course of their discussion, most of the translations listed are concentrated in the field of literary translation. With the guidance of translation aesthetic theory, a large number of academic works and papers on translation have come into being from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Translation aesthetics is a very "young" research field, which needs a further development and perfection, and needs to be reconsidered and studied.(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

At present, the remarkable feature is that the study of translation aesthetics is mainly concentrated in the field of literary research. Most of the articles studied from the aesthetic point of view are still focused on the analysis and criticism of translation, comment on the merits, explore the best translation methods and so on, the perspective is relatively narrow, has not been separated from the simple evaluation of the quality of translation under the model, less all kinds of translations as aesthetic objects, can not be from the aesthetic point of view of appreciation, taste, comparison, analysis, resulting in literary works and their translations contain aesthetic factors and their value can not be revealed in full, so that readers can not be fully revealed, so that readers in the study of translation works, The aesthetic value of the original and the translation cannot be fully appreciated. (Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)

At present, the remarkable feature is that the study of translation aesthetics is mainly concentrated in the field of literary research. Most of the articles studied from the aesthetic point of view are still focused on the analysis and criticism of translation, or comment on the merits, explore the best translation methods and so on. The perspective is relatively narrow, which has not been separated from the simple evaluation of the quality of translation under the model, less all kinds of translations as aesthetic objects, can not be from the aesthetic point of view of appreciation, taste, comparison, analysis, resulting in literary works and their translations contain aesthetic factors and their value can not be revealed in full, so that readers can not be fully revealed, so that readers in the study of translation works, The aesthetic value of the original and the translation cannot be fully appreciated. (Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in the West====
As we know, western translation theories have been greatly attached to aesthetics for a long time before the entrance of the modern linguistics. The theories are based on the study of philosophy and aesthetics, which has lasted for more than 1800 years.

As we know, western translation theories have been greatly attached to aesthetics for a long time before the entrance of the modern linguistics. The theories are based on the study of philosophy and aesthetics, which has lasted for more than 1800 years. --[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The first western exploration of translation began with Marcus Tullius Cicero(106-43 B.C.) and Quintus Flaccus Horace(65-8 A.D.). Their stress was laid on sense for sense translation and the aesthetic criteria of the TL produced. St Jerome(347-420) and St. Augustine(354-430) were the followers in the flow of western translation theories. The former proposed that translation mostly lied on the nature, so the translated text should be as simple as the daily language. The latter proposed that in the process of translation, the translator must notice three styles: simplicity, elegance and sublimity and they were requirements of the readers.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)

The first western exploration of translation began with Marcus Tullius Cicero(106-43 B.C.) and Quintus Flaccus Horace(65-8 A.D.). Their stress was laid on sense for sense translation and the aesthetic criteria of the TL produced. St Jerome(347-420) and St. Augustine(354-430) were the followers in the flow of western translation theories. The former proposed that translation mostly lied on the nature, so the translated text should be as simple as the daily language. The latter proposed that in the process of translation, the translator must notice three styles: simplicity, elegance and sublimity and they were requirements of the readers.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

From the fourth century A.D. to the 17th A.D., with the spread of Christianity, Bible translation became the major concerns of western translators. Martin Luther(1483-1542), as the most influential Bible translator, also laid emphasis on the significance of producing an accessible and aesthetically satisfying vernacular style. Later a noted English translator of Homer George Chapman(1559-1643) realized that the good translation must grasp “spirit” and “tone” of the source text, so the translated text can be regarded as a transmigration of the source text(Susan B.M.,2002, 61)

From the fourth century A.D. to the 17th A.D., with the spread of Christianity, Bible translation became the major concerns of western translators. Martin Luther(1483-1542), as the most influential Bible translator, also laid emphasis on the significance of producing an accessible and aesthetically satisfying vernacular style. Later a noted English translator of Homer George Chapman(1559-1643) realized that the good translation must grasp "spirit" and "tone" of the source text, so the translated text can be regarded as a transmigration of the source text(Susan B.M.,2002, 61) --[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Alexander Fraster Tytler (1747-1813), a renowned English translation theorist in the eighteenth century, set up three principles of translation which focus upon the reproduction of idea, style and ease of the original. Benedetto Crose(1866-1952) was a distinguished aesthetician and literary essayist in Italy. In his masterpiece Estetica(1948), he expressed his thought like this: literary translation was a process of art recreation. Ezra Pound (1885-1972) is not only a great poet, but also a famous translator. He said: “Rime looks very important. Take the rimes of a good sonnet, and there is a vacuum.” (Pound, 1929, 30).

Alexander Fraster Tytler (1747-1813), a renowned English translation theorist in the eighteenth century, set up three principles of translation which focus upon the reproduction of idea, style and ease of the original. Benedetto Crose(1866-1952) was a distinguished aesthetician and literary essayist in Italy. In his masterpiece Estetica(1948), he expressed his thought like this: literary translation was a process of art recreation. Ezra Pound (1885-1972) is not only a great poet, but also a famous translator. He said: "Rime looks very important. Take the rimes of a good sonnet, and there is a vacuum." (Pound, 1929, 30).

One of the most noteworthy may be the renowned American scholar Eugene A. Nida, who writes in his book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' (2003, 128) that “translating consists in reproducing in the reader language the closet natural equivalent of the source language, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” Here, “meaning” is not only related to lexical elements, but also to other linguistic or non-linguistic factors which contribute to the understanding and appreciation of a literary work. As seen from the history of western translation theory, translators never ceased to take in nutrition from aesthetics. As Liu Miqing (1995, 58) put it: “In the west, the bud of translation theory was first bound to the tree of philosophic-aesthetics and has stood for as long as one thousand and eight hundred years.”(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)

One of the most noteworthy may be the renowned American scholar Eugene A. Nida, who writes in his book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' (2003, 128) that "translating consists in reproducing in the reader language the closet natural equivalent of the source language, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style." Here, "meaning" is not only related to lexical elements, but also to other linguistic or non-linguistic factors which contribute to the understanding and appreciation of a literary work. As seen from the history of western translation theory, translators never ceased to take in nutrition from aesthetics. As Liu Miqing (1995, 58) put it: "In the west, the bud of translation theory was first bound to the tree of philosophic-aesthetics and has stood for as long as one thousand and eight hundred years."(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

During the long course of development, western and Chinese translation aesthetics have experienced ups and downs and share many similarities in translation principles, approaches, procedures etc. Firstly, both Chinese and western translation theories have gone through the process of development from dispersive statements to monographs which reflects the common law of development. Secondly, they both have experienced the dispute between literal and free translation.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)

During the long course of development, western and Chinese translation aesthetics have experienced ups and downs and share many similarities in translation principles, approaches, procedures etc. Firstly, both Chinese and western translation theories have gone through the process of development from dispersive statements to monographs which reflects the common law of development. Secondly, they both have experienced the dispute between literal and free translation.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Confined by the limitation of the aesthetic subject's intuition and appreciation and weakness in objective analysis, traditional studies of translation in China are characterized by their fuzziness and ambiguity in logical intension. As compared with Chinese translation studies, western translation studies pay much attention to explicit definition and clearness of logical intention. Influenced by different systems of philosophy, culture and language, they have their distinctive features as well. (Li, 2020, 80)

Confined by the limitation of the aesthetic subject's intuition, appreciation and weakness in objective analysis, traditional studies of translation in China are characterized by their fuzziness and ambiguity in logical intension. Compared with Chinese translation studies, western translation studies pay more attention to explicit definition and clearness of logical intention. Influenced by different systems of philosophy, culture and language, they have their distinctive features as well. (Li, 2020, 80)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Western traditional philosophy, though having passed through different stages, mainly regards human beings and nature as incongruous. It lays stress on dualism rather than holism. While through years Chinese traditional philosophy had laid great emphasis on harmony, integration and the mingling of opposites. Therefore, the differences between western traditional philosophy and Chinese traditional philosophy have exerted a great influence on translation studies. The influence is especially remarkable in the following aspects. Chinese traditional studies of translation trend to pay much attention on the wholes rather than parts, on intuition rather than reasoning. Therefore, the success of a translation work depends mainly on the perception and empirical insight of the translator rather than systematic investigation of its structural elements and logical verification. (Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)

Western traditional philosophy, though having passed through different stages, mainly regards human beings and nature as incongruous. It lays stress on dualism rather than holism, while through years Chinese traditional philosophy had laid great emphasis on harmony, integration and the mingling of opposites. Therefore, the differences between western traditional philosophy and Chinese traditional philosophy have exerted a great influence on translation studies. The influence is especially remarkable in the following aspects. Chinese traditional studies of translation trend to pay much attention on the wholes rather than parts, on intuition rather than reasoning. Therefore, the success of a translation work depends mainly on the perception and empirical insight of the translator rather than systematic investigation of its structural elements and logical verification. (Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Moreover, in China, translation theories are but a set of much talked-about principles or criteria such as “faithfulness, expressiveness, elegance” and “closeness of spirit” which can hardly break away from controversial discussions on literal and free translation and have been left to stick with classical literary aesthetics or philosophical aesthetics. Western translation studies, on the other hand, are inclined to lay emphasis on rational and impersonal analysis of structural elements. Therefore, western translation theorists are more likely to approach translation studies from various perspectives and fort systematic conclusion on translation theory. They have never ceased to seek theoretical reference from linguistics, poetics, philosophy, semeiotics, cross-culture studies etc to build their translation theories. In all, similarities and dissimilarities in Chinese and western aesthetic traditions may help us find out the commonness and idiosyncrasy, the universality and particularity between them so that we can get enlightenment from western translation theories and develop those of our own.(Li, 2020, 80)

Moreover, in China, translation theories are but a set of much talked-about principles or criteria such as “faithfulness, expressiveness, elegance” and “closeness of spirit” which can hardly break away from controversial discussions on literal and free translation and have been left to stick with classical literary aesthetics or philosophical aesthetics. Western translation studies, on the other hand, are inclined to lay emphasis on rational and impersonal analysis of structural elements. Therefore, western translation theorists are more likely to approach translation studies from various perspectives and fort systematic conclusion on translation theory. They have never ceased to seek theoretical reference from linguistics, poetics, philosophy, semeiotics, cross-culture studies etc to build their translation theories. In all, similarities and dissimilarities in Chinese and western aesthetic traditions may help us find out the commonness and idiosyncrasy, the universality and particularity between them so that we can get enlightenment from western translation theories and develop those of our own.(Li, 2020, 80)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===3 Previous studies on Li Qingzhao’s Ci-poetry in China===

In China, Bing Xin is the earliest one introducing Li Qingzhao and her works to the English -speaking world. In 1926, she finished her master thesis ''An English Translation and Edition of the Poems of Lady Li Yi-an'' in Wesley College in the United States. In this paper, she systematically explained the fundamental knowledge about Ci-poems and tried to translate twenty-five major Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao. It might be the first time for aca demia of western literature to contact with Ci-poetry. In some west ern countries, a few English translations were published and circulated after that. (Tang Lin, 2012，54)

In China, Bing Xin is the earliest one who introduced Li Qingzhao and her works to the English-speaking world. In 1926, she finished her master thesis ''An English Translation and Edition of the Poems of Lady Li Yi-an'' in Wesley College in the United States. In this paper, she systematically explained the fundamental knowledge about Ci-poems and tried to translate twenty-five major Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao. It might be the first time for aca demia of western literature to contact with Ci-poetry. In some west ern countries, a few English translations were published and circulated after that. (Tang Lin, 2012，54)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Chu Dagao (aka Ch'u Ta-kao or TK Chu) is considered as the second one who introduced Li Qingzhao's Ci-poetry to the western world. In 1937, Chu Dagao published his ''Chinese Lyrics''by Cambridge University Press, which has been difficult to obtain now. In 1987, he published another book ''101 Chinese Lyrics'' by New World Express, with five Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao's in it.(Tang Lin, 2012，56)

Chu Dagao (aka Ch'u Ta-kao or TK Chu) is considered as the second one who introduced Li Qingzhao's Ci-poetry to the western world. In 1937, Chu Dagao published his ''Chinese Lyrics''by Cambridge University Press, which has been difficult to obtain now. In 1987, his another book ''101 Chinese Lyrics'' was published by New World Express, with five Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao's in it.(Tang Lin, 2012，56)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In 1961, Lin Yutang published his famous book ''The Importance of Understanding Translations from the Chinese'' , with Li Qingzhao's Ci-poem ''shengshengman'' and ''Comments on Ci-poetry'' in it. This book aimed to introduce Chinese famous poets and works to the western world. Xu Jieyu published his article about English translation of Lyrics of Li Qingzhao in 1962, which included twenty Ci-poems in it. Specialized translation research on Li Qingzhao at home was done by Weng Xianliang. In 1985, his book ''An English Translation of Chinese Ancient Poems'' appeared for the readers at home and abroad. (Tang, 2012, 57)

In 1961, Lin Yutang published his famous book ''The Importance of Understanding Translations from the Chinese'' , with Li Qingzhao's Ci-poem ''shengshengman'' and ''Comments on Ci-poetry'' in it. This book aimed to introduce Chinese famous poets and works to the western world. Xu Jieyu published his article about English translation of Lyrics of Li Qingzhao in 1962, which included twenty Ci-poems in it. Specialized translation research on Li Qingzhao at home was done by Weng Xianliang. In 1985, his book ''An English Translation of Chinese Ancient Poems'' appeared for the readers at home and abroad. (Tang, 2012, 57)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Xu Yuangchong is one of the most experienced translators in China. He translated and published 60 Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao (some uncertain works also involved) in his magnum opus ''Literature and Translation'' in 2003. He drew the outline of the development of Chinese poetry translation in his works, which made a great contribution to popularity Chinese culture and enhancing its status in the world. Mao Yumnei is the daughter of Dr. Mao Yisheng, who is the most famous bridge engineer in China. She obtained her M A. Arts Degree from the Department of English at Washington University. Since the 1950s,she has begun tore search translations on the exchange of Eastern and Western cultures. After few years she published her monograph ''Picking the Best Ci-Poems from the Washing Jade'' with thirty-two Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao in it. (Tang, 2012, 58)

Xu Yuangchong is one of the most experienced translators in China. He translated and published 60 Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao (some uncertain works also involved) in his magnum opus ''Literature and Translation'' in 2003. He drew the outline of the development of Chinese poetry translation in his works, which made a great contribution to popularity Chinese culture and enhancing its status in the world. Mao Yumnei is the daughter of Dr. Mao Yisheng, who is the most famous bridge engineer in China. She obtained her M A. Arts Degree from the Department of English at Washington University. Since the 1950s,she has begun tore search translations on the exchange of Eastern and Western cultures. After few years she published her monograph ''Picking the Best Ci-Poems from the Washing Jade'' with thirty-two Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao in it. (Tang, 2012, 58)
--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)
Since the twenty first century, Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry has attracted more and more audience by its unique artistic flavor. A great deal of scholars has devoted themselves to the translation and introduction of Li Qinghao and her works. YangJian's thesis ''On the English Translation of Ci-poems by Li Qingzhao'' is regarded as the earliest thesis in this period.In 2001, the reputable couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published their works ''Song Lyrics'' (《宋词》).Other famous translators who have made outstanding contributions include Gong Jinhao (Gong Jinhao, 1999), Huang Hongquan (HuanHongquan, 2001), and Zhu Chunshen (Zhu Chunshen, 2003).(Tang, 2012, 58)

Since the twenty first century, Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry has attracted more and more audience by its unique artistic flavor. A great deal of scholars has devoted themselves to the translation and introduction of Li Qinghao and her works. YangJian's thesis ''On the English Translation of Ci-poems by Li Qingzhao'' is regarded as the earliest thesis in this period. In 2001, the reputable couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published their works ''Song Lyrics'' (《宋词》).Other famous translators who have made outstanding contributions are including Gong Jinhao (Gong Jinhao, 1999), Huang Hongquan (HuanHongquan, 2001), and Zhu Chunshen (Zhu Chunshen, 2003).(Tang, 2012, 58)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In 2005, Li Qing finished her dissertation ''A Contrastive Study on the Translations of Tz 'u Poems by Li Qingzhao'', which published as a monograph in early 2009. Using the comparative method, she systematically induced and analyzed there search on various translations of Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry from the perspective of macro and micro.(Li Qing, 2005, 32)

In 2005, Li Qing finished her dissertation ''A Contrastive Study on the Translations of Tz 'u Poems by Li Qingzhao'', which published as a monograph in early 2009. Using the comparative method, she systematically induced and analyzed their research on various translations of Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry from the perspective of macro and micro.(Li Qing, 2005, 32)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===4 A case study of ''Shengshengman'' from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics===

Literary translation plays an imperative role in translation studies, and it’s an intricate process that needs many skills. For one thing, the aesthetic style and aesthetic feeling are very important for the author to compose his work. Therefore, the translator should choose the literary words to transform the aesthetic sense of the source text in the process of translation. For the other thing, literary translation is the representations of all-round artistic quality which can make the target reader get the similar appreciation of the original beauty of the target language context. (Dang Zhengsheng, 2010, 97)

Literary translation plays an imperative role in translation studies, and it’s an intricate process that needs many skills. For one thing, the aesthetic style and aesthetic feeling are very important for the author to compose his work. Therefore, the translator should choose literary words to transform the aesthetic sense of the source text in the process of translation. For the other thing, literary translation is the representations of all-round artistic quality which can make the target reader get similar appreciation of the original beauty of the target language context. (Dang Zhengsheng, 2010, 97)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

声声慢 Tune: ”Slow, Slow Tune”

寻寻觅觅

冷冷清清

凄凄惨惨戚戚

I look for what I miss

I know not what it is

I feel so sad, so drear,

So lonely, without cheer

乍暖还寒时候

最难将息

How hard is it

To keep me fit

In this lightering cold!

三杯两盏淡酒

怎敌他晚来风急

Hardly warmed up

By cup on cup

Of wine so dry

Oh, how could I

Endure at dusk thedrift

Of wind so swift?

雁过也

正伤心

却是旧时相识

It breaks my heart,alas!

To see the wild gees pass

For they are my acquaintances of old.

满地黄花堆积

憔悴损

而今有谁堪摘

The ground is coveredwith yellow flowers

Faded and fallen in showers

Who will pick them upnow?

守着窗儿

独自怎生得黑

Sitting alone at thewindow

How could I butquicken

The pace of darknesswhich won’t thicken?

梧桐更兼细雨

到黄昏点点滴滴

这次第

怎一个愁字了得

On parasol-trees leaves a fine rain drizzles

At twilight grizzles

Oh! what can I do with a grief

Beyond belief?

====4.1 Beauty in image====

In this part, what is discussed is the Translation Aesthetics in Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' , and the first sentence of this poem is the typical one reaching coexistence of fiction and reality, the translations of the first sentence are analyzed in this part of the thesis.

This part is discussed the Translation Aesthetics in Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' , and the first sentence of this poem is the typical one reaching coexistence of fiction and reality. The translations of the first sentence are analyzed in this part of the thesis.--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

''Shengshengman'' is a representative work of Li Qingzhao, and the seven pairs of reduplicative characters at the beginning are also regarded as a poetic masterpiece. It has also attracted many translators trying to translate it. According to the statistics by Li Qing, Li Qingzhao started her writing as “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚”, The sentence and the repeated words are used to make full use of the advantages of Chinese, and strive to create an abstract and only contemplated artistic conception.(Qi jiajia, 2014, 44)

''Shengshengman'' is a representative work of Li Qingzhao, and the seven pairs of reduplicative characters at the beginning are also regarded as a poetic masterpiece. It has also attracted many translators taking the challenge to translate it. According to the statistics by Li Qing, Li Qingzhao started her writing as “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚”, The sentence and the repeated words are used to make full use of the advantages of Chinese, and strive to create an abstract and only contemplated artistic conception.(Qi jiajia, 2014, 44)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In the sentence, “寻寻觅觅”is the dynamic state of feeling as if bereft of something,“冷冷清清”is the static state of feeling as if bereft of something,“凄凄惨惨”is the feeling on the surface of inner heart, and“戚戚”is the feeling in the deep inner heart . This sentence seems to describe the inner feeling, but it aims to describe the real situation at that time in fact. (Yang Huiying, Liu Weixin, 2003, 10)

In the sentence, “寻寻觅觅” is the dynamic state of feeling as if bereft of something, “冷冷清清” is the static state of feeling as if bereft of something, “凄凄惨惨” is the feeling on the surface of inner heart, and "戚戚" is the feeling in the deep inner heart. This sentence seems to describe the inner feeling, but it aims to describe the real situation at that time in fact. (Yang Huiying, Liu Weixin, 2003, 10)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In his translation, Xu translated“寻寻觅觅”into‘I look for what I miss ', attempting to indirectly convey the meaning of“寻寻觅觅”through the description of environment. that of Lin does not meet the first and fourth requirements. The second four characters,“冷冷清清”, is the description of surround environment (cold and quiet) and the static state of poetess' inner condition as well. Xu translated it into ‘I know not what it is ', which is not in accordance with the original text semantically, but his translation conveys the psychological condition of the poetess because of her suffering. (Qi, 2014, 44)

In his translation, Xu translated “寻寻觅觅” into 'I look for what I miss', attempting to indirectly convey the meaning of "寻寻觅觅" through the description of environment that of Lin does not meet the first and fourth requirements. The second four characters,"冷冷清清", is the description of surround environment (cold and quiet) and the static state of poetess' inner condition as well. Xu translated it into 'I know not what it is', which is not in accordance with the original text semantically, but his translation conveys the psychological condition of the poetess because of her suffering. (Qi, 2014, 44)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Hence, for the translation of these four characters, according to the five requirements of Liu Miqing, Xu’s versions of them are completely in conformity with the original poem. The last part of this sentence consists of three pairs of characters,“凄凄惨惨戚戚”,describing the poetess’ inner grief and sorrow. Xu Yuanchong translated these six characters into‘I feel so sad, so drear, So lonely, without cheer ', using alliteration to transfer the stylistic format and stylistic factors of original poem, reproducing the lonely situation of poetess. Xu Yuanchong has a deep understanding of this reduplicative characters. Therefore, he translated this part of the article in “so+adj” structure to explain the feelings of the Li Qingzhao's sadness and reconstruct the character image, which is very in line with the habit of English writing.(Qi, 2014, 44)

Hence, for the translation of these four characters, according to the five requirements of Liu Miqing, Xu’s versions of them are completely in conformity with the original poem. The last part of this sentence consists of three pairs of characters,“凄凄惨惨戚戚”,describing the poetess’ inner grief and sorrow. Xu Yuanchong translated these six characters into 'I feel so sad, so drear, So lonely, without cheer ', using alliteration to transfer the stylistic format and stylistic factors of original poem, reproducing the lonely situation of poetess. Xu Yuanchong has a deep understanding of this reduplicative characters. Therefore, he translated this part of the article in "so+adj" structure to explain the feelings of the Li Qingzhao's sadness and reconstruct the character image, which is very in line with the habit of English writing.(Qi, 2014, 44)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====4.2 Beauty in sound====

Poetry should not only pay attention to the beautiful image, but also the harmony, naturalness and smoothness of phonology. Li Qingzhao attaches great importance to rhythm in her ''ci'', and the musical lyrical language used in ''Shengshengman'' is very distinctive. Xu Yuanchong is also very particular about the beauty of phonology when translating poems. In order to achieve the same effect on the phonology of the translated poems and the original words, he adopted the typical translation techniques of ending rhymes, alliterations, and double tones in the translated poems to make the translated poems read It is full of music, and it fully conveys the sadness of the original word.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 130)

Poetry should not only pay attention to the beautiful images, but also the harmony, naturalness and smoothness of phonology. Li Qingzhao attaches great importance to rhythm in her ''ci'', and the musical lyrical language used in ''Shengshengman'' is very distinctive. Xu Yuanchong is also very particular about the beauty of phonology when translating poems. In order to achieve the same effect on the phonology of the translated poems and the original words, he adopted the typical translation techniques of ending rhymes, alliterations, and double tones in the translated poems to make the translated poems read It is full of music, and it fully conveys the sadness of the original word.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 130)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The vowels /iə/、/ai/、/au/ in the English translation of the poem are all diphthongs, and the sound is made by sliding one vowel to another. They are pronounced like a few sighs. Xu Yuanchong used these vowel sounds to imitate the sigh of a female poet. On the whole, the final rhyme of the entire English translation of the poem are very musical, and the sounds themselves give a sense of desolation, urgency, and anxiety, and accurately express the author's feelings.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 131)

The vowels /iə/、/ai/、/au/ in the English translation of the poem are all diphthongs, and the sound is made by sliding one vowel to another. They are pronounced like a few sighs. Xu Yuanchong used these vowel sounds to imitate the sigh of a female poet. On the whole, the final rhyme of the entire English translation of the poem are very musical, and the sounds themselves give a sense of desolation, urgency, and anxiety, and accurately express the author's feelings.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 131)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Xu choose “swift” to express “晚来风急” , so that the reader can see the image of the poet like withered leaves floating in the wind, at the same time choose the short sound/i/similar to “urgent” , skillfully reproduce the beauty of sound and the beauty of meaning. The rhymes “Alas” and “pass” in Xu’s translation are similar to the words “时” and “识” .The two words “faded” and “fallen” not only have similar meanings, but also rhyme /f/ alliteration. (Pan Jiayun, 2003, 54)

Xu chooses “swift” to express “晚来风急” , so that the reader can see the image of the poet like withered leaves floating in the wind. At the same time he uses the short sound/i/similar to “urgent” , skillfully reproduce the beauty of sound and the beauty of meaning. The rhymes “Alas” and “pass” in Xu’s translation are similar to the words “时” and “识” .The two words “faded” and “fallen” not only have similar meanings, but also rhyme /f/ alliteration. (Pan Jiayun, 2003, 54)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In the original poem, the word “gaunt” is the same side of the heart, and the meaning is similar. The translator also skillfully rhymed the now and how in the next sentence, “生得黑” being translated as “quicken the pace of darkness”, with the word “thicken” in the next sentence, adding to the sense of rhyme in the poem. (Dong Hui, 2003, 21)

In the original poem, the word “gaunt” is the same side of the heart, and the meaning is similar. The translator also skillfully rhymed the now and how in the next sentence, “生得黑” being translated as “quicken the pace of darkness”, with the word “thicken” in the next sentence, adding to the sense of rhyme in the poem. (Dong Hui, 2003, 21)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The word “drizzles” and “grizzles” correspond to the reduplicated words “点点滴滴” in the translation. The short sound /i/ in the choice of words is similar to the sound of “点点滴滴”, here is another long Sound/i:/ to show the continuous sound of a little rain, further enhanced the feeling. The last sentence is a kind of spoken expression. The rhyming of “ief” with the words “grief” and “belief” not only reflects the beauty of the sound of the translated poem, but also pushes the feelings of the whole poem to a climax.(Nie Yanmin, 2014 , 103)

The word “drizzles” and “grizzles” correspond to the reduplicated words “点点滴滴” in the translation. The short sound /i/ in the choice of words is similar to the sound of “点点滴滴”, Here is another long Sound/i:/ to show the continuous sound of a little rain, further enhanced the feeling. The last sentence is a kind of spoken expression. The rhyming of “ief” with the words “grief” and “belief” not only reflects the beauty of the sound of the translated poem, but also pushes the feelings of the whole poem to a climax.(Nie Yanmin, 2014 , 103)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====4.3 Beauty in lexis====

The author thinks that the sentence “In this lingering cold “is totally express the content in the original image of “乍暖还寒时候” , the keyword “Linger” personifies the inconstancy of the weather at the end of autumn as an image that seems to be going but lingers. In addition, Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “最难将息”，the four abstract Chinese characters, “hard is it to keep me fit” , has added a few extra elements, which makes a female image that frail, sad and vulnerable, unable to adapt to the cold and uncertain weather.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 82)

The author thinks that the sentence “In this lingering cold “is totally express the content in the original image of “乍暖还寒时候” , the keyword “Linger” personifies the inconstancy of the weather at the end of autumn as an image that seems to be going but lingering. In addition, Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “最难将息”，the four abstract Chinese characters, “hard is it to keep me fit” , has added a few extra elements, which makes a female image who is frail, sad, vulnerable, and unable to adapt to the cold and uncertain weather.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 82)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In the sentence “三杯两盏淡酒”, “三” and “两” here means the approximate number, but the corresponding English “three” , “two” cannot mean this meaning. To translate this meaning, Xu Yuanchong used “By Cup on Cup”， which means “cup after cup”. It paints a picture that a female wants to drive away the chill in the air with the contents of the cup. The helpless mood incisively and vividly expressed.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)

In the sentence “三杯两盏淡酒”, “三” and “两” here means the approximate number, but the corresponding English “three” , “two” don't have such meaning. To convey this meaning, Xu Yuanchong used “By Cup on Cup”， which means “cup after cup”. It paints a picture that a female wants to drive away the chill in the air with the contents of the cup. The helpless mood incisively and vividly expressed.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In sentence “雁过也正伤心确是旧时相识”, “正伤心”is the role part. To Express this almost desperate sadness, the translator use the word ”alas” to show author’s sorrows. Alas used to express unhappiness, pity, or concern. It’s a sad, disappointed, painful word that conveys the author’s feelings in an appropriate way.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)

In the sentence “雁过也正伤心确是旧时相识”, “正伤心” is the main part. To Express this very desperate sadness, the translator use the word ”alas” to show author’s sorrows. Alas used to express unhappiness, pity, or concern. It’s a sad, disappointed, painful word that can convey the author’s feelings in an appropriate way.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

For the sentence " 满地黄花堆积憔悴损 "，Xu translated it into “faded and fallen in showers”. He turned the static physical description into a dynamic process of flowers withering, giving people the enjoyment of beauty. In order to show this dynamic beauty, Xu Yuanchong just uses a “showers” to sublimate the silent gesture of falling flowers into a sound water flow, so that the readers can get the sense of hearing in the visual sense.The meaning of the image of “黄花” may be lost on the target language readers, but human beings feel the same about the rise and fall of all things in the natural world So,Xu use the word "faded" and "fallen" to convey it.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 83,86)

For the sentence " 满地黄花堆积憔悴损 "，Xu translated it into “faded and fallen in showers”. He turned the static physical description into a dynamic process of flowers withering, giving people the enjoyment of beauty. In order to show this dynamic beauty, Xu Yuanchong just uses a “showers” to sublimate the silent gesture of falling flowers into a sound water flow, so that the readers can get the sense of hearing in the visual sense. The meaning of the image of “黄花” may be lost on the target language readers, but people feel the same about the up and down of all things in the natural world. So, Xu use the word "faded" and "fallen" to express it.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 83,86)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====4.4 Beauty in form====

The most striking feature of poetry is its unique external form. The number of lines of poetry and the number of words in each line are fixed. As an extension and development of poetry, the form of words breaks through the constant limit of the number of words in poetry. One word, two words, many words, long sentences and short sentences intersect and correspond, and they are scattered and beautiful. In short, because Chinese and English languages belong to different language families, the phonology is very different, and the way of expression is also very different. (Li Lei, 2011, 92)

The most striking feature of poetry is its unique external form. The number of lines of poetry and the number of words in each line are fixed. As an extension and development of poetry, the form of words breaks through the constant limit of the number of words in poetry. One word, two words, many words, long sentences and short sentences intersect and correspond, and they are scattered but beautiful. In short, for Chinese and English languages belong to different language families, their phonology is very differentas well as the way of expression. (Li Lei, 2011, 92)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Therefore, the English translation of Chinese poems (''ci'') is a very difficult task. It is not easy to reflect the artistic conception of the original text, and it is even more troublesome to retranslate the beauty of form and rhyme of the original text.The different numbers of characters are in an orderly manner, and there is no lack of strong cohesion and centripetal force among the various characters. There is also a unique beauty.(Dai Caihong, 2006, 77)

Therefore, to translate Chinese poems(''ci'') into English is a very difficult task. It is not easy to reflect the artistic conception of the original text, and it is even more troublesome to retranslate the beauty of form and rhyme of the original text. The different numbers of characters are in an orderly manner, and there is no lack of strong cohesion and centripetal force among the various characters. There is also a unique beauty.(Dai Caihong, 2006, 77)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

As far as the ci ''shengshengman'' is concerned, the number of lines in the front and back is roughly symmetrical, with nine sentences in the front and eight sentences in the back. The length of each sentence is staggered, with nine characters long and three characters short. Sometimes short, the first, third, fifth, seventh, and ninth sentences of the first film and the first, second, fourth, sixth, and eight sentences of the second film are all rhymed, and the first, second, third sentence and the second sentence of the first film, the six sentences creatively use the phonetic rhetoric of repetition.(Dong Hui, 2003, 22)

As far as the ci ''shengshengman'' is concerned, the number of lines in the front and back is roughly symmetrical, with nine sentences in the front and eight sentences in the back. The length of each sentence is staggered, with nine characters long and three characters short. Sometimes, the first, third, fifth, seventh, and ninth sentences of the first film and the first, second, fourth, sixth, and eight sentences of the second film are all rhymed, and the first, second, third sentence and the second sentence of the first film, the six sentences creatively use the phonetic rhetoric of repetition.(Dong Hui, 2003, 22)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Xu Yuanchong is also superior in showing the beauty of form. On the whole, the long and short sentences of the original poem are intertwined, and the appearance has a unique beauty of ci. The translation also uses a variety of long and short sentences, which are simple and refreshing. Xu Yuanchong is also unique in the arrangement of words. The supplementary use of the three subjects at the beginning, from the vertical view, the arrangement is neat and uniform, like a slim tree. Later, with the number of words in the original poem, the single-line arrangement gradually shortened or lengthened; the total number of words in each line of the original poem's 下阙(the last part of ''ci'') is slightly more than that of the 上阙(the first part of ''ci''), so the 下阙 in the translation also uses longer sentences.(Nie Yanmin, 2014, 103)

Xu Yuanchong is also excelled at showing the beauty of form. On the whole, the long and short sentences of the original poem are intertwined, and the appearance has a unique beauty of ci. The translation also uses a variety of long and short sentences, which are simple and refreshing. Xu Yuanchong is also unique in the arrangement of words. The supplementary use of the three subjects at the beginning, from the vertical view, the arrangement is neat and uniform, like a slim tree. Later, with the number of words in the original poem, the single-line arrangement gradually shortened or lengthened; the total number of words in each line of the original poem's 下阙(the last part of ''ci'') is slightly more than that of the 上阙(the first part of ''ci''), so the 下阙 in the translation also uses longer sentences.(Nie Yanmin, 2014, 103)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

According to Xu Yuanchong’s translation, the whole word is translated into 26 sentences, of which 21 sentences are broken from the middle of the long sentence to form a rhyme, which not only corresponds to the original two-character three-word sentence, but also shows the beauty of the original word. So that each sentence shares a similar or identical ending, neatly, orderly and neatly reflecting the beauty of the shape of the end of the sentence, and at the same time achieves the effect of rhyming. On the whole, the translation is long and short, uneven and natural. The similar or same syllables at the beginning or end of the sentence between the lines give the original word a kind of architectural beauty, and the beauty of the original word is better preserved and conveyed.(Nie , 2014, 103)

According to Xu Yuanchong’s translation, the whole words are translated into 26 sentences, of which 21 sentences are broken from the middle of the long sentence to form a rhyme, which not only corresponds to the original two-character three-word sentence, but also shows the beauty of the original word. So that each sentence shares a similar or identical ending, neatly, orderly and neatly reflecting the beauty of shaping the end of the sentence, and at the same time achieves the effect of rhyming. On the whole, the translation is long and short, uneven and natural. The similar or the same syllables at the beginning or end of the sentence between the lines give the original word a kind of architectural beauty, and the beauty of the original word is better preserved and conveyed.(Nie , 2014, 103)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Conclusion===
''Ci'' is a high-level artistic aesthetic activity. The beauty of poetry is abstract and hazy. To effectively convey this beauty, it is obviously useless to copy and imitate the original text. Poetry translation aims to achieve the reproduction of the original aesthetic effect in the translation. Of course, the so-called aesthetic effect includes many elements, the representational elements such as phonetics, lexis and sentence patterns, and the non-representational elements such as image, ideorealm, artistic conception and so on. The translator, as the aesthetic subject of translation, shoulders the important task of achieving aesthetic expressions. The best way of expression is to actively promote the conversion of the source language to the target language, thus completing the translation of aesthetic literature.In translation practice, translator should fully experience the beauty of the source language and its expressive characteristics, and seek the best of the target language in terms of sound, form, image, and lexis.

''Ci'' is a high-level artistic aesthetic activity. The beauty of poetry is abstract and hazy. To effectively convey its beauty, it is obviously useless to translate the original text literally. Poetry translation aims to achieve the reproduction of the original aesthetic effect in the translation. Of course, the so-called aesthetic effect includes many elements, the representational elements such as phonetics, lexis and sentence patterns, and the non-representational elements such as image, ideorealm, artistic conception and so on. The translator, as the aesthetic subject of translation, shoulders the important task of achieving aesthetic expressions. The best way of expression is to actively promote the conversion of the source language to the target language, thus completing the translation of aesthetic literature.In translation practice, translator should fully experience the beauty of the source language and its expressive characteristics, and seek the best of the target language in terms of sound, form, image, and lexis.--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

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==Study on translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair'' from the perspective of poetics 许鹏飞Xu Pengfei==

<center>许鹏飞 Xu Pengfei 202020080659</center>

===Abstract:===

This thesis aims to discuss loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in translations of inverted sentences from the perspective of poetics. In literary translation, translators may not strictly follow forms and structures corresponding to original texts due to various reasons, which can help translators convey emotions and content of original texts but also do damage to some functions of originals unconsciously. This thesis chooses some excerpts from two versions translated by Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang respectively. About their translations, Yang Bi tends to choose free translation while Peng Changjiang pays attention to retain forms of original texts. Under the guidance of poetics theory, this part will discuss their different translations of inverted sentences and compare them to the original texts. And the author will analyze loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in the specific examples from two versions of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation.

===摘要：===

本文旨在从诗学角度探讨倒装句翻译中诗学功能的损失和诗学效果的再现。在文学翻译中，译者时常不会严格遵从原文的形式与结构，这有利于译者对原文情感内容的传达，但也在无形之中损害了原文的某些功能。本文节选了杨必和彭长江二人译本中的部分文段，关于二者对《名利场》的翻译，杨必倾向于意译的方式而彭长江的译本则注意保留原文的形式。在诗学理论指导下，通过分析二者对于倒装句不同的翻译方式以及与原文进行对比研究。然后作者会分析两个《名利场》译本中具体例子的诗学功能损失以及诗学效果的再现。

===Key words:===

Literary translation;''Vanity Fair'';poetics theory;inverted sentence;poetic effect

===关键词：===

文学翻译；名利场；诗学理论；倒装句；诗学效果

===Chapter 1 Introduction===

When it comes to literary translation, it cannot escape from controversy and difficulty. It is considered that literary translation is quite hard because the sense of beauty and emotions may be lost in the process of translation before they reach target receptors. And one or more translators seek to give a good translation of the same original, hence re-translation often occurs. ''Vanity Fair'' is a novel written by English writer William Makepeace Thackeray in 1847 which depicts English society in the early nineteenth century.

About a hundred years later, Yang Bi translated it into Chinese in 1957. Her translation is free from the shackles of the original language structure, showing charm and original style of Vanity Fair. After Yang Bi’s translation, multiple translations of this book appeared. Among them, Peng Changjiang’s work is an impressive one. His translation, published in 1996, follows the original structure which is quite different from Yang Bi’s version in style, wording, and many other aspects. Both of them give their unique translations to Chinese readers and their translations own their characteristics and merits. Nevertheless, it is inevitable that something in source text may be lost in target text.

Their different translating strategies of inverted sentences are worthy of discussion. In literary works, an inverted sentence bears its task to achieve some special purposes. To explore these, this thesis will discuss some examples excerpted from the two versions compared with the original text under the guidance of poetics theory. According to comparisons and study, it will analyze poetic effects and poetic function in source text and translations from the perspective of poetics. Based on these, this thesis will focus on loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects about translations of inverted sentences. And how literariness in original texts is retained or damaged in their translations will also be involved. (Yin Boan 2000, 79)

===Chapter 2 An Overview of Relevant Theories===

Before discussing the comparison between translations of Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang, this part will briefly introduce the theoretical basis of this chapter. In this section, the author will first give an introduction to relevant parts of poetics theory and then expounds on functions of language proposed by the Roman Jakobson, especially poetic function. And then this part will give an illustration of internal connections between poetics theory and poetic function. After these, it will briefly discuss inversion and its poetic function.

====2.1 Poetics theory====

Poetics originated in ancient Greece. Poetics in tradition is a study on poetry based on Aristotle’s Poetics, while Jakobson enlarges its fields. Roman Jakobson proposed that poetics can be applied in research on literature because its object of study is the art of language. According to Jakobson, the main question that poetics studies are what transforms verbal messages into arts. Poetics theory proposes that literariness in literature distinguishes it from other text types and gives it poetic effects. And it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. (Roman Jakobson 1987, 63, 69)

Correspondingly, literariness is the object of literature research. As a result, a vitally important issue in literary translation that needs to figure out is how to retain literariness in original works. This is closely connected with functions of language, especially poetic function, which is dominant and crucial for literature. Besides, cognitive poetics theory considers that the more efforts a reader makes to understand a work, the stronger poetic effects it will produce. (Roman Jakobson 1973, 62) (Pilkington 2000, 161 -169)

The unfamiliar expression is a technique of creating art and grabbing readers’ attention from the poetic perspective. And poetic language is a kind of self-focused message, different expressions can build different informational capacity of messages. Therefore, choices of word order and sentence structure in literary works cannot be ignored and should be seriously concerned in literary translation. That’s why this thesis pays attention to inverted sentences.(Shklovsky 1998, 16; Jakobson 1987, 67, 85)

====2.2 Functions of language====

At first, the Prague Circle proposed that there are three functions of languages, that are expressive, conative, and referential function. Then, linguists of the Prague Circle also proposed a fourth function—aesthetic function. This function indicates that language can serve art. In 1960, Jakobson raised another three functions: phatic, metalingual, and poetic function. Based on functions, he distinguished six elements in his model of functions that are necessary for communication to occur: context, addresser(sender), addressee(receiver), contact, common code, and message(as cited in Feng Zongxin). Poetic function originated from literariness is the main function of literature and it focuses on the message. (Roman Jakobson 1987,69) (Feng Zongxin 2006, 19-34)

How to use various linguistic devices to achieve the desired purpose is a focus of scholars who study various kinds of linguistic communication. In other words, different communicative purposes determine that linguistic devices should perform different tasks and fulfill different functions. As poetic function pays attention to a message itself and its expressive device is a kind of self-focused message, carriers of information should be focused on. Therefore, forms of original works should be taken into consideration. Combined with poetics, forms of original works can influence literariness, which cannot be ignored in translation. (Roman Jakobson 1981, 19) (Roman Jakobson 1987, 85)

====2.3 Poetics theory and poetic function====

In view of formalism, no matter what the art, it needs to be expressed through certain forms. The medium used in literature is language, and studyinge th art of literature is actually studying a language itself. Jakobson argues that poetics is an integral part of linguistics. Thus, the main research method of poetics is studying language through linguistics. As mentioned in 2.1, it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. And literariness is produced by certain permutation and combination of language. And Jakobson argues that, whereas most language is concerned with the transmission of ideas, the poetic function of language focuses on the ‘message’ for its own sake.(Roman Jakobson 1958, 63)

Formalist scholars led by Jakobson believe that the intentional violation of conventions results in the variation of forms, and thus forms defamiliarization. The process by which readers gain understanding from reading and decoding these novel and inexplicable forms of language will produce poetic effects and aesthetic feelings. In a short, analyzing poetic function of language in literary works is an indispensable method to appreciate literature from the perspective of poetics. (Wang Dongfeng 2010, 8) (Shklovsky 1998, 16)

====2.4 Inverted sentences====

For some reason, people need to put part or all of the predicate verb before the subject in writing, which produces inverted sentences. There are two types of inversion. One is obligatory and the other is optional. The former is decided by grammar and the latter is mainly chosen by writers. This thesis will choose examples of optional inversion to study. The rhetorical functions of optionally inverted sentences can be divided into five categories, that are emphasizing, balancing sentence structure, connecting the preceding and the following, vivid description, and expressing emotions. (Zhang Keding 2001, 19) (Lu Yang 2008, 126)

Emphasizing, vivid description, and expressing emotions are of vital importance for shaping characters and construction of plots. Therefore, an inverted sentence is a form closely connected with poetic function and poetic effect. In literary works, an inverted sentence is a way of defamiliarization. It uses inversion to achieve literariness by emphasizing some information or emotions to promote the development or shape characters.

For instance, “Where is your daughter?” “On the table stands she.” Here, it can be observed this inverted sentence is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is a marked and emotional sequence. Daughter is a message questioner has provided in the question. And the respondent gives the answer in an inverted sentence. In this situation, the respondent aims to emphasize the information about the location of the daughter.(Feng Zongxin, 2006, 30)

This kind of sentence form is a writing skill that an author uses to carry specific messages. Readers need to take efforts to understand an inverted sentence itself and the specific meaning and message implicated by an author. And the poetic function of inverted sentences is of great significance to the realization of poetic effects of a text. It will be discussed in detail in the next chapter.

===Chapter 3 Comparative Analysis of Translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair''===

In the history of translation, the phenomenon of suppressing forms has existed for a long time in both east and west. And in terms of translation methods, free translation prevails while literal translation is suppressed. Yang Bi’s translation is full of humor and smoothness. Her natural and expressive translation avoids translationese and removes the trace of interpretation and stiffness, which becomes a classic version of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation in China.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 6)

However, her inclination to free translation also causes some issues when studying her translation from the perspective of poetics. This point is also prominent in the translation of inverted sentences. After reading her translation, the researcher found that she cares less about sentence forms and usually changes sentence structures. In contrast to Yang Bi, Peng Changjiang adopts a different method to tackle inverted sentences. Actually, their translating styles and strategies are distinct. In the following sections, the author will discuss comparisons between their translation with examples in detail.

====3.1 Analysis====

In the following part, it will mainly analyze the two versions’ arrangements of word order and sentence structure in translations of inverted sentences. And it will discuss the influences of their translations on poetic effects and poetic function through analyzing examples of inverted sentences. The researcher chooses five examples from Vanity Fair as followed.

Example 1 Many a dun had she talked to, and turned away from her father’s door; many a tradesman had she coaxed and wheedled into good-humour, and into the granting of one meal more.(Thackeray 1994, 17)

Yang Bi’s translation: 她常常和逼债的人打交道，想法子打发他们回去。她有本领甜言蜜语的哄得那些做买卖的回心转意，再让她赊一顿饭吃。(Yang Bi 1957, 11)

Peng Changjiang’s translation: 有不少逼债人上门，她跟他们周旋，把他们从家里劝走；有不少买卖人，她连哄带骗把他们哄得高兴，让她再赊一顿饭。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 11)

This text is excerpted from a paragraph that introduces Rebecca Sharp. The author’s language here is very subtle. Thackeray skillfully designs this text. He writes this sentence with Rebecca as the subject in the active voice, and he designs sentences as inverted ones, bringing objects of Rebecca's action to the beginning of sentences. It emphasizes the information about what she had dealt with. This form is a realization of defamiliarization. Readers need to make efforts to understand the complete meaning of this text under this form. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)

This text shows us Sharp’s childhood. She had to deal with troubles and make a living when she was still a kid. Exercised by her hard life, she could tackle these. But it does not mean that she deserves this hard life. Therefore, Thackeray puts “many a dun” and “many a tradesman” forward to express Sharp’s passivity in her early life. She had no choice so she was active in actions and passive in acceptance. She seems to be at ease, but it is the life that makes her have no choice. Through this carefully designed sentence structure, the inverted sentence implicitly shows that Sharp lives in a poor and bad environment, while the active voice clearly states that she is smart and mature.

These sentences realize their poetic effects and poetic function through this special form. It is necessary to pay attention to this form in order to retain the literariness of the source text. But in Yang Bi’s translation, she generally translates this text in a way that converts sentences to active voice and put the subject in front of the sentence. This omits some true meanings and important information about Sharp, which damages literariness. In contrast, Peng Changjiang uses amplification to retain the information of activity and passivity between character and environment.

In addition, he adds “上门” to show the passivity that Sharp has to face duns as a kid. And he also keeps the order of characters in this sentence, preserving poetic function of language and achieving poetic effects contained in the source text. There is a topic of Vanity Fair that we should notice. Thackeray writes this work with no fame to critically scrutinize the capitalist system and expose the darkness of the society at that time. Defamiliarization here has its underlying intention and message which should be focused on when translating.

Example 2 So imprisoned and tortured was this gentle little heart, when in the month of March, Anno Domini 1815, Napoleon landed at Cannes, and Louis XVIII fled, and all Europe was in alarm, and the funds fell, and old John Sedley was ruined.(Thackeray 1994, 177)

Yang Bi’s translation: 这温柔的小女孩子感觉到烦恼和苦闷。那时正是公元一千八百十五年的三月里，拿破仑在加恩登陆，路易十八仓促逃难，整个欧洲人心惶惶，公债跌了价，约翰·赛特笠老头儿从此倾家荡产。(Yang Bi 1957, 175)

Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这颗小小的温柔的心就是这样被禁锢，受煎熬。当时是公元一八一五年三月，拿破仑在戛纳登陆，路易十八逃亡，全欧洲惊恐不安，公债下跌，老约翰·塞德利破产。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 190)

This sentence describes the situation when Amelia Sedley’s family is broke and she hasn’t get any response from her lover for a long time. Amelia was depressed, worried and distraught under the circumstances. Thackeray uses an inverted sentence here, putting her feelings at the beginning of the whole sentence to emphasize her anxiety and worry. In such a long sentence, the author put her experiences behind her feelings as a subordinate clause. This is a deliberate form that could highlight Amelia’s sufferings in soul and body because of these upheavals.

When translating, the two adjectives imprisoned and tortured should be focused on in order to express Sedley’s situation and feelings. In translations of the two versions, they realize the importance of the order of clauses and translate it in a similar form to the source text. However, when dealing with this inverted sentence, both of their translations change it to a theme-transition-rheme structure. The original one is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and carries poetic function. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)

Changing the sequence of components impairs its poetic function and poetic effects. The emotions in Chinese and English expressions are not equivalent. Besides, the lexicon of Sedley’s feelings used in Peng’s translation is closer to the source text than Yang Bi’s translation. Yang Bi uses a freer way of choosing words to show these feelings. Although they do not follow the original form, it can be forgivable. Because if they followed the structure, it would be translated like “太折磨了，太煎熬了，这颗幼小的心。”. This translation does not conform to Chinese grammatical norms, which breaks the cohesion of this sentence. In this case, translators need to find other methods to make up for the damage of poetic effects in process of changing structure.

Example 3 What humiliation and fury:what pangs of sickening rage,balked ambition and love;what wounds of outraged vanity, tenderness even, had this old worldling now to suffer under!(Thackeray 1994, 238)

Yang Bi’s translation: 老头儿是个名利心极重的俗物，想到儿子这样的丢他的脸，气得发昏，只觉得一阵阵的怒气冒上来，彻骨的难过。他的野心和他对儿子的骨肉至情受了个大挫折。他的虚荣心，还有他的一点儿痴心，也遭到意想不到的打击。(Yang Bi 1957, 234)

Peng Changjiang’s translation:这年老的世俗之徒，现在羞怒交加；野心受挫，爱心无着落，气得他发昏；虚荣心，甚至还有点温情，受到了粗暴的伤害，更使他心如刀绞。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 254)

This sentence is excerpted from chapter 24, which describes that old Osborne knows that his son wants to marry Sedley from Dobbin. The original sentence uses a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and emotive. Besides, when it comes to word order, normal word order is typical and unmarked while an inverted sentence is atypical and marked. From the perspective of poetics, an atypical and marked expression is defamiliarized contributing to foregrounding while typical and unmarked expression is contributing to backgrounding. Here, Thackeray uses defamiliarization to achieve poetic effects. Thackeray puts the old man's anger, pain, sufferings forward to emphasize his feelings. Character’s emotions are highlighted intuitively in this form of expression. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)

Regrettably, it is rare to see such a long inverted sentence in Chinese. So, Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both change this sentence into a theme-transition-rheme structure, which does damage to poetic function of the original. However, they adopt diverse translation strategies that produce different results. Yang Bi splits this sentence into three sentences that is different from Peng Changjiang’s translation. Although her translation may be more in line with Chinese reading habits, the defamiliarization of the original sentence has disappeared. Her splitting of the whole sentence also weakens the continuity and progression of emotion which largely impairs the poetic function of the original sentence. Nor does Peng Changjiang retain this rheme-transition-rheme structure.

It is a pity that differences between Chinese and English makes it difficult to put long clauses before a subject which will cause a logical problem. In Peng Changjiang’s version, his word order is almost the same as the source text, preserving the flavor and poetic effect of the original to the greatest extent. In addition to slightly changing the inverted sentence, Peng Changjiang still follows the original form, using short clauses to retain the continuity of emotion. Thus, the situation in the source text is vividly reproduced.

Example 4 Here, too, in this humble tenement, live care, and distrust, and dismay.(Thackeray 2003, 507)

Yang Bi’s translation: 这家子的生活是够清苦的，他们也有他们的烦恼和心事，也免不了互相猜忌。(Yang Bi 1957, 498)

Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这儿，在这卑贱的屋子里，也有忧虑、猜疑和恐慌。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 538)

This sentence is excerpted from chapter 50, in which Amelia’s family sank into poverty and her life got stuck in trouble. At the beginning of this chapter, it tells the impoverished status of her family and lays the background for Amelia having to send her son away. This example is the first sentence of laying background which sets the tone of this chapter. There is no character in this sentence. which is narrated from the perspective of an objective bystander. And inversion here puts the family’s poverty in front and human feelings behind, which corresponds to the content of this chapter.(Zhang Keding 2001, 21)

This arrangement implies to readers that care, distrust and dismay may be caused by the family’s humble status. Besides, the word “humble” is a quite agreeable and inoffensive depiction of their situation while this inverted sentence highlights their humble situation. Correspondingly, Amelia’s family is in deep poverty but still trying to maintain the vanity. As mentioned above, this inverted sentence means a lot for producing poetic effects. The writer uses this form to attract readers' attention to this chapter and create literariness combined with the content of this plot.

Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both retained the original sequence, with the situation in the first place and emotions in the last. Yang Bi uses “这一家子”, “他们” and “他们的” to connect the whole sentence while Peng Changjiang uses “这儿” and “这”. Comparing the two translations, the latter is closer to the original sentence because it retains the design of no character. What’s more, there are progression and transition of background introduction in this sentence. “这儿” and “这” correspond with “here” and “this”, which retains progression and transition and poetic effects.

====3.2 Conclusions====

William Thackeray’s ''Vanity Fair'' is a classic satirical novel, and sarcasm can be seen everywhere in this work. Inversion is a significant form to build this satirical tone. So, translators should make efforts to retain the poetic function and poetic effects of this satirical tone in inverted sentences. Through the discussion of examples in 3.1, it can be found that Peng Changjiang's translations of inverted sentences are more consistent with the form of the original text. Many of the emotions and writing skills contained in this inverted form are fully preserved in his translation.(Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 2015, 90)

An inverted sentence is a typical example that shows literariness and usually carries an important message. In Vanity Fair, Thackeray uses a lot of inverted sentences to show characters’ personalities, situations and experiences, which is an impressive writing skill. This form has a significant influence on the story, which needs more attention to translate. Whereas, Yang Bi lived in a time when people criticized and suppressed formalism, that’s why her translation seems freer. Because of this, she lays emphasis on stories and diction while omits the power of form so that she does not translate inverted sentences with retaining main structures.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 7)

In the era that Peng Changjiang lives, influenced by Russian formalism, people realize the importance of form again. And it can be observed that he pays more attention to forms in his translation of inverted sentences. In his translations, he makes efforts to retain the original sentence structure. When translating according to the form does not conform to Chinese grammar, he will use similar forms to retain poetic effects contained in the original form as much as possible.(Wang Dongfeng, 2010, 11)

In the era that Peng Changjiang lives, influenced by Russian formalism, people realize the importance of form again. And it can be observed that he pays more attention to forms in his translation of inverted sentences. In his translations, he makes efforts to retain the original sentence structure. When translating according to the form does not conform to Chinese grammar, he will use similar forms to retain poetic effects contained in the original form as much as possible.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 11)

In translation, the basic reason for a change of form is the difficulty of translation, that is, it is possible or necessary to change the form of the original text only when a translation with corresponding smoothness cannot be obtained without changing the form. Arbitrarily changing the form of the original text will destroy its poetic effect and author’s purposes. In this novel, William Thackeray vividly shapes many characters through his careful diction. His expression on the development of plots and delicate feelings of characters cannot be separated from forms.(Wang Dongfeng 2007, 48)

Inversion is a sentence that changes the order and structure to emphasize a certain sentence component. Its distribution of information is designed by the author to promote the development of the plot. Therefore, a translator should conserve this inverted form as far as possible as long as it does not affect the readability of texts. When an inverted sentence form cannot be retained, we should also pay attention to keep the order of sentence components and structure of rheme and theme as much as possible. And how to deal with inversion properly and retain its poetic effects remains to be further studied. (Lu Yang 2008, 128)

===Chapter 4 Summary===

It is often said in Chinese literature that one has to grasp the content and forget the form. However, This is not always applicable to translation because forgetting forms may result in losing meanings. This thesis makes a comparative analysis of translations of Vanity Fair. Through discussion, it can be seen that forms deliberately chose by the author bear specific functions in this story of vanity. An inverted sentence designed with purposes is an important form that needs attention in translating, especially optional ones. They usually own a task to achieve poetic function.(Lu Yang 2008, 128)

Sometimes, translators change the original form in order to take care of readers’ language habits. Maybe it is not necessary. This kind of change may produce a good work but will also sacrifice literariness that an author designed on purpose. This does not mean that translators must follow exactly the same form without considering whether it conforms to the grammatical norms of the target language or not. Instead, it means translation should consider the influence of form on poetic function and poetic effect. What’s more, maybe literary writers don’t aim to make every reader understand the whole text. They may write to express feelings and thoughts to let readers explore and feel.

Translators try to give an equivalent text without damage to forms, which can give readers opportunities to think about what contains in forms by themselves. When changing forms, translators may also ruin writers' emotions on characters or stories contained in forms, which will destroy literariness unconsciously. Literary translations should be more cautiously treated. Every detail may have a specific intention. Without literariness, literary works will lose their souls, and poetic effects on readers will also disappear. Nowadays, with converting attention on forms again, when translators try efforts to make a great translation, they maybe could think about paying some attention to formal correspondence to retain literariness.(Wang Dongfeng 2010,9)

===Chapter 5 References===

[1] Jakobson,R. (1987). ''Language in Literature'',Cambridge,Massachusetts&London:The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.

[2] Jakobson,R. (1973). ''Modern Russian poetry:Velimir Khlebnikov''.In.E.J.Brown(ed.).''Major Soviet Writers:Essays in Criticism''. Oxford University Press.

[3] Pilkington,A. (2000). ''Poetic Effects: A Relevance Theory Perspective'' . Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.

[4] Shklovsky, V.(1998). ''Art as technique''. In Julie Rivkin &Michael Ryan(eds.). ''Literary Theory: An Anthology ''(2nd ed).Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.

[5] Feng Zongxin 封宗信. (2006). 现代语言学流派概论 [An Overview of Modern Linguistics]. 北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].

[6] Zhang Keding 张克定. (2001). 英语倒装句的语篇功能[Textual Functions of English Inversion from a Pragmatic Perspective].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)''[Journal of Foreign Languages],(05):18-24.

[7] Lu Yang 卢杨. (2008). 浅谈英语倒装句的修辞功能[On Rhetorical Functions of English Inversion]. 合肥工业大学学报(社会科学版)[Journal of HeFei University of Technology(SocialSciences) ]22(06):126-128.

[8] Jakobson, Roman. (1958/1981a). Linguistics and Poetics. in Selected Writings Ⅲ:Poetry of Grammar and Grammar of Poetry. Hague Mouton.

[9] Wang Dongfeng 王东风. (2010). 形式的复活:从诗学的角度反思文学翻译[Resurgence of form: Reflection on literary Translation from a poetic perspective] [J].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal],31(01):6-8,11.

[10] Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 支晓来,曾利沙. (2015). 讽刺口吻在修辞格中的体现——兼评《名利场》的两个中译本[The expression of sarcasm in figures of speech: Comments on two Chinese translations of ''Vanity Fair']'.''广东外语外贸大学学报''[Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies],26(02):90-93.

[11] Yin Boan 尹伯安. (2000). 重译贵在创新——《名利场》两种译本的评析[Innovation Is the Key to Re-translation:An analysis of two versions of translation of ''Vanity Fair''].''山东师大外国语学院学报''[Journal of Basic English Education],(04):79-83.

[12] Thackeray, William. (2003). ''Vanity Fair''. Wordsworth Editions Ltd.

[13] Yang Bi 杨必. (1957). ''《名利场》''[Vanity Fair]. 北京:人民文学出版社[People's Literature Publishing House].

[14] Peng Changjiang 彭长江. (2005). ''《名利场》''[Vanity Fair]. 北京:中国戏剧出版社[China Drama Press].

[15] Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary. (2009). Oxford University Press.

[16]Wang Dongfeng 王东风.(2007). 从诗学的角度看被动语态变译的功能亏损——《简·爱》中的一个案例分析Function Loss in Passive-active Reversal Concerning Material Processes in Literary Translation: A case study of a piece of translation from Jane Eyre from a poetic perspective.''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)''[Journal of Foreign Languages],(04):48.

--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 13:05, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 赵晓燕 Zhao Xiaoyan==

==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics-Based on the English version of Cong Cong==

===Abstract===
There are great differences between Chinese and English languages. Especially the language of Chinese prose and its form, which have distinctive features, contains rich Chinese cultural characteristics, increasing the difficulties when translate Chinese prose into English. The paper mainly introduces the origins and development of translation aesthetics both in China and abroad, and some translation methods of Chinese prose. The author chooses the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as the representative work to study its translation methods and the way of aesthetics representation with the theory proposed by Liu Miqing, to draw a conclusion that the language features of Chinese prose could be manifested by means of translation aesthetics in the process of translation. By presenting the application of the translation aesthetics in prose translation, this paper is expected to help language learners have a deeper understanding of the translation methods in Chinese and English literature.

===摘要===
中英语言存在较大差异。尤其是汉语散文的语言和形式特色鲜明，蕴含丰富的中国文化特色，使得汉语散文的英译难度加大。本文主要介绍了中外翻译美学的起源和发展以及一些汉语散文的翻译方法，并以张培基教授翻译的《匆匆》英译本为范本，运用刘宓庆教授提出的翻译美学理论，研究其中运用的翻译方法及审美再现的方式，由此得出结论在翻译的过程中借助翻译美学理论可以使汉语散文的语言特色得以体现。通过展示翻译美学在散文翻译中的应用，本文期望帮助语言学习者更深入地了解汉语及英语文学作品翻译的方法。

===Key words===
Chinese prose translation; translation aesthetics; ''Cong Cong''

===关键词===
中国散文翻译；翻译美学；《匆匆》

===Introduction===
Literature is an artistic way to express language. The Chinese prose, as one of the important literary genres, with its features that scrambled in appearance but united in spirit, is widely favored by many readers. ''Cong Cong'', as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, was written in 1922 when the May Fourth Movement was coming to an end. At that time, Zhu Ziqing taking the responsibility of literator, with beautiful language and refined structure, delicately described his resignation and plaint for time elapsing, and implied the reality that the young people felt confused about the future of the country. In the prose, Mr. Zhu’s reflection on time not only touched the youth at that time, but also alerted today’s readers.

The “beauty” of the Chinese prose is the most important as well as the most difficult problem to solve in translation. As the integration of aesthetics and translation, translation aesthetics’ basic principles are used to analyze and explore aesthetic difficulties during the process of interlingual transfer, including the aesthetic constituents of aesthetic object (original text, translation text), the dynamic role of aesthetic subject (translators and readers), the connection of aesthetic subject and object, the types and means of aesthetic reproduction in translation and the standard of translation aesthetics, etc.

The aesthetical process of Chinese prose translation is to coordinate the conflicts and incoherence which exist in different cultures when translating. People have accumulated much experience in national prose study in the past thousand years, but the study for Chinese prose translation still lagged behind, let alone the study by systematic theories or from the aesthetic orientation.

Exploring the Chinese prose translation with aesthetic theories, whichever from the view of theory or practice, both of them could be used for reference. Throughout the history of national translation theory development, it is not difficult to find that since ancient times, the traditional Chinese translation theory have reflected abundant aesthetic ideas. According to that, this paper takes the translation aesthetic theory proposed by Liu Miqing as the primary theoretical framework, to study and analyze the English version of ''Cong Cong'' translated by Zhang Peiji. Professor Zhang has devoted to the translation of Chinese modern prose for a long time, making significant contribution to the theory of the Chinese modern prose translation, especially to the translation practice.

The paper mainly includes twelve parts. The first is the introduction which defines the study subject of the paper, proposing the study purpose and significance through summarizing predecessors’ studies; from the second to the fourth parts mainly introduce theoretical framework of the paper which was proposed by Mr. Liu Miqing, explaining the origins of Chinese translation aesthetics and some involved concepts in the paper such as aesthetic subjects and objects, regular and standard; and the following three parts simply focus on some methods in the process of Chinese prose translation, which mainly involve four methods: Literal translation and free translation, domestication and foreignization.

By comparing these methods this paper could make people realize the differences of translation methods and choose the proper way when translating; the eighth and the following three parts are based on the previous parts, according to the theories of translation aesthetics and methods, to analyze the translation beauty in ''Cong Cong'', its language, image and style beauty; the final part is the conclusion, through a large number of analysis getting a conclusion, to make it clear that the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be manifested during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation, and that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, therefore translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.

===An Overview of Translation Aesthetics===
Historically, the development of translation theory both at home and abroad has closely connected with aesthetics, for example, in the west, the famous “three principles of translation” proposed by Alexander Fraser Tytler; and Paul Valery, a great French translator, advocated that the technique of translation mostly depended on the translator’s aesthetic perception for the literature’s truth value; in China, when people translated the ancient Buddhist Scriptures, someone had proposed that, faithful translated texts lacked beauty, whereas beautiful translated texts lacked faithfulness. Yan Fu also put forward “faithfulness”, “expressiveness” and “elegance” these points in 1896 when translating ''Theory of Natural Selection''. [6](Yan Fu, 2010, 6)

Although the translation and aesthetics both have a long history of development, they were linked into one conception—Aesthetic-poetic translation for the first time in 1954 by an eminent American scholar, Joseph B. Casagrande. And Wang Zuoliang, a great Chinese scholar and translator, has proposed in Chinese Translation Standard that the translator should put aesthetics at the first place when translating, and leave translation standard behind, which also connected translation with aesthetics. [7](Wang Zuoliang, 1991, 113) And up until now, the connection existing between translation and aesthetics has been widely accepted in the field of translation, and the “translation aesthetics” has become a basic conception.

===The relationship between translation and aesthetics===
There are various definitions of translation. Oxford English Dictionary explains translation as—to turn from one language into another;[1] (Hornby, 1988, 2149) and the New Webster International Dictionary defines it as—to turn into one’s own or another language. [2](Gove, 1961, 1956) In Chinese dictionary Han Yu Da Ci Dian, “translation” is defined as—to express the meaning of one language by another language. [8](Luo Zhufeng, 1986, 2374) And Eugene A. Nida, the famous American translator has said, “translating consists of reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style”.[2] (Nida & Taber, 1969, 12-24)

From these definitions, a conclusion can be made that translation is essentially a process of transforming language and words, so translation can be divided into interpreting and translating; with the development of science and technology, there are human translation and machine translation.[9] (Fang Mengzhi, 2004, 296) What is more, the translation of written language is also divided into two parts, non-literary translation and literary translation. Comparing with the translated texts of non-literary translation, that of literary translation embodies more uncertainty and diversity. Facing with so many options, how the translator makes a judgment and selects one text as the final version requires the translator has a standard for reference. The author believes that aesthetic analysis can be a feasible way in literary translation.

Although in China and the west, aesthetics has developed for a long time, it was not given the name until 1750 by a German philosopher Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten. The definitions of aesthetics vary from scholars to scholars, especially in the west. The author selects one of them as the study foundation of this paper. The Basic Principles of Aesthetics written by Liu Shucheng has a relatively clear definition for aesthetics, which says that aesthetics is a branch of learning that deals with the general law of beauty and with the creation or appreciation of beauty; in detail, aesthetics studies the nature of beauty and its law, and the aesthetic connection of subject and object, art and reality, and the aesthetics experience. [10](Liu Shucheng, 2006, 9-20) Aesthetics can be divided into different parts according to its study objects, such as natural beauty, artistic beauty, linguistic beauty and social beauty.

Based on the previous part, translation is a process of transforming language and words and the aesthetics studies objects including language beauty, so ultimately, it is language that connects translation and aesthetics. As combining translation with aesthetics or taking the aesthetic theory into the translation and practice, a new subject is formed—translation aesthetics. Strictly speaking, translation aesthetics studies the nature and the law of translation beauty and the aesthetic relation between the translator and the original and translated text, and the aesthetic relation of translated text and the original text.

It is the translator’s aesthetic experience. The process of translating is also the aesthetic activity; the translator could refer to the classification of aesthetic forms to analyze the aesthetic factors in the original text and translated text. Meanwhile, the translating process itself belongs to one of the aesthetic study objects, which includes the translator’s aesthetic experience, process, and judgment. Translating is a dynamic aesthetic and creative process which closely connects with the original text and translated text. The beginning of translation is the original text and the ending of translation is the translated text, while what the author is talking about is aesthetic translation or literary translation, that is to say, both the original and translated text contain many aesthetic factors, which demands more from translators.[11] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 46-51)

The aesthetic thinking throughout the whole process of literary translation, plays an important role in faithfully expressing the idea of the original text, retaining the vivid language of the translated text and reproducing the style of the original text. So the translator needs to transfer the aesthetic factors in the original text into the translated text, whatever the presentational elements or non-presentational elements, which was proposed by Liu Miqing in the passage Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics published on the Chinese Translators Journal. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) The next part would be the illustration of Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics.

===Liu Miqing’s thought in translation aesthetics===
Professor Liu’s aesthetic theory mainly includes the translation aesthetics’ category and tasks, its aesthetic subject and object, and the general law of translation aesthetics. In the paper, the writer will give a brief introduction to the translation aesthetic subject and object and its general law.

In the Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics, Professor Liu Miqing puts forward that the aesthetic subject is the translator.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) He thinks that if the translator wants to represent the beauty of the original text, the aesthetic constituents of the original text must connect with the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject, i.e. the translator. And the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject includes three aspects, literary ability, aesthetic sense and aesthetic experience. Literary ability as the most basic requirement enlightens people’s aesthetic sense. A translator with higher literary ability will have better sense and reproducibility for the beauty of the original text.

And aesthetic sense means the ability to sense beauty and the sensibility for beauty, which usually stem from the intuition. If a translator has high literary ability that could deepen his aesthetic sense, in such way, he could possess the relatively high level of aesthetics and could put this ability into the translating practice, to optimize the aesthetic sense. Aesthetic experience is the aesthetic perception and cognition produced by repeating aesthetic activities. Practice makes perfect, abundant aesthetic experience could bring out the best of the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject. A translator without enough aesthetic experience, even if he has high literary ability, facing with a beautiful original text, he could not optimize his aesthetic ability. The aesthetic subject must possess three abilities at the same time, so that he could manifest the beauty of the original text in the greatest extend.

It is self-evident that the aesthetic object of translation is the original text. Professor Liu proposes that judging the beauty of the original text involves the aesthetic values, and the basis of judging the aesthetic values of the original text is its aesthetic constituents, in other words is the aesthetic elements which compose the features of the original text. Meanwhile, Liu Miqing puts forward two types of aesthetic elements, one is the “aesthetic presentation” elements and the other is the “non-presentational elements”.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 20)

The aesthetic presentation element in the original text is the beauty in its language form, including the phonetic beauty, which is called the formal beauty of the matter in aesthetics. It normally could be felt directly and be reflected through human’s vision and hearing. For example, a beautiful prose could give people the feeling of beauty through its language, rhythm or phonology. The non-presentational elements, contrasting with the presentational elements, have not direct connection with the language form of the original text. It is usually not intuitionistic and “uncountable” as it often cannot be expressed by words, sentences or texts.

The aesthetic constituents of the language form usually can be counted, for instance, the number of parallel sentences, rhetorical devices or alliterations all are numerable; while not the non-presentational elements. It is impossible to quantify the features of an article, such as its artistic conception, charm, and linguistic modality. However, these elements are crucial for the aesthetic values of an article. Although they are not given specific language form or material form, they could be sensed. With this point, Professor Liu describes that as “nonquantitative obscure collection” in translation aesthetics. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 21) Its core is the obscurity, and through the following Professor Zhang’s translated text people could sense the obscurity clearly.

Liu Miqing points out that the translation aesthetic experience often goes through the following steps: the cognition for the aesthetic constituents of the aesthetic objects; the conversion of aesthetic cognition; the modifying for the result of conversion; the representation of the result of modifying. In summary, cognition, conversion, modifying and representation these four steps are included.

===The Translation Methods of Chinese Prose===
Prose is a lively and dexterous literary form, whose structure is flexible and language form is free from the constraint of rhythm. A beautiful prose requests refined language, thoughtful thinking and clear theme, which could give people a beautiful sense. While the prose translation, no matter from English to Chinese or from Chinese to English, is difficult works for all translators. Prose translation is an aesthetic practice, not only requiring the translator to convey the form beauty in the original text, but also to convey the content and style beauty, to achieve the harmony between the original text and the translated text.

Many great translators at home and abroad have put forward various translation theories or methods. In this paper, the author will resort to some prominent theories or methods to illustrate the translation of the Chinese prose.

Many great translators at home and abroad have put forward various translation theories or methods. In this paper, the author will resort to some prominent theories or methods to illustrate the translation of the Chinese prose.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

===Literal translation and free translation===
It has a long debate on literal and free translation, which mainly argues about the definition of literal and free translation, or which one should be used in the process of translating; these debates put the literal translation and free translation on an opposite position. [14](Ye Zinan, 2001, 5-8) Some people advocating the literal translation think that the literal translation should not add or reduce any words, by doing so, the meaning and information of the original text could be maintained accurately, while the free translation is on the contrary.

Others supporting free translation maintain that many translated texts translated literally, are not only text rigid, but also difficult to read and understand. The author thinks that there are two reasons leading to this circumstance. One is that there is great difference between Chinese and English. Facing with this situation, the translator often confronts with two options: a sentence can be translated both literally and freely, at this point, different people have different attitudes toward these two methods, so the disputes appear; and the other is different people have different definitions for literal translation and free translation.

China has a long history of translation development, and during the process, many great translation masters have appeared, such as Xuan Zang in Tang Dynasty and Yan Fu in modern time, whose achievements all have exerted great influence on the development of translation methods in China. The debates between literal and free translation started from the process of translating Buddhist scriptures when, Dao An, a famous monk in the Eastern Jin Dynasty, who advocated the literal translation, worried that free translation would destroy the information in the original text; while at the same period, Kumārajīva, a monk and translator who came from the Kingdom of Kucha, can not only be able to speak Sanskrit but also to understand Chinese language, thinking that it is necessary to add or dele some contents in order to convey the meaning of the original text better.

This debate went down to the period of Xuan Zang, who did not clearly state whether he supported literal or free translation. Generally, people titled his methods as “new translation”, in other words, using these two methods at the same time in a proper way. When dealing with different contexts, he applied adding, reducing and some other methods to reserve the meaning and spirit of the original text, which made a perfect combination between literal and free translation. Although until today there are still some disputes about literal and free translation, people have come to a consensus that both of them as the basic translation methods, aiming at conveying the information of the original text to the target language in a loyal way.

It is wrong to say which one of them is good or bad. And with the development of China’s translation theories, the definitions of literal and free translation have been improved a lot. Generally speaking, literal translation means that the language form of the original text should be maintained as much as possible as well as its words, sentence structure or rhetorical device, meanwhile the translated text is required to be fluent and easy to understand and must be loyal to the original text; and the free translation starts from the meaning of the original text, not only requiring about clearly expressing the literal meaning of the original text, but its implication conveyed to the reader and loyal to the original text. quotation missing--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 11:34, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

===Domestication and foreignization===
The origin of two terms can be traced back to the speech On the Different Methods of Translation delivered by a German ideologist Schleiermacher, who thought that translation had two methods, one was that the translator “leaves the author in peace as much as possible, and moves the reader toward him” ; and the other is that “the translator leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author toward him”, but he did not give the two methods a specific name. [4](Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004, 43-60)

And the Dictionary of Translation Studies published in 1997, edited by Mark Shuttleworth and Moira Cowie, thought that Venuti was the first person who concluded these two methods in 1995 with two terms “domestication and foreignization”. As the extending of literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization break up the constraint of language factors. The literal and free translation mainly focus on the language level, while the domestication and foreignization mainly refer to the cultural level. The literal and free translations are translation methods while the domestication and foreignization are translation strategies. Although they have something in common, the distinct differences still exist.

Eugene A. Nida, as the representative of domestication, he proposed “functional equivalence” in his book The Theory and Practice of Translation. In this book, he wrote that “in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the messages in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language”, which indirectly expressed the key points of the domestication, that is focusing on the target language, making readers have the same feeling or responding to the original text readers. [3](Nida & Taber, 1969, 24)

However, Venuti who advocated foreignization, thought the term domestication has some negative connotations, for it lost the features of the original language during the process of translation, which restricted the development of cultural diversity. [5](Venuti, 2004, 16-17) Contrary to the domestication, foreignization advocates to focus on the source language, maintain the exotic features and style of the original language. Just like literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization are contrary as well as complementary.

So, choosing a proper way in translation people should consider some factors, for example the author’s intention, the translating purpose and the level and demands of readers. And in the process of translating, a translated text is not completely confined within domestication or foreignization, but the translator always takes two or more methods unconsciously. Considering the translating purpose of the literature, the two translation methods are often used in the same text at the same time. It is not difficult to find that all great translated texts use these two methods together under the precondition that the content of the original text could be expressed accurately rather than just simply choose one of them and use it singly in the whole text.

===The Translation Aesthetics in ''Cong Cong''===
Translation aesthetics is an important branch in translation system, which is widely used to translate poems, prose and fictions. Cong Cong, as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, is always appreciated for its beautiful language, vivid image and profound thinking. Chinese prose and English prose are quite different, which makes the translation of Chinese prose difficult. Professor Zhang Peiji has worked a long time on the translation of Chinese prose. His translation methods and theories provide good references. This part the author mainly takes the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as an example, using Professor Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods and aesthetic representation in ''Cong Cong.''

''Cong Cong'' was a masterpiece written by Zhu Ziqing, a famous Chinese prose master, on March 28, 1922 and was published on April 11 in the same year. It is a prose about sighing for the elapsing time and warning people to value the time, and is the representative work in the period of May Fourth Movement.The first special point of the prose lies in that Zhu simultaneously used three different personal pronouns: you, I and he. [15](Xue Gongping, 2008, 229) “You” in this prose, is the person whom the author is talking with; is the interlocutor communicating with “me”; people can also call “you” as a fictitious friend.

At the first paragraph of the prose, the author expressed his feeling of treasuring time and nostalgia for the passing time through rhetorical questions like “I” asking “you” why the time goes by never to return.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 55-60) And in the middle of the prose, the author called the time as “he”, to describe the elapsing of time, expressing “my” abashed and anxious feeling about the passing time. Through using the three personal pronouns the prose described the time and sighed for its elapsing, making readers have a feeling of familiarity as well as vitalize the time and the years.

The most artistic feature in the prose is the sensual description for the elapsing of time. In order to emphasize the hasty sense of “the time” as an alive object, the author applied both personification and parallelism, to give the time human’s emotion, character and temperament. In the first sentence of the prose, Zhu used parallelism to attract readers’ attention, leading them immerse in the beautiful poetry; and next put forward four questions without answers. In this way, people can clearly realize that the time is invisible and irreversible, which make them feel lost.

===Aesthetics representation in ''Cong Cong''===
The author is very fond of the English version of modern Chinese prose translated by Zhang Peiji, always willing to study the beauty of his translated text. Cong Cong also is one of the author’s favorite Chinese proses, whose language style attracts the author a lot. These translation methods used by Professor Zhang in Cong Cong completely reflect the application of translation aesthetics in prose translation.

So in order to learn more about the technique of Chinese prose translation, the idea that using translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods applied by Zhang Peiji was produced. According to the previous parts, the aesthetic subject is the translator, i.e. Professor Zhang Peiji, who is proficient enough in the field of prose translation, and possesses high level of literary ability and abundant aesthetic experience. Therefore it is unnecessary to pay much attention to the aesthetic subject. In this chapter, the author mainly focuses on the aesthetic object, i.e. the prose, to analyze the beauty of the translated text.

===Beauty in language===
The language beauty firstly is reflected by rhyme beauty. Rhyme is one of the basic aesthetic units, and is the important element to make the language beautiful. In the original text, there are many rhymes, and Professor Zhang’s approach toward the rhyme beauty is worth learning.
Example sentence: 那是谁？又藏在何处呢？
Translated text: But who could it be and where could he hide them? [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)

Through the rhetorical question, the author expressed his anxiety about the elapsing of time. Professor Zhang applied the alliteration to convey the emotion of the author, which makes reader feel neatly and read fluently, reaching the translating goal.

And secondly the language beauty is shown by the words beauty. In translation, choosing proper words is crucial for the quality of the translated text, because the English language and the Chinese language have some differences. Paying attention to the cultural differences is also a process to pursue the correspondence in aesthetics. However, it is difficult to choose the proper words sometimes, especially in literature translation. That is to say, in the prose translation, people must select the words with aesthetic values, to reach the standard of “elegance”. Professor Zhang chose the words exquisitely in the translated text, which showed the beauty of the words. Here are some examples:

①“我不知道他们给了我多少日子”
Translated text: I don’t know how many days I am entitled to altogether.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)
“给了” was translated into “entitled to”. “Entitled” is a quite formal word, which means to give someone the official right to do or have something. By using this word, Professor Zhang fully expressed the passive and resigned feeling of the author, achieving the aesthetic effect of the original text.

②“但我的手确乎是渐渐空虚了”
Translated text: But my quota of them is undoubtedly wearing away. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)
In this sentence Professor Zhang used the free translation. “Quota of them” means a certain amount of days or my allotted span, which conveys the anxious and uneasy feeling of the author in a vivid and delicate way, and also can be easily understood by the readers of the target language. And in this sentence, the translator chose the free translation. For the difference between English and Chinese, it is not suitable to translate directly. And from the aesthetic perspective to analyze, it is the process of pursuing corresponding and rebuilding the beauty of the original text. If the translator chose imitation to translate the sentence, not only the meaning but the beauty would lose and may cause misunderstanding as well.

Thirdly, language beauty especially can be reflected by the rhetoric beauty. In this prose, parallelism was the most used device, second was the metaphor and personification. For all these rhetorical devices, Professor Zhang resorted to all of them in the translated text. That is to say, for rhetorical devices of the original text, Zhang used the literal translation in the translated text, in other words, Professor Zhang retained the rhetoric beauty of the original text. For example:
Example sentence: 燕子去了，有再来的时候；杨柳枯了，有再青的时候；桃花谢了，有再开的时候.
Translated text: If swallows go away, they will come back again. If willows wither, they will turn green again. If peaches shed their blossoms, they will flower again. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)

The original text had three parallel sentences, with bright and neat rhyme, arousing readers’ interests and helping them to catch the theme of the prose quickly. The translated text, which retained the sentence pattern of the original text, also adopted parallelism, making the translated text as fluent as the running water and conveying to the readers the same feeling as the original text. It also can be called “corresponding”, which could retain the formal beauty of the original text and avoid the loss of aesthetic values. What is more, another highlight in the translated text was “if” at the beginning of every sentence, which reminded readers of the famous verse written by Shelley—If Winter comes, can Spring be far away. That is the translator’s masterly design, taking these cultural differences into account and guaranteeing the readability of the translated text.

===Beauty in image===
Image is the indispensable elements in Chinese literature, using which in an ingenious way can make readers resonate with the author. In Cong Cong, the author applied rich images to express his feelings, of course, these images, without exception, were carefully translated in the translated text. For example, “swallows”, “willows” and “peaches” represented the changing seasons and the elapsing time; “a drop of water falling off a needle point”, “the sun edging away”, “the wisps of smoke and the thin mists” all these specific images were retained in the translated text to express the abstract philosophy, making the same influence on the target language readers’ emotion as the original text on the source language readers, and representing the aesthetic values of the original text. Professor Zhang still used the literal translation to translate these images, through imitation, or accurately speaking, through the corresponding, representing them to achieve the “functional equivalence”.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60)

===Beauty in style===
The style of the prose Cong Cong is very distinct. Firstly, it had sophisticated structure and distinct systems; secondly, its words were pretty and meaningful, with plain and concise features; thirdly, the emotion of the author was blended into the scene in this prose. And the most prominent feature of the prose was its language style. Throughout the whole prose, the author adopted the colloquial language such as tell “me”, “you”, “he”, “wash hands”, “rice bowl”, “have meal”, “lost in reverie” to describe vividly the elapsing of time and the helpless feeling of the author, which made the prose close to life and easy to understand and accept.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60) Professor Zhang Peiji adopting literal translation and free translation together and focusing on the domestication, by imitating and rebuilding, properly reproduced the style of the prose in translated text, which is absolutely a good example to learn Chinese prose translation.

===Conclusion===
Literature as a cultural symbol of a country plays an important role in cultural communication, and literature translation as an important branch of translatology, especially prose translation, should be paid more attention. Prose translation as an art, involving form and content these two aspects, and for most translators, it is a challenging task. The translator must pay attention to both aspects, which not only requires the high literary ability, but also the sensitive aesthetic ability. Only by choosing the proper translation methods, can the author create the aesthetic values of the prose translation. What is more, the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be represented during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation. Meanwhile, now that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.

===References===

[1]Hornby, Albert Sidney. Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary [M]. London: Oxford University Press, 1988, 2149.
[2]Gove, Philip Badcock. New Webster International Dictionary [M]. Springfield: Merriam Webster, 1961, 1956.
[3]Nida, Eugene A & Taber, Charles R. The Theory and Practice of Translation [M]. Leiden: Brill, 1969, 12-24.
[4]Shuttleworth, Mark & Cowie, Moira. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 43-60.
[5]Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator’s Invisibility [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 16-17.
[6] 严复. 天演论[M]. 北京: 中国画报出版社. 2010, 6.
[7] 王佐良. 论新开端[M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社. 1991, 113.
[8] 罗竹风. 汉语大词典[M]. 上海: 汉语大词典出版社. 1986, 2374.
[9] 方梦之. 译学词典[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2004, 296.
[10] 刘叔成. 美学基本原理[M]. 上海: 上海人民出版社. 2006, 9-20.
[11] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学概述[J]. 外国语. 1986, 2: 46-51.
[12]刘宓庆. 翻译美学基本理论构想[J]. 中国翻译. 1986, 4: 19-24.
[13] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学导论[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司. 2005, 157.
[14] 叶子南. 高级英汉翻译理论与实践[M]. 北京: 清华大学出版社. 2001, 5-8.
[15] 薛功平. 朱自清散文《匆匆》赏析[J]. 科教文汇. 2008, 7: 229.
[16] 张培基. 英译中国现代散文（一）[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2007, 55-60.

--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 13:25, 9 December 2020 (UTC)

[1]Hornby, Albert Sidney. Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary [M]. London: Oxford University Press, 1988, 2149.

[2]Gove, Philip Badcock. New Webster International Dictionary [M]. Springfield: Merriam Webster, 1961, 1956.

[3]Nida, Eugene A & Taber, Charles R. The Theory and Practice of Translation [M]. Leiden: Brill, 1969, 12-24.

[4]Shuttleworth, Mark & Cowie, Moira. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 43-60.

[5]Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator’s Invisibility [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 16-17.

[6] 严复. 天演论[M]. 北京: 中国画报出版社. 2010, 6.

[7] 王佐良. 论新开端[M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社. 1991, 113.

[8] 罗竹风. 汉语大词典[M]. 上海: 汉语大词典出版社. 1986, 2374.

[9] 方梦之. 译学词典[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2004, 296.

[10] 刘叔成. 美学基本原理[M]. 上海: 上海人民出版社. 2006, 9-20.

[11] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学概述[J]. 外国语. 1986, 2: 46-51.

[12]刘宓庆. 翻译美学基本理论构想[J]. 中国翻译. 1986, 4: 19-24.

[13] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学导论[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司. 2005, 157.

[14] 叶子南. 高级英汉翻译理论与实践[M]. 北京: 清华大学出版社. 2001, 5-8.

[15] 薛功平. 朱自清散文《匆匆》赏析[J]. 科教文汇. 2008, 7: 229.

[16] 张培基. 英译中国现代散文（一）[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2007, 55-60.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 11:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==A Study on the translations of Cosmetic Trademarks from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 张琪 Zhang Qi==
===Abstract===
With the tide of economic globalization, foreign cosmetics brands are actively starting to enter the Chinese market. The trademark symbolizing the lintel of the brand is the first brick that knocks on the door of customers' hearts. The quality of cosmetics trademark translation will directly affect the consumer’s psychology. This essay intends to discuss the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the translation of cosmetics trademarks from the perspective of translation aesthetics. It aims to provide a reference for better standardizing the translation of cosmetics trademarks and let cosmetics trademarks and translation aesthetics work together to reflect people’s pursuit of beauty and humanistic ideas.

With the tide of economic globalization, foreign cosmetics brands are actively starting to enter Chinese market. The trademark symbolizing the lintel of the brand is the first brick that knocks on the door of customers' hearts. The quality of cosmetics trademark translation will directly affect the consumers’ psychology. This paper intends to discuss the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the translation of cosmetics trademarks from the perspective of translation aesthetics. It aims to provide a reference for better standardizing the translation of cosmetics trademarks and let cosmetics trademarks and translation aesthetics work together to reflect people’s pursuit of beauty and humanistic ideas.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Key Words===
translation aesthetics；trademark translation；cosmetics

===题目===
翻译美学视角下化妆品商标的翻译

===摘要===
随着经济全球化的浪潮，国外的化妆品品牌踊跃开始登陆中国市场。象征品牌门楣的商标是叩响顾客心灵之门的第一块砖。化妆品商标翻译质量的好坏会直接作用于顾客的消费心理。本文拟从翻译美学的视角探讨化妆品商标翻译所遵循的美学原则及翻译技巧，旨在为更好的规范化妆品商标的翻译提供参考以及让化妆品商标与美学携手体现人们对美的追求和人文理念。

===关键词===
翻译美学；商标翻译；化妆品

===Introduction===
The trademark is a special symbol carefully selected or created by an enterprise to distinguish the products of other enterprises. Its meaning and function have obvious characteristics. A trademark is like a business card, a golden business card for a company's products to stand on the market. The importance of its translation is self-evident. As the market economy in the beauty industry continues to heat up, a dazzling array of branded cosmetics has entered the international market for competition. The fierce competition has made businesses pay special attention to the translation of cosmetic trademarks.Because cosmetics themselves contain beauty and represent beauty, their translation is destined to be an aesthetic process that integrates beautification and optimization. The translation of cosmetics trademarks processed with "beauty" and "excellence" will arouse people's beautiful yearning for cosmetic products, making people feel comfortable and catering to the consumer psychology of female audience. Meanwhile,it will stimulate the desire of demanding and bring consumers a warm aesthetic pleasure.(Li 2000, 58)

The trademark is a special symbol carefully selected or created by an enterprise to distinguish the products from other enterprises. Its meaning and function have obvious characteristics. A trademark is like a business card, a golden business card for a company's products to stand on the market. The importance of its translation is self-evident. As the market economy in the beauty industry continues to heat up, a dazzling array of branded cosmetics has entered the international market for competition. The fierce competition has made businesses pay special attention to the translation of cosmetic trademarks.Because cosmetics themselves contain beauty and represent beauty, their translation is destined to be an aesthetic process that integrates beautification and optimization. The translation of cosmetics trademarks processed with "beauty" and "excellence" will arouse people's yearning for cosmetic products, making people feel comfortable and catering to the consumer psychology of female audience. Meanwhile,it will stimulate the desire of demanding and bring consumers a warm aesthetic pleasure(Li 2000, 58).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Translation aesthetics is to use the basic principles of aesthetics and modern linguistics to study and explore the aesthetic issues in interlingual transfer, to help translators understand the general laws of translation aesthetic activities, and to improve the ability of interlingual transfer and aesthetic discrimination of translations(Mao 2003,5). Translation aesthetics occupies a special position in translation theory. Translation aesthetics has broad prospects for development. It is still waiting for development. Its research fields can include many major issues in modern translation studies. These issues are exactly what other fields of translation studies cannot be included（Liu 1986，51）

Translation aesthetics is to use the basic principles of aesthetics and modern linguistics to study and explore the aesthetic issues in interlingual transfer, to help translators understand the general laws of translation aesthetic activities, and to improve the ability of interlingual transfer and aesthetic discrimination of translations(Mao 2003,5). Translation aesthetics occupies a special position in translation theory. Translation aesthetics has broad prospects for development and it is still waiting for development. Its research fields can include many major issues in modern translation studies. These issues are exactly what other fields of translation studies don't include（Liu 1986，51）.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Taking into account the needs of cosmetic trademark translation and the development and uniqueness of translation aesthetics, this essay will combine the characteristics and functions of cosmetic trademarks to apply translation aesthetics theory to the practice of cosmetic trademark translation. And it will discuss the aesthetic principles and the translation techniques embodied in the cosmetic trademark translation through analyzing a large number of examples. So as to achieve the purpose of successfully attracting consumers to open up markets for businesses. At the same time, translation aesthetics, as a major breakthrough in traditional translation theory and an important supplement to translation theory research, opens up a new perspective for the research on cosmetic trademark translation.

Taking into account the needs of cosmetic trademark translation and the development and uniqueness of translation aesthetics, this paper will combine the characteristics and functions of cosmetic trademarks together to apply translation aesthetics theory to the practice of cosmetic trademark translation. It will discuss the aesthetic principles and the translation techniques embodied in the cosmetic trademark translation through analyzing a large number of examples, so as to achieve the purpose of successfully attracting consumers to open up markets for businesses. At the same time, translation aesthetics, as a major breakthrough in traditional translation theory and an important supplement to translation theory research, opens up a new perspective for the research on cosmetic trademark translation.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Chapter 1 Trademark and Trademark Translation===
====1.1 Definition、Features and Functions of Trademark====
For the definition of trademark, different scholars have had different interpretations. Trademarks are linguistic signs that appear in words and characters. They are a distinctive category in a language vocabulary. They are carefully selected or created by individuals or individual companies to distinguish products from other companies. Therefore, the meaning and function carried by this special symbol have obvious characteristics, which are prominently manifested in the distinctiveness, specificity, associativity of trademark and its function including identification、quality assurance、 legal protection and advertising（Wang 1997，25）. Zhu Fan believes that trademarks are language signs that appear in the form of words with specific and rich symbolic meaning, carrying unique commodity information and cultural information（Zhu 2002,16.)

For the definition of trademark, different scholars have different interpretations. Trademarks are linguistic signs that appear in the form of words and characters. They are a distinctive category in a language vocabulary. They are carefully selected or created by individuals or individual companies to distinguish products from other companies. Therefore, the meaning and function carried by this special symbol have obvious characteristics, which are prominently manifested in the distinctiveness, specificity, associativity of trademark and its function including identification、quality assurance、 legal protection and advertising（Wang 1997，25）. Additionally, Zhu Fan believes that trademarks are language signs that appear in the form of words with specific and rich symbolic meanings, carrying unique commodity information and cultural information（Zhu 2002,16).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Trademarks are words, names, symbols or patterns used by manufacturers or merchants to make people recognize their own products or services and distinguish them from those of other competitors (Zhou 2003, 61). Besides, Modern Chinese Dictionary also defines trademarks. It defines trademarks as "marks, signs (pictures, pictographs, etc.) engraved or printed on the surface or packaging of a product, It is different from other products of the same kind". From the explanations of trademark above, we can find that the trademark has following features: it is a linguistic sign and it’s distinctive. As an important part of commodities , it contains special significance for the companies and enterprises.(Modern Chinese Dictionary 2002, 1677)

Trademarks are words, names, symbols or patterns used by manufacturers or merchants to make people recognize their own products or services and distinguish them from those of other competitors (Zhou 2003, 61). Besides, Modern Chinese Dictionary also defines trademarks. It defines trademarks as "marks, signs (pictures, pictographs, etc.) engraved or printed on the surface or packaging of a product, It is different from other products of the same kind". From the explanations of trademark above, we can conclude that the trademark has following features: it is a linguistic sign and it’s distinctive. As an important part of commodities , it contains special significance for the companies and enterprises.(Modern Chinese Dictionary 2002, 1677)--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

For the functions of trademark, Yujun concludes that the function of the trademark itself is the basic motivation for providing legal protection to the trademark. It is generally believed that trademark functions mainly include identification functions, quality assurance functions and advertising functions. The identification function of a trademark refers to a trademark that helps consumers distinguish between multiple suppliers of similar goods or services. The quality guarantee function of a trademark means that consumers start to regard a specific trademark as a symbol of quality. The advertising function of a trademark means that a trademark is obviously a symbol tool and can be used for advertising. It is worth mentioning that the packaging with the trademark itself has also become the medium of advertising----when so many products are placed on supermarket shelves and other self-service equipment, the advertising medium is particularly important for today's product promotion(Yu 2009, 74-75).

For the functions of trademark, Yujun concludes that the function of the trademark itself is the basic motivation for providing legal protection to the trademark. It is generally believed that trademark functions mainly include identification function, quality assurance function and advertising function. The identification function of a trademark refers to a trademark that helps consumers distinguish it from multiple suppliers of similar goods or services. The quality guarantee function of a trademark means that consumers start to regard a specific trademark as a symbol of quality. The advertising function of a trademark means that a trademark is obviously a symbol tool and can be used for advertising. It is worth mentioning that the packaging with the trademark itself has also become the medium of advertising. When so many products are placed on supermarket shelves or other self-service equipment, the advertising medium is particularly important for today's product promotion(Yu 2009, 74-75).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

According to the discuss about the definition、features and functions of the trademark above, we can find that although a trademark is only a small part of a product, it cannot be ignored for the integrity of the product and its function for the value of the product.

According to the discussion about the definition, features and functions of the trademark above, we can find that although a trademark is only a small part of a product, it cannot be ignored for the integrity of the product and its function for the value of the product.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====1.2 Features of Cosmetics Trademarks====
The cosmetic trademark is the image representative of cosmetics. In order to attract consumers' attention in the first time and have sustained appeal, an effective cosmetics trademark is one of the essential and important factors. Through investigation and analysis, the author summarized that cosmetics trademarks have the following characteristics: People’s names, place names, and vocabularies suggesting beautiful images are often used in the content. (1) The name of the person in the cosmetics brand is mostly the name of the founder of the brand, such as Givenchy (founder Givenchy), Estee Lauder (founder Estee Lauder). Brands are sometimes named after other famous people. The name of the Australian brand Aesop (Aesop) reminds people of Aesop's fables, promoting the product's concise and simple concept(Shang 2011,97)

The cosmetic trademark is the image representative of cosmetics. In order to attract consumers' attention at the first time and to have sustained appeal, an effective cosmetics trademark is one of the most essential and important factors. Through investigation and analysis, some scholars summarized that cosmetics trademarks have the following characteristics: people’s names, place names, and vocabularies suggesting beautiful images are often used in the content. (1) The name of the person in the cosmetics brand is mostly the name of the founder of the brand, such as Givenchy (founder Givenchy), Estee Lauder (founder Estee Lauder) and so on. Brands are sometimes named after other famous people. The name of the Australian brand Aesop (Aesop) reminds people of Aesop's fables, promoting the product's concise and simple concept(Shang 2011,97)--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

(2) Place names in cosmetics trademarks reflect the birthplace of the brand or imply the brand concept. Such as Suiss Programme (Swiss, the birthplace of Switzerland), Albin (the name of a chalky cliff on the coast of the United Kingdom, which means a beautiful country with pure whiteness). (3) Brands that use words that imply beautiful images include Angle (angle :French brand angel beauty), A-cademie ( French brand Academie), etc.The form is streamlined with fewer characters to facilitate memory transmission. Such as H2O, DHC, VOV, etc. Some cosmetics brands are named after people whose names are long and inconvenient to remember. They also adopt abbreviated forms, such as CD (Christian Dior), YSL (Yves Saint Laurent), CK (Calvin klein) and so on(Shang 2011,98).

(2) Place names in cosmetics trademarks reflect the birthplace of the brand or imply the brand concept, such as Suiss Programme (Swiss, the birthplace of Switzerland), Albin (the name of a chalky cliff on the coast of the United Kingdom, which means a beautiful country with pure whiteness). (3) Brands that use words that imply beautiful images include Angle (angle :French brand angel beauty), A-cademie ( French brand Academie), etc.The form is streamlined with fewer characters to facilitate memory transmission, such as H2O, DHC, VOV, etc. Some cosmetics brands are named after people whose names are long and inconvenient to remember. They also adopt abbreviated forms, such as CD (Christian Dior), YSL (Yves Saint Laurent), CK (Calvin klein) and so on(Shang 2011,98).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The rhyme and sound effects are often crisp and sweet, or gentle and soft, which can stimulate consumers psychological harmony and comfort, and make them be willing to accept. For example, in the Japanese skin care brand Clean&Clear, both words begin with /kl/, which shows alliteration and full of rhythm, reminiscent of a clean, beautiful, lively and lovely girl image. Both words of the Canadian brand Pretty Rally have two syllables, and both end with /i/. The pronunciation is clear and loud, giving people a crisp and jumping rhythm(Shang 2011,98).

The rhyme and sound effects are often crisp and sweet, or gentle and soft, which can stimulate consumers psychological harmony and comfort, and make them be willing to accept. For example, in the Japanese skin care brand Clean&Clear, both words begin with /kl/, which shows alliteration. It is full of rhythm, reminiscent of a clean, beautiful, lively and lovely girl image. Both words of the Canadian brand Pretty Rally have two syllables, and both end with /i/. The pronunciation is clear and loud, giving people a crisp and jumping rhythm(Shang 2011,98).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====1.3 Trademark Translation====
Regarding trademark translation, American advertising master E.S. Lewis put forward the famous AIDA principle in 1898, that is--successful advertising should have: Attention （attracts attention）, Interest (generates interest), Desire (triggers desire), and Action (stimulates action). In other words, as long as the trademark translation can play the above-mentioned role, the translation can perfectly convey the message of the beauty of the original trademark, attract the attention of consumers and trigger a strong desire to buy, this is a successful translation. The trademark translation is not a simple conversion between language symbols, but to reflect the "short and brilliant" characteristics of the trademark itself. The translation must take into account the differences in language and culture, conform to the aesthetic psychology of customers, and realize the established brand function (Wang 2011, 236).

Regarding trademark translation, American advertising master E.S. Lewis put forward the famous AIDA principle in 1898, that is successful advertising should have four concerns: Attention （attracts attention）, Interest (generates interest), Desire (triggers desire), and Action (stimulates action). In other words, as long as the trademark translation can play the above-mentioned role, the translation can perfectly convey the message of the beauty of the original trademark, attract the attention of consumers and trigger a strong desire to buy;this is a successful translation. The trademark translation is not a simple conversion between language symbols, but to reflect the "short and brilliant" characteristics of the trademark itself. The translation must take into account the differences in language and culture, conform to the aesthetic psychology of customers, and realize the established brand function (Wang 2011, 236).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:48, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

From the perspective of language form, the structure of a trademark is simple and easy to understand. Compared with other forms of inter-language conversion, the translation process is not affected by the deeper language levels such as sentences, paragraphs, and chapters, so it seems simple, which results in the translation of trademarks. Don't take people seriously. However, Professor Qian Guanlian believes: “People have two levels of requirements for the creation of any tool: practical and aesthetic(Qian 1993, 13).”

From the perspective of language form, the structure of a trademark is simple and easy to understand. Compared with other forms of inter-language conversion, the translation process is not affected by the deeper language levels such as sentences, paragraphs, and chapters, so it seems simple, which results in the translation of trademarks. Don't take people seriously. However, Professor Qian Guanlian believes: “People have two levels of requirements for the creation of any tool: practical and aesthetic”(Qian 1993, 13).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:48, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

Therefore, the trademark translation should achieve the perfect unity of sound and meaning. At the same time it is necessary to overcome the cultural barriers of the translated language and conform to people's aesthetic taste and consumer psychology. In a word, it is not easy to do a good job in the translation of trademarks. It also needs the guidance of translation theory and also needs to master certain translation skills.

Therefore, the trademark translation should achieve the perfect unity of sound and meaning. At the same time, it is necessary to overcome the cultural barriers of the translated language and conform to people's aesthetic taste and consumer psychology. In a word, it is not easy to do a good job in the translation of trademarks. It needs the guidance of translation theory and also needs to master certain translation skills.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:48, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

=== Chapter 2 Translation Aesthetics===
====2.1 Aesthetic Origins of Translation Studies====
For the Chinese view of language, language functions and aesthetic judgments are inseparable. Chinese philosophers have been talking about beautiful words and beliefs since ancient times. Lao Tzu put forward the idea of boosting the letter and suppressing the beauty and held a negative attitude towards the beauty of disguise. Confucius proposed reaching the acme of perfection and unification of text and quality, Mencius proposed benevolence and justice for beauty, Xunzi proposed consideration of text and quality and unity of beauty and goodness. Judging from the history of Chinese aesthetics, beauty and faith, text and quality are the oldest and consistent propositions(Wang 2011,135）.

For the Chinese language view, language functions and aesthetic judgments are inseparable. Chinese philosophers have been talking about beautiful words and beliefs since ancient times. Lao Tzu put forward the idea of boosting the letter and suppressing the beauty and held a negative attitude towards the beauty of disguise. Confucius proposed reaching the acme of perfection and unification of text and quality, Mencius proposed benevolence and justice for beauty. Xunzi proposed consideration of text and quality and unity of beauty and goodness. Judging from the history of Chinese aesthetics, beauty and faith, text and quality are the oldest and consistent propositions(Wang 2011,135）.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

Beauty and text refer to the perceptual form of literary works, and faith and quality refer to the essence of content. The ideal aesthetic state is glasses grace. It is obvious that the dispute between literature and quality in traditional Chinese translation theory is the process and manifestation of Taoist aesthetics giving way to Confucian aesthetics. Since the 19th century, new translation ideas such as Yan Fu's faithfulness, smoothness, and elegance, Ma Jianzhong's good translation, Qian Zhongshu's contextualization theory, and Fu Lei's similarity theory have also further promoted Chinese translation(Wang 2011,135）.

Beauty and text refer to the perceptual form of literary works, and faith and quality refer to the essence of content. The ideal aesthetic state is glasses grace. It can be seen that the dispute between literature and quality in traditional Chinese translation theory is the process and manifestation of the transfer of Taoist aesthetics to Confucian aesthetics. Since the 19th century, new translation ideas such as Yan Fu's faithfulness, smoothness, and elegance, Ma Jianzhong's good translation, Qian Zhongshu's contextualization theory, and Fu Lei's similarity theory have also further promoted Chinese translation(Wang 2011,135）.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.2 Aesthetic Subject and Aesthetic Object Translation====
The study of academic content such as the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object in translation has always been the content that scholars pay more attention to. The aesthetic subject refers to the person who performs aesthetic activities on the aesthetic object, and the aesthetic subject of translation (TAS) is the translator. As far as translation is concerned, the aesthetic attitude of the aesthetic subject involves the concept of translation, and its task must be twofold: the understanding and appreciation of the original language and the reproduction or creation of the original aesthetic information. The aesthetic subject of translation has two basic attributes（Jiao 2010，104).

The study of academic content such as the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object in translation has always been the content that scholars pay more attention to. The aesthetic subject refers to the person who performs aesthetic activities on the aesthetic object, and the aesthetic subject of translation (TAS) is the translator. As far as translation is concerned, the aesthetic attitude of the aesthetic subject involves the concept of translation, and its task must be twofold: the understanding and appreciation of the original language, and the reproduction or creation of the original aesthetic information（Jiao 2010，104). --[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

One is subject to the aesthetic object, that is, the original text is subject to the translatability limit of the formal beauty of the original language, the translatability limit of the non-formal beauty of the original language, the cultural difference of bilingualism and the time and space difference of art appreciation . The second is the translator's subjective initiative, that is, the translator's initiative, creativity, and the high level of activation and stimulation of the aesthetic potential of the aesthetic object. Chinese aesthetics summarizes these characteristics as "subjective practicality." In translation, if the translator does his best to suppress the objective constraints, translation can still become a handy creative activity(Jiao 2010,104).

The aesthetic subject of translation has two basic attributes.One is subject to the aesthetic object, that is, the original text is subject to the translatability limit of the formal beauty of the original language, the translatability limit of the non-formal beauty of the original language, the cultural difference of bilingualism and the time and space difference of art appreciation . The second is the translator's subjective initiative, that is, the translator's initiative, creativity, and the high level of activation and stimulation of the aesthetic potential of the aesthetic object. Chinese aesthetics summarizes these characteristics as "subjective practicality". In translation, if the translator does his best to suppress the objective constraints, translation can still become a handy creative activity(Jiao 2010,104).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

The exertion of the subjective agency of translation depends on whether TAS has the following aesthetic conditions. Specifically, it refers to the aesthetic emotions of the aesthetic subject: emotion, knowledge, talent and will. The so-called "emotion" is aesthetic emotion. The so-called "knowledge" can refer to both insight and insight, as well as the vision expanded and enriched by the translator's personal experience. The so-called "talent" refers to actual ability or skill, which is manifested in language analysis ability, aesthetic judgment ability, language expression and rhetoric ability. The so-called "will" refers to the perseverance to learn(Jiao 2010,105).

The exertion of the subjective agency of translation depends on whether TAS has the following aesthetic conditions. Specifically, it refers to the aesthetic emotion of the aesthetic subject: emotion, knowledge, talent and will. The so-called "emotion" is aesthetic emotion. The so-called "knowledge" can refer to insight, as well as the vision expanded and enriched by the translator's personal experience. The so-called "talent" refers to actual ability or skill, which is manifested in language analysis ability, aesthetic judgment ability, language expression and rhetoric ability. The so-called "will" refers to the perseverance to learn(Jiao 2010,105). --[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

The study of aesthetic objects is mainly for the original text. Because different scholars are in different perspectives, the specific classifications are also different. In "Introduction to Translation Aesthetics", Liu Miqing divides the aesthetic objects into "textual aesthetic appearance" and "non-representative beauty". In fact, it is to appraise the intrinsic beauty of the original language form and the charm of the article. On the other hand, Mao Ronggui refined the aesthetic objects into phonological beauty, rhythm beauty, simplicity beauty, charm beauty, artistic conception beauty, tone beauty, image beauty, neat beauty, stylistic beauty and fuzzy beauty and other forms of analysis ("Translation and Aesthetics")(Liu 2005,130).

The study of aesthetic objects is mainly for the original text. Because different scholars have different perspectives, the specific classifications are also different. In "Introduction to Translation Aesthetics", Liu Miqing divides the aesthetic objects into "textual aesthetic appearance" and "non-representative beauty". In fact, it is to appraise the intrinsic beauty of the original language form and the charm of the article. Additionally, Mao Ronggui refined the aesthetic objects into phonological beauty, rhythm beauty, simplicity beauty, charm beauty, artistic conception beauty, tone beauty, image beauty, neat beauty, stylistic beauty , fuzzy beauty and other forms of analysis(Liu 2005,130). --[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

In addition, Huang Long’s article "The Aesthetics of Translation" elaborates on the aesthetic issues of translation from six aspects: rhetorical beauty, artistic conception, beauty, image beauty, typical beauty and macro beauty. Its essence is still the study of translation objects. It can be seen that although the specific classification of this type of research is different, its essence is to conduct a comprehensive analysis of the exterior and connotation of aesthetic objects.Regarding the relationship between aesthetic subject and object, Liu Miqing believes that only when the aesthetic subject and the aesthetic object are organically combined, translation can have an aesthetic effect as an aesthetic reproduction process and the translation can be beautiful(Huang 1988,180)

In addition, Huang Long’s article "The Aesthetics of Translation" elaborates on the aesthetic issues of translation from six aspects: rhetorical beauty, artistic conception, beauty, image beauty, typical beauty and macro beauty. Its essence is still the study of translation objects. It can be seen that although the specific classification of this type of research is different, its essence is to conduct a comprehensive analysis of the exterior and connotation of aesthetic objects.Regarding the relationship between aesthetic subject and object, Liu Miqing believes that only when the aesthetic subject and the aesthetic object are combined organically can translation, as an aesthetic reproduction process, produce aesthetic effect and translation is beautiful.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.3 Aesthetic Interpretation of the Translation of Cosmetic Trademarks====
Trademarks, translation aesthetics and cosmetics are all products of a certain historical stage of social development. The trademark originated from the name attached to the works by the ancient Greek writers, and the trademarks with pictures and texts appeared in the Northern Song Dynasty in China. In the modern market economy society, trademarks constitute a part of products and tend to be universal. Their nature is not only a mark for distinguishing commodities, but also a tool for market competition. Trademarks have revealing and propaganda functions, so that their role in commodity exchange and market competition not only indicates the origin of the goods and guarantees the quality of the goods, but also has the role of advertising and promotion.Therefore, a successful trademark translation can make consumers have beautiful associations, thereby creating brand identity(Encyclopedia of China 2009, 283).

Trademarks, translation aesthetics and cosmetics are all products of a certain historical stage of social development. The trademark originated from the name attached to the works by the ancient Greek writers, and the trademarks with pictures and texts appeared in the Northern Song Dynasty in China. In the modern market economy society, trademarks constitute a part of products and tend to be universal. Their nature is not only a mark for distinguishing commodities, but also a tool for market competition. Trademarks have revealing and propaganda functions, so that their role in commodity exchange and market competition not only indicates the origin of the goods and guarantees the quality of the goods, but also has the role of advertising and promotion.Therefore, a successful trademark translation can make consumers have beautiful associations, thereby creating brand identity(Encyclopedia of China 2009, 283).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

What is beauty? Women would rather cut off three meals for a beautiful dress, men would not regret seeing a beautiful girl hit a tree, humans would not hesitate to climb up the heights without hesitation, all for the sake of beautiful clothes, beauty present and " The physical and mental pleasure brought by "seeing the small mountains" is also called aesthetic feeling. Beauty is essentially a kind of direct or indirect physical pleasure. The physical pleasure induced by "beauty" is elevated to the level of culture, rationality, and spirit, so that human physiological experience has cultural and spiritual connotations of "beauty", and human society can move toward a harmonious and beautiful state due to the pursuit of beauty(Mao 2015,29).

What is beauty? Women would rather cut off three meals for a beautiful dress and men would not regret seeing a beautiful girlat the cost of hitting a tree. Humans would not hesitate to climb up the heights without hesitation, all for the sake of beautiful clothes, beauty present and " The physical and mental pleasure brought by "seeing the small mountains" is also called aesthetic feeling. Beauty is essentially a kind of direct or indirect physical pleasure. The physical pleasure induced by "beauty" is elevated to the level of culture, rationality, and spirit, so that human physiological experience has cultural and spiritual connotations of "beauty", and human society can move toward a harmonious and beautiful state due to the pursuit of beauty(Mao 2015,29).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

The aesthetics of translation leads people to appreciate the beauty of the artistic conception of "suddenly looking back, but the person is in a dim light" through the conversion of two languages. The object of research is the aesthetic object (original, target) in translation, the aesthetic subject (translator, reader) in translation, aesthetic activity in translation, aesthetic judgment in translation, aesthetic appreciation, aesthetic standards, and creativity in translation The aesthetic reproduction and so on(Mao 2015,29).

The aesthetics of translation leads people to appreciate the beauty of the artistic conception of suddenly looking back, but the person is in a dim light through the conversion of two languages. The object of research is the aesthetic object (original, target) in translation, the aesthetic subject (translator, reader) in translation, aesthetic activity in translation, aesthetic judgment in translation, aesthetic appreciation, aesthetic standards, and creativity in translation, the aesthetic reproduction and so on(Mao 2015,29).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

Both translation aesthetics and cosmetics can bring beauty to people and make people happy both physically and mentally. Cosmetics generally have a pleasant fragrance, which can make a person's appearance clean and beautiful, and is good for physical and mental health. The translation of cosmetics trademarks has become an indispensable object to carry and convey this beauty(Encyclopedia of China 2011, 553).

Both translation aesthetics and cosmetics can bring beauty to people and make people happy both physically and mentally. Cosmetics generally have a pleasant fragrance, which can make a person's appearance clean and beautiful, and is good for physical and mental health. The translation of cosmetics trademarks has become an indispensable object to carry and convey beauty(Encyclopedia of China 2011, 553).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

===Chapter 3 Translations of Cosmetic Trademarks Guided by Translation Aesthetics===
====3.1 Aesthetic principles of cosmetics trademark translation====
=====3.1.1Rhythmic Beauty=====
Rhythmic Beauty means that the trademark name has a bright sound, a clear rhythm, and a sense of music, which gives people a beautiful listening experience. A successful trademark translation should be easy to remember, rich in imagination, and easy to read. For example:

Rhythmic Beauty means that the trademark name has a bright sound, a clear rhythm, and a sense of music, which gives people a beautiful listening experience. A successful trademark translation should be easy to remember, rich in imagination, and easy to read. For example:--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:35, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

Clean Clear is translated as "可伶可俐", For the translation of Clean Clear, the first letter of the English trademark is "Cl", it adopts alliteration and the vowels in the middle part are the same. Besides, the pronunciation is very smooth, which like a tongue popping out. When translating into Chinese, separate the singular word "Ling Li", and use the characteristics of Chinese double vowels and compound vowels to make the translated name sound bright. What’s more, the Chinese characteristics of flatness and syllable length change make the trademark sound sonorous, powerful, smooth, and rhythmic(Zeng 2010,183).

Clean Clear is translated as "可伶可俐", For the translation of Clean Clear, the first letter of the English trademark is "Cl", it adopts alliteration and the vowels in the middle part are the same. Besides, the pronunciation is very smooth, which like a tongue popping out. When translating into Chinese, translators separate the singular word "Ling Li", and use the characteristics of Chinese double vowels and compound vowels to make the translated name sound bright. What’s more, the Chinese characteristics of flatness and syllable length change make the trademark sound sonorous, powerful, smooth, and rhythmic(Zeng 2010,183).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:35, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

For the translation of the trademark "美加净" into "Maxam", it perfectly embodies the beauty of phonology. First of all, the pronunciation of the first syllable of "Maxam" and the pronunciation of "美" in "美加净" form a correspondence. When people see the letter "M", they will think of the Chinese pronunciation of "美" to obtain a feeling of beauty. In addition, the pronunciation of "Maxam" is short but powerful, giving people a fresh and natural feeling, which coincides with the brand concept of Maxam(Zeng 2010,184).

For the translation of the trademark "美加净" into "Maxam", it perfectly embodies the beauty of phonology. First of all, the pronunciation of the first syllable of "Maxam" and the pronunciation of "美" in "美加净" form a correspondence. When people see the letter "M", they will think of the Chinese pronunciation of "美" to obtain a feeling of beauty. In addition, the pronunciation of "Maxam" is short but powerful, giving people a fresh and natural feeling, which coincides with the brand concept of Maxam(Zeng 2010,184).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:35, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

=====3.1.2 Image Beauty=====
On the one hand, Image beauty, as far as translating poetry is concerned, it has the same poetic format and rhythm as the original text. This beauty of form is built on the basis of similarity. For trademark terms, the translation should be in the form of a trademark, and the language should be concise and clear, easy to see, easy to read, easy to understand, and worthy of memory. It is best to use good words. Different countries, nationalities and regions use different characters, and their preferences for certain characters are also very different.

On one hand, Image beauty, as far as translating poetry is concerned, it has the same poetic format and rhythm as the original text. This beauty of form is built on the basis of similarity. For trademark terms, the translation should be in the form of a trademark, and the language should be concise and clear, easy to see, easy to read, easy to understand, and worthy of memory. It is best to use good words. Different countries, nationalities and regions use different characters, so their preferences for certain characters are also very different.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

For example, the Chinese characters that Chinese people like are mostly "福", "寿"喜", "乐", etc. Another example: Avon is translated as "雅芳", Arche is translated as "雅倩", Colgate is translated as "高露洁", Safeguard is translated as " "Shufujia", Rejoice translated as "飘柔", etc. These translated names are linguistically recognizable, easy to read, and easy to see, which is what we call the beauty of form, and "“雅、芳、倩、黛、露、佳、飘、柔” in Chinese have elegant, refined, , graceful and feminine charms. Not only can they leave a good impression on consumers, but they can also be beautiful in the fragrant and aromatic scent when using the product. The products represented by these translation standards have always been trusted, in addition to the product itself, it is also related to the simplicity and memorability of the translation standards(Ye 2010,112).

For example, the Chinese characters that Chinese people like are mostly "福", "寿"喜", "乐", etc. Another example: Avon is translated as "雅芳", Arche is translated as "雅倩", Colgate is translated as "高露洁", Safeguard is translated as " "舒肤佳", Rejoice translated as "飘柔", etc. These translated names are linguistically recognizable, easy to read, and easy to see, which is what we call the beauty of form, and "“雅、芳、倩、黛、露、佳、飘、柔” in Chinese have elegant, refined, , graceful and feminine charms. Not only can they leave a good impression on consumers, but they can also be beautiful in the fragrant and aromatic scent when consumers use the product. The products represented by these translation standards have always been trusted, in addition to the product itself, it is also related to the simplicity and memorability of the translation standards(Ye 2010,112).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

On the other hand, the translated name of cosmetics should have "clear meaning, concise graphics, clear image, easy to remember" as its artistic characteristics, and it states the product characteristics intuitively and clearly, so that the product image is clear and prominent, which is easy to resonate with consumers, and is conducive to obtaining good impressions and strong memory impression. According to the language characteristics of Chinese and the language psychology of the Han nationality, the Chinese translation of female beauty products should choose words with beautiful content and sweet rhyme, and the sound should be bright and the rhythm should be clear, giving people the enjoyment of visual and auditory beauty(Ye 2010,113).

On the other hand, the translated name of cosmetics should have clear meaning, concise graphics, clear image, and be easy to remember as its artistic characteristics, and it states the product characteristics intuitively and clearly, so that the product image is clear and prominent, which is easy to resonate with consumers, and is conducive to obtaining good impressions and strong memory impression. According to the language characteristics of Chinese and the language psychology of the Han nationality, the Chinese translation of female beauty products should choose words with beautiful content and sweet rhyme, and the sound should be bright and the rhythm should be clear, giving people the enjoyment of visual and auditory beauty(Ye 2010,113).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

Such as: American cosmetics Maybelline, the Chinese translation is "美宝莲". "Beauty" implies that its function is to make consumers more beautiful, and "lotus" implies that its effect is to make consumers as beautiful as a lotus. Both the sound and the meaning are used. The two languages are integrated, and the sound is bright and the meaning is beautiful.The French skin care product Clarin is named "娇韵诗" in Chinese. It chooses "娇" and "韵" to express the beauty of "feminine and tenderness". The addition of "诗" makes people feel "picturesque and poetic", leaving female consumers with a deep impression.

Such as: American cosmetics Maybelline, the Chinese translation is "美宝莲". "Beauty" implies that its function is to make consumers more beautiful, and "lotus" implies that its effect is to make consumers as beautiful as a lotus. Both the sound and the meaning are used. The two languages are integrated.The sound is bright and the meaning is beautiful.The French skin care product Clarin is named "娇韵诗" in Chinese. It chooses "娇" and "韵" to express the beauty of "feminine and tenderness". The addition of "诗" makes people feel "picturesque and poetic", leaving female consumers with a deep impression.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

=====3.1.3 Conceptual Beauty=====
The conceptual beauty of a trademark refers to that the trademark of a product highlights a certain artistic conception through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of the constituent words, so that people have rich and beautiful associations, and arouse people's yearning and pursuit of beauty. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers(Zeng 2010,185).

The conceptual beauty of a trademark refers to that the trademark of a product highlights a certain artistic conception through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of the constituent words, so that people have rich and beautiful associations, and arouse people's yearning for and pursuit of beauty. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers(Zeng 2010,185).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:48, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

In addition, The conceptual beauty requires that the trademark of the product can make people produce rich associations. That is, through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of word formation, a certain artistic conception is brought out. For example, the Chinese translation of Biouquan, one of the three major European skin care brands, is "碧欧泉". The author believes that this translation is very clever, and it can be described as a perfect combination of sound, form and meaning. The trademark of the source language has rich connotations(Ye 2010,115).

In addition, The conceptual beauty requires that the trademark of the product can make people produce rich associations. That is, through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of word formation, a certain artistic conception is brought out. For example, the Chinese translation of Biouquan is one of the three major European skin care brands. The author believes that this translation is very clever, and it can be described as a perfect combination of sound, form and meaning. The trademark of the source language has rich connotations(Ye 2010,115).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:48, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

Bio- means the life of the skin, and -therm refers to mineral hot springs, because there is a kind of mineral hot springs in the mountains of southern France. It has special effects on the human body, especially the skin, and BIOTHERM products are organic The active factor PETPTM is extracted from this mineral hot spring. In the Chinese translation of its name, "碧" is reminiscent of clear water, blue sky, and full of greenery. "欧" and "泉" refer to the birthplace of the product. The design of the trademark is based on blue, which makes people even have more creative, fresh and natural, elegant and pure feeling(Zeng 2010,186).

Bio- means the life of the skin, and -therm refers to mineral hot springs, because there is a kind of mineral hot springs in the mountains of southern France, which has special effects on the human body, especially on the skin. BIOTHERM products are organic The active factor PETPTM is extracted from this mineral hot spring. In the Chinese translation of its name, "碧" is reminiscent of clear water, blue sky, and full of greenery. "欧" and "泉" refer to the birthplace of the product. The design of the trademark is based on blue, which makes people even have more creative, fresh and natural, elegant and pure feeling(Zeng 2010,186).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:48, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

====3.2 Translation Techniques under the Guidance of Translation Aesthetics====
=====3.2.1 Free Translation=====
Free translation is based on the meaning of trademark words. The brand name translated by free translation can vividly express the utility of the product through careful selection and addition of words, which is conducive to consumer memory. Free translation neither uses the original name nor the direct Chinese meaning of the original name. Instead, it is based on the characteristics of the product, giving full play to imagination and creating a translated name with another meaning, thereby achieving the purpose of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic value(Zhu 2008,366).

Free translation is based on the meaning of trademark. The brand name translated by free translation can vividly express the utility of the product through careful selection and addition of words, which is conducive to consumer memory. Free translation neither uses the original name nor the direct Chinese meaning of the original name. Instead, it is based on the characteristics of the product, giving full play to imagination and creating a translated name with another meaning, thereby achieving the purpose of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic value(Zhu 2008,366).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:56, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

The cosmetics trademark "Lancome", the founder of its brand name Armand Petetjean took inspiration from a beautiful castle "Lancome" surrounded by roses in central France. He believed that every woman is like a rose with her own posture and charm.The translation of the trademark as Lancome is unique, because in China, “兰”means orchid, which represents elegance and beauty. It is the most beautiful flower, like the rose surrounding the castle, exuding fragrance and beauty; “蔻” is a scented herb In Chinese, “豆蔻年华” is often used to describe young and beautiful, as Armand described, every woman is as young and beautiful as a rose(Zhu 2008,366).

For instance, the cosmetics trademark "Lancome", the founder of its brand name Armand Petetjean took inspiration from a beautiful castle "Lancome" surrounded by roses in central France. He believed that every woman is like a rose with her own posture and charm.The translation of the trademark as Lancome is unique, because in China, “兰”means orchid, which represents elegance and beauty. It is the most beautiful flower, like the rose surrounding the castle, exuding fragrance and beauty; “蔻” is a scented herb In Chinese, “豆蔻年华” is often used to describe young and beautiful. As Armand described, every woman is as young and beautiful as a rose(Zhu 2008,366). --[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:56, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

Cosmetics Juven "柔美娜", Juven is equivalent to young in English, meaning "young", people think that young is beautiful; the translator adopts free translation, flexibly and creatively translating Ju-ven into "柔美娜", which correctly conveys the efficacy of the cosmetics to consumers---- you can get soft, beautiful and young skin with this product. Another example is cosmetics Clinique (倩碧). Clinique originally means clinic in English. Under the guidance of dermatologists, Clinique has developed the first 100% fragrance-free skin care product(Zhu 2008,367).

Cosmetics Juven "柔美娜", Juven is equivalent to young in English, meaning "young", people think that young is beautiful; the translator adopts free translation, flexibly and creatively translating Ju-ven into "柔美娜", which correctly conveys the efficacy of the cosmetics to consumers that you can get soft, beautiful and young skin by using this product(Zhu 2008,367). --[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:56, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

The translation of Clinique--“倩碧” can make people have beautiful associations. “倩”, means beautiful ;“碧”, means turquoise, light and clear color; By free translation of such a name, consumers will have beautiful associations-healthy and beautiful, crystal clear skin. Just imagine if literally translated as a clinic, who would dare to use such a product? In addition, examples of free translation include: H2O "水之奥", Prettiean "雅姿丽", etc., which have reached the goal of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic values(Zhu 2008,367).

Another example is cosmetics Clinique (倩碧). Clinique originally means clinic in English. Under the guidance of dermatologists, Clinique has developed the first 100% fragrance-free skin care product.The translation of “倩碧” can make people have beautiful associations. “倩” means beautiful and“碧”means turquoise, light and clear color. By free translation of such a name, consumers will have beautiful associations-healthy and beautiful, crystal clear skin. Just imagine if literally translated as a clinic, and who would dare to use such a product? In addition, examples of free translation include: H2O "水之奥", Prettiean "雅姿丽", etc., which have reached the goal of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic values(Zhu 2008,367).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:56, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

=====3.2.2 Transliteration=====
Transliteration refers to a translation method that uses phonemes as a unit to retain the pronunciation of the original text in the translation so as to highlight the main functions of the original text. The transliteration of the trademark is the meaningless of the original trademark , and the translated name can be obtained by using the text symbols of the target language and the target language to express the pronunciation of the original trademark. "Transliteration of a trademark should follow the principle of name obeying the owner, that is, if the original text is in Japanese, it should be pronounced in Japanese, if the original is in French, it should be pronounced in French, if it is German, it should be pronounced in German, and if it is Italian, it should be pronounced in Italian.The same goes for other languages(Zhang 2007,121).

Transliteration refers to a translation method that uses phonemes as a unit to retain the pronunciation of the original text in the translation so as to highlight the main functions of the original text. The transliteration of the trademark is meaningless of the original trademark. The pronunciation of the original trademark is expressed in the target language and the text symbols of the target language.Transliteration of a trademark should follow the principle of name obeying the owner, that is, if the original text is in Japanese, it should be pronounced in Japanese, if the original is in French, it should be pronounced in French, if it is German, it should be pronounced in German, and if it is Italian, it should be pronounced in Italian.The same goes for other languages(Zhang 2007,121).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

The translated name translated by the transliteration method retains the beauty of the original trademark’s phonology .Although it does not conform to the Chinese rules in terms of word creation, it has ulterior motives in the choice of Chinese characters. After careful selection, it appears novel and unique and caters to women consumers’ curiosity and aesthetic psychology.Besides, it is relatively straightforward, and also brings convenience to translation” . Therefore, most cosmetics trademarks use this translation method. American cosmetics Maybelline, its original name is full of flavor. The Chinese translation of "莲" implies that its effect is to make consumers beautiful like a lotus. It takes its pronunciation, "美宝莲". "美" implies that its function is to make consumption and take its meaning. The two languages can be integrated, which is a superior work（Yu,An 2006：98）.

The translated name translated by the transliteration method retains the beauty of the original trademark’s phonology .Although it does not conform to the Chinese rules in terms of word creation, it has ulterior motives in the choice of Chinese characters. After careful selection, it appears novel and unique and caters to women consumers’ curiosity and aesthetic psychology.Besides, it is relatively straightforward, and also brings convenience to translation. Therefore, most cosmetics trademarks use this translation method. American cosmetics Maybelline, its original name is full of flavor. The Chinese translation of "莲" implies that its effect is to make consumers beautiful like a lotus. It takes its pronunciation of "美宝莲". "美" implies that its function is to make consumption and take its meaning. The two languages can be integrated, which is a superior work（Yu,An 2006：98）.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

=====3.2.3 Literal translation=====
Literal translation is to find words with the same or similar meaning in the target language according to the meaning of the original trademark word. The advantage of the literal translation method is that it retains the original trademark name, conveying the information and feelings of the original name, which achieves harmony and unity in meaning with the trademark pattern. For example, the makeup brand Cover Girl literally translates as "封面女孩", which means that the girl who uses this cosmetic is as glamorous as the model on the cover(Zhang 2009,125).

Literal translation is to find words with the same or similar meaning in the target language according to the meaning of the original trademark word. The advantage of the literal translation method is that it retains the original trademark name, conveying the information and feelings of the original name, which achieves harmony and unity in meaning with the trademark pattern. For example, the makeup brand "Cover Girl" is literally translates as "封面女孩", which means that the girl who uses this cosmetic is as glamorous as the model on the cover(Zhang 2009,125).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:11, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

Natural Beauty "自然美", the concept of this cosmetics brand company spanning seven countries in the Asia-Pacific region is "Nature is Beauty". The literal translation retains the purpose of the trademark to retain fresh and natural beauty. Another example is the famous British health and beauty chain store—The Body Shop(“美体小铺”). Its main products are body care and facial masks. The products are natural and healthy. Literally translated, this brand can retain the purpose of the trademark—to make skin and body become more beautiful and moving.

Natural Beauty "自然美", the concept of this cosmetics brand company spanning seven countries in the Asia-Pacific region is "Nature is Beauty". The literal translation retains the purpose of the trademark to retain fresh and natural beauty. Another example is the famous British health and beauty chain store—The Body Shop(“美体小铺”). Its main products are body care and facial masks. The products are natural and healthy. With Literal translation, this brand can retain the purpose of the trademark and make skin and body become more beautiful.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:11, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

In addition, the literal translation of "小护士" as Mininurse is also for purpose. People think of nurses as angels, caring for people who are cared about.The purpose of this translation is to tell consumers that the products of little nurses are as gentle and considerate as nurses, and by this way it achieved promotional purposes.

In addition, the literal translation of "little nurses"("小护士") as Mininurse is also for purpose. People think of nurses as angels, caring for people who are cared about.The purpose of this translation is to tell consumers that the products of "little nurses" are as gentle and considerate as nurses, and by this way it achieves promotional purpose.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:11, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

=====3.2.4 Creative Translation=====
If neither transliteration nor literal translation can vividly reproduce the characteristics of the original trademark, then consider putting aside the consideration of the original trademark's phonology and meaning and adopting a new and innovative approach. It is not necessary to stick to the similarity of simple phonology, nor to ponder its literal referential meaning. Translators can fully open up new ideas, find new ways, boldly innovate, and give readers unlimited reverie. In other words, the unconventional method is a special free translation method, which refers to the renaming of products under the premise that the culture and customs of the target language country allow it. Although the translated name of the target language is quite different from the original meaning of the original name, it can achieve the same goal by different routes(Zhou 2003,63).

If neither transliteration nor literal translation can vividly reproduce the characteristics of the original trademark, then consider putting aside the consideration of the original trademark's phonology and meaning, and adopt a new and innovative approach. It is not necessary to stick to the similarity of simple phonology, nor to ponder its literal referential meaning. Translators can fully open up new ideas, find new ways, boldly innovate, and give readers unlimited reverie. In other words, the unconventional method is a special free translation method, which refers to the renaming of products under the premise that the culture and customs of the target language country allow it. Although the translated name of the target language is quite different from the original meaning of the original name, it can achieve the same goal by different routes(Zhou 2003,63).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:15, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

For example, the American brand Neutrogena is translated as "露得清", which is derived from the Latin words "Neutralis" and "Genus", which means "new birth". The combination of the two words implies the meaning of "creating natural effects". When the brand was founded, it was famous for a soap that was comfortable and cleansing the skin, and it was known as the "precious soap from Belgium". "Recommend products suitable for skin" has always been at the core of the Neutrogena brand philosophy. Translating Neutrogena into "露得清", although it doesn't seem to have much connection with its literal meaning, it fits the original intention of clean and clear skin in the brand story.

For example, the American brand Neutrogena is translated as "露得清", which is derived from the Latin words "Neutralis" and "Genus", which means "new birth". The combination of the two words implies the meaning of creating natural effects. When the brand was founded, it was famous for a soap that was comfortable and had good function on cleansing the skin. It was known as the precious soap from Belgium. "Recommend products suitable for skin" has always been at the core of the Neutrogena brand philosophy. Translating Neutrogena into "露得清", although it doesn't seem to have much connection with its literal meaning, it fits the original intention of clean and clear skin in the brand story.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:15, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

===Conclusion===
From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this essay analyzes the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the process of cosmetic trademark translation through specific examples. For the translation of cosmetics trademarks, it is not a simple conversion of one language to another, so it requires that we should be based on the specific circumstances of the aesthetic characteristics of the trademark words, and from the perspective of translation aesthetics, we should fully consider the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject and aesthetic needs to accurately and fully reproduce the aesthetic objects—the rhythmic beauty, image beauty and conceptual beauty of trademark to consumers by combining with the respective characteristics of the two languages and cultures of English and Chinese, so as to promote product sales and achieve its commercial value.

From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper analyzes the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the process of cosmetic trademark translation through specific examples. For the translation of cosmetics trademarks, it is not a simple conversion of one language to another, so it requires us to take specific circumstances of the aesthetic characteristics of the trademark words into consideration. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, we should fully consider the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject and aesthetic needs to accurately and fully reproduce the aesthetic objects—the rhythmic beauty, image beauty and conceptual beauty of trademark to consumers by combining with the respective characteristics of the two languages and cultures of English and Chinese, so as to promote product sales and achieve its commercial value.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

When translating cosmetics trademarks, as Xie Hua pointed out, the translator must flexibly handle language and cultural differences and conflicts according to the context in the translation process. You cannot be imprisoned in words for the sake of literal translation or transliteration or free translation, and make the words rigid; At the same time, in order to successfully express the connotation of the trademark and show the charm of the trademark, translators should strive to get rid of the shackles of rigid equivalence, be flexible and innovative, choose the best method for trademark translation, and try to give the trademark the best appropriate translated name(Xie 2000,85).

When translating cosmetics trademarks, as Xie Hua pointed out, the translator must flexibly handle language and cultural differences and conflicts according to the context in the translation process. You cannot be imprisoned in words for the sake of literal translation or transliteration or free translation, ortherwise;it will make the words rigid; At the same time, in order to successfully express the connotation of the trademark and show the charm of the trademark, translators should strive to get rid of the shackles of rigid equivalence, be flexible and innovative, choose the best method for trademark translation, and try to give the trademark the best appropriate translated name(Xie 2000,85).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

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［19］China Encyclopedia Editor-in-Chief,中国大百科全书总编委会．《中国大百科全书》［M］.[Encyclopedia of China].2nd edition. 第 2 版．北京: 中国大百科全书出版社，Beijing: China Encyclopedia Publishing House,2009 ( 3) : 19－283．

［20］Editorial Department of Encyclopedia of China.中国大百科全书编辑部．中国大百科全书( 第二版简明版) ［I］．[Encyclopedia of China (Second Edition Concise Edition)]. 北京: 中国大百科全书出版社.Beijing: China Encyclopedia Publishing House, ，2011 ( 10) : 6－453．

［21］ZhuGe qiaoyuan诸葛巧媛.化妆品商标的翻译原则及方法[J].[The translation principles and methods of cosmetics trademarks]安徽文学，Anhui Literature,2008(06).

［22］Zhang Jing张婧.接受美学视角下女性化妆品商标的翻译[J].[The translation of female cosmetics trademarks from the perspective of acceptance aesthetics]安徽文学，Anhui Literature,2009（06）.

［23］Zhang Ling张凌.化妆品商标的英译方法[J].[The English translation method of cosmetics trademarks].商场现代化,Market Modernization.2007（07）.

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==A Study on Ba Jin's Translation of Oscar Wilde's Fairy Tales from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 周园曲 Zhou Yuanqu 202070080630 英语笔译==

===Abstract===

Oscar Wilde, as a leading figure in the Aesthetic Movement, was famous for his ornate words and sharp wit. His fairy tales embodies and exhibits his aesthetic ideal. Until now, his two collections of fairy tales The Happy Prince and Other Tales as well as A House of Pomegranates still receive popularity around the world. And one of the most favored translation editions of Wilde’s fairy tales in China was written by Ba Jin. This thesis is aimed to analyze from the perspective of translation aesthetics what Ba Jin did to make the representation of beauty possible. This thesis includes three chapters. In Chapter One, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics, and Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics to provide theoretical support for the rest part of the thesis. In Chapter Two, the author explores from the aspect of translation aesthetic subject what aesthetic conditions Ba Jin possessed to let him reproduce the beauty in the original work. In Chapter Three, the author analyzes Ba Jin's translation from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to see what translation skills he used and what translation theories he held to make it possible to reproduce the beauty in the original work.

Through analysis, the author finds that a literary translation of high quality should not only deliver the logic information but also reproduce similar aesthetic feelings.

===Key words===
Ba Jin; Oscar Wilde; Fairy tales; Translation aesthetics

===摘要===

作为美学运动的代表人物，奥斯卡·王尔德的语言优美华丽，风趣机智，而他创作的童话作品则被认为是其美学思想的最佳载体。直到今天，他的两部童话集《快乐王子》和《石榴之家》依然在世界范围内广受欢迎，而巴金先生的王尔德童话译本则是国内最为推崇的译本之一。本篇论文旨在从翻译美学的角度分析巴金是如何在其译文中再现了原作中的美。本篇论文包括三个章节：第一章介绍了翻译美学的定义、其发展历史以及刘宓庆的翻译美学理论，旨在为后文的论述提供理论铺垫。第二章从翻译审美主体的角度探索了巴金重现原作美所具备的审美条件。第三章作者从音乐美、词汇美、意境美和风格美四个角度，举例对比分析了原文和巴金译文，总结了巴金再现原文美的翻译技巧和翻译思想。

通过对巴金的王尔德童话译本的分析，作者发现，一篇高质量的文学作品译文不仅要传达原文的基本逻辑信息，还要能为译文读者重现与原文作品相似的美的感受。

===关键词===
巴金奥斯卡·王尔德童话翻译美学

===Introduction===

The fairy tales by Oscar Wilde, like his other works, exhibited his great talent for language. The Happy Prince and Other Stories published in 1888 and A House of Pomegranates in 1891 collected nine fairy tales. All of them were of musical tone and ornate words, creating indescribable beauty of tragedy. The stories sparkling with poetic beauty and wisdom received favor all over the world.

The fairy tales by Oscar Wilde, like his other works, exhibited his great talent for language. The Happy Prince and Other Stories published in 1888 and A House of Pomegranates in 1891 collected nine fairy tales. All of them were of musical tone and ornate words, creating indescribable beauty of tragedy. The stories sparkling with poetic beauty and wisdom received favor all over the world. --[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

In China, Wilde’s fairy tales were first translated in 1909. Zhou Zuoren and Lu Xun translated The Happy Prince to classical Chinese and published it in a book named Other Land (《域外小说集》).Although the book didn’t sell well, it introduced Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to China. In 1920s, more translations of the fairy tales were seen in various books and magazines. Mu Mutian in 1922 translated five stories. In the year of 1933, You Baolong translated seven stories of Wilde’s fairy tales. In 1946, Mu Mutian made a complete translation of Wilde’s nine stories. Among all of the Chinese translations, one of the most influential editions was translated by Ba Jin. His translation was firstly published in 1947 and revised and reprinted twice respectively in 1957 and 1980.

In China, Wilde’s fairy tales were first translated in 1909. Zhou Zuoren and Lu Xun translated The Happy Prince to classical Chinese and published it in a book named Other Land (《域外小说集》).Although the book didn’t sell well, it introduced Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to China. In 1920s, more translations of the fairy tales were seen in various books and magazines. Mu Mutian in 1922 translated five stories. In the year of 1933, You Baolong translated seven stories of Wilde’s fairy tales. In 1946, Mu Mutian made a complete translation of Wilde’s nine stories. Among all of the Chinese translations, one of the most influential editions was translated by Ba Jin. His translation was firstly published in 1947 and revised and reprinted twice respectively in 1957 and 1980.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

In CNKI, 157 essays conduct research on Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. And the study object of twenty essays is the translation of Oscar Wilde’s stories. Among them seventeen essays covered Ba Jin's translation. Scholars often conduct their research on the following angles: the influence of translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales in China; translator’s subjectivity; reception aesthetics; translation of children’s literature; translation aesthetics. There are three theses adopting an aesthetic view to study Ba Jin's translation of Wilde’s fairy tales. Lin Lin (2007) compared the aesthetic features of the original work and Ba Jin's translation from an aesthetic perspective. Liu Xiaoyin (2012) used Mao Ronggui's theory of translation aesthetics to analyze the aesthetic elements in Ba Jin's translation. Yang Liqiu (2016: Ⅴ) in 2016 built a Excel database to make a textual analysis of the 1981 version of Kuai Le Wang Zi Ji in a systematic manner from lexical, syntactical and discourse levels. Their study on Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s works provide guidance for this thesis and the future studies.

In CNKI, 157 essays conduct research on Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. And the study object of twenty essays is the translation of Oscar Wilde’s stories. Among them seventeen essays covered Ba Jin's translation. Scholars often conduct their research on the following angles: the influence of translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales in China; translator’s subjectivity; reception aesthetics; translation of children’s literature; translation aesthetics. There are three theses adopting an aesthetic view to study Ba Jin's translation of Wilde’s fairy tales. Lin Lin (2007) compared the aesthetic features of the original work and Ba Jin's translation from an aesthetic perspective. Liu Xiaoyin (2012) used Mao Ronggui's theory of translation aesthetics to analyze the aesthetic elements in Ba Jin's translation. Yang Liqiu (2016: Ⅴ) in 2016 built a Excel database to make a textual analysis of the 1981 version of Kuai Le Wang Zi Ji in a systematic manner from lexical, syntactical and discourse levels. Their study on Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s works provide guidance for this thesis and the future studies.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

It is indisputable that Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales read like poetry. Since Ba Jin's translation is one of the most favored translation editions in China, it must have rendered similar aesthetic beauty to its Chinese readers. Therefore, a question arises: how did he convey the same aesthetic effect in his translation? Translation aesthetics provides an appropriate angle for studying this issue.

It is indisputable that Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales read like poetry. Since Ba Jin's translation is one of the most favored translation editions in China, it must have rendered similar aesthetic beauty to its Chinese readers. Therefore, a question arises: how did he convey the same aesthetic effect in his translation? Translation aesthetics provides an appropriate angle for studying this issue.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

In this thesis there are three chapters. Chapter One introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics. Because Liu Miqing systematically expounded a series of issues of translation aesthetics and raised translation aesthetics to a new height, Chapter One also introduces his theory about translation aesthetics so as to provide theoretical support for the discussion in this thesis. Meanwhile, the author also wishes that the introduction of translation aesthetics could interest more people in the study of this field. In Chapter Two, the author discussed from the translator himself what aesthetic conditions he had to transfer the beauty of the original text. In Chapter Three, the author analyzed from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to appreciate Ba Jin's transfer of beauty in Wilde Oscar’s fairy tales.

===Chapter 1 Translation Aesthetics===

In order to better analyze Ba Jin's translation work from the perspective of translation aesthetics, in the following part, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics and Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics.

====The Definition of Translation Aesthetics====

In A Dictionary of Translation Studies, Fang Mengzhi's defines translation aesthetics as follows: to discuss the special influence of aesthetics on translation; to explore translation’s aesthetic origin; to apply an aesthetic view to learn about the scientific and artistic attributes of translation; applying basic principles of aesthetics to set up different aesthetical criteria for different text styles in translation, and to analyze, interpret and solve the problems concerning aesthetics in the process of transferring language. (Fang Mengzhi, 2004, 296)

====The Development of Translation Aesthetics====

Translation aesthetics is fundamentally related to traditional Chinese translation theories. Meanwhile it makes efforts to turn them into modern translation theories by absorption of western translation studies and application of theories of aesthetics. After tens of years of contribution made by the scholars, it has become one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, with interdisciplinary features and distinctive Chinese characteristics.

Translation aesthetics is fundamentally related to traditional Chinese translation theories. Meanwhile it makes efforts to turn them into modern translation theories by absorption of western translation studies and application of theories of aesthetics. After tens of years of contribution made by the scholars, it has become one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, with interdisciplinary features and distinctive Chinese characteristics.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

Nearly all of the traditional Chinese translation theories are rooted in philosophy-aesthetics. Zhi Qian, the ancient famous Buddhist scripture translator, held that rhetoric was not needed, which was influenced by Lao Zi's aesthetic idea “Truthful word may not be beautiful, while beautiful words may not be truthful.”(信言不美，美言不信) “Truthful words” and “beautiful words” are actually corresponding to “zhi”(质) and “wen”(文) respectively, the oldest and longest-lasting aesthetic proposition in China. Although in Zhi Qian’s time, “zhi” defeated “wen” as the winner, “zhi” and “wen” were coordinated in the later history. Most of the scholars came to agreement that an excellent prose or poem shouldn’t ignore neither content or diction. Influenced by traditional aesthetics, keeping balance between “wen” and “zhi” became the mainstream of Chinese traditional translation theory. When the modern times began, other important translation theories emerged. Yan Fu put forward “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. Fu Lei’ set forth “being alike in spirit”. Qian Zhongshu came up with “sublimation”.

Nearly all of the traditional Chinese translation theories are rooted in philosophy-aesthetics. Zhi Qian, the ancient famous Buddhist scripture translator, held that rhetoric was not needed, which was influenced by Lao Zi's aesthetic idea “Truthful word may not be beautiful, while beautiful words may not be truthful.”(信言不美，美言不信) “Truthful words” and “beautiful words” are actually corresponding to “zhi”(质) and “wen”(文) respectively, the oldest and longest-lasting aesthetic proposition in China. Although in Zhi Qian’s time, “zhi” defeated “wen” as the winner, “zhi” and “wen” were coordinated in the later history. Most of the scholars came to agreement that an excellent prose or poem shouldn’t ignore neither content or diction. Influenced by traditional aesthetics, keeping balance between “wen” and “zhi” became the mainstream of Chinese traditional translation theory. When the modern times began, other important translation theories emerged. Yan Fu put forward “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. Fu Lei’ set forth “being alike in spirit”. Qian Zhongshu came up with “sublimation”. --[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

In 1960s and 1970s, however, the progress of traditional Chinese translation theories went to a grinding halt. In 1980s, Chinese translation studies began to learn from western translation theories, such as skopos theory, deconstructive translation theory, feminist translation theory and so on and so forth. Some of them contributed directly to translation practice and others attempted to interpret the hidden factors influencing or manipulating the translation activities. As the focus of Chinese translation studies is mostly on the western translation theories, some scholars stressed that Chinese translation studies might lose our own voice in the field of international translation studies. They advocated turning back to traditional translation theories and put forward a new translation theory with distinctive Chinese characteristics.

In 1960s and 1970s, however, the progress of traditional Chinese translation theories went to a grinding halt. In 1980s, Chinese translation studies began to learn from western translation theories, such as skopos theory, deconstructive translation theory, feminist translation theory and so on and so forth. Some of them contributed directly to translation practice and others attempted to interpret the hidden factors influencing or manipulating the translation activities. As the focus of Chinese translation studies is mostly on the western translation theories, some scholars stressed that Chinese translation studies might lose our own voice in the field of international translation studies. They advocated turning back to traditional translation theories and put forward a new translation theory with distinctive Chinese characteristics. --[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

In this context, an increasingly number of scholars bend their mind to translation aesthetics.

Comparative Aesthetics of Literary Translation by Xi Yongji in 1992 is the embryo of translation aesthetics. Following the artistic rule, Xi Yongji showed a positive attitude to the artistic and aesthetic value of the original and target text. He used plentiful examples of comparative literature to make an analysis of the influence of aesthetic factors of literary works on the choice of the translators.

Aesthetic Linguistics by Qian Guanlian in 1993 lays a linguistic foundation for translation aesthetics. Aesthetic linguistics applies aesthetic approach to study language and endeavors to provide a theoretical explanation for the aesthetic issues in language.
An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics by Liu Miqing in 2005 built a theoretical framework of translation aesthetics. His theories will be elaborated in the next section.

Jiang Qiuxia's Aesthetics Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization in 2002 is an important theoretical achievement. Jiang in her book explored the influence and aesthetic effect of Gestalt image had on literary translation from an aesthetic perspective.

Mao Ronggui's Translation Aesthetics in 2005 is the first book that directly uses “translation aesthetics” as its title. The book made an aesthetic comparison of sounds, forms, meanings, sentences and words, and put forward different methods in translation practice. An aesthetic view permeated his discussion.

Comparative Aesthetics of Literary Translation by Xi Yongji in 1992 is the embryo of translation aesthetics. Following the artistic rule, Xi Yongji showed a positive attitude to the artistic and aesthetic value of the original and target text. He used plentiful examples of comparative literature to make an analysis of the influence of aesthetic factors of literary works on the choice of the translators.
Aesthetic Linguistics by Qian Guanlian in 1993 lays a linguistic foundation for translation aesthetics. Aesthetic linguistics applies aesthetic approach to study language and endeavors to provide a theoretical explanation for the aesthetic issues in language.
An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics by Liu Miqing in 2005 built a theoretical framework of translation aesthetics. His theories will be elaborated in the next section.
Jiang Qiuxia's Aesthetics Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization in 2002 is an important theoretical achievement. Jiang in her book explored the influence and aesthetic effect of Gestalt image had on literary translation from an aesthetic perspective.
Mao Ronggui's Translation Aesthetics in 2005 is the first book that directly uses “translation aesthetics” as its title. The book made an aesthetic comparison of sounds, forms, meanings, sentences and words, and put forward different methods in translation practice. An aesthetic view permeated his discussion.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

====Liu Miqing's Theory about Translation Aesthetics====

Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics stands as a milestone in the development of translation aesthetics. Because of his dedication to this field, translation aesthetics becomes one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, making China’s translation theory distinctive from the model of western translation theory. (Mao Ronggui, 2005, 9) The following part will introduce his main ideas on translation aesthetics.

In his book An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics published in 2005, his views on translation aesthetics are elaborated systematically.
It explores the aesthetic origin of translation. The writer introduces the history of western and Chinese translation theory. It could be concluded from his book that firstly both of the Chinese and western translation studies are linked to aesthetics from their very beginning; secondly, aesthetics has played a much more active role in the history of Chinese translation theories than it has done in western translation theories.
Two notions in aesthetic translations are put forward. One is translation aesthetic object (TAO) and the other is translation aesthetic subject (TAS). TAO is the original text. Its beauty depends on its aesthetic value. The aesthetic value is analyzed from aesthetic constituents. Liu Miqing divides aesthetic constituents into two systems. The sound beauty, character beauty, word beauty and sentence beauty are included in the formal system. The mood and tone of the original text and the images and symbols in it are incorporated in the informal system. The latter system is also called the fuzzy sets. Correspondingly, TAS refers to the translator. Two basic attributes of TAS are the original text’s objective conditioning on it and more importantly its own subjective dynamics. TAS is constrained by the translatability of the original text’s formal and informal beauty, the cultural differences of two languages and the time-space difference of art appreciation. The subjective dynamics of TAS includes the translator’s capability, aesthetic feeling, knowledge, and tenacity.

Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics stands as a milestone in the development of translation aesthetics. Because of his dedication to this field, translation aesthetics becomes one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, making China’s translation theory distinctive from the model of western translation theory. (Mao Ronggui, 2005, 9) The following part will introduce his main ideas on translation aesthetics.In his book An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics published in 2005, his views on translation aesthetics are elaborated systematically. It explores the aesthetic origin of translation. The writer introduces the history of western and Chinese translation theory. It could be concluded from his book that firstly both of the Chinese and western translation studies are linked to aesthetics from their very beginning; secondly, aesthetics has played a much more active role in the history of Chinese translation theories than it has done in western translation theories.
Two notions in aesthetic translations are put forward. One is translation aesthetic object (TAO) and the other is translation aesthetic subject (TAS). TAO is the original text. Its beauty depends on its aesthetic value. The aesthetic value is analyzed from aesthetic constituents. Liu Miqing divides aesthetic constituents into two systems. The sound beauty, character beauty, word beauty and sentence beauty are included in the formal system. The mood and tone of the original text and the images and symbols in it are incorporated in the informal system. The latter system is also called the fuzzy sets. Correspondingly, TAS refers to the translator. Two basic attributes of TAS are the original text’s objective conditioning on it and more importantly its own subjective dynamics. TAS is constrained by the translatability of the original text’s formal and informal beauty, the cultural differences of two languages and the time-space difference of art appreciation. The subjective dynamics of TAS includes the translator’s capability, aesthetic feeling, knowledge, and tenacity. --[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

The writer also explores the system of aesthetic consciousness in translation. The cognitive schema of aesthetic translation is put forward. It includes four levels, which are perception, imagination, understanding and representation. And the general rule of representation is followed as comprehension, transformation, improvement and representation. “Imagination” and “empathy” are regarded to be important for the representation.

The writer also explores the system of aesthetic consciousness in translation. The cognitive schema of aesthetic translation is put forward. It includes four levels, which are perception, imagination, understanding and representation. And the general rule of representation is followed as comprehension, transformation, improvement and representation. “Imagination” and “empathy” are regarded to be important for the representation.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

===Chapter 2 Ba Jin as Translation Aesthetic Subject of Oscar Wide’s Fairy Tales===

As it has been discussed in the Chapter One, translation aesthetic subject is the translator. According to Liu Miqing, a beautiful translation depends on two factors, which are the aesthetic constituents of the TAO and the aesthetic conditions of the TAS. Only when the two factors interact with each other, can the translation work fully reproduce the beauty of the original work. (Liu Miqing, 1986, 20) Hence, the aesthetic conditions of the TAS are of great importance. Without it, the aesthetic representation would become impossible.

In translation aesthetics, the aesthetic conditions of the TAS incorporated the translator’s cultural literacy as well as his/her aesthetic consciousness and experience. Therefore, the purpose of this chapter is to discuss from the perspective of TAS how Ba Jin's translation fully conveyed beauty of the Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. The discussion will include two parts: (1) the translator’s cultural literacy and (2) his aesthetic consciousness and experience.

====Ba Jin's Cultural Literacy====

According to Liu Miqing, TAS’ cultural literacy serves as the most basic condition in aesthetic translation activity. It lays foundation for aesthetic consciousness and without it, a translator would become color-blind even though he is in a colorful world of translation. (Liu Miqing, 1986, 21) For translators, cultural literacy is like an indispensable pair of spectacles to survey the beauty of a text. As for Ba Jin, he did possess a pair of very sophisticated glasses.

He was undoubtedly a literary master of the twentieth century, although he often said that “I was no litterateur”. (Ba Jin, 2003, 443) In 1904, he was born in a large gentry family. From his grandfather to his father, they were all government officials. With a well-educated family background, his language learning started early. At the age of five, he was already learning Essence of Classical Chinese (《古文观止》). This childhood experience equipped him with solid language capability of Chinese. From 1920 to 1922, he was a student in Chengdu Foreign Language Specialist School, where he exposed himself to as much western literature and sociological works as possible. It was in this school that Ba Jin learned English and completed his first translation work, the English edition of The Signal. In 1929, he came back from France to China. More excellent work of his came out, such as “Torrents Trilogy” (namely Family, Spring and Autumn) and “Love Trilogy” (namely Fog, Rain and Electricity).

He was undoubtedly a literary master of the twentieth century, although he often said that “I was no litterateur”. (Ba Jin, 2003, 443) In 1904, he was born in a large gentry family. From his grandfather to his father, they were all government officials. With a well-educated family background, his language learning started early. At the age of five, he was already learning Essence of Classical Chinese (《古文观止》). This childhood experience equipped him with solid language capability of Chinese. From 1920 to 1922, he was a student in Chengdu Foreign Language Specialist School, where he exposed himself to as much western literature and sociological works as possible. It was in this school that Ba Jin learned English and completed his first translation work, the English edition of The Signal. In 1929, he came back from France to China. More excellent work of his came out, such as “Torrents Trilogy” (namely Family, Spring and Autumn) and “Love Trilogy” (namely Fog, Rain and Electricity). --[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

Although his student life came to an end when he returned to China, he didn’t stop learning. Learning was something that accompanied all his life. He learned from books and learned from life. School and book were not the only source of one’s cultural literacy. Going out of campus and being in that chaotic age, he witnessed people’s suffering and he himself went through ups and downs. His understanding of life was deepened and his sympathy for the masses was aroused. The pursuit of truth, goodness and humanitarianism became life of his works.

In conclusion, knowledge acquired from books and life experience together constituted Ba Jin's cultural literacy. A good command of Chinese and English and his rich life experience enabled him to have abundant cultural literacy, which played a fundamental role in his comprehension and reproduction of the beauty in Oscar Wilde’s works.

====Ba Jin's Aesthetic Consciousness and Experience====

Before Ba Jin's aesthetic consciousness and experience are discussed, it is of necessity to clarify the definition of aesthetic consciousness and experience. In translation aesthetics, aesthetic consciousness refers to the translator’s sensitivity to beauty in the original text. It is usually got from intuition, but for a translator with a high level of cultural literacy, this sensitivity can be deepened. As for aesthetic experience, it refers to accumulated aesthetic sensation acquired from repetitive aesthetic activities. (Liu Miqing, 1986, 21)

Ba Jin's translation thoughts were scattered in the postscript, prologue or epilogue to his translation work. In this Chapter, his aesthetic consciousness and experience will be discussed based on the above sources.

Among Ba Jin's translation works, the most favored are his Russian translation works and his translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. Why did these translation works possess high quality and receive widespread popularity? In the author’s opinion, it has something to do with Ba Jin's choice of works to translate. In his epilogue to Collection of Ba Jin's Translation Works he said, “I only introduce the work I like.” In fact, one common theme of his translation of Russian works and Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales was that they both accused the capitalists of oppressing the proletariat, which was exactly what Ba Jin would like to criticize. Most people are sensitive to words, pictures, or music that could resonate with them. In this aspect, Ba Jin was no exception. He showed great sensitivity to the words that had deep sympathy for ordinary people. “In my first novel Perishing （《灭亡》）, I quoted conversations from Signal. Thirty years later, I translated it with the same excitement. I love it more than I love my own works. In it, I find my own thoughts and feelings.” (Ba Jin, 2003, 445) For Ba Jin, he was sensitive to the words in the original work as he was to his own works. Hence, he had the aesthetic consciousness he needed to translate others’ works. He was ready for them.

Most people know Ba Jin as a marvelous writer. What is less well-known is that he is also an outstanding translator. Cao Ying, a famous translator of Russian literary works, commented, “Ba Jin's translation was vivid and loyal to the original text. No one can top him in translation of Gorky’s short stories.” Gao Mang also said that Ba Jin’s language was beautiful and conveyed the lingering charm of the original text. (Wang Zhanbin, 2007, 20) In fact, the quality of Ba Jin's translation works was no inferior to his original works and the characters of the foreign works he translated amounted to over three million characters. He translated novels, fairy tales, prose writings and etc. Through a lot of translation practices, Ba Jin accumulated rich aesthetic experience, which could be found in his epilogues or prologues. One piece of aesthetic experience of his could be concluded as comprehension. “When I like an article, I always try to have a deeper understanding of it. I read it over and over again and constantly think about it. After I understand it, I want to use my words to express the writer’s ideas.” (Ba Jin, 2003, 443) --[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:32, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

Most people know Ba Jin as a marvelous writer. What is less well-known is that he is also an outstanding translator. Cao Ying, a famous translator of Russian literary works, commented, “Ba Jin's translation was vivid and loyal to the original text. No one can top him in translation of Gorky’s short stories.” Gao Mang also said that Ba Jin’s language was beautiful and conveyed the lingering charm of the original text. (Wang Zhanbin, 2007, 20) In fact, the quality of Ba Jin's translation works was no inferior to his original works and the characters of the foreign works he translated amounted to over three million characters. He translated novels, fairy tales, prose writings and etc. Through a lot of translation practices, Ba Jin accumulated rich aesthetic experience, which could be found in his epilogues or prologues. One piece of aesthetic experience of his could be concluded as comprehension. “When I like an article, I always try to have a deeper understanding of it. I read it over and over again and constantly think about it. After I understand it, I want to use my words to express the writer’s ideas.” (Ba Jin, 2003, 443) One characteristic of Ba Jin's translation was his loyalty to the original work, which must benefit a lot from his effort to fully comprehend the original work. It is worth mentioning here that Ba Jin's comprehension was more than the understanding the aesthetic constituents of the TAO, he endeavored to empathize. When he translated Chekhov’s works, he said “The difficulty is to properly show the truly benevolent heart of the writer. If the translator couldn’t understand that heart and fails to show it to the reader, what’s the point of the translation?” (Ba Jin, 1991, 3) When faced with the issue of literal translation or free translation, Ba Jin held that a good translator shouldn’t be constrained by the question of choosing only one method of the two, but to consider which one could better help himself/herself to reproduce the artistic conception. Artistic conception was highly valued be Ba Jin. In his postscript to Stories on the Prairie (《草原集》), he (Ba Jin, 2003, 248) mentioned twice that “I fear that I would ruin the whole artistic conception.” From above, it could be concluded that in Ba Jin's aesthetic experience, faithfulness and artistic conception were worth much attention. The latter is exactly corresponding to the fuzzy sets of TAO in translation aesthetics.

===Chapter 3 Aesthetic Features in Ba Jin's Translation===

Chapter Two has talked about from the perspective of TAS how Ba Jin's translation fully conveyed beauty of the Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. It made an analysis of the aesthetic conditions Ba Jin possessed. Thus, in this chapter, the author is going to look at the result of Ba Jin's translation to appreciate his transfer of beauty from Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales.

In Chapter One, it has been mentioned that whether an original text is beautiful depends on its aesthetic value. And the aesthetic value of an article was analyzed from its aesthetic constituents which covered goodness in the levels of sound, diction and tone of the text and the images and symbols in it. In this chapter, we will appreciate the beauty of Ba Jin's translation by comparing it from four aspects with Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales, which are sound, diction, imagery, and style. The beauty of sound and diction can be classified into the formal system. The beauty of imagery and style belongs to the informal system, i.e. the fuzzy sets.

====Beauty in Sound====

Oscar Wilde has a bond with music. Anyone who has read his The Happy and Prince and Other Stories would be touched by its sad and beautiful stories, which could be partly attributed to the melodious words in the book. The forceful rhythm in Wilde’s fairy tales could easily lead his readers into a pure and melancholy world created by him. After the reader finishes reading, the moving plots together with the bright beats echo in their mind.

Eg1- “Swallow, Swallow, little Swallow,” said the Prince, “far away across the city I see a young man in a garret. He is leaning over a desk covered with papers, and in a tumbler by his side there is a bunch of withered violets. His hair is brown and crisp, and his lips are red as a pomegranate, and he has large and dreamy eyes. He is trying to finish a play for the Director of the Theatre, but he is too cold to write anymore. There is no fire in the grate, and hunger has made him faint.” (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 6)

Here in the Wilde’s language, we can clearly feel what Ba Jin called “his musical tone”. In the beginning of the conversation, Wilde wrote three “swallow” as the Prince’s salutation to the swallow. The repetition slows down the speed of the language and also the thoughts of the readers. During this deceleration, he/she will put their attention to the following part. Besides, the repetition shows the gentleness of the Prince and his sincerity of request. Parallel structure was also used in this paragraph. For example, “his hair is” and “his lips are”; “he is trying to” and “but he is too cold to”. The use of parallelism adds a bright beat to the language. When Wilde was describing the appearance of the young man, he also used short paratactic sentences, which leaves the whole sentence well-proportioned and rhythmic to read. In the last sentence of this paragraph, assonance was used, for example “grate” and “faint”, which perfectly ends the conversation, depicting the plight which the young man is in.

Eg1- “燕子，燕子,小燕子，”王子说，“远远的，在城的那一边，我看见一个年轻人住在顶楼里面。他埋着头在一张堆满稿纸的书桌上写字，手边一个大玻璃杯里放着一束枯萎的紫罗兰。他的头发是棕色的，乱蓬蓬的，他的嘴唇象石榴一样地红，他还有一对朦胧的大眼睛。他在写一个戏，预备写给戏院经理送去，可是他太冷了，不能够再写一个字。炉子里没有火，他又饿得头昏眼花了。”（Ba Jin, 1981, 11）

The above paragraph was Ba Jin's version. From his translation, we can see his endeavor to imitate the beauty of sound in the original work. As for the three “swallow”, he didn’t change the repetition and just translated them directly. The same was with the short sentences and parallel structure. He didn’t change the stop of the sentence and began the description of the young man in every short sentence with a “他”. Here, you may think imitation is easy and without too much brain work. But it isn’t true. Vivid imitation requires creation, which is especially seen in somewhere seems to be untranslatable. The translation of “there is no fire in the grate, and hunger has made him faint.” to “炉子里没有火，他又饿得头昏眼花了。”is an excellent example. Ba Jin managed to maintain the beauty of sound to the largest extent. “火” , “昏” , “花” all begins with the initial consonant of the Chinese syllable “h”, which contains the same meaning of the original text and at the same time created similar musical beauty.

Here is another excerpt of musical beauty in Wilde’s fairy tales:

Eg2-Bitter, bitter was the pain, and wilder and wilder grew her song, for she sang of the Love that is perfected by Death, of the Love that dies not in the tomb. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 16)

This sentence is taken from The Nightingale and the Rose. It depicted the melancholy and moving scene when the nightingale pressed her heart against the thorn as she was singing. Wilde here used repetition and parallelism to strengthen the musical tone of the language, which made the sentence itself sound like a song. The moving effect of the nightingale’s sacrifice was strengthened be the melody of repetition and parallelism, helping the reader feel a kind of emotional advance when reading it. Let’s look at how Ba Jin transferred the musical tone:

Eg2-她痛得越厉害，越厉害，她的歌声也唱得越激昂，越激昂，因为她唱到了由死来完成的爱，在坟墓里永远不朽的爱。（Ba Jin，2010, 25）
Wilde’s repetition in the translation was rendered as “越…越…” and the parallel structure was kept as “…的爱；…的爱”. When one is reading the translation, he/she could feel the same emotional up and down which climbs up to the summit when one reads the last “激昂” and then goes down as “因为” begins the next sentence.

From the above example, it can be seen that Ba Jin adopted the approach of imitation to convey the beauty of sound in the original text. But imitation is not easy, it requires a clever mind to create similar aesthetic effects.

====Beauty in Diction====

The language in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tale was not only delightful to the ear, but also pleasant to the eye. One will first be enchanted in his melodious rhythm and then be amazed by his choice of words. Every word is like a pearl woven in a net. No one can replace it with another word, for it will then despoil its beauty of integrality. Here is an excerpt from The Happy Prince.

Eg3-Then the snow came, and after the snow came the frost. The streets looked as if they were made of silver, they were so bright and glistening; long icicles like crystal daggers hung down from the eaves of the houses, everybody went about in furs, and the little boys wore scarlet caps and skated on the ice. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 9)

This paragraph depicted the street scene after the little swallow gave away all the fine gold off the Prince. The snow and frost fell down. Everything became crystal. Men, women and little boys were all wrapped in warm clothes and went out to enjoy the beautiful snow scene. The sparkling natural scenery and people’s joyful activities constituted a harmonious picture of a snowy day. When describing the tranquil view, Wilde used simile to make the scenery more visually sensible, such as “looked as if” and “long icicles like crystal daggers”. The metaphorical objects he chose added vividness to the snowy view. Apart from the figure of speech he used, the adjectives in the article were also accurate and appropriate. “Bright”, “glistening” and “crystal” were very proper words to portray the sparkling snowy scene.
This picture also impressed Ba Jin and he vividly rendered it in his translation:

Eg3-“随后雪来了，严寒也到了。街道好像是银子筑成的，它们是那么亮，那么光辉；长长的冰柱象水晶的短剑似的悬挂在檐前，每个行人都穿着皮衣，小孩子们也戴上红帽子溜冰取乐。”（Ba Jin，1981, 16）

good--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

Faithfulness is one obvious characteristic in the translation of this paragraph. Ba Jin kept loyal to the figures of speech in Wilde’s stories. The forms of personification and simile didn’t take any change to maintain the original beauty to the largest extent. For example, the translation of “came” to “到了” and “来了”, and “as if” and “like” respectively to “好像是” and “ 像……似的”. Only two places were slightly different from the original work, which were the translation of preposition “in” to the verb “穿” and addition of “取乐” to modify “skating”. The first change he made was necessary, because in Chinese one would not use the collocation of a preposition plus a noun of a certain clothes to describe one’s dressing. The second change was made to emphasize the boys’ happiness hidden between lines of the original text, making it easier for young readers to perceive the contrast the writer used in the story.

One distinctive language feature of the fairy tale is that it is full of personifications. In the third example, we will see how the translation successfully transferred the vividness of the personifications in the original text.

First, we will look at the original text:

Eg4-The Snow covered up the grass with her great white cloak, and the Frost painted all the trees silver. Then they invited the North Wind to stay with them, and he came. He was wrapped in furs, and he roared all day about the garden, and blew the chimney-pots down. “This is a delightful spot,” he said, “we must ask the Hail on a visit.” So the Hail came. Every day for three hours he rattled on the roof of the castle till he broke most of the slates, and then he ran round and round the garden as fast as he could go. He was dressed in grey, and his breath was like ice. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 9)

The following is Ba Jin's translation:

Eg4-雪用她的白色大氅盖着草，霜把所有的树枝涂成了银色。她们还请北风来同住，他果然来了。他身上裹着皮衣，整天在园子里四处叫吼，把烟囱管帽也吹倒了。他说：“这是一个适意的地方，我们一定要请雹来玩一趟。”于是雹来了。他每天总要在这府邸屋顶上闹三个钟头，把瓦片弄坏了大半才停止。然后他又在花园里绕着圈子用力跑。他穿一身的灰色衣服，他的气息就像冰一样。（Ba Jin，1981, 22）

In the original text we can see that in Wilde’s description, “Snow”, “Frost”, “North Wind” and “Hail” were all personified by endowing them with the speaking ability like human’s and several lively verb phrases, such as “roared about”, “blew down”, “rattled on”, “broke” and “ran around and around”. These verbs vividly shaped the four naughty and mischievous winter weather characters. If a translation aims to transfer the same aesthetic effect, the translator must render these verbs as lively as they were in the original text. Ba Jin did this. When one is reading his translation, he/she cannot help being amused by these winter weather characters. As for “roared about”, “blew down” and “broke”, Ba Jin directly translated their corresponding Chinese meaning to “四处叫吼”, “吹到了” and “弄坏了”, keeping the figure of speech of personification. When dealing with “rattled on” and “ran around and around …as fast as he could go”, he made some changes. “Rattled on” was translated to “闹”. “Rattle” in the original text was a description of the noises that “Hail” made. The translation of it to “闹” kept the sound of rattling and meanwhile highlight the mischief of the “Hail”. If “rattled on” is directly translated to “咔嗒咔嗒响了”, the effect of the personification will definitely weakened. Therefore, the single character of “闹” was vivid and concise. As for translation of the running of the Hail, Ba Jin changed the description of running speed in the original text to the portraying of the Hail’s running manner, which was appropriate given that it conveyed effect of the personification.

From the above analysis, the author finds that at the level of diction, Ba Jin attached importance to faithfulness, the idiomaticity of the target language and the conveyance of the same aesthetic effect.

====Beauty in Imagery====

Before we conduct analysis of the beauty in imagery in the original work and the translation, it is necessary to clarify what “imagery” is involved in this thesis. In Oxford English Dictionary, the word “imagery” has two meanings: a. language that produces pictures in minds of people reading or listening; b. pictures, photographs, etc. In this thesis, the imagery refers to the first meaning.

The tragic beauty of The Nightingale and the Rose often brings its readers to tears. Oscar Wilde, using his musical language and pearl-like words, evoked mental pictures of ethereal beauty in this fairy tale. Here is an excerpt from it.

Eg5- She sang first of the birth of love in the heart of a boy and a girl. And on the top-most spray of the Rose-tree there blossomed a marvelous rose, petal following petal, as song followed song. Pale was it, at first, as the mist that hangs over the river- pale as the feet of morning, and silver as the wings of the dawn. As the shadow of a rose in a mirror of silver, as the shadow of a rose in a water-pool, so was the rose that blossomed on the topmost spray of the Tree. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 15)

The above excerpt was Wilde’s delicate description of the rose’s blooming with the nightingale’s song. In his description, there was direct portraying, such as “petal following petal”, which added dynamic beauty to the whole imagery. In addition, he adopted association to describe color of the rose. He associated paleness of the flower with “mist that hangs over the river” and “the feet of morning”, and its silver with “the wings of the dawn”. The mist and light of the dawn were pale-white, just as the budding rose. At the end of this paragraph, Wilde used the same technique of speech to describe the delicacy and tenderness of the blossom bathed in the moonlight. This association not only described the color and appearance of the rose, but also enlarged the version and cloaked the whole scene with a kind of ethereal beauty.

The following excerpt shows how Ba Jin reproduced the beautiful imagery:

Eg5- 她起初唱着一对小儿女心里的爱情。在蔷薇树的最高枝上开出了一朵奇异的蔷薇，歌一首一首地唱下去，花瓣也跟着一片一片地开放了。花起初是浅白的，就像罩在河上的雾，浅白色像晨光的脚，银白色像黎明的翅膀。最高枝上开花的那朵蔷薇，就像一朵在银镜中映出的蔷薇花影，就像一朵在水池中映出的蔷薇花影。（Ba Jin，2010, 25）

“Rose”, “petal”, “mist”, “shadow”, “mirror of silver” and “water pool” were all visualized in his mind. The images appeared one by one before his eyes when he was reading the original work, and mixed together as a whole in his mind. After fully comprehended beauty of the imagery, he used his own words to reproduce the imagery. He used reduplicative words “一首一首” and “一片一片” to depict the continuous melodious singing and the slow blooming of the rose. Through the context and visualization, he knew that morning cannot be simply translated to “早晨”, since the adoption of association was to depict the color of the petal. “晨光” would be an appropriate choice, because only “光(light)” could have a specific color. But “黎明” is different from “早晨” given that the word itself emphasizes the light of daybreak when the sun rises above the horizon. Therefore, he didn’t make any change to it. As for other images that could be directly translated without confusing the reader, Ba Jin translate them according to the original text.

From the above analysis, the author finds that the image conveyed by Ba Jin was a harmonious whole. The beauty of image in the original text was reproduced vividly in Ba Jin's words. It could be speculated that when rendering the image of beauty in translation, Ba Jin used visualization to revive the image in the original text. And at the same time, he tried to comprehend the emotions in the original text. The combination of pictures and emotions aroused his aesthetic feeling and then he transferred it with his own words in the translation. This kind of empathy is very important in translation aesthetics when a translator attempted to reproduce the beauty of image. In fact, the speculation of Ba Jin's psychological activities when he was doing translation could be partly verified though the epilogue to his 1947 edition fairy tales. “Here I woke up very early in the morning, and I would take a walk along the road. I would go to the foot of the mountain near the field to listen to the singing of the birds. After the walk, I came back to the room in the hotel. The sunlight was so bright so I didn’t want to let it go and do nothing. I sat before the window and translated one of Wilde’s fairy tales entitled The Selfish Giant.” Ba Jin realized the importance of empathy, and his vivid translation of The Selfish Giant also proved the magic of empathy in aesthetic representation. In order to reproduce the beauty of the original text, Ba Jin would put himself in a similar situation with the scene in the original text. Though it is not always feasible or necessary to put oneself in a situation that is physically identical with the scene in a text, Ba Jin's endeavor and his successful translation told us the importance of empathy in transferring the beauty of imagery in an original text.

====Beauty in Style====

Oscar Wilde, as one of the leading figures of the Aesthetic Movement, held that “Art for art’s sake”. In his fairy tales, every word and sentence exhibited his pursuit of aestheticism. His words were ornate and of musical tone. His narration was rather quiet and objective. But for some reason, readers would feel a dull pain in the heart when reading these stories.

Oscar Wilde, as one of the leading figures of the Aesthetic Movement, held that “Art for art’s sake”. In his fairy tales, every word and sentence exhibited his pursuit of aestheticism. His words were ornate and of musical tone. His narration was rather quiet and objective. But for some reason, readers would feel a dull pain in the heart when reading these stories. --[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

Here are three excerpts from Oscar’s fairy tales, which depicted the good-hearted characters’ scene of death.

Eg6- “What a strange thing!” said the overseer of the workmen at the foundry. “This broken lead heart will not melt in the furnace. We must throw it away.” So they threw it on a dust-heap where the dead Swallow was also lying. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 10)

Eg7- “Look, look!” cried the Tree, “the rose is finished now”, but the Nightingale made no answer, for she was lying dead in the long grass, with the thorn in her heart. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 16)

Eg6- “What a strange thing!” said the overseer of the workmen at the foundry. “This broken lead heart will not melt in the furnace. We must throw it away.” So they threw it on a dust-heap where the dead Swallow was also lying. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 10)

Eg7- “Look, look!” cried the Tree, “the rose is finished now”, but the Nightingale made no answer, for she was lying dead in the long grass, with the thorn in her heart. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 16)--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

Eg8- “…and there poor little Hans was drowned. His body was found the next day by some goatherds, floating in a great pool of water…” (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 34)

The four dead characters in the above excerpts were all very good-hearted ones who sacrificed their life for love. But when Wilde’s was depicting their death, his words were very simple and objective, without mixing his own feelings. This unemotional narration was very common in his fairy tales. But the more indifferent his tone was, the more shock and sadness he brought to people. How did Ba Jin transfer this style of narration to the readers? Let’s have a look of his translation.

Eg6- “真是一件古怪的事，”铸造厂的监工说。“这块破裂的铅心在炉里熔化不了。我们一定得把它扔掉。”他们便把它扔在一个垃圾堆上，那只死燕子也躺在那里。（Ba Jin, 2010, 17）

Eg7- “看啊，看啊！”树叫起来，“现在蔷薇完成了。”可是夜莺并不回答，因为她已经死在长得高高的青草丛中了，心上还带着那根蔷薇刺。（Ba Jin, 2010, 26）

Eg8- “……可怜的小汉斯就淹死在这儿了。第二天他的尸首被几个牧羊人找到了，正浮在一个大池塘的水面上……”（Ba Jin,2010, 48）

From the above translation it can be found that Ba Jin didn’t add his own feelings in the translation just because he felt sympathetic for these characters or because he sensed the writer’s implied sorrow and therefore presumptuously thought that this sorrow should be explicitly expressed in the text. He fully comprehended the original text, from the word, rhythm to the writer’s feelings. His conveyance of beauty of the style in the original text was established on his understanding of the whole text. Thus, his translation was accurate, natural and smooth, reproducing the same style without trace of translation. When one is reading his translation, he/she could enjoy the same aesthetic beauty of the original text. The following is an example of his transfer of Oscar Wilde’s irony in The devoted friend.

Eg9- “‘There is no good in my going to see little Hans as long as the snow lasts’, the Miller used to say to his wife, ‘for when people are in trouble they should be left alone, and not be bothered by visitors. That at least is my idea about friendship, and I am sure I am right. So I shall wait till the spring comes, and then I shall pay him a visit, and he will be able to give me a large basket of primroses and that will make him so happy.” (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 25)

Eg9- “磨面师常常对他妻子说：‘雪花没有化的时候，我去看看小汉斯，是没有好处的，因为人在困难的时候，应该让他安静，不应当有客人去打扰他。这至少是我对于友谊的看法，我相信我是对的。所以我要等到春天来，才去探望他，那时他便可以送我一大篮樱草，这会使他非常高兴。’”（Ba Jin, 2010, 38）

The Miller in The Devoted Friend was a greedy, selfish and shameless figure. He always asked poor little Hans for a favor as a return for his generous present, a broken wheelbarrow, which he didn’t give to Hans even when Hans was dead. Even though he was rich, he always tried to extort some benefit from Hans. He was one of those who only ask but never give. The above excerpt was Wilde’s satirical description of the Miller’s noble idea of friendship. The words and sentences “should be”, “at least”, and “I am sure I am right” in the original text vividly showed the Miller’s arrogant tone. In Ba Jin's translation, they were translated as “应该”, “至少”, and “我相信我是对的”, which was in accordance with the original text. In the original text, the Miller seemed to be a very considerate friend since whatever he would do, he always put others before himself. He didn’t visit Hans in a snowy day because one should be left alone when he was in trouble, not because he himself feared the biting cold on the way to visit. His extortion of “a large basket of primroses” was because it would make Hans happy, not because he himself coveted the beautiful flowers. This kind of satire in Wilde’s writing was fully reproduced in Ba Jin's translation. The words “他便可以” told the readers what a privilege little Hans would have when the Miller visited him in spring. He would save the trouble of going all the way to the Miller’s home and how happy he would be when he gave the present to the Miller.

The Miller in The Devoted Friend was a greedy, selfish and shameless figure. He always asked poor little Hans for a favor as a return for his generous present, a broken wheelbarrow, which he didn’t give to Hans even when Hans was dead. Even though he was rich, he always tried to extort some benefit from Hans. He was one of those who only ask but never give. The above excerpt was Wilde’s satirical description of the Miller’s noble idea of friendship. The words and sentences “should be”, “at least”, and “I am sure I am right” in the original text vividly showed the Miller’s arrogant tone. In Ba Jin's translation, they were translated as “应该”, “至少”, and “我相信我是对的”, --[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

It can be seen from the above analysis that Ba Jin highly respected the original writer’s writing style. In fact, when it comes to translation of style, he said, “Translation should firstly be loyal to the original work. The style of translation should be based upon that of the original work. The tone and lingering charm should be remained as much as possible so as to reproduce the original style.” It is his translation attitude of faithfulness, fully comprehension of the whole text and his own natural and smooth expression that lead the readers back to Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to appreciate the beauty of style in the original work.

===Conclusion===

Oscar Wilde had an erudite way with words and is often quoted to this day. His collection of short stories is imbued with a timeless quality. The tales possess such romantic charm and moral charge that they read like traditional fables crafted and refined by generations of storytellers over one hundred of years.

It was Ba Jin who brought those wonderful stories to Chinese readers at large. In his translation, readers could feel the same aesthetic effect. As a literary giant in China, Ba Jin created dozens of marvelous novels and translation works. Learning and practice helped him accumulate rich aesthetic experience and deepened his aesthetic consciousness. The sufficient aesthetic conditions laid solid foundation for his transfer of beauty in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales.

On sound level, he mainly used imitation to convey beauty in the original work. Repetition, parallelism and assonance in the original text largely remained in his translation. But his imitation was not rigid. It was a kind of creative imitation in order to better reproduce the sound beauty in the original work. On diction level, he thought highly of faithfulness and the idiomaticity of the target language. He tried to choose the most appropriate and vivid word in Chinese to translate the word in the original text so as to being faithful to the aesthetic effect in the original text. On image level, he used visualization and empathy to reproduce the beauty in the original text.On style level, he stressed the importance of faithfulness and endeavored to maintain the tone and lingering charm as much as possible to reproduce the style of the original work.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

On sound level, he mainly used imitation to convey beauty in the original work. Repetition, parallelism and assonance in the original text largely remained in his translation. But his imitation was not rigid. It was a kind of creative imitation in order to better reproduce the sound beauty in the original work.

On diction level, he thought highly of faithfulness and the idiomaticity of the target language. He tried to choose the most appropriate and vivid word in Chinese to translate the word in the original text so as to being faithful to the aesthetic effect in the original text.

On image level, he used visualization and empathy to reproduce the beauty in the original text.

On style level, he stressed the importance of faithfulness and endeavored to maintain the tone and lingering charm as much as possible to reproduce the style of the original work.

Therefore, Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales is natural, smooth and beautiful, leading the readers back to the wonderful world Wilde created. One obvious feature of Ba Jin's translation is that he put an emphasis on faithfulness. But his faithfulness transcended only being faithful to the logical information in the original text, being loyal to the aesthetic information was also incorporated in his faithfulness to the original text. This provides us with much enlightenment on translating a literary work. Thanks to Oscar Wilde, it was him who presented us with such beautiful fairy tales. And thanks to Ba Jin, it was him that reproduced the beauty of the original work.

Oscar Wilde had an erudite way with words and is often quoted to this day. His collection of short stories is imbued with a timeless quality. The tales possess such romantic charm and moral charge that they read like traditional fables crafted and refined by generations of storytellers over one hundred of years.

It was Ba Jin who brought those wonderful stories to Chinese readers at large. In his translation, readers could feel the same aesthetic effect. As a literary giant in China, Ba Jin created dozens of marvelous novels and translation works. Learning and practice helped him accumulate rich aesthetic experience and deepened his aesthetic consciousness. The sufficient aesthetic conditions laid solid foundation for his transfer of beauty in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. On sound level, he mainly used imitation to convey beauty in the original work. Repetition, parallelism and assonance in the original text largely remained in his translation. But his imitation was not rigid. It was a kind of creative imitation in order to better reproduce the sound beauty in the original work. On diction level, he thought highly of faithfulness and the idiomaticity of the target language. He tried to choose the most appropriate and vivid word in Chinese to translate the word in the original text so as to being faithful to the aesthetic effect in the original text. On image level, he used visualization and empathy to reproduce the beauty in the original text. On style level, he stressed the importance of faithfulness and endeavored to maintain the tone and lingering charm as much as possible to reproduce the style of the original work. Therefore, Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales is natural, smooth and beautiful, leading the readers back to the wonderful world Wilde created. One obvious feature of Ba Jin's translation is that he put an emphasis on faithfulness. But his faithfulness transcended only being faithful to the logical information in the original text, being loyal to the aesthetic information was also incorporated in his faithfulness to the original text. This provides us with much enlightenment on translating a literary work. Thanks to Oscar Wilde, it was him who presented us with such beautiful fairy tales. And thanks to Ba Jin, it was him that reproduced the beauty of the original work.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

===References===

[1] Bloom, H edit. (2011). Bloom’s Modern Critical Views: Oscar Wilde—New Edition. New York: Infobase Publishing.

[2] Jiang, Q X. (2002). Aesthetic Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization. Beijing: The Commercial Press.

[3] Wilde, O. (2015). The Happy Prince and Other Stories. London: HaperCollinsPublishers.

in Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. 智库时代 Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.
Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). 翻译基础 [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学.

[4] Ba Jin 巴金译, Oscar Wilde 王尔德著. (1981). 快乐王子 [The Happy Prince and Other Stories]. Shanghai上海：Juvenile & Children's Publishing House 少年儿童出版社

[5] Ba Jin 巴金. (2003). 巴金译文选集 [Collection of Ba Jin's Translation Works]. Beijing 北京: SDX Joint Publishing Company 生活·读书·新知三联书店

[6] Ba Jin 巴金译, Oscar Wilde 王尔德著. (2010). 快乐王子 [The Happy Prince and Other Stories]. Shanghai 上海: Shanghai Translation Publishing House上海译文出版社

[7] Fang Mengzhi 方梦之. (2004). 译学辞典 [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. Shanghai 上海: Shanghai Foreing Languages Education Press上海外语教育出版社

[8] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1986).翻译美学概述 [A Survey of Translation Aesthetics].外国语(上海外国语学报) Journal of Foreign Languages, (02):48-53.

[9] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1986). 翻译美学基本理论构想 [A Basic Theoretical Supposition of Translation Aesthetics].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal, (04):19-24.

[10] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2005). 翻译美学导论 [An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics]. Bei Jing 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司China Translation & Publishing Corporation

[11] Lin Lin 林琳. (2007). 从美学视角看巴金译《快乐王子及其他故事》[An Aesthetic Perspective of Ba Jin's Translation of The Happy Prince and Other Stories]. Shanghai International Studies University 上海外国语大学.

[12] Liu Xiaoyin 刘孝银. (2012). 从翻译美学析巴金译王尔德童话 [Translation Aesthetics Study on Ba Jin's Translation of Oscar Wilde's Fairy Tales]. Shanxi Normal University 山西师范大学.

[13] Mao Ronggui毛荣贵. (2005). 翻译美学 [Translation Aesthetics]. Shanghai上海: Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press上海交通大学出版社

[14] Wang Zhanbin 王占斌. (2007).巴金翻译思想探析 [An Exploration and Analysis of Ba Jin's Translation Theories].English Studies英语研究, 5(03):19-22.

[15] Wu Jinhua 吴金华. (1999). 试析奥斯卡·王尔德作品的语言特色 [An Analysis of Linguistic Features of Oscar Wilde's works].Journal of Ningxia University(Philosophy and Social Sciences)宁夏大学学报(哲学社会科学版), (02):107-109+128.

[16] Xiang Hongquan 向洪全. (2016). 翻译家巴金研究 [An Research on the Translator Ba Jin]. Shanghai 上海：Fudan University Press 复旦大学出版社.

[17] Yang Liqiu 杨立秋. (2016). 巴金翻译美学特征探析 [On Ba Jin's Aesthetic Features in Translation: A Case Study of The Fairy Tales of Oscar Wilde].Beijing Foreign Studies University 北京外国语大学.

==The Comparison between Lexical Gap in Linguistics and It in Translatology From the Perspective of Skopos Theory 孟莹 Meng Ying==

===Abstract===

Because of globalization, the cross-cultural communication becomes more and more important. The lexical gap causes difficulty in mutual understanding between two cultures. Even though the lexical gap is borrowed from semantics to translatology, they are different. The paper compares the definition, the classification in lexical gap in linguistics and in translatology and find that the lexical gap in linguistics mainly concerns the unlexicalized concept within one language, while the lexical gap in Translatology mainly focus on the culture-specific words and denotation and connotation divergence between equivalents in two languages. Besides, the paper also analyzes the causes of lexical gap from cognitive perspective. The experiential and perceptual causes are the main causes of lexical gap. Besides, to solve the lexical gap in linguistics and in translatology respectively, the paper provides different translation strategies for the two kinds based on Skopos theory.

===Keywords===

Lexical Gap, Culrure-loaded Words, Skopos Theory

===摘要===

由于全球化的发展，跨文化交际变得越来越重要。词汇的差异导致两种文化之间难以相互理解。虽然词空缺是从语义学借用到翻译学，但两者互不相同。本文从定义,分类比较了词汇空缺在语言学和翻译学中的不同，发现语言学的词汇空缺主要关注在同一语言中没有被词汇化的概念，而翻译学的词汇空缺主要指文化造成的概念空缺和两个语言中对应词汇在外延和内涵上的不同。此外，本文还从认知角度分析了造成词汇空缺的原因。经验缺失和认知差异是造成词汇空缺的主要原因。此外，为了解决语言学和翻译学上的词汇空缺，本文基于目的论为这两种词汇空缺提出了不同的翻译策略。

===关键词===

词汇空缺；文化负载词；目的论

===Introduction===

Word is a basic unit of language. “The vocabulary of a particular language is not just a random list of words. As a matter of fact, the vocabulary is organized in terms of lexical fields.” (Wang Quanzhi, 2017, 748) In a lexical field, if a concept exists, but the word that represents the concept is absent, so the lexical gap within a language will occur, which is the meaning of lexical gap in linguistics.

The term of "lexical gap" is originated from a French word "lacuna". (Qian Jing, 2013:11-12) . The “lacuna” means vacancy, therefore, the lexical gap means word vacancy. Researchers in linguistic and researchers in translatology defines lexical gap differently. In translatology, the lexical gap is defined across two languages. The lexical gap in translatology is mainly caused by culture and society difference. However, no researchers until now tries to compare the difference between lexical gap in linguistics and in translatology. Therefore, the paper will try to compare them form definition, classification, translation strategy. (Wang Quanzhi, 2017, 748)

Besides, some reseachers equates the lexical gap with the culture-loaded words, but the paper does not agree. Therefore, the paper tries to compare them. (Tian & Yang, 2005: 55)

Nowadays, the cross-cultural communication become more and more important because of the globalization. To break the language barrier, the translation become very significant. However, the lexical gap confuses the translator in a large scale. Therefore, to know it clearly and to grasp its translation strategy is urgent for the successful communication and culture spreading. The skopos theory provides us a new way to see translation. With different purposes, different translation strategies should be applied. translation for successful communication and translation for culture spreading should apply different strategies. (Qian Jing, 2013:11-12)

The structure of the thesis is given below. Section 1 introduces the three rules of skopos theory. Section 2 introduces the difference between definitions, classifications of lexical gap in linguistics and in translatology and also discusses the causes of lexical gap. Section 3 put forward different translation strategies for the two kinds of lexical gap based on the skopos theory. Section 5 concludes the whole paper.

===Introduction of Skopos Theory===
====Development of Skopos Theory====
The origin of Skopos theory can be dated back to Katharina Reiss’s book Possibilities and Limitations in Translation Criticism in 1971. In Skopos theory, translation is considered as a human behaviors with certain purposes rather than translating processes. The judgement of a successful translation is whether the translation accords with the intended purpose. (Zhao Xiuxing, 2015, 14)

The development of Skopos Theory can be divided into three phases. In 1971, Katherina Reiss firstly proposed the base form of functionalist approach to translation. On one hand, Reiss suggested that the perfect translation should be translation “in which the aim in the TL is equivalence as regards the conceptual content, linguistic form and communicative function of a SL text”. Reiss defines this kind of translation as “integral communicative performance”; On the other hand, she admits that the absolute equivalence is impossible, besides, in some situations, is not required. The translation should have its own translation brief. In some cases, the different function of the original text is different with the target one, so Reiss proposes that the translator is supposed to pay attention to the function not the equivalence. (Zhang Jinlan, 2004, 35-36)

Hans Vermeer puts forward Skopos theory based on the ideas of his teacher Katherina Reiss. Vermeer believes that translation is a kind of transformation, that is, the transfer of communicative linguistic signs and non-linguistic signs from one language to another. Translation is also a kind of human action. According to the action theory, Vermeer considers translation as the intentional and purposeful behavior under specific circumstances. Translator should translate the original text selectively based on the intentions of translation and the requirements of target readers. Vermeer also emphasizes that translation is not a one-to-one language transformation activity because the human behaviors take place in culturals context and different cultures have different customs and values. (Zhang Jinlan, 2004, 35-36)

Based on action theory, Justa Holz Manttari (1984) develops the ideas of Vermeer Manttari believes that translation designed to satisfy a particular intention with the coverage of all forms of intercultural transfer, including textural material, pictures, sounds, body movements and so on. Therefore, he emphasizes translating process, the roles of the participants and the situation in which the activities occur. (Zhao Xiuxing, 2015, 14-15)

====Principles of Skopos Theory====

There are three rules in Skopos Theory including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule. Actually, the skopos rule is the primary rule among the three rules.

The Skopos theory means that the translational purposes of the target text determine the translation process. The skopos rule can be explained as translate or express the original text in a way that admits your translation to satisfy the function the target readers or you clients want. The rule indicates that the translator may use the free or faithful translation or combination of the two extremes depending on the purposes that the target text requires. That is to say, there is no better way between free translation and faithful translation. The point is how to use them properly. ( Nord, Christiane, 2001, 29)

By Coherence rule, the standard of “intratextual coherence” should be conformed in the target language (Reiss and Vermeer 1984: 109). That is to say, that the target text that a translator translates should be understood by the receivers. Besides, the words and expressions in the target text should be meaningful and understandable in the culture and communicative situation where target language is used, which means that the target reader can easily comprehend the purposes of the target text quickly. (Tian Xiaoqin, 2006, 23)

Therefore, the translators have to grasp the the social and cultural knowledge of the target receivers and the original text. based on the absolute understanding of the two culture, the translator can comprehend the inherent meaning of the original text, select the useful message that should be translated in the source text and find or create proper expressions in the target language for the better understanding of target text to make sure the successful cross-culture communication. (Zhao Xiuxing, 2015, 16-17)

Fidelity rule, also called intertextual coherence between source text and target text. As we have discussed above, the purposes that the target text want to satisfy is the most important in the translation, which means the translator may subordinate the faithfulness to the source text to the satisfaction of the purposes. However, it does not mean that the faithfulness is not required. The translators should try their best to be faithful and achieve the purposes at the same time. The degree of the fidelity actually relies on the purpose the translator’s understanding of the source text. (Zhao Xiuxing, 2015, 16-17)

As mentioned above, it is doubtless that skopos rule is the core of Skopos theory. The coherence rule is more important than fidelity rule. If the skopos changes, the degree of inter-textual coherence between source text and target text will change. If the skopos does not require intratextual coherence, the coherence rule is not needed (Nord, Christiane, 2001, 33).

===Introduction of Lexical Gap and Culture-loaded Words===

====The Definition of Lexical Gap in Linguistics and Translatology====

By reading different papers, the paper finds that the different definitions of lexical gap in Linguistics and Translatology. Therefore, the paper discusses the difference between the two definitions and the problems caused by the biased understanding of the lexical gap in Translatology.

In 1957, Lado R (cf Tan Zaixi, 1982: 6-10) first proposed the concept of "Lexical gaps" in Linguistics across Cultures. In Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics, the definition of the lexical gap is “the absence of a word in a particular place in a lexical field of a language.” (Richards et al, 2002: 305). Besides, the lexical gap is also defined “a lexical item which has the potential to be lexicalized, but is not actually lexicalized, in the vocabulary according to the rules governing the phonological system, the morpheme combination and the sememe combination of the language in question.” (Wang Qianzhi, 2017, 749-750)

Though the lexical gap is firstly appeared in the field of the linguistics, the term is also used in the study of translation. The basic idea “the absence of a word” in the definition of lexical gap is used to describe the phenomenon that “the absence in the target language of a word, an expression that exists in the target language.” (Delisle, Jean et al, 1988,77)

Therefore, in Translatology, the concept of lexical gap is always infused with the concept of culture, especially in China.
The concept of lexical gap is firstly applied by Tan Zaixi (1982). (Qian Jing, 2013, 11-12). As the researcher proposes, the unique characteristics of a culture will be embodied in the language. When the culture uniqueness is reflected in vocabulary, the lexical gap will arise between two languages. (Tan Zaixi, 1982, 6)

Guo Aixian( 1998) sums up three definitions of lexical gap according to the previous researches, firstly, it refers to unique words of each culture. Secondly, they are the words of the source language that are easily misunderstood in the target language. Thirdly, they are culture-loaded words and expressions. (Guo Aixian, 1998: 42)

In Sum up, the Lexical gap in linguistics is discussed with a language and the component of culture is not considered, while the lexical gap in Translatology is studied from the perspective of interlanguage and is infused with culture.

====The Classification of Lexical Gap in Linguistics and Translatology====
=====The Classification of Lexical Gap in Linguistics=====

Wenxu (2003) believes that the lexical gap is caused mainly by the hyponymy, antonymy, synonymy and part-whole relation. He puts forward to use the three lexical semantic relations that are proposed by Cruse (1986) to classify the lexical gap, which includes proportional series, hierarchies and opposites. (Wen Xu, 2003, 81)

Wen also illustrate the three classification of the lexical gap.

For the proportional series, he gives an example like human—corpse, animal—carcass, plant—?. In this example, human and corpse as well as animal and carcass constitute an intact minimal unit, while the vacancy in the place that express the concept of “dead plant” is a lexical gap in English. (ibid)
By hierarchies, Wen suggests that the hyponymy is a kind of hierarchies. His example is that no hypernym in the category of verbs that express moving in the ground, but there are “swim”, “fly” to express moving in the water and sky, so a lexical gap occurs. By the opposites, Wen proposes that there may exist lexical gap in antonymy. For example, blind, deaf, dumb have no lexicalized antonyms. (ibid)

From the three classification of the lexical gap in linguistics, it is found that the lexical gap in linguistics mainly occur in the lexical sematic relations within a language. (ibid)

=====The Classification of Lexical Gap in Translatology=====

However, when the “gap” is used to refer to the difference between two languages.

Therefore, Han (2009) classifies the lexical gap in translatology into two categories and four subcatergories. The two categories are lexical gap including concept vacancy and expression vacancy as well as semi-lexical gap including denotation divergence and connotation divergence. (Han Luan, 2009, 4-6)

A. Lexical Gap Proper—No Equivalent

Lexical gap proper means that there exists no equivalent of the words or expressions of the source language in the target language. Lexical gap proper is manifested by two kinds: concept vacancy and expression vacancy. (Huan Luan, 2009, 6-12)

a. Concept vacancy

Concept vacancy is a kind of lexical gap that is related to the difference of culture because of the culture difference. The present concept in source language may be absent in the target language. For example, the concept of “土地庙” does not exist in English, and the concept of “Lazy Susan” cannot find equivalent in Chinese. Those words are created based on the unique characteristics of the culture. That is to say, the culture uniqueness causes the absence of concepts in a language. (Huan Luan, 2009, 6-12)

b. Expression Vacancy

Expression Vacancy refers to the non-lexicalized concept in the target language, which means that a concept may be represented by a lexicon but by a free combination of words in the target one. For example, Chinese people may use “笔” to refer to the general name of a category, while there exists no such a general name in English. There is no doubt that the English speakers know what is “笔”. They just have no such a word for reference. (Huan Luan, 2009, 6-12)

B. Semi-lexical Gap—Partial Equivalent

Actually, semi-lexical gap means partial equivalence. That is to say, even though words and expressions in source language can find equivalents in target language, but they are not totally same. The divergence may occur in the denotation and connotation of the concept. (Huan Luan, 2009, 6-12)

a. Denotation Divergence and Connotation Divergence

Here the paper gives examples to illustrate the kind of lexical gap. For example, the “龙” in Chinese and “dragon” in English. They are always translated as each other, but they have difference in denotation and connotation. The “龙” in China represents power and goodness, while the “dragon” in English represents evil and badness.

The color “red” in Chinese and English may have same denotation, but they are difference in connotation. The “neighbor” and “邻居” also different in denotation. The range of “neighbor” is much greater than that of “邻居”.
To compare the lexical gap in linguistics and in translatology, we can find that the denotation of lexical gap in translatology is richer than that in linguistics. In linguistics, the lexical gap only refers to the absence lexicon or expression that is admitted to exist according to the structure of a language. That is to say, the concept has existed in the language but not be lexicalized. However, in translatology, the lexical gap can not only refer to the lexical gap in linguistics, but also refers to any kinds of lexical vacancy between two languages. The vacancy may be caused by concept absence based on culture difference or caused by semantic difference in the corresponding concept. (Huan Luan, 2009, 6-12)

====The Relation and Difference between Lexical Gap and Culture-loaded Word====

It can be found that the definition of lexical gap in Translatology adds the components of culture. Actually, some researchers including Xu Guozhang even equate the lexical gap with culture loaded words. (Tian Xianzhi & Yang Jinxue, 2005, 55). However, the paper believes that the lexical gap is not equivalent to the culture-loaded words.

=====The Overlap Between Lexical Gap and Culture-loaded Words=====

Tang (2006) defines culture-loaded words as “the words or expressions that carry the meaning of a cultural trait to a certain socio-cultural community, and their referent also exists in other communities, but doesn’t overlap the one in other community completely in semantic category, and therefore that just has, to some extent, a corresponding equivalent when used in cross-cultural communication.” (Tang Xiuqiong, 2006: 126-127)

Li & Guo & Yuan (2008) defines the culture-loaded words as words and expressions that carries culture connotation in a specific culture of a nation or a region. The culture connotation of a culture-loaded word is culture-specific and conventional abstract and concrete concept. (Li Yingyu & Guo Jirong & Yuan Liling, 2008, 64)

From the definition of culture-loaded words, we can find that the culture-loaded words has some similarities with lexical gap in the category of semi-lexical gap. The concept exists in the source language and target language, while the denotation and connotation of the concept in the two languages are not same. Based on the definition of Tang (2006), the concept vacancy does not belong to the category of culture-loaded words. However， the definition of Li & Guo & Yuan (2008) admits that the concept vacancy is a kind of culture-loaded words.

Therefore, the part of denotation of culture-loaded words overlaps with part of denotation of lexical gap, but their connotations are totally different.

=====The difference between Lexical Gap and Culture-loaded Words=====

Even though there are some similarities between the denotation of lexical gap and that of culture-loaded words, but some difference can also easily found. For example, in China, we use “出轨“ to refer to ”have an affair“ in English, while we also use “戴绿帽子” to represent the same concept. However, the “戴绿帽子” cannot be considered as lexical gap according to the definition of lexical gap, because the concept of “戴绿帽子” has an equivalent expression in English, which means the concept has been filled in English, but Chinese creates another expression to represent the concept based on its culture. Therefore, the “戴绿帽子” is a culture-loaded words but not lexical gap.

In sum up, there exists some conventionalized expressions that carries culture traits in a language to represents the lexicalized concept. Because the concept has been lexicalized, so there is no lexical gap that need to fill. That is to say, the conventionalized expressions as “戴绿帽子” is just a culture-loaded words but not a lexical gap.

====The Causes of Lexical Gap====

=====Experiential Causes=====

There is no such experience in a culture. Therefore, corresponding concept does not exist in the language. For example, most English speaker never know what the “醪糟” is，while most Chinese never know what the Macaroni and Cheese is. (Han Luan, 2009, 39-40)

=====Psychological Causes and Perceptual Causes=====

The death of an animal may evoke emotions of human, while the death of a plant may not, which may be caused by construal of human. Human always pays their attention to the animate and movable entity as figure firstly, while the unmovable entities are considered as ground. That is why the plant is ignored. (Han Luan, 2009, 39-40)

In conclusion, the psychological causes is always combined with the perceptual causes because human’s perception is subjective, which causes the conscious and unconscious absence of an expression. (Han Luan, 2009, 39-40)

===Translation of Lexical Gap===

====Translatability and Untranslatability====

Translatability and untranslatability are a famous and still unsolved paradox. “Translatability is mostly understood as the capacity for some kind of meaning to be transferred from one language to another without undergoing radical change” (Baker, 1998/2004: 273). Wilss (1982/2001: 49) put forwards that translatability of a text can “be measured in terms of the degree to which it can be recontextualized in the TL, taking into account all linguistic factors”. Untranslatability is defined as “impossible to build functionally relevant features of the situation into the contextual meaning.” (Catford, 1965, 94) “Translatability is more like a continuum than a well-defined dichotomy. The text or unit of the primitive is more or less translatable, not absolutely untranslatable. (ibid, 93)”.

From the definition of the translatability and untranslatability, it can be concluded that untranslatable phenomenon definitely exists in language if we see translatability as a continuum. Because of the difference in culture and lexicalization in different languages, the lexical gap in linguistics may not be translated but can be borrowed. However, lexical gap in translatology can be translated in various ways.

====The Translation Strategy of Lexical Gap Between English and Chinese Based on the Skopos Theory====

Because lexical gap in linguistics is caused by the concept vacancy and non-lexicalization of concepts. Based on the Skopos theory, the purpose of translation determines what kinds of strategies are selected in translation. In translation of Lexical gap, different translation strategies should be applied while facing different purpose.

If the purpose is successful communication , we may choose not to translation the lexical gap if it will not influence the success of the communication. However, if the purpose is to introduce the culture of source language to the target one, the translation is necessary. Of course, there are lots of purposes of translation and the purpose depends on the genre of source text. If the translation of lexical gap is necessary, several strategies are provided below.

=====Translation Strategy of Lexical Gap in Linguistics=====

The translation strategies of lexical gap in linguistic includes mainly borrowing. As we have discussed above, the lexical gap in linguistics can be divided into three categories including proportional gap, hierarchies and opposites.

For the translation of the three kinds, borrowing is the main methods. English borrows lots of words from French to fill the lexical gap years ago. For example, beef for the meat of cow, loot for war trophies from India. These concepts exist in the mind of English people, but these concepts are not lexicalized, so English loans words from other languages.

=====Translation Strategy of Lexical Gap in Translatology=====

As we have given Above, the lexical gap in translatology is separated into four kinds: concept vacancy, expression vacancy, denotation divergence and connotation divergence.

a. Concept Vacancy

For concept vacancy, the first purpose of translation is to introduce the concept to the target readers and let them understand what the concepts are. Therefore, there exists four strategies to translate it.

For concept vacancy, transliteration are easily used.

For example, “豆腐”, “饺子”, “混沌”, “叉烧”, “炒面” are translated into “tofu”, “jiaozi” “won ton”, “char shiu” and “chow mein”. (Shun Kaixi, 2013, 30-31). In E-C translation, AIDS is translated into “爱滋病”, “gene” into “基因”, “Internet” into “因特网”, “clone” as “克隆”. This kind of strategy pays attention to the formal fidelity because the concept is absent in the target language. So introducing concept is main purpose in the strategy. (Zhang Lei, 2008, 35-36)

The literal translation is also applied in translating concept vacancy. For example, we translate “孩奴” as “child slave”, “四书” as “Four Books”. In E-C translation, Ten Commandments is translated into “十诫”, “fast food” into “快餐”，hot dog into“热狗”, “bubble economy” into “泡沫经济”, “e-mail” into “电子邮件”, “honeymoon” into “蜜月”. (Wu Leya, 2019, 45)

The free translation also can be used. In the process of using literal translation, misunderstandings sometimes occur due to the cultural gap. For example, a famous Sichuan dish “夫妻肺片” is literally translated as "Husband and wife's lung slice". Then foreigners would never dare to taste it. Therefore, it is translated as “sliced beef and ox tongue in chili sauce”. (Wu Leya, 2019, 62)

In addition, westerners' love of cheese has led to the development of many expressions using cheese, for example, “get the cheese”, “the big cheese”. If these expressions are translated literally as “得到奶酪”, “大奶酪”，nobody will understand what the expressions mean. Therefore, they are translated as “碰钉子”, “重要事物”. (Wu Leya, 2019, 62) In fact, the free translation is for easy understanding. If the easy understanding is the purpose of the translation, the fidelity of meaning prevails.

Besides, by using notes, we can explain the concept vacancy in translating. Sometimes, due to the limitations of transliteration and literal translation, the target language readers may misunderstand the transliteration and literal translation and fail to understand its loaded cultural connotation. However, we still want to keep some original things to introduce cultures. Therefore, we can improve the transliteration by adding explanatory notes. “风水” is translated into Fengshui (a traditional Chinese practice of determining the location of a house, tomb, etc.). “阴阳” is translated into Yin and yang (the two opposite principles/forces existing in nature and the human world). (ibid)

Sme literal translation is hard to understand for target language reader, so somenotes should be added to explain it. For example, “Big Apple” is translated as “大苹果”（纽约的别称）; “裹足” is translated as “bound feet: a vile feudal practice which crippled women both physically and spiritually.” (ibid)
From these examples, it can concluded that strategies like transliteration, literal translation, free translation and using notes.

b. Expression Vacancy

For expression vacancy, the main strategy is using general or specific words to replace the lexical gap. For example ,“笔” is usually translated into “pen”. In fact, “笔” is the general name of the category including things like “pen”, “pencil” that function as tools for writing. However, “pen” is just a kind of “笔”. Here, the translator uses a more specific word to translate. In many occasion, the translation does not influence the understanding of the readers according to the theory of Skopos, which emphasis purpose than faithfulness.

In English, pineapple is used to refer to the two kinds of Chinese fruits “凤梨 (fengli)” and “菠萝 (boluo)”. However, in translation, the pineapple is just translated as “凤梨” or “菠萝”.

c. Denotation Divergence and Connotation Divergence

For semi-lexical gap, finding its equivalent expression is a good way for purpose of easy understanding. For example, from “邻居” to “neighbor”, from “龙” to “dragon”, from “red” to “红色”. In fact the denotational meaning and connotational meaning between lexical pair is different. The relation of Chinese “邻居” is closer than English “neighbor” and the range of the “邻居” is narrower than “neighbor”. The image of “龙” and that of “dragon” is different in a large scale. Besides, the Chinese “龙” is kind and good, while the English “dragon” is evil. The “红色” in Chinese is a symbol for happiness and enthusiasm, while the “red” in English means violence and damage. These words can be translated into each other because of the existence of context.

If the context is absent and the purpose is to introduce the source culture more definitely, the transliteration with notes can be used to translate these words.

===Conclusion===

The paper compares the meaning, the classification, the translation strategy of lexical gap in linguistic and translatology.

It is found that the definition of lexical gap in linguistics is reflected within one language. it refers to the unlexicalized concepts in a language. That is to say, the word should have existed in the language. However, the definition of lexical gap in translatology is based on the difference between two languages. The lexical gap in translatology is much broader than that in linguistics. the lexical gap in translatology can refer to lexical difference totally because of the difference of culture and some word equivalents that has not only similarities but also divergence in denotation and connotation.

Based on the definition, the classification of the two kinds of lexical gap is discussed. Because of the lexical gap in linguistics is defined within a language, the classification of this kind includes proportional gap, hierarchies and opposites because the lexical gap can occur in the three sematic relations. However, the lexical gap in translatology is classified based on the reason why the lexical gap exists. The category of the lexical gap in translatology includes concept vacancy, expression vacancy, denotation divergence and connotation divergence.

Based on the classification of the two kinds of lexical gap, the translation strategies of the two kinds are different. The translation strategy of the lexical gap in linguistics is mainly borrowing. However, the translation strategies of lexical gap in translatology includes transliteration, literal translation, free translation, adding notes and using general and specific words.

Besides, the overlap and difference between lexical gap and culture-loaded words is discussed. The culture-loaded words include kinds of words that can find definite equivalents in target language, while the lexical gap does not include.

===Reference===

[1]Baker, Mona and Kirstern.(1998/2004).Routledge Encyclopedia of Translation Studies.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

[2]Catford, J.C.(1965).A Linguistic Theory of Translation.London: Oxford University Press.

[3]Delisle, Jean, et al.,eds.(1988).Translation Terminology.Ottawa: University of Haifa.

[4]Nord, Christiane.(2001).Translating as a purposeful Activity.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

[5]Wang Quanzhi.(2017). Lexical Gaps: Their Filling and Impacts.Journal of Literature and Art Studies.(7)748-754.

[6]Guo Aixian.郭爱先.(1998).词汇空缺及其可译性.[Lexical Gap and Its Translatability].解放军外语学院学报.[Journal of PLA University of Foreign Languages].(05)3-5.

[7]Han Luan.韩鸾.(2009).认知视角下词汇空缺的对比研究.[A comparative study in lexical gaps from cognitive perspective].东北大学.[Northeastern University].1-49

[8]Li Yingyu.李颖玉, 郭继荣&袁笠菱.(2008).试论方言文化负载词的翻译——以《浮躁》中的“瓷”为例.[Translation of Culture-Loaded Dialect Words: With the Rendition of “ci” in Turbulence as An Exemplar ].中国翻译. [Chinese Translators Journal].(03)64-67+96.

[9]Qian Jing.钱静.(2013).跨文化交际角度下的词汇空缺研究.[The Study of Lexical Gap in Intercultural Communication].上海师范大学.[Shang Normal University].1-51.

[10]Sun Caixi.孙凯西.(2013).汉英翻译中词汇空缺现象探析.[An Analysis of the Lexical Gap in C-E Translation—A Case Study of Contemporary Popular Chinese Words].长江大学.[Yangtze University].1-45.

[11]Tan Zaixi.谭载喜.(1982).翻译中的语义对比试析.[On The Comparison of Meaning in Translation].中国翻译.[Chinese Translators Journal].(01)6-10.

[12]Tian Xiaoqin.田小琴.(2006).从目的论角度看电影《英雄》的字幕翻译.[An analysis of the subtitle translation of Hero from the perspective of Skopostherorie]. 华中师范大学.[Huazhong Normal University].1-46.

[13]Tang Xiuqiong.唐秀琼.(2006).英语文化负载词及汉译.[Culturally-loaded Words: Their Translation From English to Chinses].西南农业大学学报(社会科学版). [Journal of Southwest Agricultural University (Social Science Edition)].(01)126-130.

[14]Wenxu.文旭.(2003).词汇空缺的发现程序和认知理据.[Lexical Gaps: Their Discovery Procedure and Cognitive Motivation].四川外语学院学报.[Journal of Sichuan International Studies University].(03)81-86.

[15]Wu Leya.吴乐雅.(2019).跨文化交际中的文化词汇空缺现象及其翻译策略.[The Phenomenon of Culturally Lexical Gap in Cross-Culture translation and Its Translation Strategy]. 文教资料. [Cultural and Educational Information].(32)44-45+62.

[16]Zhang Jinlan张锦兰.(2004).目的论与翻译方法.[Skopos Theory and Translation Methods].中国科技翻译.[Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal].(01)35-37+13.

[17]Zhao Xiuxing.赵秀星.(2015).目的论视角下英剧《神探夏洛克》的字幕汉译研究.[Study of English-Chinese Subtitle Translation of Sherlock from the Perspective of Skopos Theory].山西财经大学.[Shanxi University of Finance & Economics].1-53.

History of Translation Studies 4

2020-12-20T12:59:13Z

Xu Jia: /* 4.Conclusion */

这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第四部分(Part 4)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。

学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。

*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]
*Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].

=Theories=

==Passive and hypotaxis- Chinese Culture and EC translation 杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616==

<center>杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616 </center>

===Abstract===

Under the background of the language differences between Chinese and English and the cultural background of English hypothesis and Chinese parataxis, this thesis discusses how to solve the problem of translation of English passive voice.
It is divided into five parts. The first part of the thesis is about major language differences between English and Chinese; the second part of the thesis is about passive sentences; the third part of the thesis is about parataxis and hypotaxis; the fourth part is about EC translation methods of passive voice; the fifth part is conclusion. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects.

Under the background of the language differences between Chinese and English and the cultural background of English hypothesis and Chinese parataxis, this thesis discusses how to solve the problem of the translation of English passive voice.
It is divided into five parts. The first part of the thesis is about major language differences between English and Chinese; the second part of the thesis is about passive sentences; the third part of the thesis is about parataxis and hypotaxis; the fourth part is about EC translation methods of passive voice; the fifth part is conclusion. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translate English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===Key Words===

parataxis, hypotaxis, passive voice

===题目===

被动与形合——以中国文化和英汉翻译为视角

===摘要===

本文在中英语言文化差异的背景和英文形合与中文意合的文化的背景下，讨论如何解决英文被动语态的翻译问题。
本文分为五个部分。第一部分是关于英语和汉语之间主要语言的差异。论文的第二部分关于被动语态。论文的第三部分关于形合与意合。第四部分是英译汉中被动语态的翻译方法。第五部分是结论。在汉语文化的语境中，翻译者可以以功能对等为指导，通过以下翻译方法来解决英语被动语态问题：可以将英语被动语态翻译为汉语被动句、汉语主动句、汉语判断句和汉语无主语句式。

===关键词===

意合，形合，被动语态

===1.Major Language Differences between English and Chinese===

English emphasizes on structure, while Chinese emphasizes on semantics. The famous Chinese linguist Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang li, 1984) For example:

SL Text 1: This will be particularly true since energy pinch will make it difficult to continue agriculture in the high-energy American fashion that makes it possible to combine few farmers with high yields.

TL Text 1: 这种困境将是确定无疑的，因为能源的匮乏，高能量消耗这种美国耕种方式将很难在农业中继续下去，而这种耕种方式使投入少数农民就可获得高产成为可能。

SL Text 1: The main structure of the sentence “This will be particularly true... since” leads the adverbial clause of reason. In this clause, an attributive clause guided by the relative pronoun that is embedded to modify "the high-energy American fashion". In the attributive clause, “that” is the subject, “makes” is the predicate, and “it” is the formal object. The infinitive phrase "to combine few farmers with high yields" is the real object.

SL Text 2: These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details were it not for the fact that theoretical understanding has reached the stage at which it is becoming possible to indicate the kind of measurements required for reliable weather forecasting.

TL Text 2: 理论上的认识已达到了这样一个阶段，即现在已能指出需要哪种测量方式才能可靠地预报天气。如果做不到这一点，那么上述这些新的观察能力只不过提供了一大堆细节而已。

The frame of the sentence is "These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details...". It is followed by the conditional sentence "were it not for the fact that..." that is, "if it were not for the fact that...;" “that” clause is used as an apposition clause of “the fact”. An attributive clause is embedded in this clause to modify its antecedent “the stage”; "required for reliable weather forecasting" is a past participle phrase that modifies “the kind of measurements”.

The frame of this sentence is "These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details...". It is followed by the conditional sentence "were it not for the fact that..." that is, "if it were not for the fact that...;" “that” clause is used as an apposition clause of “the fact”. An attributive clause is embedded in this clause to modify its antecedent “the stage”; "required for reliable weather forecasting" is a past participle phrase that modifies “the kind of measurements”. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

English prefers long sentences, while Chinese prefers short sentences.Since English is a language emphasizes on structure and ruled by grammar, as long as there are no structural errors, many meanings can often be expressed in a long sentence; Chinese is totally different in this aspect. Because it is ruled by human, the semantics are directly expressed through words, and different meanings are often expressed through different short sentences. It is for this reason that almost 100% of the English-Chinese translation test questions are long and complex sentences, and the translation into Chinese often becomes many short sentences and vice versa.(Cheng Hongzhen, 2003)

English prefers long sentences, while Chinese prefers short sentences. English is a language emphasizes on structure and ruled by grammar. As long as there are no structural errors, many meanings can often be expressed in a long sentence, while Chinese is totally different in this aspect. Because it is ruled by human, the semantics are directly expressed through words, and different meanings are often expressed through different short sentences. It is for this reason that almost 100% of the English-Chinese translation test questions are long and complex sentences, and the translation into Chinese often becomes many short sentences and vice versa. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

English often uses clauses, but Chinese often uses clauses.English sentences can not only use very long modifiers in simple sentences to make the sentence longer, but also use clauses to make the sentence more complex. These clauses are often connected to the main sentence or other clauses through the clause guide. It looks intricate but it is a whole. Chinese originally like to use short sentences, and the expression structure is relatively loose. When translated into Chinese, the clauses in English sentences often become some clauses. (Duan Manfu, 2006)

English often uses clauses, but Chinese often uses short sentences. English sentences can not only use very long modifiers in simple sentences to make the sentence longer, but also use clauses to make the sentence more complex. These clauses are often connected to the main sentence or other clauses through the clause guide. It looks intricate but it is a whole. Chinese originally like to use short sentences, and the expression structure is relatively loose. When translated into Chinese, the clauses in English sentences often become some clauses. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Among nouns such as subject and object, English often uses more pronouns, and Chinese uses more nouns. Moreover, in sentences, nouns and prepositions are more used in English, while verbs are more used in Chinese.English not only has personal pronouns such as we, you, he, they, but also relative pronouns such as that and which. In long and complex sentences, in order to make the sentence structure correct and clear semantics, and to avoid repetition in expression, English Many pronouns are often used. Although Chinese also has pronouns, due to its relatively loose structure and relatively short sentences, too many pronouns cannot be used in Chinese. The use of nouns often makes the semantics clearer. (Xu Jianping, 2003)

Among nouns such as subject and object, English often uses more pronouns, and Chinese uses more nouns. Moreover, in sentences, nouns and prepositions are more used in English, while verbs are more used in Chinese. English not only has personal pronouns, such as "we", "you", "he", "they", but also relative pronouns, such as "that" and "which". In long and complex sentences, in order to make the sentence structure correct and clear, and to avoid repetition in expression, many pronouns are often used in English. Although Chinese also has pronouns, due to its relatively loose structure and relatively short sentences, too many pronouns cannot be used in Chinese. The use of nouns often makes the semantics clearer. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

English often uses passive sentences, while Chinese uses more active sentences. English prefers to use the passive voice, especially in technical English. Although there are words such as ''bei'' (被) and ''you'' (由) in Chinese that indicate that the action is passive, this expression is far less common than the passive voice in English. Therefore, the passive voice in English often becomes active in Chinese translation. (Ni Wei, Shao Zhihong, 2004)

English often uses passive sentences, while Chinese uses more active sentences. English prefers to use the passive voice, especially in scientific texts. Although there are words such as ''bei'' (被) and ''you'' (由) in Chinese that indicate that the action is passive, this expression is far less common than the passive voice in English. Therefore, the passive voice in English often becomes active in Chinese translation. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

English often uses variable words and sentence patterns, while Chinese uses repeated words.When English expresses the same meaning, the way of expression is often changed. For example, the first time you may use "I think", and then the second time if you use "I think" again, it is obviously monotonous and repetitive in English. So it should be replaced by expressions like "I believe" or "I imagine". In contrast, Chinese has less requirements for transformable expressions than English. Many transformable expressions in English can be translated into repetitive expressions. (Wang Jiayi, 2011)

English often uses variable words and sentence patterns, while Chinese uses repeated words. When English expresses the same meaning, the way of expression is often changed. For example, the first time you may use "I think", and then the second time if you use "I think" again, it is obviously monotonous and repetitive in English. So it should be replaced by expressions like "I believe" or "I imagine". In contrast, Chinese has less requirements for transformable expressions than English. Many transformable expressions in English can be translated into repetitive expressions in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

English language mostly uses abstract concepts, while Chinese uses more concrete concepts.The main reason why it is difficult to translate English to Chinese lies in its complex structure and abstract expression. By analyzing the structure of sentences, long English sentences are transformed into Chinese short sentences, and English clauses are transformed into Chinese clauses. In this way, structural problems are often solved. To express abstraction requires the translator to understand the meaning of the original text, layer the meaning of the sentence, and express it in specific Chinese. (Xu Shihong, 2006)

English language mostly uses abstract concepts, while Chinese uses more concrete concepts. The main reason why it is difficult to translate English to Chinese lies in its complex structure and abstract expression. By analyzing the structure of sentences, long English sentences are transformed into Chinese short sentences, and English clauses are transformed into short sentences in Chinese. In this way, structural problems are often solved. To express abstraction requires the translator to understand the meaning of the original text, the deep meaning of the sentence, and express it in specific Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===2.Passive Sentences===

====2.1.The Usage and Reasons of Passive Sentences in English and Chinese====

The structural forms of the predicate and non-predicate of English passive sentences are relatively simple. The predicate of the passive sentence changes with the change of English tense, but its basic structural form is only "be" + "past participle". The complication of the explicit form and structure of the passive voice in Chinese is mainly due to the large number of prepositions in the guiding agent's subject and many changes. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)

The structural forms of the predicate and non-predicate of English passive sentences are relatively simple. The predicate of the passive sentence changes with the change of English tense, but its basic structural form is only "be" + "past participle". The complication of the explicit form and structure of the passive voice in Chinese is mainly due to the large number of prepositions in the guiding agent's subject and many changes. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

There are a total of four prepositional vocabulary signs in the passive voice of modern Chinese, namely ''bei'' (被) , ''jiao'' (叫) , ''rang'' (让) and ''gei'' (给) . Almost every word has a basic form and a non-subject-predicate subject ellipsis .''Bei'' in Chinese can be replaced with ''jiao'', ''gei'' and ''rang''. ''Gei'' is a collocation word used with ''bei'', and is no longer a preposition to guide the agent. In ancient Chinese, the most commonly used prepositions are ''jian'' (见) and ''yu'' (于) . (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)

There are a total of four prepositional vocabulary signs in the passive voice of modern Chinese, namely ''bei'' (被) , ''jiao'' (叫) , ''rang'' (让) and ''gei'' (给) . Almost every word has a basic form and an ellipsis of non-finite subject .''Bei'' in Chinese can be replaced with ''jiao'', ''gei'' and ''rang''. ''Gei'' is a collocation word used with ''bei'', and is no longer a preposition to guide the agent. In ancient Chinese, the most commonly used prepositions are ''jian'' (见) and ''yu'' (于) . --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

English has two voices: active voice and passive voice. In cases where there is no need to mention the perpetrator, unwilling to mention the perpetrator, unable to know the perpetrator, or in order to facilitate contextual cohesion, the passive voice expression method is generally used.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)

English has two voices: active voice and passive voice. The passive voice is generally used in the cases where there is no need to mention the perpetrator, unwilling to mention the perpetrator, unable to know the perpetrator, or in order to facilitate contextual cohesion. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The passive voice is more widely used in English texts for science and technology. According to the statistics of foreign linguists, at least one-third of the finite verbs in English science and engineering textbooks use the passive voice. The reasons for the large use of passive voice in scientific English are following: First of all, Scientific and technological works focus on objective facts, and the passive voice has a lot less subjective color than the active voice; Second, The passive structure highlights the main argument, explains the object, and is eye-catching; Last but not least, In many cases the passive structure is shorter than the active structure. In fact, there are many situations in which the formal English styles, including technical styles, use passive voice in writing.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)

The passive voice is more widely used in English texts for science and technology. According to the statistics of foreign linguists, at least one-third of the finite verbs in English science and engineering textbooks use the passive voice. The reasons for the large use of passive voice in scientific English are following: First of all, Scientific and technological works focus on objective facts, and the passive voice has less subjective color than the active voice; Second, the passive structure highlights the main argument, explains the object, and is eye-catching; Last but not least, in many cases the passive structure is shorter than the active structure. In fact, there are many situations in which the formal English styles, including technical styles, use passive voice in writing. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Passive sentences are rarely used in Chinese. Because the passive words in Chinese are often used in conjunction with verbs that have an adverse effect on the action recipient. The other reason is that many sentences with passive meaning can be expressed in active form. In modern Chinese, the passive type is much narrower than the active type, and its special tasks cannot be replaced by the active type. Passive narratives are usually undesirable or undesirable things, such as being deceived, harmed, or causing unfavorable results. For the passive sentences used in formal English writing, Chinese often uses the form of no subject sentence to express its objectivity.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)

Passive sentences are rarely used in Chinese. Because the passive words in Chinese are often used in conjunction with verbs that have an adverse effect on the action recipient. The other reason is that many sentences with passive meaning can be expressed in active form. In modern Chinese, the passive type is much narrower than the active type, and its special tasks cannot be replaced by the active type. Passive narratives are usually undesirable or negative things, such as being deceived, harmed, or causing unfavorable results. For the passive sentences used in formal English writing, Chinese often uses the form of no subject sentence to express its objectivity. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Therefore, The number of passive sentences in Chinese is far less than in English. However, because of the influence of foreign words, the use of passive sentences in Chinese tends to increase, not only expressing unsatisfactory or undesirable things, many expressions of wish or hope can become passive sentences. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)

Therefore, the number of passive sentences in Chinese is far less than in English. However, because of the influence of foreign words, the use of passive sentences in Chinese tends to increase, not only expressing unsatisfactory or undesirable things, many expressions of wish or hope can become passive sentences. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.2.Various Forms of Passive Meaning in English====

(1)Passive voice
The passive voice is the most common form of expressing the passive meaning of English. Generally speaking, it is composed of "be + past participle", and it can also be composed of "get /become+ past participle". (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)

(1)Passive voice
It usually uses the passive voice to express the passive meaning in English. Generally speaking, it is composed of "be + past participle", and it can also be composed of "get /become+ past participle". --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Passive voice formed by "be+ past participle". As mentioned above, this passive voice expression method is generally used in situations where there is no need to mention the agent, who is unwilling to mention the agent, cannot know the agent, or to facilitate contextual cohesion, etc. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)

Passive voice formed by "be+ past participle". As mentioned above, this passive voice is generally used in the situations where there is no need to mention the agent, who is unwilling to mention the agent, cannot know the agent, or to facilitate contextual cohesion, etc. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Then, Passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". The usage of “get and become” as auxiliary verbs in the passive voice, comprehensively speaking, there are the following points: First, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". It generally refers to the result of the action rather than the action itself, and often contains meanings such as the final, sudden occurrence, and unexpected encounter. For example: (a) She get caught in the storm. (b) He got hurt in the head. (c) Jack and Jane got married finally.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)

Then, passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". The usage of “get and become” as auxiliary verbs in the passive voice, comprehensively speaking, there are the following points: First, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". It generally refers to the result of the action rather than the action itself, and often contains meanings such as the final, sudden occurrence, and unexpected encounter. For example: (a) She get caught in the storm. (b) He got hurt in the head. (c) Jack and Jane got married finally. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Second, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle" can express the "gradual change" of the state and emphasize the action process. For example: (d)This water got /became mixed with these solids.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)

Secondly, the passive voice composed by "get /become+ past participle" can express the "gradual change" of the state and emphasize the action process. For example: (d)This water got /became mixed with these solids. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Third, The passive voice sentence formed by "get + past participle" does not use the word “by” to indicate the agent. For example: (e) The company’s core competition was told by this manager. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)

Thirdly, the passive voice sentence formed by "get + past participle" does not use the word “by” to express the agent. For example: (e) The company’s core competition was told by this manager. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Fourth, The passive voice sentence composed of "get /become + past participle" is generally not suitable for the following structures: double object, "verb + noun + preposition" structure, subject clause structure and structure with sensory verbs. For example: (f) He taught us Chinese cultures in this semester. (g) We were taught Chinese cultures in this semester. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)

Fourthly, the passive voice sentence composed of "get /become + past participle" is generally not suitable for the following structures: double object, "verb + noun + preposition" structure, subject clause structure and structure with sensory verbs. For example: (f) He taught us Chinese cultures in this semester. (g) We were taught Chinese cultures in this semester. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Fifth, The active form expresses the passive meaning. Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)

Fifthly, the active form expresses the passive meaning. Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

(2)The active form expresses the passive meaning
Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning. A Chinese translator, Lin Yutang, called this situation "False Active Sentences".(Tang Guoping, Li Fei, 2003)

(2)The active form expresses the passive meaning
Some verbs in English are active in form, but they actually express passive meaning. A Chinese translator, Lin Yutang, called this situation "False Active Sentences". --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.3.Comparison of Passive meaning in English and Chinese====

(1)"be+ past participle" English form and corresponding Chinese forms: (a)It is equivalent to a passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (b)It is equivalent to the active sentence with passive meaning in Chinese. (c)It is equivalent to the unsubjected sentence in Chinese, especially the passive voice of the formal style in English often corresponds to the unsubjected sentence in Chinese. (d)It is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)

(1)"be+ past participle" English form and corresponding Chinese forms: (a)It is equivalent to a passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (b)It is equivalent to the active sentence with passive meaning in Chinese. (c)It is equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese, especially the passive voice of the formal style in English often corresponds to the sentence without subject in Chinese. (d)It is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

(2)The English "get /become+ past participle" form and the corresponding Chinese forms: (e)They are often equivalent to passive sentences with formal signs in Chinese. (f)Sometimes it is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)

(2)The English "get /become+ past participle" form and the corresponding Chinese forms: (e)They are often equivalent to passive sentences with formal signs in Chinese. (f)Sometimes it is equal to the active sentence in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

(3)English active sentences with passive meanings and corresponding Chinese forms: (g)Basically equivalent to Chinese active sentences with passive meaning. (h)The present continuous tense in the active voice with passive meaning can also be equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese. (i)The active form of some prepositional phrases and be combined with passive meaning is often equivalent to the passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)

(3)English active sentences with passive meanings and corresponding Chinese forms: (g)Basically they are equivalent to Chinese active sentences with passive meaning. (h)The present continuous tense in the active voice with passive meaning can also be equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese. (i)The active form of some prepositional phrases and be combined with passive meaning is often equivalent to the passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.4.The Passive Implicit of English Lexical Means====

The main means of expressing passivity in English is the passive voice of verbs. (a) The following nouns in English imply passivity: one’s assassination, one’s promotion, one’s discharge, one’s conviction, one’s nomination and so on. (b) Prepositional phrases can also be used to express passive states: at a discount, on penalty, on the shelf, in the custody of, in the pay of, under the influence of, under the attack of, under criticism, under constrain and so on. (c) Many adjective phrases can also be used to express passiveness, such as: be welcome, be beneficiary, be accused of...by, be subject to, be deprived of and so on. From this point of view, in English, the use of verb morphological changes to express the passive voice (passivity) is a syntactic means. In inter-language conversion, we must also choose the most suitable way of expression. It is not necessary to express the passive meaning in a sentence with a passive verb.(Liu Miqing, 2006)

The main means of expressing passivity in English is the passive voice of verbs. (a) The following nouns in English imply passivity: one’s assassination, one’s promotion, one’s discharge, one’s conviction, one’s nomination and so on. (b) Prepositional phrases can also be used to express passive states: at a discount, on penalty, on the shelf, in the custody of, in the pay of, under the influence of, under the attack of, under criticism, under constrain and so on. (c) Many adjective phrases can also be used to express passiveness, such as: be welcome, be beneficiary, be accused of...by, be subject to, be deprived of and so on. From this point of view, in English, it is a syntactic means to express the passive voice (passivity) by means of verb morphological changes. In inter-language conversion, we must also choose the most suitable way to express. It is not necessary to express the passive meaning in a sentence with a passive verb. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The passive voice of English is only a grammatical category and has no modal expression function. The active and passive voices of English are generally the same in the deep sense, so they have a conversion relationship. After conversion, the semantics of the two are equivalent. For example: (d)People considered him too conservative. (e)He was considered too conservative. Of course, the conversion between active and passive sentences in English is not unlimited. There are many verbs that cannot be converted from active to passive, such as last, lack, become, ensue, suit, recur, happen and so on. This is a question of customary rules and logic. But one thing is certain, after the English active sentence is converted into a passive sentence, there is no meaning added.(Liu Miqing, 2006)

The passive voice of English is only a grammatical category and has no modal expression function. The active and passive voices of English are generally the same in the deep sense, so there is a conversion relationship between them. After conversion, the semantics of the two are equivalent. For example: (d)People considered him too conservative. (e)He was considered too conservative. Of course, the conversion between active and passive sentences in English is not unlimited. There are many verbs that cannot be converted from active to passive, such as last, lack, become, ensue, suit, recur, happen and so on. This is a question of customary rules and logic. But one thing is certain, after the English active sentence is converted into a passive sentence, there is no meaning added. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

However, the passive voice of Chinese has obvious negative modality. The use of passive sentences in modern Chinese has increased, and some positive colors have also appeared. But the unfortunate modality of the passive voice has always been dominant. Therefore, under the background that Chinese uses less passive voice, the process of Chinese-English translation can appropriately and intentionally express more English sentences in passive sentence patterns or express passive meaning. (Liu Miqing, 2006)

However, the passive voice of Chinese has obvious negative modality. More and more passive sentences are used in modern Chinese, and some positive colors have also appeared. Unfortunately, the unfortunate modality of the passive voice has always been dominant. Therefore, under the background that Chinese uses less passive voice, the process of Chinese-English translation can appropriately and intentionally express more English sentences in passive sentence patterns or express passive meaning. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.5.Pragmatic Analysis of English Passive Voice====

As for the English passive voice, its pragmatic analysis can be conducted from the following aspects. The establishment of a topic requires the use of the passive voice. The topic is the part of the sentence that indicates someone, something, or a concept, and is the object and starting point of the sentence statement. The use of the passive voice has a certain impact on the text structure and the development of the topic. It can make the topic more focused and clear, and it can better predict the development direction of the topic. Topics established by the passive voice are more focused and clearer than those established by the active voice, and can better predict their development direction. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)

As for the English passive voice, its pragmatic analysis can be conducted from the following aspects. The establishment of a topic requires the use of the passive voice. The topic is the part of the sentence that indicates someone, something, or a concept, and it is also the object and starting point of the sentence statement. The use of the passive voice has a certain impact on the text structure and the development of the topic. It can make the topic more focused and clear, and it can better predict the development direction of the topic. Topics established by the passive voice are more focused and clearer than those established by the active voice, and can better predict their development direction. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The coherence of the text requires the use of passive voice. Coherence refers to the semantic connection between sentences in a text. It is a language system and a basic feature of a text. It is not only related to the topic, but also related to the organization of information, and constitutes a part of the textual component of the semantic system. Discourse does not jump from one topic to another in a disorderly manner, but always develops rationally with a certain topic coherence and the possibility of topic development. Therefore, sometimes the passive voice must be used to ensure that the topic unfolds smoothly and naturally. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)

The coherence of the text requires the use of passive voice. Coherence refers to the semantic connection between sentences in a text. It is a language system and a basic feature of a text. It is not only related to the topic, but also related to the organization of information, which constitutes a part of the textual component of the semantic system. Discourse does not jump from one topic to another in a disorderly manner, but always develops rationally with a certain topic coherence and the possibility of topic development. Therefore, it is necessary to use the passive voice to ensure that the topic unfolds smoothly and naturally. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The politeness principle requires the use of the passive voice. Politeness is a symbol of human civilization and an important criterion for human social activities. As a social activity, language activities are also subject to this criterion. The principle of politeness maintains the equal status of both parties in conversation and the friendly relationship between them. Only under this major premise can people communicate. The specific principles of politeness include: strategy guidelines, magnanimity guidelines, modesty guidelines, approval guidelines and sympathy guidelines. The passive voice is sometimes used to follow the principle of politeness. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)

The politeness principle requires the use of the passive voice. Politeness is a symbol of human civilization and an important criterion for human social activities. As a social activity, language activities are also restricted by this standard. The principle of politeness maintains the equal status of both parties in conversation and the friendly relationship between them. Only under this major premise can people communicate. The specific principles of politeness include: strategy guidelines, magnanimity guidelines, modesty guidelines, approval guidelines and sympathy guidelines. The passive voice is sometimes used to follow the principle of politeness. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The balance of sentence structure requires the use of passive voice.English sentences mostly appear in the structure of "S +V +O", often the subject part (S) is shorter, and the predicate part (V +O) is longer. Sometimes the passive voice is used to avoid top-heavy sentence structures (he actor with a longer modifier). The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)

The balance of sentence structure requires the use of passive voice.English sentences mostly appear in the structure of "S +V +O", often the subject part (S) is shorter, and the predicate part (V +O) is longer. Sometimes the passive voice is used to avoid top-heavy sentence structures (he actor with a longer modifier). The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easy to be accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)

The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===3.Parataxis and Hypotaxis===

====3.1.English and Chinese Sentence Characteristics====

English uses form to drive its meaning and English takes form first. Although sentences are ever-changing and many of them have special forms of expression, no matter how they change, no matter how special and complex the formal structure of the sentence is, it is composed of a few basic sentences with subject-predicate structure as the core. In terms of sentence composition, people categorize English sentence patterns into several basic types. On this basis, they use various types of words, phrases, clauses and other language entities to expand. (Li Jingmin, 2012)

As it takes form first, English uses form to drive its meaning. Although sentences are ever-changing and many of them have special forms of expression, no matter how they change, no matter how special and complex the formal structure of the sentence is, it is composed of a few basic sentences with subject-predicate structure as the core. In terms of sentence composition, English sentence patterns are divided into several basic types. On this basis, they use various types of words, phrases, clauses and other language entities to expand. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In terms of sentence types, English sentences expanded on the basis of basic sentence patterns are divided into several basic types according to their structural characteristics, such as simple sentences, compound sentences, compound sentences, and compound sentences. Although their internal structures are also flexible and diverse, the formal structure regulations are also very rigorous, and they still cannot break away from the basic framework centered on the subject-predicate structure. (Li Jingmin, 2012)

In terms of sentence types, English sentences expanded on the basis of basic sentence patterns are divided into several basic types according to their structural characteristics, such as simple sentences and compound sentences. Although their internal structures are also flexible and diverse, the formal structure regulations are also very rigorous, and they still cannot break away from the basic framework centered on the subject-predicate structure. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

This is just like what people often say, English sentences are like trees, in various poses, but they never leave their origins. The main stem is connected to the branches, and the branches are connected with leaves and flowers. In contrast to the rigorous internal structure of the sentence, English speakers are not very constrained on the specific language entity that carries a certain information. (Li Jingmin, 2012)

This is just like what people often say, English sentences are like trees, which have various poses, but they never leave their origins. The main stem is connected to the branches, and the branches are connected with leaves and flowers. In contrast to the rigorous internal structure of the sentence, English speakers have less constraints on the specific language entity that carries a certain information. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Under the premise of complying with the common language conventions, English users will arrange the information they intend to convey to this sentence or a certain language entity in the sentence group according to the specific needs of sentence construction and their respective writing characteristics and preferences. Under normal circumstances, people do not care what kind of language entity should carry a certain layer of information. The logical relationship between the information carried by these language entities is not necessarily determined by their grammatical function, but can be determined by people.(Li Jingmin, 2012)

Under the premise of complying with the common language conventions, English users will arrange the information they intend to convey to this sentence or a certain language entity in the sentence group according to the specific needs of sentence construction and their respective writing characteristics and preferences. Under normal circumstances, people do not care what kind of language entity should carry a certain layer of information. The logical relationship between the information carried by these language entities does not necessarily depend on their grammatical functions, but can be determined by people. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In addition, when arranging information-bearing language entities, English users are often not limited to a single sentence, and may extend beyond the sentence or even a sentence group, but their first consideration is still allowed in the formal structure specification The convenience of making sentences within the scope is the diversification of language expression.(Li Jingmin, 2012)

In addition, when arranging information-bearing language entities, English users are often not limited to a single sentence, and may extend beyond the sentence or even a sentence group. However, their first consideration is still allowed in the formal structure specification. The convenience of making sentences within the scope is the diversification of language expression. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Therefore, the so-called English takes form first, and form controls meaning. Simply put, as long as you observe the premise that the subject-predicate structure is the core of the formal structure convention, and don't try to jump out of the palm of the Buddha, you can cross the sea and show their magical powers. This is the organically unified information transmission mode of English configuration conventions and communication methods, which embodies the basic characteristics of the information transmission mechanism oriented to the formal structure, that is, the actual meaning of the so-called English duplication. (Li Jingmin, 2012)

Therefore, the so-called English takes form first, and form controls meaning. Simply put, as long as you observe the premise that the subject-predicate structure is the core of the formal structure convention, and don't try to jump out of the palm of the Buddha, you can cross the sea and show their magical powers. This is a mode of information transmission in which English construction conventions and communication methods are organically unified, which embodies the basic characteristics of the information transmission mechanism oriented to the formal structure, that is, the actual meaning of the so-called English duplication. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

While Chinese puts meaning first, and is not constrained by the subject-predicate structure like English does. Instead, according to the thinking habits of Chinese users, the information to be transmitted is laid out in the order of logical affair, forming one by one each carrying specific information. The information sections constructed by two language entities are connected by semantic logic as a link to form an information chain. Form and structure of Chinese are far more important than the emphasis on English with the subject-predicate structure as the core formal structure is much more complicated. (Li Jingmin, 2012)

Chinese, on the other hand, focuses on meaning, which is not constrained by the subject-predicate structure like English does. Instead, according to the thinking habits of Chinese users, the information to be transmitted is laid out in the order of logical affair, forming one by one each carrying specific information. The information sections constructed by two language entities are connected by semantic logic as a link to form an information chain. Form and structure of Chinese are far more important than the emphasis on English with the subject-predicate structure as the core formal structure is much more complicated. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====3.2.Definition and Connotation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis====

Wang Li (1984: 310) put forward the two concepts of parataxis and hypotaxis and he said, "In Chinese, the meaning is legal, and the connection component is not necessary; in the West, the form is legal and the connection component is in most cases The next is indispensable". Later, other scholars also elaborated on this concept and its meaning. Lian Shuneng (1993: 48) pointed out that “the so-called hypothesis refers to the connection of words or clauses in a sentence by means of linguistic forms to express grammatical meaning and logical relations. The so-called parataxis refers to Words do not need to be connected by linguistic formal means. The grammatical meaning and logical relationship in the sentence are expressed through the meaning of words or clauses. " (Xu Jun, 2006)

Wang Li (1984: 310) put forward the two concepts of parataxis and hypotaxis and he said, "In Chinese, the meaning is legal, and the connection component is not necessary; in the West, the form is legal and the connection component is in most cases The next is indispensable". Later, many other scholars also elaborated on this concept and its meaning. Lian Shuneng (1993: 48) pointed out that “the so-called hypothesis refers to the connection of words or clauses in a sentence by means of linguistic forms to express grammatical meaning and logical relations. The so-called parataxis refers to Words do not need to be connected by linguistic formal means. The grammatical meaning and logical relationship in the sentence are expressed through the meaning of words or clauses. " --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

According to our understanding, the same communication content, using different language expressions, there must be differences in the form of expression. English is different from Chinese. English uses conjunctive elements (such as conjunctions and logical connection elements) to express more and more obvious semantic relationships than Chinese. Foreign scholars have also noticed these differences. For example, Nida (1982: 16) pointed out that the most important distinguishing feature between English and Chinese is no more than hypotaxis and parataxis. In a sense, hypotaxis and parataxis are not only reflected in the differences in the composition of Chinese and English texts, but also in the Chinese-English language context and way of thinking. (Xu Jun, 2006)

According to our understanding, there must be differences in the form of expression when using different language expressions to express the same communication content. English is different from Chinese. English uses conjunctive elements (such as conjunctions and logical connection elements) to express more and more obvious semantic relationships than Chinese. Foreign scholars have also noticed these differences. For example, Nida (1982: 16) pointed out that the most important distinguishing feature between English and Chinese is no more than hypotaxis and parataxis. In a sense, hypotaxis and parataxis are not only reflected in the differences in the composition of Chinese and English texts, but also in the Chinese-English language context and way of thinking. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====3.3.Cultural Explanation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis====

From the perspective of cultural linguistics, the characteristics of Chinese emphasizing parataxis and English emphasizing hypothesis are not only a reflection of the differences in the expression patterns of the two languages, but also a manifestation of the differences between Chinese and English cultures. Therefore, in the comparative analysis of Chinese and English parataxis, it will naturally involve the differences between the two modes of thinking and their cultural background. (Li Jingmin, 2012)

From the perspective of cultural linguistics, the characteristics of Chinese emphasizing parataxis and English emphasizing hypothesis are not only a reflection of the differences in the expression patterns of the two languages, but also the embodiment of cultural differences between China and English. Therefore, the comparative analysis of parataxis between Chinese and English will naturally involve the differences between the two modes of thinking and their cultural background. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The holistic and intuitive thinking habits of Chinese nation are expressed in language, which is the emphasis on parataxis of Chinese. On the whole, the holistic thinking habits of the Chinese people have a strong integration function. Therefore, although the Chinese sentence patterns formed by meaning and legally lack the vocabulary to express the grammatical relationship within the sentence, the Chinese people can quickly grasp with the holistic thinking habits. Staying at the fulcrum of meaning, integrating the sentence with the peripheral semantic components in the context, and then supplementing the overall content of the sentence with experience, so as to understand the exact connotation of the sentence. (Li Jingmin, 2012)

The holistic and intuitive thinking habits of Chinese nation are expressed in language, which is the emphasis on parataxis of Chinese. On the whole, the holistic thinking habits of the Chinese people have a strong integration function. Therefore, although the Chinese sentence patterns formed by meaning and legally lack the vocabulary to express the grammatical relationship within the sentence, the Chinese people can quickly grasp them with the holistic thinking habits. Staying at the fulcrum of meaning, integrating the sentence with the peripheral semantic components in the context, and then supplementing the overall content of the sentence with experience, so as to understand the exact connotation of the sentence. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Moreover, the Chinese people are very good at understanding the true meaning hidden in the words and between the lines, relying on the overall grasp of things. The famous Chinese scholar Professor Wang Li once said: "Western languages are hard and inflexible; Chinese grammar is soft and flexible. So Chinese grammar is mainly expressive." It can be seen that Chinese, which is legally constituted by the Chinese people, is characterized by emphasizing comprehension and subtle meaning, savoring illocutionary meanings, and even emphasizing subtlety and pursuing using parataxis to integrate the whole article. (Li Jingmin, 2012)

Moreover, the Chinese people are very good at understanding the true meaning hidden in the words and between the lines, relying on the overall grasp of things. The famous Chinese scholar Professor Wang Li once said: "Western languages are hard and inflexible; Chinese grammar is soft and flexible. So Chinese grammar is mainly expressive." It can be seen that Chinese, which is legally constituted by the Chinese people, is characterized by emphasizing comprehension and implication, savoring illocutionary meanings, and even emphasizing subtlety and pursuing using parataxis to integrate the whole article. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===4.EC Translation Methods of Passive Voice===

When translating the passive voice from English to Chinese, one should not blindly translate it literally and can translate from the perspective of functional equivalence.Functional equivalence theory is the famous American linguist and translator-Eugene Nida proposed. In the 1980s, Eugene Nida published ''From One Language to Another'', in which he proposed functional equivalence, which is the core of Nida's theory. Functional equivalence means that in the process of translation, one-to-one correspondence between the text forms is not forced, but functional equivalence between the two languages should be achieved. It requires the translator to express the content and meaning of the original work, but also try to be equal in form, because some styles are also one of the content that the original author wants to express. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)

When translating the passive voice from English to Chinese, one should not blindly translate it literally, but can translate from the perspective of functional equivalence. Functional equivalence theory is the famous American linguist and translator-Eugene Nida proposed. In the 1980s, Eugene Nida published ''From One Language to Another'', in which he proposed functional equivalence, which is the core of Nida's theory. Functional equivalence means that in the process of translation, one-to-one correspondence between the text forms is not forced, but functional equivalence between the two languages should be achieved. It requires the translator to express the content and meaning of the original work, but also try to be equal in form, because some styles are also one of the content that the original author wants to express. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

(1)Translate into Chinese Passive Sentences

In order to emphasize the action, or do not know the person who sent the action, or in a specific context, or to keep the subject of the clause before and after it is consistent, or to make the key point, English passive sentences can be translated into Chinese passive sentences . In addition to using the word bei(被) in expression, you can also choose words such as zao(遭), ai(挨), gei(给), shou(受) and wei...suo (为……所) according to the needs of Chinese collocation. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example:

In order to emphasize the action, or do not know the person who sent the action, or in a specific context, or in order to maintain the consistency of the subject clause, or to make the key point, English passive sentences can be translated into Chinese passive sentences. In addition to using the word bei(被) in expression, you can also choose words such as zao(遭), ai(挨), gei(给), shou(受) and wei...suo (为……所) according to the needs of Chinese collocation. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

SL Text 1: I was touched by warmhearted stories during the pandemic.

TL Text 1: 我为疫情期间发生的感人故事所感动。

(2)Translate into Chinese Active Sentences

Since Chinese habitually uses active sentences, many passive sentences can be translated into Chinese active sentences. When translating, it can be translated into a formally active and passive Chinese sentence, and it can also change the original predicate verb to translate it into a complete active sentence in Chinese, and it can also directly translate the passive voice of the original text into the active voice. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example:

Since Chinese habitually uses active sentences, many passive sentences in English can be translated into active sentences in Chinese. When translating, it can be translated into a formally active and passive Chinese sentence, and it can also change the original predicate verb to translate it into a complete active sentence in Chinese, and it can also directly translate the passive voice of the original text into the active voice. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

SL Text 2: In all, at least 600 people have been declared dead and another 650 missing.

TL Text 2: 总计至少六百人已证实死亡，另有六百五十人失踪。

(3)Translate into Chinese Judgment Sentences

Those English passive sentences that focus on describing the process, nature and state of things are very similar to the table structure, so they can be translated into Chinese judgment sentences, which are expressed by the structure of Chinese judgment sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example:

Those English passive sentences that focus on describing the process, nature and state of things are very similar to the table structure, so they can be translated into Chinese judgment sentences and expressed by the structure of Chinese judgment sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

SL Text 3: Beauty cannot be measured by any absolute standard.

TL Text 3: 美是不可能用任何绝对标准来衡量的。

(4)Translate into Chinese Sentences without Subjects

Chinese emphasizes harmony and loose structure, while English emphasizes form and compact structure. Therefore, the most basic sentence structure in English is the subject-predicate structure. In other words, there must be a subject in any English sentence pattern, but Chinese is often eclectic and does not require a subject. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example:

Chinese emphasizes harmony and loose structure, while English emphasizes form and compact structure. Therefore, the most basic sentence structure in English is the subject-predicate structure. In other words, any English sentence pattern must have a subject,, but Chinese is often eclectic and does not require a subject. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

SL Text 4: The cost can not be met unless the region has ample food resources.

TL Text 4: 除非该地区具有丰富的食物资源，否则无法满足这种消耗。

In the completion of an action, there are usually actors and recipients. If you want to introduce the perpetrator in English passive sentences, you usually use by to elicit it. But it is not difficult to find that many English sentences do not lead to the perpetrator. Therefore, such sentences can be translated into Chinese without subject sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)

In the completion of an action, there are usually actors and recipients. If you want to introduce the perpetrator in English passive sentences, you usually use "by" to elicit it. But it is not difficult to find that many English sentences do not lead to the perpetrator. Therefore, such sentences can be translated into Chinese without subject sentences. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===5.Conclusion===

As Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang Li, 1984) Through combing the differences between English and Chinese in language expression, sentence structure, and passive voice, explaining the relationship between hypotaxis and parataxis, and using teleology as the guiding theory, the method of translating English passive voice is obtained and examples are given. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects.

As Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang Li, 1984) Through combing the differences between English and Chinese in language expression, sentence structure, and passive voice, explaining the relationship between hypotaxis and parataxis, and using teleology as the guiding theory, the method of translating English passive voice is obtained and examples are given. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive sentences, Chinese active sentences, Chinese judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===6.Reference===
Hu Julan 胡菊兰. (2004). 论中英思维模式与英汉语不同的句式特点 [Discuss the Chinese and English Thinking Mode and Different Sentence Patterns between English and Chinese]. 河南大学学报(社会科学版) Journal of Henan University (Social Science Edition). (06) 73-76.

Xu Jun徐珺. (2006). 汉英语篇意合与形合的文化阐释 [Cultural Explanation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis in Chinese and English Text]. 外语与外语教学 Foreign Languages and Their Teaching. (12) 26-29.

Li Jingmin 李靖民. (2012). 英汉语形合和意合研究中的几个问题 [Several Issues in the Study of Hypotaxis and Parataxis in English and Chinese]. 外语研究 Foreign Languages Research. (02) 45-50+112.

Liu Mingdong刘明东. (2001). 英语被动语态的语用分析及其翻译 [Pragmatic Analysis and Translation of English Passive Voice]. 中国科技翻译Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal. (01) 1-4.

Kui Xueyan, Wang lei 隗雪燕,王雷. (2012). 英语与汉语的被动含义 [Passive Meaning in English and Chinese]. 外语教学 Foreign Language Education. (05) 18-23.

Tang Fenfen汤芬芬. (2012). 英汉被动含义句式的对比及翻译 [Comparison and Translation of English and Chinese Sentences with Passive Meaning]. 海外英语 Overseas English. (21) 139-141.

Tang Guoping, Li Fei 唐国平,李斐. (2003). 主动形式表被动含义的探讨 [Discussion on the Passive Meaning of Active Form]. 攀枝花学院学报 journal of pzhzhihua university. (03) 51-55.

Xiao Zhonghua, Dai Guangrong 肖忠华,戴光荣. (2010). 语料库在语言教学中的运用——中国英语学习者被动句式习得个案研究 [The Use of Corpus in Language Teaching: A Case Study of Chinese English Learners' Acquisition of Passive Sentences]. 浙江大学学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Zhejiang University(Humanities and Social Sciences). (04) 189-200.

Cheng Hongzhen 程洪珍. (2003). 英汉语差异与英语长句的汉译 [The Differences Between English and Chinese and the Chinese Translation of English Long Sentences]. 中国科技翻译 Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal. (04) 21-22.

Duan Manfu 段满福. (2006). 从英汉语句子结构的差异看英语定语从句的翻译 [On the Translation of English Attributive Clauses from the Differences in the Substructure of English and Chinese Sentences ]. 大学英语(学术版) College English( Academic Edition). (01) 267-270.

Xu Jianping许建平. (2003). 英语人称代词的翻译问题 [On the Translation of English Personal Pronouns]. 清华大学教育研究 Research On Education Tsinghua University. (S1) 106-110.

Ni Wei, Shao Zhihong 倪巍,邵志洪. (2004). 英汉被动句认知对比研究 [A Cognitive Comparative Study of English and Chinese Passive Sentences]. 四川外语学院学报 Journal of Sichuan International Studies University. (05) 128-133.

Wang Jiayi 王家义. (2011). 英语同义词辨析的多视角透视 [A Multi-Perspective Perspective on the Differentiation and Analysis of English Synonyms]. 外国语文 Journal of Sichuan International Studies University. 27(05) 79-83.

Xu Shihong 徐世红. (2006). 论英语习得中英语思维的培养和建立 [On the Cultivation and Establishment of English Thinking in English Acquisition]. 盐城师范学院学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Yancheng Teachers University(Humanities & Social Sciences Edition). (02) 67-70.

Wang Li 王力. (1984). ''中国语法理论'' Chinese Grammar Theory. 山东教育出版社 Shandong Education Press.

Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2006). ''新编汉英对比与翻译'' New Chinese-English Comparison and Translation. 对外翻译 China Translation & Publishing Corporation.

==On Metaphors - 游雨婷 You Yuting, 202070080619==
<center>游雨婷 You Yuting </center>
===Abstract===
Metaphor is not only a simple linguistic phenomenon, but also closely related to human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should analyze the psychological causes of metaphor and its hidden cultural information, and adopt corresponding translation strategies in order to accurately and vividly convey the basic information of the original language. If we ignore metaphor in English-Chinese translation, it will not only fail to achieve the translation effect, but also make readers confused or even misunderstood, resulting in an immeasurable consequence.

This thesis aims to discuss the development and issues of metaphor translation. Then, in comparison of the differences between Chinese and English in various aspects, the author aims to seek the most appropriate and effective metaphor translation strategies and skills, and lastly through the comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor help translators to overcome translation obstacles resulted from metaphors. By truly integrating the language into the specific cultural context, one can help promote the quality of translation.

===Key words===
Metaphor cultural differences translation strategies different perspectives

===题目===
论隐喻

===摘要===
隐喻不只是一种简单的语言现象，它与人类的思维方式、文化传统紧密相连。在英汉隐喻翻译中，译者应分析隐喻产生的心理原因及其隐藏的文化信息，采取相应的翻译策略，以求准确而生动地传达原语言的基本信息。如果忽略英汉中的隐喻翻译问题，不仅达不到翻译效果，还会令读者费解甚至误解，造成无法估量的后果。

本文旨在从隐喻切入，讨论英汉隐喻翻译的发展及问题。其次通过从多个方面比较中英文的差异，从而寻求最合适有效的隐喻翻译策略和技巧，最后从结构隐喻和本体隐喻两个视角对《白杨礼赞》英译本的隐喻翻译进行比较分析，帮助翻译工作者克服由于隐喻带来的翻译障碍。真正将语言融入特定的文化语境，促进翻译质量的提高。

===关键词===
隐喻文化差异翻译策略不同视角

===1. Introduction===
Given the prospect of word economic integration, translation between two languages is in great need. Especially in English-Chinese metaphor translation, the original information could be wrongly transmitted or even lost. The reason for this is that metaphor translation is more a cultural conversion, rather than a simple language shift. So in this thesis, the author focuses on analysing the reasons and proposing strategies for metaphor translation and comparing metaphor translation of different English versions from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).

Given the background of word economic integration, translation between two languages is in need. Especially in English-Chinese metaphor translation, the original information could be wrongly transmitted or even lost. The reason for this is that metaphor translation is more a cultural conversion, rather than a simple language shift. So in this thesis, the author focuses on pointing out the reasons and proposing strategies for metaphor translation and comparing metaphor translation of different English versions from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

There will be three parts. The first chapter is to give a general picture of metaphor translation which involves its definition, development and reflections. In the second chapter, the author will discuss about the factors affecting metaphor translation, such as geographical and environmental conditions and so on. The third chapter is about strategies and skills to solve problems arose in metaphor translation, such as literal translation, and so on. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).

There will be three parts. The first chapter is to give a general picture of metaphor translation which involves its definition, development and reflections. In the second chapter, the author will discuss about the factors affecting metaphor translation, such as geographical and environmental conditions and so on. The third chapter is about strategies to solve problems arose in metaphor translation, such as literal translation, and so on. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===2. The Overview of Metaphor===
A metaphor is a figurative rhetoric, the use of one thing to denote another. It is the psychological behavior, linguistic behavior and cultural behavior of perceiving, experiencing, imagining, understanding and talking about such things under the suggestion of other kinds of things. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).

A metaphor is a figurative rhetoric, the use of one thing to denote another. It is a kind of a psychological behavior, linguistic behavior and cultural behavior of perceiving, experiencing, imagining, understanding and talking about such things under the suggestion of other kinds of things. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)
===2.1 Definition of Metaphor===
In different periods of history, people have different definitions for metaphor. In ancient Greece, Aristotle named the rhetorical phenomenon metaphorical language, believing that it, like simile, is a contrast between different things and a phenomenon requiring the use of modification. (Shu Dingfang 2000,11).

In different periods of history, people have different ideas for metaphor. In ancient Greece, Aristotle named the rhetorical phenomenon metaphorical language, believing that it, like simile, is a contrast between different things and a phenomenon requiring the use of modification. (Shu Dingfang 2000,11). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

In the early period of China, there was no specific concept of metaphor, only the Chinese words such as "譬", "比" that generally referred to figurative rhetoric appeared in the literature. (Hu Zhuanglin 2004,207), which showed that there was no clear concept of metaphor. At present, the study of metaphor exists in linguistics, pragmatics, semantics, cognitive psychology and other disciplines. American linguist Lakeoff and others hold that metaphor is not only a linguistic phenomenon, but fundamentally a cognitive one. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).

In the early period of China, there was no concrete concept of metaphor, only the Chinese words such as "譬", "比" that generally referred to figurative rhetoric appeared in the literature. (Hu Zhuanglin 2004,207), which showed that there was no clear concept of metaphor. At present, the study of metaphor exists in linguistics, pragmatics, semantics, cognitive psychology and other disciplines. American linguist Lakeoff and others hold that metaphor is not only a linguistic phenomenon, but a cognitive one. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)
Modern metaphor theory advocates that the essence of metaphor is a cognitive phenomenon, language is one of the main forms of metaphor, and metaphor in language has many forms. Understanding the definition of metaphor and distinguishing it from the concept of simile can help translators to deal with the problems in metaphor translation.(Shu Dingfang 2000,2).
Modern metaphor theory advocates that the essence of metaphor is a cognitive phenomenon, language is one of the main forms of metaphor, and metaphor in language has many. Understanding the definition of metaphor and distinguishing it from the concept of simile can help translators to deal with the problems in metaphor translation.(Shu Dingfang 2000,2)--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Therefore, we should have a clear understanding of metaphor before discussing the metaphor translation skills. The comprehension of metaphor becomes a process of cognitive reasoning of language, understanding the pragmatic intention of the writer through association and inference.(Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian 2020,6).Poetry, especially the modern poetry, has a prominent feature in the collocation of words and sentences. Considerable imageries, which contains numerous metaphorical meanings, are existed in Chinese poetry, therefore, metaphor translation must be accurate, complete and expressive.(ZHANG Jie 2020,84).

Therefore, we should have a clear understanding of metaphor before discussing the metaphor translation strategies. The comprehension of metaphor becomes a process of cognitive reasoning of language, understanding the pragmatic intention of the writer through association and inference.(Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian 2020,6).Poetry, especially the modern poetry, has a prominent feature in the collocation of words and sentences. Considerable imageries, which contains numerous metaphorical meanings, are existed in Chinese poetry, therefore, metaphor translation must be accurate and complete.(ZHANG Jie 2020,84). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===2.2 The Development of Metaphor Translation===
For a long time, how to realize the transformation of metaphor has been an important topic in the field of text translation. In 1918, for example, the western translators and translation theorist Peter Newmark paid great attention to metaphor translation, whose understanding of metaphor translation strategies are based on language form and the semantic equivalence, as well as the discussion of metaphor translation from rhetoric perspective. The criteria for the result of metaphor translation is determined by the rhetoric function usually from the form and semantic level.（Wang Bo 2016,115）.

For a long time, how to realize the transformation of metaphor has been a topic in the field of text translation. In 1918, for example, the western translators and translation theorist Peter Newmark paid great attention to metaphor translation, whose understanding of metaphor translation strategies are based on language form and the semantic equivalence, as well as the discussion of metaphor translation from rhetoric perspective. The criteria for the result of metaphor translation is determined by the rhetoric function usually from the form and semantic level.（Wang Bo 2016,115）.

Newmark believes that metaphor is a figure of speech. He regarded all the extended expression of meaning as metaphors and thought that all the words with multiple meanings were potential metaphors. The shift of the meaning of a metaphor or a specific word, or the personification of an abstract concept, or the use of some words or phrases, do not indicate their literal meaning; rather all imply another meaning. Metaphor can stand alone,which means we can use one word to achieve the rhetorical effect. Extendability refers to phrases, sentences, idioms, proverbs, fables, or even the whole part that can evoke the imagination.(Wang Bo 2016,115).

Newmark believes that metaphor is a figure of speech. He regarded all the extended expression of meaning as metaphors and thought that all the words with many meanings were potential metaphors. The shift of the meaning of a metaphor or a specific word, or the personification of an abstract concept, or the use of some words or phrases, do not indicate their literal meaning; rather all imply another meaning. Metaphor meaning we can use one word to achieve the rhetorical effect. Extendability refers to phrases, sentences, idioms, proverbs, fables, or even the whole part that can evoke the imagination.(Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Based on the above views, he proposed several ways to guide metaphor translation: retaining the same metaphorical images, that is, literal translation, on the condition that it makes target language readers feel natural; turning into simile; replacing the metaphor with the equivalent metaphor in the target language; retaining the same metaphorical image and simpifying the similarity; conducting Interpretive translation. (Wang Bo 2016,115).

Based on the above views, he proposed several ways to solve problems in metaphor translation: retaining the same metaphorical images, that is, literal translation, on the condition that it makes target language readers feel natural; turning into simile; replacing the metaphor with the equivalent metaphor in the target language; retaining the same metaphorical image and simpifying the similarity; conducting Interpretive translation. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

However, Maalej points out that there are two main criticisms of such prescriptive methods: one is that translators do not know how to choose metaphor translation methods, for it is not clear which method should be chosen under what kid of circumstances; Secondly, the translation of metaphor cannot be carried out according to a set of abstract rules, and it must be dealt with according to the structure and function of a specific metaphor in a specific context.(Wang Bo 2016,116).

However, Maalej points out that there are two main drawbacks of such prescriptive methods: one is that translators do not know how to choose metaphor translation methods, for it is not clear which method should be chosen under what kid of circumstances; Secondly, the translation of metaphor cannot be carried out according to a set of abstract rules, and it must be dealt with according to the structure and function of a specific metaphor in a specific context.(Wang Bo 2016,116).

Compared with Nida, he sees metaphor as a figurative meaning of vocabulary, and it is equivalent in rhetorical function to idiomatic methods. Nida put forward the metaphor translation strategy earlier, that is, translating metaphor into metaphor; turning metaphor into simile; shifting non-metaphor into metaphor. These strategies are relatively general in concept and do not go far in discussion for many aspects of metaphor translation. While Newmark further pointed out that metaphor translation is the epitome of translation of all languages, because it gives translators' various choices: expressing practical meaning, reproducing image, or making appropriate modifications to achieve the perfect combination of meaning and image.(Wang Bo 2016,116).

As for Nida, he sees metaphor as a figurative meaning of vocabulary, and it is equivalent in rhetorical function to idiomatic methods. Nida put forward the metaphor translation strategy earlier, that is, translating metaphor into metaphor; turning metaphor into simile; shifting non-metaphor into metaphor. These strategies are relatively general in concept and do not go far in discussion for many aspects of metaphor translation. While Newmark further pointed out that metaphor translation is the epitome of translation of all languages, because it gives translators' various choices: expressing practical meaning, reproducing image, or making appropriate modifications to achieve the perfect combination of meaning and image.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The metaphor translation emerged in the early period from Four Books and Five Classics and classic poetry.The problem is that metaphor translation is included in the translation of figurative rhetoric.We seldom take the metaphor as a kind of independent system with its own translation methods and strategies and its internal cause analysis. because of the particularity and complexity of Chinese language and characters, it’s hard to trace its translation results.(Wang Bo 2016,115).

The metaphor translation emerged in the early period from Four Books and Five Classics and classic poetry.The problem is that metaphor translation is included in the translation of figurative rhetoric.We seldom take the metaphor as an independent system with its own translation methods and strategies and its internal cause analysis. because of the particularity and complexity of Chinese language and characters, it’s hard to trace its translation results.(Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===2.3 Reflections on Metaphor Translation Studies===
The research on metaphor translation in the past 50 years has made remarkable achievements both at home and abroad. Scholars have conducted detailed and in-depth studies on how to translate metaphor from multiple perspectives and disciplines. Through sorting out, we find that there are still some problems in the study of metaphor translation, and some aspects need to be strengthened. The following are some views on the study of metaphor translation:(Wang Bo 2016,116).
The research on metaphor translation in the past 50 years has made achievements both at home and abroad. Scholars have conducted detailed and in-depth studies on how to translate metaphor from many perspectives and disciplines. Through sorting out, we find that there are still some problems in the study of metaphor translation, and some aspects need to be strengthened. The following are some views on the study of metaphor translation:(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The first one is the center or the focus of the research on metaphor translation. The core of metaphor translation research should be "how to translate". In the study stage of rhetoric-oriented metaphor translation, although there are many thesis in China in terms of the strategies and methods of metaphor translation, great efforts have been made on "how to translate" and some significant progress have been made. In foreign countries, metaphors are considered untranslatable by scholars such as Nida and Dagut. So generally speaking, there are few research thesis in this field during this period.(Wang Bo 2016,116).

The first one is the focus of the research on metaphor translation. The core of metaphor translation research should be "how to translate". In the study stage of rhetoric-oriented metaphor translation, although there are many thesis in China in terms of the strategies and methods of metaphor translation, efforts have been made on "how to translate" and some significant progress have been made. In foreign countries, metaphors are considered untranslatable by scholars such as Nida and Dagut. So generally speaking, there are few research thesis in this field during this period.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

In the stage of cognition-oriented metaphor translation, foreign researches are relatively pragmatic. Most of them not only provide explanation for metaphor translation, but also put forward specific methods on how to translate metaphor. Making a comprehensive analysis of the research on metaphor translation in the cognition-oriented stage in China, it is not difficult to see that a great deal of space has been devoted to the interpretation of metaphor translation from different perspectives. There are many research thesis on this aspect, but relatively insufficient research thesis on how to translate metaphor.(Wang Bo 2016,116).

In the stage of cognition-oriented metaphor translation, foreign researches are relatively pragmatic. Most of them not only provide explanation for metaphor translation, but also put forward specific methods on how to translate metaphor. Making a comprehensive analysis of the research on metaphor translation in the cognition-oriented stage in China, it is not difficult to see that a great deal of efforts have been devoted to the interpretation of metaphor translation from different perspectives. There are many research thesis on this aspect, but relatively insufficient research thesis on how to translate metaphor.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The second is the originality of research. Since the 1980s, there has been a linguistic shift from source language to target language center in translation studies. In this context, domestic scholars still can closely grasp the development of translation studies and study metaphor translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. Especially since the cognitive view of metaphor has become the mainstream paradigm of metaphor research. However, if we look at the obtained results, there are few achievements coming from self-creation. Thus, domestic research on metaphor translation lacks originality.(Wang Bo 2016,116).

The second is the originality of research. Since the 1980s, there has been a linguistic shift from source language to target language center in translation studies. Domestic scholars still can closely grasp the development of translation studies and study metaphor translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. Especially since the cognitive view of metaphor has become the mainstream paradigm of metaphor research. However, if we look at the obtained results, there are few achievements coming from self-creation. Thus, domestic research on metaphor translation lacks originality.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The third is that blind spots exist in the research field. What are the criteria or standards for a good metaphor translation? At present, there is no unified and specific understanding, and few people have been dedicating themselves to this field of research. We can strengthen relevant research. For example, we can try to study the evaluation system of metaphor translation. It is also advisable to strengthen the research on the acceptability of translation metaphor readers and examine the effectiveness of Chinese culture transmission in English-speaking countries. Describing the translation methods adopted by Chinese translators when translating metaphors is also a feasible way. (Wang Bo 2016,116).

The third is that blind spots exist in the research field. What are the standards for a good metaphor translation? At present, there is no unified criteria and few people have been dedicating themselves to this field of research. We can strengthen relevant research. For example, we can try to study the evaluation system of metaphor translation. It is also advisable to strengthen the research on the acceptability of translation metaphor readers and examine the effectiveness of Chinese culture transmission in English-speaking countries. Describing the translation methods adopted by Chinese translators when translating metaphors is also a feasible way. (Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Overall, in research on metaphor translation, we see progress as well as shortcomings which are waiting to be coped with along the way we explore a wider space for metaphor translation.(Wang Bo 2016,116).

===3. Reasons for Metaphor Translation===
Metaphor is not just a simple linguistic phenomenon, but also is concerned with human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should analyze the reasons of metaphor translation and its hidden cultural information so as to accurately convey the general information of the original language.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122).

Metaphor is not just a linguistic phenomenon, but also is concerned with human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should find out the reasons of metaphor translation and its hidden cultural information so as to accurately convey the general information of the original language.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===3.1 Geographical and Environment Factors===
It’s clear that metaphor is closely associated with culture. And culture reflects the local conditions and is the representative of a region. With the extension of time, the local cultural characteristics shaped by geography and environment will become more distinct. It is called regional culture. It’s a symbol of specific ecology, folk customs, habits, and civilization. The regional culture bears the brand of the targeted region with uniqueness and stability for it integrated into the environment and formed something special. At the same time, people in different areas create various cultures. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).

It’s clear that metaphor is closely associated with culture. And culture reflects the local conditions. With the extension of time, the local cultural characteristics shaped by geography and environment will become more distinct. It is called regional culture. It’s a symbol of specific ecology, folk customs, habits, and civilization. The regional culture bears the brand of the targeted region for it integrated into the environment and formed something special. At the same time, people in different areas create various cultures. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Regional culture exerts great influence on vocabulary, sentence patterns, as well as the way people use metaphor. Different regional cultures enable different nations to produce various cognitions toward the same thing. One may find it hard to exchange conversations with different groups of people, yet still see it as a beautiful regional feature. Because of their different life experiences, geographical locations, and political environments, English and Chinese nations are bound to boast their own national personalities, adding a strong national color into their languages. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).

Regional culture exerts influence on vocabulary, sentence patterns, as well as the way people use metaphor. Different regional cultures enable different nations to produce various cognitions toward the same thing. One may find it hard to exchange conversations with different groups of people, yet still see it as a beautiful regional feature. Because of their different life experiences, geographical locations, and political environments, English and Chinese nations are bound to boast their own national personalities, adding a strong national color into their languages. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

For example, the “east wind” in Chinese literature reminds people of the genial warmth, while “the west wind” goes the opposite way, recalling a taste of bitterness. People across the national boundary tend to make use of “east wind” and “west wind” to imply something else in their literary works yet with different or even totally opposite meanings. And that meaning gap in metaphor translation is caused by different features of geography and environment. Thus, translators should attach great attention to the geography and environment when they do metaphor translation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).

For example, the “east wind” in Chinese literature reminds people of the genial warmth, while “the west wind” implies a taste of bitterness. People across the national boundary tend to make use of “east wind” and “west wind” to imply something else in their literary works yet with different or even totally opposite meanings. And that meaning gap in metaphor translation is caused by different features of geography and environment. Thus, translators should attach great attention to the geography and environment when they do metaphor translation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Each nation's unique natural environment and regional characteristics make its language contain typical national characteristics. China has been a major agricultural country since ancient times. In the long feudal society, people lived a self-sufficient life that men did farm work and women engage in spinning and weaving.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122).

Each nation's unique natural environment and regional characteristics make its language contain typical national characteristics. China is a major agricultural country. In the long feudal society, people lived a self-sufficient life that men did farm work and women engage in spinning and weaving.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Therefore, the famous proverbs of our people bear bright agricultural colors, for example: Fishing industry and navigation industry play an important role in boosting British economy. The life style of sailing and fishing has left a deep mark on English language, such as: when the ship comes home(好运来临); Ships that pass in the night(萍水相逢). Here, we use ship to imply opportunity, luck and people, instead of using its literal meaning. Therefore, attention must be paid to the regional differences, and treat metaphor translation in a right way. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).

Therefore, the proverbs of our people bear bright agricultural colors, for example: Fishing industry and navigation industry play an important role in boosting British economy. The life style of sailing and fishing has left a deep mark on English language, such as: when the ship comes home(好运来临); Ships that pass in the night(萍水相逢). Here, we use ship to imply opportunity, luck and people, instead of using its literal meaning. Therefore, attention must be paid to the regional differences, and treat metaphor translation in a right way. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===3.2 Religious Belief Factors===
Westerners have a deeply rooted Christian tradition, while Chinese have long believed in Buddhism and Confucianism, which determines the difference between two languages in terms of metaphorical expression. For example, in Chinese, there are sayings like "Laying down the butcher’s knife to become the Buddha" (放下屠刀，立地成佛) and "Saving a life is better than building a seven-win Buddha"(救人一命胜造七级浮屠). In English, there are sayings such as "Every dog has his day and Every his hour", which reflects the equality doctrine of Christianity.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).

Westerners have followed Christian tradition, while Chinese have long believed in Buddhism and Confucianism, which determines the difference between two languages in terms of metaphorical expression. For example, in Chinese, there are sayings like "Laying down the butcher’s knife to become the Buddha" (放下屠刀，立地成佛) and "Saving a life is better than building a seven-win Buddha"(救人一命胜造七级浮屠). In English, there are sayings such as "Every dog has his day and Every his hour", which reflects the equality doctrine of Christianity.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Religious belief can be regarded as the universal cultural characteristics of all mankind. Religious culture constitutes an important part of the whole national culture, formed by religious consciousness and religious belief of a certain nation. The differences of religious culture reveal itself in respect of worships and taboos and languages are more or less affected by the religious differences.Most of the Westerners believe in Christianity; thus their language is closely linked to this religion. Thus, in English, some idioms are often related to Christianity, while in Chinese, some things connected to Buddhism are often borrowed for figurative rhetoric. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).
Religious belief can be regarded as the cultural characteristics of all mankind. Religious culture constitutes an important part of the whole national culture, formed by religious consciousness and religious belief of a certain nation. The differences of religious culture reveal itself in respect of worships and taboos and languages are more or less affected by the religious differences.Most of the Westerners believe in Christianity; thus their language is closely linked to this religion. Thus, in English, some idioms are often related to Christianity, while in Chinese, some connected to Buddhism are often borrowed for figurative rhetoric. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

For example, "as patient as Job", "as poor as Lazarus", "as rich as Croesus". The characters as “Job”, “Lazarus”, and “Croesus” in these idioms used as metaphors originate from the Bible. However, some Chinese idioms derive from Buddhism such as "not enough to go round"(粥少僧多). (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).

Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism, these three religions prevailed in ancient China, and they still have a profound influence on the Chinese people now, therefore it’s no wonder that one can find many religious words such as “Buddha” and “Bodhisattva” “the Jade Emperor”, “Avalokitesvara”, in daily life. Then they gradually evolve into some typical phrases like “presenting Buddha with borrowed flowers,” “random acts of kindness”, “do not burn incense in spare time, but cram for the moment” and so on. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).

Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism, these three religions prevailed in ancient China, and they still influenced Chinese people now, therefore it’s no wonder that one can find many religious words such as “Buddha” and “Bodhisattva” “the Jade Emperor”, “Avalokitesvara”, in daily life. Then they gradually evolve into some typical phrases like “presenting Buddha with borrowed flowers,” “random acts of kindness”, “do not burn incense in spare time, but cram for the moment” and so on. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

And a majority of people in many western countries regard the Bible as their behavioral standard because of their belief in Christianity. One can find many English idioms from the Bible, such as “sell one’s birth right for a mess of pottage”, “God helps those who help themselves” and so on. The Bible as a classic work of Christianity has played an immeasurable role in the development of western language. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).

And a majority of people in many western countries regard the Bible as their behavioral standard because of their belief in Christianity. One can find many English idioms from the Bible, such as “sell one’s birth right for a mess of pottage”, “God helps those who help themselves” and so on. The Bible as a classic work of Christianity has played a role in the development of western language. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Through a comparative analysis of Some Chinese idioms and English idioms derived from religions, historical stories, fairy tales or fables, it is not difficult to find that there are many cultures in both Chinese and English that share the same meaning though in different forms. For example, this English sentence “sow the wind and reap the whirlwind” can be expressed as “善有善报，恶有恶报” in Chinese. Both of them stress karmic retribution. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).

Through a comparative analysis of Some Chinese idioms and English idioms derived from religions, historical stories, fairy tales or fables, it is not difficult to find that there are cultural common ground in both Chinese and English though in different forms. For example, this English sentence “sow the wind and reap the whirlwind” can be expressed as “善有善报，恶有恶报” in Chinese. Both of them stress karmic retribution. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Take the English phrase "to meet one's Waterloo" as an another example, it refers to this historical fact that Napoleon was defeated at The battle of Waterloo. In Chinese, there is a similar allusion, "败走麦城". Different historical allusions are quoted, but the meanings of the two expressions are identical. When using idiomatic expressions to carry out metaphorical meaning, we should pay special attention to the significance of the vehicle in English culture and the basic principle of its image transformation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).

Take the English phrase "to meet one's Waterloo" as an another example, it refers to this historical fact that Napoleon was defeated at The battle of Waterloo. In Chinese, there is a similar allusion, "败走麦城". Different historical allusions are quoted, but the meanings of the two expressions are similar. When using idiomatic expressions to carry out metaphorical meaning, we should pay special attention to the significance of the vehicle in English culture and the basic principle of its image transformation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

In the metaphor translation practice, one should take the religious differences of different ethnic groups into consideration, lifting the mysterious veil of religion. At the same time, one should avoid forcing foreign religious culture and belief to combine with others, which would end up like a big or even absurd joke. Only based on the full understanding of different religious belief, can one successfully complete the metaphor transformation that is agreeable and acceptable to readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).

In the metaphor translation practice, one should take the religious differences of different ethnic groups into consideration, lifting the mysterious veil of religion. At the same time, one should avoid imposing foreign religious culture and belief on other cultures, which would end up like a big or even absurd joke. Only based on the full understanding of different religious belief, can one successfully complete the metaphor transformation that is agreeable and acceptable to readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===3.3 Cultural Background Factors===
From the process of the generation of metaphor, we can know that metaphor is the creation of national psychology based on the similarity of things. This kind of national psychological creation contains rich cultural connotation, and different life customs and cultural background will inevitably lead to the difference of metaphor（Xu Aihua 2019,64）. Metaphors are frequently used to constitute strong emotional expressions within human communication. The sentiment of a metaphor is decided by many factors, including its context, target, cultural background, etc(.Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33).

From the process of the generation of metaphor, we can know that metaphor is the creation of national psychology based on the similarity of things. This kind of national psychological creation contains rich cultural connotation, and different life customs and cultural background will inevitably lead to the difference of metaphor（Xu Aihua 2019,64）. Metaphors are frequently used to deliver strong emotional expressions within human communication. The sentiment of a metaphor is decided by many factors, including its context, target, cultural background, etc(.Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese Metaphor Translation, cultural differences should be considered first. In the process of metaphor translation, one should not only be familiar with the culture of the source language, but also with the culture of the target language, so as to achieve the purpose of communication.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）.
Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese Metaphor Translation, cultural differences should be considered first. In the process of metaphor translation, one should be familiar with the culture of the source language and the target language, so as to achieve the purpose of communication.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

People tend to use idioms and simple words serving as metaphorical expressions to deliver imaginary effect in literary works. There are also cultural differences between Chinese idioms and English idioms that contain figurative rhetoric. The difference of cultural background between Chinese and Western countries determines the difference of metaphor in English and Chinese. For example, the Chinese expression “杀鸡取卵” can be spelled as "To kill the goose that lays golden eggs " in English, while the Chinese word for chicken turns into a goose. The corresponding Chinese idiom “雨后春笋” is turned into "spring up like a mushroom" in English. Translators should take cultural factors into account when doing metaphor translation.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）.
For example, the Chinese expression “杀鸡取卵” can be translated as "To kill the goose that lays golden eggs " in English, while the Chinese word for chicken turns into a goose. The corresponding Chinese idiom “雨后春笋” is turned into "spring up like a mushroom" in English. Translators should take cultural factors into account when doing metaphor translation.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Of course, this kind of difference caused by cultural background doesn’t only appear in idioms, but also in a single word as follows: The word “death” in almost all languages is a taboo. Euphemistic expressions for death in English and Chinese both have its own characteristics, showing cultures of different nations. For example, in China, Buddhism calls it “圆寂”, and Taoism names it “仙逝”. The death of the elderly is called “寿终”, “谢世”; the death of the young is called “夭折”, and the death of the middle-aged is called “早逝”. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）.

Of course, this kind of difference caused by cultural background doesn’t only appear in idioms, but also in a single word as follows: The word “death” in almost all languages is a taboo. Euphemistic expressions for death in English and Chinese both have its own characteristics, showing cultures of different nations. For example, in China, Buddhism calls it “圆寂”, and Taoism names it “仙逝”. The death of the elderly is called “寿终”, “谢世”; the death of the young is called “夭折”, and the death of the middle-aged is called “早逝”. Therefore, regarding social status, age, gender of the dead, attitude of the living toward the dead are all presented in the euphemism used.(Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Therefore, regarding social status, age, gender of the dead, attitude of the living toward the dead are all presented in the euphemism used. While in English, they replace “death” with “go to west”, “to be taken to paradise”, and “to be asleep in the arms of God”. Because the westerners hold the view that every man must give to God an account of what he has done on earth at the final judgment. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）.

While in English, they describe “death” by using expressions as “go to west”, “to be taken to paradise”, and “to be asleep in the arms of God”. Because the westerners hold the view that every man must give to God an account of what he has done on earth at the final judgment. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）.--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Another example is that getting old is the law of nature, but people tend to have different psychological reactions to this word “old” given different cultural backgrounds. In China, the word “old” is a positive word and symbolizes one’s wisdom and rich experience, and one often refer it to the senior who is high above in the company management. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).
Another example is that getting old is the law of nature, but people tend to have different psychological reactions to this word “old” given different cultural backgrounds. In China, the word “old” is a somewhat positive word and symbolizes one’s wisdom and rich experience, and one often refer it to the senior who is high above in the company management. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The word “old” gradually becomes some positive idioms like “an old hand is a good hand”. Sometimes, one addresses someone as the old man in order to show respect to the elderly, so the meaning of age is reduced. While in English, “old” appears to be a negative word, which means useless and worthless. So it’s kind of a taboo in English. When translating, translators should replace “old” with “elderly” or “senior”. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).
The word “old” gradually becomes idioms like “an old hand is a good hand”. Sometimes, one addresses someone as the old man in order to show respect to the elderly, so the meaning of age is reduced. While in English, “old” appears to be a negative word, which means useless and worthless. So it’s kind of a taboo in English. When translating, translators should replace “old” with “elderly” or “senior”. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Unfamiliar with the cultural back ground, mistakes are usually made in using metaphor or doing metaphor translation. Take “cowboy” as an example. In China, many translators think cowboy literally as someone outstanding, so they interpret it as one running a business as a cowboy. The fact is that the genuine image of the cowboy is someone who is independent, unconstraint and act on its own will in westerner’s mind. The real meaning goes opposite that he runs business with dishonesty and a lack of experience and is sloppy in work. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).

Unfamiliar with the cultural back ground, mistakes are usually made in using metaphor or doing metaphor translation. Take “cowboy” as an example. In China, many translators think cowboy literally as someone outstanding, so they interpret it as one running a business as a cowboy. The fact is that the genuine image of the cowboy is someone who acts on its own will in westerner’s mind. The real meaning goes opposite that he runs business with dishonesty and a lack of experience and is sloppy in work. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

It’s obvious that in the translation progress, the primary issue to be dealt with is to overcome and solve cultural differences so as to avoid cultural shock. Impossible as it may be to achieve the exact equivalence between the source culture and the target culture, one may realize the equivalence of sense through the means of perspective conversion.(Guo Huiqing 2013,124).

It’s obvious that in the translation progress, the primary issue to be dealt with is to solve cultural differences so as to avoid cultural shock. Impossible as it may be to achieve the exact equivalence between the source culture and the target culture, one can realize the equivalence of sense through the means of perspective conversion.(Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

To sum up, errors made in metaphor translation are not only brought by the vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, but by the fact that translators’ sole attention to the equivalence of language forms yet ignoring the underlying cultural meaning. In cross-culture communication, cultural background, thinking patterns, conventional habits and behaviors all have a role to play. Translators must respect the readers’ aesthetic psychology. It is essential for translators to strengthen learning in culture. Through contrast one can find the appropriate metaphor translation skills and strategies to improve the quality of translation so as to the same metaphorical effect to the target reader. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).

To sum up, errors made in metaphor translation are not only brought by the vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, but by the fact that translators’ sole attention to the equivalence of language forms while ignoring the underlying cultural meaning. In cross-culture communication, cultural background, thinking patterns, conventional habits and behaviors all have a role to play. It is essential for translators to strengthen learning in culture. Through contrast one can find the appropriate metaphor translation skills and strategies to improve the quality of translation so as to the same metaphorical effect to the target reader. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===4. Translation Strategies for English-Chinese Metaphor Translation===
Throughout the development of human society, due to the geographical and environmental differences and other reasons, a rich civilization system has been formed. But objectively speaking, due to the similarity of human external living environment, there are many similarities in terms of people’s thoughts and cognition. Thus, there are feasible ways to address problems in English-Chinese metaphor translation known as translation strategies.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).

===4.1 Literal Translation===
Literal translation is the first stage of translation in which we simply transfer words from one language to another. It is also called “word-for-word” translation. Strictly speaking, it strives "to keep the sentiments and style of the original". We usually resort to this kind of translation when we want the reader in the target language to understand the overall meaning of the text in the source language. This is different from the higher levels of translation in which the interpretation of the source text varies from one person to another person as the style, linguistic expressions and undertones differ.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).

Throughout the development of human society, due to the geographical and environmental differences and other reasons, a rich civilization system has been formed. But objectively speaking, due to the similarity of human external living environment, there are many similarities in terms of people’s thoughts and cognition. Thus, there are translation strategies to address problems in English-Chinese metaphor translation.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Mangy differences exist between languages. As far as English and Chinese are concerned, they also have some commonalities in some aspects which is also the application basis of literal translation. For translation, the most common and simplest method is literal translation. It is not easy for a translator to quickly catch the hidden meaning of metaphor and translate it. It requires a certain cultural accumulation. It is worth emphasizing that literal translation does not mean translating the sentence literally. The translator should keep the rhetorical devices and language structure of the original text and adopt literal translation to make it easier for readers to understand. (Xu Aihua 2019,64).

Mangy differences exist between languages. As far as English and Chinese are concerned, they also have some commonalities in some aspects which is also the application basis of literal translation. It is not easy for a translator to quickly catch the hidden meaning of metaphor and translate it. It requires a certain cultural accumulation. It is worth emphasizing that literal translation does not mean translating the sentence literally. The translator should keep the rhetorical devices and language structure of the original text and adopt literal translation to make it easier for readers to understand. (Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

For example, the English sentence “An eye for An eye and a tooth for a tooth” can be translated into “以眼还眼，以牙还牙” in Chinese. This kind of idiom containing metaphor is straightforward with less complicated metaphorical meaning. Thus, as long as the literal meaning of the source language is delivered and understood, the corresponding target language can be well understood, which is relatively simple for most readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).

For example, the English sentence “An eye for An eye and a tooth for a tooth” can be translated into “以眼还眼，以牙还牙” in Chinese. This kind of idiom containing metaphorical meaning is straightforward with less complicated metaphorical meaning. Thus, as long as the literal meaning of the source language is delivered and understood, the corresponding target language can be well understood, which is relatively simple for most readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

To sum up, when the translator adopts the strategy of literal translation in metaphor translation, the translator needs to have a deep understanding of Chinese and Western cultural background and find the similarities between them, so as to make readers understandable with metaphorical and vivid effect.(Xu Aihua 2019,65)

To sum up, when the translator adopts the strategy of literal translation in metaphor translation, the translator needs to have a deep understanding of Chinese and Western cultural background and find the similarities between two languages, so as to make readers understandable with metaphorical and vivid effect.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===4.2 Free Translation===
Free translation aims to convey the meaning and spirit of the original without paying much attention to the lexical details. The unequal information is caused by the cultural background, and so on. In this case, free translation can be adopted. In the process of metaphor translation, it is necessary to make appropriate trade-offs when the metaphorical images cannot be fully preserved and cannot be replaced. Therefore, in the process of translation, we should carefully examine the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the source language and the target language. And we should adopt free translation to effectively maintain the information transmission and aesthetic value of metaphor. (Li Chunying 2020,1).

Free translation aims to convey the meaning and spirit of the original without paying much attention to the lexical details and grammatical structure. The unequal information is caused by the cultural background, and so on. In this case, free translation can be adopted. In the process of metaphor translation, it is necessary to make appropriate trade-offs when the metaphorical images cannot be fully preserved and cannot be replaced. Therefore, in the process of translation, we should carefully observe the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the source language and the target language. And we should adopt free translation to effectively maintain the information transmission and aesthetic value of metaphor. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

For example, the sentence “Don't show the white feather to the enemy”. In the original text "white feather " implies " weakness and cowards ", but in Chinese "white feather "has no such meaning. If “white feather” is translated as " white feather of some animal ", readers will definitely have no clue of what the whole sentence means. (Li Chunying 2020,1).

For example, the sentence “Don't show the white feather to the enemy”. In the original text "white feather " implies " weakness and cowards ", but in Chinese "white feather "has no such metaphorical meaning. If “white feather” is translated as " white feather of some animal ", readers will definitely have no clue of what the whole sentence means. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Therefore, it is necessary to interpret the meaning and transfer its metaphorical meaning. Take another example, when we integrate literal translation with free translation in metaphor translation, then the English sentence “Like a duck to water” can be translated as “如鱼得水” in Chinese. Here, we’ve managed to achieve the goal of conveying both original meaning and its metaphorical message. (Li Chunying 2020,1).

Therefore, it is necessary to interpret the meaning and transfer its metaphorical meaning. Take another example, when we adopt free translation in metaphor translation, then the English sentence “Like a duck to water” can be translated as “如鱼得水” in Chinese. Here, we’ve managed to achieve the goal of conveying both original meaning and its metaphorical message. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Besides, in the process of free translation, we should not stick to the form but pay attention to the harmony of the form and structure of language. From the point of view of purpose, free translation mainly conveys the idea of the original text to the reader, and it should realize the flexible processing of the words and texts according to the context. For example, "To face the music" can be translated as" 面对现实" in Chinese. Here, “music” stands for “reality” instead of its literal meaning.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).

Besides, in the process of free translation, we should not stick to the form but pay attention to the harmony of the form and structure of language. From the point of view of purpose, free translation mainly conveys the idea of the original text to the reader, and it should realize the flexible processing of the words and texts according to the context. For example, "To face the music" can be translated as" 面对现实" in Chinese. Here, “music” stands for “reality” instead of its literal meaning, a piece of melody.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Therefore, free translation can fill in the blanks where literal translation doesn’t fit in. When translators do metaphor translation, free translation can help deliver the metaphorical meaning more vividly.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).

===4.3 Metonymy Translation===
Due to the different yet similar natural and social environments, including climate, geographical environment, cultural tradition and religious belief, many metaphorical vehicles in English and Chinese are almost the same, although they are actually different. Some scholars have pointed out that different nations may have different perspectives toward the same world, which leads to the synonymy music of different forms. In short, the vehicle is different but has common ground. Metaphor not only contains the characteristic connotation of the language itself, but also the words that cannot be expressed in a straightforward manner(Li Chunying 2020,1).

Due to the different yet similar natural and social environments, including climate, geographical environment, cultural tradition and religious belief, many metaphorical vehicles in English and Chinese are different yet similar. Some scholars have pointed out that different nations may have different perspectives toward the same world, which leads to the synonymy music of different forms. In short, the vehicle is different but has common ground. Metaphor not only contains the characteristic connotation of the language itself, but also the words that cannot be expressed in a straightforward manner(Li Chunying 2020,1). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

At this time, according to the custom of the target language, the vehicle in the original language can be changed into the vehicle familiar to the target readers. Therefore, we can adopt the strategy of metonymy translation. For example, the Chinese words “傻笑” can be expressed in English as "grin like a Cheshire cat" . This shift is successful because the Cheshire cat is kind of silly but a very lovely cat in England. The Chinese idioms "多此一举" can be expressed in English as “carry coals to Newcastle”, as the “Newcastle” once was a famous British coal port. (Xu Aihua 2019,65).

According to the custom of the target language, the vehicle in the original language can be changed into the vehicle familiar to the target readers. Therefore, we can adopt the strategy of metonymy translation. For example, the Chinese words “傻笑” can be expressed in English as "grin like a Cheshire cat" . This shift is successful because the Cheshire cat is kind of silly but a very lovely cat in England. The Chinese idioms "多此一举" can be expressed in English as “carry coals to Newcastle”, as the “Newcastle” once was a famous British coal port. (Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

In summary, using the strategy of metonymy translation is a good solution to problems arose in metaphor translation as it takes advantage of different and familiar vehicles to convey clear information to the target readers.(Li Chunying 2020,1).

In summary, using the strategy of metonymy translation is a good solution to problems arose in metaphor translation as it takes advantage of different and familiar vehicles to convey clear information to the target readers for their better understanding.(Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===5. Metaphor Translation in English Versions of Tribute to White Poplar As An Example===
Metaphor is not only a rhetorical device, but also a way of thinking, which can guide people's actions. Lakoff believes that human beings' understanding of the objective world is based on their own experiences, and metaphor belongs to the conceptual system, which is ubiquitous. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).

Metaphor is not only a rhetorical device, but also a way of thinking. Lakoff believes that human beings' understanding of the objective world is based on their own experiences, and metaphor belongs to the conceptual system, which is ubiquitous. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===5.1 Theoretical Framework===
In 1980, he and Johnson put forward the concept of conceptual metaphor for the first time in the book Metaphors We Live by, which became an important symbol of the birth of conceptual metaphor. Although conceptual metaphor is ubiquitous, it also depends on the context.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).
In 1980, he and Johnson put forward the concept of conceptual metaphor for the first time in the book Metaphors We Live by, which became a symbol of the birth of conceptual metaphor. Although conceptual metaphor is ubiquitous, it also depends on the context.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Lakoff divides conceptual metaphors into three categories: orientational metaphor, ontological metaphor and structural metaphor. This classification can be said to cover almost all the conceptual metaphors. Orientational metaphor is the basis and an image schema metaphor, that is, it takes the spatial concept as the original domain and constructs other non-spatial target domains (Lan Chun 1990, 4).
Lakoff divides conceptual metaphors into three categories: orientational metaphor, ontological metaphor and structural metaphor. This classification cover all the conceptual metaphors. Orientational metaphor is the basis and an image schema metaphor, that is, it takes the spatial concept as the original domain and constructs other non-spatial target domains (Lan Chun 1990, 4).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Ontological metaphor refers to describing abstract concepts with the certain physical entities. Structural metaphor refers to the construction of another concept with the structure of one concept, and the words that talk about various aspects of one concept are used to talk about another concept, thus producing the phenomenon of polysemous word. Based on the comprehensive analysis of the reasons affecting metaphor translation and the strategies of metaphor translation by many scholars, we’ll then analyse metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).

Ontological metaphor refers to describing abstract concepts with the certain physical entities. While structural metaphor refers to the construction of another concept with the structure of one concept, and the words that talk about various aspects of one concept are used to talk about another concept, thus producing the phenomenon of polysemous word. Based on the comprehensive analysis of the reasons affecting metaphor translation and the strategies of metaphor translation by many scholars, we’ll then analyse metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===5.2 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Structural Metaphor===
Structural metaphors play the most important role because they allow us to go beyond orientation and referring and give us the possibility to structure one concept according to another. Here are some examples.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).

E.g.1

SL text:白杨树实在是不平凡的，我赞美白杨树。(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).

TL text 1: The white poplar is no ordinary tree. Let me sing its praises.(Zhang Peiji 2007)

TL text 2: The white poplar tree is by no means a common tree. I praise it!(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)

E.g.2

SL text:让那些看不起民众、贱视民众、顽固的倒退的人们去赞美那贵族化的楠木(那也是直挺秀颀的)，去鄙视这极常见、极易生长的白杨树罢，我要高声赞美白杨树!(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).

TL text 1: The reactionary diehards, who despise and snub the common people, can do whatever they like to eulogize the elite nanmu (which is also tall, straight and good-looking) and look down upon the common, fast-growing white poplar. I, for my part, will be loud in my praise of the latter!(Zhang Peiji 2007)

TL text 2: Let those who look down upon the masses, disrelish them and are stubborn to retrograde the duke nanmu, which is also a straight and graceful tree. They may go on despising this white poplar tree, which is frequently seen and grows so very easily. But as for me, I’ll continue to praise the white poplar tree!(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)

A core idea of these sentences is that “树是人”. People's cognition and understanding of trees originates from people. When people talk about trees, they will think of a series of words to describe people, such as “不平凡”、“婆娑”、“好女子”、“赞美”、“贵族化”、“鄙视” in the text. This refers to the "cross-domain mapping" of conceptual metaphors, which draws an analogy between the concepts of "tree" and "people". In the first source text, to translate “平凡 ”, Zhang Peiji uses "ordinary", while Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen use "common". (Li Yanhong 2015, 19).

A core idea of these sentences is that “树是人”. People's cognition and understanding of trees originates from people. When people talk about trees, they will think of a series of words that describe people, such as “不平凡”、“婆娑”、“好女子”、“赞美”、“贵族化”、“鄙视” in the text. This refers to the "cross-domain mapping" of conceptual metaphors, which draws an analogy between the concepts of "tree" and "people". In the first source text, to translate “平凡 ”, Zhang Peiji uses "ordinary", while Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen use "common". (Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Although they choose different words, they are both used to describe people. Both sides adopt literal translation to restore the metaphor in the original text and translate the metaphor into the same metaphor. In the second example, although the words used by both sides were different, Zhang Peiji's "Eulogize", "elite", "look Down Upon", as well as Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen's "Praise", "Duke" and "despising" were all used to describe people. Therefore, they both restored the meaning of the original text and retained the images in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).

Although they choose different words, they are both used to describe people. Both sides adopt literal translation to restore the metaphor in the original text and translate the metaphor into the same metaphor. In the second example, although the words used by both sides were different, Zhang Peiji's "Eulogize", "elite", "look Down Upon", as well as Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen's "Praise", "Duke" and "despising" were all used to describe people. Therefore, they both restored the meaning of the original text and retained the images.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===5.3 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Ontological Metaphor===
Ontological metaphor, also called entity metaphor, also plays an important role.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).

E.g.3

SL text:当汽车在望不到边际的高原上奔驰，扑入你的视野的，是黄绿错综的一条大毡子。(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).

TL text 1: When you travel by car through Northwest China’s boundless plateau, all you see before you is something like a huge yellow-and-green felt blanket.(Zhang Peiji 2007)

TL text 2: When your car is speeding along a boundless highway, what meets your eyes is a huge blanket of yellows and greens mingled together.(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)

When the car is driving on the plateau, the people in the car see the scene. When Zhang Peiji translated this sentence, he added the element of "something like" to adapt to the English context and changed the metaphor into simile, which not only retained the image and meaning of the original, but also made the translation more convenient. Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen , on the other hand, adopted literal translation and retained the metaphorical structure in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).

When the car is driving on the plateau, the people in the car see the scene. When Zhang Peiji translated this sentence, he added the element of "something like" to adapt to the English context and changed the metaphor into simile, which not only retained the image and meaning of the original, but also made the translation more smooth. Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen , on the other hand, adopted literal translation and retained the metaphorical structure in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).

--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

E.g.4

SL text:然而同时你的眼睛也许有点倦怠, 你对当前的 “ 雄壮 ” 或 “ 伟大 ” 闭了眼，而另一种味儿在你心头潜滋暗长了———“单调”！可不是？单调，有一点儿吧？(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).

TL text 1: Meanwhile, however, your eyes may become weary of watching the same panorama, so much so that you are oblivious of its being spectacular or grand. And you may feel monotony coming on. Yes, it is somewhat monotonous, isn’t it?(Zhang Peiji 2007).

TL text 2: However, at the same time, your eyes may feel somewhat tired and close before the “magnificent” and the “great” that lie in front of you. And another sensation rises in your heart monotonous! Isn’t it monotonous, maybe a bit?(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999).

The metaphor used in this sentence materializes the words “雄伟”、“壮大”、“单调”, and gives them characteristics that you can close your eyes to when you are tired; They can also grow in your mind and make for interesting reading. In Zhang Peiji's translation, we can see that the translation does not use metaphor, but translate directly according to people's normal thinking, and adopt the strategy of "translating metaphor into non-metaphor".(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).

The metaphor used in this sentence materializes the words “雄伟”、“壮大”、“单调”, and gives them characteristics that you can close your eyes to when you are tired; They can also grow in your mind. In Zhang Peiji's translation, we can see that the translation does not use metaphor, but translate directly according to people's normal thinking, and adopt the strategy of "translating metaphor into non-metaphor".(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).

Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen retain the organic structure of the metaphor in the original text, personify the two words “伟大”、“雄壮”, and retain the "container metaphor" in the ontological metaphor in the second half of the sentence, which not only retains the thinking and cognitive characteristics of the original text, but also conveys the effect of semantic rhetoric.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).

Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen keep the organic structure of the metaphor in the original text, personify the two words “伟大”、“雄壮”, and retain the "container metaphor" in the ontological metaphor in the second half of the sentence, which not only retains the thinking and cognitive characteristics of the original text, but also conveys the effect of semantic rhetoric.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===6. Conclusion===
To sum up, metaphor translation is not merely a transformation of one language to another. It’s a complexity involving multiple factors. The purpose of metaphor translation is to re-express the original information, faithful to its style, geographical and environmental condition, cultural environment, religious belief and so on. Still, people shouldn’t impose thoughts on the translators and deny their role in language transformation only in pursuit for the full fidelity to the original text, for there is no exactly identical thing in the world. (Wang Bo 2016,117).

To sum up, metaphor translation is not merely a transformation of one language to another. It’s a complexity involving many factors. The purpose of metaphor translation is to re-express the original information, faithful to its style, geographical and environmental condition, cultural environment, religious belief and so on. Still, people shouldn’t impose thoughts on the translators and deny their role in language transformation only in pursuit for the full fidelity to the original text, for there is no identical thing in the world. (Wang Bo 2016,117--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

As language is the shell of ideas, shaped by cultural background in particular, applying the method of metaphor translation helps better convey the information carried by the source language. Conversion Strategies like literal translation, free translation and metonymy translation are applicable. And the analysis of metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor will give readers an understanding of metaphor translation. (Wang Bo 2016,117).

As language is the shell of ideas, shaped by cultural background in particular, applying the method of metaphor translation helps better convey the information carried by the source language. The analysis of metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor will give readers an understanding of metaphor translation. (Wang Bo 2016,117).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

At long last, the author of this thesis hopes the above discussion gives readers a better understanding of the role of metaphor in cross-cultural translation and gives translators an insight into future translation practice. However, for the author has little talent and learning, the argument may be superficial. The author will keep learning from predecessors and peers.(Wang Bo 2016,117).

At long last, the author of this thesis hopes the above discussion gives readers a clear understanding of the role of metaphor in cross-cultural translation and gives translators an insight into future translation practice. However, for the author has little talent and learning, the argument may be superficial. The author will keep learning from predecessors and peers.(Wang Bo 2016,117).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===7. References===
*Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian. Cognitive-Pragmatic Strategies for English Translation of Colloquial Metaphors in Political Discourse.[J]. International Journal of Applied Linguistics and Translation. 2020, 6(3)-12.

*Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al. Chinese metaphor sentiment computing via considering culture.[J]. Science Direct. 2019, 352:33-41.

*Li Chunying. Translation of Metaphor from the Perspective of Cognitive Linguistics.[J]. Education, Society and Human Studies. 2020, 1(1)-11.

*ZHANG Jie. Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor Theory: Based on the Analysis of Imagery“Hong Sushou”in Song Ci. [J]. Studies in Literature and Language. 2020, 21(1):84-87.

*Guo Huiqing. 郭卉青.(2013). 浅议影响隐喻翻译的主要因素.[A Brief Discussion on the Main Factors Affecting Metaphor Translation].[J]. 晋中学院学报[Journal of Jinzhong College], 30(05):122-124.

*Hu Zhuanglin. 胡壮麟.(2004). 认知隐喻学.[Cognitive Metaphor].[M]. 北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].

*Li Yanhong. 李艳红.(2015).概念隐喻视角下《白杨礼赞》两个英译本比较研究.[A Comparative Study of Two English Translations of Tribute to White Poplar from the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor].[J].考试周刊[The Exam Week],(65):19-20.

*Lan Chun. 蓝纯.(1999).从认知角度看汉语的空间隐喻.[Spatial Metaphor in Chinese from a cognitive perspective][J].外语教学与研究[Foreign Language Teaching and Research],(04) :5-10.

*Shu Dingfang. 束定芳. (2000). 隐喻学研究.[Studies in Metaphor].[M]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].

*Wang Bo. 王勃. (2016). 概念语法隐喻视角下的英汉翻译探讨.[A Study on English-Chinese Translation from the Perspective of Conceptual Grammatical Metaphor].[J]. 黑龙江教育学院学报[Journal of Heilongjiang Institute of Education],35(07):115-117.

*Xu Aihua. 徐爱华. (2019). 中西方差异视角下英汉隐喻翻译策略研究.[A Study on Metaphor Translation Strategies in English and Chinese from the Perspective of Chinese and Western differences].[J]. 海外英语[Overseas English],(20):64-65.

*Zhang Mengjing,Du Yaowen. 张梦井,杜耀文.(1999).中国名家散文精译.[Chinese Famous Prose Translation][M].青岛出版社[Qingdao Press].

*Zhang Peiji. 张培基.(2007). 英译中国现代散文选.[A Selection of Chinese Modern Prose][M]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].

==A Comparative Study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s Translation Views 王源 Wang Yuan==
===Abstract===
Both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun are productive writers and translators. They hold different translation views. Lu Xun have adopted literal translation and hard translation in different periods, claiming “rather be faithful than smooth”. He translation views are highly consistent with his political views, that is changing people’s conservative and old thinking pattern. Liang Shiqiu takes the readers as the first priority and emphasizes the unity of faithfulness and smoothness, which means a text should be both faithful and readable. Having been influenced by Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, Liang put “humanity” as the highest standard of translations. The paper aims to give a comparative study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s translation views.

Both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun were productive writers and translators. They held different translation views. Lu Xun have adopted literal translation and hard translation in different periods, claiming that “tranlsation should rather be faithful than smooth”. His translation views were highly consistent with his political views, that has changed people’s conservative and old thinking pattern. Liang Shiqiu took readers as the priority and emphasized the unity of faithfulness and smoothness, which means a text should be both faithful and readable. Having been influenced by Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, Liang put “humanity” as the highest standard of translation. The paper aims to give a comparative study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s translation views.--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 04:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===keywords===
mean spirit; new humanism; Lu Xun; Liang Shiqiu

===摘要===
鲁迅和梁实秋中国著名文学家、翻译家和思想家。他们两个有着不同的翻译观。鲁迅在不同阶段采用直译和硬译进行文本翻译，主张“宁信而不顺”。他的翻译观和政治观是高度一致的，即改变国民保守而陈旧的思维模式。梁实秋以读者为第一要义，强调“信”“顺”统一，即译文既要忠实于原文，又要通顺可读。在儒家思想和白璧德新人文主义思想影响下，梁实秋成为一名坚定的人性论者，同时也形成了他独特的“中庸翻译观”本文将对梁实秋和鲁迅的翻译观进行对比研究。

鲁迅和梁实秋是中国著名文学家、翻译家和思想家。他们两个有着不同的翻译观。鲁迅在不同的时期分别采用直译和硬译的方法进行文本翻译，主张“宁信而不顺”的翻译原则。他的翻译观和政治观是高度一致的，即改变国民保守而陈旧的思维模式。梁实秋以读者为第一要义，强调“信”“顺”统一，即译文既要忠实于原文，又要通顺可读。在儒家思想和白璧德新人文主义思想的影响下，梁实秋成为一名坚定的人性论者，同时也形成了他独特的“中庸翻译观”。本文将对梁实秋和鲁迅的翻译观进行对比研究。--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 04:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===关键词===
中庸、新人文主义、鲁迅、梁实秋

===1. Background===
1.1 The formation of Liang Shiqiu's translation views

1.1 The Formation of Liang Shiqiu's Translation Views--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Liang Shiqiu's view of translation is homogeneous and heterogeneous with his literary thought, which in turn is closely related to his philosophy of life. Liang’s philosophy of life can be concluded into “mean”, and is the mixture of Confucianism, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and his aristocratic and gentle temperament. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008,29)

Liang Shiqiu's view of translation was homogeneous and heterogeneous with his literary thought, which in turn was closely related to his philosophy of life. The essence of Liang’s philosophy of life was "moderation", which was derived from Confucianism, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and his aristocratic and gentle temperament. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008,29)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Confucianism has deeply rooted in Liang’s mind when he was young, and the experience of going abroad for further study helped him accepted Babbitt’s new humanism, as both of them have shared some similar ideas.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008,30)

Confucianism has been deeply rooted in Liang’s mind when he was young, and the experience of further study aboard helped him accept Babbitt’s new humanism, as both of them have shared some similar ideas.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008,30) --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

First, “mean” is the core of Confucianism and new humanism. The doctrine of “mean” has existed in different aspects, such as in education, ethics, politics and aesthetics. For example, Confucius said “To learn without thinking is confusing, to think without learning is dangerous”, which is to emphasize the balance of learning and thinking. “Pleasure but not lust, sorrow but not injury” also tell us the danger of being extreme. Irving Babbitt also put “mean” as the best philosophy of life. Liang believes that Babbitt’s conclusion of humanity shows his view of “mean”. In his opinion, life has three states, which are natural, humanistic and religious. Naturalism advocates indulgence, religion the extinction of desire and humanism abstinence. Babbitt attempted to find a balance between material and spirit, and his philosophy had been greatly influenced by ancient Greek philosophy, who had the similar concept of “mean”. Liang Shiqiu knew the “mean” spirit had long been existed in human civilization and he himself was also deeply influenced by the “mean” spirit. In his opinion, literature should have certain independence and also educational function. (Yan Xiao Jiang, 2008,32)

First, “moderation” was the core of Confucianism and new humanism. The doctrine of “moderation” had great influences on different fields, such as education, ethics, politics and aesthetics. For example, as Confucius' saying goes: “To learn without thinking is confusing, to think without learning is dangerous”, which was to emphasize the balance of learning and thinking. The saying, “Pleasure but not lust, sorrow but not injury”, also told us the danger of being extreme. Irving Babbitt also regarded “moderation” as the best philosophy of life. Liang believed that Babbitt’s conclusion of humanity showed his view of “moderation”. In his opinion, life had three states, which were natural, humanistic and religious. Naturalism advocated indulgence, religion the extinction of desire and humanism abstinence. Babbitt attempted to find a balance between material and spirit, and his philosophy had been greatly influenced by ancient Greek philosophy, who had the similar concept of “moderation”. Liang Shiqiu knew the spirit of “moderation” had long been existed in human civilization and he himself was also deeply influenced by the spirit of “moderation”. In his opinion, literature should have certain independence and also educational function. (Yan Xiao Jiang, 2008,32)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Second, humanism is the tradition of Confucianism and new humanism. Confucianism has always been concerned with the social reality and life, reflecting the idea of "putting people first". Confucius' basic concepts such as "benevolence," "ritual," and "filial piety" have had a profound impact on Chinese culture, not only laying the foundation of humanism for Chinese philosophy, but these ideas can be said to be the foundation of humanism for all times and all peoples. Babbitt believed that humanism is about keeping a balance between the "one" and the "many", and that excessive naturalism and supernaturalism can destroy this balance. He believes that naturalism since the Renaissance and the Enlightenment has misunderstood humanism as a sympathy without choice. Therefore, he opposed Rousseau's "theory of goodness of human nature" and proposed a "dualistic theory of human nature of good and evil. He believed that good and evil have always coexisted, and that it is the constant conflict between good and evil, reason and desire, that causes the suffering of individuals and society. The idea of humanism laid the foundation of Liang Shiqiu's humanistic literary thought, which is somehow in line with the central idea of humanism expressed in Shakespeare's works. Humanist literature focuses on people, looks at people dialectically, and is concerned with people’s fate and future. Besides, both Confucianism and new humanism have shared some similar ideas such as focusing on morality, reason and respecting tradition.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008)

Second, humanism was the tradition of Confucianism and new humanism. Confucianism has always been concerned with the social reality and life, reflecting the idea of "putting people first". Confucius' basic concepts such as "benevolence," "ritual," and "filial piety" have had a profound impact on Chinese culture, not only laying the foundation of humanism for Chinese philosophy, but can be said to be the foundation of humanism for all times and all peoples. Babbitt believed that humanism was about keeping a balance between the "one" and the "many", and that excessive naturalism and supernaturalism could destroy this balance. He believed that naturalism since the Renaissance and the Enlightenment has misunderstood humanism as a sympathy without choice. Therefore, he opposed Rousseau's "theory of goodness of human nature" and proposed a "dualistic theory of human nature of good and evil. He believed that good and evil have always coexisted, and that it was the constant conflict between good and evil, reason and desire, that caused the suffering of individuals and society. The idea of humanism laid the foundation for Liang Shiqiu's humanistic literary thought, which was somehow in line with the central idea of humanism expressed in Shakespeare's works. Humanist literature focused on people, lookd at people dialectically, and was concerned with people’s fate and future. Besides, both Confucianism and new humanism have shared some similar ideas such as focusing on morality, reason and the tradition of respect.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

1.2 The formation of Lu Xun's translation views

1.2 The Formation of Lu Xun's Translation Views--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

1.2.1 The first period (1903-1906)

After the defeat of the Opium War, people began to introduce and learn the advanced ideas and technologies of the West in order to find a way to save their lives. Inspired by the slogan “ Traditional Chinese values aided with modern management and technology”, Westernization Group have translated a large number of works, mainly on military and scientific works. After that, Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao initiated the Reform Movement of 1898, attempting to save China by changing state institution. The focus of translation also shifted from technology to politics, laws and academic research. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)

Around the time of the Sino-Japanese War, two great translators of foreign thought and culture emerged in China, Yan Fu and Lin Shu. Yan Fu was mainly engaged in the translation and interpretation of social science theories. At the same time as Yan Fu, Lin Shu began to translate foreign novels. His translations were mainly Italian, with many abridgements and changes to the original texts. At this time, Lu Xun went to Japan to study, and soon published his maiden translation De la Terre à la Lune. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)

During the period of the Sino-Japanese War, two great translators appeared in China, Yan Fu and Lin Shu. Yan Fu was mainly engaged in the translation and interpretation of social science theories. At the same time, Lin Shu began to translate foreign novels. He mainly translated Italian into Chinese, with many abridgements and changes to the original texts. At this time, Lu Xun went to Japan to study, and soon published his maiden translation De la Terre à la Lune. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Lu Xun’s early translations were deeply influenced by Lin Shu and Yan Fu. When he was studying in Tokyo, he would look for each translation work of Lin Shu. Lin Shu did not know English at all, and his translations were done by listening to the dictations of others and then translated them through his own profound Chinese skills. Therefore, Lin Shu adopted domestication as his major translation technique. Having read dozens of Lin Shu’s translations, Lu Xun also apply domestication into his own translation. What’s more, in some translations, he would made some additions and deletions. (Wang Yixing, 2017, 38)

Lu Xun’s early translations were deeply influenced by Lin Shu and Yan Fu. When he was studying in Tokyo, he would look for and read every translation work from Lin Shu. Lin Shu did not know English at all, and his translations were done by listening to the dictations of other people, understanding them and then translated them through his own profound Chinese skills. Therefore, domestication was his major translation technique. Having read dozens of Lin Shu’s translations, Lu Xun also applied domestication into his own translation. What’s more, in some translations, he would made some additions and deletions. (Wang Yixing, 2017, 38)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

1.2.2 The second period (1907-1927)

With the deepening of the national crisis, Lu Xun gradually realized that the numbness and ignorance of the people is the root of the backwardness and weakness of our country. The national crisis in the modern history of China has made Chinese people face a dilemma: to maintain their own culture, or to learn from the strengths of the West? Lu Xun believed that we have to absorb fresh and new ideas from other countries. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)

With the deepening of the national crisis, Lu Xun gradually realized that the numbness and ignorance of the people was the root of the backwardness and weakness of our country. The national crisis in the modern history of China has made Chinese people face a dilemma: to maintain their own culture, or to learn from the strengths of the West? Lu Xun believed that we had to absorb fresh and new ideas from other countries. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In 1909，Lu Xun and Zhou Zuoren translated “A collection of foreign novels”. The work adopted a new translation method, which not only have maintained the contents and style, but also had done no changes of the chapter and format. In 1918, he wrote to his friend Zhang Shoupeng: “ I think Chinese should accept foreign languages in later translations.” Therefore, we can see Lu Xun adopted literal translation, attempting to accept and absorb foreign languages to develop and enrich Chinese, and to resurrect China. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)

In 1909，Lu Xun and Zhou Zuoren translated “A collection of foreign novels”. The work adopted a new translation method, which not only have maintained the contents and style of the original, but also has done no changes of the chapter and format. In 1918, he wrote to his friend Zhang Shoupeng: “ I think Chinese should accept foreign languages in later translations.” Therefore, we can see Lu Xun adopted literal translation, attempting to accept and absorb foreign languages to develop and enrich Chinese, and to resurrect China. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39) --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

From the perspective of culture, the New Culture Movement, which advocated democracy, science and vernacular Chinese, was prosperous at that time. As one of the leaders of the movement, Lu Xun realized the importance of introducing advanced culture and abandoned the dross of traditional Chinese culture. The reason why Lu Xun chose literal translation was that he wanted to popularize vernacular Chinese and push the development of Chinese. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)

1.2.3 The third period (1928-1937)

In this period, with the deepening of national crisis and the spread of Marxism, it was urgent to establish Chinese proletariat class, Lu Xun’s translation strategy was developing accordingly. After revolution, a general “political anxiety” emerged among people. This kind of anxiety should be released according to some channels, and translating advanced foreign works could erase the anxiety to some extent. (Wang Yanling. 2009, 39)

In his later translation activities, he not only advocated literal translation, but also “hard translation”. By using “hard translation”, he tried to introduce new expressions and syntax to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts. Therefore, the adopting of this extreme translation strategy was not for literary purpose, but political purpose.

In his later translation activities, he not only advocated literal translation, but also “hard translation”. By using “hard translation”, he tried to introduce new expressions and syntax to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts. Therefore, the adoption of this extreme translation strategy was not for literary purpose, but political purpose.--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===2.Translation views===

===2.Translation Views===--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

2.1 Liang Shiqiu's translation views

2.1 Liang Shiqiu's Translation Views

2.1.1 Be a translator caring both readers and original works

Liang Shiqiu advocated that translation activities should start from the need of readers, believing that the purpose of translation is to faithfully express a work in another language for those who do not understand the original. The translator's duty is to make the translation as smooth as possible without losing the original meaning. Therefore, the translation must be faithful and smooth, conform to Chinese norms and must not be translated into Europeanized text. In the course of his debate with Lu Xun, he proposed the unified translation concept of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”. He did not agree with Lun Xun’s idea that “better to be faithful than be smooth” nor Zhao Jingshen’s idea that “better to be smooth than be faithful”. He believed that bad translations include the following. First, it does not match the meaning of the original text. Secondly, it fails to convey the strong tone of the original text. Third, it is unintelligible. If one of these three points is satisfied, it is a bad translation; if all three points are satisfied, it is the worst translation. (Liang Shiqiu 1933)

Liang Shiqiu advocated that translation activities should prioritize the need of readers, believing that the purpose of translation was to faithfully express the meaning of a work in another language for those who do not understand the original language. The translator's duty was to make the translation as smooth as possible without losing the original meaning. Therefore, the translation must be faithful and smooth, conform to Chinese norms and must not be translated into Europeanized text. In the course of his debate with Lu Xun, he proposed the unified translation concept of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”. He did not agree with Lun Xun’s idea that “tranlation is better to be faithful than be smooth” or Zhao Jingshen’s idea that “translation is better to be smooth than be faithful”. He believed that bad translations could be reflected in the following aspects. First, it does not accord with the meaning of the original text. Secondly, it fails to convey the strong tone of the original text. Third, it is unintelligible. If one of these three points is satisfied, it is a bad translation; if all three points are satisfied, it is the worst translation. (Liang Shiqiu 1933)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Liang Shiqiu takes the reader as the first priority and emphasizes the unity of faithfulness and smoothness. He concluded the relationship between “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, “People often say that the best translation is one which does not read like a translation. However, it is only true when the translation is faithful to the original text and also the language of the translation is smooth. If one only knows the general meaning of the text, and then translate it in his native language fluently, it can only be considered as free translation, which is okay using in some normal articles. However, a large part of the value of a literary work lies in the subtlety of its use of words, so the translator must also be careful with the words.” (Liu Tianhua 1900,22)

Liang Shiqiu took the reader as the priority and emphasized the unity of faithfulness and smoothness. He concluded the relationship between “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, “People often say that the best translation is one which does not be read like a translation. However, it is only true when the translation is faithful to the original text and also the language of the translation is smooth. If one only knows the general meaning of the text, and then translate it in his native language fluently, it can only be considered as free translation, which is acceptable to be used in some normal articles. However, a large part of the value of a literary work lies in the subtlety of its use of words, so the translator must also be careful with the words.” (Liu Tianhua 1900,22)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Liu Bingshan once commented on Liang Shiqiu's translation: "Liang's translation is not based on the beauty of the language, but on the purpose of preserving the truth, sticking closely to the original work, not easily changing the original text, not avoiding all kinds of difficulties, and doing his best to convey the original meaning of Shakespeare. His translations are meticulous, euphemistic and clear, and can maintain the original characteristics of Shakespeare's plays. (Liu Bingshan, 1992)

Liang disagreed with Lu Xun’s advocation of “hard trasnaltion”, and regarded it as word-by-word translation. He criticizes Lu Xun's claim that the original shortcomings of the Chinese text was the reason for the difficulty of his translation. “Chinese and foreign languages are different, and there are grammars that are not found in Chinese, so this is where the difficulty of translation lies. If the grammar, syntax and lexis of both languages were exactly the same, would translation still be a job? (Liang Shiqiu, 2002)

Liang disagreed with Lu Xun’s advocation of “hard trasnaltion”, and regarded it as word-by-word translation. He criticized Lu Xun's claim that the original shortcomings of the Chinese text was the reason for the difficulty of his translation. “Chinese and foreign languages are different, and there are grammars that can not be found in Chinese, so this is where the difficulty of translation lies. If the grammar, syntax and lexis of both languages were exactly the same, would translation still be a job? (Liang Shiqiu, 2002)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

2.1.2 Be a translator advocating liberalism literature

Liang Shiqiu is one of the representatives of Chinese liberalism literature theory in 20th century. He claimed that literature is derived from humanism, based on humanism and ended in humanism. He was a determined humanist, denying the class nature of literature and opposing the use of literature as an enlightenment and a political tool. Liang said: “Universal humanity is the basis of all great works .... Pure humanity is the only criterion of literary criticism.” In his mind, literature is literature, and the core of literature is to describe humanity. Liang Shiqiu's literary thought is reflected in the selection of works to be translated, which should be classical works and should reflect "permanent humanity. In his article "On Mr. Lu Xun's "Hard Translation," Liang Shiqiu pointed out that the primary purpose of translation is to introduce first-rate literary works to the nation: "I believe that works of scholarly and permanent value should be given priority in translation." Liang Shiqiu advocated "reading first-class books and translating first-class books" and opposed translating foreign works without discrimination. His translation works, such as the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays, The Wuthering Heights, and Silas Marner, all have met his translation principles.

Liang Shiqiu was one of the representatives of Chinese liberalism literature theory in 20th century. He claimed that literature was derived from humanism, based on humanism and ended in humanism. He was a determined humanist, denying the class nature of literature and opposing the use of literature as an enlightenment and political tool. Liang said: “Universal humanity is the basis of all great works .... Pure humanity is the only criterion of literary criticism.” In his mind, literature was literature, and the core of literature was to describe humanity. Liang Shiqiu's literary thought was reflected in the selection of works to be translated, which should be classical works and should reflect "permanent humanity". In his article "On Mr. Lu Xun's "Hard Translation," Liang Shiqiu pointed out that the primary purpose of translation was to introduce first-rate literary works to the nation: "I believe that works of scholarly and permanent value should be given priority in translation." Liang Shiqiu advocated "reading first-class books and translating first-class books" and opposed translating foreign works without discrimination. His translation works, such as the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays, The Wuthering Heights, and Silas Marner, all have met his translation principles. --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

2.1.3 Be a scholarly translator

Liang Shiqiu taught at several universities and was a rigorous scholar. His strict attitude is reflected in his translation attitude. He pointed out: “ If a translator cannot completely understand what he is going to translator, then he is not a responsible translator. When encountering quotations from the classics, we should take great pains to look them up and annotate them so that the reader can understand.” (Liang Shiqiu 1967) This shows that translation is not only a simple act of translation but also a rigorous academic work for Liang Shiqiu. His translation attitude reflects on translating the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays.

Liang Shiqiu taught at several universities and was a rigorous scholar. His strict attitude was reflected in his translation attitude. He pointed out: “ If a translator cannot completely understand what he is going to translate, then he is not a responsible translator. When encountering quotations from the classics, we should take great pains to look them up and annotate them so that the reader can understand.” (Liang Shiqiu 1967) This showed that translation was not only a simple act of translating but also a rigorous academic work for Liang Shiqiu. His translation attitude reflected on his translating process of the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays. --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In the process of translating Shakespeare’s plays, Liang realized that translation works sometimes should do some research at the same time. “ Translation should properly combine with research, and without researching, one may not know how to translate precisely.” (Liang Shiqiu, 1967) Therefore, he managed to collect different editions of Shakespeare, as well as various sources related to him. Day by day, his collection was more complete than any universities in China. In the end he chose the Oxford edition of the complete works of Shakespeare. Regarding the obscene words and jokes in this version of Shakespeare's play, Liang Shiqiu believed that the gags in the play originally had their own significance in the context of the times. Even though obscene words were involved, they were harmless and could sometimes be considered to have a psychological health implication. In addition to translating the contents of the works, Liang Shiqiu also conducted a large number of studies. In each part of The Complete Works of Shakespeare, there was a preface detailing the history of the edition, the dating of the writings, the sources of the stories, the history of the stage, and the study of the text. The contents of the works or linguistic techniques such as puns and colloquialisms were extensively annotated, a method that some experts called "scholarly translation". Research showed that Liang Shiqiu was "the first expert scholar to introduce the British and American Western traditions of Shakespearean studies, opening the way for the study of Oriental Shakespeare in Taiwan, China." (Chen Shufen 2002)

2.2 Lu Xun

Lu Xun once wrote to Qu Qiubai, “I would rather be faithful than smooth. The importation of new content and new forms of expression advocated by Lu Xun is precisely what makes his translations innovative. He advocates that the reader "must take the trouble to chew", not "a few bites can be swallowed". This process of chewing is precisely the process of understanding and absorption by the reader. Lu Xun’s statement “rather be faither than smooth” indicated his advocation of literal translation. Literal translation requires translators to express the original text faithfully, and remains the language characteristics at the same time. For example, for the names of characters and places in foreign literary works, many translators have been accustomed to make them easy to read for Chinese readers, but Lu Xun thought it was unnecessary to do so, thinking that the exoticism and national color of the original work should be preserved. His early translation version of De la Terre à la Lune contained a large number of names of people and places, all of which were adopted transliteration. In the process of translation, with the introducing of new contents and new expression, we can have a better understanding of the cultural characteristics and social condition hidden in the text.

Lu Xun once wrote to Qu Qiubai, “I would rather be faithful than smooth". The importation of new content and new forms of expression advocated by Lu Xun were precisely what made his translations innovative. He advocated that the reader "must take the trouble to chew", rather "a few bites and then swallowed". This process of chewing was precisely the process of understanding and absorption by the reader. Lu Xun’s statement “rather be faither than smooth” indicated his advocation of literal translation. Literal translation required translators to express the original text faithfully, and remained the language characteristics at the same time. For example, for the names of characters and places in foreign literary works, many translators have been accustomed to make them easy to read for Chinese readers, but Lu Xun thought it was unnecessary to do so, thinking that the exoticism and national color of the original work should be preserved. His early translation version of De la Terre à la Lune contained a large number of names of people and places, all of which were adopted transliteration. In the process of translation, with the introducing of new contents and new expression, we can have a better understanding of the cultural characteristics and social condition hidden in the text. --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In Lu Xun’s translations, he tried hard to reappear the language characteristics of the original text, unique cultures and ethos of the society, all to make sure the “foreignness” of the translations. It not only preserves the characteristics of the original text, but also respects the author and facilitates the readers access to foreign cultures, thus expanding their horizons and enriching their knowledge. In fact, Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only an alternative to "direct translation," and the word "hard" in Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only for certain syntactic lexicons. The "hard translation" advocated by Lu Xun was only intended to be more faithful to the original text. Lu Xun always insisted on translating with an analytical and differentiated attitude, and he advocated different styles of translation according to the content of the translated work (general or theoretical book) and the status of the reader (general reader or expert). (Chen Fukang, 2000,295)

In Lu Xun’s translations, he tried hard to reappear the language characteristics of the original text, unique cultures and ethos of the society, all to make sure the “foreignness” of the translations. It not only preserved the characteristics of the original text, but also respectd the author and facilitates the readers access to foreign cultures, thus expanding their horizons and enriching their knowledge. In fact, Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only an alternative to "direct translation," and the word "hard" in Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only for certain syntactic lexicons. The "hard translation" advocated by Lu Xun was only intended to be more faithful to the original text. Lu Xun always insisted on translating with an analytical and differentiated attitude, and he advocated different styles of translation according to the content of the translated work (general or theoretical book) and the status of the reader (general reader or expert). (Chen Fukang, 2000,295)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Lu Xun had once mentioned in his translation work, “From the translation, Lunakarsky's thesis is clear enough. However, due to incapability of the translator and the original shortcomings of Chinese, there are many obscure points after the translation. If the short sentences in the long sentences are dismantled, the concise and sharp tone of the original is lost. Therefore, there is nothing I can do but to do hard translation.” (Chen Fukang,2000,291)

In response to Liang Shiqiu's criticism of his "hard translation" view of translation, Lu Xun explained his views on "hard translation" from an academic perspective, mainly with the following meanings. First, there is a difference between a "hard translation" and a "word-by-word translation", and it is not a deliberate "distorted translation". Second, The "hard translation" (mainly referring to the translation of scientific literary theories and other revolutionary theoretical works) has its own target audience that needs it. Third, "My translations, which are not intended to be enjoyable but uncomfortable. People who are opposed to my ideas often feel "bored, disgusted, and resentful"; and those "critics" who know little about theories should not be greedy for pleasure but try to study these theories. " Fourth, The "hard translation" is not only for the sake of not losing the original concise and sharp tone, but also for gradually adding new syntax, which will be assimilated into your own after a period of time. Fifth, “there will always be better translators in this world, who can translate without distorted, hard or word-by-word translation. At that time, my translation will be eliminated, and I am just here to fill the space from ‘nothing’ to ‘better’.” (Cheng Kangfu 2000,292-293)

In response to Liang Shiqiu's criticism of his "hard translation" view of translation, Lu Xun explained his views on "hard translation" from an academic perspective, mainly with the following meanings. First, there was a difference between "hard translation" and "word-by-word translation", and it was not a deliberate "distorted translation". Second, The "hard translation" (mainly referring to the translation of scientific literary theories and other revolutionary theoretical works) had its own target audience. Third, "My translations, which are not intended to be enjoyable but uncomfortable. People who are opposed to my ideas often feel "bored, disgusted, and resentful"; and those "critics" who know little about theories should not be greedy for pleasure but try to study these theories. " Fourth, The "hard translation" was not only for the sake of not losing the original concise and sharp tone, but also for gradually adding new syntax, which will be assimilated into your own after a period of time. Fifth, “there will always be better translators in this world, who can translate without distorted, hard or word-by-word translation. At that time, my translation will be eliminated, and I am just here to fill the space from ‘nothing’ to ‘better’.” (Cheng Kangfu 2000,292-293)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===3.Examples===
3.1 Liang Shiqiu
Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare's works is based on the strategy of foreignization, which mainly contains two levels of connotation: the first refers to the linguistic form, and the second refers to the cultural content. On the level of linguistic form, Liang Shiqiu focuses on introducing new expressions and strives to expand and enrich certain norms in the target language culture. On the level of cultural content, Liang mainly introduces the original text without any deletion, allowing readers to appreciate the original and exotic culture as much as possible.

Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare's works takes its artistry, and the strategy of foreignization helps to allow readers to confront the differences of foreign cultures and thus expand their horizons. On the form of names, Liang Shiqiu did not advocate shortening the translation of names in Shakespeare's works to the Chinese style. He said humorously, "Foreigners often have such long, wordy and eccentric names, so why should we bother to give them names and surnames?" In the process of translation, he usually adopted transliteration. For example, he translated “Julius Caesar” into “朱利阿斯西撒”，but not “凯撒大帝”. Likewise, he did not translate Antony and Cleopatra into a title which is charming like movie title, but chose transliterating into “安东尼与克利奥佩特拉”.

Another two examples can show Liang Shiqiu’s loyalty faithfulness to original text.

梁实秋译文：
卡先生，适才发生了这样不幸的事故，我们没有时间劝导我们的女儿：您知道，她对她的表兄提拔特是甚微友爱的，我也是很喜欢那孩子：唉，我们有生即有死。现在很晚了，她今晚不会下楼了：说实话，若非您在这里，我一个小时前就早已经上床了。
巴在这悲伤的时候也不便求婚。夫人，晚安：请代我向小姐致意。

朱生豪译：
凯欧莱特夫人伯爵，舍间因为遭逢变故，我们还没有时间去开导小女；您知道她和她那个表兄提博尔特是友爱很笃的，我也非常喜欢他；唉！人生不免一死，也不必再去说他了。现在时间已经很晚，他今夜不会再下来了；不瞒您说，倘不是您大驾光临，我也早在一个小时以前上床啦。
帕里斯我在你们正在伤心的时候来此求婚，实在是太冒昧了。晚安，伯母；请您替我向令媛致意。
This is a conversation between Madame Capulet, Juliet's mother, and Paris, a young nobleman. Since both speakers are persons of status, both Liang Shiqiu's and Zhu Shenghao's translation use formal style. Zhu Shenghao, following the Chinese tradition of "demeaning oneself and respecting others," uses the terms "伯爵"， "小女" ，"伯母"，"令媛” ， with a flavor of the old Chinese literati. Liang Shiqiu uses the terms "先生" ，"女儿"，"夫人" ，"小姐"，which can be used both in the west and east, with polite and respectful overtones, showing that there is a certain distance in the relationship between people.

PORTIA If I live to be as old as Sibylla, I will die as chaste as Diana, unless I be obtained by the manner of my father’s will. I am glad this parcel of wooers are so reasonable, for there is no one among them but I dote on his very absence, and I prey God grant them a fair departure.

梁实秋译：波如果我活到西逼拉那样老，我也愿意贞洁如戴安娜而死，除非是按照我父亲遗嘱的方法出嫁。我很高兴这群求婚的人如此知趣，因为这些人当中没有一个不是我深愿他快快离开的，我求上帝准他们平安归去吧。
朱生豪译：鲍西娅要是没有人按照我父亲的遗命把我娶去，即使我活到一千岁，也只好终身不字。我很高兴这一群求婚者都是这么懂事，因为他们中间没有一个人不是我唯望其速去的；求上帝赐给他们一帆风顺吧！
This scene is the response of Portia, a rich girl, to Nerissa, a maidservant. In this case, Zhu Shenghao translated “Sibylla” into “living to one thousand years”, which may be easier to be accepted by readers yet the domestication strategy has erased the exotism of original language. Liang Shiqiu translated “Sibylla” literally and added some notes to explain the allusion, which has efficiently expressed the “foreignness” and also helped Chinese readers to learn the allusion. “Diana” is the god of the moon, which has the implication of “chastity”. Zhu Shenghao translated it into “终身不字”，meaning “never get married the whole life, the semantic meaning of which is close to “as chaste as Diana”,yet the important information “chastity” has not been translated, while Liang Shiqiu’s transliteration did not miss the information.

3.2 Lu Xun

Lu Xun's translations can be roughly divided into three stages. The first stage is Lu Xun's early translations, which were mainly adaptation and compilation. In the second stage, literal translations were used. He said in his article ：“ All translations must take into account both sides. On the one hand, it must be easy for readers to read, and on the other hand, it must be faithful to the original work and preserve the foreigness. The third stage is to adopt hard translation. He believed that Chinese was an imprecise language with inherent flaws. And in order to make the translation not lose its precision, new expressions and syntax should be introduced. Lu Xun tried to improve the imprecision of the Chinese language through hard translations, so as to change the national thinking habits and transform the national character. Next, this paper will give two examples to reflect Lu Xun's ideas of literal translation and hard translation.

Er ging durch die gute Stube，wo alles sauber und ordentlich dastand wie immer-die hohen Lehnstühle unter ihren weien berzügen wie Leichen in ihren Totenhemden． An dem einen Fenster hing ein Drahtkfig － aber leer， mit weit geffneter Türe．

“Nastaszia! ”schrie Pater Ignatius， und grob hallte seine Stimme durch die stillen Ｒume，die verlegen schienen，da er gleich nach der Tochter Beerdigung so schreien konnte．

“Nastaszia，”rief er leiser，“wo ist der Kanarienvogel?”

Die Kchin，so verweint da ihr die Nase rot wie eine Ｒübe im Gesichte glnzte，erwiderte grob: “Wo soll er sein? -weggeflogen ist er．”

“Weshalb habt ihr ihn hinausgelassen?” Pater Ignatius zog die Brauen drohend zusammen．
Nastaszia brach in Trnen aus，und die Augen mit den Zipfeln ihres Kopftuches wischend，stammelte sie:

“Fruleinchens Seele hat ．．． ihn ．．． gerufen ．．．，wie durften ．．． wir ．．． ihn denn ．．． halten?”

鲁迅译：伊革那支入客室，见全室整洁，弗殊平时，几衣纯白，卓立如死人临敛。呼其婢曰，“那思泰娑，”则自觉声在虚室中，至复犷厉。窗外悬鸟笼，阑槛已启，其中虚矣。因复微呼曰: “那思泰娑，鸟安在?”婢哀毁，鼻已如芦萉，嗫嚅对曰， “自……自然去矣! ”伊革那支蹙额曰， “胡为纵之?”婢复泣失声，掣韨角拭其目，咽泪曰，“此性命，……此女士性命， ……何可留耶! ”

Although the translation adopted Classical Chinese, yet readers have a basic knowledge of Classical Chinese can feel the fluency and elegance of the translation. Lu Xun abandoned the practice of arbitrary additions or deletions and rewrites in the translation field at that time, and faithfully preserved the spirit of the original work. However, this kind of “faithfulness” is neither word-to-word translation, nor stiffly borrow syntax structure of the original text. For example, he combined seven paragraphs into one. Putting a single sentence as a paragraph is normal in modern Chinese While it is quite wired in Classical Chinese. Therefore, Lun Xun adopting domestication was to cater to the reading habits of Chinese readers. Besides, Lu Xun also made adjustment in some detailed descriptions. For example, the original meaning of "erwiderte Grob" in German,
"replied rudely", but it was translated into “嗫嚅”, meaning “ replied haltingly”. The chef’s attitude changed from impatience into hesitation and fear. Lu Xun probably had fully considered the culture of target language and the receptive ability of readers. Lu Xun’s translation strategies were flexible and was totally different from “hard translation” claimed in his later translation period. (Xie Haiyan, 2020, 52)
In another example, Lu Xun’s “hard translation” had fully in practice.

Maksimowa，hier fragt jemand nach Ihrem Zimmer，” erklrte der Angekommene，ein langer hagerer Student． Er ging als erster durch den Korridor，in dem die Luft sauer und dampferfüllt war， wie in dem schmutzigen Vorraum einer Badeanstalt． Er hrte nicht weiter auf das， was die Greisin sprach，schob sich durch den Korridor，an Koffern und Vorhngen， hinter denen sich irgend etwas rührte，vorbei und verschwand in seinem Zimmer． Erst als er seine Sachen abgelegt hatte und in roter Bauernbluse mit offenem Kragen ohne Gürtel dastand，fiel ihm der neue Mieter wieder ein und er fragte die Alte， die ihm einen siedenden Samowar brachte…

“玛克希摩跋( Maksimova), 这里有人问你的房子呢。”上来的人告诉说，是一个瘦而且长的大学生。他先向那空气又酸又湿，仿佛浴场的腌臜的前房一般的廊下的那边走。他也不再听老女人说什么，一径走过了堆着行李和挂着帐幔，那后面有什么正在蠢动的廊下，躲进他自己的屋子里去了。他放下物件，穿着畅开领口没有带子的红色的农家衣的时候，才又想到新来的客人，便问那老女人，恰恰捧着煮沸的撒摩跋尔进来的……

Both texts are detailed descriptions of dwelling environments, characters and language, but here the translation is stiff, full of Europeanized syntax, and in some places even obscure. The original (German) language is similar to English in that several adjectives can be placed before nouns and a long sentence can contain several finite clauses. These syntactic features are very different from the Chinese syntax, so in the process of translating into Chinese, the translator has to disassemble the text and replace them with multiple phrase structures or phrases. The juxtaposed adjectives should also be either combined or split into phrases as needed. Lu Xun’s translation strictly obeyed the syntax structure of German yet was too “faithful” to read. Besides, Lu Xun also kept heterogeneous information on purpose. For example, the word “Samowar” is a kind of metal teapot in Russia, which has no counterpart in Chinese. A translator can adopt domestication, using a word that Chinese readers are more familiar with, or use the word “teapot”. However, Lu Xun transliterated it into “撒摩跋尔” so that readers may find it hard to know the meaning of it. (Xie Haiyan, 2020, 56)
It can be seen that if the collection of foreign stories adopted literal translation, the labourer Suihuilov should be a hard translation. Excerpt above is clear and easy to understand, even if a mediocre translator can also easily and smoothly translate this paragraph of text, while Lu Xun's translation is quite rigid and stiff. This translation has showed Lu Xun’s typical translation -- hard translation, which has fully reflected his determination to reform Chinese and to change the thinking pattern of Chinese people. (Xie Hai, 2020, 57)

===4.The practical significance of translation views===

===4.The Practical Significance of Translation Views===--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

4.1 Liang Shiqiu

First, cultural conservatism should be opposed, and the principles of openness and absorption should be promoted. Taking the value system of Babbitt’s new humanism and the spirit of classicism as references, Liang advocated freedom and independence of thought, hoping to import new ideas, new literature and new culture through translation activities. This open vision helps the local culture to learn from and absorb the heterogeneous culture. Translation is the bond of cultural communication. Translators should not only consider nationality, but also treat the other with tolerance and openness. Human culture is exactly developing in the process of understanding and communicating. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008,285)

First, cultural conservatism should be opposed, while the principles of openness and absorption should be promoted. Taking the value system of Babbitt’s new humanism and the spirit of classicism as references, Liang advocated freedom and independence of thought, hoping to import new ideas, new literature and new culture through translation activities. This open vision helped the local people to learn from and absorb the heterogeneous culture. Translation is the bond of cultural communication. Translators should not only consider nationality, but also treat the other with tolerance and openness. Human culture is exactly developing in the process of understanding and communicating. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008,285)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Second, cultural radicalism should be opposed, and the principles of filtration and creativity should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu protected traditional culture with reason, and emphasized historical continuity of culture and the values of tradition. Liang tried hard to resurrect Chinese traditional culture by introducing western modern culture. The biggest characteristic of cultural radicalism is that it is more destructive than constructive, and even completely abandons its own tradition and copies western modern culture. Therefore, translators should on the one hand maintain the good of Chinese culture, and also learn new cultures and expressions on the other. (Yan Xaiojiang, 2008, 286)

Second, cultural radicalism should be opposed, while the principles of filtration and creativity should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu protected traditional culture with reason, and emphasized historical continuity of culture and the values of tradition. Liang tried hard to resurrect Chinese traditional culture by introducing western modern culture. The biggest characteristic of cultural radicalism was that it was more destructive than constructive, and even completely abandoned its own tradition and copied western modern culture. Therefore, translators should on the one hand maintain the good of Chinese culture, and also learn new cultures and expressions on the other. (Yan Xaiojiang, 2008, 286)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Third, cultural conflicts should be avoided while hospitality and order should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu combined the artistic spirit of ancient Greece, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and Confucianism’s “mean” spirit, and finally found the juncture between the heterogeneous discourses of Chinese and western traditional culture, and constructed and strengthened the liberal cultural ideal with classical spirit. This principle of compatibility and moderation sets an example for resolving cultural conflicts and realizing the ideal of harmony. An important characteristic of cultural conflictionism is that it exaggerates the conflict of culture and ignores the feature of accommodation and complementarity between cultures. Each culture has its own inherent rules. Differences and collisions are the process of communication between heterogeneous cultures. Only differences can maintain self-identity, only collisions can promote development, and only diversity can present prosperity. However, recognizing differences does not mean erasing consensus, and real consensus does not obliterate differences. We should grasp the problem of contemporary Chinese cultural identity in the tension structure of globalization and localization with understanding, communication and integration, striving to construct the modernity of Chinese literature and culture, participating in the world dialogue with artistic creation with national characteristics, opposing to replace another culture with one culture, and insisting on inheriting foreign culture critically. (Yan Xiaojiang, 2008, 287)

Third, cultural conflicts should be avoided while hospitality and order should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu combined the artistic spirit of ancient Greece, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and Confucianism’s spirit of "moderation", and finally found the juncture between the heterogeneous discourses of Chinese and western traditional culture, and constructed and strengthened the liberal cultural ideal with classical spirit. This principle of compatibility and moderation set an example for resolving cultural conflicts and realizing the ideal of harmony. An important characteristic of cultural conflictionism was that it exaggerated the conflict of culture and ignored the feature of accommodation and complementarity between cultures. Each culture has its own inherent rules. Differences and collisions are the process of communication between heterogeneous cultures. Only differences can maintain self-identity, only collisions can promote development, and only diversity can present prosperity. However, the recognization of differences does not mean erasing consensus, and real consensus does not obliterate differences. We should grasp the problem of contemporary Chinese cultural identity in the tension structure of globalization and localization with understanding, communication and integration, striving to construct the modernity of Chinese literature and culture, participating in the world dialogue with artistic creation with national characteristics, opposing to replace another culture with one culture, and insisting on inheriting foreign culture critically. (Yan Xiaojiang, 2008, 287)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In a word, Liang Shiqiu's “mean” spirit in translation not only formed his own theoretical system by combining observation with cognition, but also put this rational system into practice, which promoted the communication between traditional and modern culture, foreign and local culture, individual and common culture, so as to optimize cultural integration. In today's context of cultural pluralism, we must update our values and ways of thinking, understand the relationship between cultural identity and context with the concept of compound identity, and realize the rationality and effectiveness of cultural integration. （Yan Xiaojiang,2008, 287)

In a word, Liang Shiqiu's spirit of "moderation" in translation not only helped to form his own theoretical system by combining observation with cognition, but also put this rational system into practice, which promoted the communication between traditional and modern culture, foreign and local culture, individual and common culture, so as to optimize cultural integration. In today's context of cultural pluralism, we must update our values and ways of thinking, understand the relationship between cultural identity and context with the concept of compound identity, and realize the rationality and effectiveness of cultural integration. （Yan Xiaojiang,2008, 287)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

4.2 Lu Xun

In the comparison between Chinese and foreign languages, Lu Xun realized the imprecision of Chinese grammar and thus associated it with the "imprecision of Chinese thinking". He tried to introduce the expressions of foreign languages into Chinese through literal translation, and to promote the modernization of the Chinese language. Although there were many difficulties at the time, Lu Xun's efforts did, to a certain extent, contribute to the development of vernacular Chinese and the "Europeanization" of Chinese, and he also succeeded in absorbing the expressions and vocabulary of foreign languages. Even though the foreign grammar that Lu Xun borrowed from his direct translations at that time is not fully used today, and many of the expressions have been completely abandoned today, it is because Lu Xun pioneered the introduction of foreign expressions and persevered with them that modern Chinese today has rich and flexible syntax that can be extended and contracted, and sentences that are long but not chaotic and well-organized. This fully proves Lu Xun's foresight and wisdom. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 38)

Lu Xun’s translation views still have some practical significance in modern society. We can get some inspirations after reviewing Lu Xun’s translation views. On the one hand, western translation theories should be introduced. On the other hand, Chinese translation studies should be systematic, scientific and unique through constantly concluding, digging, refining and sublimating. We should treat translation theories Dialectically and developmentally and only in this way can translation theory studies have some breakthrough and creation. With the accelerated process of globalization, China is ushering in a new round of translation climax, and good academic ethos and translation ethics are the guarantee of translation quality. ( Wang Yanling, 2009, 38)

===Conclusion===

From the analysis of several texts above, we can see clearly that Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu have shared some similarities and differences in their translations practice.
From the perspective of translation views, both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun adopted literal translation. Liang Shiqiu emphasized the consistence of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, claiming that translations should be faithful to the original work and also be readable. With the influence of Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, he has formed “mean” translation view, which means that his translation were not extreme but appropriate and moderate. Lu Xun’s translation works mainly adopted literal translation and even “hard translation”. Compared with Liang Shiqiu, he claimed that translation works should “rather be faithful than smooth". In his opinion, Chinese is not precise enough, thus new syntax and expressions should be introduced to improve and enrich Chinese. The so called “ hard translation” appeared in Lu Xun’s later translations, which were unreadable and unacceptable. However, the political function was more important than its literary purpose.

From the choice of translation works, Liang Shiqiu encouraged translators to translate classics which are based humanity such as Shakespeare’s works. He was a determined humanism advocator, denying the class nature of literature and opposing using literature as the tool of enlightenment and politics. Lu Xun, however, was quite different. He translated a lot of Soviet literary works and wanted Chinese people to learn their rebellious and revolutionary spirit. Most of his translations have political function, aiming to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thinking.

From the choice of translation works, Liang Shiqiu encouraged translators to translate classics which are based on humanity such as Shakespeare’s works. He was a determined advocator of humanism, denying the class nature of literature and opposing regarding literature as the tool of enlightenment and politics. Lu Xun, however, was quite different. He translated a lot of Soviet literary works and wanted Chinese people to learn their rebellious and revolutionary spirit. Most of his translations had political function, aiming to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts. --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

From the purpose of doing translations, Liang Shiqiu put “humanism” as the core of his translation works. His purpose of translation was very pure, that is, to translate western classics, to give the Chinese people the pleasure of aesthetics and spirit. Lu Xun, however, was more “utilitarian”. The purpose of his translations were to bring more new culture and absorb new expressions to enrich Chinese. Lu Xun was living in a era when China was weak and corrupt, he wanted to use his translations as weapons to defeat corruption, ignorance and conservatism.

From the purpose of translating activities, Liang Shiqiu put “humanism” as the core of his translation works. His purpose of translation was very pure,which was to translate western classics, to give the Chinese people the pleasure of aesthetics and spirit. Lu Xun, however, was more “utilitarian”. The purpose of his translations was to bring more new culture and absorb new expressions to enrich Chinese. Lu Xun was living in an era when China was weak and corrupt, he wanted to use his translations as weapons to fight with corruption, ignorance and conservatism.--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Rrferences===
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*Yan Xiaojiang. 严晓江. (2008). "梁实秋中庸翻译观研究". [On Liang Shiqiu's View of "mean" in Translation]. 上海译文出版社 [Shanghai Translation Publishing House] 32-52.

*Wang Yanling. 王燕玲. (2009). "鲁迅翻译观的形成及其现实意义". [The Formation of Lu Xun's Translation Theory and its Practical Significance]. 时代教育 [TIME EDUCATION] 39-40.

*Wei Sichao. 魏思超. (2011). "直视鲁迅“硬译”观". [A Direct View of Lu Xun's "Hard Translation"]. 文学教育 [Literature Translation]. 24-25.

*Jin Boya. 金博雅. (2011). "鲁迅和梁实秋的文学翻译对比研究". [A Comparative Study of Literary Translation Between Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu]. 北方文学 [Northern Literature] 118-119.

*Liu Fang. 刘芳. (2014). "论鲁迅直译观的形成及其历史意义". [On the Formation and Historical Significance of Lu Xun's Literal Translation]. 名作赏析 [Masterpieces Review] 123-125.

*Xie Haiyan. 谢海燕. (2020). "协商直译: 重论鲁迅的直译与《域外小说集》". [Negotiating Literal Translation: Ｒeinterpreting Lu Xun’s Literal Translation and Collection of Foreign Short Stories].绍兴文理学院学报 [JOUＲNAL OF SHAOXING UNIVEＲSITY] 51-60.

*Zheng Chun. 郑春. (2017). "再谈鲁迅的翻译以及“硬译”". [The Second Discussion on Lun Xun's Translation and Literal Translation]. 广西师范学院学报 [Journal of Guangxi Teachers Education University] 6-11.

*Chen Fu. 陈芙. (2017). "鲁迅的“硬译”与译者惯习解析". [Analysis on Lu Xun's "Hard Translation" and His Habitus]. 浙江理工大学学报 [Journal of Zhejiang Sci-Tech University] 505-510.

*Song Liulin. 宋柳霖. (2019). "“信”与“顺”的交锋——鲁迅和梁实秋翻译论战的分歧探析". [The Confrontation Between "Faithfulness" and "Smoothness"——On the Differences in the Translation Debate Between Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu]. 校园英语 [Campus English] 241-242.

*Lv Xuemei. 吕雪梅. (2020). "鲁迅翻译思想三大“异”及其价值". [Three Differences in Lu Xun's Translation Thoughts and Their Values]. 江苏外语教学研究 [Research on Foreign Language Teaching in Jiangsu Province] 81-83.

*Yang Xiaohua. 杨小花. (2020). "鲁迅“硬译”思想发展脉络分析". [An Analysis of the Development of Lu Xun's "Hard Translation" Thought]. 文学教育 [Literature Education] 27-29.

==A Brief Introduction to Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization 徐佳 Xu Jia==
<center>徐佳 Xu Jia 202070080613 </center>
===Abstract===
Deconstruction, founded in a critique of structuralism, emphasizes the uncertainty of textual meaning and denies the supreme authority of the original author. As a representative figure of deconstruction, Derrida's theories have had a great impact on the Western traditional theories. Under the influence of deconstruction, Venuti proposed the translation strategy of foreignization, criticizing the "invisibility" of translators and arguing that the purpose of translation is to protect and reproduce cultural differences, which contributes a lot to translation studies.

===Key words===
Deconstruction; Domestication; Foreignization

===题目===
解构主义及韦努蒂的异化翻译策略刍议

===摘要===
解构主义是在对结构主义的批判中建立起来的，强调文本意义的不确定性，否认原作者至高无上的权威性。德里达作为解构主义的代表人物，其理论观点对西方理论传统产生了巨大冲击。在其思想影响下，韦努蒂提出异化翻译策略，批判译者“隐身”，认为翻译的目的是要保护再现文化差异，其理论具有一定的进步意义。

===关键词===
解构主义；归化；异化

===Introduction===
Translation has a long history and translation studies have gone through a long journey. In the 20th century, along with the changes in the fields of philosophy and literature, linguistic and cultural shifts emerged in translation studies, and new translation schools have sprung up one after another. Among them, the most controversial one is Deconstruction and its translation views. Deconstructionism is established in the criticism of structuralism, with decomposition as its main feature, systematically deconstructs the concepts of "structure" and "meaning". It focuses on overturning the traditional concept of translation fidelity so as to highlight the central position of the translator, thus opening up new horizons for contemporary translation studies.

===The Emergence of Deconstruction and Derrida’s Theories===
Deconstruction is an all-open critical theory that emerged from France in the late 1960s, which questions rationality and subverts tradition. It takes interpretive philosophy as its philosophical foundation, advocates pluralism, and aims to break the closedness of structure, eliminate logos-centrism, and overturn the western philosophical tradition of binary oppositions.

Jacques Derrida, a French philosopher, is the father of deconstructionism. He wrote an essay named "Structure, Symbols, and Play in the Language of the Humanities" , which was publicly read at Johns Hopkins University in 1966, thus marking the birth of deconstruction. In the United States, it has received unprecedented spread and creative development. Among many scholars, the most influential was the "Yale School" represented by Paul Derman, Geoffrey Hartmann, Hillis Miller and Harold Bloom. They interpreted and popularized the ideas of Deconstruction, leading to its tremendous impact and flourishing in North America.（Wen Hong 2010,185）

Deconstruction is a critical inheritance of structuralism. Structuralism holds that everything has its structure, which determines the essence of things, and to study the essence of things needs to study their deeper structure. Deconstructionists, on the other hand, believe that structuralism is inherited from the dualistic mode of thinking in traditional western philosophy, which always establishes one original and one center for the world, such as the idea, God, man, etc. Around the original and the center, the world is formed and there are a series of two oppositions, such as subject and object, sound and writing, reason and sensibility, truth and error, philosophy and literature, etc. The former always takes precedence and the latter is a kind of derivation, dependence or exclusion of the former.（Xie Tianzhen 2000,314）

Its attack against structralism mainly focuses on the binary opposition between sound and words. The long-standing western tradition of valuing sound over words assumes that meaning comes before words, and that words themselves are of little importance, but merely serves as megaphone for expressing meaning. Derrida called it "logocentrism," which is another name for reason, truth, subject, being, essence, etc. Derrida traced and extensively gave examples that written words had been looked down upon. For example, Plato once claimed that words are the invention of children, while language embodys the wisdom of adults. Aristotle also believed that language are the representation of inner experience, while words, the representation of language, is the medium of medium, so it is in a secondary position.(Ren Shukun 2000, 55)

Derrida, however, introduced the concept of "archetypal words," which raised the status of written words to a new level. In his view, words is the original and prototype of language and it is the prerequisite of all linguistic phenomena and construction of meaning. In addition, Derrida created a new word "differance", which is only one letter different from "difference" and has the same pronunciation. This difference, which can only be seen in words but cannot be told in speech, makes the western tradition of emphasizing sound over writing collapse. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)

Thus, we can see that deconstruction, though based on the criticisim of structuralism, actually points at the western tradition of rationalism. According to Derrida, deconstruction is a thought about being and metaphysics. It thus lead to a discussion of the authority of being, or the authority of essence, and such a discussion or interpretation cannot simply be generalized as a negativistic destruction. (Fan Zhongying 1997, 36)This sentence can be understood in two ways. first, deconstruction represents a spirit of rebellion in that it dares to think about, discuss, and reinterpret authoritative philosophies that have existed for thousands of years.Behind the radical attitude of deconstruction lies a profound spirit of questioning tradition, a determination to destroy any form of rigidity and privilege. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)

Deconstruction has always been regarded as a thoery of merely breaking without establishing. According to Derrida, however, deconstruction cannot simply be generalized as a negative destruction. Actually, breaking itself implies building. Through denying the "truth" of the structuralism and metaphysical traditions, deconstruction aims to create a pluralistic, tolerant and open system. Deconstructionism is undeniably revolutionary for its total rejection of binary opposition. And at the same time, since it acknowledges the coexistence of multiple logics constituted by varied traditional factors, the revolution is relative. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)

Generally speaking, every ideological trend is marginal, fragmented, and even radical at its inception, and so is deconstruction. Compared to structuralism, it is still unmature. Nevertheless, deconstruction, with its continuous negation against the thinking mode of binary opposition and its thoroughness in decomposing it, is an evolving and vigorous ideology.

The first thing Derrida's deconstruction theory wants to eliminate is the concept of "structure", which is the cornerstone of structuralism. He launched a fierce attack on the logos-centralism and instead emphasize the uncertainty of the meaning of the text. In his theory, Derrida created a series of terms that he called "new concepts" such as "trace", "differance","dissemination", "decentering", etc. Take "dissemination" as an example. According to Derrida, dissemination is the inherent ability of all words. It does not convey any meaning, for the production of every meaning is the result of "differance". Every reading is a search for "trace" of the seeds that have been disseminated, and every reading is a re-understanding of what seems to have met before. (Wen Hong 2010, 186)

Roland Barthes, another representative of deconstructionism, compares the text to an onion, which has many layers but no core, no original, and unity is its superficial phenomenon. This metaphor suggests that the meaning of the text is uncertain and that the search for the original meaning of the text is futile. Barthes asserted that "the author is dead", which completely denies the author's creativity and crushes all attempt to trace the author's original meaning. The intertextuality and indeterminacy of textual meaning make reading a concrete act associated with the specific times and reading subjects, which strongly breaks the traditional view that reading is only a passive consumption of texts, and greatly promotes the enthusiasm, initiative and creativity of readers. (Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)

Indeed, apart from literary criticism which necessarily analyses and evaluates the work from the critic's subjective view, the phenomena of distorting the meaning of original for one's own profit are not rare, and even general reading is never a passive absorption of the ideas in the work. This point of view, in fact, has long been embodied in the keynote of reception aesthetics, which explicitly emphasizes the role of human in textual relations and the great initiative of participants in discourse communication. It actually reveals that in the rich and complex history of all language and text, there lies the rich and complex history of human spiritual activity. This process can by no means be summed up in Hegel's rigid dialectical model of "positive-negative-combination".(Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)

Like other fields of the humanities, translation community is inevitably impacted by the ideas of deconstruction. Traditional translation theories regard the original text as an unshakable authority, which is always above the translation and translation activities. Fidelity exists as a supreme standard for translation, and the discussion of equivalence has always been a hot topic in the translation community. Deconstruction reveals the relationship between texts. It argues that since every text is born in a specific historical environment, there is no absolute equivalence between the original text and the translation, and any factors that affect human thinking, such as ideology, values, ethics, morality, cultural traditions, political system, etc., will affect the translation. (Huang Zhending 2005,19)

Therefore, any original text is always in the process of being constantly rewritten, and every reading and translation of the original text means a reconstruction of the original text rather than a tracing of the original meaning. Translation involves two languages and two cultural systems, and deconstructionists believe that the purpose of translation is to pretect and reproduce the differences between languages and cultures instead of eliminating them with sameness. There is no accurate and fixed meaning of translation, and even a detailed retelling can produce new meanings that give life to the original. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)

Before the advent of deconstruction, Walter Benyamin, a German translation theorist, put forward ideas related to deconstruction in his book "The Task of the Translator" in 1923, and thus he has been widely regarded as the founder of deconstructionist translation theory. Benyamin uses the term "pure language" to explain the differences between languages, which refers to the universal language shared by all human beings before they built the Tower of Babel. According to Benjamin, a pure language is complete and abstract, and the many languages used today derive from it. Only when these languages complement each other can it be possible to reproduce the whole picture of a pure language. The essence of language can be grasped only in the differences of specific languages. Therefore, translation should try to reflect these differences. The languages we use today is fragments of pure language, and so are the original text and its translation. Since they are fragments, their main characteristics are fragmentation and mutilation, and the task of the translator is to find and reflect the formal characteristics of the fragments. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 316)

===Venuti’s Translation Theory of Deconstruction ===
In the late 20th century, under the influence of deconstructionism, many translation theorists put forward some new views, including Edwin Gentzler, Ander Lefevere, Susan Bassnett, Theo Hermans, Gideon Toury, Lawrence Venuti, etc. Putting translation in the overall social and cultural context, they reconsidered many factors affecting translation, and tried to build new translation theories. Among them, Venuti's theory has been recognized as a representative one.

In 1992, Venuti compiled a collection of essays on translation named Rethinking Translation. In the preface of the book, he mentioned several neglected issues, mainly the marginal status of translators and its causes, and called for a rethinking of translating. In 1995, he published Translator's Invisibility, a masterpiece on the history of Western translation over 200 years, which is a representative work of foreignizing translation theory that drew much attention in the late 20th century. The book describes the situation and behavior of translators in Anglo-American cultures, traces the history of transparent discourse in English translation that has emerged since the seventh century, and reveals the various cultural hegemonies that originated as smooth discourse. (Zhao Shang2007,76)

The ultimate goal of Venuti's translation theory of foreignization is to have translators and readers reflect on the violence of nationalism in translation, and thus they can have an expectation to feel linguistic and cultural differences when translating and reading translations. Deconstruction has rewritten the history of western translation by rejecting the viewpoint of western-centralism and advocating an equal relationship between national cultures and languages. This naturally links translation studies with power, ideology and colonialism, regarding translations as a political act. Of course, the aim of it is not to raise the value of every foreign culture by treating Anglo-American culture as an object of racial discrimination. It focuses on how to study and practice translation as a site of differences at the theoretical, critical and textual levels rather than emphasizing homogeneity, as is popular nowadays.(Zhao Shang2007,76)

====Objections to Domesticating Translation====
Venuti build his translation theory on the basis of deconstruction, and his definition of translation is as follows: "Translation is a process that the translator replaces the chain of signifier in the source text with that in the target language." (Venuti 1998, 22) Since meaning is produced by relations and differences in a potentially infinite chain, there will always be differences and delays and will never be the whole of an original text. Both the foreign text and the translation are derivative and are made up of different linguistic and cultural materials. Therefore, neither the foreign author nor the translator is the original author, and the meaning of the work is so unstable that it can transcend the intent of the work. This is very different from the traditional concept of translation.

Traditionally, it is believed that the author is the original creator of a unique text where he expresses his own feelings and has absolute authority and ultimate right to interpret it. Given this, the translator's work can only be an imitation of the original text, and the translation is neither self-expressive nor unique, but a derivative of the it. This concept has ruled the translation world for a long time, decisively placing the translator in a subordinate position to the author and the translation to the creation. Translated text has always been compared with the original text, and any deviation from it is considered a flaw or even a shame. In order to increase the faithfulness of the translation, translator goes to great lengths to hide himself, by erasing as much as possible linguistic and cultural differences and assimilating the original text with the linguistic features and values of the target language. A translation based on such a strategy will be immediately accepted by the target language readers. Therefore, the ideal translation that translators have long strived for is one that makes the reader feel as if they were reading the author's original text in the target language.(Ren Shukun 2004,56)

Venuti have different ideas. Under the influence of deconstructionist thinking, Venuti points out in the preface of his book Rethinking Translation that "a translation can never be faithful to the original text, and is always more or less free. It is never definite, and always has an addition to or subtraction from the original. It can never be a transparent representation, but only an interpretive transformation, revealing the multiple meanings and ambiguities of the foreign text and translate them into other multiple and divergent meanings." (Venuti 1992, 67) He began his book, The Invisibility of the Translator, by quoting Norman Shapiro: "I think translation should be transparent and not look like a translation. A good translation is like a piece of glass, you will not notice it without tiny imperfections such as scratches and bubbles. Ideally, of course, there should be no flaws at all. It should not draw attention on itself." (Venuti 1995, 81)

"Invisibility" describes the condition and activities of translators in contemporary Anglo-American culture. According to Venuti, such a smooth and transparent translation gives the reader a sense of fidelity and thus becomes the translator's major pursuit. However, a fluent translation conceals the subjective interpretation of the translator, and also obscures the process of mediation between the original text and the translation and that between the author and the translator. In this way, the hard work of the translator is eclipsed by the authority of the author, and many cultural and linguistic differences are also tucked away.(Huang Zhending 2005,20)

According to Venuti, the meaning of a work is plural. A translation only temporarily fixes one meaning of the work, and it is based on different cultural assumptions and interpretive choices, and subject to the constraints of particular social forms and different historical epochs. Meaning is plural and indefinite, and it is by no means an unchanging and unified whole. Therefore, translation cannot be measured by the mathematical concept of equivalence of meaning or one-to-one correspondence, while the norms of exact translation, the concepts of "fidelity" and "freedom" are historically-determined categories. Translation is built by translation and translation. It is the relationship between the translation and the cultural and social conditions resulting from it that allows the translation to survive.（Feng Yihan 2006,41）

Among contemporary translation schools, Nida's translation theory is a typical one of domestication. Naida argues that the translation of dynamic equivalence is to pursue the complete naturalness of the words, (Nida 2004, 159) the essence of which is to eliminate linguistic and cultural differences in inter-linguistic communication. Venuti, however, pointed out that the so-called communication, which originates from the culture of the target language and is at the same time controlled by it, is in fact a selfish interpretation. Thus, this kind of communication is an appropriation of foreign texts for one's own profit rather than information exchange." Nida's translation theory that takes communication as a starting point does not adequately take into account the ethnocentric distort that is inherent in the translation process. Naida's advocacy to produce the same response in the readers of the target language and in the readers of the source language is a kind of cultural violence that denies the differences between languages and cultures.（Wen Hong 2010,186）

====Advocacy for Foreignizing Translation====
The concept of foreignizing translation goes back to Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher. He put forth two methods of translation in 1813, "The translator should either try not to disturb the author and keep the reader close to him, or he should try not to disturb the reader and keep the author close to the them."(Lefevere 1992, 74) The former refers to the foreignizing method, which advocates deliberately breaking the linguistic and cultural norms of the target language by preserving some exotic expressions in the original text so that the readers can learn and enjoy the foreign culture.

Moreover, foreignizing translation cannot be simply equated with paraphrase. While the latter involves only the linguistic operations of translation, foreignizing translation, as defined by Venuti, involves two links. The first is the selection of materials, which means what to translate, and the second is the language conversion strategy, which means how to translate. As long as one of the two links involves foreignization, the translation strategy can be defined as foreignizing translation. The debate between foreignization and domestication focuses on whether to close to the culture of the source language or to the culture of the target language. According to Venuti, the prerequisite of foreignizing translation is that there are cultural differences and communication is complicated by cultural differences between and within linguistic communities. Foreignizing translation acknowledges and tolerate differences and create cultural differences in the target language.（Ren Shukun 2004,57）

A translator who prefers foreignization may not only change the means of expression of the translated text, but also choose to translate foreign texts that challenge the foreign literary norms in the target language. Translation is a process of finding common ground between languages and cultures, especially in the search for similar information and similar forms or skills of expression. This search which is necessary for the translator is often confronted with differences. But translator can never, and should never, erase all differences. A translation should be a place where different cultures coexist and the reader can learn about them. Therefore, Venuti's translation strategy of Foreignization, to some extent, is a kind of cultural intervention, which challenges and questions the attempts to suppress foreign things, and highlights the linguistic and cultural differences by placing the readers in a foreign-mannered text.（Feng Yihan 2006,42）

Specifically, in the use of translation methods, it reflects a difficult and obscure translation style, and even uses ancient words of the target language to provide readers with a new reading experience. Ezra Pound's translation of Cathay and Nabokov's translation of Pushkin's poetic novel Eugene Onegin both use the foreignizing methods. In the history of English literature, the debate between Arnold and Newman is actually a debate about domestication and foreignization. Newman was dissatisfied with the translation style of Homer's works in Victorian England. He thought this kind of translations were too slender and elegant that were favored by the so-called elite, or "great tradition" culture of England. Instead, He chose the "small tradition," that is, the foreignizing method, translating Homer's works into popular lyrical songs, in which a mixture of ancient words, ballads and awkward sentences replaced the serious and straightforward expressions. (Liu Junping 2019, 416)

====Preference for Minority-oriented Translation====
According to Venuti，the use of any language can mark power relations, and at any historical moment it is the control of the dominant linguistic form over minute variables. (Venuti 2004, 75) These tiny variables are the so-called "residue", which is opposed to the dominant forms of language, including dialects, archaic languages, colloquialisms, technical terms, and so on. Residues are proposed and applied to prevent the rigidity of language use and kept it alive and fresh.

With the existence of residues, language use cannot be completely systematized and regularized. The concept of "residue" suggests that linguistic forms are closely related to specific social and historical environment. Residues have supplemented, corrected, and even subverted the mainstream language by transforming, delegitimizing and denaturalizing it, and thus have promoted its development. In order to release the residues, the translator has to innovate his concept so as to achieve the transformation of linguistic and cultural differences.(Guo Jianzhong 2000,51)

Venuti believed that a good translation is a minority-oriented one, which embraces heterogeneity and allows for the existence of unfamiliar, exotic, non-standard, and marginal languages and rules. "Minority translation" means releasing not only linguistic "residues" but also cultural "residues". The marginal texts and translations, as measured by mainstream values, are what Venuti prefers. He said, "I prefer to translate texts that are marginal and weak in my own culture, and that serve to marginalize the dominant linguistic and cultural forms of the English language.“ (Venuti 1998, 32) Today, with the further development of globalization, the economic and political dominance of the United States has marginalized the languages and cultures of other countries. To oppose the global hegemony of English and its culture is exactly what Venuti's advocacy aims at.(Ren Shukun 2004,57)

Minority translation never to acquire more, never to establish new standards and rules, but to promotes cultural innovation and understanding of cultural differences through the production of more linguistic variables. In resistant translation, "residual" means going beyond transparency in the use of language, even undermining it with varying degrees of violence. Such new ideas reflect the awareness of unequal relations in translation. In Venuti's view, translation cannot be a simple and egalitarian activity. It is racially superior in nature, either out of reverence for a foreign culture or out of pride in one's own culture. (Ren Shukun 2004, 57)

The positive significance of foreignization is that it can introduce and absorb foreign cultural nutrients, bring new elements to local culture and language, and thus promoting communication and penetration among different cultures and languages. At the same time, foreignization strategy makes translation alienate from the target language culture, frees the readers from the cultural spell that has confined their reading and writing, which in essence is a counteraction against the ethnocentrism in the target language culture.

===Application of Foreignization and Domestication===
When it comes to the choice of adopting foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, we should first consider which one is more conducive to cross-cultural communication and mutual understanding between people with different linguistic and cultural backgrounds. Since translation is a process of intercultural communication in nature, the translator should take into consideration the inter-subjectivity and dialogue generation between texts rather than merely foreignizing or domesticating sentences accoring to grammar. They should bear in mind it's a process of cultural interaction.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)

The theory of inter-subjectivity focuses on the consideration of whether or why I, as a subject, can know another subject, and not just regards the cognitive activity of human beings only as a dualistic subject-object cognitive act. Therefore, translating is not a monologue. However, it is important to emphasize that due to the different levels of readers, the translator can not make every reader satisfied and understand the translation. For different readers, the translator may make necessary changes to the translation. It not follows the translator's subjective judgement to adopt foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, but depends on the actual situation.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21）

Since translation services the target readers, the translator should, no matter which translation strategy is adopted, try to think of them and build a bridge across the cultural gap between the original text and the target readers. So how to find a balance between these two strategies? On the technical level, we should stick to one principle when handling the issue of domestication and foreignization, namely a dialectical view of their relationship. With their respective advantages, the two strategies play different roles and satisfy different needs. They are not incompatible just because they have distinctive orientations.(Wang Yingping 2011, 216)

In fact, no translation is completely based on a single approach of domestication or foreignization. As Lu Xun once commented, “there is no such thing as a thoroughly domesticated translation in the world. Those who claim to be so are fuzzy things that, under close examination, should not be considered as translation in proper.” A good translation is always a mix of both domestication and foreignization. Besides, we should avoid any tendency towards extremes in this matter. Only by striking a balance between those two poles can we produce a work with both original flavor and good acceptance.(Wang Yingping 2011, 216)

===Conclusion===
Vernuti's deconstructionist view of translation shows the incoherence between the original text and the translation and that how the translator is involved in cultural production. He analyzes the power relations behind the text and gives us a new perspective on translation studies.

However, the resistant strategy that he put forward is marginalized in the translation community. The reasons are as follows. First, the word "resistant" implys the passive defensive status of this strategy and its weakness to counteract the mainstream. Second, in order to release the residues, the translator usually chooses a marginal text to resist the influence of the mainstream. Third, once the text is selected, the translation would depart from the mainstream and to create something new in terms of language, text, rhythm, narrative mode, etc. Such a translation that defies the translation tradition is hardly accepted by a large number of readers in the short term. Thus, the marginal position of Venuti's foreignizing translation strategy is inevitable.

Translation is never going in an unaffected way. Both foreignization and domestication are in fact the products of influenced translation activities. On theoretical level, it is difficult to say which is better, because translation practice shows that each of them plays an irreplaceable role in the target language and culture and fulfills its own mission.

From the perspective of development, cultural exchanges are becoming more and more frequent, and translation, as one of the forms of it, is actually a process of cultural integration. Culture itself is an open system with an inestimable capacity for tolerance, so It is easy for the target readers to accept new things from the source culture through foreignization. The translator should choose translation strategies with comprehensive considerations and find a balance between cultural equivalence and acceptability, and thus achieving the best effect of cultural exchange and literary appreciation.

There is no specific, prescriptive mode for deconstruction in Derrida’s and Venuti’s theories. The importance lies in their unrestricted thinking and revolutionary spirit, which reminds people to rethink traditions and to consider more complex factors that determine the relationship between languages. However, the deconstructionist view of translation is by no means perfect. Its deliberately pursuit of differences and disregard for unity will inevitably lead to confusion. Therefore, it is undoubtedly beneficial to translation research if we objectively see the advantages and disadvantages of the deconstructionist view of translation.

===Reference===
Fan Zhongying 范仲英. (1997).''实用翻译教程'' [A Practical Course Book on Translation].北京：外语教学与研究出版社.Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press

Ren Shukun任淑坤. (2004).解构主义翻译观刍议——兼论韦努蒂的翻译思想和策略 [Humble Opinions on Deconstructive Translation and Venuti's Translation Thoughts and Strategies]. ''外语与外语教学'' Foreign Language and Their Teaching (188) 55-58.

Lin Qiuyun 林秋云. (1998).德里达的解构主义理论[Derrida’s Theories of Deconstruction].''外国文学评论''.Foreign Literature Review

Lawrence Venuti. (2004). ''The Translator’s Invisibility''.上海：上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

Lawrence Venuti. (1992). ''Rethinking Translation：discourse, subjectivity, ideology''. London; New York: Routledge.

Andre Lefevere. (1992). ''Translating Literature''. New York: Modern Language Association Of America.

Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2000).''翻译的理论构建与文化透视''[Theoretical Construction and Cultural Perspective of Translation].上海：上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

Eugene Nida. (2004). ''Toward A Science of Translating''.上海：上海外语教育出版社. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

Liu Junping 刘军平. (2019).''西方翻译理论通史''[A General History of Western Translation Theory].湖北：武汉大学出版社. Huibei: Wuhan University Press.

Lawrence Venuti. (1998). ''The Scandals of Translation''. London; New York: Routledge.

When Hong 温弘. (2010).解构主义翻译理论及韦努蒂的翻译策略 [Deconstructive Translation Theory and Venuti's Translation Strategies]. ''甘肃科技'' Gansu Science and Technology 26(15):185-187.

Zhao Shang 赵尚. (2007).解构主义与韦努蒂的异化翻译策略 [Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization]. ''常州工学院学报(社科版)'' Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology( Social Science Edition) 25(6):75-77

Bai Xiaohong 白晓红. (2012). 论解构主义翻译观的进步性与局限性[On the Progressiveness and Limitations of the Deconstructionist View of Translation]. ''长春教育学院学报''Journal of Changchun Education Institute 28(6):20-21.

Huang Zhending 黄振定. (2005). 解构主义的翻译创造性和主体性[The creativity and subjectivity of translation in deconstructionism]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal 26(1):19-22.

Feng Yihan 封一函. (2006). 论劳伦斯•韦努蒂的解构主义翻译策略[Venuti's Translation Strategies of Deconstruction]. ''文艺研究'' Studies in Literature and Art (3):39-44.

Guo Jianzhong 郭建中.(2000). 韦努蒂及其解构主义的翻译策略[Venuti and his Translation Strategies of Deconstruction]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal(1):49-52.

--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 12:58, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia

=Translation Aesthetics=
==Aesthetic Representation of Two Versions of Wang Wei's "Niao Ming Jian" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics - 凌子瑾 Ling Zijin, 202020080618==
<center>凌子瑾 Ling Zijin </center>
===Abstract===
Wang Wei is a master of landscape poetry, and his poems have important aesthetic value. "Niao Ming Jian" is a representative work of his landscape poetry, which has a relatively high aesthetic significance. Aesthetic reproduction is an important factor to judge the success of a translation. Based on Liu Miqing's theory of translation aesthetics, this paper makes a comparative analysis of the two English translation versions of "Niao Ming Jian" to explore how these two translators make the aesthetic elements in the source text reproduced in the target text.

===Key words===
Translation Aesthetics; Aesthetic Representation; Poetry Translation; Comparative Study

===题目===
翻译美学视角下译本的审美再现——以王维《鸟鸣涧》两译本为例

===摘要===
王维是山水诗的集大成者，其诗歌具有重要的美学价值，《鸟鸣涧》是王维山水诗中的代表作品，具有较高的美学研究意义。审美再现是评判译文是否成功的重要因素。本文从刘宓庆的翻译美学理论出发，对《鸟鸣涧》的两个英文译本进行对比分析，探究不同的译者是如何使得原文中的美学要素在译文中得到再现的。

===关键词===
翻译美学；审美再现；诗歌翻译；对比赏析

===1. Introduction===
With the increasingly close communication between China and the international community, the translation of poetry has become an important part of telling Chinese stories. Translation is the basis for the international dissemination of literary works. Translation is one of the ways of information transmission, which is not only a technology, but also an art. Poetry itself is a literary and artistic form with aesthetic thoughts. Due to the close relationship between poetry translation and beauty, whether the translation can convey the beauty of the original poem has become the main criterion to judge whether the translation is good or not. On this point, Liu Miqing proposed translation aesthetics and systematically explained this subject in his An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics. He incorporated aesthetics into translation and proposed to reproduce the beauty of the original text in translation. (Li Yafeng 2016,4)

With the increasingly close communication between China and the international community, the translation of poetry has become an important part of telling Chinese stories. And translation is the basis for the international dissemination of literary works. Translation is one of the ways of information transmission, which is not only a technology, but also an art. Poetry itself is a literary and artistic form with aesthetic thoughts. Due to the close relationship between poetry translation and beauty, whether the translation can convey the beauty of the original poem has become the main criterion to judge whether the translation is good or not. On this point, Liu Miqing proposed translation aesthetics and systematically explained this subject in his ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics''. He incorporated aesthetics into translation and proposed to reproduce the beauty of the original text in translation. (Li Yafeng 2016,4)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Inheriting from Tao Yuanming and Xie Lingyun and laying a foundation for the landscape poetry in Song Dynasty and Yuan Dynasty, Wang Wei's landscape poetry represents the highest achievement of landscape poetry in the flourishing Tang Dynasty. In the history of the development and the aesthetic formation of Chinese classical poetry, it has an influence and status that cannot be underestimated. "Niao Ming Jian" is the representative work of Wang Wei's landscape poems, so its aesthetic value is self-evident. Written in the stable and unified Tang Dynasty, this poem focuses on the tranquil beauty of the spring mountain at night. In this poem of Wang Wei, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty. (Shi Yue 2002, 3)

Inheriting from Tao Yuanming and Xie Lingyun and laying a foundation for the landscape poetry in Song and Yuan Dynasty, Wang Wei's landscape poetry represents the highest achievement of landscape poetry in the flourishing Tang Dynasty. In the history of the development and the aesthetic formation of Chinese classical poetry, it has an influence and status that cannot be underestimated. "Niao Ming Jian" is the representative work of Wang Wei's landscape poems, so its aesthetic value is self-evident. Written in the stable and unified Tang Dynasty, this poem focuses on the tranquil beauty of the spring mountain at night. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty. (Shi Yue 2002, 3)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Both Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong have made a lot of contributions to translation studies. They are recognized for their translation skills(both of them were awarded Lifetime Achievement in Translation), but they have different views on literary translation, which can be seen from the comparative study in chapter 4. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper takes "Niao Ming Jian" and its two English versions as research objects to explore how the two translators realize the aesthetic representation of the Chinese version in their English translation.(Yan Haifeng 2017)

===2. Translation Aesthetics===
In the history of Chinese literature, the earliest development of translation aesthetics can be traced back to the time of the Three Kingdoms. At that time, someone proposed that "it is necessary to follow the essence without decorations".(Wang Wenjing 2020，7) Up to now, there have emerged such related aesthetic translation theories as "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", "spirit likeness" ,"delivering" and “principle of three beauties”. In A Dictionary of Translation Studies of Fang Mengzhi, translation aesthetics is defined as: revealing the aesthetic origins of translation studies, discussing the special significance of aesthetics to translation studies, interpreting the scientific and artistic nature of translation with the aesthetic point of view, putting forward standards of beauty in translating texts with different style using the basic principle of aesthetics, analyzing and solving the aesthetic problem in dealing with interlingual transference.(Fang Mengzhi 2004:296)

In the history of Chinese literature, the earliest development of translation aesthetics can be traced back to the time of the Three Kingdoms. When someone proposed that "it is necessary to follow the essence without decorations".(Wang Wenjing 2020，7) Up to now, there have emerged such related aesthetic translation theories as "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", "spirit likeness" ,"delivering" and “principle of three beauties”. In A Dictionary of Translation Studies of Fang Mengzhi, translation aesthetics is defined as: revealing the aesthetic origins of translation studies, discussing the special significance of aesthetics to translation studies, interpreting the scientific and artistic nature of translation with the aesthetic point of view, putting forward standards of beauty in translating texts with different style, using the basic principle of aesthetics, analyzing and solving the aesthetic problem in dealing with interlingual transference.(Fang Mengzhi 2004:296)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Translation aesthetics is the marriage of translation and aesthetics. Almost all traditional translation theories in China are related to aesthetics, and translation aesthetics is one of the basic characteristics of Chinese translation studies. Based on Chinese traditional aesthetics, translation aesthetics, starting with the aesthetic subject and object of translation, not only emphasizes the aesthetic information on the level of sounds and words, analysis of the rhythm, rhyme and translation methods, but also explores the aesthetic factors of emotion, aspiration, meaning and image in the non-formal system, thus laying a practical theoretical foundation for translation aesthetics. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the purpose of translation is to achieve aesthetic representation between languages. Translation is an artistic experience of perceiving, understanding, transforming and reproducing the aesthetic information of the translation object (source language).（Yang Yanni 2010,3）

Translation aesthetics is the marriage of translation and aesthetics. Almost all traditional translation theories in China are related to aesthetics, and translation aesthetics is one of the basic characteristics of Chinese translation studies. Based on Chinese traditional aesthetics, translation aesthetics, starting with the aesthetic subject and object of translation, not only emphasizes the aesthetic information on the level of sounds and words, analysis of the rhythm, rhyme and translation methods, but also explores the aesthetic factors of emotion, aspiration, meaning and image in the non-formal system, thus laying a practical theoretical foundation for translation aesthetics. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the purpose of translation is to achieve aesthetic representation between languages.（Yang Yanni 2010,3）--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The concept of translation aesthetics was put forward by Professor Liu Miqing in 1994. At first, it combined aesthetics and translation to examine the aesthetic feeling of ancient poetry translation. In An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics, Liu Miqing specifically explains the general process and specific strategies of translation aesthetics. According to Liu Miqing, "the theories and propositions of traditional Chinese translation theory are basically derived from Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics, especially classical literature and art". In addition, he also stressed that "theoretical proposition and methodology of Chinese translation theory can be traced back in Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics.” The aesthetics as the theoretical basis of translation, not only pay attention to the correspondence at the language level, but also the correspondence of the beauty represented in the target text and that in the original text, in order to show the beauty of the original text as possible.（Liu Miqing 1994）

The concept of translation aesthetics was put forward by Professor Liu Miqing in 1994. At first, it combined aesthetics and translation to examine the aesthetic feeling of ancient poetry translation. In ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics'', Liu Miqing specifically explains the general process and specific strategies of translation aesthetics. According to Liu Miqing, "the theories and propositions of traditional Chinese translation theory are basically derived from Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics, especially classical literature and art". In addition, he also stressed that "theoretical proposition and methodology of Chinese translation theory can be traced back in Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics.” The aesthetics as the theoretical basis of translation, not only pay attention to the correspondence at the language level, but also the correspondence of the beauty represented in the target text and that in the original text, in order to show the beauty of the original text as possible.（Liu Miqing 1994）--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 11:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Translation aesthetics holds that translation contains the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object. The aesthetic subject refers to the reader and translator of the text, while the aesthetic object refers to the target language text and the source language text. By subjectively transforming the source text, the aesthetic subject maximizes the aesthetic value of the source text into the target text in the process of transforming one language text to another, so as to ensure that the aesthetic elements in the source text can be reproduced in the target text.(Wang Wenjing 2020,7) In ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics'', Liu Miqing divides aesthetic object into formal system and non-formal system, that is, aesthetic appreciation of the linguistic form of the original text and the emotion expressed in the text.(Liu Miqing 2005)

The beauty in the linguistic form (including pronunciation) of the original text is aesthetically called the beauty in the form of material existence, which is usually "intuitive and sensible" and generally appeals to people's vision and hearing. In the aesthetic composition of the original text, what opposed to the representational elements is the non-representational elements. The non-formal beauty of the original language has no direct relationship with the language form, and it is usually non-intuitive. Because it is not directly reflected in the structure and form of words, sentences and sentence groups, it is usually "uncounted", which is called "non-quantitative factor".(Liu Miqing 2005)

The aesthetic composition of linguistic forms can often be counted, such as the number of parallel sentences, rhymes and figures of speech in a paragraph. Generally speaking, it can be counted to obtain a number, the non-formal beauty of language can not. It is impossible for us to get any quantitative results after analyzing the temperament of a text, such as artistic conception, beauty, momentum, modality, charm, style and so on. But these elements are crucial to the aesthetic value of a text. In short, from the perspective of aesthetics, these non-formal aesthetic compositions of a language is called non-quantitative obscure collection. In Chinese classical poetry, the concentrated expression of this collection is artistic conception.(Liu Miqing 1986)

The aesthetic composition of linguistic forms can often be counted, such as the number of parallel sentences, rhymes and figures of speech in a paragraph. Generally speaking, it can be counted to obtain a number, the non-formal beauty of language cannot. It is impossible for us to get any quantitative results after analyzing the temperament of a text, such as artistic conception, beauty, momentum, modality, charm, style and so on. But these elements are crucial to the aesthetic value of a text. In short, from the perspective of aesthetics, these non-formal aesthetic compositions of a language are called non-quantitative obscure collection. In Chinese classical poetry, the concentrated expression of this collection is artistic conception.(Liu Miqing 1986)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The "representation" of aesthetic representation is to transform the source language into the target language, and the aesthetic representation is to transform the beauty of source language into the beauty of the target language. The essence of the representation in the art of translation is to transform the introspective understanding of the source language text into an explicit and intuitive form, that is, to find the best artistic expression form for the source language.（Li Qijiu 2009,4）

===3. Appreciation of "Niao Ming Jian"===
The original text of "Niao Ming Jian"

人闲桂花落，

夜静春山空。

月出惊山鸟，

时鸣春涧中。(''Collected Tang Poem'' 1705)

The main idea of this poem is: in this quiet place, sweet osmanthus flowers gently fall in the quiet night, making the spring forest emptier and quieter. As the moon rose, it made the birds who was perching among the trees to sing, with their crisp calls reverberating through the open mountain stream. This poem is supposed to be written between 713 and 741 ( The Flourishing Kaiyuan Reign Periond of the Tang Dynasty), when the poet was in a trip to the regions near the Yangtze River. This poem is the first of five poems written by Wang Wei in yunxi Villa where his friend Huangfuyue lived. It is the work about the poet’s life in Wuyunxi (namely Ruoyexi), southeast of Shaoxing County. The poem describes the quiet and beautiful scenery in the mountain on a spring night, and focuses on the tranquility and calmness of the spring mountain at night. The whole poem is intended to highlight the tranquility, but Wang Wei treated it by moving scenes. This kind of technique of contrast shows the poet's meditative mind to a great extent.(Zhuang Chengyuan 2018)

The main idea of this poem is: in this quiet place, sweet osmanthus flowers gently fall in the quiet night, making the spring forest emptier and quieter. As the moon rose, it made the birds who were perching among the trees to sing, with their crisp calls reverberating through the open mountain stream. This poem is supposed to be written between 713 and 741 ( The Flourishing Kaiyuan Reign Period of the Tang Dynasty), when the poet was in a trip to the regions near the Yangtze River. The poem describes the quiet and beautiful scenery in the mountain on a spring night, and focuses on the tranquility and calmness of the spring mountain at night. The whole poem is intended to highlight the tranquility, but Wang Wei treated it by moving scenes. This kind of technique of contrast shows the poet's meditative mind to a great extent.(Zhuang Chengyuan 2018)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

"人闲桂花落，夜静春山空" is the poet’s depiction of scenery by sound, which skillfully uses the technique of synesthesia to combine the dynamic scene “花落” and "人闲" together. Both the blossom and fall of the flowers belong to the sound of nature. Only people who let their hearts really free down, put down the sincere infatuations to worldly thoughts can promote their spirits to a state of “空”. It was late at night, obviously the viewer could not see the falling scene of osmanthus, but because of the "夜静" and the calmness of heart of the viewer, he can still feel the blooming osmanthus falling off the branches, floating down and landing. And we readers also seem to have entered a "fragrant forest and flower rain" scenery. The "春山" here also leaves room for us to imagine, because it is "春山", we can imagine the noisy picture of the day: singing birds, green trees, lovely flowers, children’s laughter and so on.(Xue Tao 2020)

"人闲桂花落，夜静春山空" is the poet’s depiction of scenery by sound, which skillfully uses the technique of synesthesia to combine the dynamic scene “花落” and "人闲" together. Both the blossom and fall of the flowers belong to the sound of nature. Only people who let their hearts really free down, put down the sincere infatuations to worldly thoughts can promote their spirits to a state of “空”. It was late at night, obviously the viewer could not see the falling scene of osmanthus, but because of the "夜静" and the calmness of heart of the viewer, he can still feel the blooming osmanthus falling off the branches, floating down and landing. And readers also seem to have entered a "fragrant forest and flower rain" scenery. The "春山" here also leaves room for us to imagine, because it is "春山", we can imagine the noisy picture of the day: singing birds, green trees, lovely flowers, children’s laughter and so on.(Xue Tao 2020)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 11:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

When night falls, the environment becomes quiet, the tourists leave, the daytime noise disappeared, the mountains are empty. In fact, "空" not only refers to the empty of the mountain, but also the heart of the poet because only people who have free and easy mood can capture the scene that others can not feel. The last two lines “月出惊山鸟，时鸣春涧中” describe a dynamic scene to highlight the quietness of the mountain stream. “惊” and “鸣” seem to break the tranquility of the night, but in fact serve as a foil to describe the empty and leisure in the mountain by sounds. The moon emerges behind the clouds, quiet moonlight streams down, a few birds awake from their sleep and twitter from time to time. These beautiful things, with the spring streams running in the hill, put a colorful picture in front of the reader and has the similar effect with the "蝉噪林逾静，鸟鸣山更幽" of Wang Ji(a poet of Liang Dynasty). The birds, of course, accustomed to the silence of the mountain, seemed to have a kind of freshness and excitement when the moon rises. But the brightness of the moon changes the landscape immediately before and after its rise.

When night falls, the environment becomes quiet, the tourists leave, the daytime noise disappeared, the mountains are empty. In fact, "空" not only refers to the empty of the mountain, but also the heart of the poet because only people who have free and easy mood can capture the scene that others cannot feel. The last two lines “月出惊山鸟，时鸣春涧中” describe a dynamic scene to highlight the quietness of the mountain stream. “惊” and “鸣” seem to break the tranquility of the night, but in fact serve as a foil to describe the empty and leisure in the mountain by sounds. The moon emerges behind the clouds, quiet moonlight streams down, a few birds awake from their sleep and twitter from time to time. These beautiful things, with the spring streams running in the hill, put a colorful picture in front of the reader. The birds, of course, accustomed to the silence of the mountain, seemed to have a kind of freshness and excitement when the moon rises. But the brightness of the moon changes the landscape immediately before and after its rise.--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Wang Wei was in the heyday of Tang Dynasty. The background of Wang Wei's "月出惊山鸟" is a stable and unified society in the prosperous Tang Dynasty. Although the birds suffer from shock, it is by no means a kind of shock . They will not fly out of the spring stream, or even take off at all, but occasionally chirp among the trees. "时鸣春涧中", they are not so much "startled" as feel fresh to the moon. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with the bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty.

Wang Wei was in the heyday of Tang Dynasty. The background of Wang Wei's "月出惊山鸟" is a stable and unified society in the prosperous Tang Dynasty. Although the birds suffer from shock, it is by no means a kind of shock . They will not fly out of the spring stream, or even take off at all, but occasionally chirp among the trees. "时鸣春涧中", they are not so much "startled" but feel fresh to the moon. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with the bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty.--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===4. Appreciation of Two English Versions of "Niao Ming Jian"===
(1) The Gully of Twittering Birds

translated by Yang Xianyi

Idly I watch the cassia petals fall;

Silent the night and empty the spring hills;

The rising moon startles the mountain bird

Which twitter fitfully in the spring gully.(Wang Dan 2014)

(2) The Dale of Singing Birds

translated by Xu Yuanchong

I hear osmanthus blooms fall unenjoyed;

When night comes, hills dissolve into the void.

The rising moon arouses birds to sing;

Their fitful twitter fills the dale with spring.(Huang Jing 2010)

====4.1 Formal System====

The formal system of poetry mainly consists of rhyme and form, an audible one and a visual one, both of which are objective and perceptive. The existence of the formal system is the basis for poetry, that is, the reason why poetry is poetry rather than any other literary genre is that it has its own unique formal system. Therefore, both the 2 translators Yang Xianyi（Xin Hongjuan 2012,3） and Xu Yuanchong translate poetry by poetry in order to represent the beauty of the poetic form. Below, the author will appreciate the two English versions by Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong from the two aspects of rhyme and form.(Sun Banggen 2007）

The formal system of poetry mainly consists of rhyme and form, an audible one and a visual one, both of which are objective and perceptive. The existence of the formal system is the basis for poetry, that is, the reason why poetry is poetry rather than any other literary genre is that it has its own unique formal system. Therefore, the 2 translators，Yang Xianyi（Xin Hongjuan 2012,3） and Xu Yuanchong, translate poetry by poetry in order to represent the beauty of the poetic form. Below, the author will appreciate the two English versions by Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong from the two aspects of rhyme and form.(Sun Banggen 2007）--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 11:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=====4.1.1 Beauty of Rhyme=====
Zhu Guangqian thinks that "poetry is a pure literary form with melody". In literary works, especially in poetry, sound is the most basic unit of delivering aesthetic value. Although the translator cannot find the phonetic rules corresponding to Chinese poetry in English language, he can reproduce the "phonetic beauty" of the original poem by using English language rules. The beauty of rhyme in poetry mainly includes the beauty of rhythm and rhyme. First of all, in terms of rhythm, the original poem basically conforms to the basic meter of rhythmic poetry. In Yang Xianyi's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 1), the rhythm of the poem is roughly as follows: (Zhu Guangqian 1998)

/--/--/-/-/（11） /--/--/--/-（11）

-/-//--/-/（10） -/-/--/-//-（11）

In dealing with each line, translator basically take the trochaic form. Although its antithesis is not neat but it is easy to read, largely represents the musical aesthetic feeling of the original poetry. Besides, the trochaic rhythm can give readers a kind of feeling that firstly there is a sound, and then fell silent, which is in accordance with the tranquil atmosphere in Niao Ming Jian. The rhythm of Xu Yuanchong's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 2) is roughly as follows:

In dealing with each line, translator basically take the trochaic form. Although its antithesis is not neat but it is easy to read, largely represents the musical aesthetic feeling of the original poetry. Besides, the trochaic rhythm can give readers a kind of feeling that firstly there is a sound, and then fell silent, which is in accordance with the tranquil atmosphere in Niao Ming Jian. The rhythm of Xu Yuanchong's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 2) is roughly as follows:--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 11:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

-/-/-/-/-/（10） -/-/-/-/-/（10）

-/-/-/-/-（9） -/-/-/-/-/（10）

The translator adopts iambic pentameter to translate the poem, which has a strong sense of rhythm and can be called as a standard English metrical poem. In terms of the representation of rhythm, both translation 1 and translation 2 are well done, while the rhythm of translation 2 is more in line with the characteristics of the original poem, so translation 2 is better.

The rhyme in poetry is an important factor at the level of rhythmic beauty. Rhyme can make the rhythm of a poem produce harmonious auditory aesthetic satisfaction. In terms of rhythm, the original poem strictly adheres to the rhyming rules of Lüshi (poetry). The rhyme at the end of the second and fourth lines is used to create a echoing effect of distant bells in the mountains, making the mountain seem emptier and lonelier.(Yang Yanni 2010,3) In translation 1, the translator uses many assonance in his lines, such as "silent", "night" in the second line; "Fitfully" and "gully" in the fourth line. The translator also used alliteration, such as "idly", "I" in the first line; "moon", "mountain" in the third line. However, translation 1 does not rhyme at the end of the line. It has the advantage of being free from the restrictions of meter and the language is accurate and fluent. But it also has disadvantage that it loses the beauty of rhyme to some extent.(Tao Yingnian 2017)

The rhyme in poetry is an important factor at the level of rhythmic beauty. Rhyme can make the rhythm of a poem produce harmonious auditory aesthetic satisfaction. In terms of rhythm, the original poem strictly adheres to the rhyming rules of “Lü Shi”. The rhyme at the end of the second and fourth lines is used to create an echoing effect of distant bells in the mountains, making the mountain seem emptier and lonelier.(Yang Yanni 2010,3) In translation 1, the translator uses many assonance in his lines, such as "silent", "night" in the second line; "Fitfully" and "gully" in the fourth line. The translator also used alliteration, such as "idly", "I" in the first line; "moon", "mountain" in the third line. However, translation 1 does not rhyme at the end of the line. It has the advantage of being free from the restrictions of meter and the language is accurate and fluent. But it also has disadvantage that it loses the beauty of rhyme to some extent.(Tao Yingnian 2017)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

As for the translation 2, we can find the end rhyme of the translation 2: /d/ in the first and second line; /ing/ in the third and fourth line. And the rhyme scheme of this translation is aabb. This scheme type can convey the rhythmic beauty of Chinese traditional poetry for its end rhyme is complete. In addition, the first two lines of poetry end with a phone /d/, giving us a feeling of an abrupt stop. The last two lines end with/ing/, leaving a sense of melody for the reader, which is in line with the /ong/ rhyme in the original poem. It can be said that in terms of conveying the rhythmic beauty of the original poem, translation 2 not only represents the original poem, but also makes the target text sounds better than the original one. Therefore, compared with translation 2, translation 1 is slightly inferior in representing the rhythmic beauty of original poem.(Huang Jing 2010)

=====4.1.2 Beauty of form=====
Liu Miqing (2005) believes that the beauty of symmetry and antithesis in Chinese classical literature can be called "The elegance of Beauty", which is unique to Chinese.(Liu Miqing 2005) Externally, the four lines of the original poem, with five words in each line, form regular rectangles. From the inside, we can see that the first line and the second line form a parallel structure: “人闲” and “夜静”; “桂花” to “春山”; “落” to “空”. (Tao Yingnian 2017,8) Antithesis constitutes the important factor of the beauty at the level of the form.(Liu Miqing 2005)

The beauty of the translated poem at the level of form is that its words and sentences are in accord with the length and symmetry of the original poem in antithesis and meter.In the translation 1, the number of words in each line is 7, 8, 7,and 7. In translation 2, the number of words in each line is 6, 8, 7 and 8. Both versions conform to the formal characteristics of the poem. From the appearance of the two translations, both of them have achieved the demand to translate poetry by poetry ,representing the formal characteristics of the original poem.

In terms of syllables, the number of syllables in each line of translation 1 is 11, 11, 10 and 11. The number of syllables in each line of translation 2 is 10, 10, 9 and 10. Both of the form of the two translations are in compact structure, thus achieving the representation of beauty of the original poem. In addition, the third and fourth lines of translation 2 adopt parallel structure, which to some extent represents the antithesis beauty of the original poem.(Huang Jing 2010)

====4.2 Non-formal System====
The non-formal system of poetry is mainly embodied in the artistic conception of poetry. Artistic conception is an important category in Chinese poetics. Artistic conception consists of two aspects: meaning and context. Meaning refers to subjective thoughts and feelings, while context refers to objective life and scenery. In artistic works, meaning and context blend together to form artistic conception. The conveying of artistic conception is directly related to the intuitive and sensible overall linguistic image, but the essence of its beauty is not intuitive and sensible. It usually comes from the feeling, ambition, intention of the artist and the overall artistic beauty of the work, which can easily remind us of the so-called "不著一字，尽得风流".（Li Qijiu 2009）

In poetry, the meaning that a poet wants to express is often conveyed through the images in ancient poems, which are either embodied in scenery or embodied in things. Therefore, when translating Chinese ancient poems, finding the right images is the key point to catch the artistic conception of the whole poem. In order to achieve the aesthetic representation of artistic conception in the translated poem, the translator's poetic sentiment, knowledge of literature and language skills are indispensable. Sometimes the inaccurate translation of a word will change the whole artistic conception and cause the translation to deviate from the original text. In the process of translating poetry, the representation of rhyme and form is the basic step, and that of artistic conception is the completion of the task of translating poetry.（Wu Tong 2018,16）

In poetry, the meaning that a poet wants to express is often conveyed through the images in ancient poems, which are either embodied in scenery or embodied in things. Therefore, when translating Chinese ancient poems, finding the right images is the key point to catch the artistic conception of the whole poem. In order to achieve the aesthetic representation of artistic conception in the translated poem, the translator's poetic sentiment, knowledge of literature and language skills are indispensable. Sometimes the inaccurate translation of one word will change the whole artistic conception and cause the translation to deviate from the original text. In the process of translating poetry, the representation of rhyme and form is the basic step, and that of artistic conception is the completion of the task of translating poetry.（Wu Tong 2018,16）--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 11:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=====4.2.1 Beauty of artistic conception=====
Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong, the translators of the two translations selected in this paper, have different views on the transfer of the beauty of artistic conception. When talking about the principle of literary translation, Yang Xianyi points out that the general principle is that the content of the original text should not be increased or decreased. He has emphasized the principle of faithfulness for many times, saying that "the translation must be very faithful to the original one". He doesn't think the translator should explain too much when translating. The translator should try to be faithful to the image of the source text. If there is no equivalent in translation, some of the meaning of the original must be sacrificed. Xu Yuanchong, on the other hand, believed that among the beauty of sound, form and meaning, meaning was the most important, followed by sound and form.(Xu Yuanchong 2006)

Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong, the translators of the two translations selected in this paper, have different views on the transfer of the beauty of artistic conception. When talking about the principle of literary translation, Yang Xianyi points out that the general principle is that the content of the original text should not be increased or decreased. He has emphasized the principle of faithfulness for many times and he doesn't think the translator should explain too much when translating. The translator should try to be faithful to the image of the source text. If there is no equivalent in translation, some of the meaning of the original must be sacrificed. Xu Yuanchong, on the other hand, believed that among the beauty of sound, form and meaning, meaning was the most important, followed by sound and form.(Xu Yuanchong 2006)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Translators play two roles in the process of translation: text reader and text producer. Translators must give full play to their subjectivity on the basis of a deep understanding of the content and aesthetic value of the original text, and creatively reproduce the verve and artistic conception of the original text, so that the readers of the translated text can truly experience the beauty in reading. In the following, the author will start from the title and analyze the two translators' representation of the artistic conception of the original poem.

Translators play two roles in the process of translation: text reader and text producer. Translators must give full play to their subjectivity on the basis of a deep understanding of the content and aesthetic value of the original text, and creatively reproduce the verve and artistic conception of the original text, so that the readers of the translated text can truly experience the beauty in reading. In the following, the author will start from the title and analyze the two translators' representation of the artistic conception of the original poem.(Quotation missing)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The title of the original poem is "鸟鸣涧", which is a modifier-head structure. In this structure, "鸟鸣" modifies "涧". This structure emphasizes the static state of the noun "涧". Translation 1 and 2 respectively translate the title as two noun phrases "The Gully of Twittering Birds" and "The Dale of Singing Birds" , which are similar to the modifier-head structure of the original poem. The head nouns "The Gully" and "The Dale" are modified by "of Twittering Birds" and "of Singing Birds", highlighting the quiet state of the mountain, which conforms to the artistic conception of the original poem. Two title is identical structurally, but differ in the words used.(Tao Yingnian 2017)

The translation 1 translates "涧" as "gully", which the Oxford Advanced Learner's English-Chinese Dictionary (hereinafter referred to as "the dictionary") interprets as: "a small, narrow channel, usually formed by a stream or by a rain". "涧" in the Xinhua Dictionary is defines as a gutterway in the mountain, so the translation 1 corresponds to the original poem; Translation 2 translates "涧" into "dale", which is defined as "Valley, ESP, in Nortern England" in the dictionary. But "涧" in original poem just refers to an ordinary mountain stream, which is still far from a dale. Then is the translation of "鸟鸣", defined in the dictionary as "when birds twitter, they make a series of short high sounds"; Translation 2 translates "鸟鸣" as "singing". Translation 1 uses onomatopoeia to translate it, which is more vivid in sensory image; While translation 2 uses personification to highlight the melody of bird songs, which brings people a more graceful feeling and a more harmonious artistic conception.

The translation 1 translates "涧" as "gully", which the Oxford Advanced Learner's English-Chinese Dictionary (hereinafter referred to as "the dictionary") interprets as: "a small, narrow channel, usually formed by a stream or by a rain". "涧" in the Xinhua Dictionary is defines as a gutterway in the mountain, so the translation 1 corresponds to the original poem; Translation 2 translates "涧" into "dale", which is defined as "Valley, ESP, in Northern England" in the dictionary. But "涧" in original poem just refers to an ordinary mountain stream, which is still far from a dale. Then is the translation of "鸟鸣", defined in the dictionary as "when birds twitter, they make a series of short high sounds"; Translation 2 translates "鸟鸣" as "singing". Translation 1 uses onomatopoeia to translate it, which is more vivid in sensory image; While translation 2 uses personification to highlight the melody of bird songs, which brings people a more graceful feeling and a more harmonious artistic conception.--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

It can be said that translation 1 adopts literal translation while translation 2 adopts free translation. Although both of them can reflect the activity of bird, translation 2 compares it to singing, on the basis of being faithful to the original text, adds a more poetic aesthetic feeling from the aesthetic point of view, and the images described are more easily accepted by readers.

Next comes the translation of the poem's first line. First of all, in terms of the treatment of "人", both translation 1 and translation 2 add the subject "I" to translate "人" into the poet himself, because Chinese sentences do not necessarily have the subject while English must indicate the subject. Although it is difficult to achieve complete equivalence, it is also a relatively reasonable translation method. On the translation of "闲", translation 1 cut to the chase, using the word "idly" indicates that the state of the viewer, it is in line with the original text in the idle state of mind; Translation 2, which puts "unenjoyed" at the end of the line, meets the need of rhyme but adds translator's creative content. But there is not unenjoyed feeling in the original poem, so translation 1 is better here. Next, on the translation of "桂花", two translation appear difference. In translation 1, "桂花" is translated into "cassia petals". The author looked it up in the dictionary and discovered that its meaning is the petal of cinnamon tree; in translation 2 it is translated into "osmanthus blooms" , which is almost synonymous to the translation 1. Both translation 1 and translation 2 take the same way to translate it, that is, using the proper noun.

As for the "桂花" in this poem, scholars have different explanations. One explanation is that there are different kinds of "桂花", such as spring flowers, autumn flowers and perpetual flowers. What is written here is a kind of spring flowers. Another view is that literary and artistic creation does not necessarily follow life. It is said that the painting by Wang Wei called Yuan An Lying in the Snow has green plantains in the snow. Things that cannot appear together in real life are allowed in literary and artistic creation. However, this poem is one of five poems that written for his friend's house. Each of these five poems is written in a realistic way, which is similar to the landscape painting. Therefore, it is reasonable to translate "桂花" to the osmanthus that blossoms in spring. However, in English, there is not so fine classification of osmanthus, so it is difficult to find a counterpart. The two translators have tried their best to translate it, and their translations of "桂花" are understandable. In addition, it should be noted that the way the two translators deal with the connection between the viewer and osmanthus. Translation 1 uses "watch" to see the flowers falling down, while in translation 2, the word "hear" is used, which is different from the usual setting of appreciating flowers and is the result of the translator's thoughtful and creative translation. Hearing the sound of falling petals can better reflect the empty of the poet's heart than seeing, thus better representing the tranquility of the mountain stream.（Yan Guoying 2010）

As for the "桂花" in this poem, scholars have different explanations. One explanation is that there are different kinds of "桂花", such as spring flowers, autumn flowers and perpetual flowers. What is written here is a kind of spring flowers. Another view is that literary and artistic creation does not necessarily follow life. It is said that the painting by Wang Wei called Yuan ''An Lying in the Snow'' has green plantains in the snow. Things that cannot appear together in real life are allowed in literary and artistic creation. However, this poem is one of five poems that written for his friend's house. Each of these five poems is written in a realistic way, which is similar to the landscape painting. Therefore, it is reasonable to translate "桂花" to the osmanthus that blossoms in spring. However, in English, there is not so fine classification of osmanthus, so it is difficult to find a counterpart. The two translators have tried their best to translate it, and their translations of "桂花" are understandable. In addition, it should be noted that the way the two translators deal with the connection between the viewer and osmanthus. Translation 1 uses "watch" to see the flowers falling down, while in translation 2, the word "hear" is used, which is different from the usual setting of appreciating flowers and is the result of the translator's thoughtful and creative translation. Hearing the sound of falling petals can better reflect the empty of the poet's heart than seeing, thus better representing the tranquility of the mountain stream.（Yan Guoying 2010）--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 11:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Translation 1 Adopts the parallel structure when translating the second line, using the literal translation method to combine the silent night with the empty mountain stream. It is a static description without the description of the sequence of the events, reproducing a kind of vague beauty; in translation 2, "夜静" and "山空" are in time sequence, belongs to the dynamic description, showing the night's coming and the mountain becomes silent. The stationary state in the original poem becomes a process from a dynamic situation station to static one, successfully represent the hidden grammatical relations in the original poem. Therefore, for the transltion of the second line, both the two translators have strong point.

Translation 1 Adopts the parallel structure when translating the second line, using the literal translation method to combine the silent night with the empty mountain stream. It is a static description without the description of the sequence of the events, reproducing a kind of vague beauty; in translation 2, "夜静" and "山空" are in time sequence, belongs to the dynamic description, showing the night's coming and the mountain becomes silent. The stationary state in the original poem becomes a process from a dynamic situation station to static one, successfully represent the hidden grammatical relations in the original poem. Therefore, for the translation of the second line, both the two translators have strong point.--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In the translation of the third line, the translation of "惊" is of great importance for it serves as a key to show the skills of polishing words of Wang Wei. In translation 1, it is literally translated into "startles", which means"cause a person or animal to feel sudden shock or alarm" in the dictionary. But are birds really startled? According to the appreciation of the original poem in the last chapter, the birds are not startled but only disturbed by the moonrise. "Startles" here is somewhat abrupt and the beauty of the original poem is not respresented, so it is not an appropriate translation; Xu Yuanchong translates it into "arouses", which is defined as "evoke or awaken a feeling, emotion, or response”in the dictionary. Compared to the translation 1, translation 2 is not only more natural but also gives the reader a sense of harmony between human and nature.(Yang Yanni 2010)

In the translation of the third line, the translation of "惊" is of great importance for it serves as a key to show the skills of polishing words of Wang Wei. In translation 1, it is literally translated into "startles", which means"cause a person or animal to feel sudden shock or alarm" in the dictionary. But are birds really startled? According to the appreciation of the original poem in the last chapter, the birds are not startled but only disturbed by the moonrise. "Startles" here is somewhat abrupt and the beauty of the original poem is not represented, so it is not an appropriate translation; Xu Yuanchong translates it into "arouses", which is defined as "evoke or awaken a feeling, emotion, or response”in the dictionary. Compared to the translation 1, translation 2 is not only more natural but also gives the reader a sense of harmony between human and nature.(Yang Yanni 2010)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The last is the translation of the fourth line. The two translations are basically the same in terms of words and translation methods, except the difference in sentence pattern. The translation 1 uses a non-restrictive attributive clause to combine the third line and the fourth line together, which means that the translator deal with the "月出" and "鸟鸣" as two simultaneous events, that is to say, there is no sequence between the moonrise and bird's singing, which is inconsistent with the original poem. The translation 2 deals these two lines with two sentences, perfectly embodying the relationship between the rise of the moon and the song of birds, which fits well with Wang Wei's state of "painting in poetry".(Zhao Dongli 2009)

===5. Conclusion===
By analyzing the two translations above, the author finds that in poetry translation Yang Xianyi attaches importance to form and Xu Yuanchong to meaning. Yang Xianyi prefers literal translation while Xu Yuanchong prefers free translation. In terms of formal system translation, Yang Xianyi's grasp of the beauty of rhyme is a little bit inferior to that of Xu Yuanchong, but in terms of the grasp of antithesis in poetry, both translators have demonstrated exquisite translation skills, each with its own advantages. Therefore, it can be seen that the mastery of source language and target language is very important in translation. In terms of the translation of non-formal systems, namely artistic conception, both translators represent the image beauty of the original poem to a large extent, but Xu Yuanchong's translation is better because Yang Xianyi uses more literal translation, which is slightly rigid. Xu's translation is more cohesive and readable, giving people a dynamic and harmonious aesthetic feeling.

Although there are differences between Chinese and Western cultures, a good translation can still represent the appearance, scenery and feelings of the original poem. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the combination of literal translation and free translation is necessary in order to realize the aesthetic representation of poetry in translation. In terms of translation, both formal system and non-formal system should be taken into account to represent the beauty of poetry in sound, form and meaning. This also gives the corresponding aesthetic requirements for the translator, the translator must constantly improve their language skills and appreciation ability, in order to achieve continuous breakthroughs in aesthetic representation.（Wang Jie 2009,4）

===References===
*Chen Jie. 陈洁. (2015). 王维山水诗的意境美. [The Beauty of Wang Wei's Landscape Poetry]. ''宁波教育学院学报''[Journal of Ningbo Institute of Education] 52-54.

*Fang Mengzhi. 方梦之. (2004). ''译学词典''. [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 296.

*Huang Jing, Li Shijun. 黄婧，李仕俊. (2010). 从翻译美学角度对比《鸟鸣涧》四种译文. [Comparison of Four Translations of "Niao Ming Jian" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. ''外语'' [Foreign Language] 130.

*Lao Qinyao, Luo Zhenting. 劳琴姚，罗正婷. (2017). 翻译美学视角下审美效果的再现——以《醉翁亭记》两译本为例. [ Aesthetic Representation of Two English Versions of "Zui Wen Ting Ji" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics] ''安徽文学'' [Anhui Literature] 49-51.

*Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (2005). ''翻译美学导论''. [An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation].

*Tao Yingnian. 陶迎年. (2017). 从音、形、意三美对比《鸟鸣涧》五种英译本.[Comparison of Five English Translations of “Niao Ming Jian” from Beauty in Sense, Sound and Style]. ''语言应用研究'' [Language Application Research] 143-145.

*Wang Li. 王力. (2000). ''诗词格律''. [The Rhythm of Poetry]. 北京：中华书局[Beijing: Zhonghua Press] 133.

*Wu Tong, Li Shuhua. 吴桐，李淑华. (2018). 从翻译美学角度看中国古诗翻译. [Study of the Translation of Ancient Chinese Poems from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. ''海外英语'' [Overseas English] 151.

*Wang Jie. 王洁. (2020). 杨宪益文学翻译思想探析.[The Study of Yang Xianyi's Thought on Literary Translation]. ''西安文理学院学报'' [Journal of Xi'an College of Literature and Science] 111.

*Xie Wenli. 谢文利. (1989). ''诗歌美学''. [Aesthetics of Poetry]. 北京: 中国青年出版社[Beijing: China Youth Press].

*Yu Shucheng. 余恕诚. (1983).''唐诗鉴赏辞典''. [A dictionary for Appreciating Tang Poetry]. 上海辞书出版社[Shanghai Lexicographical Publishing House] 183-185.

*Zhu Guangqian. 朱光潜. (1998).''诗论''. [Poetry Theory].北京：生活读书新知三联书店[Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company].

==An Chinese Aesthetic Study on Ezra Pound's Four Poems of Departure in ''Cathay'' - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" 石迪文 Shi Diwen==

===Abstract===

At the dawn of the 21st century, Ezra Pound, intrigued by Chinese classical poetry, gave fresh impetus to the American New Poetry Movement. One of his works in this period, ''Cathay'', involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn P eriod (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reached its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. The study is focused on its four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai (李白), including "Separation on the River Kiang", "Taking Leave of a Friend", "Leave-taking near Shoku" and "The City of Choan". Its main contents involve interpretation and further exploration of the Chinese classic aesthetic values in Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" principle, by which it will prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses some Chinese classical aesthetic concepts.

===Key Words===

Ezra Pound, ''Cathay'', Chinese classical aestheticism, Beauty in Sense Principle

===题目===

从许渊冲意美原则来看庞德《华夏集》中离别诗四首的中国美学研究

===摘要===

二十一世纪初，伊兹拉·庞德所领导的新诗运动从中国古典诗歌中寻找推动力，他在此期间所创译的《华夏集》从费诺罗萨笔记中选取了19首中国古典诗，横跨历史千年，从孔子编纂《诗经》的春秋时期(公元前770-公元前476年)到李白诗歌十二首的盛世唐朝(618年-907年)，这段时期中国古典诗达到艺术巅峰, 孔子所提出的诗歌美学观念成为古代诗歌理念主流之一，与道家美学双河并流。本篇论文将聚焦于四首诗人挑选成章的离别诗，均来自李白诗歌，分别是《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》、《送友人》、《送友人入蜀》以及《登金陵凤凰台》。论文主要内容是从许渊冲的意美原则阐释和进一步发现庞德译作中保留的中国古典美学价值。通过这种方式，本文试图证明庞德对中国古诗的创造性翻译中仍具有中国古典美学观念。

二十一世纪初，伊兹拉·庞德所领导的新诗运动从中国古典诗歌中寻找推动力，他在此期间所创译的《华夏集》从费诺罗萨笔记中选取了19首中国古典诗。这19首中国古典诗横跨历史千年，从孔子编纂《诗经》的春秋时期(公元前770-公元前476年)跨越到了李白创作诗歌十二首的盛世唐朝(618年-907年)，在这一段历史时期，中国古典诗达到艺术巅峰。孔子所提出的诗歌美学观念成为古代诗歌理念主流之一，与道家美学双河并流。本篇论文将聚焦于李白的四首离别诗，分别是《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》、《送友人》、《送友人入蜀》以及《登金陵凤凰台》，从许渊冲的意美原则阐释和探索庞德译作中保留的中国古典美学价值，基于这一研究，本文试图证明庞德对中国古诗的创造性翻译中具有的中国古典美学观念。--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 12:22, 18 December 2020 (UTC)
===关键词===

伊兹拉 · 庞德，《华夏集》，中国古典美学，意美原则

===Introduction===

Ezra Pound (1885-1972), one of the most influential and controversial figures in American literature, has received floods of praises and condemnation about his Cathay, a creative translation of nineteen Chinese poems, which introduces Confucian principles of poetry to American Imagist Movement. It not only rose against the exaggerative and mannered expression of Victorian style to boost the development of Western poetry but also set one of the important achievements in the history of Sino-Western cultural exchanges. The work involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with its contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn period (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reaches its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated.

The study concentrates on Four Poems of Departure in Cathay, including "Separation on the River Kiang" (《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》), "Taking Leave of a Friend" (《送友人》), "Leave-taking near Shoku" (《送友人入蜀》) and "The City of Choan" (《登金陵凤凰台》), all of them originally written by the poet Li Bai, who was born in the most glorious age of Tang Dynasty. Its main content involves the reinterpretation of Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" Principle, by which to prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses Chinese classical aesthetic concepts. Besides, the article will testify the reasonability of the application of the principle to the appreciation of Pound’s translation, and deepen the learning of Chinese classical aesthetics.

(格式调整段首应顶格)Ezra Pound (1885-1972), one of the most influential and controversial figures in American literature, has received floods of praises and condemnation since the first appearance of his ''Cathay''（书名格式更改）, a collection of nineteen poems, which introduces Confucian principles of poetry to American Imagist Movement. ''Cathay'' （书名格式更改）was published in 1915 when the Western countries suffered an alarming death toll in the First World War. During that time, litterateurs were so drown in the darkness of terror and suspicion that they felt lost and trapped in despair.（这一句拆分为两句是否更好） While in this period Pound found his Muse in Chinese classic poetry. It not only rose against the exaggerative and mannered expression of Victorian style to boost the development of Western poetry but also set one of the important achievements in the history of Sino-Western cultural exchanges. The work involves nineteen Chinese poems selected(定语前置) and （be动词丢失）translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with its contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn period (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reaches its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated.（最后一句太长，建议拆分为两句）--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 12:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 01:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

(格式调整段首应顶格)The study concentrates on Four Poems of Departure in Cathay, including "Separation on the River Kiang" (《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》), "Taking Leave of a Friend" (《送友人》), "Leave-taking near Shoku" (《送友人入蜀》) and "The City of Choan" (《登金陵凤凰台》), all of them originally written by the poet Li Bai, who was born in the most glorious age of Tang Dynasty. Its （Its指代不明，是指该篇论文吗）main content involves the reinterpretation of Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" Principle, by which to prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses Chinese classical aesthetic concepts. Besides, the article will testify the reasonability of the application of the principle to the appreciation of Pound’s translation, and deepen the learning of Chinese classical aesthetics.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:05, 14 December 2020 (UTC)
--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 01:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)
===The Introduction of Xu Yuanchong’s “Beauty in Sense” Principle===

Beauty in sense in the translation of classical poetry comes first in the Xu Yuanchong’ Three Beauties. Generally speaking, Beauty in sense originates from the similarity in sense when doing the translation work; however, similarity in sense is just the superficial structure and beauty in sense belongs the deep one. (Xu Yuanchong, 1984: 64) Firstly, it puts forward Confucian aesthetic thoughts and Taoist aesthetics: one stresses the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” (温柔敦厚); the other concerns about the imagery beauty of Chinese classical images and its artistic conception. More precisely, Confucius advocates that the personal emotions expressed in poems should not be observed directly or thoroughly but be clouded, or to say, recorded emotional experiences of the real or imagined world should be presented in a roundabout and implicit way and brim with a beauty of moderation in content, i.e. “joyous but not indecent, mournful but not distressing, without resentment and slander ("乐而不淫, 哀而不伤, 怨而不谤"-《论语·八佾》).”
In Taoist thoughts, the Way (“道”) originates from the Nature and the Nature breeds a ultimate beauty as Chuang Tzu said, “Heaven and earth have their great beauties but do not speak of them; the four seasons have their clear-marked regularity but do not discuss it; the ten thousand things have their principles of growth but do not expound them ("天地有大美而不言，四时有明法而不议，万物有成理而不说。圣人者，原天地之美而达万物之理"-《庄子·外篇·知北游》).” Taoism attached importance to the employment of natural images that not only echoes the neutralization beauty in poetic content but also creates an aura of a certain artistic conception(意境), concerned with the Taoist doctrines “object observed by object (以物观物)” , “both subject and object dissolve (物我两忘)” and “Heaven and earth were born at the same time I was, and the ten thousand things are one with me("天地与我并生，而万物与我为一"-《庄子.齐物论》),” as Wai-lim Yip says, “Taoist aestheticism is inspired by the unique technique of expression of observation and experience in Lao Tse (《老子》) and Chuang Tzu (《庄子》)”. (叶维廉，2004: 1) Taoism puts forward that simplicity and plainness come to revive when the subject in poetry actively retreats from the governing place to leave more space for object and in return all objectives create a harmony with the subjective feelings. Thus, the reproduction of images is critically fundamental in the translation of Chinese classical poems and the love for images even contributes to a series of juxtaposition of imagery.

(格式调整段首应顶格)Beauty in sense in the translation of classical poetry comes first in the Xu Yuanchong’ Three Beauties. Generally speaking, Beauty in sense originates from the similarity in sense when doing the translation work; however, similarity in sense is just the superficial structure and beauty in sense belongs the deep one. (Xu Yuanchong, 1984: 64) Firstly, it puts forward Confucian aesthetic thoughts and Taoist aesthetics: one stresses the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” (温柔敦厚); the other concerns about the imagery beauty of Chinese classical images and its artistic conception. More precisely, Confucius advocates that the personal emotions expressed in poems should not be observed directly or thoroughly but be clouded, or to say, recorded emotional experiences of the real or imagined world should be presented in a roundabout and implicit way and brim with a beauty of moderation in content, i.e. “joyous but not indecent, mournful but not distressing, without resentment and slander ("乐而不淫, 哀而不伤, 怨而不谤"-《论语·八佾》).”--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:17, 14 December 2020 (UTC)

(格式调整段首应顶格)In Taoist thoughts, the Way (“道”) originates from the Nature and the Nature breeds a ultimate beauty as Chuang Tzu said, “Heaven and earth have their great beauties but do not speak of them; the four seasons have their clear-marked regularity but do not discuss it; the ten thousand things have their principles of growth but do not expound them ("天地有大美而不言，四时有明法而不议，万物有成理而不说。圣人者，原天地之美而达万物之理"-《庄子·外篇·知北游》).” Taoism attached importance to the employment of natural images that not only echoes the neutralization beauty in poetic content but also creates an aura of a certain artistic conception(意境), concerned with the Taoist doctrines “observing things from every aspects (以物观物)” , “both subject and object dissolve (物我两忘)” and “Heaven and earth were born at the same time I was, and the ten thousand things are one with me("天地与我并生，而万物与我为一"-《庄子.齐物论》)” as Wai-lim Yip says, “Taoist aestheticism is inspired by the unique technique of expression of observation and experience in Lao Tse (《老子》) and Chuang Tzu (《庄子》)”. (叶维廉2004: 1) Taoism puts forward that simplicity and plainness come to revive when the subject in poetry actively retreats from the governing place to leave more space for object and in return all objectives create a harmony with the subjective feelings. Thus, the reproduction of images is critically fundamental in the translation of Chinese classical poems and the love for images even contributes to a series of juxtaposition of imagery.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:17, 14 December 2020 (UTC)

===The Sense Beauty in Four Poems of Departure===

Four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai and concerned with the theme of parting from Pound’s views of point, are " Separation on the River Kiang "(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) , " Taking Leave of a Friend " (《送友人》), " Leave-taking near Shoku " (《送友人入蜀》) and " The City of Choan " (《登金陵凤凰台》) respectively. Li Bai, a famous poet in the Tang Dynasty at its most prosperous time, always had the ambition for political achievement under the influence of Confucianism but with most of his talent in poetry he failed and exiled to the south-west. In his life, he never settled down, and the restless energy of his life found its counterpart both in the speed with which he set down his compositions and in their propulsive sweep while the vigour and flamboyance of much of Li Bai’s poetry hides a deep core of loneliness. (Vikram Seth, 1992: 19) Impacted by Taoism, His emotion always seems to be related with the Nature and even the speaker in poem seemingly becomes superseded by the natural things while the emotion exists, flowing in a harmonious natural space of poetry. What’s more, the four poems following the tradition of Confucian philosophy in poetry turn an emotional surge into trickles of feelings.

====The Sense Beauty in "Separation on the River Kiang"====

"Separation on the River Kiang"(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) is the first poem in Four poems of Departure, telling a story of parting with an intimate friend along the River Kiang. The original poem and Pound’s version are:

黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵
（唐）李白
故人西辞黄鹤楼，烟花三月下扬州。
孤帆远影碧空尽，唯见长江天际流。

Separation on the River Kiang
By Ezra Pound
KO-JIN goes west from Ko-kaku-ro,
The smoke-flowers are blurred over the river.
His lone sail blots the far sky.
And now I see only the river,
The long Kiang, reaching heaven.

In the content of the first two lines, the translator mistranslates “故人”, “黄鹤楼” and to be more exactly he simply transliterates the Japanese version ("こじん" and “こうかくろう”) of the two nouns into their English version（KO-JIN and Ko-kaku-ro). The three words KO-JIN, Ko-kaku-ro, Kiang transliterate the related Japanese Kanji(日语汉字), whose accents originate from ancient Chinese pronouncation. Although the imitation is against its original meaning, it adds a hint of exoticism to the translation. However, Pound maybe not a good Japanese learner because "こじん"(KO-JIN) refers to a dead person but not "故人" (an old friend). Furthermore, “烟花” means fireworks while Pound splits the word into “烟” (smoke) and “花” (flower) and invents a new compound word “smoke-flowers”. As for the last lines, he adopted a strategy of creative translation rather than word-for-word translation.
From the view of Xu’s Beauty in sense, Pound, though careless about the counterparts of culture-loaded words, successively transfers the sense beauty to his readers. Firstly, the translation follows the tradition of the original’s style for there is no intention of directly telling others the unwillingness of departure but the word “lone” betrays all sentiments, not only the solitude of the friend but also that of the poet himself. Besides, the version echoes the Taoist philosophy “object observed by object ” , “both subject and object dissolve ”. The verse like an ink wash painting in which the white river-mist (“smoke-flowers”) unified with sky and river turns into being a Chinese art paper with the lone sail “blotting” while even though the sight of boat is blurred, the poet stands still and gazes at his friend’s receding figure, disappearing into nothing. At this time, all feelings are silent in the rimless mist only with a word “lone” left behind to be pondered on, rising up to a state of relieve and broad mind. In the last two lines, all things except the river vanish from the sight, leaving the world to the speaker and his gentle melancholy. Thus, Pound represented the “gentleness” and “sincerity” in emotional expressions. Moreover, he preserved the imagery beauty of “lone sail”(孤帆) and “far sky”(碧空). A lone sail sets for someplace under the far sky, which seems a metaphor that compares the friend with the boat and the uncertainties with the sky. That shows the speaker is afraid of what the future will be with his friend. From the pespective of spatial structure, the “sail” as a point, the “river” as a line, the “sky” as a plane, all of these get combined and condensed into one sentence, easily transporting readers to the poetic space. While the infinite extension of “river” in the last sentence strengthen the comparison between the vastness of space and the tininess of human, reproducing the Taoist idea in the original that Man is an internal part of the Nature.

Furthermore, it is worthwhile noting that the word “reaching” in the last line to some degree depicts the river flow for the inflectional morpheme “-ing” imitates the movement, unfolding the picture in which river melt into the sky in the mind. All in all, the poem is spiritual alike with the original not only in the style of emotional expression but also in the imagery beauty, both of which are underpinned by the deep understanding of Confucian and Taoist aesthetics in the original.

(格式调整段首应顶格)"Separation on the River Kiang"(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) is the first poem in Four poems of Departure, telling a story of parting with an intimate friend along the River Kiang. The original poem and Pound’s version are:（格式调整，段落之间空格）

黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵

（唐）李白

故人西辞黄鹤楼，烟花三月下扬州。

孤帆远影碧空尽，唯见长江天际流。

Separation on the River Kiang

By Ezra Pound

KO-JIN goes west from Ko-kaku-ro,

The smoke-flowers are blurred over the river.

His lone sail blots the far sky.

And now I see only the river,

The long Kiang, reaching heaven.
--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:22, 14 December 2020 (UTC)

(格式调整段首应顶格)In the content of the first two lines, the translator mistranslates “故人”, “黄鹤楼” and to be more exactly he simply transliterates the Japanese version ("こじん" and “こうかくろう”) of the two nouns into their English version（KO-JIN and Ko-kaku-ro). The three words KO-JIN, Ko-kaku-ro, Kiang transliterate the related Japanese Kanji(日语汉字), whose accents originate from ancient Chinese pronouncation. Although the imitation is against its original meaning, it adds a hint of exoticism to the translation. However, Pound maybe not a good Japanese learner because "こじん"(KO-JIN) refers to a dead person but not "故人" (an old friend). Furthermore, “烟花” means fireworks while Pound splits the word into “烟” (smoke) and “花” (flower) and invents a new compound word “smoke-flowers”. As for the last lines, he adopted a strategy of creative translation rather than word-for-word translation.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:20, 14 December 2020 (UTC)

(格式调整段首应顶格)From the view of Xu’s Beauty in sense, Pound, though careless about the counterparts of culture-loaded words, successively transfers the sense beauty to his readers. Firstly, the translation follows the tradition of the original’s style for there is no intention of directly telling others the unwillingness of departure but the word “lone” betrays all sentiments, not only the solitude of the friend but also that of the poet himself. Besides, the version echoes the Taoist philosophy “object observed by object ” , “both subject and object dissolve ”. The verse like an ink wash painting in which the white river-mist (“smoke-flowers”) unified with sky and river turns into being a Chinese art paper with the lone sail “blotting” while even though the sight of boat is blurred, the poet stands still and gazes at his friend’s receding figure, disappearing into nothing. At this time, all feelings are silent in the rimless mist only with a word “lone” left behind to be pondered on, rising up to a state of relieve and broad mind. In the last two lines, all things except the river vanish from the sight, leaving the world to the speaker and his gentle melancholy. Thus, Pound represented the “gentleness” and “sincerity” in emotional expressions. Moreover, he preserved the imagery beauty of “lone sail”(孤帆) and “far sky”(碧空). A lone sail sets for someplace under the far sky, which seems a metaphor that compares the friend with the boat and the uncertainties with the sky. That shows the speaker is afraid of what the future will be with his friend. From the pespective of spatial structure, the “sail” as a point, the “river” as a line, the “sky” as a plane, all of these get combined and condensed into one sentence, easily transporting readers to the poetic space. While the infinite extension of “river” in the last sentence strengthen the comparison between the vastness of space and the tininess of human, reproducing the Taoist idea in the original that Man is an internal part of the Nature. --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:20, 14 December 2020 (UTC)

(格式调整首段应顶格)Furthermore, it is worthwhile noting that the word “reaching” in the last line to some degree depicts the river flow for the inflectional morpheme “-ing” imitates the movement, unfolding the picture in which river melt into the sky in the mind. All in all, the poem is spiritual alike with the original not only in the style of emotional expression but also in the imagery beauty, both of which are underpinned by the deep understanding of Confucian and Taoist aesthetics in the original.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:20, 14 December 2020 (UTC)

====The Sense Beauty in “Taking Leave of a Friend”====

"Taking Leave of a Friend"(《送友人》) is the most sentimental in the four poems. The original poem and Pound’s version are:

送友人
（唐）李白
青山横北郭，白水绕东城。
此地一为别，孤蓬万里征。
浮云游子意，落日故人情。
挥手自兹去，萧萧班马鸣。

Taking Leave of a Friend
By Ezra Pound
Blue mountains to the north of the walls,
White river winding about them;
Here we must make separation
And go out through a thousand miles of dead grass.
Mind like a floating wide cloud.
Sunset like the parting of old acquaintances
Who bow over their clasped hands at a distance.
Our horses neigh to each other
as we are departing.

The first word “blue” is fabulous for its pun on the sad tone of the whole poem. Likewise, “a thousand miles of dead grass” in the fourth line also reflects the speaker’s mind state by keeping the original exaggeration. However, the translation of “孤蓬” into “dead grass” should be more elaborated for “蓬” is a typical drifting plant, called fleabane. Thus, the original describes it “孤”(lonely) while “dead” in Pound’s version goes too far, though it echoes the sad parting. Pound does not directly describe the speaker but the object, successfully weakening the expression of strong feelings and allowing readers to take a glance at his sorrow. In the fifth line, the parallel of wandering clouds and the setting sun emerge readers in empathy for the parting to come but the expected high-tide is absent, superseded by a shift of perspective:

Our horses neigh to each other
as we are departing.

The poet and his friend wave hands to each other without any words or close contact and leave. In tranquility, the rising sadness of the former part is blocked out by use of personification, providing the time for regaining elegance when the horses’ neighs as tribute to each other. On the whole, the poem realizes the sense beauty for its control of the speaker’s emotional expression. As for imagery beauty, all the images like mountain, river, cloud are well kept. Besides, “ Mind like a floating wide cloud ” misinterprets the original line “浮云游子意”, which means that young men like clouds never be settled instead of on the way for realizing their aspirations. Furthermore, it is a pity that the translating of the line “挥手自兹去” is omitted because the casual and silent action of waving hands by comparison with their horses’ whicker suggests their relationship as Confucius said “The friendship between gentlemen appears indifferent but is pure like water ("君子之交淡如水"-《庄子·山木》)”. Although there are omissions, the imagery beauty is well-interpreted, especially in the last line. The description of horses’ behavior is so realistic that the poem touching a chord with readers at once prints a lifelike painting on their minds and presents their reluctance to part in a roundabout way.
Moreover, Pound conforms to the concise principle of the original and put a series of prepositions into use such as “to” in “mountains to the north” and “ neigh to each other”, in order to amplify the types of sentences and simplify the expression. To be more precise, a long sentence with verbs obviously contrasts with short sentences, which contributes to the formation of natural musical qualities. For example, the first and second line set a context for the parting with specific words to describe like “blue”, “white” and “winding”. However, detailed writing immediately become replaced by the intermission separating a long sentence into a short one ( “Here we must make separation”) and a long one. The former gives readers a chance to slow down the music rhythm, which can also be considered as a suspension of the high tide. Because the latter, the longest sentence in the poem, with exaggerative words like “thousand” and “dead” crystalizes the strongest emotional expression. Like Chopin’s Etudes, op.10 No.3 (Tristesse), the contrast of low and high notes rises up a kind of musical beauty, unique to English language. What is following is a pair of metaphors, alleviating the tension but the second longest sentence does not leading the poetic music to its second high-tide. All of these turbulent feelings are ended by two separate short lines “Our horses neigh to each other” “as we are departing”, echoing the thirds line “Here we must make separation”. On the whole, Pound’s version creatively endowed the poem with the musical qualities of English language and at the same time the compactness and simplicity of Chinese poetic sentence structure still dominate. Overall, its irregularity corresponds to the ups and down of the speaker’s uneasiness.
Furthermore, he broke out the grammatical rules to compact the diction of images, particularly in the first two lines “Blue mountains to the north of the walls, White river winding about them”, which makes use of preposition to replace the two verbs “横” “绕”. Similarly, in the line “浮云游子意，落日故人情”, Li Bai directly juxtaposes the images “浮云” (wandering clouds) “落日” (the setting sun) and personal emotions “游子意”(wanderer’s feeling) “故人情” (nostalgia for old friends) while Pound employs the preposition “like” to connet the nouns and its figurative meaning. Actually, Pound does not really understand Li Bai’s intention that instead of metaphor he just aims to reach a Taoist balance by a simple juxtaposition of natural images and emotion, leaving more uncertainty for readers to imagine.

"Taking Leave of a Friend"(《送友人》) is the most sentimental in the four poems. The original poem and Pound’s version are:

送友人

（唐）李白

青山横北郭，白水绕东城。（格式调整，段落之间空格） --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 01:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

此地一为别，孤蓬万里征。

浮云游子意，落日故人情。

挥手自兹去，萧萧班马鸣。

Taking Leave of a Friend（格式调整，段落之间空格）

By Ezra Pound

Blue mountains to the north of the walls,

White river winding about them;

Here we must make separation

And go out through a thousand miles of dead grass.

Mind like a floating wide cloud.

Sunset like the parting of old acquaintances

Who bow over their clasped hands at a distance.

Our horses neigh to each other as we are departing.
--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)

The first word “blue” is fabulous for its pun on the sad tone of the whole poem. Likewise, “a thousand miles of dead grass” in the fourth line also reflects the speaker’s mind state by keeping the original exaggeration. However, the translation of “孤蓬” into “dead grass” should be more elaborated for “蓬” is a typical drifting plant, called fleabane. Thus, the original describes it “孤”(lonely) while “dead” in Pound’s version goes too far, though it echoes the sad parting. Pound does not directly describe the speaker but the object, successfully weakening the expression of strong feelings and allowing readers to take a glance at his sorrow. In the fifth line, the parallel of wandering clouds and the setting sun emerge readers in empathy for the parting to come but the expected high-tide is absent, superseded by a shift of perspective:

Our horses neigh to each other as we are departing.

(格式调整段首应顶格)The poet and his friend wave hands to each other without any words or close contact and leave. In tranquility, the rising sadness of the former part is blocked out by use of personification, providing the time for regaining elegance when the horses’ neighs as tribute to each other. On the whole, the poem realizes the sense beauty for its control of the speaker’s emotional expression. As for imagery beauty, all the images like mountain, river, cloud are well kept. Besides, “ Mind like a floating wide cloud ” misinterprets the original line “浮云游子意”, which means that young men like clouds never be settled instead of on the way for realizing their aspirations. Furthermore, it is a pity that the translating of the line “挥手自兹去” is omitted because the casual and silent action of waving hands by comparison with their horses’ whicker suggests their relationship as Confucius said “The friendship between gentlemen appears indifferent but is pure like water ("君子之交淡如水"-《庄子·山木》)”. Although there are omissions, the imagery beauty is well-interpreted, especially in the last line. The description of horses’ behavior is so realistic that the poem touching a chord with readers at once prints a lifelike painting on their minds and presents their reluctance to part in a roundabout way. --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)

(格式调整段首应顶格)Moreover, Pound conforms to the concise principle of the original and put a series of prepositions into use such as “to” in “mountains to the north” and “ neigh to each other”, in order to amplify the types of sentences and simplify the expression. To be more precise, a long sentence with verbs obviously contrasts with short sentences, which contributes to the formation of natural musical qualities. For example, the first and second line set a context for the parting with specific words to describe like “blue”, “white” and “winding”. However, detailed writing immediately become replaced by the intermission separating a long sentence into a short one ( “Here we must make separation”) and a long one. The former gives readers a chance to slow down the music rhythm, which can also be considered as a suspension of the high tide. Because the latter, the longest sentence in the poem, with exaggerative words like “thousand” and “dead” crystalizes the strongest emotional expression. Like Chopin’s Etudes, op.10 No.3 (Tristesse), the contrast of low and high notes rises up a kind of musical beauty, unique to English language. What is following is a pair of metaphors, alleviating the tension but the second longest sentence does not leading the poetic music to its second high-tide. All of these turbulent feelings are ended by two separate short lines “Our horses neigh to each other” “as we are departing”, echoing the thirds line “Here we must make separation”. On the whole, Pound’s version creatively endowed the poem with the musical qualities of English language and at the same time the compactness and simplicity of Chinese poetic sentence structure still dominate. Overall, its irregularity corresponds to the ups and down of the speaker’s uneasiness.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)

(格式调整段首应顶格)Furthermore, he broke out the grammatical rules to compact the diction of images, particularly in the first two lines “Blue mountains to the north of the walls, White river winding about them”, which makes use of preposition to replace the two verbs “横” “绕”. Similarly, in the line “浮云游子意，落日故人情”, Li Bai directly juxtaposes the images “浮云” (wandering clouds) “落日” (the setting sun) and personal emotions “游子意”(wanderer’s feeling) “故人情” (nostalgia for old friends) while Pound employs the preposition “like” to connet the nouns and its figurative meaning. Actually, Pound does not really understand Li Bai’s intention that instead of metaphor he just aims to reach a Taoist balance by a simple juxtaposition of natural images and emotion, leaving more uncertainty for readers to imagine.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)

====The Sense Beauty in “Leave-taking near Shoku”====

"Leave-taking near Shoku"(《送友人入蜀》) is written to a friend who has been relegated to a barren territory, called Shu (蜀) and the parting is near:

送友人入蜀
（唐）李白
见说蚕丛路，崎岖不易行。
山从人面起，云傍马头生。
芳树笼秦栈，春流绕蜀城。
升沉应已定，不必问君平。

Leaving-taking near Shoku
By Ezra Pound
THEY say the roads of Sanso are steep,
Sheer as the mountains.
The walls rise in a man’s face,
Clouds grow out of the hill
at his horse’s bridle.
Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin,
Their trunks burst through the paving,
And freshets are bursting their ice
in the midst of Shoku, a proud city.

Men’s fates are already set,
There is no need of asking diviners.

In the original poem, metaphor and exaggeration are used to describe the hostility of the journey in the first five lines, both of which are well-preserved in the translation. Even though the areas of Shu is mountainous with treacherous roads and thousands miles away from the capital city, the speaker positively find scenery beauty: “芳树” “春流”, translated to“sweet trees” and “freshets” respectively by Pound. It is obvious that “春流” is mistranslated for he wrongly equals it with the image of rising river with ice melting. Actually, Shu (蜀) or to say Sichuan Province, has four seasons warm like spring, thus it is impossible for the scene “freshets are bursting their ice” to happen. Briefly speaking, Pound over-translates the line. By and large, the first stanza fundamentally reproduces both the arduous trip to Shu and its enchanting landscapes.
However in the last part, the friend is afraid of uncertainties in making fortune as well as the dangers in the journey, thus always turning to a fortune-teller for suggestions. The last two lines, or to say, an epigram, “升沉应已定，不必问君平” is paraphrased as “Men’s fates are already set, There is no need of asking diviners” . Although “君平”, a Chinese literary allusion to a physiognomist, is unavoidably omitted, the entire translation resonates Confucius’ words “Junzi keeps his elegance and tranquility in distress but the petty will completely lose the morality of human ("君子固穷, 小人穷斯滥矣"-孔子《论语·卫灵公》)” . In purpose to summon up his friend’s courage to face the challenge instead of being a coward who loses gentleman’s elegance, being threatened by the unknown and begging for unrealistic assistance. In a broad sense, this poem encourages people in troubles to conquer fears with optimism and keep the brave spirit in heart no matter what is confronted with, not only brave to be self-reliant in life but also be self-dependent in spirit. All in all, Pound’s version except for some errors is a perfect match for the original in content: (1) the reproduction of images in English language essentially preserves the imagery beauty; (2) the smart and brief interpretation of the last epigram keeps Chinese philosophical beauty.
By analyzing the entire poem, we can find that sentences with link-verb predicative are comparatively increased like “Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin/Their trunks burst through the paving” and “And freshets are bursting their ice” . By using the be form, the verb “burst” directly presents the dominance of trees’ shadowing the track, spiritually alike to the Chinese verb “笼” while its progressive form becomes more dynamic and vivid, which elaborately conveys the vitality of river, though it deviates from the meaning of “绕” (wind). What’s more, other be forms also can be seen in the last line. When people read it, the speaker’s affirmation can make them convinced of his thought, miraculously retelling Li Bai’s encouragement to his friend.

(格式调整段首应顶格)"Leave-taking near Shoku"(《送友人入蜀》) is written to a friend who has been relegated to a barren territory, called Shu (蜀) and the parting is near:

送友人入蜀

（唐）李白

见说蚕丛路，崎岖不易行。

山从人面起，云傍马头生。

芳树笼秦栈，春流绕蜀城。

升沉应已定，不必问君平。

Leaving-taking near Shoku

By Ezra Pound

THEY say the roads of Sanso are steep,Sheer as the mountains.

The walls rise in a man’s face,Clouds grow out of the hill at his horse’s bridle.

Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin, Their trunks burst through the paving, And freshets are bursting their ice in the midst of Shoku, a proud city.

Men’s fates are already set, There is no need of asking diviners.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:30, 14 December 2020 (UTC)

(格式调整段首应顶格)In the original poem, metaphor and exaggeration are used to describe the hostility of the journey in the first five lines, both of which are well-preserved in the translation. Even though the areas of Shu is mountainous with treacherous roads and thousands miles away from the capital city, the speaker positively find scenery beauty: “芳树” “春流”, translated to“sweet trees” and “freshets” respectively by Pound. It is obvious that “春流” is mistranslated for he wrongly equals it with the image of rising river with ice melting. Actually, Shu (蜀) or to say Sichuan Province, has four seasons warm like spring, thus it is impossible for the scene “freshets are bursting their ice” to happen. Briefly speaking, Pound over-translates the line. By and large, the first stanza fundamentally reproduces both the arduous trip to Shu and its enchanting landscapes.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:30, 14 December 2020 (UTC)

(格式调整段首应顶格)However in the last part, the friend is afraid of uncertainties in making fortune as well as the dangers in the journey, thus always turning to a fortune-teller for suggestions. The last two lines, or to say, an epigram, “升沉应已定，不必问君平” is paraphrased as “Men’s fates are already set, There is no need of asking diviners” . Although “君平”, a Chinese literary allusion to a physiognomist, is unavoidably omitted, the entire translation resonates Confucius’ words “Junzi keeps his elegance and tranquility in distress but the petty will completely lose the morality of human ("君子固穷, 小人穷斯滥矣"-孔子《论语·卫灵公》)” . In purpose to summon up his friend’s courage to face the challenge instead of being a coward who loses gentleman’s elegance, being threatened by the unknown and begging for unrealistic assistance. In a broad sense, this poem encourages people in troubles to conquer fears with optimism and keep the brave spirit in heart no matter what is confronted with, not only brave to be self-reliant in life but also be self-dependent in spirit. All in all, Pound’s version except for some errors is a perfect match for the original in content: (1) the reproduction of images in English language essentially preserves the imagery beauty; (2) the smart and brief interpretation of the last epigram keeps Chinese philosophical beauty.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:30, 14 December 2020 (UTC)

(格式调整段首应顶格)By analyzing the entire poem, we can find that sentences with link-verb predicative are comparatively increased like “Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin/Their trunks burst through the paving” and “And freshets are bursting their ice” . By using the be form, the verb “burst” directly presents the dominance of trees’ shadowing the track, spiritually alike to the Chinese verb “笼” while its progressive form becomes more dynamic and vivid, which elaborately conveys the vitality of river, though it deviates from the meaning of “绕” (wind). What’s more, other be forms also can be seen in the last line. When people read it, the speaker’s affirmation can make them convinced of his thought, miraculously retelling Li Bai’s encouragement to his friend.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:30, 14 December 2020 (UTC)

====The Sense Beauty in “The City of Choan”====

The last poem “The City of Choan”(《登金陵凤凰台》) distinct from the previous three poems of departure seems to be more about a contemplation of history in a historical site (called Phoenix Terrace, 凤凰台) than a parting. The reason for why Pound classifies it into Four poems of Departure may be that parting in a broad sense is a farewell to anything such as the speaker’s leave from Choan, which actually misinterprets the original.

登金陵凤凰台
(唐)李白
凤凰台上凤凰游，凤去台空江自流。
吴宫花草埋幽径，晋代衣冠成古丘。
三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲。
总为浮云能蔽日，长安不见使人愁。

The City of Choan
THE phoenix are at play on their terrace.
The phoenix are gone, the river flows on alone.
Flowers and grass
Cover over the dark path
Where lay the dynastic house of the Go.
The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin
Are now the base of old hills.

The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven,
The isle of White Heron
splits the two streams apart.
Now the high clouds cover the sun
And I can not see Choan afar
And I am sad.

In the first two line of the original, by comparing the prosperity of a dynasty to the phoenix, an auspicious sign in the ancient China, the speaker clarifies the truth that a dynasty no matter how powerful it is will not escape from changes in the passage of time (a parallel to the coming and leaving of phoenix) while nature keeps its law functioning, with all that used to be prosperous now reduced to a wilderness. In Pound’s version, the basic meaning and the main image phoenix are well preserved but there is a call for improvement. Explicitly, the culture-loaded words are literally translated, possibly leading to some misunderstandings. For example, “晋代衣冠”(official uniform in Jin Dynasty) is a metonymy for the ruling class in Jin instead of clothing itself. After pondering on the fall of Jin (“Shin”) and the rise of Wu ( “the Go” ) , the speaker casts his sight on the real scene before him: “三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲”, translated as “The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven/ The isle of White Heron splits the two streams apart”, which completely reproduces the geographic space in the original for the translator by describing the vertical space through the use of the verb phrase “fall through” and the planar space “splits...apart”.
In the last line of the original, the image of sun is employed to symbolize the central power of the country while the “high clouds” (a metaphor for treacherous officials ) obscure it, suggesting that corrupted and crafty officials blind the monarch to justice. Thus, as a loyal subject with integrity, he suffers a false charge and “can not see Choan (长安), a capital city here as a metaphor for the ruler) afar”, which implies that his political fantasy goes down. The depression for the monarch’s ignorance is mixed with his growing feeling of disillusionment.Its translation, on the basis of keeping the metaphor, also represents the the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” for his “I am sad” reproduces the meaning of “愁”. The simplest words are the most touching words. All worries for the country and grudges against the tribulations are condensed into the three words. All in all, the original’s sense beauty
Both metaphor and emotional expression is perfectly reproduced in Pound’s translation.
When reading the poem, people can find that the poem is incredibly full of alliteration and repetition, which seems not to be Pound’s free style. In the first part, repetition of Phoenix appears in the beginning of the first two lines, representing the repetitive sound of “凤 (fèng)”. Besides, in the line “The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin/ Are now the base of old hills”, the repetitions of “bright” and the phone [s] in “cloths”, “caps” and “base”give the version some qualities of classical music, which sound suitable for the historical theme. Overall, the translation divides the original into two stanzas: one concerning the contemplation of historical changes; the other about the view of the historical views (The Phoenix Terrace) before his eye and his deep sorrow for his suffering, which explicitly separate the poem into the past and the present. In the poem, time integrates with space and at the same time nature integrates with the speaker’s aspiration, revealing the contradiction between Confucius’ Rushi (入世) and Taoist Chushu (出世). The former refers to the aspiration “To establish intention for the world; to shoulder mission for the people; to inherit discontinued learning for the late saint; and to initiate peace for all ages ("为天地立心，为生民立命，为往圣继绝学，为万世开太平"-张载《横渠语录》)” accepted by Chinese literati throughout generations under the influence of Confucius, which is also presented by the speaker; the latter showed in the historical and natural changes in the poem means transcendence from worldliness and the government should be in harmony with the Nature as Lao Tzu said :

Heaven and Earth are not kind.
They regard all things as offerings.
The sage is not kind.
He regards people as offerings.
Is not the space between Heaven and Earth like a bellows?
It is empty, but lacks nothing.
The more it moves, the more comes out of it.
A multitude of words is tiresome,
Unlike remaining centered.

[ Translated by Stenudd, Stefan. “天地不仁，以万物为刍狗；圣人不仁，以百姓为刍狗。天地之间，其犹橐龠乎？虚而不屈，动而俞出。多闻数穷，不若守于中”(《道德经》第五章) ]

(格式调整段首应顶格)The last poem “The City of Choan”(《登金陵凤凰台》) distinct from the previous three poems of departure seems to be more about a contemplation of history in a historical site (called Phoenix Terrace, 凤凰台) than a parting. The reason for why Pound classifies it into Four poems of Departure may be that parting in a broad sense is a farewell to anything such as the speaker’s leave from Choan, which actually misinterprets the original. --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:44, 14 December 2020 (UTC)

登金陵凤凰台

(唐)李白

凤凰台上凤凰游，凤去台空江自流。

吴宫花草埋幽径，晋代衣冠成古丘。

三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲。

总为浮云能蔽日，长安不见使人愁。

The City of Choan

THE phoenix are at play on their terrace.The phoenix are gone, the river flows on alone.

Flowers and grass cover over the dark path where lay the dynastic house of the Go.

The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin are now the base of old hills.

The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven,The isle of White Heron splits the two streams apart.

Now the high clouds cover the sun and I can not see Choan afar.

And I am sad.

(格式调整段首应顶格)In the first two line of the original, by comparing the prosperity of a dynasty to the phoenix, an auspicious sign in the ancient China, the speaker clarifies the truth that a dynasty no matter how powerful it is will not escape from changes in the passage of time (a parallel to the coming and leaving of phoenix) while nature keeps its law functioning, with all that used to be prosperous now reduced to a wilderness. In Pound’s version, the basic meaning and the main image phoenix are well preserved but there is a call for improvement. Explicitly, the culture-loaded words are literally translated, possibly leading to some misunderstandings. For example, “晋代衣冠”(official uniform in Jin Dynasty) is a metonymy for the ruling class in Jin instead of clothing itself. After pondering on the fall of Jin (“Shin”) and the rise of Wu ( “the Go” ) , the speaker casts his sight on the real scene before him: “三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲”, translated as “The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven/ The isle of White Heron splits the two streams apart”, which completely reproduces the geographic space in the original for the translator by describing the vertical space through the use of the verb phrase “fall through” and the planar space “splits...apart”.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:44, 14 December 2020 (UTC)

(格式调整段首应顶格)In the last line of the original, the image of sun is employed to symbolize the central power of the country while the “high clouds” (a metaphor for treacherous officials ) obscure it, suggesting that corrupted and crafty officials blind the monarch to justice. Thus, as a loyal subject with integrity, he suffers a false charge and “can not see Choan (长安), a capital city here as a metaphor for the ruler) afar”, which implies that his political fantasy goes down. The depression for the monarch’s ignorance is mixed with his growing feeling of disillusionment.Its translation, on the basis of keeping the metaphor, also represents the the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” for his “I am sad” reproduces the meaning of “愁”. The simplest words are the most touching words. All worries for the country and grudges against the tribulations are condensed into the three words. All in all, the original’s sense beauty-both metaphor and emotional expression—is perfectly reproduced in Pound’s translation.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:44, 14 December 2020 (UTC)

(格式调整段首应顶格)When reading the poem, people can find that the poem is incredibly full of alliteration and repetition, which seems not to be Pound’s free style. In the first part, repetition of Phoenix appears in the beginning of the first two lines, representing the repetitive sound of “凤 (fèng)”. Besides, in the line “The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin/ Are now the base of old hills”, the repetitions of “bright” and the phone [s] in “cloths”, “caps” and “base”give the version some qualities of classical music, which sound suitable for the historical theme. Overall, the translation divides the original into two stanzas: one concerning the contemplation of historical changes; the other about the view of the historical views (The Phoenix Terrace) before his eye and his deep sorrow for his suffering, which explicitly separate the poem into the past and the present. In the poem, time integrates with space and at the same time nature integrates with the speaker’s aspiration, revealing the contradiction between Confucius’ Rushi (入世) and Taoist Chushu (出世). The former refers to the aspiration “To establish intention for the world; to shoulder mission for the people; to inherit discontinued learning for the late saint; and to initiate peace for all ages ("为天地立心，为生民立命，为往圣继绝学，为万世开太平"-张载《横渠语录》)” accepted by Chinese literati throughout generations under the influence of Confucius, which is also presented by the speaker; the latter showed in the historical and natural changes in the poem means transcendence from worldliness and the government should be in harmony with the Nature as Lao Tzu said :

Heaven and Earth are not kind.

They regard all things as offerings.

The sage is not kind.

He regards people as offerings.

Is not the space between Heaven and Earth like a bellows?

It is empty, but lacks nothing.

The more it moves, the more comes out of it.

A multitude of words is tiresome,

Unlike remaining centered.

[ Translated by Stenudd, Stefan. “天地不仁，以万物为刍狗；圣人不仁，以百姓为刍狗。天地之间，其犹橐龠乎？虚而不屈，动而俞出。多闻数穷，不若守于中”(《道德经》第五章) ]--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:44, 14 December 2020 (UTC)

===Conclusion===

All the four poems are in a melancholy tone but they are distinct from each other in Beauty in Sense. The first poem “Separation on the River Kiang” in the most gentle but most overwhelming way expresses negative emotions with only one word (“lone”) betraying the speaker’s sorrow while at the same time integrated with the boundlessness of the River Kiang, which keeps and reproduces the original imagery beauty tactfully; In “Taking Leave of a Friend”, Pound adopts a series of figures of speech such as hyperbole and metaphor, essentially representing the artistic conception of the original, though there are some mistakes in comprehension; “Leave-taking near Shoku” perfectly retells the original, or to say, it is the most loyal one to the original text, particularly in the last but the most important lines, which really give the best interpretation of the speaker’s intention; The last poem “The City of Choan” is improperly involved in Pound’s selection of four poems of departure due to the tiny misunderstanding of the last line in the original but the translation excellently reproduces the historical vicissitudes and the beauty of spatial construction in the original.
In China most of the researches on Cathay have been concerned with the translation comparison of selected texts, all of which have attached importance on the aesthetic presentation of the Pound’s version. But actually, Chinese traditional aesthetic philosophy has not been ever further studied by our English learners such as the Confucian and Taoist artistic philosophy. Thus, it is worth noting the problem that the related researches are fixed in form and monotonous in content. To solve it, studies about Cathay in the future should be underpinned by the Chinese cultural learning and new findings will take root in the untrodden soil of Chinese classical culture.

(格式调整段首应顶格)All the four poems are in a melancholy tone but they are distinct from each other in Beauty in Sense. The first poem “Separation on the River Kiang” in the most gentle but most overwhelming way expresses negative emotions with only one word (“lone”) betraying the speaker’s sorrow while at the same time integrated with the boundlessness of the River Kiang, which keeps and reproduces the original imagery beauty tactfully; In “Taking Leave of a Friend”, Pound adopts a series of figures of speech such as hyperbole and metaphor, essentially representing the artistic conception of the original, though there are some mistakes in comprehension; “Leave-taking near Shoku” perfectly retells the original, or to say, it is the most loyal one to the original text, particularly in the last but the most important lines, which really give the best interpretation of the speaker’s intention; The last poem “The City of Choan” is improperly involved in Pound’s selection of four poems of departure due to the tiny misunderstanding of the last line in the original but the translation excellently reproduces the historical vicissitudes and the beauty of spatial construction in the original. --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:45, 14 December 2020 (UTC)

(格式调整段首应顶格)In China most of the researches on Cathay have been concerned with the translation comparison of selected texts, all of which have attached importance on the aesthetic presentation of the Pound’s version. But actually, Chinese traditional aesthetic philosophy has not been ever further studied by our English learners such as the Confucian and Taoist artistic philosophy. Thus, it is worth noting the problem that the related researches are fixed in form and monotonous in content. To solve it, studies about Cathay in the future should be underpinned by the Chinese cultural learning and new findings will take root in the untrodden soil of Chinese classical culture.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:45, 14 December 2020 (UTC)

===References===

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[2] Ieong, Sao Leng Sylvia. The Sources of Ezra Pound’s ''Cathay'': Fenollosa’s Notebooks and the Original Chinese Texts[J]. Comparative Literature: East &West, 2001, 2(1): 142-153.
[3] Lin，Yutang．“Chuangtse，Mystic and Humorist” in The Wisdom of China[M]. London: Michael Joseph，1949．（没有标明页码）
[4] Pound, Ezra. ''Cathay: Translations, For the Most Part From the Chinese of Rihaku''[M]. London: Elkin Mathews, 1915.（没有标明页码）
[5] Stenudd, Stefan. ''Tao Te Ching: The Taoism of Lao Tzu Explained''[M]. Sweden: Arriba, 2011.（没有标明页码）
[6] Seth, Vikram. ''Three Chinese Poets: Translations of poems by Wang Wei, Li Bai, and Du Fu''[M]. New York: HarperPerennial, 1992（没有标明页码）--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 01:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)
[7] Wai-lim Yip. ''Ezra Pound’s Cathay''[M]. Princeton: Princeton University Press.1969（没有标明页码）
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==A Study on the Four Levels of Translation Based on Newmark’s Theory 张玲 Zhang Ling, 202070080623==

Zhang Ling, Student no. 202070080623

===Abstract===

Faithfulness, which is regarded as the basic standard of translation, has always been put in the first place in traditional translation standards. To appreciate the quality of a translation, we mainly see whether the translation can accurately express the meaning of the original text and be faithful to the original. On the level of translation, many translators have put forward their own views. British translation theorist Newmark once put forward the view of "textual level, referential level, cohesive level and level of naturalness". According to Newmark's point of view, in the process of expression, the translator must be responsible for the original text and the translation at these four levels, so as to faithfully express the meaning of the original text. From the perspective of level, this paper analyzes the four levels and how the translation should be faithful to the translation.

Faithfulness, which is regarded as the basic standard of translation, has always been put in the first place in traditional translation standards. To appreciate the quality of a translation, we mainly see whether the translation can accurately express the meaning of the original text and be faithful to the original. On the level of translation, many translators have put forward their own views. Peter Newmark, a British translation theorist once put forward the view of "textual level, referential level, cohesive level and level of naturalness". According to Newmark's point of view, in the process of expression, the translator must be responsible for the original text and the translation at these four levels, so as to faithfully express the meaning of the original text. From the perspective of level, this paper analyzes the four levels and how the translation should be faithful to the translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===Key Words===

textual level; referential level; cohesive level; level of naturalness

===题目===

从纽马克的翻译理论看翻译的四个层次

===摘要===

传统的翻译标准一直将“信”摆在首位，即“忠实”，并将其作为翻译的基本标准。鉴赏一篇译文的质量，我们主要会看译文是否能准确表达原文的意思，忠实原文。关于翻译的层次，许多翻译学家都提出了自己的见解，英国翻译理论学家纽马克的曾提出“文本层次、所指层次、粘着层次和自然层次”的说法。按照纽马克的观点，在表达的过程中，译者必须在这四个层次上对原文和译文负责，才能做到忠实地表达原文的意思。本文将具体分析这四个层次，从层次的角度来分析翻译的忠实性。

传统的翻译标准一直将“信”即“忠实”摆在首位，并将其作为翻译的基本标准。鉴赏一篇译文的质量，我们主要会看译文是否能准确表达原文的意思，忠实原文。关于翻译的层次，许多翻译学家都提出了自己的见解，英国翻译理论学家纽马克的曾提出“文本层次、所指层次、粘着层次和自然层次”的说法。按照纽马克的观点，在表达的过程中，译者必须在这四个层次上对原文和译文负责，才能做到忠实地表达原文的意思。本文将具体分析这四个层次，从层次的角度来分析翻译的忠实性。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===关键词===

文本层次所指层次粘着层次自然层次

===Textual Level===

Textual level refers to the literal meaning of the original text. It focuses on determining the specific meaning of a word. In the process of translation, this is the first level that translators should pay attention to, because any translation comes from the original. It is not only the beginning but also the end of translation activities. (Xu Ling, 2005)

Textual level refers to the literal meaning of the original text. It focuses on determining the specific meaning of a word. In the process of translation, it is the first level that translators should concern, because any translation comes from the original. It is not only the beginning but also the end of translation activities. (Xu Ling, 2005)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 11:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

To a great extent, to be responsible for and faithful to the original text is that we must be faithful to the literal meaning of the original. The phenomenon of polysemy exists in both English and Chinese. In the process of understanding the literal meaning of the original text, we often encounter the difficult point of how to deal with polysemy. A polyseme refers to a word has multiple meanings, usually related by contiguity of meaning within a semantic field. Therefore, the same word may have completely different meaning, which will interfere with the understanding of the literal meaning of the original text. Here are some examples. (Luo Jinde, 1998, 78)

To a great extent, to be responsible for and faithful to the original text is that we must be faithful to the literal meaning of the original. The phenomenon of polysemy exists in both English and Chinese. In the process of understanding the literal meaning of the original text, we often encounter the difficult point of how to deal with polysemy. A polyseme refers to a word which has multiple meanings, usually related by contiguity of meaning within a semantic field. Therefore, the same word may have completely different meaning, which will interfere with the understanding of the literal meaning of the original text. Here are some examples. (Luo Jinde, 1998, 78)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

E.g.1

SL text: It is quite another story now.

TL text：现在情况完全不同了。

E.g.2

SL text: The white-haired girl's story is one of the saddest.

TL text: 白毛女的遭遇可算是最悲惨的。

E.g.3

SL text: A young man came to police station with a story.

TL text: 一个年轻人来到警察局报案。

Although these three examples are very simple, they are very instructive. This three sentences all contain the word “story”, but its meaning is different like black and white when it is translated. In the first sentence, “story” means “situation” or “case”, and the sentence means that things are different now. In the second sentence, “story” means “experience”, and the sentence means that the experience of the white-haired girl is one of the saddest. In the third sentences, “story” means “law case”, and the sentence means that a young man came to police station with a case.

Although these three examples are very simple, they are very instructive. This three sentences all contain the word "story", but its meaning is different like "black and white" when it is translated. In the first sentence, "story" means "situation" or "case", and the sentence means things are different now. In the second sentence, “story” means "experience", and the sentence means that the experience of the white-haired girl is one of the saddest. In the third sentences, "story" means "law case", and the sentence means that a young man came to police station with a case.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Another problem involved in the textual level is that the translated text must accord with the convention of the target language. There are great differences between English and Chinese in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary, because English belongs to Indo-European language while Chinese belongs to Sino-Tibetan language, and they are deeply influenced by the culture of their respective countries. If we stick to the original text and translate it word for word according to the literal meaning of the original text, we may produce some sentences that are not in accordance with the convention of the target language or even wrong.

Another problem involved in the textual level is that the translated text must accord with the convention of the target language. There are great differences between English and Chinese in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary, because English belongs to Indo-European language while Chinese belongs to Sino-Tibetan language, and they are deeply influenced by the culture of their respective countries. If we stick to the original text and translate it word for word according to the literal meaning of the original text, we may make some sentences that are not in accordance with the convention of the target language or even wrong. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

E.g.4

SL text:Tom was upsetting the other children, so I show him the door.

TL text 1: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他带到门那去。

TL text 2: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他撵出去了。

E.g.5

SL text: His irritation could not withstand the silent beauty of the night.

TL text 1: 他的烦恼不能承受夜晚宁静的美丽。

TL text 2: 面对着宁静的良宵美景，他的烦恼烟消云散了。

It is not difficult to see from the two translation versions that the second translation is better than the first one, because the former is more in line with the language convention of Chinese. Therefore, it can be seen that literal meaning in the textual level is not simple literal correspondence. It should be adjusted according to the convention of target language.

It is not difficult to see from the two translation versions that the second translation is better than the first one, because the former is more in line with the language convention of Chinese. Therefore, it can be seen that literal meaning in the textual level is not just simple literal correspondence. Instead, it should be adjusted according to the convention of target language.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===Referential Level===

The referential level refers that translators should grasp the referential meaning of the original text. It is the minimum requirement for translation to figure out the referential meaning of the original. Newmark once claimed, “You should not read a sentence without seeing it on the referential level.” The obscure and implied implication of the original text requires the translator to see the true connotation through the text. This is the minimum requirement for translation. However, sometimes the literal meaning of the original text is not very clear. The translator must figure out the real meaning through the literal meaning and describe them accurately in the target language. At this time, due to the differences between the two languages, there may be a certain distance between the translation and the original. (Newmark, 2001, 22)

The referential level refers that translators should grasp the referential meaning of the original text. It is the minimum requirement for translation to figure out the referential meaning of the original. Newmark once claimed, “You should not read a sentence without seeing it on the referential level.” The obscure and implied implication of the original text requires the translator to see the true connotation through the text, which is the minimum requirement for translation. However, sometimes the literal meaning of the original text is not very clear. The translator must figure out the real meaning through the literal meaning and describe them accurately in the target language. At this time, due to the differences between the two languages, there may be a certain distance between the translation and the original. (Newmark, 2001, 22)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

In order to deliver the exact referential meaning, translators should give more attention to the translation of pronouns because pronouns are more frequently used in English than in Chinese. There are personal pronoun, impersonal pronoun, relative pronoun and so on, which can be used repeatedly in the same sentence and appear alternately. Therefore, in the process of translation, we may often encounter the problem of ambiguous reference of pronouns. In this time, we need to make a specific analysis of specific words or sentences, and sometimes even to analyze the definite meaning of a certain context. In the process of translation, we often see that one or several English sentences contain multiple personal pronouns. At this time, the direct application of personal pronouns in the original English text not only affects the readability of the translation, but also causes problems in the collocation of words and the cohesion of sentence patterns, so it is difficult to accurately reflect the meaning of the original text. Here are two examples.(Newmark, 2001, 24)

In order to deliver the exact referential meanings, translators should give more attention to the translation of pronouns because pronouns are more frequently used in English than in Chinese. There are personal pronoun, impersonal pronoun, relative pronoun and so on, which can be used repeatedly in the same sentence and appear alternately. Therefore, in the process of translation, we may often encounter the problem of ambiguous reference of pronouns. In this time, we need to make a specific analysis of specific words or sentences, and sometimes even to analyze the definite meaning of a certain context. In the process of translation, we often see that one or several English sentences contain multiple personal pronouns. At this time, the direct application of personal pronouns in the original English text not only affects the readability of the translation, but also causes problems in the collocation of words and the cohesion of sentence patterns, so it is difficult to accurately reflect the meaning of the original. Here are two examples.(Newmark, 2001, 24)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

E.g. 6

SL text: Knowledge is a comfortable and necessary retreat and shelter for us in an advanced age; and if we don’t plant it while young, it will give us no shade when we grow old. (Philip Chesterfield)

TL text 1：知识是我们老年时舒适而又必需的精神归宿。如果我们年轻时不种它，它就不会在我们年老时给我们提供树荫。

TL text 2：知识是人生老年期舒适而又必需的精神归宿。如果年轻时不种下知识之树，老年时就得不到树荫的遮蔽。

From the two translations, it is not difficult to see that the second translation is better than the first translation. The reason is that there is no need to translate two general pronouns "us" and "we" in the original text, and the meaning of the original text will be clear and accurate only when they are removed. In addition, it is inappropriate to translate "it" into "它". In the original, the metaphor “it” refers to “knowledge”, and the first translation omits this metaphor, which makes readers don’t what it is talking about.

From the two translations, it is obvious to see that the second translation is better than the first translation. The reason is that there is no need to translate two general pronouns "us" and "we" in the original text, and the meaning of the original text will be clear and accurate only when they are removed. In addition, it is inappropriate to translate "it" into "它". In the original, the metaphor "it" refers to "knowledge", and the first translation omits this metaphor, which may makes readers don’t what it is talking about.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

E.g. 7

SL text: Mr. and Mrs. Brown were talking about their neighbors, Mr. and Mrs. Smith, and their new house.

“He must be making a good income to be able to live in a house like that,” said he, “to say nothing of the car they have. It’s a Rolls.”

“Oh,I don’t think he makes much money,” she replied, “but I fancy she has a private income.”

“I wonder whether they paid for it themselves or whether her parents gave it to her,” he said．

She answered, “Yes, they bought it after a lucky week with the football pools. But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.”

“I know which of the two I would sooner have,” was his comment．

TL text：布朗先生和布朗夫人在谈论他们的新邻居———史密斯先生和史密斯夫人，以及他们的新房子。

“他能够住那么好的房子一定收入颇丰，”布朗先生说，“更不必说他们开的车了，是辆劳斯莱斯。”

“哦，我不认为他能赚很多钱，”布朗太太答道， “但我猜史密斯夫人有私人收入。”

“我怀疑这房子是他们自己买的还是史密斯夫人的父母给她的。”布朗先生说。

布朗夫人回答说: “是啊，他们在赢了一次足球六合彩之后买了这房子。但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是史密斯夫人的而不是史密斯先生的。”

“我知道我宁可拥有这二者中哪一个。”布朗先生评论说。

In the original text, Mr. and Mrs. Brown and Mr. and Mrs. Smith are all referred to by personal pronouns he, she, her and his. In order to avoid ambiguous reference of pronouns, many English pronouns, such as he, she, her and his are translated into “布朗先生” and “布朗夫人”, and “史密斯先生” and “史密斯夫人” in this translation version, rather than “他” or “她”. If the sentence “But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.” is translated into “但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是她的而不是他的”，it will cause great misunderstanding for readers and they may feel difficult to understand. This kind of reference can make the characters in the original text correspond to the characters in the translation. At the same time, it also shows that the determination of the referential meaning will affect the accuracy of the whole translation.

In the original text, Mr. and Mrs. Brown and Mr. and Mrs. Smith are all referred to by personal pronouns he, she, her and his. In order to avoid ambiguous reference of pronouns, many English pronouns, such as he, she, her and his are translated into "布朗先生" and "布朗夫人", and "史密斯先生" and "史密斯夫人" in Chinese translation version, rather than "他" or "她". If the sentence "But as for the car, I can't speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his." is translated into "但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是她的而不是他的"，it will cause great misunderstanding for readers and they may feel difficult to understand. This kind of reference can make the characters in the original text correspond to the characters in the translation. At the same time, it also shows that the determination of the referential meaning will affect the accuracy of the whole translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===Cohesive Level===

Cohesive level refers to the connection between sentences in text. Each language has its own unique way of connection which reflects its unique thinking pattern. Therefore, translators can not completely copy the way of connection of the original text in translation, but should organize the translation with the authentic cohesive way of the target language on the basis of a full understanding of the original text. Just as Newmark claimed, “At this level, you reconsider the lengths of paragraphs and sentences, the formulation of the title; the tone of the conclusion”, the cohesive level mainly refers to the faithfulness to the original text at the paragraph and discourse level.(Newmark, 2001, 24)

Cohesive level refers to the connection between sentences in text. Each language has its own unique way of connection which reflects its unique thinking pattern. Therefore, translators may not completely copy the way of connection of the original in translation, but should organize the translation with the authentic cohesive way of the target language on the basis of a full understanding of the original text. Just as Newmark claimed, “At this level, you reconsider the lengths of paragraphs and sentences, the formulation of the title; the tone of the conclusion”, the cohesive level mainly refers to the faithfulness to the original text at the paragraph and discourse level.(Newmark, 2001, 24)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

There are great differences between English and Chinese in grammar, especially in word order. If the word order of the original text is closely followed in translation, the whole text may be distorted. In addition, English sentences are sometimes very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, sentences should be broken at appropriate places and necessary adjustments should be made. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 103)

There are great differences between English and Chinese in grammar, especially in word order. If the word order of the original text is closely followed in translation, the whole text may be distorted. In addition, English sometimes are very long sentences and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, sentences should be broken at appropriate places and necessary adjustments should be made. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 103)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Some SL texts seem to be correct in every sentence, but they are actually unreadable when they are put together. It is like a portrait painting. The eyes, nose, mouth and ears are all well drawn, but when they are put together, they are not like a person's face. Here, in addition to factors such as improper proportion and inconsistent style, there is also an important reason, that is, the "connection" between the five senses is not coordinated. The same problem exists in translation. There are great differences in grammar, especially word order between English and Chinese. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)

Some SL texts seem to be correct, but they are actually unreadable when they are put together. It is like a portrait painting. The eyes, nose, mouth and ears are all well drawn, but when they are put together, they are not like a person's face. Here, in addition to factors such as improper proportion and inconsistent style, there is also an important reason, that is, the "connection" between the five senses is not coordinated. The same problem exists in translation. There are great differences in grammar, especially word order between English and Chinese. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

In addition, the length and punctuation rules of English and Chinese sentences are quite different. Sometimes English sentences may be very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, it is necessary to break sentences in proper places and make necessary adjustments. Chinese sentences are usually short and sometimes need to be combined when translated into English. In short, in order to make the translation expressive, we must take full account of the differences between the two languages and carefully "connect" each sentence to make it a whole. It is like using an invisible silk thread to string pearls together into a beautiful necklace. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)

In addition, the length and punctuation rules of English and Chinese sentences are quite different. When translated English into Chinese, it is necessary to break sentences in proper places and make necessary adjustments. Chinese sentences are usually short and sometimes need to be combined when translated into English. In short, in order to make the translation expressive, we must take full account of the differences between the two languages and carefully "connect" each sentence to make it a whole. It is like using an invisible silk thread to string pearls together into a beautiful necklace. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

E.g. 8

ST text: At the opening banquet, Nixon seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position by saying, “there are of course some who believe that the mere act of saying a statement of principles or a diplomatic conference will bring lasted peace. This is naïve.”

TL text: 尼克松在欢迎宴会上说：“当然，有些人认为只要发表一项声明或举行一次外交会议就能带来持久和平。这是天真的想法。” 他这番话似乎是在阐述东道国的立场。

Here in this sentence, the structure of the source language text has been rearranged and the word order has been changed in order to ensure the fluency of target language, In Chinese, the subject usually comes first and summative words are usually put at the end. Therefore, in the TL text “Nixon” is put at the first and the position of “seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position” is put at the end. (Zhuang Yichuan, 2002, 224)

E.g. 9

ST text: Well, you can imagine how it was with a young fellow who had never been taken notice of before, and now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere; couldn’t sit abroad without constantly overhearing the remark flying from lip to lip, “ There he goes; that’s him!” couldn’t take his breakfast without a crowd to look on; couldn’t appear in an opera-box without concentrating there the fire of a thousand lorgnettes. Why, I just swam in glory all day long -- that is the amount of it.

TL text: 你可以想象得到那是什么滋味：一个年轻小伙子，从来没有被人注意过，现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去；随便到哪走动一下，总不免听见人家一个个辗转相告：“那儿走着的就是他，就是他！”吃早餐的时候，也老是有一大堆人围着看；一到歌剧院的包厢。就会使得无数观众的望远镜的火力都集中到自己身上。哎，我简直就是一天到晚在荣耀中过日子——十足是那个味道。

The source language text is a long sentence, so it is necessary to take sentence segmentation into consideration. Otherwise, it may make the translation cumbersome and unintelligible. It's widely believed that the most important difference between English and Chinese is hypotaxis and parataxis and English belongs to hypotaxis language. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

English sentences take subject and predicate as the core, and then add various modifiers on this basis to form a complex structure with numerous branches. Chinese pays more attention to parataxis, and sentences are stated one by one in chronological order. Chinese uses more than one verb to form multiple short sentences. In this way, the TL text makes “you can imagine how it was” a sentence alone, and “now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere” is rearranged as four short sentences as “现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去”. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 66)

English sentences take subject and predicate as the core, and then add various modifiers on this basis to form a complex structure with numerous branches. Chinese pays more attention to parataxis, and Chinese sentences are stated one by one in chronological order. Chinese uses more than one verb to form multiple short sentences. In this way, the TL text makes "you can imagine how it was" a sentence alone, and "now all of a sudden couldn't say a thing that wasn't taken up and repeated everywhere" is rearranged as four short sentences as "现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去". (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 66)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==='''Level of Naturalness'''===

The level of naturalness is a summary of the above three levels. It is mainly to grasp the natural fluency of the translation as a whole. To some extent, it can be said that the natural level is a process of checking, perfecting and making the translation more perfect. “In all ‘communicative translation’, whether you are translating an informative text, a notice or an advert, ‘naturalness’ is essential” (Newmark, 2001, 26).

The level of naturalness is a summary of the above three levels. It is mainly to grasp the natural fluency of the translation as a whole. To some extent, it can be said that the natural level is a process of checking, perfecting and making the translation more perfect. "In all 'communicative translation', whether you are translating an informative text, a notice or an advert, ‘naturalness’ is essential" (Newmark, 2001, 26). --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

In order to fulfill the level of naturalness, the translator needs to ensure “(a) that your translation makes sense; (b) that it reads naturally, that it is written in ordinary language, the common grammar, idioms and words that meet that kind of situation.” (Newmark, 2001, 24)

In order to fulfill the level of naturalness, the translator needs to ensure the following principles: (a) that your translation makes sense; (b) that it reads naturally, that it is written in ordinary language, the common grammar, idioms and words that meet that kind of situation. (Newmark, 2001, 24) --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

It may be helpful to check the naturalness of the target text by temporarily separating oneself from the source language text. In addition to some technical terms, there is almost no complete equivalence in the target language, and in literal translation, their meanings often overlap or are included in the vocabulary of the source language. Thus, “the enforced shift from generic to specific units or vice versa, sometimes due to overlapping or included meaning, sometimes to notorious lexical gaps in one of the language” is one of the main problems during the translation process.(Newmark, 2001, 34)

It may be helpful to check the naturalness of the target text by temporarily separating oneself from the source language text. In addition to some technical terms, there is almost no complete equivalence in the target language. In literal translation, their meanings often overlap or are included in the vocabulary of the source language. Thus, "the enforced shift from generic to specific units or vice versa, sometimes due to overlapping or included meaning, sometimes to notorious lexical gaps in one of the language" is one of the main problems during the translation process.(Newmark, 2001, 34)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

There are many cases in which the translation is not natural and does not conform to the habits of the target language. In order to eliminate this phenomenon, we must try our best to eliminate the interference of the original text on the basis of understanding the original text, and express the meaning of the original text with idiomatic target language, so as to be faithful to the original text as well as fluent and natural. In translation practice, the translator may as well leave the first draft aside after completing it. After a period of time, from the perspective of the target readers to recheck the translation and to see whether there is any unnaturalness. In this way, many problems can be found. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 78)

There are many cases in which the translation is not natural and does not conform to the habits of the target language. In order to eliminate this phenomenon, we must try our best to eliminate the interference of the original text on the basis of understanding the original text, and express the meaning of the original text with idiomatic target language, so as to be faithful to the original text as well as fluent and natural. In translation practice, the translator could as well leave the first draft aside after completing it. After a period of time, from the perspective of the target readers to recheck the translation work and to see whether there is any unnaturalness. In this way, many problems can be found. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 78)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

E.g. 10

SL text: Then Lieutenant Grub launched into the old recruiting routine, “See, save and serve! Hannigan, free tour to all the ports in the world. A fine ship for a home. Three meals a day without charge... You mustn’t let such a golden opportunity slip by.”

TL text: 于是，格拉布上尉开始说起招兵的老一套了：“见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力！汉尼根，免费周游世界上所有的港口。一艘上好的船为家，一天三餐不要钱。......你千万不要错过这样大好的机会呀！”

English verbs are divided into transitive verbs and intransitive verbs. The object of intransitive verbs is actually hidden behind this verb, which is often needed to express when translated into Chinese. Here in the ST text, the sentence “See, save and serve!” only contains three verbs, while in TL text these three verbs are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!”. Chinese words and phrases tend to be specific and detailed in meaning, thus the verbs “see”, “save”, and “ serve” that refers to “see the world”, “save some money” and “do something for the country” are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!”

English verbs are divided into transitive verbs and intransitive verbs. The object of intransitive verbs is actually hidden behind this verb, which is often needed to express when translated into Chinese. In the above ST text, the sentence "See, save and serve!" only contains three verbs, while in TL text these three verbs are translated into "见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!". Chinese words and phrases tend to be specific and detailed in meaning, thus the verbs "see",
"save", and "serve" that refers to "see the world", "save some money" and "do something for the country" are translated into "见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!". --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

E.g. 11

SL text: The English arrived in North America with hopes of duplicating the exploits of the Spanish in South America, where explores had discovered immense fortunes in gold and silver. Although Spain and England shared a pronounced lust for wealth, differences between the two countries were profound.

TL text 1: 英国人抱着和西班牙人开拓南美洲一样的动机来到北美洲，西班牙的探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。虽然西班牙和英国都同样明显地贪图财富，但是两国的文化却存在着很大的差异。

TL text 2: 当年西班牙探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。英国人来到北美洲的动机也如出一辙。尽管两国对财富的贪欲同样强烈，但是两国在文化上却存在着巨大的差异。

Here in this sentence, the original text contains a attributive clause. The TL text 1 puts it after the main sentence, resulting in a very awkward cohesion between the two sentences, and the whole paragraph is fragmented. According to the convention of the target language, the TL text 2 organizes the original according to the time and space order, and puts the attributive clause in the original text before the main sentence, so that the whole sentence is more coherent.

Here in this sentence, the original text contains an attributive clause. The TL text 1 puts it after the main sentence, resulting in a very awkward cohesion between the two sentences, and the whole paragraph is fragmented. According to the convention of the target language, the TL text 2 organizes the original according to the time and space order, and puts the attributive clause in the original text before the main sentence, so that the whole sentence is more coherent.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

E.g. 12

SL text: Her ascent of the crooked staircase was a slower process, and her face, as it rose into the light above the last stair, encountered the gaze of all the party assembled in the bedroom．

TL text: 她脚步缓慢地攀登着弯弯曲曲的楼梯，当她登上最后一级楼梯、脸膛从暗处进入亮处的时候，意外地发现聚集在室内的人们把目光全都转向了她。

In Chinese sentences, verbs are used more widely and frequently, and a sentence can contain several verbs. Here in this TL text, the sentence structure of the original text "A is B" has been changed and the verbs "上", "走", "攀登" and "放慢" have been added to describe Mrs. Debbie's upstairs movements more clearly and vividly, which does not violate the original meaning but also conforms to the convention of target language. Because English and Chinese belong to two different language families, there are great differences in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. Therefore, if we want to achieve real discourse fluency on the level of naturalness, the main way is to focus on the above three levels, so that the translation can be faithful to the connotation of the original text.

In Chinese sentences, verbs are used more widely and frequently, and a sentence can contain many verbs. In the above TL text, the sentence structure of the original text "A is B" has been changed and the verbs "上", "走", "攀登" and "放慢" have been added to describe Mrs. Debbie's upstairs movements more clearly and vividly, which does not violate the original meaning but also conforms to the convention of target language. Because English and Chinese belong to two different language families, there are great differences in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. Therefore, if we want to achieve real discourse fluency on the level of naturalness, the main way is to focus on the above three levels, so that the translation can be faithful to the connotation of the original text.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==='''Conclusion'''===

Peter Newmark's four levels of translation is used to divide the translation process into four parts. "Four level translation" breaks the limitation of language units and deals with translation from a macro perspective, thus maintaining the integrity of the text.

Peter Newmark's four levels of translation is used to divide the translation process into four parts. "Four level translation" breaks the limitation of language units and deals with translation from a macro perspective, maintaining the integrity of the text. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

In therms of textual level, special attention should be paid to the literal meaning of the original text, expression and word selection in the process of translation. In other words, the words in SL text should not be replaced by synonyms, and the grammatical structure should remain unchanged, unless they are meaningless in the target language. (Xu Ling, 2005)

In therms of textual level, special attention should be paid to the literal meaning of the original text, expression and word selection in the process of translation. In other words, the words in SL text should not be replaced by synonyms, and the grammatical structures should remain unchanged, unless they are meaningless in the target language. (Xu Ling, 2005)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

In the case of referential level, the translator needs to understand the referential meaning clearly. One of the basic principles of translation is to follow the meaning of the source text and the author's intention, especially for highly authoritative expressive texts. However, the meaning of the SL text is not always clear. Therefore, the translator's job is to see through the surface vocabulary of the original text, grasp the implied meaning of the original text, and then translate it accurately. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 29)

In the case of referential level, the translator needs to understand the referential meaning clearly. One of the basic principles of translation is to follow the meaning of the source text and the author's intention, especially for highly authoritative expressive texts. However, the meaning of the SL text is not always clear. Therefore, the translator's responsibility is to see through the surface vocabulary of the original text, grasp the implied meaning of the original text, and then translate it accurately. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 29)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

As far as the cohesive level goes, the connection in the source text can not be transferred to the target language version optionally, because each language has its own way of connection, which reflects the unique way of thinking of native language users. The translator needs to reconstruct the translation on the basis of full understanding to make the translation as coherent as the original. At this level, the the length of paragraphs and sentences, as well as the structure should be taken into consideration again. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 36)

As far as the cohesive level goes, the connection in the source text can not be transferred to the target language version optionally, because each language has its own way of connection, which reflects the unique way of thinking of native language users. The translator needs to reconstruct the translation on the basis of full understanding to make the translation work as coherent as the original. At this level, the the length of paragraphs and sentences, as well as the structure should be taken into consideration again. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 36)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The level of naturalness is the basic standard for the target language text. The translation must be fluent and conform to the habits of the target language. Naturalness is essential for various texts such as informative text, notices and advertisements. The translator needs to make sure that his translation is meaningful and readable by using common language, grammar, idioms and appropriate words. (Newmark, 2001, 20)

The level of naturalness is a basic standard for the target language text. The translation must be fluent and conform to the habits of the target language. Naturalness is essential for various texts such as informative text, notices and advertisements. The translator needs to make sure that his or her translation is meaningful and readable by using common language, grammar, idioms and appropriate words. (Newmark, 2001, 20)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

However, these four levels are not isolated and often overlap in the process of translation. As a result, some examples may be less representative because they are handled at multiple levels. From the perspective of the whole translation process, it is important for translators to understand translation theories.It not only provides translation skills to solve problems, but also helps translators to make self-criticism. Translation under the guidance of theory is much more mature than blind translation.

However, these four levels are not isolated and often overlap in the process of translation. As a result, some examples may be less representative because they are handled at multiple levels. From the perspective of the whole translation process, it is important for translators to understand translation theories.It not only provides translation skills to solve problems, but also helps translators to make self-criticism. Translation works under the guidance of theory are much more mature than blind translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Therefore, in addition to cultivating translation skills, translators also need to have a deeper understanding of translation theory. Due to the limited understanding of translation theory and the lack of understanding of translation theory, there may be a lack of systematic and theoretical analysis and comments. However, translation is only a reflection of the translator's translation ability at this stage. In bilingual translation, it is the translator's lifelong pursuit to improve his translation theory and skills.

Therefore, in addition to cultivating translation skills, translators also need to have a deeper understanding of translation theory. Due to the limited understanding of translation theory and the lack of understanding of translation theories, there may be a lack of systematic and theoretical analysis and comments. However, translation is only a reflection of the translator's translation ability at this stage. In bilingual translation, it is the translator's lifelong pursuit to improve his or her translation theories and skills.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==='''References'''===

[1]. Newmark, Peter. Approaches to Translation [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.

[2]. Newmark, Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.

[3]. Luo Jinde, Chen Anding 罗进德，陈定安. (1998). 英汉比较与翻译 [Comparison and Translation Between English and Chinese]. 中国对外翻译出版公司[China Translation & Publishing Corporation].

[4]. Qian Gechuan 钱歌川. (2011). 翻译的技巧[The Technique of Translation].世界图书出版社[World Book Press].

[5] Xu Ling, Lin Jian, Zhang Ying 许玲, 林健, 张莹. (2005). 浅析翻译的层次[Simple Analysis on Translation Levels]. 天津：天津职业大学[Tianjin: Tianjin Professional College].

[6]. Zhang Peiji 张培基. (2009). 英汉翻译教程[A Course in English-Chinese Translation]. 上海：上海外国语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].

[7]. Zhuang Yichuan 庄绎传. (2002). 英汉翻译简明教程[M]. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社[Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].

==A Study on Translatability and Untranslatability of English and Chinese Puns and Corresponding Strategies of Translation 曾心媛 Zeng Xinyuan 202070080579 英语笔译==

===Abstract===
Pun is a widely used rhetorical device. It is greatly favored by people because of its humor and rich connotation. But pun translation is very difficult due to its particularity and complexity. This paper analyzes the translatability and untranslatability of pun respectively, and explores the relevant translation strategies.

===摘要===

双关语是一种使用广泛的修辞手法。因其幽默诙谐，内涵丰富的语言效果深受人们喜爱，但中英互译时，由于双关语的特殊性和复杂性，双关语翻译显得十分困难。本文分别对双关语翻译中的可译性与不可译性进行了探析，并对其相关翻译策略进行有关探索。

===Key Words===
Key words: puns, translatability, untranslatability, corresponding translation strategies

===关键词===

关键词：双关语可译性不可译性相应翻译策略

=== Introduction ===

Rhetoric is an important part of language and a significant means to improve the effect of language expression, and it is a language form with rich connotation. As one of the rhetorical devices, pun can increase the sense of humor and irony, so it is widely used in poetry, novels, advertisements and riddles. However, due to the particularity of pun, pun translation is often a difficulty. Translation researchers have been arguing about whether puns are translatable for a long time.

This paper firstly introduces the definition of pun—pun is a rhetorical way to make certain words or sentences convey double meanings that is, one meaning on the surface, but another meaning in fact. Secondly, it introduces the three main categories of puns - phonetic, semantic and grammatical puns, and analyzes the three classifications and the three main translation strategies—literal translation, free translation and annotation through examples. Through the analysis of examples, it analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of the three kinds of pun translation strategies, and points out that the translator should not only accurately convey semantic information, but also recreate rhetoric in the translation, providing the same feeling to readers that they have in reading the original text and translation.

=== Definition of pun ===

The word “pun” was originated from a Latin word “paranomasia”, which refers to “similar in look and semantic meaning”. According to Cihai, “pun” is a rhetorical device that intentionally uses homophone or phonogram and polysemy words which can generate equivocality in order to punningly express what the speaker is really trying to say. （Cong Laiting，Xu Luya，2007）So the pun word makes the sentence contain double meaning: the superficial meaning, and deep meaning, because of which pun also can make the language humorous, concise, powerful and meaningful, leaving a deep impression to the audience. It is used widely in our life, such as films and television, advertisements, news, literary works and daily dialogues.

American scholar Archibald A. Hill once said that there are three prerequisites in puns: double context, hinge( which refers to polysemy and homophone), and trigger (motive and background of using puns).（Fan Jiacai，1992:182）For example: “You are not eating your fish, anything wrong with it?” the waitress said to him. “Long time no sea,” the customer replied.(Tong Kaiwen, 2017, 21), In this dialogue, “sea” has the same pronunciation as “see”, providing the hinge. As for the double context, which on the one hand, means that the customer is greeting to the waitress, but on the other hand, what the customer actually want to express is that the fish is not fresh enough as it has left sea for a long time. And the trigger is that the customer want waitress know the fish is not fresh. And there is a famous pun—“ Seven days without water make one weak.” The hinge in the sentence is the word “weak”, a homophone of “ week”. So it can mean “Without water, seven days still equal to a week”, or “Without water for seven days make one weak.” And the trigger is the common sense that we know both of the sentences make sense.

=== Three Main Types of Puns ===

“Pun has many types, including homophonic pun同音双关, paranomasia 近音双关, antalaclasis同词异义双关语,sylleptic pun一词多义双关,asteismus歧解双关语, irony反语,innuendo暗讽,satire讥讽, rhetorical question 修辞问句and allegory讽喻.”（Cong Laiting, Xu Luya, 2007）But we can mainly divided them into three types: phonetic puns, semantic puns, and grammatical puns.

The first type is phonetic puns, which include homophonic pun, paranomasia, and antalaclasis. This kind of pun is created by using words with similar spelling, pronunciation, and even with same pronunciation. It is widely used in humorous stories, and riddles, by using which can make the language more interesting, amusing, and attractive.

Take the following dialogues as examples:

Homophonic pun

Eg. 1. -What is the most contradictory sign in a library?
-To speak aloud is not allowed. (Tong Kaiwen, 2017, 51)
In this dialogue, “aloud” has the same pronunciation with “allowed”, which may sounds like“ To speak aloud is not aloud”, making the dialogue more contradictory, so as to answer the question.

Eg. 2. -King: My cousin Hamlet, and my son—how is it that the clouds still hang on you?
-Hamlet: Not so, my lord. I am too much in the sun.(Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196)
In the dialogue, “son” pronounces the same as “sun”, and Hamlet’s reply seemingly is to directly answer the King, but the true meaning of his words is that “I don’t want to be your son anymore”, expressing his aversion to the king.

Paranomasia

Eg. 3. Drunk drivers put a quart before the hearse.(Yao Jinhong,2001,161)
At first sight, people may misunderstand it as “Drunk drivers put the cart before the horse” which means that the drunk driver did something before another thing that he should have done first. But the original meaning is to ask drivers not to drink alcohol before driving. The misunderstanding results from similar pronunciation of “quart” and “cart”, as well as “hearse” and “horse”.

Antalaclasis

Eg.4. -Teacher: George, can you give Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address?
-George: No, but I can give you his original address—the White House in Washington D.C.
What makes the conversation so funny is that the student misunderstood “address”, which teacher meant to give a speech, but the student thought it stands for the home address. Another possibility is that the student interpreted deliberately the “address” to the wrong meaning, so that he could avoid reciting the speech.

Eg.5. We must all hang together, or we shall all hang separately.
This is a famous remark of Benjamin Franklin, and the word “hang” has different meanings, the previous one means to stay with and support each other, while the latter one means a punishment. Antalaclasis used here not only emphasizes the author’s language, but also leave strong impact on the audiences, making it easier to remember and spread.

Eg.5. We must all hang together, or we shall all hang separately.
This is a famous remark of Benjamin Franklin, and the word “hang” has different meanings, the previous one means to stay with and support each other, while the latter one means a punishment. Antalaclasis used here not only emphasizes the author’s language, but also leaves strong impact on the audiences, making it easier to remember and spread.

The second type is semantic puns, which refer to sylleptic pun. When using this pun, what the author really want to express is the deeper meaning behind the superficial meaning. Semantic puns can make language entertaining, and are also often used to point at someone but actually abuse another, making the language more sarcastic. We can get a better understanding of this kind of puns in following examples.

Eg.6. Money doesn’t grow at trees. But it blossoms at our branches.(Xu Min, 2007, 193)
This is an outdoor road sign advertisement of Lloyd's bank, it uses sylleptic pun that the word branch not only means branch of trees, but also represents the bank itself. The true meaning of the advisement is that if people want their money grown, it would be better to save money in Lloyd's bank. The use of pun in the advertisement makes it more interesting, creative, and attractive.

Eg.7. -What’s the longest sentence in the world?
-Prison for life.
The word “sentence” in the question is a linguistic concept, and it can also mean a punishment given by a court, which add interest.

Eg.8. Women have a wonderful sense of right and wrong, but have little sense of right and left. The “rights” have two meanings in the sentence, the first of which refers to “correct”, being the opposite of wrong, and the second one means a direction. Adding puns here makes language be heavy with sarcasm.

The third type is grammatical puns, in which the structure of the sentence is changed so that the meaning of the sentence is also changed. Here’s an example.

Eg. 9. Time flies like an arrow, fruit flies like an apple. (Zhao Yuqing, 2019, 196）
The word “flies” functions as a predicate, which means circle in the air, while the second “flies” is the subject of the latter sentence, which means a kind of insect. With the change of grammatical puns, the meaning has also been changed.

=== Translatability of Puns ===

Translation of puns has been a challenge throughout the history. Puns are widely accepted and used in many fields because that it convey different meanings in short words, making the language more interesting, thought-provoking, giving people a stronger impression. Considering complexity and specialty of puns, some scholars even think that it is impossible to translate puns because that translator may fail to translate both meanings while keeping the formal equivalence. The British translation theorist Catford argued that some specific cultural things can be recognized and expressed. So in essence they can be translated, but the corresponding ways of expression are missing temporarily, untranslatability resulted from which are temporary, but untranslatability caused by cultural differences was real, which was called relative untranslatability.(Catford, 1965，93 )

The first reason that puns are translatable is that even though every country has its unique history, culture, and language, but human beings share the same emotions, and have similar daily life. Language is a reflection on the reality, so even though the literal symbols that represent one thing vary a lot, the essence, which is the thing itself, does not change. (Li Hanji, 2013,135)

Besides, with the development and advance of Internet and technology, connections between different countries have become closer and closer, enhancing cultural communication and transmission. And the emergence of new things have accompanied with many new words, which enriches languages of different countries, and makes it easier to understand other languages. (An Wenjing, 2010,71)

Last but not least, with unremitting efforts of generations of translators, some words, and sentences have been changed from untranslatable to translatable. All the reasons above indicate that the untranslatability between different languages is temporary, and relative, while translatability is absolute, which is the same when it comes to pun translation. Please look at some examples that show translatability of puns.

Eg.10. Seven days without water make one week.

Some translators translated it into “七天没水使人虚弱”，while others translated into “七天没水就是一周没水”。Although both versions are correct, they changed the structure of one sentence into two sentences, and fail to express the humor.

Here’s another translation. “七天不盈（饮）弱一周”(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jiangping, 2001, 32）In this translation, the translator successfully expressed two meanings in concise, and semi-classical Chinese style. The “不盈” pronounces similar to“不饮”, and the previous one refers to “cannot reach”, while the latter one refers to “do not drink”. The “弱” also conveys two meanings, one of which is “ less than…”, and other is “make…weak”. As we can see, although there are some subtle deficiencies in the last translation, for example, pronunciation of “不盈” is not completely equivalent to that of “不饮”, as the first one has a rising tone, and the second one uses a falling tone, we can not deny it’s a successful translation of puns.

Eg.11. 人曾为僧，人弗可以成佛
女卑是婢，女又何妨称奴

A famous Chinese translator Qian Gechuan thought the two sentences couldn’t be translated, but another excellent translator Xu Yuanchong gave his translation as follows:
A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha,
A maiden may be made a house maid.(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jiangping, 2001, 32）

The original text is a pair of couplets, which originated from such a story.
One day , the great poet Su Shi’s sister Su Zhen heard that Su Shi was talking with a Zen master Foyin about Buddhist ceremony. As Foyin was bragging about the greatness and boundlessness of Buddhist’s power, and advantages of submerging in Buddhism, giving an extravagantly description of studying Buddhist classics, of which Su Zhen disapprove. She wrote the former part of couplet and asked a maid to give it to Foyin. Foyin realized that it’s a refutation of his views that human could never be a Buddha no matter how hard he tried, but he didn’t willing to admit his mistakes, so he replied with the latter line of the couplet.

Although the couplets are full of irony, they are of great literary value and worth pondering carefully. In each couplet, the two words at the beginning of the phrase can be combined to form the word at the end of the phrase. It is a cleverly conceived pun that it looks like a logograph, but it actually aims to refute Zen master.
In Mr. Xu Yuanchong's translation, he not only retained the connotation of the original text, but also successfully reproduced the original text in the form, sound and meaning with “ Buddhist, bud, and Buddha; maiden, made, and maid”, and retained the basic structure and rhyme.

The examples above show that some puns can be translated by changing the pronunciation and form of the words. We can also find that puns that are currently considered translatable have similar cultural backgrounds in target language and original language, so that translators can find the most appropriate words to translate.

=== Untranslatability of Puns ===

Although translators have made unremitting efforts to turn “untranslatable” puns into “translatable”, there are still many people who think that puns are untranslatable. This chapter will discuss the untranslatability of puns.

A Chinese Scholar Liu Miqing put forward the concept of "translatability limit" in Contemporary Translation Theories, in which he proposed that humor and puns in a language are almost untranslatable. Humor often results from the cleverness and skills of using words. Such words and intentions often disappear in translation of puns .(Liu Miqing, 1998:92)
Those who support the view that puns are untranslatable hold that the historical and cultural backgrounds, psychological thinking habits, regional cultures and religious beliefs of different ethnic groups are reflected in their own languages, so that the languages of various nationalities and countries have their own unique personalities. (Xumin, 2007,196)Therefore, it is impossible to find a word in target language which can completely keep the rhetorical devices, styles, and characteristics of original language. Here are some examples.

Eg. 12. What does the lawyer do after he dies?
He lies still.

(1). 那个律师死后干什么？
静静地躺着。
The word “lies” has two meanings, the first of which is to lie down, the second one is to make up a story, and “still” also conveys double meanings, one of which is motionless, another is as usual. However, the translation can only deliver the first meaning of the two words, so that readers can’t feel it interesting.

Eg.13.A professor tapped on his desk and shouted “ Gentlemen—order!”
The entire class yelled: “Beer!”

一位教授敲着桌子喊道：“先生们，安静！”全班一致回答：“啤酒！”
In the original conversation, the students misinterpreted deliberately teacher’s word—order, means quiet here, into “order something to eat”, but in the translation, the answer of students only expressed the meaning of beer, and the punchline was lost, making the whole sentence unintelligible. It seems impossible to express both meanings in one Chinese word here, and perhaps the best way is to add annotations, however, in this way, the translation can’t keep the form of original text.

All the examples above show that there are limitations of translation. As a translator, we should not only blindly conform to the principles of what is translatable, and untranslatable, instead, we need to improve our literacy and translation skills. We should realize that it is true some words may be untranslatable, but try to find the best way to translate them. One small step for puns’s translation is one big step for literature translation.

=== Corresponding Translation Strategies ===

No matter what kind of translation, it is closely related to the context, the translation of pun is no exception. Translators should not only understand the literal meaning of the original text, but also understand its social and cultural background, otherwise, the originality of the author can’t be understood. The translator obtains the basic meaning, or the superficial meaning of the pun through the source text, and understands the deep meaning of the pun through the illocutionary force.

In the translation of puns, the translator mainly adopts three strategies: literal translation, free translation and annotation. We will analyze which method is more appropriate through the translation of examples in the previous text.

1. Literal translation, the simplest and the most direct translation method, which is to translate source languages directly into the target language according to the literal meaning, while maintaining the same semantics as the original pun. However, it is difficult to express the sense of humor in the original text for some puns translation, and the rhetorical devices of polysemy of the original pun may also be lost. Take translation of examples 2 and 6 as examples,

Eg.(2)国王：我的侄儿，哈姆雷特，我的儿。为什么你满目愁云呢？
哈姆雷特：不，陛下。我在太阳下待得太久了。(Zhao Yuqing, 2019, 196)
Although the literal translation does not directly show the relationship between "sun" and "son", the word “太” implies the meaning of complaint in Chinese. Combining with the context, the word "sun" also represents the king in ancient China, so readers can also feel the deep meaning in the literal translation.

Eg. (5) “我们必须抱成一团，否则我们将会被单独绞死。” (Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196) Through literal translation, this sentence is indeed easy to understand. Readers can figure out the content of the sentence at a glance, but it does not form a pun, and lacks a sense of humor.

2. Free translation is more frequently used in pun translation, which mainly emphasizes on the target language, keeping fluency of the target language and retaining a sense of humor to a great extent. Here are the free translation of the 7th, 13rd and 15th examples.

Eg.(6) 树上不能生钱，但我们“枝”行能啊。(This translation is translated by myself.)

Although it is not the best version, it is also an attempt to translate a pun. We may as well analyze its advantages and disadvantages. In this translation, "枝" is used to represent the word branches, corresponding to the “tree” in first half of the sentence. “枝”and “支” are homonymous, and “支行” refers to branch bank. Marking “枝” with quotation marks, which can easily remind readers of the word "branch" and form a homonymous pun with a light tone. The disadvantage is that the word “枝行” does not exist in Chinese, which may lead to incomprehension to some people and the expression is quite colloquial, being informal if the translation is used in formal occasion.

Eg.(12)那个律师死后还能干什么？
躺着说鬼话。（Ma Hongjun, 2000:34）

The beauty of this translation is that the word “鬼话” in Chinese has both meaning of "ghost’s (dead) words" and "untrue words", which not only retains the form of pun in the target language, but also achieves the effect of humor.

Eg.(14)What’s the flower that everyone have? Tulips.
人人都有什么花？泪花(Ma Hongjun, 2009,16)

The translation may be a controversial one as it actually has changed the original meaning, but keeps the form of pun in original text. In the original text, the answer “tulips” consists of two parts— “ tu” which sounds like “two” and “lips”, but “two lips” has nothing to do with “flower” in Chinese. In this translation, the translator kept the “flower” and gave the answer with another special “flower” that everyone had. Readers can actually feel the pun in the translation, so in my personal opinion, it is a good translation.

3. Annotation is often used when literal translation or free translation can not fully express the meaning of the source text. Its advantage is that it can make the reader fully understand the double meaning of the pun in source text, but the disadvantage is that it will greatly lose the sense of humor of the pun. Therefore, adding annotation is often the last choice in pun translation. Take examples 5 and 14 for example.

Eg.(4) 老师：乔治，你能给我们做林肯的葛底斯堡演讲吗？
乔治：不能，但我能给你林肯住址—他以前住在华盛顿白宫。（address在英文中既有演讲也有住址的意思，乔治还以为老师问他要林肯住址呢）

There is no word in Chinese that has both the meaning of speech and address. Therefore, this translation adopts the method of adding notes and explaining the joke, which can make the language humorous and clear to some extent.

13. 一位教授敲着桌子喊道：“先生们，安静！”全班一致回答：“啤酒！”（order既表安静也有点单之义，学生故意曲解教授意思，让教授哭笑不得）

Readers can easily understand the meaning of this translation, but some underlying punchlines are totally imperceptible.

As an important medium of interlingual and cross-cultural communication, translation itself is an extremely difficult and complex task. In addition, as one of the figures of speech, pun translation is more difficult. Among the three translation strategies in this chapter, I think free translation is the best strategy in pun translation. For example, in the translation of the eg.14, if the literal translation method is used to translate tulip, readers may not know its meaning. But Mr. Ma Hongjun retained the word "flower" in the original text and also gave a hilarious answer. Although it is different from the original meaning, it not only keeps the form of pun, but also conveys double meanings, which in my personal opinion is a good translation.

In short, translators need to take many aspects into consideration when translating puns, and take strategies like literal translation, free translation and annotation or combine various translation strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers. The translation should convey the information in the original text to the target readers as much as possible, and reproduce the rhetorical effect of the original language, so as to promote cultural exchange.

=== Conclusion ===

This paper mainly discusses whether pun is translatable or not. By giving examples of some classic puns, this paper elaborates the classification of puns, and analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of three main strategies in pun translation: literal translation, free translation and annotation.

From my perspective, context is very important in pun translation, and translators need to accurately grasp the author’s ingenious conception in the context, and adopt various methods such as changing pronunciation and form of characters in the target language to find the most appropriate words.
Secondly, the author thinks that free translation is the most appropriate strategy in the three strategies of pun translation, because it is more important for readers to have the same feeling when reading the pun in the translation and in the original text, and to realize the humor and deep meaning. Then is literal translation. However, it seems that the best translated puns in literal translation are those with similar cultural backgrounds in both languages. For example, the word "sun" in example 2 has the meaning of emperor or supreme authority in both the original context and the target language. Therefore, readers can also realize that the translation means something other than what it’s saying. The final choice is annotation, which can express the content of the original text directly, but the sense of humor and the form of pun are lost to a great extent.

Of course, there are still many deficiencies in this paper, for example, the examples is not representative enough; the language is not refined; the classification of puns is not explained in detail, and the translatability and untranslatability of puns are not analyzed according to the text type. The paper can be improved through several aspects below: firstly, by analyzing a large number of classic texts, puns in what kind of text type are translatable, and untranslatable can be summarized. Secondly, deepening the depth of this paper by guiding under a specific theory.

=== References ===

Catford, JC.卡特福德 (1965).翻译的语言学理论 [A Linguistic Theory of Translation]牛津大学出版社 Oxford University Press.93

Cong Laiting, Xu Luya丛莱庭，徐鲁亚. (2007).西方修辞学[Wester Rhetoric].上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press

Yao Jinhong姚金红. (2001).英语双关的修辞特点[ The Rhetorical Features of English Puns] 唐都学刊 Tangdu Journal (17) 161

Tong Kaiwen 佟凯文. (2017) 双关修辞的幽默效用及翻译策略[The Humorous Effect of Rhetoric of Pun and Its Translation Strategy] 英语广场English Square.(11) 021-022

Zhao Yuqing赵雨晴. (2019) 浅析英语双关语及其翻译[Brief Analysis on English Puns and Their Translation].青年文学家Youth Literator (30) 196.

Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin张欢,龚晓斌. (2008) 双关语的可译性限度及其翻译补偿策略初探[The Translatability Limit of Pun and Its Translation Compensation Strategies]牡丹江大学学报 Journal of Mudanjiang University (07) 99-101.

Tong Kaiwen, Li Xianjin佟凯文,李先进. (2017)双关修辞的幽默效用及翻译策略[The Humorous Effect of Pun Rhetoric and Its Translation Strategy] 英语广场English Square (11):51-52.

Cao Shunfa, Huang Jianping曹顺发,黄健平.(2001) 浅谈“双关语”的可译性[ On the Translatability of Puns] 重庆交通学院学报(社会科学版) Journal of Chongqing Jiaotong University ( Social Science) (01):31-32.

Xu Min徐敏. (2007)论双关语的可译性及不可译性[ On the Translatability and Untranslatability of Pun]外语教育Foreign Language Education (00):193-197.

Lu Jie吕杰. (2008)浅论双关的不可译性[ On the Untranslatability of Pun] 科技信息Science and Technology Information (31):145+168.

Wei Lingmin魏玲敏. (2009)浅议双关语的可译性[On the Translatability of Pun]科技信息Science and Technology Information (19):98+93.

An Wenjing安文婧. (2010)双关翻译中的可译性和不可译性以及双关翻译方法[Translatability and Untranslatability of Pun and Its Translation Methods] 中国科教创新导刊 China Education Innovation Heral (05):71-72.

Li Hanji李晗佶. (2013) 双关语的可译性探索[Explorations of Translatability of Pun] 青年文学家 Youth Literator (32):135.

==The Untranslatability of Chinese Classic Poems and its Translation Strategies姚诚 Yao Cheng ==

<center> 姚诚 Yao Cheng 202020080661</center>

===Abstract===
It is commonly believed poetry translation, of all kinds of translation, is the most difficult and demanding, yet possibly most worthy of our study. Though poems translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people remain divided over the translatability and untranslatability of poems and even the definition of untranslatability. This paper will discuss the translatability and untranslatability of poems from the perspectives of imagery, “yijing”, the use of allusion, sound and form. Then some corresponding strategies will be given so as to guide our poetry translation practice.

It is commonly believed poetry translation, of all kinds of translation, is the most difficult and demanding, yet possibly most worthy of our studying. Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people remain divided over the translatability and untranslatability of poems and even the definition of untranslatability. This paper will discuss the translatability and untranslatability of poetry from the perspectives of imagery, “yijing”, the use of allusion, sound and form. Then some corresponding strategies will be given so as to guide our poetry translation practice.--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 02:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===Key words===
poetry translation, untranslatability, translatability, translation strategies
===摘要===
通常认为，诗歌翻译是所有文本类型翻译中难度最大，要求最高，甚至可能是最有研究价值的类型。虽然人们一直在进行翻译实践，关于诗歌翻译的理论数量也远远多于散文或者诗歌翻译的理论，但是对于诗歌可译与否甚至是可译性的定义都有很大的争议。此文将首先讨论不可译性的本质，然后分别从诗歌的意象，意境，典故使用，声音和形式这几个方面讨论诗歌的可译性，然后提出一些相应的翻译策略以指导我们的翻译实践。

===关键词===
诗歌翻译，不可译性，可译性，翻译策略
===Introduction===
Poetry is some sort of art that raises our sensuality of beauty through language. Through poetry, poets are able to express their pleasure, anger, sorrow and joy in a specific way which concentrates on sense, sound, rhyme, and now in a direct now in an oblique manner. In poems powerful emotions, remarkable imagination, bountiful rhetoric, and musical rhymes can be easily found. These elements altogether create the uniqueness of poetry. However, facing with the same Muse, an Englishmen, a Germany or a Greek may adapt a different way to present it since poetry owing to its artistic features, is deeply rooted in its native culture. Consequently, poems though may be appreciated by readers, they can be hardly reproduced by translators.(Li Haiyan,2000(04):155-158)

Poetry is a sort of art that raises our sensuality of beauty through language. Through poetry, poets are able to express their pleasure, anger, sorrow and joy in a specific way which concentrates on sense, sound, rhyme, and now in a direct now in an oblique manner. In poetry powerful emotions, remarkable imagination, bountiful rhetoric, and musical rhymes can be easily found. These elements altogether create the uniqueness of poetry. However, facing with the same Muse, an Englishmen, a Germany or a Greek may adapt a different way to present it since poetry owing to its artistic features, is deeply rooted in its native culture. Consequently, poetry though may be appreciated by readers, they can be hardly reproduced by translators.(Li Haiyan,2000(04):155-158)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 03:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people’ opinion about the translatability and untranslatability of poems remain divided. Some translation theorists and translators seem to agree with translatability for the fact that there exist common grounds of culture in different nations. Such common grounds make it possible for people of different nation and culture to communicate with each other and such possibility constitutes the basis of the translatability of poems: these common grounds enables people of different culture and nation to appreciate the meaning and emotion of poems and echo with each other though they are written in different language(Rao Weimin 2012,14).

Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people’ opinions about the translatability and untranslatability of poems remain divided. Some translation theorists and translators seem to agree with translatability for the fact that there exist common grounds of culture in different nations. Such common grounds make it possible for people of different nation and culture to communicate with each other and such possibility constitutes the basis of the translatability of poems: these common grounds enables people of different culture and nation to appreciate the meaning and emotion of poems and echo with each other though they are written in different languages(Rao Weimin 2012,14).--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 03:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

However, different nations also greatly differ from each other in historical reality which bring us to the very discussion of untranslatability. As poems are mainly appreciated from sense, sound and form, the untranslatability will be further argued in these three aspects. Then some corresponding strategies will be discussed to guide our actual translation practice.(Rao Weimin 2012,14(06):27-29)

However, different nations also greatly differ from each other in historical reality which bring us to the very discussion of untranslatability. As poems are mainly appreciated from sense, sound and form, the untranslatability will be further argued in these three aspects. Then some corresponding strategies will be discussed to guide our translation practice.(Rao Weimin 2012,14(06):27-29)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 03:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===The untranslatability of poetry===
====The nature of untranslatability====
Though there are numerous scholars in home and abroad believe that poetry is untranslatable for example Xu Guangqian, Wang Yizhu, Yu Guangzhong, Shelley, Robert Frost etc, people appear to hold different definition of untranslatability. Catford thinks that both language and cultural are untranslatable to some degree. Linguistic untranslatability exists in the inaccurate correspondence of different linguistic structure while cultural untranslatability is shown by the bare correspondence of meaning connoted in different culture.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296)

Though there are numerous scholars at home and abroad believe that poetry is untranslatable for example Xu Guangqian, Wang Yizhu, Yu Guangzhong, Shelley, Robert Frost etc, people appear to hold different definition of untranslatability. Catford thinks that both language and cultural are untranslatable to some degree. Linguistic untranslatability exists in the inaccurate correspondence of different linguistic structure while cultural untranslatability is shown by the bare correspondence of meaning connoted in different culture.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 03:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

But Bassnett holds that the untranslatability nature should be discussed in the role that the context plays during the translation process. Few translations are totally untranslatable while many untranslatable sentences manifested by the lack of cultural correspondence can be compensated or replaced with translation methods.
Some scholar simply maintained that the translatability of poetry means that possibility of poetry translation while equating untranslatability to the difficulties in translation(Rao Weimin 2012,14).

But Bassnett holds that the untranslatability nature should be discussed in the role that the context plays during the translation process. Few translations are totally untranslatable while many untranslatable sentences manifested by the lack of cultural correspondence can be compensated or replaced with translation methods.
Some scholars simply maintain that the translatability of poetry means that possibility of poetry translation while equating untranslatability to the difficulties in translation(Rao Weimin 2012,14).--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 05:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

For example
“人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。女卑为婢，女又可称奴。”
The first part of the couplet was made by Su Xiaomei, sister of Su Dongpo with intention to ridicule Fo Yin and the second part was completed by Fo Yin as a response to Su Xiaomei. This antithetical and net couplet is famous for the meaning connoted in the form and anagram game. It was thought to be totally untranslatable until Xu Yuanchong gave his translation:
“A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha
A maiden maybe made a house maid”(Rao Weimin 2012,14)

For example
“人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。女卑为婢，女又可称奴。”
The first part of the couplet was made by Su Xiaomei, sister of Su Dongpo with intention to ridicule Fo Yin and the second part was completed by Fo Yin as a response to Su Xiaomei. This antithetical and net couplet is famous for the meaning connoted in the form and anagram game. It was thought to be totally untranslatable until Xu Yuanchong gave his translation:
“A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha
A maiden maybe made a house maid”(Rao Weimin 2012,14)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 05:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Xu Yuanchong’s translation is undoubtedly an excellent one no matter in its meaning or antithesis. Thus, they concluded that form the point of historical development, the translatability nature runs though poetry translation while the untranslatability nature is temporary and can be eliminated as long as the difficulties are solved.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)

Xu Yuanchong’s translation is undoubtedly an excellent one no matter in its meaning or antithesis. Thus, some scholars conclude that form the point of historical development, the translatability nature runs though poetry translation while the untranslatability nature is temporary and can be eliminated as long as the difficulties are solved.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

However, Xu Yuanchong himself appears to stand against this idea. In his opinion, a translated poem is the crystallization of the enormous efforts made both by the original poet and translator. when the original poet is compared to a father, the translator can be considered to be the mother and the translated poem a child. The child will never be utterly same to neither his father nor his mother. The same is also true of poem translation. The translated poem won’t be exactly the same as the original poem not will it be reproduced without the influence of the translator. (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)

However, Xu Yuanchong himself appears to stand against this idea. In his opinion, a translated poem is the crystallization of the enormous efforts made both by the original poet and translator. when the original poet is compared to a father, the translator can be considered to be the mother and the translated poem a child. The child will never be utterly same to neither his father nor his mother. The same is also true of poem translation. The translated poem won’t be exactly the same as the original poem not will it be reproduced without the influence of the translator. (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Thus, Xu Yuanchong concluded there is no such question of translatability or untranslatability but the matter of the degree a poem can be translated to. Xu Yuanchong gives the following example:
“流水落花春去也, 天上人间”
Any translation of a poem should take various functions at different levels into consideration. Take meaning for example, what is concerned with the reality or thoughts about the world the poet wants to deliver is commonly regarded as the core of the reproduction. However. The author’s thought is usually connoted in the poem which leads to different interpretation or understanding of the poem. As understanding is the first step in any translation, there would be different kinds of translation of one poem according to the translator’s understanding. And there are at least four versions of translation of this verse:(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)

Thus, Xu Yuanchong concludes there is no such question of translatability or untranslatability but the matter of the degree a poem can be translated to. Xu Yuanchong gives the following example:
“流水落花春去也, 天上人间”
Any translation of a poem should take various functions at different levels into consideration. Take meaning for example, what is concerned with the reality or thoughts about the world the poet wants to deliver is commonly regarded as the core of the reproduction. However. The author’s thought is usually connoted in the poem which leads to different interpretation or understanding of the poem. As understanding is the first step in any translation, there would be different kinds of translation of one poem according to the translator’s understanding. And there are at least four versions of translation of this verse:(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)
--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

(1)“Flowing waters and faded flowers are gone forever
As far apart as heaven is form earth” (Tr. Chu Dagao)

(2)“The river flows –
The blossoms fall –
Spring going – gone
in Heaven as on earth ”(Tr. Lin Tongji)

(3)“One’s spring and youth has passed
never to return
One’s destiny is not of heaven’s
Concern.” (Tr. Xu Zhongjie)

(4)“Without flowers fallen on the waves
Spring’s gone away
So is the paradise of yesterday.” (Tr. X.Y.Z) (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)
--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Xu Yuanchong argues since there are at least 4 versions of translation, poetry is of course translatable. Also, similarities and differences can be easily found in the four translated work. Then similarities represent what the original poet wants to convey and the differences exhibit different expression methods adopted by the translator. Different expression methods also reveal the “translated degree” which means to which degree a poem is subjectively translated by the author within his ability. Then “translatable degree” should be discriminated form “translatable degree” which refers to the degree to which a poem can be objectively translated.(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)

Xu Yuanchong argues since there are at least 4 versions of translation, poetry is of course translatable. Also, similarities and differences can be easily found in the four translated work. Then similarities represent what the original poet wants to convey and the differences exhibit different expression methods adopted by the translator. Different expression methods also reveal the “translated degree” which means to which degree a poem is subjectively translated by the translator within his ability. Then “translatable degree” should be discriminated form “translatable degree” which refers to the degree to which a poem can be objectively translated.(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

When Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。女卑为婢，女又可称奴。” is reassessed with his definition of “translated degree” and “translatable degree”, it is clear that the difficulties that others equate untranslatability to fall into the category of “translated degree”.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)

When Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。女卑为婢，女又可称奴。” is reassessed with his definition of “translated degree” and “translatable degree”, it is clear that the difficulties that others equate untranslatability falls into the category of “translated degree”.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Since Xu Yuanchong solved the problem of meaning and anagram game but the form is not fully translated at least in this point: in the original verse, two short clauses “人曾是僧” and ”人弗能成佛” altogether constitute the whole meaning, but in the translation “A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha“ there is only one complete sentence. In this sense, this couple is only translatable to a certain degree. So our discussion of translatability will be confined to the field of “translatable degree”(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)

Since Xu Yuanchong solved the problem of meaning and anagram game but the form is not fully translated at least to this point: in the original verse, two short clauses “人曾是僧” and ”人弗能成佛” altogether constitute the whole meaning, but in the translation “A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha“ there is only one complete sentence. In this sense, this couple is only translatable to a certain degree. So our discussion of translatability will be confined to the field of “translatable degree”(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====The untranslatability of imagery====
Image is defined by J.A. Cuddon to be a general term that covers the use of language to represent objects, actions, feelings, thoughts, ideas, states of mind and any sensory or ex-sensory experience (1998:413). Qin Xiubai believes, “imagery is the soul of poetry”. This illustrates the critical status of imagery in literary translation, especially in poetry translation. Though Chinese and foreign poets attach great importance to the use of imagery, they, due to disparities in social and cultural background, differ from each other in tradition, ideology and mode of thinking. (Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)

Image is defined by J.A. Cuddon to be a general term that covers the use of language to represent objects, actions, feelings, thoughts, ideas, states of mind and any sensory or ex-sensory experience (1998:413). Qin Xiubai believes, “imagery is the soul of poetry”. It illustrates the critical status of imagery in literary translation, especially in poetry translation. Though Chinese and foreign poets attach great importance to the use of imagery, they, due to disparities in social and cultural background, differ from each other in tradition, ideology and mode of thinking. (Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

When comparison is made between Chinese and Western imagery theory, we can conclude the following features of Chinese imagery:
At first, imageries in ancient Chinese place overwhelming importance on the meaning an imagery delivers rather than the imagery itself. Chinese tend to express their feelings in a very implicit way. The use of imageries consequently became prevalent among Chinese poet. As a result, imageries turn out to be the organic combination of the subjective feeling and an object. For example，“浮云游子意，落日故人情”（李白《送友人》） and “杨柳岸，晓风残月”（柳永《雨铃》）.(Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)

When comparison is made between Chinese and Western imagery theory, we can conclude the following features of Chinese imagery:
First, imageries in ancient Chinese place overwhelming importance on the meaning an imagery delivers rather than the imagery itself. Chinese tend to express their feelings in a very implicit way. The use of imageries consequently became prevalent among Chinese poet. As a result, imageries turn out to be the organic combination of the subjective feeling and an object. For example，“浮云游子意，落日故人情”（李白《送友人》） and “杨柳岸，晓风残月”（柳永《雨铃》）.(Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Chinse imagerys boast unique connoted meaning. “浮云”(floating clouds)”落日” (setting sun)、”杨柳”(willow) 、”晓风”(breeze) 、”残月” (wane moon)are typical imageries that Chinese poets used to express the feeing of farewell. When these imageries are literally translated, it can barely intrigue the same feeling in target readers. Another example can also clearly explain this untranslatability of imageries of Chinese poetry. “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is commonly employed by poets to express the lovesickness while “wild swan” or “wild geese” is but some sort of bird. When “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is simply translated into “wild swan” or “wild geese”, English readers can’t appreciate the translated work as much Chinese reader appreciate the original poem due to the untranslatability of imagery（Yang Qun & Liuyi, 2005(06):93-95+106）.

Chinse imageries boast unique connoted meaning. “浮云”(floating clouds)”落日” (setting sun)、”杨柳”(willow) 、”晓风”(breeze) 、”残月” (wane moon)are typical imageries that Chinese poets used to express the feeing of farewell. When these imageries are literally translated, it can barely intrigue the same feeling in target readers. Another example can also clearly explain this untranslatability of imageries of Chinese poetry. “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is commonly employed by poets to express the lovesickness while “wild swan” or “wild geese” is but some sort of bird. When “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is simply translated into “wild swan” or “wild geese”, English readers can’t appreciate the translated work as much Chinese reader appreciate the original poem due to the untranslatability of imagery（Yang Qun & Liuyi, 2005(06):93-95+106）.--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

On the basis of its appealing to human sense, five types of imagery can be outlined as follows: visual imagery, aural or auditory imagery, tactile imagery, olfactory imagery and other sensory imagery. In addition, since any subject in the globe is either static or dynamic, imageries can also be divided into static and dynamic imagery. Then there come to the other prominent feature of imagery of Chinese poetry: Chinese much prefer static imageries to dynamic ones. Static imagery is comprised of adjectives and adjective phrase, nouns and nouns phrase as well. (Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)

On the basis of its appeal to human sense, five types of imagery can be outlined as follows: visual imagery, aural or auditory imagery, tactile imagery, olfactory imagery and other sensory imagery. In addition, since any subject in the globe is either static or dynamic, imageries can also be divided into static and dynamic imagery. Then there come to the other prominent feature of imagery of Chinese poetry: Chinese much prefer static imageries to dynamic ones. Static imagery is comprised of adjectives and adjective phrase, nouns and nouns phrase as well. (Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

For instance, in the Chinese poem 《早发白帝城》 by Li Bai
“朝辞白帝彩云间，千里江陵一日还。两岸猿声啼不住，轻舟已过万重山。”
At dawn I left the walled city of White King,
Towering among the many-colored clouds;
And came down stream in a day One thousand li to Jiangling.
The screams of monkeys on either bank
Had scarcely ceased echoing in my ear
When my skiff had left behind it
Ten thousand ranges of hills(Tr. Wang Jianjun)(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)

For instance, in the Chinese poem 《早发白帝城》 by Li Bai
“朝辞白帝彩云间，千里江陵一日还。两岸猿声啼不住，轻舟已过万重山。”
At dawn I left the walled city of White King,
Towering among the many-colored clouds;
And came down stream in a day One thousand li to Jiangling.
The screams of monkeys on either bank
Had scarcely ceased echoing in my ear
When my skiff had left behind it
Ten thousand ranges of hills(Tr. Wang Jianjun)(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

“彩云”(colored clouds)、“轻舟”（skiff）、“万重山”（Ten thousand ranges of hills） can be categorized into static imagery. These three images are not only the objects the poet describes, but the very psychology equivalence reflecting the poet’s feeling. The poet express his great delight upon his absolved from exile through the image “彩云”while “轻舟”passing“万重山”shows the poet’ eager to return home. Reading the translated work, readers can hardly grasp the mood of the original poet. Despite the large quantity of static imagery, the use of dynamic is vivid and picture-evoking.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)

“彩云”(colored clouds)、“轻舟”（skiff）、“万重山”（Ten thousand ranges of hills） can be categorized into static imagery. These three images are not only the objects the poet describes, but the very psychology equivalence reflecting the poet’s feeling. The poet express his great delight upon his absolved from exile through the image “彩云”while “轻舟”passing“万重山”shows the poet’ eager to return home. Reading the translated work, readers can hardly grasp the mood of the original poet. Despite the large quantity of static imagery, the use of the dynamic imagery is vivid and picture-evoking.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Dynamic imagery refers to the dynamic description in chinse ancient poems such as imageries presented by the verbs of “还” and “过” use in Li Bai’s《早发白帝城》.There are other abundant examples of dynamic imagery: “绿” in “春风又绿江南岸”(王安石《泊船瓜洲》), “闹” in “红杏枝头春意闹”（宋祁《木兰花》）and “弄” in “云破月来花弄影”（张先《天仙子》）bring enormous vivacities to these verses. But such dynamic imageries can’t be hardly translated since exactly corresponded words can’t be found. Even so, the mood can barely be reproduced as “还” and “过” in examples above are translated into ”came down” and “left behind”.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)

Dynamic imagery refers to the dynamic description in Chinse ancient poems such as imageries presented by the verbs of “还” and “过” use in Li Bai’s《早发白帝城》.There are other abundant examples of dynamic imagery: “绿” in “春风又绿江南岸”(王安石《泊船瓜洲》), “闹” in “红杏枝头春意闹”（宋祁《木兰花》）and “弄” in “云破月来花弄影”（张先《天仙子》）bring enormous vivacities to these verses. But such dynamic imageries can’t be hardly translated since exactly corresponded words can’t be found. Even so, the mood can barely be reproduced as “还” and “过” in examples above are translated into ”came down” and “left behind”.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====The untranslatability of “yijing”====
The artistic kingdom has been sung high of throughout the history of Chinese poetry development, and assigned the name as “意境”(“yijing”). The phrase “意境” was translated into “artistic conception” or “ideorealm” by some. However, both of these two terms fail to fully express the core of “意境”（”yijing” ). ”yijing”, too mysterious and intangible as it is, is deemed to be the sprit of poetry. Though “yijing” originated from imagery, it is never a simple aggregate of images but an organic integration of imagery. Poets us concrete images to express their feeling and these two elements then become fully blended in “yijing” which altogether brings and far-retching philosophical effects.(Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto, 2015(12):5-6+34)

The artistic kingdom has been sung high of it throughout the history of Chinese poetry development, and assigned the name as “意境”(“yijing”). The phrase “意境” was translated into “artistic conception” or “ideorealm” by some. However, both of these two terms fail to fully express the core of “意境”（”yijing” ). ”yijing”, too mysterious and intangible as it is, is deemed to be the sprit of poetry. Though “yijing” originated from imagery, it is never a simple aggregate of images but an organic integration of imagery. Poets use concrete images to express their feeling and these two elements then become fully blended in “yijing” which altogether brings and far-retching philosophical effects.(Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto, 2015(12):5-6+34)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

For example, in 《江雪》(柳宗元)
千山鸟飞绝，万径人踪灭。
孤舟蓑笠翁，独钓寒江雪。”
River Snow
A hundred mountains and no bird,
A thousand paths without a footprint;
A little boat, a bamboo cloak,
An old man fishing in the cold river-snow. （Tr. Witter Bynner）(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87)

For example, in 《江雪》(柳宗元)
千山鸟飞绝，万径人踪灭。
孤舟蓑笠翁，独钓寒江雪。”
River Snow
A hundred mountains and no bird,
A thousand paths without a footprint;
A little boat, a bamboo cloak,
An old man fishing in the cold river-snow. （Tr. Witter Bynner）(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

At first glance, the poem seems to present a snow picture. However, through images including “大雪”、 “孤舟”、 “老渔翁”、 “寒江”、 “鸟飞绝” and “人踪灭”, a vivid picture of an old man fishing alone in the wild cold snow unfolds before our eyes and delivers us the image of the old fishman who exhibits loneliness and pride and forbears no sacrilege. In actuality, this old man by which the poet expresses his thought of getting rid of the secular and holding himself aloof from the world, is an incarnation of the poets’ sprit. Though any single image has no specific meaning, the organic integration of thess simple images attributes to the profound “yijing” which is exactly the charm of Chinese poems. However, in Bynner’s translation, nothing but a snow picture can be seen.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87)

At first glance, the poem seems to present a snow picture. However, through images including “大雪”、 “孤舟”、 “老渔翁”、 “寒江”、 “鸟飞绝” and “人踪灭”, a vivid picture of an old man fishing alone in the wild cold snow unfolds before our eyes and delivers us the image of the old fishman who exhibits loneliness and pride and forbears no sacrilege. Actually, this old man by which the poet expresses his thought of getting rid of the secular and holding himself aloof from the world, is an incarnation of the poets’ sprit. Though any single image has no specific meaning, the organic integration of thess simple images attributes to the profound “yijing” which is exactly the charm of Chinese poems. However, in Bynner’s translation, nothing but a snow picture can be seen.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The other typical example is 《天净沙》（马致远）
“枯藤老树昏鸦，
小桥流水人家，
古道西风瘦马。
夕阳西下，
断肠人在天涯。”
It seems that the poet randomly puts “枯藤”、“老树”、“昏鸦” and other 7 images together, but the last sentence“断肠人在天涯” fully revels the core concept of the poem and leave us roomy space for imagination. When Chinese sentence characterized by parataxis is translated into English features hypotaxis, the beauty of “yijing” of Chinese classical poetry vanishes to a large degree, if not completely.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87)

The other typical example is 《天净沙》（马致远）
“枯藤老树昏鸦，
小桥流水人家，
古道西风瘦马。
夕阳西下，
断肠人在天涯。”
It seems that the poet randomly puts “枯藤”、“老树”、“昏鸦” and other 7 images together, but the last sentence“断肠人在天涯” fully revels the core concept of the poem and leaves us roomy space for imagination. When Chinese sentence characterized by parataxis is translated into English features hypotaxis, the beauty of “yijing” of Chinese classical poetry vanishes to a large degree, if not completely.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====The untranslatability of allusion====
As a gem of Chinese national culture, allusion is characterized by rich cultural connation, highly-concentrated structure and compact expression. In the course of more than five thousand years, numerous Chinese allusions are widely spread. Poets, to avoid direct expression of feeling, would naturally resort to such allusions like myth, legends, or historic event. Due to cultural difference, western reader can hardly understand what is connoted in the poem as much as Chinese reader can appreciate.(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38).

As a gem of Chinese national culture, allusion is characterized by rich cultural connation, highly-concentrated structure and compact expression. In the course of more than five thousand years, numerous Chinese allusions are widely spread. Poets, to avoid direct expression of feelings, would naturally resort to such allusions like myth, legends, or historic event. Due to cultural difference, western reader can hardly understand what is connoted in the poem as much as Chinese reader can appreciate.(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

If these allusions are translated completely translated by explanation, the whole translated poem will be lengthy and no longer be poem in form. On the contrary, if the allusion is simplified, connotations and space for imagination would no longer exist(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38).

If these allusions are translated completely by explanation, the whole translated poem will be lengthy and no longer be poem in form. On the contrary, if the allusion is simplified, connotations and space for imagination would no longer exist(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

For example:
古别离
孟郊
欲去牵郎衣，郎今何处去？
不恨归来迟，莫向临邛去！
You wish to go, and let your robe I hold.
Where are you going- tell me, dear – today.
Your late returning does not anger me,
But the another steal your heart away. (Tr. Fletcher)(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38).
For example:
古别离
孟郊
欲去牵郎衣，郎今何处去？
不恨归来迟，莫向临邛去！
You wish to go, and let your robe I hold.
Where are you going- tell me, dear – today.
Your late returning does not anger me,
But the another steal your heart away. (Tr. Fletcher)(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Undoubtedly, the basic meaning is reproduced when “莫向临邛去” was translated into “But the another steal your heart away.” However, the loss of image leads to the deviation of original information. Actually, “临邛” in the original poem is an allusion which tells the love story between Sima Xiangru, an prominent litterateur of West Han dynasty and an widow Zhuo Wenjun. The widow dared to break tradition hierarchy and ran way with the litterateur and married him at last. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38).

Undoubtedly, the basic meaning is reproduced when “莫向临邛去” is translated into “But the another steal your heart away.” However, the loss of image leads to the deviation of original information. Actually, “临邛” in the original poem is an allusion which tells the love story between Sima Xiangru, an prominent litterateur of West Han dynasty and an widow Zhuo Wenjun. The widow dared to break tradition hierarchy and ran way with the litterateur and married him at last. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Obviously, here “临邛” is no longer a name for a place but a media the poet used to express the widow’s anxiety that her husband would fall in love with someone else in his journey. This anxiety is implicitly express in the original poem. However, the translated poem delivers this feeling in a blunt and frank manner, which doesn’t coincide with the characteristic of ancient Chinese women(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). Thus, the translation is by no means the perfect reproduction of the original poem. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38).

Obviously, here “临邛” is no longer a name for a place but a media the poet used to express the widow’s anxiety that her husband would fall in love with someone else in his journey. This anxiety is implicitly expressed in the original poem. However, the translated poem delivers this feeling in a blunt and frank manner, which doesn’t coincide with the characteristic of ancient Chinese women(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). Thus, the translation is by no means the perfect reproduction of the original poem. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The translation of《琴瑟》（李商隐） can also illustrate this point:
锦瑟无端五十弦, 一弦一柱思年华。
庄生晓梦迷蝴蝶, 望帝春心托杜鹃。
沧海月明珠有泪, 蓝田日暖玉生烟。
此情可待成追忆, 只是当时已惘然。
“Why should the sad zither have fifty strings?
Each string, each strain evokes but vanished springs:
Dim morning dream to be a butterfly;
Amorous heart poured out in cuckoo’s cry.
In moonlit pearls see tears in mermaid’s eyes;
From sunburnt emerald let vaporize!
Such feeling cannot be recalled again:
It seemed lost even when it was felt then.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）

The translation of《琴瑟》（李商隐） can also illustrate this point:
锦瑟无端五十弦, 一弦一柱思年华。
庄生晓梦迷蝴蝶, 望帝春心托杜鹃。
沧海月明珠有泪, 蓝田日暖玉生烟。
此情可待成追忆, 只是当时已惘然。
“Why should the sad zither have fifty strings?
Each string, each strain evokes but vanished springs:
Dim morning dream to be a butterfly;
Amorous heart poured out in cuckoo’s cry.
In moonlit pearls see tears in mermaid’s eyes;
From sunburnt emerald let vaporize!
Such feeling cannot be recalled again:
It seemed lost even when it was felt then.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Five allusion including “琴瑟”、 “庄周梦蝶”、“望帝春心”、“沧海月明”、“蓝天” in used in a poem of only 64 words to express the beaty of obscurity. Though Xu used interrogative and exclamatory sentence as well as such words like “amorous”、”cry” to reproduce this beauty. Butt westers, with little knowledge of Chinese culture will be confused by the relationship between of “string” and ”vanished things” or the connotation of “butterfly”、“cuckoo” and “pearls”.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）

Five allusion including “琴瑟”、 “庄周梦蝶”、“望帝春心”、“沧海月明”、“蓝天” are used in a poem of only 64 words to express the beaty of obscurity. Though Xu used interrogative and exclamatory sentence as well as such words like “amorous”、”cry” to reproduce this beauty. Butt westers, with little knowledge of Chinese culture will be confused by the relationship between of “string” and ”vanished things” or the connotation of “butterfly”、“cuckoo” and “pearls”.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====The untranslatability of sound====
Poetic language has a natural connection with sound. The monosyllable nature and the four tones of Chinese character make it possible for Chinese poets to have a sometime deep, sometime high rhyme and rhythm which however are hardly limited in Chinese poem for the following three aspect: the harmonious balance between level and oblique tones, requirement for antithesis and rhyme which means the regular repetition of the same vowel. However, it is still much more difficult for English poets to enhance the musicality due to the uncertain syllable of words, stress shift between words, and limitation of rhyme. Consequently, the beauty of sound itself of Chinese classical poems can barely reproduced in English(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158).

Poetic language has a natural connection with sound. The monosyllable nature and the four tones of Chinese character make it possible for Chinese poets to have a sometime deep, sometime high rhyme and rhythm which however are hardly limited in Chinese poem for the following three aspect: the harmonious balance between level and oblique tones, requirement for antithesis and rhyme which means the regular repetition of the same vowel. However, it is still much more difficult for English poets to enhance the musicality due to the uncertain syllable of words, stress shift between words, and limitation of rhyme. Consequently, the beauty of sound itself of Chinese classical poems can barely be reproduced in English(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158).--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

For example,
海水朝朝朝朝朝朝朝落,
浮云长长长长长长长消。
Sea waters tide, day to day tide, everyday tide and everyday ebb.
Floating clouds appear, often appear, often appear and often go (Tr. Nida)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)
Though the meaning of the original poem was fully translated, but the reiterative locution, reduplication words and antithesis which can impress the original reader at their first glance disappear.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)

For example,
海水朝朝朝朝朝朝朝落,
浮云长长长长长长长消。
Sea waters tide, day to day tide, everyday tide and everyday ebb.
Floating clouds appear, often appear, often appear and often go (Tr. Nida)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)
Though the meaning of the original poem was fully translated, the reiterative locution, reduplication words and antithesis which can impress the original reader at their first glance disappear.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Here is the other example；
“寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。《声声慢》（李清照）
“Seek, seek, search, search,”
Cold, cold, bare, bare,
Grief, grief, cruel, cruel grief,
Now warm, then like an autumn
Cold again
How hard to calm the heart. (Tr. Clara Candlin)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)

Here is anther example；
“寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。《声声慢》（李清照）
“Seek, seek, search, search,”
Cold, cold, bare, bare,
Grief, grief, cruel, cruel grief,
Now warm, then like an autumn
Cold again
How hard to calm the heart. (Tr. Clara Candlin)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

There are seven couple of reduplication words bring the musicality that remind us the poet’s deep sorrow and grief though no single word regarding to sadness is used. The translated works is pale when compared to the original poem in terms of neither meter nor”yijing”. The word-for-word translation in attempt to maintain the repetition of sound reduces the sense of beauty to the most and can scarcely trigger the deep sorrow and grief in the target reader.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)

There are seven couples of reduplication words bringing the musicality that remind us the poet’s deep sorrow and grief though no single word regarding to sadness is used. The translated works is pale when compared to the original poem in terms of neither meter nor”yijing”. The word-for-word translation in attempt to maintain the repetition of sound reduces the sense of beauty to the most and can scarcely trigger the deep sorrow and grief in the target reader.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====The untranslatability of from====
Since Aristotle, heated debates on the difference of poetry and prose have been hold. Yet, poetry should be discriminated from prose in the first place for its form. A translated poetry must be poetry in form for the following reason: at first, the charm of a poem somewhat lies in the beauty of form. Second, target readers should have accesses to the feature and charm of the original poetry, and it is the supreme duty of the translator to ensure that to happen. Third, the translator should be royal to the original poem. However, because of the opaqueness and connotation pervading in Chinse poems, translator in one way or other are prone to translate them into poetry and thus the beauty of form is lost.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)

Since Aristotle, heated debates on the difference of poetry and prose have been hold. Yet, poetry should be discriminated from prose in the first place for its form. A translated poetry must be poetry in form for the following reason: first, the charm of a poem somewhat lies in the beauty of form. Second, target readers should have accesses to the feature and charm of the original poetry, and it is the supreme duty of the translator to ensure that to happen. Third, the translator should be royal to the original poem. However, because of the opaqueness and connotation pervading in Chinse poems, translator in one way or other are prone to translate them into poetry and thus the beauty of form is lost.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Even though the translator is determined to keep the original form, he can hardly do so. As mentioned earlier, because of implicit character of Chinese, they tend to express their intention or feeling in a direct way so much so that some special form in adopted in classic poetry such as the anagram mentioned earlier.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)

Even though the translator is determined to keep the original form, he can hardly do so. As mentioned earlier, because of implicit character of Chinese, they tend to express their intention or feeling in a direct way so much so that some special forms are adopted in classic poetry such as the anagram mentioned earlier.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

凡鸟偏从末世来，都知爱慕此生才。
一从二令三人木，哭向金陵事更哀。

This bird appears when the world falls on evil times;
None but admires her talents and her skill,
First she complies, then commands, then is dismissed,
Departing in tears to Jinling more wretched still. (Tr. Yang xianyi & Gladys)

This phoenix in a bad time came,
All praised her great ability.
“Two” makes my riddle with a man and a tree,
Returning south in tears she met calamity. (Tr. David Hawkes)(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)

凡鸟偏从末世来，都知爱慕此生才。
一从二令三人木，哭向金陵事更哀。

This bird appears when the world falls on evil times;
None but admires her talents and her skill,
First she complies, then commands, then is dismissed,
Departing in tears to Jinling more wretched still. (Tr. Yang xianyi & Gladys)

This phoenix in a bad time came,
All praised her great ability.
“Two” makes my riddle with a man and a tree,
Returning south in tears she met calamity. (Tr. David Hawkes)(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The original poem was use by Cao Xueqin to make hints of Wang Xifeng’s destiny. Here, “凡” and “鸟” altogether constitute the traditional Chinese character “鳳” which refers to the word “feng” of Lady Wang Xingfeng. Thus, the first couplet tells us though Wang is lady of high caliber but she came at a bad time. Neither “bird” nor “phoenix” can deliver us this hint. Also in the first part of the second couplet, “木” and “人” make the character “休” (“repudiation”) which implies Wang Xifeng would be dismissed by her husband at last. Though the first translation literally tells us her destiny, the anagram is gone. (Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)

The original poem was used by Cao Xueqin to make hints of Wang Xifeng’s destiny. Here, “凡” and “鸟” altogether constitute the traditional Chinese character “鳳” which refers to the word “feng” of Lady Wang Xingfeng. Thus, the first couplet tells us though Wang is lady of high caliber but she came at a bad time. Neither “bird” nor “phoenix” can deliver us this hint. Also in the first part of the second couplet, “木” and “人” make the character “休” (“repudiation”) which implies Wang Xifeng would be dismissed by her husband at last. Though the first translation literally tells us her destiny, the anagram is gone. (Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

It is still worser of the second translation, target reader will be utterly confused when he come to “‘Two’ makes my riddle with a man and a tree,”(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)

It is still worser of the second translation that the target reader will be utterly confused when he come to “‘Two’ makes my riddle with a man and a tree,”(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Translation strategies of Chinese classical poetry===
====Addition of word====
Chinese classical poetry features terse wording so much so that some words are omitted. Thus, considerable words should be added to make the translation more exact in sense. For example,(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)

Chinese classical poetry features terse wording so much that some words are omitted. Thus, considerable words should be added to make the translation more exact in sense. For example,(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

“十年生死两茫茫”
“Ten years now, I’m here, you’re gone. Though not thought, not forgot.”
“For ten long years, the living of the dead knows nought.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)

“十年生死两茫茫”
“Ten years now, I’m here, you’re gone. Though not thought, not forgot.”
“For ten long years, the living of the dead knows nought.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In the second translation, the preposition “for” is added to meet English expression and more importantly, it can strength readers’ feeling the span of time and echo the grief.
Besides, connotation should added to prevent target reader from confusion resulted from culture difference.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)

In the second translation, the preposition “for” is added to meet English expression and more importantly, it can strength readers’ feeling of the span of time and echo the grief.
Besides, connotation should added to prevent target reader from confusion resulted from culture difference.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

For example,
“纤云弄巧，飞星传恨，银汉迢迢暗渡”
“Clouds float like works of art，Stars shoot with grief at heart．
Across the Milky Way the Cowherd meets the Maid ( In a fairy tale in ancient China，the Cowherd and the Maid were married，but theywere restricted by the Queen Mother to meet each other once a year) ”，An allusion is used for the implicit expression of lovesickness, it would be extremely difficult for target readers to appreciate the full sense of this poem.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)

For example,
“纤云弄巧，飞星传恨，银汉迢迢暗渡”
“Clouds float like works of art，Stars shoot with grief at heart．
Across the Milky Way the Cowherd meets the Maid ( In a fairy tale in ancient China，the Cowherd and the Maid were married，but theywere restricted by the Queen Mother to meet each other once a year) ”，an allusion is used for the implicit expression of lovesickness, it would be extremely difficult for target readers to appreciate the full sense of this poem.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====Deletion of word====
Reduplicated and repetitive words are used to trigger strong emotion. Such word can be sometime deleted to avoid redundance in English. For example, in “飞流直下三千尺” and “千锤万凿出深山”， “三千尺” and “千锤万凿” are actually hyperbolized. If they are literally translated into “It flows down three thousand feet” and “Only through tens of thousands of blows，can it be extracted from the mountains”，not only the beauty of sense but space for imagination are totally lost. After fully understanding of the poem, the numbers can be omitted and thus hyperbole is transformed into typical English adjective used for description.: “an incredible height” and “a hard hammer blows”.(Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)

Reduplicated and repetitive words are used to trigger strong emotion. Such words can be sometimes deleted to avoid redundance in English. For example, in “飞流直下三千尺” and “千锤万凿出深山”， “三千尺” and “千锤万凿” are actually hyperbolized. If they are literally translated into “It flows down three thousand feet” and “Only through tens of thousands of blows，can it be extracted from the mountains”，not only the beauty of sense but space for imagination are totally lost. After fully understanding of the poem, the numbers can be omitted and thus hyperbole is transformed into typical English adjective used for description.: “an incredible height” and “a hard hammer blows”.(Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====Conversion of word class====
English and Chinese differ from each other a lot in terms of linguist form and structure. In order to make the translation faithful, Conversion of word class is frequently used. (Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)For example，
“明月几时有，把酒问青天” 《水调歌头·明月几时有》（苏轼）
“How long will the full moon appear?
Wine cup in hand, I ask the sky.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)
“How rare the moon，so round and clear!
With cup in hand, I ask of the blue sky,” (Tr. Lin Yuntang)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)

English and Chinese differ from each other a lot in terms of linguistic form and structure. In order to make the translation faithful, Conversion of word class is frequently used. (Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)For example，
“明月几时有，把酒问青天” 《水调歌头·明月几时有》（苏轼）
“How long will the full moon appear?
Wine cup in hand, I ask the sky.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)
“How rare the moon，so round and clear!
With cup in hand, I ask of the blue sky,” (Tr. Lin Yuntang)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

If “把酒” and “问青天” are separably translated into “hold the wine glass” and “ask the sky”, there will be two predicate which is inconsistent with English expression. When we take a close look to Xu’s and Lin’s translation, it is clear that the verb phrase ”把酒” are translated into prepositional phrase. By doing this, the focus ‘问青天” is empathized so that the sense is closer to the original poem(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)

If “把酒” and “问青天” are separably translated into “hold the wine glass” and “ask the sky”, there will be two predicate which is inconsistent with English expression. When we take a close look to Xu’s and Lin’s translation, it is clear that the verb phrase ”把酒” are translated into prepositional phrase. By doing this, the focus ‘问青天” is empathized so that the sense is closer to the original poem.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

There are of course many other ways for poetry translation such as reconstruction of sentence and the use of annotation. No matter what strategies we adopted, it borders on impossibly for us to 100% translate a poem. But we should also bear it in mind that we can always find a way to make the translated work closer to the original poem with brainstorm and ingenuity.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)

There are of course many other ways for poetry translation such as reconstruction of sentence and annotation. No matter what strategies we adopted, it borders on impossibly for us to 100% translate a poem. But we should also bear it in mind that we can always find a way to make the translated work closer to the original poem with brainstorm and ingenuity.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Conclusion===
In spite of the very fact that poetry translation has been practiced since very long ago and theories of poetry translation have been much produced. Different opinion was still hold of translatability and untranslatability. This paper confined the definition of untranslatability first and then explained the untranslatability from image, “yijing” the use of allusion, sound and form. Some strategies are given not in the fancy of the full reproduction of the original poem but with wish to reproduce it to as much greater degree as possible.

In spite of the very fact that poetry translation has been practiced since very long ago and theories of poetry translation have been much produced. Different opinions were still held of translatability and untranslatability. This paper confined the definition of untranslatability first and then explained the untranslatability from image, “yijing” the use of allusion, sound and form. Some strategies are given not in the fancy of the full reproduction of the original poem but with wish to reproduce it to as much greater degree as possible.--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===References===
He Jun何峻.从译者的再创造看诗歌由不可译性向可译性转化[On the Transformation from Untranslatability to Translatability of Poetry by Recreation]. Journal of Chengdu University成都大学学报(社会科学版),2008(04):124-127.

Li Haiyan李海燕.Beauty in Sense, Sound and Form in Poetry Translation —— Translation of Tang Poems From Chinese to English. Journal of Inner Mongolia Educational Institute 内蒙古教育学院学报,2000(04):155-158.

Li Xinhong李新红.试论中国诗歌之“不可译”[On the untranslatability of Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Lanzhou Education Institute 兰州教育学院学报,2010,26(06):294-296.

Ma QinJun马庆军.中国古典诗歌的不可译因素[On Untranslatable factors of Chinse Classic Poetry ]. Journal of Tianjia Occupational Institute 天津职业院校联合学报,2015,17(01):83-87.

Rao Weimin饶卫民.论诗歌翻译的可译性与不可译性[ On the Translatability and Untranslatability of Poetry]. Journal of Anshun Institute安顺学院学报,2012,14(06):27-29.

Sui Yirong隋荣谊.诗歌翻译[Poetry Translation]. Knowledge of English英语知识,2011(10):35-38.
Sun Huali孙华丽.中国古诗词翻译技巧研究[Translation Methods of Chinese Classical Poetry].Journal of Sanxi University三峡大学学报(人文社会科学版),2020,42(04):113-116.

Wang Jianguo王剑果.论诗歌翻译中形似的重要性[On the Importance of the Similarity of Form in Poetry Translation ]. Journal of Henan Normal University河南师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2012,39(05):149-150.

Xu Yuanchong许渊冲.诗词英译漫谈 [On the English Translation of Chinese Classic Poetry]Chinese Translation中国翻译,1988(03):40-43.

Yang Qun & Liuyi杨群,刘益.中国古典诗歌翻译中的不可译性[On the Untranslatability of Classic Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Nan Hua University南华大学学报(社会科学版),2005(06):93-95+106.

Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto赵旦,陈养桃.戴着镣铐起舞——诗歌翻译为何难的几点分析[On Difficulties of Poetry Translation]. Literature in Anhui Province安徽文学(下半月),2015(12):5-6+34.

==The Untranslatability of Xiehouyu 彭育志 Peng Yuzhi==

<center>彭育志 Peng Yuzhi 202020080635</center>

===Abstract===

Xiehouyu is a typical idiomatic Chinese folk expression, with its first part descriptive, while the second part, sometimes unstated, carrying the massage. However, this kind of expressions is often culturally loaded, and a great number of them are with puns, which accounts for its untranslatability. This paper will concentrate on distinguish 4 key elements of the Chinese fork wisecrack and examine which elements of the 4 are bound to lose and therefore prove to some extent the Xiehouyu is untranslatable. Finally, I will try to find some methods to overcome this untranslatability at best.

Xiehouyu is a typical idiomatic Chinese folk expression, with its first part descriptive, while the second part, sometimes unstated, carrying the massage. However, this kind of expressions is often culturally loaded, and a great number of them are with puns, which accounts for its untranslatability. This paper will concentrate on distinguishing 4 key elements of the Chinese fork wisecrack and examine which elements of the 4 are bound to lose and therefore prove to some extent the Xiehouyu is untranslatable. Finally, I will try to find some methods to overcome this untranslatability at best.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

===摘要===

歇后语是典型的中国民间俗语，它由两部分构成，前半部分是描述性的，后半部分则是对前一部分的解释，传达出说话者真正的意图。歇后语形象生动，又富含中国历史文化之意蕴，而且时常语带双关，这使其具备了不可译性。本文旨在区分歇后语翻译中关键的四要素，来考察何种或哪几种要素在翻译时注定会失去，从而证明歇后语在某种程度上是不可译的。但不可译并不代表就放弃翻译它了，本文探究其不可译性的最终目的还是想要找到合适的翻译策略来尽量弥补这一不可译性。

===Key words===
Xiehouyu; Untranslatability; translation method

Xiehouyu; Untranslatability; Translation Method--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:50, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

===关键词===

歇后语；不可译性；翻译策略

===1.Introduction===

====1.1 Xiehouyu====

The Xiehouyu is a special Chinese expression created by Chinese people according to their everyday experience. It consists of only a few words and often achieves a humorous or ironic effect. Rooted deeply in Chinese conventions and the long history of China, the Xiehouyu is the typical product of unique Chinese Culture.
A Xiehouyu consists of 2 parts, the first part illustrating an image or event, the second parts explaining the meaning the addresser wants to express, and often the second part will not be expressed out, leaving a blank for the addressee to fill in. (Li Gongxue, 2014:12)

The Xiehouyu is a special Chinese expression created by Chinese people according to their everyday experience. It consists of only a few words and often achieves a humorous or ironic effect. Rooted deeply in Chinese conventions and the long history of China, the Xiehouyu is a typical product of unique Chinese Culture.
A Xiehouyu consists of 2 parts, with the first part illustrating an image or event, the second parts explaining the meaning the addresser wants to express, and often the second part will not be expressed out, leaving a blank for the addressee to fill in. (Li Gongxue, 2014:12)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

====1.2 untranslatability====

As Catford distinguishes, there are 2 types of untranslatability: linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. The former occurs when there are no lexical or syntactical substitutes in the TL for the SL; while the latter is due to the absence in the TL culture of a relevant situational feature for the SL.
Even if there is a relevant situational feature in the TL for the SL, like the English words “home” and “democracy”, whose counterparts can be easily found in different languages, these word pairs still have differences in meaning, depending on the contexts and cultural background. So the cultural untranslatability happens because language is the primary modelling system within a culture, it must be de facto implied in any process of translation.(Susan Bassnett, 2002:40)

According to Catford, there are 2 types of untranslatability: linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. The former occurs when there are no lexical or syntactical substitutes in the TL for the SL; while the latter is due to the absence in the TL culture of a relevant situational feature for the SL.
Even if there is a relevant situational feature in the TL for the SL, like the English words “home” and “democracy”, whose counterparts can be easily found in different languages, these word pairs still have differences in meaning, depending on the contexts and cultural background. So the cultural untranslatability happens because language is the primary modelling system within a culture, it must be de facto implied in any process of translation.(Susan Bassnett, 2002:40)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

examples.
The first to be discussed is the linguistic untranslatability. The Chinese characters have only one syllable, and with the change of the 4 different tones, different characters are created and even the same sound can represent different characters, which is a far more common case than that in English. While English is a very different story, an English word can have one, two three or even more syllables and it relies on the position of stresses instead of change of tones to alter the meaning of a word or sentence. This makes the translation of puns and poems in both languages very difficult. For example, one line from a Chinese, “东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。” is untranslatable in that the “晴” (“sunny”)here is a pun, it implies “情” (“love”), but in English, no pair of words can be found with the same pronunciation while the 2 totally different meanings.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)

Considering this thesis mainly deals with the translation of Xiehouyu into English, the untranslatability of Xiehouyu will be further discussed by using English and Chinese as
examples.
The first to be discussed is the linguistic untranslatability. The Chinese characters have only one syllable, and with the change of the 4 different tones, different characters are created and even the same sound can represent different characters, which is a far more common case than that in English. While English is a very different story, an English word can have one, two three or even more syllables and it relies on the position of stresses instead of change of tones to alter the meaning of a word or sentence. This makes the translation of puns and poems in both languages very difficult. For example, one line from a Chinese, “东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。” is untranslatable in that the “晴” (“sunny”)here is a pun, it implies “情” (“love”), but in English, no pair of words can be found with the same pronunciation while the 2 totally different meanings.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

The second to be discussed is the cultural untranslatability. Obviously, due to different cultural and historical background, even a same object in Chinese and English can be quite different. Take the words “dog” and “狗” for example. The word “dog” has a positive or neutral connotation in English, with which, the English speakers show their friendly and intimate relationship with others by saying “he is my dog.” Another English idiom put it that “every dog has its day.”, in which “dog” means ordinary people. While in Chinese, things are quite the opposite. “狗” in Chinese has a negative connotation. Many Chinese idioms can serve as the proof, such as “狗仗人势”, “狗嘴里吐不出象牙”, “落水狗”, “丧家之犬” and so on. If these “狗” or “犬” are all translated into “dog”, the English speakers will find it unacceptable.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)

Then we come to cultural untranslatability. Obviously, due to different cultural and historical background, even a same object in Chinese and English can be quite different. Take the words “dog” and “狗” for example. The word “dog” has a positive or neutral connotation in English, with which, the English speakers show their friendly and intimate relationship with others by saying “he is my dog.” Another English idiom put it that “every dog has its day.”, in which “dog” means ordinary people. While in Chinese, things are quite the opposite. “狗” in Chinese has a negative connotation. Many Chinese idioms can serve as the proof, such as “狗仗人势”, “狗嘴里吐不出象牙”, “落水狗”, “丧家之犬” and so on. If these “狗” or “犬” are all translated into “dog”, the English speakers will find it unacceptable.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

After discussing the untranslatable elements in Chinese and English, when we come back to the translation of Xiehouyu, it is obvious that all the elements the Xiehouyu has them all, which means the Xiehouyu is untranslatable.However, this does not mean the Xiehouyu cannot be translated at all. What we can achieve is an optimal translation. What Xu Yuancong says about the translation of poetry is suitable for the translation of the Xiehouyu, actually to all kinds of translation.
According to him, the translation of a poem is the crystallization of the enormous effort of both the original author and the translator, the former is compared to a father, the latter, mother, then the translation is like their child. The child will never be the same as neither his father, nor his mother. The translation can never be the same as the original work without being affected by the translator. (Xu Yuancong,1988:42)

It is obvious that Xiehouyu features all these untranslatable elements, which means the Xiehouyu is untranslatable.However, this does not mean the Xiehouyu cannot be translated at all. What we can achieve is an optimal translation. What Xu Yuancong says about the translation of poetry is suitable for the translation of the Xiehouyu, actually to all kinds of translation.
According to him, the translation of a poem is the crystallization of the enormous effort of both the original author and the translator, the former is compared to a father, the latter, mother, then the translation is like their child. The child will never be the same as neither his father, nor his mother. The translation can never be the same as the original work without being affected by the translator. (Xu Yuancong,1988:42)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

So there is no absolute translation, the problem of translation is a matter of degree. And therefore, the focus point of this thesis will be to what extent Xiehouyu is untranslatable, or what elements would be lost in translation and what can be done to achieve the optimal translation.
In the following sections, the structure of the Xiehouyu will be analyzed and the function of Xiehouyu will be examined to see what elements in them are untranslatable and what translation methods can be adapted to make up for this untranslatability to the best.(Xu Yuancong,1988:42)

So there is no such thing as absolute translation, and the untranslatability is a matter of degree. Therefore, the focus point of this thesis will be to what extent Xiehouyu is untranslatable, or what elements would be lost in translation and what can be done to achieve the optimal translation.
In the following sections, the structure of the Xiehouyu will be analyzed and the function of Xiehouyu will be examined to see what elements in them are untranslatable and what translation methods can be adapted to make up for this untranslatability to the best.(Xu Yuancong,1988:42)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

===2.1 The structure of Xiehouyu===

The Xiehouyu, as mentioned above, consists of mainly 2 parts, the first part descriptive, the second part explanatory. Between the 2 parts, there is always a comma or hyphen which serves as a link to indicate certain connection between them. In actual use, the second part is sometimes not stated by the speaker. In some cases, this is because the descriptive part is vivid enough, both the speaker and the hearer are very familiar with it, they both know perfectly what the unstated part is and what that actually mean. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)

The Xiehouyu, as mentioned above, consists of mainly 2 parts, the first part descriptive, the second part explanatory. Between the 2 parts, there is always a comma or hyphen which serves as a link to indicate certain connection between them. In actual use, the second part is sometimes not stated by the speaker because the descriptive part is so vivid that both the speaker and the hearer are very familiar with it, they both know perfectly what the unstated part is and what that actually mean. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

Chinese people always say, referring to someone, “狗咬吕洞宾”, leaving the latter part “不识好人心” unstated, for the story of Lv Dongbin and dog is well-known in China, no further explanation is needed. While in other cases, the descriptive part is not that clear and the speaker intentionally leaves a blank to the hearer to fill in. He waits the hearer to ask why such a description is used. Until then the speaker will reveal the latter part to achieve a humorous or ironic effect. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)

Chinese people always say, referring to someone, “狗咬吕洞宾”, leaving the latter part “不识好人心” unstated, for the story of Lv Dongbin and dog is well-known in China, no further explanation is needed. While in other cases, the descriptive part is not that clear and the speaker intentionally leaves a blank to the hearer to fill in. He awaits the hearer to ask why such a description is used. Until then the speaker will reveal the latter part to achieve a humorous or ironic effect. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

If we examine the 2 parts more closely, more details can be found. The descriptive part is either an object or an event. “十月的萝卜” and “外甥打灯笼” can serve as examples respectively. As for the second part, it may serve as an adjective or an adverb to modify the former，or even the action the former part performs if it is an object or some particular person, as the cases in “老九的弟弟—老十（实）” “韩信点兵—多多益善” and “十月的萝卜—冻（动）了心” respectively. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)

When we take a closer look at these 2 parts, more details can be found. The descriptive part is either an object or an event. “十月的萝卜” and “外甥打灯笼” can serve as examples respectively. As for the second part, it may serve as an adjective or an adverb to modify the former，or even the action the former part performs if it is an object or some particular person, as the cases in “老九的弟弟—老十（实）” “韩信点兵—多多益善” and “十月的萝卜—冻（动）了心” respectively. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

In actual use, we can find the former part, the object or the event appearing in the Xiehouyu, is often replaced by the real object or event we want to modify with the Xiehouyu. It is the object or event which the speaker is referring to that is directly modified by the later part of the Xiehouyu. So the function of the Xiehouyu as a whole, in fact depends on the latter part of it. It can serve as an adjective, an adverb or a verb. And therefore, if the aim of translation is only to serve the same function of modifying, the former descriptive part can be simply omitted, only translating the latter descriptive part. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)

It can be easily found in actual use that the former part, the object or the event appearing in the Xiehouyu, is often replaced by the real object or event we want to modify with the Xiehouyu. It is the object or event which the speaker is referring to that is directly modified by the later part of the Xiehouyu. So the function of the Xiehouyu as a whole, in fact depends on the latter part of it. It can serve as an adjective, an adverb or a verb. And therefore, if the aim of translation is only to serve the same function of modifying, the former descriptive part can be simply omitted, only translating the latter descriptive part. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

However, the Xiehouyu is a culture-loaded expression. It is deeply rooted in the soil of unique and colorful Chinese history and culture, which is best embodied in the first half of the Xiehouyu. It often illustrates a famous figure in Chinese history or an image which vividly reflects Chinese outlook of viewing the world. In a word, the first part is more valuable in the aspect of culture than the second part, which when translated, must be kept at best. As for the latter part, though its main function is to explain the true meaning, there is also a noticeable element in it, the pun in Chinese language, which is the difficult point of translation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)

However, the Xiehouyu is a culture-loaded expression. It, deeply rooted in the soil of unique and colorful Chinese history and culture, is best embodied in the first half of the Xiehouyu. It often illustrates a famous figure in Chinese history or an image which vividly reflects Chinese outlook of viewing the world. In a word, the first part is more valuable in the aspect of culture than the second part, which when translated, must be kept at best. As for the latter part, though its main function is to explain the true meaning, there is also a noticeable element in it, the pun in Chinese language, which is the difficult point of translation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

===2.2 The classification of Xiehouyu===

As can be seen in the structure of Xiehouyu above, the first part of Xiehouyu is descriptive which is the basis for the reader in understanding the meaning of it, while the second part is explanative, in which the meaning of the Xiehouyu will be shown to the reader. Some Xiehouyu have only one meaning in the second part, which is the literal meaning; while in other Xiehouyu, there are 2 different meanings in the second part, which are its literal meaning and the extended meaning. In other words, the former do not employ pun, and the latter is punny. The punny ones can be further divided into 2 categories: the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic punny Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:19)

As can be seen in the structure of Xiehouyu above, the first part of Xiehouyu, which is descriptive is the basis for the reader in understanding the meaning of it, while the second part is explanative, in which the meaning of the Xiehouyu will be shown to the reader. Some Xiehouyu have only one meaning in the second part, which is the literal meaning; while in other Xiehouyu, there are 2 different meanings in the second part, which are its literal meaning and the extended meaning. In other words, the former do not employ pun, and the latter is punny. The punny ones can be further divided into 2 categories: the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic punny Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:19)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

So based on the discussion above, the Xiehouyu can be classified in to 3 categories: the literally-stated Xiehouyu, the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic Xiehouyu. To better illustrate the 3 kinds of Xiehouyu, 3 examples are given below respectively:
Literally-stated Xiehouyu:

张飞穿针—粗中有细

Zhang Fei threading a needle – subtle in one’s rough ways

This literally-stated Xiehouyu above literally means that even a rude man like Zhang Fei, a general of Shu regime, is able to thread a needle, it naturally indicates that someone can be subtle in his rough ways. The first is descriptive which gives the reader a hint and imagination and the second part tells the meaning of it directly. The literal meaning is the practical meaning without an extended one.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)

Based on the discussion above, the Xiehouyu can be classified in to 3 categories: the literally-stated Xiehouyu, the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic Xiehouyu. To better illustrate these 3 kinds of Xiehouyu, 3 examples are given below respectively:
Literally-stated Xiehouyu:

张飞穿针—粗中有细

Zhang Fei threading a needle – subtle in one’s rough ways

This literally-stated Xiehouyu above literally means that even a rude man like Zhang Fei, a general of Shu regime, is able to thread a needle, it naturally indicates that someone can be subtle in his rough ways. The first is descriptive which gives the reader a hint and imagination and the second part tells the meaning of it directly. The literal meaning is the practical meaning without an extended one.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

Polysemous punny Xiehouyu:

王妈妈卖了磨，推不了的

Like Dame Wang who sold her grindstone:
You’ve no way to grind your axe any more.

In the Xiehouyu above, “推”(“tui”) is polysemous in Chinese, one meaning to grind, the other meaning to absolve oneself from responsibility. So the Xiehouyu thus has 2 meanings. The literal meaning is that Dame Wang sold her grindstone and the other is that one cannot absolve himself from responsibility now，which is difficult for the target reader to understand, requiring more explanation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)

Polysemous punny Xiehouyu:

王妈妈卖了磨，推不了的

Like Dame Wang who sold her grindstone:
You’ve no way to grind your axe any more.

In the Xiehouyu above, “推”(“tui”) is polysemous in Chinese, one meaning to grind, the other meaning to absolve oneself from responsibility. This Xiehouyu thus has 2 meanings. The literal meaning is that Dame Wang sold her grindstone and the other is that one cannot absolve himself from responsibility now，which is difficult for the target reader to understand, requiring more explanation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

Homophonic punny Xiehouyu:

连着三个观音堂—庙（妙）！（妙）！（妙）！

Three shrines to the goddess Kuan-Yin lined up in a row:
Wonderful! Wonderful! Wonderful!

In the example above, the Chinese characters “庙”and “妙”are homophonic, both pronounced as “miao”. But the former means “temple” the latter means “wonderful.” The meaning “wonderful” is the true meaning that the Xiehouyu wants to convey. (Li Gongxue,2014:22)

Homophonic punny Xiehouyu:

连着三个观音堂—庙（妙）！（妙）！（妙）！

Three shrines to the goddess Kuan-Yin lined up in a row:
Wonderful! Wonderful! Wonderful!

In the example above, the Chinese characters “庙”and “妙”, both pronounced as “miao” are homophonic. But the former means “temple” the latter means “wonderful.” The meaning “wonderful” is the true meaning that the Xiehouyu wants to convey. (Li Gongxue,2014:22)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

After analyzing the structure and classification of the Xiehouyu, 4 key elements of the translation of Xiehouyu are found: cultural connotation, image, sound and meaning. The first 2 elements can mostly be found in the descriptive part of Xiehouyu, and the element of meaning can be found in the explanatory part of Xiehouyu, and if it is a homophonic punny Xiehouyu, the sound element can also be found. Considering the aim of translating Xiehouyu, which is to spread Chinese culture to other countries, the 4 elements need to be saved in the translation. A question is that when translated, can all 4 of the elements be kept without losing a little bit of them? And if any or all of them is doomed to be lost, what method can be adapted to best regain it or them?
The following part will concentrate on the first questions, taking the 4 elements into consideration, examining whether or not will lose and thus prove the untranslatability of the Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:22)

After analyzing the structure and catagorizing the Xiehouyu, 4 key elements of the translation of Xiehouyu are found: cultural connotation, image, sound and meaning. The first 2 elements can mostly be found in the descriptive part of Xiehouyu, and the element of meaning can be found in the explanatory part of Xiehouyu, and if it is a homophonic punny Xiehouyu, the sound element can also be found. Considering the aim of translating Xiehouyu, which is to spread Chinese culture to other countries, the 4 elements need to be saved in the translation. A question is that when a Xiehouyu translated, can all 4 of the elements be kept without losing a little bit of them? And if any or all of them is doomed to be lost, what method can be adapted to best regain it or them?
The following part will concentrate on the first questions, taking the 4 elements into consideration, examining whether or not will lose and thus prove the untranslatability of the Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:22)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

===3. The possible loss of 4 key elements===

===3.1 The loss of cultural connotation===

The cultural connotation in the Xiehouyu results mainly from 3 aspects. The first is the unique Chinese tradition. An example of this category is shown below:

正月十五贴门神—晚了半月

Be too late (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)

The cultural connotation in a Xiehouyu results mainly from 3 aspects. The first is the unique Chinese tradition. An example of this category is shown below:

正月十五贴门神—晚了半月

Be too late (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

The Xiehouyu above demonstrate a unique Chinese tradition, rich in cultural connotation, which is better to be kept in the translation, however the translator failed.
Traditionally, the Chinese people put up the pictures of door-god(门神) on the door on the first day of the lunar new year to get rid of evil things. Usually 2 pictures will be glued on the door, which is often opened from the middle. So the 2 pictures will be stuck on the 2 sides of the door. As the door-gods, no ordinary people can be called as god by the Chinese. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)

The Xiehouyu above demonstrate a unique Chinese tradition, rich in cultural connotation, which is better to be kept in the translation. however the translator failed.
Traditionally, the Chinese people put up the pictures of door-god(门神) on the door on the first day of the lunar new year to get rid of evil things. Usually 2 pictures will be glued on the door, which is often opened from the middle. So the 2 pictures will be stuck on the 2 sides of the door. As the door-gods, no ordinary people can be called as god by the Chinese. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

They were Qin Shubao and Yuchi Gong, both of whom were generals in the Tang dynasty. They were warriors on the battlefield, who once guarded the door for the greatest emperor of Tang dynasty, Li Shimin, to protect him for nightmare.
The picture of door-god should be glued on the first day, which indeed will be too late if glued on the 15th day. The meaning of this Xiehouyu is, as the translation shows, to be too late. But all the translation achieves is conveying solely the meaning of it, which is absolutely inadequate. The translation abandons the former descriptive part, which means the cultural connotation is completely lost.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)

They were Qin Shubao and Yuchi Gong, both of whom were generals in the Tang dynasty. They were warriors on the battlefield and guardian of door for the greatest emperor of Tang dynasty, Li Shimin, to protect him for nightmare.
The picture of door-god should be glued on the first day, which indeed will be too late if glued on the 15th day. The meaning of this Xiehouyu is, as the translation shows, to be too late. But all the translation achieves is conveying solely the meaning of it, which is absolutely inadequate. The translation abandons the former descriptive part, which means the cultural connotation is completely lost.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

The second involves with famous names in Chinese history. As the example shows:

韩信点兵—多多益善

The more the better(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)

he second involves with famous names in Chinese history. As the example below shows:

韩信点兵—多多益善

The more the better(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

In the Xiehouyu above, a famous Chinese name in Chinese, Han Xin(韩信), was mentioned. However, in the translation it disappears. The translator denies the target reader’s access to an interesting anecdote of Han Xin, which is worth-telling. Han Xin was a general in the Han dynasty, the first emperor of which, Liu Bang, once asked him: “how many soldiers do you think can I command?” Han Xin answered, “100000 at most.” “so, what about you?” the emperor asked. Han Xin’s answer was: “the more the better.”, which is what the Xiehouyu actually means.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)

In the Xiehouyu above, Han Xin(韩信), a famous Chinese name in Chinese, was mentioned. However, in the translation it disappears. The translator denies the target reader’s access to an interesting anecdote of Han Xin, which is worth-telling. Han Xin was a general in the Han dynasty, the first emperor of which, Liu Bang, once asked him: “how many soldiers do you think can I command?” Han Xin answered, “100000 at most.” “so, what about you?” the emperor asked. Han Xin’s answer was: “the more the better.”, which is what the Xiehouyu actually means.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

The story is so famous in China that once the first 4 Chinese characters are mentioned the next 4 will automatically appear in the hearer’s mind. But the translation deletes it all, like buying caskets without the jewels. The cultural connotation is missing due to a translation like that.
The third is about Chinese legends, as is shown in the example below:

八仙过海—各显神通

Like the way the eight fairies cross the sea, each displaying his own talent.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)

The story is so famous in China that once the first 4 Chinese characters are mentioned the next 4 will automatically appear in the hearer’s mind. But the translator deletes them all like buying caskets without the jewels. The cultural connotation is missing due to a translation like that.
The third is about Chinese legends, as is shown in the example below:

八仙过海—各显神通

Like the way the eight fairies cross the sea, each displaying his own talent.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

In the translation, “八仙” is literally translated as “eight fairies” without any further explanation. The target reader may be confused wondering who the eight fairies are and how they display their own talent. A note is needed to illustrate how the eight Chinese legendary figures crossed the vast East Sea with their own magic instead of simply stating “each displaying his own talent”. Considering the cultural value, what is in the prior of translation is the story behind the Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)

In the translation, “八仙” is literally translated as “eight fairies” without any further explanation. The target reader may be confused wondering who the eight fairies are and how they display their own talent. Considering its cultural value, what is in the prior of translation is the story behind the Xiehouyu. Thus a note is needed to illustrate how the eight Chinese legendary figures crossed the vast East Sea with their own magic instead of simply stating “each displaying his own talent”. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

===3.2 The loss of image===

The image is lost often when the translation abandons the descriptive and imagery part, as the examples show:

千里搭长棚—天下没有不散的筵席

Even the longest feast must break up at last.

“千里”(“ one thousand Li”) and “长棚”(“ long awning”) are 2 visual images in the Xiehouyu. In the translation, the word “longest” emphasizes more on time rather than space which is stressed by “千里” in the original text. The image of “长棚” is also missing. When Chinese people read the first part, a picture of people seeing off their friends on the 1000-Li awning with wines and dishes appears, which cannot be reproduced by the translation using the phrase “longest feast” which means a feast that last a long time. The special image is undoubtedly missing.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)

The image is lost often when the translation abandons the descriptive and imagery part, as the examples show:

千里搭长棚—天下没有不散的筵席

Even the longest feast must break up at last.

“千里”(“ one thousand Li”) and “长棚”(“ long awning”) are 2 visual images in this Xiehouyu. In the translation, the word “longest” emphasizes more on time rather than space which is stressed by “千里” in the original text. The image of “长棚” is also missing. When Chinese people read the first part, a picture of people seeing off their friends on the 1000-Li awning with wines and dishes appears, which cannot be reproduced by the translation using the phrase “longest feast” which means a feast that last a long time. The special image is undoubtedly missing.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

擀面杖吹火—一窍不通

To know nothing about something

The translation give up an important image “擀面杖”, which means rolling pin in English. It’s a solid stick, through which the air cannot be blown to promote the flame. Blowing air through a rolling pin is actually a very amusing and ridiculous situation. It is imagery and the image connects naturally with the meaning in that the Chinese “一窍不通” literally means “one hole is stuck” in English and it also connotes the real meaning of the phrase that one know nothing about something. It is a pity that the translation fails to reproduce this meaning image in the target reader’s mind.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)

擀面杖吹火—一窍不通

To know nothing about something

The translation gives up an important image “擀面杖”, which means rolling pin in English. It’s a solid stick, through which the air cannot be blown to promote the flame. Blowing air through a rolling pin is actually a very amusing and ridiculous situation. It is imagery and the image connects naturally with the meaning in that the Chinese “一窍不通” literally means “one hole is stuck” in English and it also connotes the real meaning of the phrase that one know nothing about something. It is a pity that the translation fails to reproduce this meaning image in the target reader’s mind.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

But it should be admitted that not all image will lose, when the image itself is not unique to Chinese culture but common to human cognition. It can be explained by the example below:

因风吹火，用力不多。

Let the wind fan the flames
And take the easiest course.

As can be seen in the example above, the literal meaning of the Xiehouyu is its real meaning and the 2 parts of it convey universal knowledge in both source language and target language.(Li Gongxue, 2014:63)

But it should be admitted that not all image will be lost, when the image itself is not unique to Chinese culture but common to human cognition. It can be explained by the example below:

因风吹火，用力不多。

Let the wind fan the flames
And take the easiest course.

As can be seen in the example above, the literal meaning of the Xiehouyu is its real meaning and the 2 parts of it convey universal knowledge in both source language and target language.(Li Gongxue, 2014:63)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

===3.3 The loss of sound===

The loss of sound in the translation of Xiehouyu occurs when translating the ones with a pun. There are 2 kinds of punny Xiehouyu, one is polysemous Xiehouyu, the other is homophonic Xiehouyu. The former contains a word or phrase in its second part that has more than one meaning. It has the literal meaning and the extended meaning at the same time. The polysemous word help convey the extended meaning to the hearer.(Li Gongxue,2014:60)

The loss of sound in the translation of Xiehouyu occurs when the Xiehouyu has a pun. There are 2 kinds of punny Xiehouyu, one is polysemous Xiehouyu, the other is homophonic Xiehouyu. The former contains a word or phrase in its second part that has more than one meaning. It has the literal meaning and the extended meaning at the same time. The polysemous word helps conveying the extended meaning to the hearer.(Li Gongxue,2014:60)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

As for the homophonic Chinese wisecrack, it uses the homophonic or similar homophonic words to achieve a punny effect.
Those punny Chinese wisecracks are regarded as absolutely untranslatable, because it involves the play of sound. Which is clearly demonstrated by the following examples:

外甥打灯笼—照舅（旧）

Things will be back as they were before.

It is a homophonic Xiehouyu. The phrase “照舅” is homophonic to “照旧”, the former meaning “to find uncle with a lantern” while the latter meaning “ the same as before”. The sounds are same, but the meanings are totally different. No 2 English words with the same sound can be found to convey the 2 different meanings as their Chinese counterparts do. The translation has to abandon the sound elements, because it is bound to lose and convey only the meaning of it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)

As for the homophonic Chinese wisecrack, it uses the homophonic or similar homophonic words to achieve a punny effect.
Those punny Chinese wisecracks are regarded as absolutely untranslatable, because it involves the play of sound, which is clearly demonstrated by the following examples:

外甥打灯笼—照舅（旧）

Things will be back as they were before.

It is a homophonic Xiehouyu. The phrase “照舅” is homophonic to “照旧”, the former meaning “to find uncle with a lantern” while the latter meaning “ the same as before”. The sounds are same, but the meanings are totally different. No 2 English words with the same sound can be found to convey the 2 different meanings as their Chinese counterparts do. The translation has to abandon the sound elements, because it is bound to lose and convey only the meaning of it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)

隔着门缝看人—把人看扁了

If you peer at a person through a crack - he looks flat. (pun: Don’t be so prejudiced)

The example above is a polysemous Xiehouyu. The translation conveys the literal meaning of it then adds a note to indicate it is a pun and explain the extended meaning so that the target reader can understand it. However, simply telling the reader it is a pun is not enough, it still cannot achieve to convey the multiple meanings that is easily perceived by Chinese people with a single phrase in English.It is safe to say that the loss of sound element is inevitable when dealing with the punny Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)

隔着门缝看人—把人看扁了

If you peer at a person through a crack - he looks flat. (pun: Don’t be so prejudiced)

The example above is a polysemous Xiehouyu. The translation conveys the literal meaning of it then adds a note to indicate it is a pun and explain the extended meaning so that the target reader can understand it. However, simply telling the reader it is a pun is not enough, it still cannot the multiple meanings that is easily perceived by Chinese people with a single phrase in English.It is safe to say that the loss of sound element is inevitable when dealing with the punny Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

===3.4 The matter of meaning===

Meaning is the only element which can be saved in the translation of all kinds of Xiehouyu. As Nida believes, “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another language unless the form is an essential element of meaning.” While in the case of the Xiehouyu, the only important formal element is pun. It is a linguistic barrier between Chinese and English. Except the punny Xiehouyu, the loss of cultural connotation, the loss of image can be compensated if proper translation methods are adapted. In fact, even the sound image can also be compensated though in very few cases.The next part is to figure out certain methods to reduce the loss of the cultural connotation, the image and sound, though in very few cases, respectively.(Li Qinhua,2018:43)

Meaning is the only element which can be saved in the translation of all kinds of Xiehouyu. As Nida believes, “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another language unless the form is an essential element of meaning.” While in the case of the Xiehouyu, the only important formal element is pun. It is a linguistic barrier between Chinese and English. Except the punny Xiehouyu, the loss of cultural connotation and image can be compensated if proper translation methods are adapted. In fact, even the sound image can also be compensated though in very few cases.The next part is to figure out certain methods to reduce the loss of the cultural connotation, the image and sound, though in very few cases, respectively.(Li Qinhua,2018:43)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

===4 Translation methods to compensate===

===4.1 Method for the loss of cultural connotation===

If the cultural connotation is lost in the translation, only a note is needed to complement the connotation. Therefore, the method of literal translation plus annotation can be adapted in this case, as the example shows:

张飞穿针—粗中有细

Zhang Fei threading a needle - subtle in one’s rough ways

Note: Zhang Fei was a general of Shu (221-263) during the Three Kingdoms era of China. In most matters he was crude and careless but quite subtle at times.

The translation itself is a literal translation without any information of Zhang Fei. But with the note, which depicts who Zhang Fei was and his personalities, the cultural connotation is complemented.

If the cultural connotation is lost in the translation, only a note is needed for compensation. Therefore, the method of literal translation plus annotation can be adapted in this case, as the example shows:

张飞穿针—粗中有细

Zhang Fei threading a needle - subtle in one’s rough ways

Note: Zhang Fei was a general of Shu (221-263) during the Three Kingdoms era of China. In most matters he was crude and careless but quite subtle at times.

The translation itself is a literal translation without any information of Zhang Fei. But with the note, which depicts who Zhang Fei was and his personalities, the cultural connotation is complemented.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

===4.2 Methods for loss of image===

===4.2.1 Borrowing===

To use the method of borrowing in the translation of the Xiehouyu is to use the image familiar to the target reader to replace the image in the source language. So that the original meaning of the source language is saved and the target reader’s understanding to it is deepened, as can be seen in the example below:

猫哭耗子—假慈悲

To shed crocodile tears

Cats are raised in China to catch mouse so “猫哭耗子”(“ cats shed tears for mouse”) means pretending to show mercy. Fortunately, the phrase “to shed crocodile tears in western culture also means the evil person pretends to show his mercy towards the victim, because in western legends the crocodiles shed tears when the eat their prey. The replacement of images helps the Xiehouyu better understood by the target readers and make the translation vivid.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:103)

Borrowing in the translation of the Xiehouyu means using the image familiar to the target reader to replace the image in the source language. So that the original meaning of the source language is saved and the target reader’s understanding to it is deepened, as can be seen in the example below:

猫哭耗子—假慈悲

To shed crocodile tears

Cats are raised in China to catch mouse so “猫哭耗子”(“ cats shed tears for mouse”) means pretending to show mercy. Fortunately, the phrase “to shed crocodile tears in western culture also means the evil person pretends to show his mercy towards the victim, because in western legends the crocodiles shed tears when the eat their prey. The replacement of images helps the Xiehouyu better understood by the target readers and make the translation vivid.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:103)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

4.2.2 Literal-liberal translation
In some translations of Xiehouyu only the liberal translation is adopted, which leads to the loss of the images. So literal translation is necessary in this situation to help keep the image. An example is shown below:

瞎子点灯—白费蜡

Like the blind man lighting the candle – to do something in vain

The translation not only explains the meaning of the Xiehouyu but also keeps the image – blind man lighting the candle by literal translation. This move helps the target read understand the meaning as well as seeing the picture behind it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)

In some translations of Xiehouyu only the liberal translation is adopted, which leads to the loss of the images. So literal translation is necessary in this situation to help keep the image. An example is shown below:

瞎子点灯—白费蜡

Like the blind man lighting the candle – to do something in vain

The translation not only explains the meaning of the Xiehouyu but also keeps the image – blind man lighting the candle by literal translation. This move helps the target reader understand the meaning as well as seeing the picture behind it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

===4.3 Method for loss of sound===

===4.3.1 imitation plus annotation===

Due to linguistic differences, the loss of sound elements is difficult to reproduce in the target language. To achieve this goal, it depends on the translator’s own creativity to imitate the pun in the source language to strive to find a same or similar sound in English which conveys 2 different meanings. Then an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the 2 words in the source language are punned. Below are 2 adequate translations of Xiehouyu which most reproduce the homophonic elements for the target reader:

云端里老鼠—天生的耗（好）

The ‘furry pest’ Heaven has to offer
Annotation: This humorous expression depends for its force on a pun between the word hao, meaning “vermin” and the word hao, meaning “good.” In an attempt to render something of this play on words, I have punned “furry pest” with “very best.”(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)

Due to linguistic differences, It is difficult to reproduce the sound elements in the target language. To achieve this goal, it depends on the translator’s own creativity to imitate the pun in the source language to strive to find a same or similar sound in English which conveys 2 different meanings. Then an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the 2 words in the source language are punned. Below are 2 adequate translations of Xiehouyu which most reproduce the homophonic elements for the target reader:

云端里老鼠—天生的耗（好）

The ‘furry pest’ Heaven has to offer
Annotation: This humorous expression depends for its force on a pun between the word hao, meaning “vermin” and the word hao, meaning “good.” In an attempt to render something of this play on words, I have punned “furry pest” with “very best.”(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

卖盐的做雕銮匠，我是那咸（闲）人

If you endeavor to turn a salt peddler into a sculptor,
He’ll end up making an ‘idle’ use of his time.
Annotation: The point of the second of these two hsieh-hou yv turns on a pun between the expressions hsien-jen meaning “idol of salt” and hsien-jen meaning “idle person”. I have tried to convey this by punning “idol” and “idle”.

The 2 translations above set the example for the translation of homophonic punny Xiehouyu. The translator strives to reproduce the sound in the source language by creative imitation and a detailed note, explaining how the 2 words in Chinese are punned and how the pun is recreated in English.(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)

卖盐的做雕銮匠，我是那咸（闲）人

If you endeavor to turn a salt peddler into a sculptor,
He’ll end up making an ‘idle’ use of his time.
Annotation: The point of the second of these two hsieh-hou yv turns on a pun between the expressions hsien-jen meaning “idol of salt” and hsien-jen meaning “idle person”. I have tried to convey this by punning “idol” and “idle”.

The 2 translations above set the example for the translation of homophonic punny Xiehouyu. The translators strived to reproduce the sound in the source language through creative imitation and a detailed note, explaining how the 2 words in Chinese are punned and how the pun is recreated in English.(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

===Conclusion===

The untranslatability of Xiehouyu results from the difficulty to keep 4 key elements in it. And why the 4 elements need to be saved in translation is justified by the aim to spread Chinese culture overseas. It need to be admitted that not all 4 elements are going to be lost in translation. The cultural connotation element, the image element and the sound element are often to be lost more or less, of which the sound element is almost doomed to be lost. While the element of meaning is to be kept in the translation.

The untranslatability of Xiehouyu results from difficulties to keep 4 key elements in it. And why the 4 elements need to be saved in translation is justified by the aim to spread Chinese culture overseas. It need to be admitted that not all 4 elements are going to be lost in translation. The cultural connotation element, the image element and the sound element are often to be lost more or less, of which the sound element is almost doomed to be lost. While the element of meaning is to be kept in the translation.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

In order to compensate those losses at best, several methods can be adapted in translation. To keep the element of cultural connotation, we can use literal translation plus annotation, telling the cultural background or anecdote behind the Xiehouyu, so that the cultural connotation can be better understood.

To keep the image element, we can also use literal translation plus annotation or borrowing, of which the former depicts the image literally and explains what the image means and the latter replace the image in the source language with another image familiar to the target reader, so as to make the Xiehouyu vivid.

In order to compensate those losses at best, several methods can be adapted in translation. To keep the element of cultural connotation, we can use literal translation plus annotation, telling the cultural background or anecdote behind the Xiehouyu, so that the cultural connotation can be better understood.

To keep the image, we can also use literal translation plus annotation or borrowing, of which the former depicts the image literally and explains what the image means and the latter replace the image in the source language with another image familiar to the target reader, so as to make the Xiehouyu vivid.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

As for the loss of sound element, which is hard to compensate, because of the linguistic difference between Chinese and English, the method of imitation plus annotation can be adapted which imitates the sound elements in Xiehouyu, typically the homophonic punny ones, by creating a new pun in English to achieve the punny effect in Chinese. And an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the words in the source language are punned and how the pun is recreated in the target language. The method reproduces the sound elements in a pun to its best. However, not all Xiehouyu with sound element can be so fortunate that a pair of English words can be found to reproduce the effect.

The sound element, with linguistic differences between Chinese and English, is the hardest to compensate. But the method of imitation plus annotation can be adapted which imitates the sound elements in Xiehouyu, typically the homophonic punny ones, by creating a new pun in English to achieve the punny effect in Chinese. And an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the words in the source language are punned and how the pun is recreated in the target language. The method reproduces the sound elements in a pun to its best. However, not all Xiehouyu with sound element can be so fortunate that a pair of English words can be found to reproduce the effect.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

What is obvious is that annotation is of great importance in the translation of Xiehouyu if the 4 elements are to be kept. But too much annotation will inevitably reduce the lucidness of Xiehouyu: to keep one thing is to lose another. That said, there are still many obstacles standing in the way of Xiehouyu translation.
In a word, Xiehouyu is a combination of image, sound, cultural connotation and meaning, when translated into English, it should be translated not only to simply convey the meaning of it, but also to help the image, sound and most importantly, the culture behind it better perceived, understood and accepted by different countries. Only in this way can we say it is satisfactorily translated if we aim to make Chinese culture spread overseas, which is an extremely important task in today’s era of opening and communication. This thesis proves Xiehouyu is to some extent untranslatable, and provides some methods trying to overcome this untranslatability.

What is obvious is that annotation is of great importance in the translation of Xiehouyu if the 4 elements are to be kept. But too much annotation will inevitably reduce the lucidness of Xiehouyu: to keep one thing means to lose another. That said, there are still many obstacles standing in the way of Xiehouyu translation.
In a word, Xiehouyu is a combination of image, sound, cultural connotation and meaning, when translated into English, it should be translated not only to simply convey the meaning of it, but also to help the image, sound and most importantly, the culture behind it better perceived, understood and accepted by different countries. Only in this way can we say it is satisfactorily translated if we aim to make Chinese culture spread overseas, which is an extremely important task in today’s era of opening and communication. This thesis proves Xiehouyu is to some extent untranslatable, and provides some methods trying to overcome this untranslatability. --[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

===References===

*Egerton, Clement. The golden lotus [T]. London: Routledge & Kcgan Paul, 1939.

*Susan, Bassnett. Translation Studies[M]. London: Routledge, 2002.

*Yang Hsien-yi & Gladys Yang. A dream of Red Mansions [M]: Foreign Language Press, 2003.

*Cao Xueqin & Gao 'E,曹雪芹,高鹗. 红楼梦[A dream of Red Mansions ]［M］．北京；中国戏剧出版社，2002．

*Feng Cuihua,冯翠华.英语修辞大全[English Figures of Speech][M]. 外语教学与研究出版社, 1995.

*Lanlingxiaoxiaosheng,兰陵笑笑生．金瓶梅词话[Chin P'ing Mei]［M］．北京：人民文学出版社，1992．

*Li Gongxue,李宫雪. 芮译本《金瓶梅》歇后语翻译研究[D][A Study of Xiehouyu Translation in the English Version of ''Chin P'ing Mei'' by David Tod Roy] .天津财经大学,2014.

*li Qinhua,李庆华.变译视域下汉语歇后语的英译[J][The Translation of Xiehouyu from the perspective of Transfered Translation].现代交际,2018(04):93-94.

*Tang Rongshan,谭荣珊. 从关联理论看《红楼梦》中汉语歇后语的英译[D][On the Translation of Chinese Folk Wisecracks from the Perspective of Relevance Theory].华中师范大学,2013.

*Xu Yuanchong,许渊冲.诗词英译漫谈 [On the English Translation of Chinese Classic Poetry]Chinese Translation中国翻译,1988(03):40-43.

*Zhao Xiaoyan,赵晓燕. 从文化语境的角度看歇后语的英译 [The translation of Xiehouyu from the perspective of cultural context][J].淮北师范大学学报,2015(06):102-106.

==Study on Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 朱旭 Zhu Xu 202070080631==

<center> 朱旭 Zhu Xu, 202070080631. </center>

===Abstract===
As her later representative work, ''shengshengman'' written by Li Qingzhao, praised by later generations as“the Eternal Farewell”, describes autumn scenery, expresses her feeling which has great aesthetic value. It is necessarily of high significance to analyze English versions of ''shengshengman'', which is full of aesthetic features. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper analyzes Xu Yuanchong’s English version of ''shengshengman'' from four aspects: beauty in image, beauty in sound, beauty in lexis, beauty in form in order to study the application of Translation Aesthetics in literary translation.

As Li Qingzhao's later representative work, ''shengshengman'', praised by later generations as "the Eternal Farewell", describes autumn scenery, expresses her feeling which has great aesthetic value. It is necessarily of high significance to analyze English versions of ''shengshengman'', which is full of aesthetic features. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper analyzes Xu Yuanchong's English version of ''shengshengman'' from four aspects: beauty in image, beauty in sound, beauty in lexis, and beauty in form in order to study the application of Translation Aesthetics in literary translation.--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Key words===
Translation Aesthetics; Sheng sheng man; Xu Yuanchong; Literary Translation

===题目===
翻译美学视角下《声声慢》许渊冲英译本的研究

===摘要===
声声慢是李清照后期代表作，被后人誉为“千古绝唱”。在这首词中，作者描写秋景抒发哀情，全词感情浓烈，文学造诣极高。本文从翻译美学角度入手，从意象美、音韵美、用词美、形式美、四个方面对宋词《声声慢》许渊冲的英译本进行分析，分析研究翻译美学理论在文学翻译中的运用。

===关键词===
翻译美学；许渊冲；声声慢；文学翻译

===1 Introduction===
Literary translation refers to the process of translating a literary work of source language into target language. There is an interactive relationship between literary translation and literary recipients, the influence of literary receiver on literary translation is more obvious. Due to the great differences between Chinese and Western poetry in terms of language and culture, translator wants to make a perfect translation is impractical, that is to say, in literary translation, it is difficult for the translator to completely transform the source language into the target language. This paper, from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics, studies on Xu Yuanchong’s translation version of ''shengshengman'' from the aspects of image, sound, lexis and form, and probes into the application of Translation Aesthetics in the translation of Chinese poetry(''ci''), it further demonstrates the importance of Translation Aesthetics to literary translation.

Literary translation refers to the process of translating a literary work of source language into target language. There is an interactive relationship between literary translation and literary recipients, the influence of literary receiver on literary translation is more obvious. Due to the great differences between Chinese and Western poetry in terms of language and culture, it is impractical that a translator wants to make a perfect translation, that is to say, in literary translation, it is difficult for the translator to completely transform the source language into the target language. This paper, from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics, studies on Xu Yuanchong’s translation version of ''shengshengman'' from the aspects of image, sound, lexis and form, and probes into the application of Translation Aesthetics in the translation of Chinese poetry(''ci''), it further demonstrates the importance of Translation Aesthetics to literary translation.--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===2 An overview of Translation Aesthetics===

Translation is the activity of expressing the information carried by one language in another language, each language has its own characteristics, and its connotation and extension are influenced by different living environment and cultural background.Translation Aesthetics play an important role in translation studies. Translation Aesthetics have long been in connected for a long time, which the basis of Chinese Traditional translation theory includes aesthetics. Translation Aesthetics is an aesthetics origin revealing translation, to study translation from the perspective of aesthetics, which brings a new theoretical basis for the study of contemporary translation theory. (Li Lei, 2011, 83)

Translation is an activity of expressing the information carried by one language into another language. Each language has its own characteristics, connotation and extension that are influenced by different living environment and cultural background. Translation Aesthetics play an important role in translation studies. Translation Aesthetics have long been in connected for a long time, which the basis of Chinese Traditional translation theory includes aesthetics. Translation Aesthetics is an aesthetics origin revealing translation, to study translation from the perspective of aesthetics, which brings a new theoretical basis for the study of contemporary translation theory. (Li Lei, 2011, 83)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in China====

The subset of Chinese history, poetry and painting are in fact the eternal beauty of direct or indirect narrative, Linyi, interpretation, exploration and development of natural beauty, life beauty, human beauty, personality beauty and spiritual temperament. (Liu Miqing, 1994, 56) Based on the linguistic and expression characteristics of Chinese, Chinese translation and aesthetics have a natural connection. Translation and aesthetics have been officially used as an area of translation research since the 1990s. In the Field of Translation in China, the earliest person who systematically combined translation and aesthetics was Xi Yongji, and ''The Comparative Study of Translation Aesthetics'' is the first study of translation aesthetics in China. (Li Jie, 140)

The subset of Chinese history, poetry and painting are in fact the eternal beauty of direct or indirect narrative, Linyi, interpretation, exploration and development of natural beauty, life beauty, human beauty, personality beauty and spiritual temperament. (Liu Miqing, 1994, 56) Based on the linguistic and expression characteristics of Chinese, there is a natural connection between Chinese translation and aesthetics. Translation and aesthetics have been officially used as an area of translation research since the 1990s. In the Field of Translation in China, the earliest person who systematically combined translation and aesthetics was Xi Yongji, and ''The Comparative Study of Translation Aesthetics'' is the first study of translation aesthetics in China. (Li Jie, 140)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Since the 1980s, Western translation theory has occupied a very important position in The Chinese translation circle, new theoretical terms and research methods have dazzled researchers, Western-style logical thought research has entered various fields of scientific research, and the traditional Chinese method of experience is considered unscientific and fragmented. Quite a few researchers have abandoned the traditional Chinese way of study, but Mr. Yu Yongji still thinks calmly, not in the Western way of logical thinking, but by means of Chinese culture's own sense of experience, trying to open up a new way for translation research from the perspective of Chinese traditional aesthetics, so that China's self-made traditional translation theory can be connected by a link, this link is translation aesthetics. In his works, Mr. Yan discusses the aesthetic factors in literary translation from the three aspects of language beauty, imaginary beauty and style beauty. In the translation research methods to the later researchers have brought inspiration.(Yang Xiaoru, 2013, 25);(Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)

Since the 1980s, Western translation theory has occupied a very important position in the Chinese translation circle. New theoretical terms and research methods have dazzled researchers. Western-style logical thought research has entered various fields of scientific research, and the traditional Chinese method of experience is considered unscientific and fragmented. Quite a few researchers have abandoned the traditional Chinese way of study, but Mr. Yu Yongji still thought calmly, not in the Western way of logical thinking, but by means of Chinese culture's own sense of experience, trying to open up a new way for translation research from the perspective of Chinese traditional aesthetics, so that China's self-made traditional translation theory can be connected by a link, this link is translation aesthetics. In his works, Mr. Yan discusses the aesthetic factors in literary translation from the three aspects of language beauty, imaginary beauty and style beauty. In the translation research methods to the later researchers have brought inspiration.(Yang Xiaoru, 2013, 25);(Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Second, Mr. Liu Miqing's book ''Introduction to Translation Aesthetics'' published in Taiwan. This work through argumentative analysis, revealed the aesthetic origin of translation, analyzed the translation aesthetics and the natural connection between Chinese words and text, put forward the basic theoretical framework for the construction of translation aesthetics. Professor Mao Ronggui's book ''Translation Aesthetics'' came out in 2005, which is divided into four parts: the main article, ask the beauty, the hazy article, the practice article.(Yang, 2013, 25)

Second, the development of 1995, Mr. Liu Miqing's book ''Introduction to Translation Aesthetics'' published in Taiwan this work through argumentative analysis, revealed the aesthetic origin of translation, analyzed the translation aesthetics and the natural connection between Chinese words and text, put forward the basic theoretical framework for the construction of translation aesthetics. Professor Mao Ronggui's book ''Translation Aesthetics'' came out in 2005, which is divided into four parts: the main article, ask the beauty, the hazy article, the practice article.(Yang, 2013, 25)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

As the book has a novel layout, the content of the article swept the study of the text of the obscure wind, the language is sometimes eternal, sometimes witty, sometimes thought-provoking, sometimes people can't help but let people understand the study of translation theory at the same time really feel the language beauty. This work suggests that language ambiguity and translation aesthetics can be combined to study, which was rarely mentioned among domestic scholars at that time, opening up new ideas for translation research. In his opinion, the study of language ambiguity and how to compensate in its translation is a topic that translation research can not get around, as far as language ambiguity is concerned, Chinese is more than English. Therefore, Chinese translation theory can not lack the study of language ambiguity and its compensation mechanism in translation. The above three works are the more systematic works in the field of translation aesthetics in China.(Mao Guirong, 2005, 98);(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 56)

As the book has a novel layout, the content of the article swept the study of the text of the obscure wind, the language is sometimes eternal, sometimes witty, sometimes thought-provoking. This work suggests that language ambiguity and translation aesthetics can be combined to study, which was rarely mentioned among domestic scholars at that time, opening up new ideas for translation research. In his opinion, the study of language ambiguity and how to compensate in its translation is a topic that translation research can not get around, as far as language ambiguity is concerned, Chinese is more than English. Therefore, Chinese translation theory can not lack the study of language ambiguity and its compensation mechanism in translation. The above three works are the more systematic works in the field of translation aesthetics in China.(Mao Guirong, 2005, 98);(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 56)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Three works reveal the research significance, research tasks, research methods and research categories of translation aesthetics from different aspects. Throughout these three works, in the course of their discussion, most of the translations listed are concentrated in the field of literary translation. With the guidance of translation aesthetic theory, a large number of academic works and papers on translation have come into being from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Translation aesthetics is a very "young" research field, which needs to be further developed and perfected, and needs to be reconsidered and studied.(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)

Three works reveal the research significance, research tasks, research methods and research categories of translation aesthetics from different aspects. Throughout these three works, in the course of their discussion, most of the translations listed are concentrated in the field of literary translation. With the guidance of translation aesthetic theory, a large number of academic works and papers on translation have come into being from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Translation aesthetics is a very "young" research field, which needs a further development and perfection, and needs to be reconsidered and studied.(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

At present, the remarkable feature is that the study of translation aesthetics is mainly concentrated in the field of literary research. Most of the articles studied from the aesthetic point of view are still focused on the analysis and criticism of translation, comment on the merits, explore the best translation methods and so on, the perspective is relatively narrow, has not been separated from the simple evaluation of the quality of translation under the model, less all kinds of translations as aesthetic objects, can not be from the aesthetic point of view of appreciation, taste, comparison, analysis, resulting in literary works and their translations contain aesthetic factors and their value can not be revealed in full, so that readers can not be fully revealed, so that readers in the study of translation works, The aesthetic value of the original and the translation cannot be fully appreciated. (Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)

At present, the remarkable feature is that the study of translation aesthetics is mainly concentrated in the field of literary research. Most of the articles studied from the aesthetic point of view are still focused on the analysis and criticism of translation, or comment on the merits, explore the best translation methods and so on. The perspective is relatively narrow, which has not been separated from the simple evaluation of the quality of translation under the model, less all kinds of translations as aesthetic objects, can not be from the aesthetic point of view of appreciation, taste, comparison, analysis, resulting in literary works and their translations contain aesthetic factors and their value can not be revealed in full, so that readers can not be fully revealed, so that readers in the study of translation works, The aesthetic value of the original and the translation cannot be fully appreciated. (Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in the West====
As we know, western translation theories have been greatly attached to aesthetics for a long time before the entrance of the modern linguistics. The theories are based on the study of philosophy and aesthetics, which has lasted for more than 1800 years.

As we know, western translation theories have been greatly attached to aesthetics for a long time before the entrance of the modern linguistics. The theories are based on the study of philosophy and aesthetics, which has lasted for more than 1800 years. --[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The first western exploration of translation began with Marcus Tullius Cicero(106-43 B.C.) and Quintus Flaccus Horace(65-8 A.D.). Their stress was laid on sense for sense translation and the aesthetic criteria of the TL produced. St Jerome(347-420) and St. Augustine(354-430) were the followers in the flow of western translation theories. The former proposed that translation mostly lied on the nature, so the translated text should be as simple as the daily language. The latter proposed that in the process of translation, the translator must notice three styles: simplicity, elegance and sublimity and they were requirements of the readers.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)

The first western exploration of translation began with Marcus Tullius Cicero(106-43 B.C.) and Quintus Flaccus Horace(65-8 A.D.). Their stress was laid on sense for sense translation and the aesthetic criteria of the TL produced. St Jerome(347-420) and St. Augustine(354-430) were the followers in the flow of western translation theories. The former proposed that translation mostly lied on the nature, so the translated text should be as simple as the daily language. The latter proposed that in the process of translation, the translator must notice three styles: simplicity, elegance and sublimity and they were requirements of the readers.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

From the fourth century A.D. to the 17th A.D., with the spread of Christianity, Bible translation became the major concerns of western translators. Martin Luther(1483-1542), as the most influential Bible translator, also laid emphasis on the significance of producing an accessible and aesthetically satisfying vernacular style. Later a noted English translator of Homer George Chapman(1559-1643) realized that the good translation must grasp “spirit” and “tone” of the source text, so the translated text can be regarded as a transmigration of the source text(Susan B.M.,2002, 61)

From the fourth century A.D. to the 17th A.D., with the spread of Christianity, Bible translation became the major concerns of western translators. Martin Luther(1483-1542), as the most influential Bible translator, also laid emphasis on the significance of producing an accessible and aesthetically satisfying vernacular style. Later a noted English translator of Homer George Chapman(1559-1643) realized that the good translation must grasp "spirit" and "tone" of the source text, so the translated text can be regarded as a transmigration of the source text(Susan B.M.,2002, 61) --[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Alexander Fraster Tytler (1747-1813), a renowned English translation theorist in the eighteenth century, set up three principles of translation which focus upon the reproduction of idea, style and ease of the original. Benedetto Crose(1866-1952) was a distinguished aesthetician and literary essayist in Italy. In his masterpiece Estetica(1948), he expressed his thought like this: literary translation was a process of art recreation. Ezra Pound (1885-1972) is not only a great poet, but also a famous translator. He said: “Rime looks very important. Take the rimes of a good sonnet, and there is a vacuum.” (Pound, 1929, 30).

Alexander Fraster Tytler (1747-1813), a renowned English translation theorist in the eighteenth century, set up three principles of translation which focus upon the reproduction of idea, style and ease of the original. Benedetto Crose(1866-1952) was a distinguished aesthetician and literary essayist in Italy. In his masterpiece Estetica(1948), he expressed his thought like this: literary translation was a process of art recreation. Ezra Pound (1885-1972) is not only a great poet, but also a famous translator. He said: "Rime looks very important. Take the rimes of a good sonnet, and there is a vacuum." (Pound, 1929, 30).

One of the most noteworthy may be the renowned American scholar Eugene A. Nida, who writes in his book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' (2003, 128) that “translating consists in reproducing in the reader language the closet natural equivalent of the source language, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” Here, “meaning” is not only related to lexical elements, but also to other linguistic or non-linguistic factors which contribute to the understanding and appreciation of a literary work. As seen from the history of western translation theory, translators never ceased to take in nutrition from aesthetics. As Liu Miqing (1995, 58) put it: “In the west, the bud of translation theory was first bound to the tree of philosophic-aesthetics and has stood for as long as one thousand and eight hundred years.”(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)

One of the most noteworthy may be the renowned American scholar Eugene A. Nida, who writes in his book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' (2003, 128) that "translating consists in reproducing in the reader language the closet natural equivalent of the source language, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style." Here, "meaning" is not only related to lexical elements, but also to other linguistic or non-linguistic factors which contribute to the understanding and appreciation of a literary work. As seen from the history of western translation theory, translators never ceased to take in nutrition from aesthetics. As Liu Miqing (1995, 58) put it: "In the west, the bud of translation theory was first bound to the tree of philosophic-aesthetics and has stood for as long as one thousand and eight hundred years."(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

During the long course of development, western and Chinese translation aesthetics have experienced ups and downs and share many similarities in translation principles, approaches, procedures etc. Firstly, both Chinese and western translation theories have gone through the process of development from dispersive statements to monographs which reflects the common law of development. Secondly, they both have experienced the dispute between literal and free translation.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)

During the long course of development, western and Chinese translation aesthetics have experienced ups and downs and share many similarities in translation principles, approaches, procedures etc. Firstly, both Chinese and western translation theories have gone through the process of development from dispersive statements to monographs which reflects the common law of development. Secondly, they both have experienced the dispute between literal and free translation.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Confined by the limitation of the aesthetic subject's intuition and appreciation and weakness in objective analysis, traditional studies of translation in China are characterized by their fuzziness and ambiguity in logical intension. As compared with Chinese translation studies, western translation studies pay much attention to explicit definition and clearness of logical intention. Influenced by different systems of philosophy, culture and language, they have their distinctive features as well. (Li, 2020, 80)

Confined by the limitation of the aesthetic subject's intuition, appreciation and weakness in objective analysis, traditional studies of translation in China are characterized by their fuzziness and ambiguity in logical intension. Compared with Chinese translation studies, western translation studies pay more attention to explicit definition and clearness of logical intention. Influenced by different systems of philosophy, culture and language, they have their distinctive features as well. (Li, 2020, 80)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Western traditional philosophy, though having passed through different stages, mainly regards human beings and nature as incongruous. It lays stress on dualism rather than holism. While through years Chinese traditional philosophy had laid great emphasis on harmony, integration and the mingling of opposites. Therefore, the differences between western traditional philosophy and Chinese traditional philosophy have exerted a great influence on translation studies. The influence is especially remarkable in the following aspects. Chinese traditional studies of translation trend to pay much attention on the wholes rather than parts, on intuition rather than reasoning. Therefore, the success of a translation work depends mainly on the perception and empirical insight of the translator rather than systematic investigation of its structural elements and logical verification. (Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)

Western traditional philosophy, though having passed through different stages, mainly regards human beings and nature as incongruous. It lays stress on dualism rather than holism, while through years Chinese traditional philosophy had laid great emphasis on harmony, integration and the mingling of opposites. Therefore, the differences between western traditional philosophy and Chinese traditional philosophy have exerted a great influence on translation studies. The influence is especially remarkable in the following aspects. Chinese traditional studies of translation trend to pay much attention on the wholes rather than parts, on intuition rather than reasoning. Therefore, the success of a translation work depends mainly on the perception and empirical insight of the translator rather than systematic investigation of its structural elements and logical verification. (Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Moreover, in China, translation theories are but a set of much talked-about principles or criteria such as “faithfulness, expressiveness, elegance” and “closeness of spirit” which can hardly break away from controversial discussions on literal and free translation and have been left to stick with classical literary aesthetics or philosophical aesthetics. Western translation studies, on the other hand, are inclined to lay emphasis on rational and impersonal analysis of structural elements. Therefore, western translation theorists are more likely to approach translation studies from various perspectives and fort systematic conclusion on translation theory. They have never ceased to seek theoretical reference from linguistics, poetics, philosophy, semeiotics, cross-culture studies etc to build their translation theories. In all, similarities and dissimilarities in Chinese and western aesthetic traditions may help us find out the commonness and idiosyncrasy, the universality and particularity between them so that we can get enlightenment from western translation theories and develop those of our own.(Li, 2020, 80)

Moreover, in China, translation theories are but a set of much talked-about principles or criteria such as “faithfulness, expressiveness, elegance” and “closeness of spirit” which can hardly break away from controversial discussions on literal and free translation and have been left to stick with classical literary aesthetics or philosophical aesthetics. Western translation studies, on the other hand, are inclined to lay emphasis on rational and impersonal analysis of structural elements. Therefore, western translation theorists are more likely to approach translation studies from various perspectives and fort systematic conclusion on translation theory. They have never ceased to seek theoretical reference from linguistics, poetics, philosophy, semeiotics, cross-culture studies etc to build their translation theories. In all, similarities and dissimilarities in Chinese and western aesthetic traditions may help us find out the commonness and idiosyncrasy, the universality and particularity between them so that we can get enlightenment from western translation theories and develop those of our own.(Li, 2020, 80)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===3 Previous studies on Li Qingzhao’s Ci-poetry in China===

In China, Bing Xin is the earliest one introducing Li Qingzhao and her works to the English -speaking world. In 1926, she finished her master thesis ''An English Translation and Edition of the Poems of Lady Li Yi-an'' in Wesley College in the United States. In this paper, she systematically explained the fundamental knowledge about Ci-poems and tried to translate twenty-five major Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao. It might be the first time for aca demia of western literature to contact with Ci-poetry. In some west ern countries, a few English translations were published and circulated after that. (Tang Lin, 2012，54)

In China, Bing Xin is the earliest one who introduced Li Qingzhao and her works to the English-speaking world. In 1926, she finished her master thesis ''An English Translation and Edition of the Poems of Lady Li Yi-an'' in Wesley College in the United States. In this paper, she systematically explained the fundamental knowledge about Ci-poems and tried to translate twenty-five major Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao. It might be the first time for aca demia of western literature to contact with Ci-poetry. In some west ern countries, a few English translations were published and circulated after that. (Tang Lin, 2012，54)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Chu Dagao (aka Ch'u Ta-kao or TK Chu) is considered as the second one who introduced Li Qingzhao's Ci-poetry to the western world. In 1937, Chu Dagao published his ''Chinese Lyrics''by Cambridge University Press, which has been difficult to obtain now. In 1987, he published another book ''101 Chinese Lyrics'' by New World Express, with five Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao's in it.(Tang Lin, 2012，56)

Chu Dagao (aka Ch'u Ta-kao or TK Chu) is considered as the second one who introduced Li Qingzhao's Ci-poetry to the western world. In 1937, Chu Dagao published his ''Chinese Lyrics''by Cambridge University Press, which has been difficult to obtain now. In 1987, his another book ''101 Chinese Lyrics'' was published by New World Express, with five Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao's in it.(Tang Lin, 2012，56)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In 1961, Lin Yutang published his famous book ''The Importance of Understanding Translations from the Chinese'' , with Li Qingzhao's Ci-poem ''shengshengman'' and ''Comments on Ci-poetry'' in it. This book aimed to introduce Chinese famous poets and works to the western world. Xu Jieyu published his article about English translation of Lyrics of Li Qingzhao in 1962, which included twenty Ci-poems in it. Specialized translation research on Li Qingzhao at home was done by Weng Xianliang. In 1985, his book ''An English Translation of Chinese Ancient Poems'' appeared for the readers at home and abroad. (Tang, 2012, 57)

In 1961, Lin Yutang published his famous book ''The Importance of Understanding Translations from the Chinese'' , with Li Qingzhao's Ci-poem ''shengshengman'' and ''Comments on Ci-poetry'' in it. This book aimed to introduce Chinese famous poets and works to the western world. Xu Jieyu published his article about English translation of Lyrics of Li Qingzhao in 1962, which included twenty Ci-poems in it. Specialized translation research on Li Qingzhao at home was done by Weng Xianliang. In 1985, his book ''An English Translation of Chinese Ancient Poems'' appeared for the readers at home and abroad. (Tang, 2012, 57)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Xu Yuangchong is one of the most experienced translators in China. He translated and published 60 Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao (some uncertain works also involved) in his magnum opus ''Literature and Translation'' in 2003. He drew the outline of the development of Chinese poetry translation in his works, which made a great contribution to popularity Chinese culture and enhancing its status in the world. Mao Yumnei is the daughter of Dr. Mao Yisheng, who is the most famous bridge engineer in China. She obtained her M A. Arts Degree from the Department of English at Washington University. Since the 1950s,she has begun tore search translations on the exchange of Eastern and Western cultures. After few years she published her monograph ''Picking the Best Ci-Poems from the Washing Jade'' with thirty-two Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao in it. (Tang, 2012, 58)

Xu Yuangchong is one of the most experienced translators in China. He translated and published 60 Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao (some uncertain works also involved) in his magnum opus ''Literature and Translation'' in 2003. He drew the outline of the development of Chinese poetry translation in his works, which made a great contribution to popularity Chinese culture and enhancing its status in the world. Mao Yumnei is the daughter of Dr. Mao Yisheng, who is the most famous bridge engineer in China. She obtained her M A. Arts Degree from the Department of English at Washington University. Since the 1950s,she has begun tore search translations on the exchange of Eastern and Western cultures. After few years she published her monograph ''Picking the Best Ci-Poems from the Washing Jade'' with thirty-two Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao in it. (Tang, 2012, 58)
--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)
Since the twenty first century, Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry has attracted more and more audience by its unique artistic flavor. A great deal of scholars has devoted themselves to the translation and introduction of Li Qinghao and her works. YangJian's thesis ''On the English Translation of Ci-poems by Li Qingzhao'' is regarded as the earliest thesis in this period.In 2001, the reputable couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published their works ''Song Lyrics'' (《宋词》).Other famous translators who have made outstanding contributions include Gong Jinhao (Gong Jinhao, 1999), Huang Hongquan (HuanHongquan, 2001), and Zhu Chunshen (Zhu Chunshen, 2003).(Tang, 2012, 58)

Since the twenty first century, Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry has attracted more and more audience by its unique artistic flavor. A great deal of scholars has devoted themselves to the translation and introduction of Li Qinghao and her works. YangJian's thesis ''On the English Translation of Ci-poems by Li Qingzhao'' is regarded as the earliest thesis in this period. In 2001, the reputable couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published their works ''Song Lyrics'' (《宋词》).Other famous translators who have made outstanding contributions are including Gong Jinhao (Gong Jinhao, 1999), Huang Hongquan (HuanHongquan, 2001), and Zhu Chunshen (Zhu Chunshen, 2003).(Tang, 2012, 58)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In 2005, Li Qing finished her dissertation ''A Contrastive Study on the Translations of Tz 'u Poems by Li Qingzhao'', which published as a monograph in early 2009. Using the comparative method, she systematically induced and analyzed there search on various translations of Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry from the perspective of macro and micro.(Li Qing, 2005, 32)

In 2005, Li Qing finished her dissertation ''A Contrastive Study on the Translations of Tz 'u Poems by Li Qingzhao'', which published as a monograph in early 2009. Using the comparative method, she systematically induced and analyzed their research on various translations of Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry from the perspective of macro and micro.(Li Qing, 2005, 32)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===4 A case study of ''Shengshengman'' from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics===

Literary translation plays an imperative role in translation studies, and it’s an intricate process that needs many skills. For one thing, the aesthetic style and aesthetic feeling are very important for the author to compose his work. Therefore, the translator should choose the literary words to transform the aesthetic sense of the source text in the process of translation. For the other thing, literary translation is the representations of all-round artistic quality which can make the target reader get the similar appreciation of the original beauty of the target language context. (Dang Zhengsheng, 2010, 97)

Literary translation plays an imperative role in translation studies, and it’s an intricate process that needs many skills. For one thing, the aesthetic style and aesthetic feeling are very important for the author to compose his work. Therefore, the translator should choose literary words to transform the aesthetic sense of the source text in the process of translation. For the other thing, literary translation is the representations of all-round artistic quality which can make the target reader get similar appreciation of the original beauty of the target language context. (Dang Zhengsheng, 2010, 97)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

声声慢 Tune: ”Slow, Slow Tune”

寻寻觅觅

冷冷清清

凄凄惨惨戚戚

I look for what I miss

I know not what it is

I feel so sad, so drear,

So lonely, without cheer

乍暖还寒时候

最难将息

How hard is it

To keep me fit

In this lightering cold!

三杯两盏淡酒

怎敌他晚来风急

Hardly warmed up

By cup on cup

Of wine so dry

Oh, how could I

Endure at dusk thedrift

Of wind so swift?

雁过也

正伤心

却是旧时相识

It breaks my heart,alas!

To see the wild gees pass

For they are my acquaintances of old.

满地黄花堆积

憔悴损

而今有谁堪摘

The ground is coveredwith yellow flowers

Faded and fallen in showers

Who will pick them upnow?

守着窗儿

独自怎生得黑

Sitting alone at thewindow

How could I butquicken

The pace of darknesswhich won’t thicken?

梧桐更兼细雨

到黄昏点点滴滴

这次第

怎一个愁字了得

On parasol-trees leaves a fine rain drizzles

At twilight grizzles

Oh! what can I do with a grief

Beyond belief?

====4.1 Beauty in image====

In this part, what is discussed is the Translation Aesthetics in Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' , and the first sentence of this poem is the typical one reaching coexistence of fiction and reality, the translations of the first sentence are analyzed in this part of the thesis.

This part is discussed the Translation Aesthetics in Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' , and the first sentence of this poem is the typical one reaching coexistence of fiction and reality. The translations of the first sentence are analyzed in this part of the thesis.--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

''Shengshengman'' is a representative work of Li Qingzhao, and the seven pairs of reduplicative characters at the beginning are also regarded as a poetic masterpiece. It has also attracted many translators trying to translate it. According to the statistics by Li Qing, Li Qingzhao started her writing as “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚”, The sentence and the repeated words are used to make full use of the advantages of Chinese, and strive to create an abstract and only contemplated artistic conception.(Qi jiajia, 2014, 44)

''Shengshengman'' is a representative work of Li Qingzhao, and the seven pairs of reduplicative characters at the beginning are also regarded as a poetic masterpiece. It has also attracted many translators taking the challenge to translate it. According to the statistics by Li Qing, Li Qingzhao started her writing as “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚”, The sentence and the repeated words are used to make full use of the advantages of Chinese, and strive to create an abstract and only contemplated artistic conception.(Qi jiajia, 2014, 44)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In the sentence, “寻寻觅觅”is the dynamic state of feeling as if bereft of something,“冷冷清清”is the static state of feeling as if bereft of something,“凄凄惨惨”is the feeling on the surface of inner heart, and“戚戚”is the feeling in the deep inner heart . This sentence seems to describe the inner feeling, but it aims to describe the real situation at that time in fact. (Yang Huiying, Liu Weixin, 2003, 10)

In the sentence, “寻寻觅觅” is the dynamic state of feeling as if bereft of something, “冷冷清清” is the static state of feeling as if bereft of something, “凄凄惨惨” is the feeling on the surface of inner heart, and "戚戚" is the feeling in the deep inner heart. This sentence seems to describe the inner feeling, but it aims to describe the real situation at that time in fact. (Yang Huiying, Liu Weixin, 2003, 10)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In his translation, Xu translated“寻寻觅觅”into‘I look for what I miss ', attempting to indirectly convey the meaning of“寻寻觅觅”through the description of environment. that of Lin does not meet the first and fourth requirements. The second four characters,“冷冷清清”, is the description of surround environment (cold and quiet) and the static state of poetess' inner condition as well. Xu translated it into ‘I know not what it is ', which is not in accordance with the original text semantically, but his translation conveys the psychological condition of the poetess because of her suffering. (Qi, 2014, 44)

In his translation, Xu translated “寻寻觅觅” into 'I look for what I miss', attempting to indirectly convey the meaning of "寻寻觅觅" through the description of environment that of Lin does not meet the first and fourth requirements. The second four characters,"冷冷清清", is the description of surround environment (cold and quiet) and the static state of poetess' inner condition as well. Xu translated it into 'I know not what it is', which is not in accordance with the original text semantically, but his translation conveys the psychological condition of the poetess because of her suffering. (Qi, 2014, 44)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Hence, for the translation of these four characters, according to the five requirements of Liu Miqing, Xu’s versions of them are completely in conformity with the original poem. The last part of this sentence consists of three pairs of characters,“凄凄惨惨戚戚”,describing the poetess’ inner grief and sorrow. Xu Yuanchong translated these six characters into‘I feel so sad, so drear, So lonely, without cheer ', using alliteration to transfer the stylistic format and stylistic factors of original poem, reproducing the lonely situation of poetess. Xu Yuanchong has a deep understanding of this reduplicative characters. Therefore, he translated this part of the article in “so+adj” structure to explain the feelings of the Li Qingzhao's sadness and reconstruct the character image, which is very in line with the habit of English writing.(Qi, 2014, 44)

Hence, for the translation of these four characters, according to the five requirements of Liu Miqing, Xu’s versions of them are completely in conformity with the original poem. The last part of this sentence consists of three pairs of characters,“凄凄惨惨戚戚”,describing the poetess’ inner grief and sorrow. Xu Yuanchong translated these six characters into 'I feel so sad, so drear, So lonely, without cheer ', using alliteration to transfer the stylistic format and stylistic factors of original poem, reproducing the lonely situation of poetess. Xu Yuanchong has a deep understanding of this reduplicative characters. Therefore, he translated this part of the article in "so+adj" structure to explain the feelings of the Li Qingzhao's sadness and reconstruct the character image, which is very in line with the habit of English writing.(Qi, 2014, 44)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====4.2 Beauty in sound====

Poetry should not only pay attention to the beautiful image, but also the harmony, naturalness and smoothness of phonology. Li Qingzhao attaches great importance to rhythm in her ''ci'', and the musical lyrical language used in ''Shengshengman'' is very distinctive. Xu Yuanchong is also very particular about the beauty of phonology when translating poems. In order to achieve the same effect on the phonology of the translated poems and the original words, he adopted the typical translation techniques of ending rhymes, alliterations, and double tones in the translated poems to make the translated poems read It is full of music, and it fully conveys the sadness of the original word.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 130)

Poetry should not only pay attention to the beautiful images, but also the harmony, naturalness and smoothness of phonology. Li Qingzhao attaches great importance to rhythm in her ''ci'', and the musical lyrical language used in ''Shengshengman'' is very distinctive. Xu Yuanchong is also very particular about the beauty of phonology when translating poems. In order to achieve the same effect on the phonology of the translated poems and the original words, he adopted the typical translation techniques of ending rhymes, alliterations, and double tones in the translated poems to make the translated poems read It is full of music, and it fully conveys the sadness of the original word.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 130)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The vowels /iə/、/ai/、/au/ in the English translation of the poem are all diphthongs, and the sound is made by sliding one vowel to another. They are pronounced like a few sighs. Xu Yuanchong used these vowel sounds to imitate the sigh of a female poet. On the whole, the final rhyme of the entire English translation of the poem are very musical, and the sounds themselves give a sense of desolation, urgency, and anxiety, and accurately express the author's feelings.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 131)

The vowels /iə/、/ai/、/au/ in the English translation of the poem are all diphthongs, and the sound is made by sliding one vowel to another. They are pronounced like a few sighs. Xu Yuanchong used these vowel sounds to imitate the sigh of a female poet. On the whole, the final rhyme of the entire English translation of the poem are very musical, and the sounds themselves give a sense of desolation, urgency, and anxiety, and accurately express the author's feelings.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 131)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Xu choose “swift” to express “晚来风急” , so that the reader can see the image of the poet like withered leaves floating in the wind, at the same time choose the short sound/i/similar to “urgent” , skillfully reproduce the beauty of sound and the beauty of meaning. The rhymes “Alas” and “pass” in Xu’s translation are similar to the words “时” and “识” .The two words “faded” and “fallen” not only have similar meanings, but also rhyme /f/ alliteration. (Pan Jiayun, 2003, 54)

Xu chooses “swift” to express “晚来风急” , so that the reader can see the image of the poet like withered leaves floating in the wind. At the same time he uses the short sound/i/similar to “urgent” , skillfully reproduce the beauty of sound and the beauty of meaning. The rhymes “Alas” and “pass” in Xu’s translation are similar to the words “时” and “识” .The two words “faded” and “fallen” not only have similar meanings, but also rhyme /f/ alliteration. (Pan Jiayun, 2003, 54)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In the original poem, the word “gaunt” is the same side of the heart, and the meaning is similar. The translator also skillfully rhymed the now and how in the next sentence, “生得黑” being translated as “quicken the pace of darkness”, with the word “thicken” in the next sentence, adding to the sense of rhyme in the poem. (Dong Hui, 2003, 21)

In the original poem, the word “gaunt” is the same side of the heart, and the meaning is similar. The translator also skillfully rhymed the now and how in the next sentence, “生得黑” being translated as “quicken the pace of darkness”, with the word “thicken” in the next sentence, adding to the sense of rhyme in the poem. (Dong Hui, 2003, 21)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The word “drizzles” and “grizzles” correspond to the reduplicated words “点点滴滴” in the translation. The short sound /i/ in the choice of words is similar to the sound of “点点滴滴”, here is another long Sound/i:/ to show the continuous sound of a little rain, further enhanced the feeling. The last sentence is a kind of spoken expression. The rhyming of “ief” with the words “grief” and “belief” not only reflects the beauty of the sound of the translated poem, but also pushes the feelings of the whole poem to a climax.(Nie Yanmin, 2014 , 103)

The word “drizzles” and “grizzles” correspond to the reduplicated words “点点滴滴” in the translation. The short sound /i/ in the choice of words is similar to the sound of “点点滴滴”, Here is another long Sound/i:/ to show the continuous sound of a little rain, further enhanced the feeling. The last sentence is a kind of spoken expression. The rhyming of “ief” with the words “grief” and “belief” not only reflects the beauty of the sound of the translated poem, but also pushes the feelings of the whole poem to a climax.(Nie Yanmin, 2014 , 103)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====4.3 Beauty in lexis====

The author thinks that the sentence “In this lingering cold “is totally express the content in the original image of “乍暖还寒时候” , the keyword “Linger” personifies the inconstancy of the weather at the end of autumn as an image that seems to be going but lingers. In addition, Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “最难将息”，the four abstract Chinese characters, “hard is it to keep me fit” , has added a few extra elements, which makes a female image that frail, sad and vulnerable, unable to adapt to the cold and uncertain weather.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 82)

The author thinks that the sentence “In this lingering cold “is totally express the content in the original image of “乍暖还寒时候” , the keyword “Linger” personifies the inconstancy of the weather at the end of autumn as an image that seems to be going but lingering. In addition, Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “最难将息”，the four abstract Chinese characters, “hard is it to keep me fit” , has added a few extra elements, which makes a female image who is frail, sad, vulnerable, and unable to adapt to the cold and uncertain weather.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 82)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In the sentence “三杯两盏淡酒”, “三” and “两” here means the approximate number, but the corresponding English “three” , “two” cannot mean this meaning. To translate this meaning, Xu Yuanchong used “By Cup on Cup”， which means “cup after cup”. It paints a picture that a female wants to drive away the chill in the air with the contents of the cup. The helpless mood incisively and vividly expressed.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)

In the sentence “三杯两盏淡酒”, “三” and “两” here means the approximate number, but the corresponding English “three” , “two” don't have such meaning. To convey this meaning, Xu Yuanchong used “By Cup on Cup”， which means “cup after cup”. It paints a picture that a female wants to drive away the chill in the air with the contents of the cup. The helpless mood incisively and vividly expressed.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In sentence “雁过也正伤心确是旧时相识”, “正伤心”is the role part. To Express this almost desperate sadness, the translator use the word ”alas” to show author’s sorrows. Alas used to express unhappiness, pity, or concern. It’s a sad, disappointed, painful word that conveys the author’s feelings in an appropriate way.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)

In the sentence “雁过也正伤心确是旧时相识”, “正伤心” is the main part. To Express this very desperate sadness, the translator use the word ”alas” to show author’s sorrows. Alas used to express unhappiness, pity, or concern. It’s a sad, disappointed, painful word that can convey the author’s feelings in an appropriate way.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

For the sentence " 满地黄花堆积憔悴损 "，Xu translated it into “faded and fallen in showers”. He turned the static physical description into a dynamic process of flowers withering, giving people the enjoyment of beauty. In order to show this dynamic beauty, Xu Yuanchong just uses a “showers” to sublimate the silent gesture of falling flowers into a sound water flow, so that the readers can get the sense of hearing in the visual sense.The meaning of the image of “黄花” may be lost on the target language readers, but human beings feel the same about the rise and fall of all things in the natural world So,Xu use the word "faded" and "fallen" to convey it.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 83,86)

For the sentence " 满地黄花堆积憔悴损 "，Xu translated it into “faded and fallen in showers”. He turned the static physical description into a dynamic process of flowers withering, giving people the enjoyment of beauty. In order to show this dynamic beauty, Xu Yuanchong just uses a “showers” to sublimate the silent gesture of falling flowers into a sound water flow, so that the readers can get the sense of hearing in the visual sense. The meaning of the image of “黄花” may be lost on the target language readers, but people feel the same about the up and down of all things in the natural world. So, Xu use the word "faded" and "fallen" to express it.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 83,86)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====4.4 Beauty in form====

The most striking feature of poetry is its unique external form. The number of lines of poetry and the number of words in each line are fixed. As an extension and development of poetry, the form of words breaks through the constant limit of the number of words in poetry. One word, two words, many words, long sentences and short sentences intersect and correspond, and they are scattered and beautiful. In short, because Chinese and English languages belong to different language families, the phonology is very different, and the way of expression is also very different. (Li Lei, 2011, 92)

The most striking feature of poetry is its unique external form. The number of lines of poetry and the number of words in each line are fixed. As an extension and development of poetry, the form of words breaks through the constant limit of the number of words in poetry. One word, two words, many words, long sentences and short sentences intersect and correspond, and they are scattered but beautiful. In short, for Chinese and English languages belong to different language families, their phonology is very differentas well as the way of expression. (Li Lei, 2011, 92)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Therefore, the English translation of Chinese poems (''ci'') is a very difficult task. It is not easy to reflect the artistic conception of the original text, and it is even more troublesome to retranslate the beauty of form and rhyme of the original text.The different numbers of characters are in an orderly manner, and there is no lack of strong cohesion and centripetal force among the various characters. There is also a unique beauty.(Dai Caihong, 2006, 77)

Therefore, to translate Chinese poems(''ci'') into English is a very difficult task. It is not easy to reflect the artistic conception of the original text, and it is even more troublesome to retranslate the beauty of form and rhyme of the original text. The different numbers of characters are in an orderly manner, and there is no lack of strong cohesion and centripetal force among the various characters. There is also a unique beauty.(Dai Caihong, 2006, 77)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

As far as the ci ''shengshengman'' is concerned, the number of lines in the front and back is roughly symmetrical, with nine sentences in the front and eight sentences in the back. The length of each sentence is staggered, with nine characters long and three characters short. Sometimes short, the first, third, fifth, seventh, and ninth sentences of the first film and the first, second, fourth, sixth, and eight sentences of the second film are all rhymed, and the first, second, third sentence and the second sentence of the first film, the six sentences creatively use the phonetic rhetoric of repetition.(Dong Hui, 2003, 22)

As far as the ci ''shengshengman'' is concerned, the number of lines in the front and back is roughly symmetrical, with nine sentences in the front and eight sentences in the back. The length of each sentence is staggered, with nine characters long and three characters short. Sometimes, the first, third, fifth, seventh, and ninth sentences of the first film and the first, second, fourth, sixth, and eight sentences of the second film are all rhymed, and the first, second, third sentence and the second sentence of the first film, the six sentences creatively use the phonetic rhetoric of repetition.(Dong Hui, 2003, 22)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Xu Yuanchong is also superior in showing the beauty of form. On the whole, the long and short sentences of the original poem are intertwined, and the appearance has a unique beauty of ci. The translation also uses a variety of long and short sentences, which are simple and refreshing. Xu Yuanchong is also unique in the arrangement of words. The supplementary use of the three subjects at the beginning, from the vertical view, the arrangement is neat and uniform, like a slim tree. Later, with the number of words in the original poem, the single-line arrangement gradually shortened or lengthened; the total number of words in each line of the original poem's 下阙(the last part of ''ci'') is slightly more than that of the 上阙(the first part of ''ci''), so the 下阙 in the translation also uses longer sentences.(Nie Yanmin, 2014, 103)

Xu Yuanchong is also excelled at showing the beauty of form. On the whole, the long and short sentences of the original poem are intertwined, and the appearance has a unique beauty of ci. The translation also uses a variety of long and short sentences, which are simple and refreshing. Xu Yuanchong is also unique in the arrangement of words. The supplementary use of the three subjects at the beginning, from the vertical view, the arrangement is neat and uniform, like a slim tree. Later, with the number of words in the original poem, the single-line arrangement gradually shortened or lengthened; the total number of words in each line of the original poem's 下阙(the last part of ''ci'') is slightly more than that of the 上阙(the first part of ''ci''), so the 下阙 in the translation also uses longer sentences.(Nie Yanmin, 2014, 103)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

According to Xu Yuanchong’s translation, the whole word is translated into 26 sentences, of which 21 sentences are broken from the middle of the long sentence to form a rhyme, which not only corresponds to the original two-character three-word sentence, but also shows the beauty of the original word. So that each sentence shares a similar or identical ending, neatly, orderly and neatly reflecting the beauty of the shape of the end of the sentence, and at the same time achieves the effect of rhyming. On the whole, the translation is long and short, uneven and natural. The similar or same syllables at the beginning or end of the sentence between the lines give the original word a kind of architectural beauty, and the beauty of the original word is better preserved and conveyed.(Nie , 2014, 103)

According to Xu Yuanchong’s translation, the whole words are translated into 26 sentences, of which 21 sentences are broken from the middle of the long sentence to form a rhyme, which not only corresponds to the original two-character three-word sentence, but also shows the beauty of the original word. So that each sentence shares a similar or identical ending, neatly, orderly and neatly reflecting the beauty of shaping the end of the sentence, and at the same time achieves the effect of rhyming. On the whole, the translation is long and short, uneven and natural. The similar or the same syllables at the beginning or end of the sentence between the lines give the original word a kind of architectural beauty, and the beauty of the original word is better preserved and conveyed.(Nie , 2014, 103)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Conclusion===
''Ci'' is a high-level artistic aesthetic activity. The beauty of poetry is abstract and hazy. To effectively convey this beauty, it is obviously useless to copy and imitate the original text. Poetry translation aims to achieve the reproduction of the original aesthetic effect in the translation. Of course, the so-called aesthetic effect includes many elements, the representational elements such as phonetics, lexis and sentence patterns, and the non-representational elements such as image, ideorealm, artistic conception and so on. The translator, as the aesthetic subject of translation, shoulders the important task of achieving aesthetic expressions. The best way of expression is to actively promote the conversion of the source language to the target language, thus completing the translation of aesthetic literature.In translation practice, translator should fully experience the beauty of the source language and its expressive characteristics, and seek the best of the target language in terms of sound, form, image, and lexis.

''Ci'' is a high-level artistic aesthetic activity. The beauty of poetry is abstract and hazy. To effectively convey its beauty, it is obviously useless to translate the original text literally. Poetry translation aims to achieve the reproduction of the original aesthetic effect in the translation. Of course, the so-called aesthetic effect includes many elements, the representational elements such as phonetics, lexis and sentence patterns, and the non-representational elements such as image, ideorealm, artistic conception and so on. The translator, as the aesthetic subject of translation, shoulders the important task of achieving aesthetic expressions. The best way of expression is to actively promote the conversion of the source language to the target language, thus completing the translation of aesthetic literature.In translation practice, translator should fully experience the beauty of the source language and its expressive characteristics, and seek the best of the target language in terms of sound, form, image, and lexis.--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

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==Study on translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair'' from the perspective of poetics 许鹏飞Xu Pengfei==

<center>许鹏飞 Xu Pengfei 202020080659</center>

===Abstract:===

This thesis aims to discuss loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in translations of inverted sentences from the perspective of poetics. In literary translation, translators may not strictly follow forms and structures corresponding to original texts due to various reasons, which can help translators convey emotions and content of original texts but also do damage to some functions of originals unconsciously. This thesis chooses some excerpts from two versions translated by Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang respectively. About their translations, Yang Bi tends to choose free translation while Peng Changjiang pays attention to retain forms of original texts. Under the guidance of poetics theory, this part will discuss their different translations of inverted sentences and compare them to the original texts. And the author will analyze loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in the specific examples from two versions of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation.

This paper aims to explore the loss of poetic function and the reappearance of poetic effect in the translation of inverted sentences from the perspective of poetics. In literary translations, translators may not strictly follow forms and structures of the original texts due to various reasons, which can help translators convey emotions and content of original texts but also do damage to some functions of originals unconsciously. This thesis chooses some excerpts from two versions translated by Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang respectively. About their translations, Yang Bi tends to choose free translation while Peng Changjiang pays attention to retain forms of original texts. Under the guidance of poetics theory, this part will discuss their different translations of inverted sentences and compare them to the original texts. Then the author will analyze the loss of poetic function and the reappearance of poetic effect in the two versions of vanity fair.--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 06:55, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining

===摘要：===

本文旨在从诗学角度探讨倒装句翻译中诗学功能的损失和诗学效果的再现。在文学翻译中，译者时常不会严格遵从原文的形式与结构，这有利于译者对原文情感内容的传达，但也在无形之中损害了原文的某些功能。本文节选了杨必和彭长江二人译本中的部分文段，关于二者对《名利场》的翻译，杨必倾向于意译的方式而彭长江的译本则注意保留原文的形式。在诗学理论指导下，通过分析二者对于倒装句不同的翻译方式以及与原文进行对比研究。然后作者会分析两个《名利场》译本中具体例子的诗学功能损失以及诗学效果的再现。

===Key words:===

Literary translation;''Vanity Fair'';poetics theory;inverted sentence;poetic effect

===关键词：===

文学翻译；名利场；诗学理论；倒装句；诗学效果

===Chapter 1 Introduction===

When it comes to literary translation, it cannot escape from controversy and difficulty. It is considered that literary translation is quite hard because the sense of beauty and emotions may be lost in the process of translation before they reach target receptors. And one or more translators seek to give a good translation of the same original, hence re-translation often occurs. ''Vanity Fair'' is a novel written by English writer William Makepeace Thackeray in 1847 which depicts English society in the early nineteenth century.

About a hundred years later, Yang Bi translated it into Chinese in 1957. Her translation is free from the shackles of the original language structure, showing charm and original style of Vanity Fair. After Yang Bi’s translation, multiple translations of this book appeared. Among them, Peng Changjiang’s work is an impressive one. His translation, published in 1996, follows the original structure which is quite different from Yang Bi’s version in style, wording, and many other aspects. Both of them give their unique translations to Chinese readers and their translations own their characteristics and merits. Nevertheless, it is inevitable that something in source text may be lost in target text.

Their different translating strategies of inverted sentences are worthy of discussion. In literary works, an inverted sentence bears its task to achieve some special purposes. To explore these, this thesis will discuss some examples excerpted from the two versions compared with the original text under the guidance of poetics theory. According to comparisons and study, it will analyze poetic effects and poetic function in source text and translations from the perspective of poetics. Based on these, this thesis will focus on loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects about translations of inverted sentences. And how literariness in original texts is retained or damaged in their translations will also be involved.(Yin Boan 2000, 79)

The reasons for the selection of the two books can be briefly explained--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 06:46, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining

===Chapter 2 An Overview of Relevant Theories===

Before discussing the comparison between translations of Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang, this part will briefly introduce the theoretical basis of this chapter. In this section, the author will first give an introduction to relevant parts of poetics theory and then expounds on functions of language proposed by the Roman Jakobson, especially poetic function. And then this part will give an illustration of internal connections between poetics theory and poetic function. After these, it will briefly discuss inversion and its poetic function.

====2.1 Poetics theory====

Poetics originated in ancient Greece. Poetics in tradition is a study on poetry based on Aristotle’s Poetics, while Jakobson enlarges its fields. Roman Jakobson proposed that poetics can be applied in research on literature because its object of study is the art of language. According to Jakobson, the main question that poetics studies are what transforms verbal messages into arts. Poetics theory proposes that literariness in literature distinguishes it from other text types and gives it poetic effects. And it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. (Roman Jakobson 1987,63,69)

Poetics originated in ancient Greece. Poetics in tradition is a study on poetry based on Aristotle’s Poetics, while Jakobson enlarges its fields. Roman Jakobson proposed that poetics can be applied in research on literature because its object of study is the art of language. According to Jakobson, the main question that poetics studies are what transforms verbal messages into arts. Poetics theory proposes that literariness in literature distinguishes it from other text types and gives it poetic effects. And it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. (Roman Jakobson 1987, 63,69) （There is no space after the comma）--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 07:26, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining

Correspondingly, literariness is the object of literature research. As a result, a vitally important issue in literary translation that needs to figure out is how to retain literariness in original works. This is closely connected with functions of language, especially poetic function, which is dominant and crucial for literature. Besides, cognitive poetics theory considers that the more efforts a reader makes to understand a work, the stronger poetic effects it will produce. (Jakobson 1973, 62; Pilkington 2000, 161 -169)

The unfamiliar expression is a technique of creating art and grabbing readers’ attention from the poetic perspective. And poetic language is a kind of self-focused message, different expressions can build different informational capacity of messages. Therefore, choices of word order and sentence structure in literary works cannot be ignored and should be seriously concerned in literary translation. That’s why this thesis pays attention to inverted sentences.(Shklovsky 1998, 16; Jakobson 1987, 67, 85)

====2.2 Functions of language====

At first, the Prague Circle proposed that there are three functions of languages, that are expressive, conative, and referential function. Then, linguists of the Prague Circle also proposed a fourth function—aesthetic function. This function indicates that language can serve art. In 1960, Jakobson raised another three functions: phatic, metalingual, and poetic function. Based on functions, he distinguished six elements in his model of functions that are necessary for communication to occur: context, addresser(sender), addressee(receiver), contact, common code, and message(as cited in Feng Zongxin). Poetic function originated from literariness is the main function of literature and it focuses on the message. (Roman Jakobson 1987,69; Feng Zongxin 2006, 19-34)

How to use various linguistic devices to achieve the desired purpose is a focus of scholars who study various kinds of linguistic communication. In other words, different communicative purposes determine that linguistic devices should perform different tasks and fulfill different functions. As poetic function pays attention to a message itself and its expressive device is a kind of self-focused message, carriers of information should be focused on. Therefore, forms of original works should be taken into consideration. Combined with poetics, forms of original works can influence literariness, which cannot be ignored in translation.(Roman Jakobson 1981, 19; 1987, 85)

How to use various linguistic devices to achieve the desired purpose is a focus of scholars who study various kinds of linguistic communication. In other words, different communicative purposes determine that linguistic devices should perform different tasks and fulfill different functions. As poetic function pays attention to a message itself and its expressive device is a kind of self-focused message, carriers of information should be focused on. Therefore, forms of original works should be taken into consideration. Combined with poetics, forms of original works can influence literariness, which cannot be ignored in translation.(Roman Jakobson 1981, 19) (Roman Jakobson 1987, 85)--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 07:26, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining

====2.3 Poetics theory and poetic function====

In view of formalism, no matter what the art, it needs to be expressed through certain forms. The medium used in literature is language, and studyinge th art of literature is actually studying a language itself. Jakobson argues that poetics is an integral part of linguistics. Thus, the main research method of poetics is studying language through linguistics. As mentioned in 2.1, it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. And literariness is produced by certain permutation and combination of language. And Jakobson argues that, whereas most language is concerned with the transmission of ideas, the poetic function of language focuses on the ‘message’ for its own sake.(Roman Jakobson 1958, 63)

Formalist scholars led by Jakobson believe that the intentional violation of conventions results in the variation of forms, and thus forms defamiliarization. The process by which readers gain understanding from reading and decoding these novel and inexplicable forms of language will produce poetic effects and aesthetic feelings. In a short, analyzing poetic function of language in literary works is an indispensable method to appreciate literature from the perspective of poetics.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 8; Shklovsky 1998, 16)

Formalist scholars led by Jakobson believe that the intentional violation of conventions results in the variation of forms, and thus forms defamiliarization. The process by which readers gain understanding from reading and decoding these novel and inexplicable forms of language will produce poetic effects and aesthetic feelings. In a short, analyzing poetic function of language in literary works is an indispensable method to appreciate literature from the perspective of poetics.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 8) (Shklovsky 1998, 16)--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 07:32, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining

====2.4 Inverted sentences====

For some reason, people need to put part or all of the predicate verb before the subject in writing, which produces inverted sentences. There are two types of inversion. One is obligatory and the other is optional(Zhang Keding 2001, 19). The former is decided by grammar and the latter is mainly chosen by writers. This thesis will choose examples of optional inversion to study. The rhetorical functions of optionally inverted sentences can be divided into five categories, that are emphasizing, balancing sentence structure, connecting the preceding and the following, vivid description, and expressing emotions.(Lu Yang 2008, 126)

(Direct quotes should be enclosed in quotation marks around the sentence，Sources that are not directly cited are placed at the end of the paragraph)--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 07:26, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining

Emphasizing, vivid description, and expressing emotions are of vital importance for shaping characters and construction of plots. Therefore, an inverted sentence is a form closely connected with poetic function and poetic effect. In literary works, an inverted sentence is a way of defamiliarization. It uses inversion to achieve literariness by emphasizing some information or emotions to promote the development or shape characters.

For instance, “Where is your daughter?” “On the table stands she.” Here, it can be observed this inverted sentence is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is a marked and emotional sequence. Daughter is a message questioner has provided in the question. And the respondent gives the answer in an inverted sentence. In this situation, the respondent aims to emphasize the information about the location of the daughter.(Feng Zongxin, 2006: 30)

For instance, “Where is your daughter?” “On the table stands she.” Here, it can be observed this inverted sentence is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is a marked and emotional sequence. Daughter is a message questioner has provided in the question. And the respondent gives the answer in an inverted sentence. In this situation, the respondent aims to emphasize the information about the location of the daughter.(Feng Zongxin, 2006, 30) --[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 07:26, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining

This kind of sentence form is a writing skill that an author uses to carry specific messages. Readers need to take efforts to understand an inverted sentence itself and the specific meaning and message implicated by an author. And the poetic function of inverted sentences is of great significance to the realization of poetic effects of a text. It will be discussed in detail in the next chapter.

===Chapter 3 Comparative Analysis of Translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair''===

In the history of translation, the phenomenon of suppressing forms has existed for a long time in both east and west. And in terms of translation methods, free translation prevails while literal translation is suppressed. Yang Bi’s translation is full of humor and smoothness. Her natural and expressive translation avoids translationese and removes the trace of interpretation and stiffness, which becomes a classic version of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation in China.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 6)

However, her inclination to free translation also causes some issues when studying her translation from the perspective of poetics. This point is also prominent in the translation of inverted sentences. After reading her translation, the researcher found that she cares less about sentence forms and usually changes sentence structures. In contrast to Yang Bi, Peng Changjiang adopts a different method to tackle inverted sentences. Actually, their translating styles and strategies are distinct. In the following sections, the author will discuss comparisons between their translation with examples in detail.

====3.1 Analysis====

In the following part, it will mainly analyze the two versions’ arrangements of word order and sentence structure in translations of inverted sentences. And it will discuss the influences of their translations on poetic effects and poetic function through analyzing examples of inverted sentences. The researcher chooses five examples from Vanity Fair as followed.

Example 1 Many a dun had she talked to, and turned away from her father’s door; many a tradesman had she coaxed and wheedled into good-humour, and into the granting of one meal more.(Thackeray 1994, 17)

Yang Bi’s translation: 她常常和逼债的人打交道，想法子打发他们回去。她有本领甜言蜜语的哄得那些做买卖的回心转意，再让她赊一顿饭吃。(1957, 11)

Yang Bi’s translation: 她常常和逼债的人打交道，想法子打发他们回去。她有本领甜言蜜语的哄得那些做买卖的回心转意，再让她赊一顿饭吃。(Yang Bi 1957, 11)
--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 08:49, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining

Peng Changjiang’s translation: 有不少逼债人上门，她跟他们周旋，把他们从家里劝走；有不少买卖人，她连哄带骗把他们哄得高兴，让她再赊一顿饭。(2005, 11)

Peng Changjiang’s translation: 有不少逼债人上门，她跟他们周旋，把他们从家里劝走；有不少买卖人，她连哄带骗把他们哄得高兴，让她再赊一顿饭。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 11)--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 08:49, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining

This text is excerpted from a paragraph that introduces Rebecca Sharp. The author’s language here is very subtle. Thackeray skillfully designs this text. He writes this sentence with Rebecca as the subject in the active voice, and he designs sentences as inverted ones, bringing objects of Rebecca's action to the beginning of sentences. It emphasizes the information about what she had dealt with. This form is a realization of defamiliarization. Readers need to make efforts to understand the complete meaning of this text under this form. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)

This text shows us Sharp’s childhood. She had to deal with troubles and make a living when she was still a kid. Exercised by her hard life, she could tackle these. But it does not mean that she deserves this hard life. Therefore, Thackeray puts “many a dun” and “many a tradesman” forward to express Sharp’s passivity in her early life. She had no choice so she was active in actions and passive in acceptance. She seems to be at ease, but it is the life that makes her have no choice. Through this carefully designed sentence structure, the inverted sentence implicitly shows that Sharp lives in a poor and bad environment, while the active voice clearly states that she is smart and mature.

These sentences realize their poetic effects and poetic function through this special form. It is necessary to pay attention to this form in order to retain the literariness of the source text. But in Yang Bi’s translation, she generally translates this text in a way that converts sentences to active voice and put the subject in front of the sentence. This omits some true meanings and important information about Sharp, which damages literariness. In contrast, Peng Changjiang uses amplification to retain the information of activity and passivity between character and environment.

In addition, he adds “上门” to show the passivity that Sharp has to face duns as a kid. And he also keeps the order of characters in this sentence, preserving poetic function of language and achieving poetic effects contained in the source text. There is a topic of Vanity Fair that we should notice. Thackeray writes this work with no fame to critically scrutinize the capitalist system and expose the darkness of the society at that time. Defamiliarization here has its underlying intention and message which should be focused on when translating.

(I think we should introduce the content and ideas of the original in the previous part)--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 08:49, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining

Example 2 So imprisoned and tortured was this gentle little heart, when in the month of March, Anno Domini 1815, Napoleon landed at Cannes, and Louis XVIII fled, and all Europe was in alarm, and the funds fell, and old John Sedley was ruined.(Thackeray 1994, 177)

Yang Bi’s translation: 这温柔的小女孩子感觉到烦恼和苦闷。那时正是公元一千八百十五年的三月里，拿破仑在加恩登陆，路易十八仓促逃难，整个欧洲人心惶惶，公债跌了价，约翰·赛特笠老头儿从此倾家荡产。(1957, 175)

Yang Bi’s translation: 这温柔的小女孩子感觉到烦恼和苦闷。那时正是公元一千八百十五年的三月里，拿破仑在加恩登陆，路易十八仓促逃难，整个欧洲人心惶惶，公债跌了价，约翰·赛特笠老头儿从此倾家荡产。(Yang Bi 1957, 175)--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 08:49, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining

Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这颗小小的温柔的心就是这样被禁锢，受煎熬。当时是公元一八一五年三月，拿破仑在戛纳登陆，路易十八逃亡，全欧洲惊恐不安，公债下跌，老约翰·塞德利破产。(2005, 190)

Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这颗小小的温柔的心就是这样被禁锢，受煎熬。当时是公元一八一五年三月，拿破仑在戛纳登陆，路易十八逃亡，全欧洲惊恐不安，公债下跌，老约翰·塞德利破产。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 190)--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 08:49, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining

This sentence describes the situation when Amelia Sedley’s family is broke and she hasn’t get any response from her lover for a long time. Amelia was depressed, worried and distraught under the circumstances. Thackeray uses an inverted sentence here, putting her feelings at the beginning of the whole sentence to emphasize her anxiety and worry. In such a long sentence, the author put her experiences behind her feelings as a subordinate clause. This is a deliberate form that could highlight Amelia’s sufferings in soul and body because of these upheavals.

When translating, the two adjectives imprisoned and tortured should be focused on in order to express Sedley’s situation and feelings(Zhang Keding 2001, 22). In translations of the two versions, they realize the importance of the order of clauses and translate it in a similar form to the source text. However, when dealing with this inverted sentence, both of their translations change it to a theme-transition-rheme structure. The original one is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and carries poetic function.

(Direct quotation should be enclosed in quotation marks)--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 08:49, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining

Changing the sequence of components impairs its poetic function and poetic effects. The emotions in Chinese and English expressions are not equivalent. Besides, the lexicon of Sedley’s feelings used in Peng’s translation is closer to the source text than Yang Bi’s translation. Yang Bi uses a freer way of choosing words to show these feelings. Although they do not follow the original form, it can be forgivable. Because if they followed the structure, it would be translated like “太折磨了，太煎熬了，这颗幼小的心。”. This translation does not conform to Chinese grammatical norms, which breaks the cohesion of this sentence. In this case, translators need to find other methods to make up for the damage of poetic effects in process of changing structure.

(There is no indication which page is quoted)--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 08:49, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining

Example 3 What humiliation and fury:what pangs of sickening rage,balked ambition and love;what wounds of outraged vanity, tenderness even, had this old worldling now to suffer under!(Thackeray 1994, 238)

Yang Bi’s translation: 老头儿是个名利心极重的俗物，想到儿子这样的丢他的脸，气得发昏，只觉得一阵阵的怒气冒上来，彻骨的难过。他的野心和他对儿子的骨肉至情受了个大挫折。他的虚荣心，还有他的一点儿痴心，也遭到意想不到的打击。(1957, 234)

Yang Bi’s translation: 老头儿是个名利心极重的俗物，想到儿子这样的丢他的脸，气得发昏，只觉得一阵阵的怒气冒上来，彻骨的难过。他的野心和他对儿子的骨肉至情受了个大挫折。他的虚荣心，还有他的一点儿痴心，也遭到意想不到的打击。(Yang Bi 1957, 234)--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 08:49, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining

Peng Changjiang’s translation:这年老的世俗之徒，现在羞怒交加；野心受挫，爱心无着落，气得他发昏；虚荣心，甚至还有点温情，受到了粗暴的伤害，更使他心如刀绞。(2005, 254)

Peng Changjiang’s translation:这年老的世俗之徒，现在羞怒交加；野心受挫，爱心无着落，气得他发昏；虚荣心，甚至还有点温情，受到了粗暴的伤害，更使他心如刀绞。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 254)--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 08:49, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining

This sentence is excerpted from chapter 24, which describes that old Osborne knows that his son wants to marry Sedley from Dobbin. The original sentence uses a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and emotive. Besides, when it comes to word order, normal word order is typical and unmarked while an inverted sentence is atypical and marked. From the perspective of poetics, an atypical and marked expression is defamiliarized contributing to foregrounding while typical and unmarked expression is contributing to backgrounding. Here, Thackeray uses defamiliarization to achieve poetic effects. Thackeray puts the old man's anger, pain, sufferings forward to emphasize his feelings. Character’s emotions are highlighted intuitively in this form of expression. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)

Regrettably, it is rare to see such a long inverted sentence in Chinese. So, Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both change this sentence into a theme-transition-rheme structure, which does damage to poetic function of the original. However, they adopt diverse translation strategies that produce different results. Yang Bi splits this sentence into three sentences that is different from Peng Changjiang’s translation. Although her translation may be more in line with Chinese reading habits, the defamiliarization of the original sentence has disappeared. Her splitting of the whole sentence also weakens the continuity and progression of emotion which largely impairs the poetic function of the original sentence. Nor does Peng Changjiang retain this rheme-transition-rheme structure.

It is a pity that differences between Chinese and English makes it difficult to put long clauses before a subject which will cause a logical problem. In Peng Changjiang’s version, his word order is almost the same as the source text, preserving the flavor and poetic effect of the original to the greatest extent. In addition to slightly changing the inverted sentence, Peng Changjiang still follows the original form, using short clauses to retain the continuity of emotion. Thus, the situation in the source text is vividly reproduced.

Example 4 Here, too, in this humble tenement, live care, and distrust, and dismay.(Thackeray 2003, 507)

Yang Bi’s translation: 这家子的生活是够清苦的，他们也有他们的烦恼和心事，也免不了互相猜忌。(1957, 498)

Yang Bi’s translation: 这家子的生活是够清苦的，他们也有他们的烦恼和心事，也免不了互相猜忌。(Yang Bi 1957, 498)--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 08:49, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining

Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这儿，在这卑贱的屋子里，也有忧虑、猜疑和恐慌。(2005, 538)

Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这儿，在这卑贱的屋子里，也有忧虑、猜疑和恐慌。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 538)--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 08:49, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining

This sentence is excerpted from chapter 50, in which Amelia’s family sank into poverty and her life got stuck in trouble. At the beginning of this chapter, it tells the impoverished status of her family and lays the background for Amelia having to send her son away. This example is the first sentence of laying background which sets the tone of this chapter. There is no character in this sentence. which is narrated from the perspective of an objective bystander. And inversion here puts the family’s poverty in front and human feelings behind, which corresponds to the content of this chapter.(Zhang Keding 2001, 21)

This arrangement implies to readers that care, distrust and dismay may be caused by the family’s humble status. Besides, the word “humble” is a quite agreeable and inoffensive depiction of their situation while this inverted sentence highlights their humble situation. Correspondingly, Amelia’s family is in deep poverty but still trying to maintain the vanity. As mentioned above, this inverted sentence means a lot for producing poetic effects. The writer uses this form to attract readers' attention to this chapter and create literariness combined with the content of this plot.

Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both retained the original sequence, with the situation in the first place and emotions in the last. Yang Bi uses “这一家子”, “他们” and “他们的” to connect the whole sentence while Peng Changjiang uses “这儿” and “这”. Comparing the two translations, the latter is closer to the original sentence because it retains the design of no character. What’s more, there are progression and transition of background introduction in this sentence. “这儿” and “这” correspond with “here” and “this”, which retains progression and transition and poetic effects.

====3.2 Conclusions====

William Thackeray’s ''Vanity Fair'' is a classic satirical novel, and sarcasm can be seen everywhere in this work. Inversion is a significant form to build this satirical tone. So, translators should make efforts to retain the poetic function and poetic effects of this satirical tone in inverted sentences. Through the discussion of examples in 3.1, it can be found that Peng Changjiang's translations of inverted sentences are more consistent with the form of the original text. Many of the emotions and writing skills contained in this inverted form are fully preserved in his translation.(Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 2015, 90)

An inverted sentence is a typical example that shows literariness and usually carries an important message. In Vanity Fair, Thackeray uses a lot of inverted sentences to show characters’ personalities, situations and experiences, which is an impressive writing skill. This form has a significant influence on the story, which needs more attention to translate. Whereas, Yang Bi lived in a time when people criticized and suppressed formalism, that’s why her translation seems freer. Because of this, she lays emphasis on stories and diction while omits the power of form so that she does not translate inverted sentences with retaining main structures.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 7)

In the era that Peng Changjiang lives, influenced by Russian formalism, people realize the importance of form again. And it can be observed that he pays more attention to forms in his translation of inverted sentences. In his translations, he makes efforts to retain the original sentence structure. When translating according to the form does not conform to Chinese grammar, he will use similar forms to retain poetic effects contained in the original form as much as possible.(Wang Dongfeng, 2010, 11)

In the era that Peng Changjiang lives, influenced by Russian formalism, people realize the importance of form again. And it can be observed that he pays more attention to forms in his translation of inverted sentences. In his translations, he makes efforts to retain the original sentence structure. When translating according to the form does not conform to Chinese grammar, he will use similar forms to retain poetic effects contained in the original form as much as possible.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 11)--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 09:03, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining

In translation, the basic reason for a change of form is the difficulty of translation, that is, it is possible or necessary to change the form of the original text only when a translation with corresponding smoothness cannot be obtained without changing the form. Arbitrarily changing the form of the original text will destroy its poetic effect and author’s purposes. In this novel, William Thackeray vividly shapes many characters through his careful diction. His expression on the development of plots and delicate feelings of characters cannot be separated from forms.(Wang Dongfeng 2007, 48)

Inversion is a sentence that changes the order and structure to emphasize a certain sentence component. Its distribution of information is designed by the author to promote the development of the plot. Therefore, a translator should conserve this inverted form as far as possible as long as it does not affect the readability of texts. When an inverted sentence form cannot be retained, we should also pay attention to keep the order of sentence components and structure of rheme and theme as much as possible. And how to deal with inversion properly and retain its poetic effects remains to be further studied.

===Chapter 4 Summary===

It is often said in Chinese literature that one has to grasp the content and forget the form. However, This is not always applicable to translation because forgetting forms may result in losing meanings. This thesis makes a comparative analysis of translations of Vanity Fair. Through discussion, it can be seen that forms deliberately chose by the author bear specific functions in this story of vanity. An inverted sentence designed with purposes is an important form that needs attention in translating, especially optional ones. They usually own a task to achieve poetic function.(Lu Yang 2008, 128)

Sometimes, translators change the original form in order to take care of readers’ language habits. Maybe it is not necessary. This kind of change may produce a good work but will also sacrifice literariness that an author designed on purpose. This does not mean that translators must follow exactly the same form without considering whether it conforms to the grammatical norms of the target language or not. Instead, it means translation should consider the influence of form on poetic function and poetic effect. What’s more, maybe literary writers don’t aim to make every reader understand the whole text. They may write to express feelings and thoughts to let readers explore and feel.

Translators try to give an equivalent text without damage to forms, which can give readers opportunities to think about what contains in forms by themselves. When changing forms, translators may also ruin writers' emotions on characters or stories contained in forms, which will destroy literariness unconsciously. Literary translations should be more cautiously treated. Every detail may have a specific intention. Without literariness, literary works will lose their souls, and poetic effects on readers will also disappear. Nowadays, with converting attention on forms again, when translators try efforts to make a great translation, they maybe could think about paying some attention to formal correspondence to retain literariness.(Wang Dongfeng 2010,9)

===Chapter 5 References===

[1] Jakobson,R. (1987). ''Language in Literature''[M],Cambridge,Massachusetts&London:The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.

[2] Jakobson,R. (1973). Modern Russian poetry:Velimir Khlebnikov[A].In.E.J.Brown(ed.).''Major Soviet Writers:Essays in Criticism''. Oxford University Press.

[3] Pilkington,A. (2000). ''Poetic Effects: A Relevance Theory Perspective'' . Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.

[4] Shklovsky, V.(1998). Art as technique[A]. In Julie Rivkin &Michael Ryan(eds.). ''Literary Theory: An Anthology ''(2nd ed) [M].Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.

[5] Feng Zongxin 封宗信.(2006). ''《现代语言学流派概论》'' [An Overview of Modern Linguistics]，北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].

[6] Zhang Keding 张克定.(2001). 英语倒装句的语篇功能[Textual Functions of English Inversion from a Pragmatic Perspective] [J].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)''[Journal of Foreign Languages],(05):18-24.

[7] Lu Yang 卢杨.(2008). 浅谈英语倒装句的修辞功能[On Rhetorical Functions of English Inversion] [J].''合肥工业大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of HeFei University of Technology(SocialSciences) ],22(06):126-128.

[8] Jakobson, Roman. Linguistics and Poetics[A]. in ''Selected Writings Ⅲ:Poetry of Grammar and Grammar of Poetry''[C]. Hague Mouton, 1958/198la.

[9] Wang Dongfeng 王东风.(2010). 形式的复活:从诗学的角度反思文学翻译[Resurgence of form: Reflection on literary Translation from a poetic perspective] [J].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal],31(01):6-8,11.

[10] Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 支晓来,曾利沙.(2015). 讽刺口吻在修辞格中的体现——兼评《名利场》的两个中译本The expression of sarcasm in figures of speech: Comments on two Chinese translations of ''Vanity Fair''[J].''广东外语外贸大学学报'',26(02):90-93.

[11] Yin Boan 尹伯安.(2000). 重译贵在创新——《名利场》两种译本的评析Innovation Is the Key to Re-translation:An analysis of two versions of translation of ''Vanity Fair''[J].''山东师大外国语学院学报'',(04):79-83.

[12] Thackeray,William.(2003). ''Vanity Fair''.[M] Wordsworth Editions Ltd.

[13] Yang Bi 杨必.(1957). ''《名利场》'' ''Vanity Fair''[M].北京:人民文学出版社.

[14] Peng Changjiang 彭长江.(2005). ''《名利场》'' ''Vanity Fair''[M].北京:中国戏剧出版社.

[15] Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary,[M].Oxford University Press,2009.

[16]Wang Dongfeng 王东风.(2007). 从诗学的角度看被动语态变译的功能亏损——《简·爱》中的一个案例分析Function Loss in Passive-active Reversal Concerning Material Processes in Literary Translation: A case study of a piece of translation from Jane Eyre from a poetic perspective[J].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)'',(04):48.

(There are some problems with the format and order of the references. The English names of some newspapers have not been written.)

Jakobson,R. (1987). Language in Literature. Cambridge,Massachusetts&London:The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.

Jakobson,R. (1973). Modern Russian poetry:Velimir Khlebnikov. In.E.J.Brown(ed.). Major Soviet Writers:Essays in Criticism. Oxford University Press.

Jakobson, Roman. (1958/1981a). Linguistics and Poetics. in Selected Writings Ⅲ:Poetry of Grammar and Grammar of Poetry. Hague Mouton.

Pilkington,A. (2000). Poetic Effects: A Relevance Theory Perspective. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.

Shklovsky,V. (1998). Art as technique. In Julie Rivkin &Michael Ryan(eds.). Literary Theory: An Anthology (2nd ed). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.

Thackeray, William. (2003). Vanity Fair. Wordsworth Editions Ltd.

Feng Zongxin 封宗信. (2006). 现代语言学流派概论 [An Overview of Modern Linguistics]. 北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].

Lu Yang 卢杨. (2008). 浅谈英语倒装句的修辞功能[On Rhetorical Functions of English Inversion]. 合肥工业大学学报(社会科学版)[Journal of HeFei University of Technology(SocialSciences) ]22(06):126-128.

Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary. (2019). Oxford University Press.

Peng Changjiang 彭长江. (2005). 名利场[Vanity Fair]. 北京:中国戏剧出版社.

Wang Dongfeng 王东风. (2007). 从诗学的角度看被动语态变译的功能亏损——《简·爱》中的一个案例分析[Function Loss in Passive-active Reversal Concerning Material Processes in Literary Translation: A case study of a piece of translation from Jane Eyre from a poetic perspective]. 外国语(上海外国语大学学报)[Journal of Foreign Language](04):48.

Wang Dongfeng 王东风. (2010). 形式的复活:从诗学的角度反思文学翻译[Resurgence of form: Reflection on literary Translation from a poetic perspective].中国翻译[Chinese Translators Journal]31(01):6-8,11.

Yang Bi 杨必. (1957). 名利场[Vanity Fair]. 北京:人民文学出版社[People's Literature Publishing House].

Yin Boan 尹伯安. (2000). 重译贵在创新——名利场两种译本的评析[Innovation Is the Key to Re-translation:An analysis of two versions of translation of ''Vanity Fair'']. 山东师大外国语学院学报[Journal of Basic English Education](04):79-83.

Zhang Keding 张克定. (2001). 英语倒装句的语篇功能[Textual Functions of English Inversion from a Pragmatic Perspective]. 外国语(上海外国语大学学报)[Journal of Foreign Languages](05):18-24.

Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 支晓来,曾利沙. (2015). 讽刺口吻在修辞格中的体现——兼评《名利场》的两个中译本[The expression of sarcasm in figures of speech: Comments on two Chinese translations of ''Vanity Fair'']. 广东外语外贸大学学报[Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies]26(02):90-93.
--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 08:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining

==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 赵晓燕 Zhao Xiaoyan==

==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics-Based on the English version of Cong Cong==

===Abstract===
There are great differences between Chinese and English languages. Especially the language of Chinese prose and its form, which have distinctive features, contains rich Chinese cultural characteristics, increasing the difficulties when translate Chinese prose into English. The paper mainly introduces the origins and development of translation aesthetics both in China and abroad, and some translation methods of Chinese prose. The author chooses the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as the representative work to study its translation methods and the way of aesthetics representation with the theory proposed by Liu Miqing, to draw a conclusion that the language features of Chinese prose could be manifested by means of translation aesthetics in the process of translation. By presenting the application of the translation aesthetics in prose translation, this paper is expected to help language learners have a deeper understanding of the translation methods in Chinese and English literature.

===摘要===
中英语言存在较大差异。尤其是汉语散文的语言和形式特色鲜明，蕴含丰富的中国文化特色，使得汉语散文的英译难度加大。本文主要介绍了中外翻译美学的起源和发展以及一些汉语散文的翻译方法，并以张培基教授翻译的《匆匆》英译本为范本，运用刘宓庆教授提出的翻译美学理论，研究其中运用的翻译方法及审美再现的方式，由此得出结论在翻译的过程中借助翻译美学理论可以使汉语散文的语言特色得以体现。通过展示翻译美学在散文翻译中的应用，本文期望帮助语言学习者更深入地了解汉语及英语文学作品翻译的方法。

===Key words===
Chinese prose translation; translation aesthetics; ''Cong Cong''

===关键词===
中国散文翻译；翻译美学；《匆匆》

===Introduction===
Literature is an artistic way to express language. The Chinese prose, as one of the important literary genres, with its features that scrambled in appearance but united in spirit, is widely favored by many readers. ''Cong Cong'', as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, was written in 1922 when the May Fourth Movement was coming to an end. At that time, Zhu Ziqing taking the responsibility of literator, with beautiful language and refined structure, delicately described his resignation and plaint for time elapsing, and implied the reality that the young people felt confused about the future of the country. In the prose, Mr. Zhu’s reflection on time not only touched the youth at that time, but also alerted today’s readers.

The “beauty” of the Chinese prose is the most important as well as the most difficult problem to solve in translation. As the integration of aesthetics and translation, translation aesthetics’ basic principles are used to analyze and explore aesthetic difficulties during the process of interlingual transfer, including the aesthetic constituents of aesthetic object (original text, translation text), the dynamic role of aesthetic subject (translators and readers), the connection of aesthetic subject and object, the types and means of aesthetic reproduction in translation and the standard of translation aesthetics, etc.

The aesthetical process of Chinese prose translation is to coordinate the conflicts and incoherence which exist in different cultures when translating. People have accumulated much experience in national prose study in the past thousand years, but the study for Chinese prose translation still lagged behind, let alone the study by systematic theories or from the aesthetic orientation.

Exploring the Chinese prose translation with aesthetic theories, whichever from the view of theory or practice, both of them could be used for reference. Throughout the history of national translation theory development, it is not difficult to find that since ancient times, the traditional Chinese translation theory have reflected abundant aesthetic ideas. According to that, this paper takes the translation aesthetic theory proposed by Liu Miqing as the primary theoretical framework, to study and analyze the English version of ''Cong Cong'' translated by Zhang Peiji. Professor Zhang has devoted to the translation of Chinese modern prose for a long time, making significant contribution to the theory of the Chinese modern prose translation, especially to the translation practice.

The paper mainly includes twelve parts. The first is the introduction which defines the study subject of the paper, proposing the study purpose and significance through summarizing predecessors’ studies; from the second to the fourth parts mainly introduce theoretical framework of the paper which was proposed by Mr. Liu Miqing, explaining the origins of Chinese translation aesthetics and some involved concepts in the paper such as aesthetic subjects and objects, regular and standard; and the following three parts simply focus on some methods in the process of Chinese prose translation, which mainly involve four methods: Literal translation and free translation, domestication and foreignization.

By comparing these methods this paper could make people realize the differences of translation methods and choose the proper way when translating; the eighth and the following three parts are based on the previous parts, according to the theories of translation aesthetics and methods, to analyze the translation beauty in ''Cong Cong'', its language, image and style beauty; the final part is the conclusion, through a large number of analysis getting a conclusion, to make it clear that the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be manifested during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation, and that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, therefore translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.

===An Overview of Translation Aesthetics===
Historically, the development of translation theory both at home and abroad has closely connected with aesthetics, for example, in the west, the famous “three principles of translation” proposed by Alexander Fraser Tytler; and Paul Valery, a great French translator, advocated that the technique of translation mostly depended on the translator’s aesthetic perception for the literature’s truth value; in China, when people translated the ancient Buddhist Scriptures, someone had proposed that, faithful translated texts lacked beauty, whereas beautiful translated texts lacked faithfulness. Yan Fu also put forward “faithfulness”, “expressiveness” and “elegance” these points in 1896 when translating ''Theory of Natural Selection''. [6](Yan Fu, 2010, 6)

Although the translation and aesthetics both have a long history of development, they were linked into one conception—Aesthetic-poetic translation for the first time in 1954 by an eminent American scholar, Joseph B. Casagrande. And Wang Zuoliang, a great Chinese scholar and translator, has proposed in Chinese Translation Standard that the translator should put aesthetics at the first place when translating, and leave translation standard behind, which also connected translation with aesthetics. [7](Wang Zuoliang, 1991, 113) And up until now, the connection existing between translation and aesthetics has been widely accepted in the field of translation, and the “translation aesthetics” has become a basic conception.

===The relationship between translation and aesthetics===
There are various definitions of translation. Oxford English Dictionary explains translation as—to turn from one language into another;[1] (Hornby, 1988, 2149) and the New Webster International Dictionary defines it as—to turn into one’s own or another language. [2](Gove, 1961, 1956) In Chinese dictionary Han Yu Da Ci Dian, “translation” is defined as—to express the meaning of one language by another language. [8](Luo Zhufeng, 1986, 2374) And Eugene A. Nida, the famous American translator has said, “translating consists of reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style”.[2] (Nida & Taber, 1969, 12-24)

From these definitions, a conclusion can be made that translation is essentially a process of transforming language and words, so translation can be divided into interpreting and translating; with the development of science and technology, there are human translation and machine translation.[9] (Fang Mengzhi, 2004, 296) What is more, the translation of written language is also divided into two parts, non-literary translation and literary translation. Comparing with the translated texts of non-literary translation, that of literary translation embodies more uncertainty and diversity. Facing with so many options, how the translator makes a judgment and selects one text as the final version requires the translator has a standard for reference. The author believes that aesthetic analysis can be a feasible way in literary translation.

Although in China and the west, aesthetics has developed for a long time, it was not given the name until 1750 by a German philosopher Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten. The definitions of aesthetics vary from scholars to scholars, especially in the west. The author selects one of them as the study foundation of this paper. The Basic Principles of Aesthetics written by Liu Shucheng has a relatively clear definition for aesthetics, which says that aesthetics is a branch of learning that deals with the general law of beauty and with the creation or appreciation of beauty; in detail, aesthetics studies the nature of beauty and its law, and the aesthetic connection of subject and object, art and reality, and the aesthetics experience. [10](Liu Shucheng, 2006, 9-20) Aesthetics can be divided into different parts according to its study objects, such as natural beauty, artistic beauty, linguistic beauty and social beauty.

Based on the previous part, translation is a process of transforming language and words and the aesthetics studies objects including language beauty, so ultimately, it is language that connects translation and aesthetics. As combining translation with aesthetics or taking the aesthetic theory into the translation and practice, a new subject is formed—translation aesthetics. Strictly speaking, translation aesthetics studies the nature and the law of translation beauty and the aesthetic relation between the translator and the original and translated text, and the aesthetic relation of translated text and the original text.

It is the translator’s aesthetic experience. The process of translating is also the aesthetic activity; the translator could refer to the classification of aesthetic forms to analyze the aesthetic factors in the original text and translated text. Meanwhile, the translating process itself belongs to one of the aesthetic study objects, which includes the translator’s aesthetic experience, process, and judgment. Translating is a dynamic aesthetic and creative process which closely connects with the original text and translated text. The beginning of translation is the original text and the ending of translation is the translated text, while what the author is talking about is aesthetic translation or literary translation, that is to say, both the original and translated text contain many aesthetic factors, which demands more from translators.[11] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 46-51)

The aesthetic thinking throughout the whole process of literary translation, plays an important role in faithfully expressing the idea of the original text, retaining the vivid language of the translated text and reproducing the style of the original text. So the translator needs to transfer the aesthetic factors in the original text into the translated text, whatever the presentational elements or non-presentational elements, which was proposed by Liu Miqing in the passage Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics published on the Chinese Translators Journal. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) The next part would be the illustration of Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics.

===Liu Miqing’s thought in translation aesthetics===
Professor Liu’s aesthetic theory mainly includes the translation aesthetics’ category and tasks, its aesthetic subject and object, and the general law of translation aesthetics. In the paper, the writer will give a brief introduction to the translation aesthetic subject and object and its general law.

In the Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics, Professor Liu Miqing puts forward that the aesthetic subject is the translator.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) He thinks that if the translator wants to represent the beauty of the original text, the aesthetic constituents of the original text must connect with the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject, i.e. the translator. And the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject includes three aspects, literary ability, aesthetic sense and aesthetic experience. Literary ability as the most basic requirement enlightens people’s aesthetic sense. A translator with higher literary ability will have better sense and reproducibility for the beauty of the original text.

And aesthetic sense means the ability to sense beauty and the sensibility for beauty, which usually stem from the intuition. If a translator has high literary ability that could deepen his aesthetic sense, in such way, he could possess the relatively high level of aesthetics and could put this ability into the translating practice, to optimize the aesthetic sense. Aesthetic experience is the aesthetic perception and cognition produced by repeating aesthetic activities. Practice makes perfect, abundant aesthetic experience could bring out the best of the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject. A translator without enough aesthetic experience, even if he has high literary ability, facing with a beautiful original text, he could not optimize his aesthetic ability. The aesthetic subject must possess three abilities at the same time, so that he could manifest the beauty of the original text in the greatest extend.

It is self-evident that the aesthetic object of translation is the original text. Professor Liu proposes that judging the beauty of the original text involves the aesthetic values, and the basis of judging the aesthetic values of the original text is its aesthetic constituents, in other words is the aesthetic elements which compose the features of the original text. Meanwhile, Liu Miqing puts forward two types of aesthetic elements, one is the “aesthetic presentation” elements and the other is the “non-presentational elements”.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 20)

The aesthetic presentation element in the original text is the beauty in its language form, including the phonetic beauty, which is called the formal beauty of the matter in aesthetics. It normally could be felt directly and be reflected through human’s vision and hearing. For example, a beautiful prose could give people the feeling of beauty through its language, rhythm or phonology. The non-presentational elements, contrasting with the presentational elements, have not direct connection with the language form of the original text. It is usually not intuitionistic and “uncountable” as it often cannot be expressed by words, sentences or texts.

The aesthetic constituents of the language form usually can be counted, for instance, the number of parallel sentences, rhetorical devices or alliterations all are numerable; while not the non-presentational elements. It is impossible to quantify the features of an article, such as its artistic conception, charm, and linguistic modality. However, these elements are crucial for the aesthetic values of an article. Although they are not given specific language form or material form, they could be sensed. With this point, Professor Liu describes that as “nonquantitative obscure collection” in translation aesthetics. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 21) Its core is the obscurity, and through the following Professor Zhang’s translated text people could sense the obscurity clearly.

Liu Miqing points out that the translation aesthetic experience often goes through the following steps: the cognition for the aesthetic constituents of the aesthetic objects; the conversion of aesthetic cognition; the modifying for the result of conversion; the representation of the result of modifying. In summary, cognition, conversion, modifying and representation these four steps are included.

===The Translation Methods of Chinese Prose===
Prose is a lively and dexterous literary form, whose structure is flexible and language form is free from the constraint of rhythm. A beautiful prose requests refined language, thoughtful thinking and clear theme, which could give people a beautiful sense. While the prose translation, no matter from English to Chinese or from Chinese to English, is difficult works for all translators. Prose translation is an aesthetic practice, not only requiring the translator to convey the form beauty in the original text, but also to convey the content and style beauty, to achieve the harmony between the original text and the translated text.

Many great translators at home and abroad have put forward various translation theories or methods. In this paper, the author will resort to some prominent theories or methods to illustrate the translation of the Chinese prose.

Many great translators at home and abroad have put forward various translation theories or methods. In this paper, the author will resort to some prominent theories or methods to illustrate the translation of the Chinese prose.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

===Literal translation and free translation===
It has a long debate on literal and free translation, which mainly argues about the definition of literal and free translation, or which one should be used in the process of translating; these debates put the literal translation and free translation on an opposite position. [14](Ye Zinan, 2001, 5-8) Some people advocating the literal translation think that the literal translation should not add or reduce any words, by doing so, the meaning and information of the original text could be maintained accurately, while the free translation is on the contrary.

Others supporting free translation maintain that many translated texts translated literally, are not only text rigid, but also difficult to read and understand. The author thinks that there are two reasons leading to this circumstance. One is that there is great difference between Chinese and English. Facing with this situation, the translator often confronts with two options: a sentence can be translated both literally and freely, at this point, different people have different attitudes toward these two methods, so the disputes appear; and the other is different people have different definitions for literal translation and free translation.

China has a long history of translation development, and during the process, many great translation masters have appeared, such as Xuan Zang in Tang Dynasty and Yan Fu in modern time, whose achievements all have exerted great influence on the development of translation methods in China. The debates between literal and free translation started from the process of translating Buddhist scriptures when, Dao An, a famous monk in the Eastern Jin Dynasty, who advocated the literal translation, worried that free translation would destroy the information in the original text; while at the same period, Kumārajīva, a monk and translator who came from the Kingdom of Kucha, can not only be able to speak Sanskrit but also to understand Chinese language, thinking that it is necessary to add or dele some contents in order to convey the meaning of the original text better.

This debate went down to the period of Xuan Zang, who did not clearly state whether he supported literal or free translation. Generally, people titled his methods as “new translation”, in other words, using these two methods at the same time in a proper way. When dealing with different contexts, he applied adding, reducing and some other methods to reserve the meaning and spirit of the original text, which made a perfect combination between literal and free translation. Although until today there are still some disputes about literal and free translation, people have come to a consensus that both of them as the basic translation methods, aiming at conveying the information of the original text to the target language in a loyal way.

It is wrong to say which one of them is good or bad. And with the development of China’s translation theories, the definitions of literal and free translation have been improved a lot. Generally speaking, literal translation means that the language form of the original text should be maintained as much as possible as well as its words, sentence structure or rhetorical device, meanwhile the translated text is required to be fluent and easy to understand and must be loyal to the original text; and the free translation starts from the meaning of the original text, not only requiring about clearly expressing the literal meaning of the original text, but its implication conveyed to the reader and loyal to the original text. quotation missing--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 11:34, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

===Domestication and foreignization===
The origin of two terms can be traced back to the speech On the Different Methods of Translation delivered by a German ideologist Schleiermacher, who thought that translation had two methods, one was that the translator “leaves the author in peace as much as possible, and moves the reader toward him” ; and the other is that “the translator leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author toward him”, but he did not give the two methods a specific name. [4](Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004, 43-60)

And the Dictionary of Translation Studies published in 1997, edited by Mark Shuttleworth and Moira Cowie, thought that Venuti was the first person who concluded these two methods in 1995 with two terms “domestication and foreignization”. As the extending of literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization break up the constraint of language factors. The literal and free translation mainly focus on the language level, while the domestication and foreignization mainly refer to the cultural level. The literal and free translations are translation methods while the domestication and foreignization are translation strategies. Although they have something in common, the distinct differences still exist.

Eugene A. Nida, as the representative of domestication, he proposed “functional equivalence” in his book The Theory and Practice of Translation. In this book, he wrote that “in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the messages in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language”, which indirectly expressed the key points of the domestication, that is focusing on the target language, making readers have the same feeling or responding to the original text readers. [3](Nida & Taber, 1969, 24)

However, Venuti who advocated foreignization, thought the term domestication has some negative connotations, for it lost the features of the original language during the process of translation, which restricted the development of cultural diversity. [5](Venuti, 2004, 16-17) Contrary to the domestication, foreignization advocates to focus on the source language, maintain the exotic features and style of the original language. Just like literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization are contrary as well as complementary.

So, choosing a proper way in translation people should consider some factors, for example the author’s intention, the translating purpose and the level and demands of readers. And in the process of translating, a translated text is not completely confined within domestication or foreignization, but the translator always takes two or more methods unconsciously. Considering the translating purpose of the literature, the two translation methods are often used in the same text at the same time. It is not difficult to find that all great translated texts use these two methods together under the precondition that the content of the original text could be expressed accurately rather than just simply choose one of them and use it singly in the whole text.

===The Translation Aesthetics in ''Cong Cong''===
Translation aesthetics is an important branch in translation system, which is widely used to translate poems, prose and fictions. Cong Cong, as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, is always appreciated for its beautiful language, vivid image and profound thinking. Chinese prose and English prose are quite different, which makes the translation of Chinese prose difficult. Professor Zhang Peiji has worked a long time on the translation of Chinese prose. His translation methods and theories provide good references. This part the author mainly takes the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as an example, using Professor Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods and aesthetic representation in ''Cong Cong.''

''Cong Cong'' was a masterpiece written by Zhu Ziqing, a famous Chinese prose master, on March 28, 1922 and was published on April 11 in the same year. It is a prose about sighing for the elapsing time and warning people to value the time, and is the representative work in the period of May Fourth Movement.The first special point of the prose lies in that Zhu simultaneously used three different personal pronouns: you, I and he. [15](Xue Gongping, 2008, 229) “You” in this prose, is the person whom the author is talking with; is the interlocutor communicating with “me”; people can also call “you” as a fictitious friend.

At the first paragraph of the prose, the author expressed his feeling of treasuring time and nostalgia for the passing time through rhetorical questions like “I” asking “you” why the time goes by never to return.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 55-60) And in the middle of the prose, the author called the time as “he”, to describe the elapsing of time, expressing “my” abashed and anxious feeling about the passing time. Through using the three personal pronouns the prose described the time and sighed for its elapsing, making readers have a feeling of familiarity as well as vitalize the time and the years.

The most artistic feature in the prose is the sensual description for the elapsing of time. In order to emphasize the hasty sense of “the time” as an alive object, the author applied both personification and parallelism, to give the time human’s emotion, character and temperament. In the first sentence of the prose, Zhu used parallelism to attract readers’ attention, leading them immerse in the beautiful poetry; and next put forward four questions without answers. In this way, people can clearly realize that the time is invisible and irreversible, which make them feel lost.

===Aesthetics representation in ''Cong Cong''===
The author is very fond of the English version of modern Chinese prose translated by Zhang Peiji, always willing to study the beauty of his translated text. Cong Cong also is one of the author’s favorite Chinese proses, whose language style attracts the author a lot. These translation methods used by Professor Zhang in Cong Cong completely reflect the application of translation aesthetics in prose translation.

So in order to learn more about the technique of Chinese prose translation, the idea that using translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods applied by Zhang Peiji was produced. According to the previous parts, the aesthetic subject is the translator, i.e. Professor Zhang Peiji, who is proficient enough in the field of prose translation, and possesses high level of literary ability and abundant aesthetic experience. Therefore it is unnecessary to pay much attention to the aesthetic subject. In this chapter, the author mainly focuses on the aesthetic object, i.e. the prose, to analyze the beauty of the translated text.

===Beauty in language===
The language beauty firstly is reflected by rhyme beauty. Rhyme is one of the basic aesthetic units, and is the important element to make the language beautiful. In the original text, there are many rhymes, and Professor Zhang’s approach toward the rhyme beauty is worth learning.
Example sentence: 那是谁？又藏在何处呢？
Translated text: But who could it be and where could he hide them? [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)

Through the rhetorical question, the author expressed his anxiety about the elapsing of time. Professor Zhang applied the alliteration to convey the emotion of the author, which makes reader feel neatly and read fluently, reaching the translating goal.

And secondly the language beauty is shown by the words beauty. In translation, choosing proper words is crucial for the quality of the translated text, because the English language and the Chinese language have some differences. Paying attention to the cultural differences is also a process to pursue the correspondence in aesthetics. However, it is difficult to choose the proper words sometimes, especially in literature translation. That is to say, in the prose translation, people must select the words with aesthetic values, to reach the standard of “elegance”. Professor Zhang chose the words exquisitely in the translated text, which showed the beauty of the words. Here are some examples:

①“我不知道他们给了我多少日子”
Translated text: I don’t know how many days I am entitled to altogether.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)
“给了” was translated into “entitled to”. “Entitled” is a quite formal word, which means to give someone the official right to do or have something. By using this word, Professor Zhang fully expressed the passive and resigned feeling of the author, achieving the aesthetic effect of the original text.

②“但我的手确乎是渐渐空虚了”
Translated text: But my quota of them is undoubtedly wearing away. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)
In this sentence Professor Zhang used the free translation. “Quota of them” means a certain amount of days or my allotted span, which conveys the anxious and uneasy feeling of the author in a vivid and delicate way, and also can be easily understood by the readers of the target language. And in this sentence, the translator chose the free translation. For the difference between English and Chinese, it is not suitable to translate directly. And from the aesthetic perspective to analyze, it is the process of pursuing corresponding and rebuilding the beauty of the original text. If the translator chose imitation to translate the sentence, not only the meaning but the beauty would lose and may cause misunderstanding as well.

Thirdly, language beauty especially can be reflected by the rhetoric beauty. In this prose, parallelism was the most used device, second was the metaphor and personification. For all these rhetorical devices, Professor Zhang resorted to all of them in the translated text. That is to say, for rhetorical devices of the original text, Zhang used the literal translation in the translated text, in other words, Professor Zhang retained the rhetoric beauty of the original text. For example:
Example sentence: 燕子去了，有再来的时候；杨柳枯了，有再青的时候；桃花谢了，有再开的时候.
Translated text: If swallows go away, they will come back again. If willows wither, they will turn green again. If peaches shed their blossoms, they will flower again. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)

The original text had three parallel sentences, with bright and neat rhyme, arousing readers’ interests and helping them to catch the theme of the prose quickly. The translated text, which retained the sentence pattern of the original text, also adopted parallelism, making the translated text as fluent as the running water and conveying to the readers the same feeling as the original text. It also can be called “corresponding”, which could retain the formal beauty of the original text and avoid the loss of aesthetic values. What is more, another highlight in the translated text was “if” at the beginning of every sentence, which reminded readers of the famous verse written by Shelley—If Winter comes, can Spring be far away. That is the translator’s masterly design, taking these cultural differences into account and guaranteeing the readability of the translated text.

===Beauty in image===
Image is the indispensable elements in Chinese literature, using which in an ingenious way can make readers resonate with the author. In Cong Cong, the author applied rich images to express his feelings, of course, these images, without exception, were carefully translated in the translated text. For example, “swallows”, “willows” and “peaches” represented the changing seasons and the elapsing time; “a drop of water falling off a needle point”, “the sun edging away”, “the wisps of smoke and the thin mists” all these specific images were retained in the translated text to express the abstract philosophy, making the same influence on the target language readers’ emotion as the original text on the source language readers, and representing the aesthetic values of the original text. Professor Zhang still used the literal translation to translate these images, through imitation, or accurately speaking, through the corresponding, representing them to achieve the “functional equivalence”.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60)

===Beauty in style===
The style of the prose Cong Cong is very distinct. Firstly, it had sophisticated structure and distinct systems; secondly, its words were pretty and meaningful, with plain and concise features; thirdly, the emotion of the author was blended into the scene in this prose. And the most prominent feature of the prose was its language style. Throughout the whole prose, the author adopted the colloquial language such as tell “me”, “you”, “he”, “wash hands”, “rice bowl”, “have meal”, “lost in reverie” to describe vividly the elapsing of time and the helpless feeling of the author, which made the prose close to life and easy to understand and accept.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60) Professor Zhang Peiji adopting literal translation and free translation together and focusing on the domestication, by imitating and rebuilding, properly reproduced the style of the prose in translated text, which is absolutely a good example to learn Chinese prose translation.

===Conclusion===
Literature as a cultural symbol of a country plays an important role in cultural communication, and literature translation as an important branch of translatology, especially prose translation, should be paid more attention. Prose translation as an art, involving form and content these two aspects, and for most translators, it is a challenging task. The translator must pay attention to both aspects, which not only requires the high literary ability, but also the sensitive aesthetic ability. Only by choosing the proper translation methods, can the author create the aesthetic values of the prose translation. What is more, the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be represented during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation. Meanwhile, now that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.

===References===

[1]Hornby, Albert Sidney. Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary [M]. London: Oxford University Press, 1988, 2149.
[2]Gove, Philip Badcock. New Webster International Dictionary [M]. Springfield: Merriam Webster, 1961, 1956.
[3]Nida, Eugene A & Taber, Charles R. The Theory and Practice of Translation [M]. Leiden: Brill, 1969, 12-24.
[4]Shuttleworth, Mark & Cowie, Moira. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 43-60.
[5]Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator’s Invisibility [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 16-17.
[6] 严复. 天演论[M]. 北京: 中国画报出版社. 2010, 6.
[7] 王佐良. 论新开端[M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社. 1991, 113.
[8] 罗竹风. 汉语大词典[M]. 上海: 汉语大词典出版社. 1986, 2374.
[9] 方梦之. 译学词典[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2004, 296.
[10] 刘叔成. 美学基本原理[M]. 上海: 上海人民出版社. 2006, 9-20.
[11] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学概述[J]. 外国语. 1986, 2: 46-51.
[12]刘宓庆. 翻译美学基本理论构想[J]. 中国翻译. 1986, 4: 19-24.
[13] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学导论[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司. 2005, 157.
[14] 叶子南. 高级英汉翻译理论与实践[M]. 北京: 清华大学出版社. 2001, 5-8.
[15] 薛功平. 朱自清散文《匆匆》赏析[J]. 科教文汇. 2008, 7: 229.
[16] 张培基. 英译中国现代散文（一）[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2007, 55-60.

--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 13:25, 9 December 2020 (UTC)

[1]Hornby, Albert Sidney. Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary [M]. London: Oxford University Press, 1988, 2149.

[2]Gove, Philip Badcock. New Webster International Dictionary [M]. Springfield: Merriam Webster, 1961, 1956.

[3]Nida, Eugene A & Taber, Charles R. The Theory and Practice of Translation [M]. Leiden: Brill, 1969, 12-24.

[4]Shuttleworth, Mark & Cowie, Moira. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 43-60.

[5]Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator’s Invisibility [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 16-17.

[6] 严复. 天演论[M]. 北京: 中国画报出版社. 2010, 6.

[7] 王佐良. 论新开端[M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社. 1991, 113.

[8] 罗竹风. 汉语大词典[M]. 上海: 汉语大词典出版社. 1986, 2374.

[9] 方梦之. 译学词典[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2004, 296.

[10] 刘叔成. 美学基本原理[M]. 上海: 上海人民出版社. 2006, 9-20.

[11] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学概述[J]. 外国语. 1986, 2: 46-51.

[12]刘宓庆. 翻译美学基本理论构想[J]. 中国翻译. 1986, 4: 19-24.

[13] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学导论[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司. 2005, 157.

[14] 叶子南. 高级英汉翻译理论与实践[M]. 北京: 清华大学出版社. 2001, 5-8.

[15] 薛功平. 朱自清散文《匆匆》赏析[J]. 科教文汇. 2008, 7: 229.

[16] 张培基. 英译中国现代散文（一）[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2007, 55-60.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 11:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==A Study on the translations of Cosmetic Trademarks from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 张琪 Zhang Qi==
===Abstract===
With the tide of economic globalization, foreign cosmetics brands are actively starting to enter the Chinese market. The trademark symbolizing the lintel of the brand is the first brick that knocks on the door of customers' hearts. The quality of cosmetics trademark translation will directly affect the consumer’s psychology. This essay intends to discuss the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the translation of cosmetics trademarks from the perspective of translation aesthetics. It aims to provide a reference for better standardizing the translation of cosmetics trademarks and let cosmetics trademarks and translation aesthetics work together to reflect people’s pursuit of beauty and humanistic ideas.

With the tide of economic globalization, foreign cosmetics brands are actively starting to enter Chinese market. The trademark symbolizing the lintel of the brand is the first brick that knocks on the door of customers' hearts. The quality of cosmetics trademark translation will directly affect the consumers’ psychology. This paper intends to discuss the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the translation of cosmetics trademarks from the perspective of translation aesthetics. It aims to provide a reference for better standardizing the translation of cosmetics trademarks and let cosmetics trademarks and translation aesthetics work together to reflect people’s pursuit of beauty and humanistic ideas.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Key Words===
translation aesthetics；trademark translation；cosmetics

===题目===
翻译美学视角下化妆品商标的翻译

===摘要===
随着经济全球化的浪潮，国外的化妆品品牌踊跃开始登陆中国市场。象征品牌门楣的商标是叩响顾客心灵之门的第一块砖。化妆品商标翻译质量的好坏会直接作用于顾客的消费心理。本文拟从翻译美学的视角探讨化妆品商标翻译所遵循的美学原则及翻译技巧，旨在为更好的规范化妆品商标的翻译提供参考以及让化妆品商标与美学携手体现人们对美的追求和人文理念。

===关键词===
翻译美学；商标翻译；化妆品

===Introduction===
The trademark is a special symbol carefully selected or created by an enterprise to distinguish the products of other enterprises. Its meaning and function have obvious characteristics. A trademark is like a business card, a golden business card for a company's products to stand on the market. The importance of its translation is self-evident. As the market economy in the beauty industry continues to heat up, a dazzling array of branded cosmetics has entered the international market for competition. The fierce competition has made businesses pay special attention to the translation of cosmetic trademarks.Because cosmetics themselves contain beauty and represent beauty, their translation is destined to be an aesthetic process that integrates beautification and optimization. The translation of cosmetics trademarks processed with "beauty" and "excellence" will arouse people's beautiful yearning for cosmetic products, making people feel comfortable and catering to the consumer psychology of female audience. Meanwhile,it will stimulate the desire of demanding and bring consumers a warm aesthetic pleasure.(Li 2000, 58)

The trademark is a special symbol carefully selected or created by an enterprise to distinguish the products from other enterprises. Its meaning and function have obvious characteristics. A trademark is like a business card, a golden business card for a company's products to stand on the market. The importance of its translation is self-evident. As the market economy in the beauty industry continues to heat up, a dazzling array of branded cosmetics has entered the international market for competition. The fierce competition has made businesses pay special attention to the translation of cosmetic trademarks.Because cosmetics themselves contain beauty and represent beauty, their translation is destined to be an aesthetic process that integrates beautification and optimization. The translation of cosmetics trademarks processed with "beauty" and "excellence" will arouse people's yearning for cosmetic products, making people feel comfortable and catering to the consumer psychology of female audience. Meanwhile,it will stimulate the desire of demanding and bring consumers a warm aesthetic pleasure(Li 2000, 58).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Translation aesthetics is to use the basic principles of aesthetics and modern linguistics to study and explore the aesthetic issues in interlingual transfer, to help translators understand the general laws of translation aesthetic activities, and to improve the ability of interlingual transfer and aesthetic discrimination of translations(Mao 2003,5). Translation aesthetics occupies a special position in translation theory. Translation aesthetics has broad prospects for development. It is still waiting for development. Its research fields can include many major issues in modern translation studies. These issues are exactly what other fields of translation studies cannot be included（Liu 1986，51）

Translation aesthetics is to use the basic principles of aesthetics and modern linguistics to study and explore the aesthetic issues in interlingual transfer, to help translators understand the general laws of translation aesthetic activities, and to improve the ability of interlingual transfer and aesthetic discrimination of translations(Mao 2003,5). Translation aesthetics occupies a special position in translation theory. Translation aesthetics has broad prospects for development and it is still waiting for development. Its research fields can include many major issues in modern translation studies. These issues are exactly what other fields of translation studies don't include（Liu 1986，51）.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Taking into account the needs of cosmetic trademark translation and the development and uniqueness of translation aesthetics, this essay will combine the characteristics and functions of cosmetic trademarks to apply translation aesthetics theory to the practice of cosmetic trademark translation. And it will discuss the aesthetic principles and the translation techniques embodied in the cosmetic trademark translation through analyzing a large number of examples. So as to achieve the purpose of successfully attracting consumers to open up markets for businesses. At the same time, translation aesthetics, as a major breakthrough in traditional translation theory and an important supplement to translation theory research, opens up a new perspective for the research on cosmetic trademark translation.

Taking into account the needs of cosmetic trademark translation and the development and uniqueness of translation aesthetics, this paper will combine the characteristics and functions of cosmetic trademarks together to apply translation aesthetics theory to the practice of cosmetic trademark translation. It will discuss the aesthetic principles and the translation techniques embodied in the cosmetic trademark translation through analyzing a large number of examples, so as to achieve the purpose of successfully attracting consumers to open up markets for businesses. At the same time, translation aesthetics, as a major breakthrough in traditional translation theory and an important supplement to translation theory research, opens up a new perspective for the research on cosmetic trademark translation.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Chapter 1 Trademark and Trademark Translation===
====1.1 Definition、Features and Functions of Trademark====
For the definition of trademark, different scholars have had different interpretations. Trademarks are linguistic signs that appear in words and characters. They are a distinctive category in a language vocabulary. They are carefully selected or created by individuals or individual companies to distinguish products from other companies. Therefore, the meaning and function carried by this special symbol have obvious characteristics, which are prominently manifested in the distinctiveness, specificity, associativity of trademark and its function including identification、quality assurance、 legal protection and advertising（Wang 1997，25）. Zhu Fan believes that trademarks are language signs that appear in the form of words with specific and rich symbolic meaning, carrying unique commodity information and cultural information（Zhu 2002,16.)

For the definition of trademark, different scholars have different interpretations. Trademarks are linguistic signs that appear in the form of words and characters. They are a distinctive category in a language vocabulary. They are carefully selected or created by individuals or individual companies to distinguish products from other companies. Therefore, the meaning and function carried by this special symbol have obvious characteristics, which are prominently manifested in the distinctiveness, specificity, associativity of trademark and its function including identification、quality assurance、 legal protection and advertising（Wang 1997，25）. Additionally, Zhu Fan believes that trademarks are language signs that appear in the form of words with specific and rich symbolic meanings, carrying unique commodity information and cultural information（Zhu 2002,16).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Trademarks are words, names, symbols or patterns used by manufacturers or merchants to make people recognize their own products or services and distinguish them from those of other competitors (Zhou 2003, 61). Besides, Modern Chinese Dictionary also defines trademarks. It defines trademarks as "marks, signs (pictures, pictographs, etc.) engraved or printed on the surface or packaging of a product, It is different from other products of the same kind". From the explanations of trademark above, we can find that the trademark has following features: it is a linguistic sign and it’s distinctive. As an important part of commodities , it contains special significance for the companies and enterprises.(Modern Chinese Dictionary 2002, 1677)

Trademarks are words, names, symbols or patterns used by manufacturers or merchants to make people recognize their own products or services and distinguish them from those of other competitors (Zhou 2003, 61). Besides, Modern Chinese Dictionary also defines trademarks. It defines trademarks as "marks, signs (pictures, pictographs, etc.) engraved or printed on the surface or packaging of a product, It is different from other products of the same kind". From the explanations of trademark above, we can conclude that the trademark has following features: it is a linguistic sign and it’s distinctive. As an important part of commodities , it contains special significance for the companies and enterprises.(Modern Chinese Dictionary 2002, 1677)--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

For the functions of trademark, Yujun concludes that the function of the trademark itself is the basic motivation for providing legal protection to the trademark. It is generally believed that trademark functions mainly include identification functions, quality assurance functions and advertising functions. The identification function of a trademark refers to a trademark that helps consumers distinguish between multiple suppliers of similar goods or services. The quality guarantee function of a trademark means that consumers start to regard a specific trademark as a symbol of quality. The advertising function of a trademark means that a trademark is obviously a symbol tool and can be used for advertising. It is worth mentioning that the packaging with the trademark itself has also become the medium of advertising----when so many products are placed on supermarket shelves and other self-service equipment, the advertising medium is particularly important for today's product promotion(Yu 2009, 74-75).

For the functions of trademark, Yujun concludes that the function of the trademark itself is the basic motivation for providing legal protection to the trademark. It is generally believed that trademark functions mainly include identification function, quality assurance function and advertising function. The identification function of a trademark refers to a trademark that helps consumers distinguish it from multiple suppliers of similar goods or services. The quality guarantee function of a trademark means that consumers start to regard a specific trademark as a symbol of quality. The advertising function of a trademark means that a trademark is obviously a symbol tool and can be used for advertising. It is worth mentioning that the packaging with the trademark itself has also become the medium of advertising. When so many products are placed on supermarket shelves or other self-service equipment, the advertising medium is particularly important for today's product promotion(Yu 2009, 74-75).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

According to the discuss about the definition、features and functions of the trademark above, we can find that although a trademark is only a small part of a product, it cannot be ignored for the integrity of the product and its function for the value of the product.

According to the discussion about the definition, features and functions of the trademark above, we can find that although a trademark is only a small part of a product, it cannot be ignored for the integrity of the product and its function for the value of the product.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====1.2 Features of Cosmetics Trademarks====
The cosmetic trademark is the image representative of cosmetics. In order to attract consumers' attention in the first time and have sustained appeal, an effective cosmetics trademark is one of the essential and important factors. Through investigation and analysis, the author summarized that cosmetics trademarks have the following characteristics: People’s names, place names, and vocabularies suggesting beautiful images are often used in the content. (1) The name of the person in the cosmetics brand is mostly the name of the founder of the brand, such as Givenchy (founder Givenchy), Estee Lauder (founder Estee Lauder). Brands are sometimes named after other famous people. The name of the Australian brand Aesop (Aesop) reminds people of Aesop's fables, promoting the product's concise and simple concept(Shang 2011,97)

The cosmetic trademark is the image representative of cosmetics. In order to attract consumers' attention at the first time and to have sustained appeal, an effective cosmetics trademark is one of the most essential and important factors. Through investigation and analysis, some scholars summarized that cosmetics trademarks have the following characteristics: people’s names, place names, and vocabularies suggesting beautiful images are often used in the content. (1) The name of the person in the cosmetics brand is mostly the name of the founder of the brand, such as Givenchy (founder Givenchy), Estee Lauder (founder Estee Lauder) and so on. Brands are sometimes named after other famous people. The name of the Australian brand Aesop (Aesop) reminds people of Aesop's fables, promoting the product's concise and simple concept(Shang 2011,97)--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

(2) Place names in cosmetics trademarks reflect the birthplace of the brand or imply the brand concept. Such as Suiss Programme (Swiss, the birthplace of Switzerland), Albin (the name of a chalky cliff on the coast of the United Kingdom, which means a beautiful country with pure whiteness). (3) Brands that use words that imply beautiful images include Angle (angle :French brand angel beauty), A-cademie ( French brand Academie), etc.The form is streamlined with fewer characters to facilitate memory transmission. Such as H2O, DHC, VOV, etc. Some cosmetics brands are named after people whose names are long and inconvenient to remember. They also adopt abbreviated forms, such as CD (Christian Dior), YSL (Yves Saint Laurent), CK (Calvin klein) and so on(Shang 2011,98).

(2) Place names in cosmetics trademarks reflect the birthplace of the brand or imply the brand concept, such as Suiss Programme (Swiss, the birthplace of Switzerland), Albin (the name of a chalky cliff on the coast of the United Kingdom, which means a beautiful country with pure whiteness). (3) Brands that use words that imply beautiful images include Angle (angle :French brand angel beauty), A-cademie ( French brand Academie), etc.The form is streamlined with fewer characters to facilitate memory transmission, such as H2O, DHC, VOV, etc. Some cosmetics brands are named after people whose names are long and inconvenient to remember. They also adopt abbreviated forms, such as CD (Christian Dior), YSL (Yves Saint Laurent), CK (Calvin klein) and so on(Shang 2011,98).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The rhyme and sound effects are often crisp and sweet, or gentle and soft, which can stimulate consumers psychological harmony and comfort, and make them be willing to accept. For example, in the Japanese skin care brand Clean&Clear, both words begin with /kl/, which shows alliteration and full of rhythm, reminiscent of a clean, beautiful, lively and lovely girl image. Both words of the Canadian brand Pretty Rally have two syllables, and both end with /i/. The pronunciation is clear and loud, giving people a crisp and jumping rhythm(Shang 2011,98).

The rhyme and sound effects are often crisp and sweet, or gentle and soft, which can stimulate consumers psychological harmony and comfort, and make them be willing to accept. For example, in the Japanese skin care brand Clean&Clear, both words begin with /kl/, which shows alliteration. It is full of rhythm, reminiscent of a clean, beautiful, lively and lovely girl image. Both words of the Canadian brand Pretty Rally have two syllables, and both end with /i/. The pronunciation is clear and loud, giving people a crisp and jumping rhythm(Shang 2011,98).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====1.3 Trademark Translation====
Regarding trademark translation, American advertising master E.S. Lewis put forward the famous AIDA principle in 1898, that is--successful advertising should have: Attention （attracts attention）, Interest (generates interest), Desire (triggers desire), and Action (stimulates action). In other words, as long as the trademark translation can play the above-mentioned role, the translation can perfectly convey the message of the beauty of the original trademark, attract the attention of consumers and trigger a strong desire to buy, this is a successful translation. The trademark translation is not a simple conversion between language symbols, but to reflect the "short and brilliant" characteristics of the trademark itself. The translation must take into account the differences in language and culture, conform to the aesthetic psychology of customers, and realize the established brand function (Wang 2011, 236).

Regarding trademark translation, American advertising master E.S. Lewis put forward the famous AIDA principle in 1898, that is successful advertising should have four concerns: Attention （attracts attention）, Interest (generates interest), Desire (triggers desire), and Action (stimulates action). In other words, as long as the trademark translation can play the above-mentioned role, the translation can perfectly convey the message of the beauty of the original trademark, attract the attention of consumers and trigger a strong desire to buy;this is a successful translation. The trademark translation is not a simple conversion between language symbols, but to reflect the "short and brilliant" characteristics of the trademark itself. The translation must take into account the differences in language and culture, conform to the aesthetic psychology of customers, and realize the established brand function (Wang 2011, 236).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:48, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

From the perspective of language form, the structure of a trademark is simple and easy to understand. Compared with other forms of inter-language conversion, the translation process is not affected by the deeper language levels such as sentences, paragraphs, and chapters, so it seems simple, which results in the translation of trademarks. Don't take people seriously. However, Professor Qian Guanlian believes: “People have two levels of requirements for the creation of any tool: practical and aesthetic(Qian 1993, 13).”

From the perspective of language form, the structure of a trademark is simple and easy to understand. Compared with other forms of inter-language conversion, the translation process is not affected by the deeper language levels such as sentences, paragraphs, and chapters, so it seems simple, which results in the translation of trademarks. Don't take people seriously. However, Professor Qian Guanlian believes: “People have two levels of requirements for the creation of any tool: practical and aesthetic”(Qian 1993, 13).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:48, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

Therefore, the trademark translation should achieve the perfect unity of sound and meaning. At the same time it is necessary to overcome the cultural barriers of the translated language and conform to people's aesthetic taste and consumer psychology. In a word, it is not easy to do a good job in the translation of trademarks. It also needs the guidance of translation theory and also needs to master certain translation skills.

Therefore, the trademark translation should achieve the perfect unity of sound and meaning. At the same time, it is necessary to overcome the cultural barriers of the translated language and conform to people's aesthetic taste and consumer psychology. In a word, it is not easy to do a good job in the translation of trademarks. It needs the guidance of translation theory and also needs to master certain translation skills.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:48, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

=== Chapter 2 Translation Aesthetics===
====2.1 Aesthetic Origins of Translation Studies====
For the Chinese view of language, language functions and aesthetic judgments are inseparable. Chinese philosophers have been talking about beautiful words and beliefs since ancient times. Lao Tzu put forward the idea of boosting the letter and suppressing the beauty and held a negative attitude towards the beauty of disguise. Confucius proposed reaching the acme of perfection and unification of text and quality, Mencius proposed benevolence and justice for beauty, Xunzi proposed consideration of text and quality and unity of beauty and goodness. Judging from the history of Chinese aesthetics, beauty and faith, text and quality are the oldest and consistent propositions(Wang 2011,135）.

For the Chinese language view, language functions and aesthetic judgments are inseparable. Chinese philosophers have been talking about beautiful words and beliefs since ancient times. Lao Tzu put forward the idea of boosting the letter and suppressing the beauty and held a negative attitude towards the beauty of disguise. Confucius proposed reaching the acme of perfection and unification of text and quality, Mencius proposed benevolence and justice for beauty. Xunzi proposed consideration of text and quality and unity of beauty and goodness. Judging from the history of Chinese aesthetics, beauty and faith, text and quality are the oldest and consistent propositions(Wang 2011,135）.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

Beauty and text refer to the perceptual form of literary works, and faith and quality refer to the essence of content. The ideal aesthetic state is glasses grace. It is obvious that the dispute between literature and quality in traditional Chinese translation theory is the process and manifestation of Taoist aesthetics giving way to Confucian aesthetics. Since the 19th century, new translation ideas such as Yan Fu's faithfulness, smoothness, and elegance, Ma Jianzhong's good translation, Qian Zhongshu's contextualization theory, and Fu Lei's similarity theory have also further promoted Chinese translation(Wang 2011,135）.

Beauty and text refer to the perceptual form of literary works, and faith and quality refer to the essence of content. The ideal aesthetic state is glasses grace. It can be seen that the dispute between literature and quality in traditional Chinese translation theory is the process and manifestation of the transfer of Taoist aesthetics to Confucian aesthetics. Since the 19th century, new translation ideas such as Yan Fu's faithfulness, smoothness, and elegance, Ma Jianzhong's good translation, Qian Zhongshu's contextualization theory, and Fu Lei's similarity theory have also further promoted Chinese translation(Wang 2011,135）.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.2 Aesthetic Subject and Aesthetic Object Translation====
The study of academic content such as the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object in translation has always been the content that scholars pay more attention to. The aesthetic subject refers to the person who performs aesthetic activities on the aesthetic object, and the aesthetic subject of translation (TAS) is the translator. As far as translation is concerned, the aesthetic attitude of the aesthetic subject involves the concept of translation, and its task must be twofold: the understanding and appreciation of the original language and the reproduction or creation of the original aesthetic information. The aesthetic subject of translation has two basic attributes（Jiao 2010，104).

The study of academic content such as the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object in translation has always been the content that scholars pay more attention to. The aesthetic subject refers to the person who performs aesthetic activities on the aesthetic object, and the aesthetic subject of translation (TAS) is the translator. As far as translation is concerned, the aesthetic attitude of the aesthetic subject involves the concept of translation, and its task must be twofold: the understanding and appreciation of the original language, and the reproduction or creation of the original aesthetic information（Jiao 2010，104). --[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

One is subject to the aesthetic object, that is, the original text is subject to the translatability limit of the formal beauty of the original language, the translatability limit of the non-formal beauty of the original language, the cultural difference of bilingualism and the time and space difference of art appreciation . The second is the translator's subjective initiative, that is, the translator's initiative, creativity, and the high level of activation and stimulation of the aesthetic potential of the aesthetic object. Chinese aesthetics summarizes these characteristics as "subjective practicality." In translation, if the translator does his best to suppress the objective constraints, translation can still become a handy creative activity(Jiao 2010,104).

The aesthetic subject of translation has two basic attributes.One is subject to the aesthetic object, that is, the original text is subject to the translatability limit of the formal beauty of the original language, the translatability limit of the non-formal beauty of the original language, the cultural difference of bilingualism and the time and space difference of art appreciation . The second is the translator's subjective initiative, that is, the translator's initiative, creativity, and the high level of activation and stimulation of the aesthetic potential of the aesthetic object. Chinese aesthetics summarizes these characteristics as "subjective practicality". In translation, if the translator does his best to suppress the objective constraints, translation can still become a handy creative activity(Jiao 2010,104).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

The exertion of the subjective agency of translation depends on whether TAS has the following aesthetic conditions. Specifically, it refers to the aesthetic emotions of the aesthetic subject: emotion, knowledge, talent and will. The so-called "emotion" is aesthetic emotion. The so-called "knowledge" can refer to both insight and insight, as well as the vision expanded and enriched by the translator's personal experience. The so-called "talent" refers to actual ability or skill, which is manifested in language analysis ability, aesthetic judgment ability, language expression and rhetoric ability. The so-called "will" refers to the perseverance to learn(Jiao 2010,105).

The exertion of the subjective agency of translation depends on whether TAS has the following aesthetic conditions. Specifically, it refers to the aesthetic emotion of the aesthetic subject: emotion, knowledge, talent and will. The so-called "emotion" is aesthetic emotion. The so-called "knowledge" can refer to insight, as well as the vision expanded and enriched by the translator's personal experience. The so-called "talent" refers to actual ability or skill, which is manifested in language analysis ability, aesthetic judgment ability, language expression and rhetoric ability. The so-called "will" refers to the perseverance to learn(Jiao 2010,105). --[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

The study of aesthetic objects is mainly for the original text. Because different scholars are in different perspectives, the specific classifications are also different. In "Introduction to Translation Aesthetics", Liu Miqing divides the aesthetic objects into "textual aesthetic appearance" and "non-representative beauty". In fact, it is to appraise the intrinsic beauty of the original language form and the charm of the article. On the other hand, Mao Ronggui refined the aesthetic objects into phonological beauty, rhythm beauty, simplicity beauty, charm beauty, artistic conception beauty, tone beauty, image beauty, neat beauty, stylistic beauty and fuzzy beauty and other forms of analysis ("Translation and Aesthetics")(Liu 2005,130).

The study of aesthetic objects is mainly for the original text. Because different scholars have different perspectives, the specific classifications are also different. In "Introduction to Translation Aesthetics", Liu Miqing divides the aesthetic objects into "textual aesthetic appearance" and "non-representative beauty". In fact, it is to appraise the intrinsic beauty of the original language form and the charm of the article. Additionally, Mao Ronggui refined the aesthetic objects into phonological beauty, rhythm beauty, simplicity beauty, charm beauty, artistic conception beauty, tone beauty, image beauty, neat beauty, stylistic beauty , fuzzy beauty and other forms of analysis(Liu 2005,130). --[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

In addition, Huang Long’s article "The Aesthetics of Translation" elaborates on the aesthetic issues of translation from six aspects: rhetorical beauty, artistic conception, beauty, image beauty, typical beauty and macro beauty. Its essence is still the study of translation objects. It can be seen that although the specific classification of this type of research is different, its essence is to conduct a comprehensive analysis of the exterior and connotation of aesthetic objects.Regarding the relationship between aesthetic subject and object, Liu Miqing believes that only when the aesthetic subject and the aesthetic object are organically combined, translation can have an aesthetic effect as an aesthetic reproduction process and the translation can be beautiful(Huang 1988,180)

In addition, Huang Long’s article "The Aesthetics of Translation" elaborates on the aesthetic issues of translation from six aspects: rhetorical beauty, artistic conception, beauty, image beauty, typical beauty and macro beauty. Its essence is still the study of translation objects. It can be seen that although the specific classification of this type of research is different, its essence is to conduct a comprehensive analysis of the exterior and connotation of aesthetic objects.Regarding the relationship between aesthetic subject and object, Liu Miqing believes that only when the aesthetic subject and the aesthetic object are combined organically can translation, as an aesthetic reproduction process, produce aesthetic effect and translation is beautiful.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.3 Aesthetic Interpretation of the Translation of Cosmetic Trademarks====
Trademarks, translation aesthetics and cosmetics are all products of a certain historical stage of social development. The trademark originated from the name attached to the works by the ancient Greek writers, and the trademarks with pictures and texts appeared in the Northern Song Dynasty in China. In the modern market economy society, trademarks constitute a part of products and tend to be universal. Their nature is not only a mark for distinguishing commodities, but also a tool for market competition. Trademarks have revealing and propaganda functions, so that their role in commodity exchange and market competition not only indicates the origin of the goods and guarantees the quality of the goods, but also has the role of advertising and promotion.Therefore, a successful trademark translation can make consumers have beautiful associations, thereby creating brand identity(Encyclopedia of China 2009, 283).

Trademarks, translation aesthetics and cosmetics are all products of a certain historical stage of social development. The trademark originated from the name attached to the works by the ancient Greek writers, and the trademarks with pictures and texts appeared in the Northern Song Dynasty in China. In the modern market economy society, trademarks constitute a part of products and tend to be universal. Their nature is not only a mark for distinguishing commodities, but also a tool for market competition. Trademarks have revealing and propaganda functions, so that their role in commodity exchange and market competition not only indicates the origin of the goods and guarantees the quality of the goods, but also has the role of advertising and promotion.Therefore, a successful trademark translation can make consumers have beautiful associations, thereby creating brand identity(Encyclopedia of China 2009, 283).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

What is beauty? Women would rather cut off three meals for a beautiful dress, men would not regret seeing a beautiful girl hit a tree, humans would not hesitate to climb up the heights without hesitation, all for the sake of beautiful clothes, beauty present and " The physical and mental pleasure brought by "seeing the small mountains" is also called aesthetic feeling. Beauty is essentially a kind of direct or indirect physical pleasure. The physical pleasure induced by "beauty" is elevated to the level of culture, rationality, and spirit, so that human physiological experience has cultural and spiritual connotations of "beauty", and human society can move toward a harmonious and beautiful state due to the pursuit of beauty(Mao 2015,29).

What is beauty? Women would rather cut off three meals for a beautiful dress and men would not regret seeing a beautiful girlat the cost of hitting a tree. Humans would not hesitate to climb up the heights without hesitation, all for the sake of beautiful clothes, beauty present and " The physical and mental pleasure brought by "seeing the small mountains" is also called aesthetic feeling. Beauty is essentially a kind of direct or indirect physical pleasure. The physical pleasure induced by "beauty" is elevated to the level of culture, rationality, and spirit, so that human physiological experience has cultural and spiritual connotations of "beauty", and human society can move toward a harmonious and beautiful state due to the pursuit of beauty(Mao 2015,29).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

The aesthetics of translation leads people to appreciate the beauty of the artistic conception of "suddenly looking back, but the person is in a dim light" through the conversion of two languages. The object of research is the aesthetic object (original, target) in translation, the aesthetic subject (translator, reader) in translation, aesthetic activity in translation, aesthetic judgment in translation, aesthetic appreciation, aesthetic standards, and creativity in translation The aesthetic reproduction and so on(Mao 2015,29).

The aesthetics of translation leads people to appreciate the beauty of the artistic conception of suddenly looking back, but the person is in a dim light through the conversion of two languages. The object of research is the aesthetic object (original, target) in translation, the aesthetic subject (translator, reader) in translation, aesthetic activity in translation, aesthetic judgment in translation, aesthetic appreciation, aesthetic standards, and creativity in translation, the aesthetic reproduction and so on(Mao 2015,29).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

Both translation aesthetics and cosmetics can bring beauty to people and make people happy both physically and mentally. Cosmetics generally have a pleasant fragrance, which can make a person's appearance clean and beautiful, and is good for physical and mental health. The translation of cosmetics trademarks has become an indispensable object to carry and convey this beauty(Encyclopedia of China 2011, 553).

Both translation aesthetics and cosmetics can bring beauty to people and make people happy both physically and mentally. Cosmetics generally have a pleasant fragrance, which can make a person's appearance clean and beautiful, and is good for physical and mental health. The translation of cosmetics trademarks has become an indispensable object to carry and convey beauty(Encyclopedia of China 2011, 553).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

===Chapter 3 Translations of Cosmetic Trademarks Guided by Translation Aesthetics===
====3.1 Aesthetic principles of cosmetics trademark translation====
=====3.1.1Rhythmic Beauty=====
Rhythmic Beauty means that the trademark name has a bright sound, a clear rhythm, and a sense of music, which gives people a beautiful listening experience. A successful trademark translation should be easy to remember, rich in imagination, and easy to read. For example:

Rhythmic Beauty means that the trademark name has a bright sound, a clear rhythm, and a sense of music, which gives people a beautiful listening experience. A successful trademark translation should be easy to remember, rich in imagination, and easy to read. For example:--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:35, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

Clean Clear is translated as "可伶可俐", For the translation of Clean Clear, the first letter of the English trademark is "Cl", it adopts alliteration and the vowels in the middle part are the same. Besides, the pronunciation is very smooth, which like a tongue popping out. When translating into Chinese, separate the singular word "Ling Li", and use the characteristics of Chinese double vowels and compound vowels to make the translated name sound bright. What’s more, the Chinese characteristics of flatness and syllable length change make the trademark sound sonorous, powerful, smooth, and rhythmic(Zeng 2010,183).

Clean Clear is translated as "可伶可俐", For the translation of Clean Clear, the first letter of the English trademark is "Cl", it adopts alliteration and the vowels in the middle part are the same. Besides, the pronunciation is very smooth, which like a tongue popping out. When translating into Chinese, translators separate the singular word "Ling Li", and use the characteristics of Chinese double vowels and compound vowels to make the translated name sound bright. What’s more, the Chinese characteristics of flatness and syllable length change make the trademark sound sonorous, powerful, smooth, and rhythmic(Zeng 2010,183).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:35, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

For the translation of the trademark "美加净" into "Maxam", it perfectly embodies the beauty of phonology. First of all, the pronunciation of the first syllable of "Maxam" and the pronunciation of "美" in "美加净" form a correspondence. When people see the letter "M", they will think of the Chinese pronunciation of "美" to obtain a feeling of beauty. In addition, the pronunciation of "Maxam" is short but powerful, giving people a fresh and natural feeling, which coincides with the brand concept of Maxam(Zeng 2010,184).

For the translation of the trademark "美加净" into "Maxam", it perfectly embodies the beauty of phonology. First of all, the pronunciation of the first syllable of "Maxam" and the pronunciation of "美" in "美加净" form a correspondence. When people see the letter "M", they will think of the Chinese pronunciation of "美" to obtain a feeling of beauty. In addition, the pronunciation of "Maxam" is short but powerful, giving people a fresh and natural feeling, which coincides with the brand concept of Maxam(Zeng 2010,184).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:35, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

=====3.1.2 Image Beauty=====
On the one hand, Image beauty, as far as translating poetry is concerned, it has the same poetic format and rhythm as the original text. This beauty of form is built on the basis of similarity. For trademark terms, the translation should be in the form of a trademark, and the language should be concise and clear, easy to see, easy to read, easy to understand, and worthy of memory. It is best to use good words. Different countries, nationalities and regions use different characters, and their preferences for certain characters are also very different.

On one hand, Image beauty, as far as translating poetry is concerned, it has the same poetic format and rhythm as the original text. This beauty of form is built on the basis of similarity. For trademark terms, the translation should be in the form of a trademark, and the language should be concise and clear, easy to see, easy to read, easy to understand, and worthy of memory. It is best to use good words. Different countries, nationalities and regions use different characters, so their preferences for certain characters are also very different.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

For example, the Chinese characters that Chinese people like are mostly "福", "寿"喜", "乐", etc. Another example: Avon is translated as "雅芳", Arche is translated as "雅倩", Colgate is translated as "高露洁", Safeguard is translated as " "Shufujia", Rejoice translated as "飘柔", etc. These translated names are linguistically recognizable, easy to read, and easy to see, which is what we call the beauty of form, and "“雅、芳、倩、黛、露、佳、飘、柔” in Chinese have elegant, refined, , graceful and feminine charms. Not only can they leave a good impression on consumers, but they can also be beautiful in the fragrant and aromatic scent when using the product. The products represented by these translation standards have always been trusted, in addition to the product itself, it is also related to the simplicity and memorability of the translation standards(Ye 2010,112).

For example, the Chinese characters that Chinese people like are mostly "福", "寿"喜", "乐", etc. Another example: Avon is translated as "雅芳", Arche is translated as "雅倩", Colgate is translated as "高露洁", Safeguard is translated as " "舒肤佳", Rejoice translated as "飘柔", etc. These translated names are linguistically recognizable, easy to read, and easy to see, which is what we call the beauty of form, and "“雅、芳、倩、黛、露、佳、飘、柔” in Chinese have elegant, refined, , graceful and feminine charms. Not only can they leave a good impression on consumers, but they can also be beautiful in the fragrant and aromatic scent when consumers use the product. The products represented by these translation standards have always been trusted, in addition to the product itself, it is also related to the simplicity and memorability of the translation standards(Ye 2010,112).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

On the other hand, the translated name of cosmetics should have "clear meaning, concise graphics, clear image, easy to remember" as its artistic characteristics, and it states the product characteristics intuitively and clearly, so that the product image is clear and prominent, which is easy to resonate with consumers, and is conducive to obtaining good impressions and strong memory impression. According to the language characteristics of Chinese and the language psychology of the Han nationality, the Chinese translation of female beauty products should choose words with beautiful content and sweet rhyme, and the sound should be bright and the rhythm should be clear, giving people the enjoyment of visual and auditory beauty(Ye 2010,113).

On the other hand, the translated name of cosmetics should have clear meaning, concise graphics, clear image, and be easy to remember as its artistic characteristics, and it states the product characteristics intuitively and clearly, so that the product image is clear and prominent, which is easy to resonate with consumers, and is conducive to obtaining good impressions and strong memory impression. According to the language characteristics of Chinese and the language psychology of the Han nationality, the Chinese translation of female beauty products should choose words with beautiful content and sweet rhyme, and the sound should be bright and the rhythm should be clear, giving people the enjoyment of visual and auditory beauty(Ye 2010,113).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

Such as: American cosmetics Maybelline, the Chinese translation is "美宝莲". "Beauty" implies that its function is to make consumers more beautiful, and "lotus" implies that its effect is to make consumers as beautiful as a lotus. Both the sound and the meaning are used. The two languages are integrated, and the sound is bright and the meaning is beautiful.The French skin care product Clarin is named "娇韵诗" in Chinese. It chooses "娇" and "韵" to express the beauty of "feminine and tenderness". The addition of "诗" makes people feel "picturesque and poetic", leaving female consumers with a deep impression.

Such as: American cosmetics Maybelline, the Chinese translation is "美宝莲". "Beauty" implies that its function is to make consumers more beautiful, and "lotus" implies that its effect is to make consumers as beautiful as a lotus. Both the sound and the meaning are used. The two languages are integrated.The sound is bright and the meaning is beautiful.The French skin care product Clarin is named "娇韵诗" in Chinese. It chooses "娇" and "韵" to express the beauty of "feminine and tenderness". The addition of "诗" makes people feel "picturesque and poetic", leaving female consumers with a deep impression.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

=====3.1.3 Conceptual Beauty=====
The conceptual beauty of a trademark refers to that the trademark of a product highlights a certain artistic conception through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of the constituent words, so that people have rich and beautiful associations, and arouse people's yearning and pursuit of beauty. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers(Zeng 2010,185).

The conceptual beauty of a trademark refers to that the trademark of a product highlights a certain artistic conception through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of the constituent words, so that people have rich and beautiful associations, and arouse people's yearning for and pursuit of beauty. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers(Zeng 2010,185).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:48, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

In addition, The conceptual beauty requires that the trademark of the product can make people produce rich associations. That is, through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of word formation, a certain artistic conception is brought out. For example, the Chinese translation of Biouquan, one of the three major European skin care brands, is "碧欧泉". The author believes that this translation is very clever, and it can be described as a perfect combination of sound, form and meaning. The trademark of the source language has rich connotations(Ye 2010,115).

In addition, The conceptual beauty requires that the trademark of the product can make people produce rich associations. That is, through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of word formation, a certain artistic conception is brought out. For example, the Chinese translation of Biouquan is one of the three major European skin care brands. The author believes that this translation is very clever, and it can be described as a perfect combination of sound, form and meaning. The trademark of the source language has rich connotations(Ye 2010,115).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:48, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

Bio- means the life of the skin, and -therm refers to mineral hot springs, because there is a kind of mineral hot springs in the mountains of southern France. It has special effects on the human body, especially the skin, and BIOTHERM products are organic The active factor PETPTM is extracted from this mineral hot spring. In the Chinese translation of its name, "碧" is reminiscent of clear water, blue sky, and full of greenery. "欧" and "泉" refer to the birthplace of the product. The design of the trademark is based on blue, which makes people even have more creative, fresh and natural, elegant and pure feeling(Zeng 2010,186).

Bio- means the life of the skin, and -therm refers to mineral hot springs, because there is a kind of mineral hot springs in the mountains of southern France, which has special effects on the human body, especially on the skin. BIOTHERM products are organic The active factor PETPTM is extracted from this mineral hot spring. In the Chinese translation of its name, "碧" is reminiscent of clear water, blue sky, and full of greenery. "欧" and "泉" refer to the birthplace of the product. The design of the trademark is based on blue, which makes people even have more creative, fresh and natural, elegant and pure feeling(Zeng 2010,186).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:48, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

====3.2 Translation Techniques under the Guidance of Translation Aesthetics====
=====3.2.1 Free Translation=====
Free translation is based on the meaning of trademark words. The brand name translated by free translation can vividly express the utility of the product through careful selection and addition of words, which is conducive to consumer memory. Free translation neither uses the original name nor the direct Chinese meaning of the original name. Instead, it is based on the characteristics of the product, giving full play to imagination and creating a translated name with another meaning, thereby achieving the purpose of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic value(Zhu 2008,366).

Free translation is based on the meaning of trademark. The brand name translated by free translation can vividly express the utility of the product through careful selection and addition of words, which is conducive to consumer memory. Free translation neither uses the original name nor the direct Chinese meaning of the original name. Instead, it is based on the characteristics of the product, giving full play to imagination and creating a translated name with another meaning, thereby achieving the purpose of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic value(Zhu 2008,366).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:56, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

The cosmetics trademark "Lancome", the founder of its brand name Armand Petetjean took inspiration from a beautiful castle "Lancome" surrounded by roses in central France. He believed that every woman is like a rose with her own posture and charm.The translation of the trademark as Lancome is unique, because in China, “兰”means orchid, which represents elegance and beauty. It is the most beautiful flower, like the rose surrounding the castle, exuding fragrance and beauty; “蔻” is a scented herb In Chinese, “豆蔻年华” is often used to describe young and beautiful, as Armand described, every woman is as young and beautiful as a rose(Zhu 2008,366).

For instance, the cosmetics trademark "Lancome", the founder of its brand name Armand Petetjean took inspiration from a beautiful castle "Lancome" surrounded by roses in central France. He believed that every woman is like a rose with her own posture and charm.The translation of the trademark as Lancome is unique, because in China, “兰”means orchid, which represents elegance and beauty. It is the most beautiful flower, like the rose surrounding the castle, exuding fragrance and beauty; “蔻” is a scented herb In Chinese, “豆蔻年华” is often used to describe young and beautiful. As Armand described, every woman is as young and beautiful as a rose(Zhu 2008,366). --[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:56, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

Cosmetics Juven "柔美娜", Juven is equivalent to young in English, meaning "young", people think that young is beautiful; the translator adopts free translation, flexibly and creatively translating Ju-ven into "柔美娜", which correctly conveys the efficacy of the cosmetics to consumers---- you can get soft, beautiful and young skin with this product. Another example is cosmetics Clinique (倩碧). Clinique originally means clinic in English. Under the guidance of dermatologists, Clinique has developed the first 100% fragrance-free skin care product(Zhu 2008,367).

Cosmetics Juven "柔美娜", Juven is equivalent to young in English, meaning "young", people think that young is beautiful; the translator adopts free translation, flexibly and creatively translating Ju-ven into "柔美娜", which correctly conveys the efficacy of the cosmetics to consumers that you can get soft, beautiful and young skin by using this product(Zhu 2008,367). --[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:56, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

The translation of Clinique--“倩碧” can make people have beautiful associations. “倩”, means beautiful ;“碧”, means turquoise, light and clear color; By free translation of such a name, consumers will have beautiful associations-healthy and beautiful, crystal clear skin. Just imagine if literally translated as a clinic, who would dare to use such a product? In addition, examples of free translation include: H2O "水之奥", Prettiean "雅姿丽", etc., which have reached the goal of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic values(Zhu 2008,367).

Another example is cosmetics Clinique (倩碧). Clinique originally means clinic in English. Under the guidance of dermatologists, Clinique has developed the first 100% fragrance-free skin care product.The translation of “倩碧” can make people have beautiful associations. “倩” means beautiful and“碧”means turquoise, light and clear color. By free translation of such a name, consumers will have beautiful associations-healthy and beautiful, crystal clear skin. Just imagine if literally translated as a clinic, and who would dare to use such a product? In addition, examples of free translation include: H2O "水之奥", Prettiean "雅姿丽", etc., which have reached the goal of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic values(Zhu 2008,367).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:56, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

=====3.2.2 Transliteration=====
Transliteration refers to a translation method that uses phonemes as a unit to retain the pronunciation of the original text in the translation so as to highlight the main functions of the original text. The transliteration of the trademark is the meaningless of the original trademark , and the translated name can be obtained by using the text symbols of the target language and the target language to express the pronunciation of the original trademark. "Transliteration of a trademark should follow the principle of name obeying the owner, that is, if the original text is in Japanese, it should be pronounced in Japanese, if the original is in French, it should be pronounced in French, if it is German, it should be pronounced in German, and if it is Italian, it should be pronounced in Italian.The same goes for other languages(Zhang 2007,121).

Transliteration refers to a translation method that uses phonemes as a unit to retain the pronunciation of the original text in the translation so as to highlight the main functions of the original text. The transliteration of the trademark is meaningless of the original trademark. The pronunciation of the original trademark is expressed in the target language and the text symbols of the target language.Transliteration of a trademark should follow the principle of name obeying the owner, that is, if the original text is in Japanese, it should be pronounced in Japanese, if the original is in French, it should be pronounced in French, if it is German, it should be pronounced in German, and if it is Italian, it should be pronounced in Italian.The same goes for other languages(Zhang 2007,121).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

The translated name translated by the transliteration method retains the beauty of the original trademark’s phonology .Although it does not conform to the Chinese rules in terms of word creation, it has ulterior motives in the choice of Chinese characters. After careful selection, it appears novel and unique and caters to women consumers’ curiosity and aesthetic psychology.Besides, it is relatively straightforward, and also brings convenience to translation” . Therefore, most cosmetics trademarks use this translation method. American cosmetics Maybelline, its original name is full of flavor. The Chinese translation of "莲" implies that its effect is to make consumers beautiful like a lotus. It takes its pronunciation, "美宝莲". "美" implies that its function is to make consumption and take its meaning. The two languages can be integrated, which is a superior work（Yu,An 2006：98）.

The translated name translated by the transliteration method retains the beauty of the original trademark’s phonology .Although it does not conform to the Chinese rules in terms of word creation, it has ulterior motives in the choice of Chinese characters. After careful selection, it appears novel and unique and caters to women consumers’ curiosity and aesthetic psychology.Besides, it is relatively straightforward, and also brings convenience to translation. Therefore, most cosmetics trademarks use this translation method. American cosmetics Maybelline, its original name is full of flavor. The Chinese translation of "莲" implies that its effect is to make consumers beautiful like a lotus. It takes its pronunciation of "美宝莲". "美" implies that its function is to make consumption and take its meaning. The two languages can be integrated, which is a superior work（Yu,An 2006：98）.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

=====3.2.3 Literal translation=====
Literal translation is to find words with the same or similar meaning in the target language according to the meaning of the original trademark word. The advantage of the literal translation method is that it retains the original trademark name, conveying the information and feelings of the original name, which achieves harmony and unity in meaning with the trademark pattern. For example, the makeup brand Cover Girl literally translates as "封面女孩", which means that the girl who uses this cosmetic is as glamorous as the model on the cover(Zhang 2009,125).

Literal translation is to find words with the same or similar meaning in the target language according to the meaning of the original trademark word. The advantage of the literal translation method is that it retains the original trademark name, conveying the information and feelings of the original name, which achieves harmony and unity in meaning with the trademark pattern. For example, the makeup brand "Cover Girl" is literally translates as "封面女孩", which means that the girl who uses this cosmetic is as glamorous as the model on the cover(Zhang 2009,125).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:11, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

Natural Beauty "自然美", the concept of this cosmetics brand company spanning seven countries in the Asia-Pacific region is "Nature is Beauty". The literal translation retains the purpose of the trademark to retain fresh and natural beauty. Another example is the famous British health and beauty chain store—The Body Shop(“美体小铺”). Its main products are body care and facial masks. The products are natural and healthy. Literally translated, this brand can retain the purpose of the trademark—to make skin and body become more beautiful and moving.

Natural Beauty "自然美", the concept of this cosmetics brand company spanning seven countries in the Asia-Pacific region is "Nature is Beauty". The literal translation retains the purpose of the trademark to retain fresh and natural beauty. Another example is the famous British health and beauty chain store—The Body Shop(“美体小铺”). Its main products are body care and facial masks. The products are natural and healthy. With Literal translation, this brand can retain the purpose of the trademark and make skin and body become more beautiful.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:11, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

In addition, the literal translation of "小护士" as Mininurse is also for purpose. People think of nurses as angels, caring for people who are cared about.The purpose of this translation is to tell consumers that the products of little nurses are as gentle and considerate as nurses, and by this way it achieved promotional purposes.

In addition, the literal translation of "little nurses"("小护士") as Mininurse is also for purpose. People think of nurses as angels, caring for people who are cared about.The purpose of this translation is to tell consumers that the products of "little nurses" are as gentle and considerate as nurses, and by this way it achieves promotional purpose.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:11, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

=====3.2.4 Creative Translation=====
If neither transliteration nor literal translation can vividly reproduce the characteristics of the original trademark, then consider putting aside the consideration of the original trademark's phonology and meaning and adopting a new and innovative approach. It is not necessary to stick to the similarity of simple phonology, nor to ponder its literal referential meaning. Translators can fully open up new ideas, find new ways, boldly innovate, and give readers unlimited reverie. In other words, the unconventional method is a special free translation method, which refers to the renaming of products under the premise that the culture and customs of the target language country allow it. Although the translated name of the target language is quite different from the original meaning of the original name, it can achieve the same goal by different routes(Zhou 2003,63).

If neither transliteration nor literal translation can vividly reproduce the characteristics of the original trademark, then consider putting aside the consideration of the original trademark's phonology and meaning, and adopt a new and innovative approach. It is not necessary to stick to the similarity of simple phonology, nor to ponder its literal referential meaning. Translators can fully open up new ideas, find new ways, boldly innovate, and give readers unlimited reverie. In other words, the unconventional method is a special free translation method, which refers to the renaming of products under the premise that the culture and customs of the target language country allow it. Although the translated name of the target language is quite different from the original meaning of the original name, it can achieve the same goal by different routes(Zhou 2003,63).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:15, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

For example, the American brand Neutrogena is translated as "露得清", which is derived from the Latin words "Neutralis" and "Genus", which means "new birth". The combination of the two words implies the meaning of "creating natural effects". When the brand was founded, it was famous for a soap that was comfortable and cleansing the skin, and it was known as the "precious soap from Belgium". "Recommend products suitable for skin" has always been at the core of the Neutrogena brand philosophy. Translating Neutrogena into "露得清", although it doesn't seem to have much connection with its literal meaning, it fits the original intention of clean and clear skin in the brand story.

For example, the American brand Neutrogena is translated as "露得清", which is derived from the Latin words "Neutralis" and "Genus", which means "new birth". The combination of the two words implies the meaning of creating natural effects. When the brand was founded, it was famous for a soap that was comfortable and had good function on cleansing the skin. It was known as the precious soap from Belgium. "Recommend products suitable for skin" has always been at the core of the Neutrogena brand philosophy. Translating Neutrogena into "露得清", although it doesn't seem to have much connection with its literal meaning, it fits the original intention of clean and clear skin in the brand story.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:15, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

===Conclusion===
From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this essay analyzes the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the process of cosmetic trademark translation through specific examples. For the translation of cosmetics trademarks, it is not a simple conversion of one language to another, so it requires that we should be based on the specific circumstances of the aesthetic characteristics of the trademark words, and from the perspective of translation aesthetics, we should fully consider the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject and aesthetic needs to accurately and fully reproduce the aesthetic objects—the rhythmic beauty, image beauty and conceptual beauty of trademark to consumers by combining with the respective characteristics of the two languages and cultures of English and Chinese, so as to promote product sales and achieve its commercial value.

From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper analyzes the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the process of cosmetic trademark translation through specific examples. For the translation of cosmetics trademarks, it is not a simple conversion of one language to another, so it requires us to take specific circumstances of the aesthetic characteristics of the trademark words into consideration. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, we should fully consider the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject and aesthetic needs to accurately and fully reproduce the aesthetic objects—the rhythmic beauty, image beauty and conceptual beauty of trademark to consumers by combining with the respective characteristics of the two languages and cultures of English and Chinese, so as to promote product sales and achieve its commercial value.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

When translating cosmetics trademarks, as Xie Hua pointed out, the translator must flexibly handle language and cultural differences and conflicts according to the context in the translation process. You cannot be imprisoned in words for the sake of literal translation or transliteration or free translation, and make the words rigid; At the same time, in order to successfully express the connotation of the trademark and show the charm of the trademark, translators should strive to get rid of the shackles of rigid equivalence, be flexible and innovative, choose the best method for trademark translation, and try to give the trademark the best appropriate translated name(Xie 2000,85).

When translating cosmetics trademarks, as Xie Hua pointed out, the translator must flexibly handle language and cultural differences and conflicts according to the context in the translation process. You cannot be imprisoned in words for the sake of literal translation or transliteration or free translation, ortherwise;it will make the words rigid; At the same time, in order to successfully express the connotation of the trademark and show the charm of the trademark, translators should strive to get rid of the shackles of rigid equivalence, be flexible and innovative, choose the best method for trademark translation, and try to give the trademark the best appropriate translated name(Xie 2000,85).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

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==A Study on Ba Jin's Translation of Oscar Wilde's Fairy Tales from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 周园曲 Zhou Yuanqu 202070080630 英语笔译==

===Abstract===

Oscar Wilde, as a leading figure in the Aesthetic Movement, was famous for his ornate words and sharp wit. His fairy tales embodies and exhibits his aesthetic ideal. Until now, his two collections of fairy tales The Happy Prince and Other Tales as well as A House of Pomegranates still receive popularity around the world. And one of the most favored translation editions of Wilde’s fairy tales in China was written by Ba Jin. This thesis is aimed to analyze from the perspective of translation aesthetics what Ba Jin did to make the representation of beauty possible. This thesis includes three chapters. In Chapter One, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics, and Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics to provide theoretical support for the rest part of the thesis. In Chapter Two, the author explores from the aspect of translation aesthetic subject what aesthetic conditions Ba Jin possessed to let him reproduce the beauty in the original work. In Chapter Three, the author analyzes Ba Jin's translation from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to see what translation skills he used and what translation theories he held to make it possible to reproduce the beauty in the original work.

Through analysis, the author finds that a literary translation of high quality should not only deliver the logic information but also reproduce similar aesthetic feelings.

===Key words===
Ba Jin; Oscar Wilde; Fairy tales; Translation aesthetics

===摘要===

作为美学运动的代表人物，奥斯卡·王尔德的语言优美华丽，风趣机智，而他创作的童话作品则被认为是其美学思想的最佳载体。直到今天，他的两部童话集《快乐王子》和《石榴之家》依然在世界范围内广受欢迎，而巴金先生的王尔德童话译本则是国内最为推崇的译本之一。本篇论文旨在从翻译美学的角度分析巴金是如何在其译文中再现了原作中的美。本篇论文包括三个章节：第一章介绍了翻译美学的定义、其发展历史以及刘宓庆的翻译美学理论，旨在为后文的论述提供理论铺垫。第二章从翻译审美主体的角度探索了巴金重现原作美所具备的审美条件。第三章作者从音乐美、词汇美、意境美和风格美四个角度，举例对比分析了原文和巴金译文，总结了巴金再现原文美的翻译技巧和翻译思想。

通过对巴金的王尔德童话译本的分析，作者发现，一篇高质量的文学作品译文不仅要传达原文的基本逻辑信息，还要能为译文读者重现与原文作品相似的美的感受。

===关键词===
巴金奥斯卡·王尔德童话翻译美学

===Introduction===

The fairy tales by Oscar Wilde, like his other works, exhibited his great talent for language. The Happy Prince and Other Stories published in 1888 and A House of Pomegranates in 1891 collected nine fairy tales. All of them were of musical tone and ornate words, creating indescribable beauty of tragedy. The stories sparkling with poetic beauty and wisdom received favor all over the world.

The fairy tales by Oscar Wilde, like his other works, exhibited his great talent for language. The Happy Prince and Other Stories published in 1888 and A House of Pomegranates in 1891 collected nine fairy tales. All of them were of musical tone and ornate words, creating indescribable beauty of tragedy. The stories sparkling with poetic beauty and wisdom received favor all over the world. --[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

In China, Wilde’s fairy tales were first translated in 1909. Zhou Zuoren and Lu Xun translated The Happy Prince to classical Chinese and published it in a book named Other Land (《域外小说集》).Although the book didn’t sell well, it introduced Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to China. In 1920s, more translations of the fairy tales were seen in various books and magazines. Mu Mutian in 1922 translated five stories. In the year of 1933, You Baolong translated seven stories of Wilde’s fairy tales. In 1946, Mu Mutian made a complete translation of Wilde’s nine stories. Among all of the Chinese translations, one of the most influential editions was translated by Ba Jin. His translation was firstly published in 1947 and revised and reprinted twice respectively in 1957 and 1980.

In China, Wilde’s fairy tales were first translated in 1909. Zhou Zuoren and Lu Xun translated The Happy Prince to classical Chinese and published it in a book named Other Land (《域外小说集》).Although the book didn’t sell well, it introduced Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to China. In 1920s, more translations of the fairy tales were seen in various books and magazines. Mu Mutian in 1922 translated five stories. In the year of 1933, You Baolong translated seven stories of Wilde’s fairy tales. In 1946, Mu Mutian made a complete translation of Wilde’s nine stories. Among all of the Chinese translations, one of the most influential editions was translated by Ba Jin. His translation was firstly published in 1947 and revised and reprinted twice respectively in 1957 and 1980.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

In CNKI, 157 essays conduct research on Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. And the study object of twenty essays is the translation of Oscar Wilde’s stories. Among them seventeen essays covered Ba Jin's translation. Scholars often conduct their research on the following angles: the influence of translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales in China; translator’s subjectivity; reception aesthetics; translation of children’s literature; translation aesthetics. There are three theses adopting an aesthetic view to study Ba Jin's translation of Wilde’s fairy tales. Lin Lin (2007) compared the aesthetic features of the original work and Ba Jin's translation from an aesthetic perspective. Liu Xiaoyin (2012) used Mao Ronggui's theory of translation aesthetics to analyze the aesthetic elements in Ba Jin's translation. Yang Liqiu (2016: Ⅴ) in 2016 built a Excel database to make a textual analysis of the 1981 version of Kuai Le Wang Zi Ji in a systematic manner from lexical, syntactical and discourse levels. Their study on Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s works provide guidance for this thesis and the future studies.

In CNKI, 157 essays conduct research on Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. And the study object of twenty essays is the translation of Oscar Wilde’s stories. Among them seventeen essays covered Ba Jin's translation. Scholars often conduct their research on the following angles: the influence of translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales in China; translator’s subjectivity; reception aesthetics; translation of children’s literature; translation aesthetics. There are three theses adopting an aesthetic view to study Ba Jin's translation of Wilde’s fairy tales. Lin Lin (2007) compared the aesthetic features of the original work and Ba Jin's translation from an aesthetic perspective. Liu Xiaoyin (2012) used Mao Ronggui's theory of translation aesthetics to analyze the aesthetic elements in Ba Jin's translation. Yang Liqiu (2016: Ⅴ) in 2016 built a Excel database to make a textual analysis of the 1981 version of Kuai Le Wang Zi Ji in a systematic manner from lexical, syntactical and discourse levels. Their study on Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s works provide guidance for this thesis and the future studies.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

It is indisputable that Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales read like poetry. Since Ba Jin's translation is one of the most favored translation editions in China, it must have rendered similar aesthetic beauty to its Chinese readers. Therefore, a question arises: how did he convey the same aesthetic effect in his translation? Translation aesthetics provides an appropriate angle for studying this issue.

It is indisputable that Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales read like poetry. Since Ba Jin's translation is one of the most favored translation editions in China, it must have rendered similar aesthetic beauty to its Chinese readers. Therefore, a question arises: how did he convey the same aesthetic effect in his translation? Translation aesthetics provides an appropriate angle for studying this issue.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

In this thesis there are three chapters. Chapter One introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics. Because Liu Miqing systematically expounded a series of issues of translation aesthetics and raised translation aesthetics to a new height, Chapter One also introduces his theory about translation aesthetics so as to provide theoretical support for the discussion in this thesis. Meanwhile, the author also wishes that the introduction of translation aesthetics could interest more people in the study of this field. In Chapter Two, the author discussed from the translator himself what aesthetic conditions he had to transfer the beauty of the original text. In Chapter Three, the author analyzed from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to appreciate Ba Jin's transfer of beauty in Wilde Oscar’s fairy tales.

===Chapter 1 Translation Aesthetics===

In order to better analyze Ba Jin's translation work from the perspective of translation aesthetics, in the following part, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics and Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics.

====The Definition of Translation Aesthetics====

In A Dictionary of Translation Studies, Fang Mengzhi's defines translation aesthetics as follows: to discuss the special influence of aesthetics on translation; to explore translation’s aesthetic origin; to apply an aesthetic view to learn about the scientific and artistic attributes of translation; applying basic principles of aesthetics to set up different aesthetical criteria for different text styles in translation, and to analyze, interpret and solve the problems concerning aesthetics in the process of transferring language. (Fang Mengzhi, 2004, 296)

====The Development of Translation Aesthetics====

Translation aesthetics is fundamentally related to traditional Chinese translation theories. Meanwhile it makes efforts to turn them into modern translation theories by absorption of western translation studies and application of theories of aesthetics. After tens of years of contribution made by the scholars, it has become one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, with interdisciplinary features and distinctive Chinese characteristics.

Translation aesthetics is fundamentally related to traditional Chinese translation theories. Meanwhile it makes efforts to turn them into modern translation theories by absorption of western translation studies and application of theories of aesthetics. After tens of years of contribution made by the scholars, it has become one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, with interdisciplinary features and distinctive Chinese characteristics.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

Nearly all of the traditional Chinese translation theories are rooted in philosophy-aesthetics. Zhi Qian, the ancient famous Buddhist scripture translator, held that rhetoric was not needed, which was influenced by Lao Zi's aesthetic idea “Truthful word may not be beautiful, while beautiful words may not be truthful.”(信言不美，美言不信) “Truthful words” and “beautiful words” are actually corresponding to “zhi”(质) and “wen”(文) respectively, the oldest and longest-lasting aesthetic proposition in China. Although in Zhi Qian’s time, “zhi” defeated “wen” as the winner, “zhi” and “wen” were coordinated in the later history. Most of the scholars came to agreement that an excellent prose or poem shouldn’t ignore neither content or diction. Influenced by traditional aesthetics, keeping balance between “wen” and “zhi” became the mainstream of Chinese traditional translation theory. When the modern times began, other important translation theories emerged. Yan Fu put forward “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. Fu Lei’ set forth “being alike in spirit”. Qian Zhongshu came up with “sublimation”.

Nearly all of the traditional Chinese translation theories are rooted in philosophy-aesthetics. Zhi Qian, the ancient famous Buddhist scripture translator, held that rhetoric was not needed, which was influenced by Lao Zi's aesthetic idea “Truthful word may not be beautiful, while beautiful words may not be truthful.”(信言不美，美言不信) “Truthful words” and “beautiful words” are actually corresponding to “zhi”(质) and “wen”(文) respectively, the oldest and longest-lasting aesthetic proposition in China. Although in Zhi Qian’s time, “zhi” defeated “wen” as the winner, “zhi” and “wen” were coordinated in the later history. Most of the scholars came to agreement that an excellent prose or poem shouldn’t ignore neither content or diction. Influenced by traditional aesthetics, keeping balance between “wen” and “zhi” became the mainstream of Chinese traditional translation theory. When the modern times began, other important translation theories emerged. Yan Fu put forward “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. Fu Lei’ set forth “being alike in spirit”. Qian Zhongshu came up with “sublimation”. --[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

In 1960s and 1970s, however, the progress of traditional Chinese translation theories went to a grinding halt. In 1980s, Chinese translation studies began to learn from western translation theories, such as skopos theory, deconstructive translation theory, feminist translation theory and so on and so forth. Some of them contributed directly to translation practice and others attempted to interpret the hidden factors influencing or manipulating the translation activities. As the focus of Chinese translation studies is mostly on the western translation theories, some scholars stressed that Chinese translation studies might lose our own voice in the field of international translation studies. They advocated turning back to traditional translation theories and put forward a new translation theory with distinctive Chinese characteristics.

In 1960s and 1970s, however, the progress of traditional Chinese translation theories went to a grinding halt. In 1980s, Chinese translation studies began to learn from western translation theories, such as skopos theory, deconstructive translation theory, feminist translation theory and so on and so forth. Some of them contributed directly to translation practice and others attempted to interpret the hidden factors influencing or manipulating the translation activities. As the focus of Chinese translation studies is mostly on the western translation theories, some scholars stressed that Chinese translation studies might lose our own voice in the field of international translation studies. They advocated turning back to traditional translation theories and put forward a new translation theory with distinctive Chinese characteristics. --[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

In this context, an increasingly number of scholars bend their mind to translation aesthetics.

Comparative Aesthetics of Literary Translation by Xi Yongji in 1992 is the embryo of translation aesthetics. Following the artistic rule, Xi Yongji showed a positive attitude to the artistic and aesthetic value of the original and target text. He used plentiful examples of comparative literature to make an analysis of the influence of aesthetic factors of literary works on the choice of the translators.

Aesthetic Linguistics by Qian Guanlian in 1993 lays a linguistic foundation for translation aesthetics. Aesthetic linguistics applies aesthetic approach to study language and endeavors to provide a theoretical explanation for the aesthetic issues in language.
An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics by Liu Miqing in 2005 built a theoretical framework of translation aesthetics. His theories will be elaborated in the next section.

Jiang Qiuxia's Aesthetics Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization in 2002 is an important theoretical achievement. Jiang in her book explored the influence and aesthetic effect of Gestalt image had on literary translation from an aesthetic perspective.

Mao Ronggui's Translation Aesthetics in 2005 is the first book that directly uses “translation aesthetics” as its title. The book made an aesthetic comparison of sounds, forms, meanings, sentences and words, and put forward different methods in translation practice. An aesthetic view permeated his discussion.

Comparative Aesthetics of Literary Translation by Xi Yongji in 1992 is the embryo of translation aesthetics. Following the artistic rule, Xi Yongji showed a positive attitude to the artistic and aesthetic value of the original and target text. He used plentiful examples of comparative literature to make an analysis of the influence of aesthetic factors of literary works on the choice of the translators.
Aesthetic Linguistics by Qian Guanlian in 1993 lays a linguistic foundation for translation aesthetics. Aesthetic linguistics applies aesthetic approach to study language and endeavors to provide a theoretical explanation for the aesthetic issues in language.
An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics by Liu Miqing in 2005 built a theoretical framework of translation aesthetics. His theories will be elaborated in the next section.
Jiang Qiuxia's Aesthetics Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization in 2002 is an important theoretical achievement. Jiang in her book explored the influence and aesthetic effect of Gestalt image had on literary translation from an aesthetic perspective.
Mao Ronggui's Translation Aesthetics in 2005 is the first book that directly uses “translation aesthetics” as its title. The book made an aesthetic comparison of sounds, forms, meanings, sentences and words, and put forward different methods in translation practice. An aesthetic view permeated his discussion.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

====Liu Miqing's Theory about Translation Aesthetics====

Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics stands as a milestone in the development of translation aesthetics. Because of his dedication to this field, translation aesthetics becomes one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, making China’s translation theory distinctive from the model of western translation theory. (Mao Ronggui, 2005, 9) The following part will introduce his main ideas on translation aesthetics.

In his book An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics published in 2005, his views on translation aesthetics are elaborated systematically.
It explores the aesthetic origin of translation. The writer introduces the history of western and Chinese translation theory. It could be concluded from his book that firstly both of the Chinese and western translation studies are linked to aesthetics from their very beginning; secondly, aesthetics has played a much more active role in the history of Chinese translation theories than it has done in western translation theories.
Two notions in aesthetic translations are put forward. One is translation aesthetic object (TAO) and the other is translation aesthetic subject (TAS). TAO is the original text. Its beauty depends on its aesthetic value. The aesthetic value is analyzed from aesthetic constituents. Liu Miqing divides aesthetic constituents into two systems. The sound beauty, character beauty, word beauty and sentence beauty are included in the formal system. The mood and tone of the original text and the images and symbols in it are incorporated in the informal system. The latter system is also called the fuzzy sets. Correspondingly, TAS refers to the translator. Two basic attributes of TAS are the original text’s objective conditioning on it and more importantly its own subjective dynamics. TAS is constrained by the translatability of the original text’s formal and informal beauty, the cultural differences of two languages and the time-space difference of art appreciation. The subjective dynamics of TAS includes the translator’s capability, aesthetic feeling, knowledge, and tenacity.

Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics stands as a milestone in the development of translation aesthetics. Because of his dedication to this field, translation aesthetics becomes one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, making China’s translation theory distinctive from the model of western translation theory. (Mao Ronggui, 2005, 9) The following part will introduce his main ideas on translation aesthetics.In his book An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics published in 2005, his views on translation aesthetics are elaborated systematically. It explores the aesthetic origin of translation. The writer introduces the history of western and Chinese translation theory. It could be concluded from his book that firstly both of the Chinese and western translation studies are linked to aesthetics from their very beginning; secondly, aesthetics has played a much more active role in the history of Chinese translation theories than it has done in western translation theories.
Two notions in aesthetic translations are put forward. One is translation aesthetic object (TAO) and the other is translation aesthetic subject (TAS). TAO is the original text. Its beauty depends on its aesthetic value. The aesthetic value is analyzed from aesthetic constituents. Liu Miqing divides aesthetic constituents into two systems. The sound beauty, character beauty, word beauty and sentence beauty are included in the formal system. The mood and tone of the original text and the images and symbols in it are incorporated in the informal system. The latter system is also called the fuzzy sets. Correspondingly, TAS refers to the translator. Two basic attributes of TAS are the original text’s objective conditioning on it and more importantly its own subjective dynamics. TAS is constrained by the translatability of the original text’s formal and informal beauty, the cultural differences of two languages and the time-space difference of art appreciation. The subjective dynamics of TAS includes the translator’s capability, aesthetic feeling, knowledge, and tenacity. --[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

The writer also explores the system of aesthetic consciousness in translation. The cognitive schema of aesthetic translation is put forward. It includes four levels, which are perception, imagination, understanding and representation. And the general rule of representation is followed as comprehension, transformation, improvement and representation. “Imagination” and “empathy” are regarded to be important for the representation.

The writer also explores the system of aesthetic consciousness in translation. The cognitive schema of aesthetic translation is put forward. It includes four levels, which are perception, imagination, understanding and representation. And the general rule of representation is followed as comprehension, transformation, improvement and representation. “Imagination” and “empathy” are regarded to be important for the representation.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

===Chapter 2 Ba Jin as Translation Aesthetic Subject of Oscar Wide’s Fairy Tales===

As it has been discussed in the Chapter One, translation aesthetic subject is the translator. According to Liu Miqing, a beautiful translation depends on two factors, which are the aesthetic constituents of the TAO and the aesthetic conditions of the TAS. Only when the two factors interact with each other, can the translation work fully reproduce the beauty of the original work. (Liu Miqing, 1986, 20) Hence, the aesthetic conditions of the TAS are of great importance. Without it, the aesthetic representation would become impossible.

In translation aesthetics, the aesthetic conditions of the TAS incorporated the translator’s cultural literacy as well as his/her aesthetic consciousness and experience. Therefore, the purpose of this chapter is to discuss from the perspective of TAS how Ba Jin's translation fully conveyed beauty of the Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. The discussion will include two parts: (1) the translator’s cultural literacy and (2) his aesthetic consciousness and experience.

====Ba Jin's Cultural Literacy====

According to Liu Miqing, TAS’ cultural literacy serves as the most basic condition in aesthetic translation activity. It lays foundation for aesthetic consciousness and without it, a translator would become color-blind even though he is in a colorful world of translation. (Liu Miqing, 1986, 21) For translators, cultural literacy is like an indispensable pair of spectacles to survey the beauty of a text. As for Ba Jin, he did possess a pair of very sophisticated glasses.

He was undoubtedly a literary master of the twentieth century, although he often said that “I was no litterateur”. (Ba Jin, 2003, 443) In 1904, he was born in a large gentry family. From his grandfather to his father, they were all government officials. With a well-educated family background, his language learning started early. At the age of five, he was already learning Essence of Classical Chinese (《古文观止》). This childhood experience equipped him with solid language capability of Chinese. From 1920 to 1922, he was a student in Chengdu Foreign Language Specialist School, where he exposed himself to as much western literature and sociological works as possible. It was in this school that Ba Jin learned English and completed his first translation work, the English edition of The Signal. In 1929, he came back from France to China. More excellent work of his came out, such as “Torrents Trilogy” (namely Family, Spring and Autumn) and “Love Trilogy” (namely Fog, Rain and Electricity).

He was undoubtedly a literary master of the twentieth century, although he often said that “I was no litterateur”. (Ba Jin, 2003, 443) In 1904, he was born in a large gentry family. From his grandfather to his father, they were all government officials. With a well-educated family background, his language learning started early. At the age of five, he was already learning Essence of Classical Chinese (《古文观止》). This childhood experience equipped him with solid language capability of Chinese. From 1920 to 1922, he was a student in Chengdu Foreign Language Specialist School, where he exposed himself to as much western literature and sociological works as possible. It was in this school that Ba Jin learned English and completed his first translation work, the English edition of The Signal. In 1929, he came back from France to China. More excellent work of his came out, such as “Torrents Trilogy” (namely Family, Spring and Autumn) and “Love Trilogy” (namely Fog, Rain and Electricity). --[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

Although his student life came to an end when he returned to China, he didn’t stop learning. Learning was something that accompanied all his life. He learned from books and learned from life. School and book were not the only source of one’s cultural literacy. Going out of campus and being in that chaotic age, he witnessed people’s suffering and he himself went through ups and downs. His understanding of life was deepened and his sympathy for the masses was aroused. The pursuit of truth, goodness and humanitarianism became life of his works.

In conclusion, knowledge acquired from books and life experience together constituted Ba Jin's cultural literacy. A good command of Chinese and English and his rich life experience enabled him to have abundant cultural literacy, which played a fundamental role in his comprehension and reproduction of the beauty in Oscar Wilde’s works.

====Ba Jin's Aesthetic Consciousness and Experience====

Before Ba Jin's aesthetic consciousness and experience are discussed, it is of necessity to clarify the definition of aesthetic consciousness and experience. In translation aesthetics, aesthetic consciousness refers to the translator’s sensitivity to beauty in the original text. It is usually got from intuition, but for a translator with a high level of cultural literacy, this sensitivity can be deepened. As for aesthetic experience, it refers to accumulated aesthetic sensation acquired from repetitive aesthetic activities. (Liu Miqing, 1986, 21)

Ba Jin's translation thoughts were scattered in the postscript, prologue or epilogue to his translation work. In this Chapter, his aesthetic consciousness and experience will be discussed based on the above sources.

Among Ba Jin's translation works, the most favored are his Russian translation works and his translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. Why did these translation works possess high quality and receive widespread popularity? In the author’s opinion, it has something to do with Ba Jin's choice of works to translate. In his epilogue to Collection of Ba Jin's Translation Works he said, “I only introduce the work I like.” In fact, one common theme of his translation of Russian works and Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales was that they both accused the capitalists of oppressing the proletariat, which was exactly what Ba Jin would like to criticize. Most people are sensitive to words, pictures, or music that could resonate with them. In this aspect, Ba Jin was no exception. He showed great sensitivity to the words that had deep sympathy for ordinary people. “In my first novel Perishing （《灭亡》）, I quoted conversations from Signal. Thirty years later, I translated it with the same excitement. I love it more than I love my own works. In it, I find my own thoughts and feelings.” (Ba Jin, 2003, 445) For Ba Jin, he was sensitive to the words in the original work as he was to his own works. Hence, he had the aesthetic consciousness he needed to translate others’ works. He was ready for them.

Most people know Ba Jin as a marvelous writer. What is less well-known is that he is also an outstanding translator. Cao Ying, a famous translator of Russian literary works, commented, “Ba Jin's translation was vivid and loyal to the original text. No one can top him in translation of Gorky’s short stories.” Gao Mang also said that Ba Jin’s language was beautiful and conveyed the lingering charm of the original text. (Wang Zhanbin, 2007, 20) In fact, the quality of Ba Jin's translation works was no inferior to his original works and the characters of the foreign works he translated amounted to over three million characters. He translated novels, fairy tales, prose writings and etc. Through a lot of translation practices, Ba Jin accumulated rich aesthetic experience, which could be found in his epilogues or prologues. One piece of aesthetic experience of his could be concluded as comprehension. “When I like an article, I always try to have a deeper understanding of it. I read it over and over again and constantly think about it. After I understand it, I want to use my words to express the writer’s ideas.” (Ba Jin, 2003, 443) --[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:32, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

Most people know Ba Jin as a marvelous writer. What is less well-known is that he is also an outstanding translator. Cao Ying, a famous translator of Russian literary works, commented, “Ba Jin's translation was vivid and loyal to the original text. No one can top him in translation of Gorky’s short stories.” Gao Mang also said that Ba Jin’s language was beautiful and conveyed the lingering charm of the original text. (Wang Zhanbin, 2007, 20) In fact, the quality of Ba Jin's translation works was no inferior to his original works and the characters of the foreign works he translated amounted to over three million characters. He translated novels, fairy tales, prose writings and etc. Through a lot of translation practices, Ba Jin accumulated rich aesthetic experience, which could be found in his epilogues or prologues. One piece of aesthetic experience of his could be concluded as comprehension. “When I like an article, I always try to have a deeper understanding of it. I read it over and over again and constantly think about it. After I understand it, I want to use my words to express the writer’s ideas.” (Ba Jin, 2003, 443) One characteristic of Ba Jin's translation was his loyalty to the original work, which must benefit a lot from his effort to fully comprehend the original work. It is worth mentioning here that Ba Jin's comprehension was more than the understanding the aesthetic constituents of the TAO, he endeavored to empathize. When he translated Chekhov’s works, he said “The difficulty is to properly show the truly benevolent heart of the writer. If the translator couldn’t understand that heart and fails to show it to the reader, what’s the point of the translation?” (Ba Jin, 1991, 3) When faced with the issue of literal translation or free translation, Ba Jin held that a good translator shouldn’t be constrained by the question of choosing only one method of the two, but to consider which one could better help himself/herself to reproduce the artistic conception. Artistic conception was highly valued be Ba Jin. In his postscript to Stories on the Prairie (《草原集》), he (Ba Jin, 2003, 248) mentioned twice that “I fear that I would ruin the whole artistic conception.” From above, it could be concluded that in Ba Jin's aesthetic experience, faithfulness and artistic conception were worth much attention. The latter is exactly corresponding to the fuzzy sets of TAO in translation aesthetics.

===Chapter 3 Aesthetic Features in Ba Jin's Translation===

Chapter Two has talked about from the perspective of TAS how Ba Jin's translation fully conveyed beauty of the Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. It made an analysis of the aesthetic conditions Ba Jin possessed. Thus, in this chapter, the author is going to look at the result of Ba Jin's translation to appreciate his transfer of beauty from Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales.

In Chapter One, it has been mentioned that whether an original text is beautiful depends on its aesthetic value. And the aesthetic value of an article was analyzed from its aesthetic constituents which covered goodness in the levels of sound, diction and tone of the text and the images and symbols in it. In this chapter, we will appreciate the beauty of Ba Jin's translation by comparing it from four aspects with Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales, which are sound, diction, imagery, and style. The beauty of sound and diction can be classified into the formal system. The beauty of imagery and style belongs to the informal system, i.e. the fuzzy sets.

====Beauty in Sound====

Oscar Wilde has a bond with music. Anyone who has read his The Happy and Prince and Other Stories would be touched by its sad and beautiful stories, which could be partly attributed to the melodious words in the book. The forceful rhythm in Wilde’s fairy tales could easily lead his readers into a pure and melancholy world created by him. After the reader finishes reading, the moving plots together with the bright beats echo in their mind.

Eg1- “Swallow, Swallow, little Swallow,” said the Prince, “far away across the city I see a young man in a garret. He is leaning over a desk covered with papers, and in a tumbler by his side there is a bunch of withered violets. His hair is brown and crisp, and his lips are red as a pomegranate, and he has large and dreamy eyes. He is trying to finish a play for the Director of the Theatre, but he is too cold to write anymore. There is no fire in the grate, and hunger has made him faint.” (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 6)

Here in the Wilde’s language, we can clearly feel what Ba Jin called “his musical tone”. In the beginning of the conversation, Wilde wrote three “swallow” as the Prince’s salutation to the swallow. The repetition slows down the speed of the language and also the thoughts of the readers. During this deceleration, he/she will put their attention to the following part. Besides, the repetition shows the gentleness of the Prince and his sincerity of request. Parallel structure was also used in this paragraph. For example, “his hair is” and “his lips are”; “he is trying to” and “but he is too cold to”. The use of parallelism adds a bright beat to the language. When Wilde was describing the appearance of the young man, he also used short paratactic sentences, which leaves the whole sentence well-proportioned and rhythmic to read. In the last sentence of this paragraph, assonance was used, for example “grate” and “faint”, which perfectly ends the conversation, depicting the plight which the young man is in.

Eg1- “燕子，燕子,小燕子，”王子说，“远远的，在城的那一边，我看见一个年轻人住在顶楼里面。他埋着头在一张堆满稿纸的书桌上写字，手边一个大玻璃杯里放着一束枯萎的紫罗兰。他的头发是棕色的，乱蓬蓬的，他的嘴唇象石榴一样地红，他还有一对朦胧的大眼睛。他在写一个戏，预备写给戏院经理送去，可是他太冷了，不能够再写一个字。炉子里没有火，他又饿得头昏眼花了。”（Ba Jin, 1981, 11）

The above paragraph was Ba Jin's version. From his translation, we can see his endeavor to imitate the beauty of sound in the original work. As for the three “swallow”, he didn’t change the repetition and just translated them directly. The same was with the short sentences and parallel structure. He didn’t change the stop of the sentence and began the description of the young man in every short sentence with a “他”. Here, you may think imitation is easy and without too much brain work. But it isn’t true. Vivid imitation requires creation, which is especially seen in somewhere seems to be untranslatable. The translation of “there is no fire in the grate, and hunger has made him faint.” to “炉子里没有火，他又饿得头昏眼花了。”is an excellent example. Ba Jin managed to maintain the beauty of sound to the largest extent. “火” , “昏” , “花” all begins with the initial consonant of the Chinese syllable “h”, which contains the same meaning of the original text and at the same time created similar musical beauty.

Here is another excerpt of musical beauty in Wilde’s fairy tales:

Eg2-Bitter, bitter was the pain, and wilder and wilder grew her song, for she sang of the Love that is perfected by Death, of the Love that dies not in the tomb. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 16)

This sentence is taken from The Nightingale and the Rose. It depicted the melancholy and moving scene when the nightingale pressed her heart against the thorn as she was singing. Wilde here used repetition and parallelism to strengthen the musical tone of the language, which made the sentence itself sound like a song. The moving effect of the nightingale’s sacrifice was strengthened be the melody of repetition and parallelism, helping the reader feel a kind of emotional advance when reading it. Let’s look at how Ba Jin transferred the musical tone:

Eg2-她痛得越厉害，越厉害，她的歌声也唱得越激昂，越激昂，因为她唱到了由死来完成的爱，在坟墓里永远不朽的爱。（Ba Jin，2010, 25）
Wilde’s repetition in the translation was rendered as “越…越…” and the parallel structure was kept as “…的爱；…的爱”. When one is reading the translation, he/she could feel the same emotional up and down which climbs up to the summit when one reads the last “激昂” and then goes down as “因为” begins the next sentence.

From the above example, it can be seen that Ba Jin adopted the approach of imitation to convey the beauty of sound in the original text. But imitation is not easy, it requires a clever mind to create similar aesthetic effects.

====Beauty in Diction====

The language in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tale was not only delightful to the ear, but also pleasant to the eye. One will first be enchanted in his melodious rhythm and then be amazed by his choice of words. Every word is like a pearl woven in a net. No one can replace it with another word, for it will then despoil its beauty of integrality. Here is an excerpt from The Happy Prince.

Eg3-Then the snow came, and after the snow came the frost. The streets looked as if they were made of silver, they were so bright and glistening; long icicles like crystal daggers hung down from the eaves of the houses, everybody went about in furs, and the little boys wore scarlet caps and skated on the ice. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 9)

This paragraph depicted the street scene after the little swallow gave away all the fine gold off the Prince. The snow and frost fell down. Everything became crystal. Men, women and little boys were all wrapped in warm clothes and went out to enjoy the beautiful snow scene. The sparkling natural scenery and people’s joyful activities constituted a harmonious picture of a snowy day. When describing the tranquil view, Wilde used simile to make the scenery more visually sensible, such as “looked as if” and “long icicles like crystal daggers”. The metaphorical objects he chose added vividness to the snowy view. Apart from the figure of speech he used, the adjectives in the article were also accurate and appropriate. “Bright”, “glistening” and “crystal” were very proper words to portray the sparkling snowy scene.
This picture also impressed Ba Jin and he vividly rendered it in his translation:

Eg3-“随后雪来了，严寒也到了。街道好像是银子筑成的，它们是那么亮，那么光辉；长长的冰柱象水晶的短剑似的悬挂在檐前，每个行人都穿着皮衣，小孩子们也戴上红帽子溜冰取乐。”（Ba Jin，1981, 16）

good--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

Faithfulness is one obvious characteristic in the translation of this paragraph. Ba Jin kept loyal to the figures of speech in Wilde’s stories. The forms of personification and simile didn’t take any change to maintain the original beauty to the largest extent. For example, the translation of “came” to “到了” and “来了”, and “as if” and “like” respectively to “好像是” and “ 像……似的”. Only two places were slightly different from the original work, which were the translation of preposition “in” to the verb “穿” and addition of “取乐” to modify “skating”. The first change he made was necessary, because in Chinese one would not use the collocation of a preposition plus a noun of a certain clothes to describe one’s dressing. The second change was made to emphasize the boys’ happiness hidden between lines of the original text, making it easier for young readers to perceive the contrast the writer used in the story.

One distinctive language feature of the fairy tale is that it is full of personifications. In the third example, we will see how the translation successfully transferred the vividness of the personifications in the original text.

First, we will look at the original text:

Eg4-The Snow covered up the grass with her great white cloak, and the Frost painted all the trees silver. Then they invited the North Wind to stay with them, and he came. He was wrapped in furs, and he roared all day about the garden, and blew the chimney-pots down. “This is a delightful spot,” he said, “we must ask the Hail on a visit.” So the Hail came. Every day for three hours he rattled on the roof of the castle till he broke most of the slates, and then he ran round and round the garden as fast as he could go. He was dressed in grey, and his breath was like ice. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 9)

The following is Ba Jin's translation:

Eg4-雪用她的白色大氅盖着草，霜把所有的树枝涂成了银色。她们还请北风来同住，他果然来了。他身上裹着皮衣，整天在园子里四处叫吼，把烟囱管帽也吹倒了。他说：“这是一个适意的地方，我们一定要请雹来玩一趟。”于是雹来了。他每天总要在这府邸屋顶上闹三个钟头，把瓦片弄坏了大半才停止。然后他又在花园里绕着圈子用力跑。他穿一身的灰色衣服，他的气息就像冰一样。（Ba Jin，1981, 22）

In the original text we can see that in Wilde’s description, “Snow”, “Frost”, “North Wind” and “Hail” were all personified by endowing them with the speaking ability like human’s and several lively verb phrases, such as “roared about”, “blew down”, “rattled on”, “broke” and “ran around and around”. These verbs vividly shaped the four naughty and mischievous winter weather characters. If a translation aims to transfer the same aesthetic effect, the translator must render these verbs as lively as they were in the original text. Ba Jin did this. When one is reading his translation, he/she cannot help being amused by these winter weather characters. As for “roared about”, “blew down” and “broke”, Ba Jin directly translated their corresponding Chinese meaning to “四处叫吼”, “吹到了” and “弄坏了”, keeping the figure of speech of personification. When dealing with “rattled on” and “ran around and around …as fast as he could go”, he made some changes. “Rattled on” was translated to “闹”. “Rattle” in the original text was a description of the noises that “Hail” made. The translation of it to “闹” kept the sound of rattling and meanwhile highlight the mischief of the “Hail”. If “rattled on” is directly translated to “咔嗒咔嗒响了”, the effect of the personification will definitely weakened. Therefore, the single character of “闹” was vivid and concise. As for translation of the running of the Hail, Ba Jin changed the description of running speed in the original text to the portraying of the Hail’s running manner, which was appropriate given that it conveyed effect of the personification.

From the above analysis, the author finds that at the level of diction, Ba Jin attached importance to faithfulness, the idiomaticity of the target language and the conveyance of the same aesthetic effect.

====Beauty in Imagery====

Before we conduct analysis of the beauty in imagery in the original work and the translation, it is necessary to clarify what “imagery” is involved in this thesis. In Oxford English Dictionary, the word “imagery” has two meanings: a. language that produces pictures in minds of people reading or listening; b. pictures, photographs, etc. In this thesis, the imagery refers to the first meaning.

The tragic beauty of The Nightingale and the Rose often brings its readers to tears. Oscar Wilde, using his musical language and pearl-like words, evoked mental pictures of ethereal beauty in this fairy tale. Here is an excerpt from it.

Eg5- She sang first of the birth of love in the heart of a boy and a girl. And on the top-most spray of the Rose-tree there blossomed a marvelous rose, petal following petal, as song followed song. Pale was it, at first, as the mist that hangs over the river- pale as the feet of morning, and silver as the wings of the dawn. As the shadow of a rose in a mirror of silver, as the shadow of a rose in a water-pool, so was the rose that blossomed on the topmost spray of the Tree. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 15)

The above excerpt was Wilde’s delicate description of the rose’s blooming with the nightingale’s song. In his description, there was direct portraying, such as “petal following petal”, which added dynamic beauty to the whole imagery. In addition, he adopted association to describe color of the rose. He associated paleness of the flower with “mist that hangs over the river” and “the feet of morning”, and its silver with “the wings of the dawn”. The mist and light of the dawn were pale-white, just as the budding rose. At the end of this paragraph, Wilde used the same technique of speech to describe the delicacy and tenderness of the blossom bathed in the moonlight. This association not only described the color and appearance of the rose, but also enlarged the version and cloaked the whole scene with a kind of ethereal beauty.

The following excerpt shows how Ba Jin reproduced the beautiful imagery:

Eg5- 她起初唱着一对小儿女心里的爱情。在蔷薇树的最高枝上开出了一朵奇异的蔷薇，歌一首一首地唱下去，花瓣也跟着一片一片地开放了。花起初是浅白的，就像罩在河上的雾，浅白色像晨光的脚，银白色像黎明的翅膀。最高枝上开花的那朵蔷薇，就像一朵在银镜中映出的蔷薇花影，就像一朵在水池中映出的蔷薇花影。（Ba Jin，2010, 25）

“Rose”, “petal”, “mist”, “shadow”, “mirror of silver” and “water pool” were all visualized in his mind. The images appeared one by one before his eyes when he was reading the original work, and mixed together as a whole in his mind. After fully comprehended beauty of the imagery, he used his own words to reproduce the imagery. He used reduplicative words “一首一首” and “一片一片” to depict the continuous melodious singing and the slow blooming of the rose. Through the context and visualization, he knew that morning cannot be simply translated to “早晨”, since the adoption of association was to depict the color of the petal. “晨光” would be an appropriate choice, because only “光(light)” could have a specific color. But “黎明” is different from “早晨” given that the word itself emphasizes the light of daybreak when the sun rises above the horizon. Therefore, he didn’t make any change to it. As for other images that could be directly translated without confusing the reader, Ba Jin translate them according to the original text.

From the above analysis, the author finds that the image conveyed by Ba Jin was a harmonious whole. The beauty of image in the original text was reproduced vividly in Ba Jin's words. It could be speculated that when rendering the image of beauty in translation, Ba Jin used visualization to revive the image in the original text. And at the same time, he tried to comprehend the emotions in the original text. The combination of pictures and emotions aroused his aesthetic feeling and then he transferred it with his own words in the translation. This kind of empathy is very important in translation aesthetics when a translator attempted to reproduce the beauty of image. In fact, the speculation of Ba Jin's psychological activities when he was doing translation could be partly verified though the epilogue to his 1947 edition fairy tales. “Here I woke up very early in the morning, and I would take a walk along the road. I would go to the foot of the mountain near the field to listen to the singing of the birds. After the walk, I came back to the room in the hotel. The sunlight was so bright so I didn’t want to let it go and do nothing. I sat before the window and translated one of Wilde’s fairy tales entitled The Selfish Giant.” Ba Jin realized the importance of empathy, and his vivid translation of The Selfish Giant also proved the magic of empathy in aesthetic representation. In order to reproduce the beauty of the original text, Ba Jin would put himself in a similar situation with the scene in the original text. Though it is not always feasible or necessary to put oneself in a situation that is physically identical with the scene in a text, Ba Jin's endeavor and his successful translation told us the importance of empathy in transferring the beauty of imagery in an original text.

====Beauty in Style====

Oscar Wilde, as one of the leading figures of the Aesthetic Movement, held that “Art for art’s sake”. In his fairy tales, every word and sentence exhibited his pursuit of aestheticism. His words were ornate and of musical tone. His narration was rather quiet and objective. But for some reason, readers would feel a dull pain in the heart when reading these stories.

Oscar Wilde, as one of the leading figures of the Aesthetic Movement, held that “Art for art’s sake”. In his fairy tales, every word and sentence exhibited his pursuit of aestheticism. His words were ornate and of musical tone. His narration was rather quiet and objective. But for some reason, readers would feel a dull pain in the heart when reading these stories. --[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

Here are three excerpts from Oscar’s fairy tales, which depicted the good-hearted characters’ scene of death.

Eg6- “What a strange thing!” said the overseer of the workmen at the foundry. “This broken lead heart will not melt in the furnace. We must throw it away.” So they threw it on a dust-heap where the dead Swallow was also lying. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 10)

Eg7- “Look, look!” cried the Tree, “the rose is finished now”, but the Nightingale made no answer, for she was lying dead in the long grass, with the thorn in her heart. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 16)

Eg6- “What a strange thing!” said the overseer of the workmen at the foundry. “This broken lead heart will not melt in the furnace. We must throw it away.” So they threw it on a dust-heap where the dead Swallow was also lying. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 10)

Eg7- “Look, look!” cried the Tree, “the rose is finished now”, but the Nightingale made no answer, for she was lying dead in the long grass, with the thorn in her heart. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 16)--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

Eg8- “…and there poor little Hans was drowned. His body was found the next day by some goatherds, floating in a great pool of water…” (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 34)

The four dead characters in the above excerpts were all very good-hearted ones who sacrificed their life for love. But when Wilde’s was depicting their death, his words were very simple and objective, without mixing his own feelings. This unemotional narration was very common in his fairy tales. But the more indifferent his tone was, the more shock and sadness he brought to people. How did Ba Jin transfer this style of narration to the readers? Let’s have a look of his translation.

Eg6- “真是一件古怪的事，”铸造厂的监工说。“这块破裂的铅心在炉里熔化不了。我们一定得把它扔掉。”他们便把它扔在一个垃圾堆上，那只死燕子也躺在那里。（Ba Jin, 2010, 17）

Eg7- “看啊，看啊！”树叫起来，“现在蔷薇完成了。”可是夜莺并不回答，因为她已经死在长得高高的青草丛中了，心上还带着那根蔷薇刺。（Ba Jin, 2010, 26）

Eg8- “……可怜的小汉斯就淹死在这儿了。第二天他的尸首被几个牧羊人找到了，正浮在一个大池塘的水面上……”（Ba Jin,2010, 48）

From the above translation it can be found that Ba Jin didn’t add his own feelings in the translation just because he felt sympathetic for these characters or because he sensed the writer’s implied sorrow and therefore presumptuously thought that this sorrow should be explicitly expressed in the text. He fully comprehended the original text, from the word, rhythm to the writer’s feelings. His conveyance of beauty of the style in the original text was established on his understanding of the whole text. Thus, his translation was accurate, natural and smooth, reproducing the same style without trace of translation. When one is reading his translation, he/she could enjoy the same aesthetic beauty of the original text. The following is an example of his transfer of Oscar Wilde’s irony in The devoted friend.

Eg9- “‘There is no good in my going to see little Hans as long as the snow lasts’, the Miller used to say to his wife, ‘for when people are in trouble they should be left alone, and not be bothered by visitors. That at least is my idea about friendship, and I am sure I am right. So I shall wait till the spring comes, and then I shall pay him a visit, and he will be able to give me a large basket of primroses and that will make him so happy.” (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 25)

Eg9- “磨面师常常对他妻子说：‘雪花没有化的时候，我去看看小汉斯，是没有好处的，因为人在困难的时候，应该让他安静，不应当有客人去打扰他。这至少是我对于友谊的看法，我相信我是对的。所以我要等到春天来，才去探望他，那时他便可以送我一大篮樱草，这会使他非常高兴。’”（Ba Jin, 2010, 38）

The Miller in The Devoted Friend was a greedy, selfish and shameless figure. He always asked poor little Hans for a favor as a return for his generous present, a broken wheelbarrow, which he didn’t give to Hans even when Hans was dead. Even though he was rich, he always tried to extort some benefit from Hans. He was one of those who only ask but never give. The above excerpt was Wilde’s satirical description of the Miller’s noble idea of friendship. The words and sentences “should be”, “at least”, and “I am sure I am right” in the original text vividly showed the Miller’s arrogant tone. In Ba Jin's translation, they were translated as “应该”, “至少”, and “我相信我是对的”, which was in accordance with the original text. In the original text, the Miller seemed to be a very considerate friend since whatever he would do, he always put others before himself. He didn’t visit Hans in a snowy day because one should be left alone when he was in trouble, not because he himself feared the biting cold on the way to visit. His extortion of “a large basket of primroses” was because it would make Hans happy, not because he himself coveted the beautiful flowers. This kind of satire in Wilde’s writing was fully reproduced in Ba Jin's translation. The words “他便可以” told the readers what a privilege little Hans would have when the Miller visited him in spring. He would save the trouble of going all the way to the Miller’s home and how happy he would be when he gave the present to the Miller.

The Miller in The Devoted Friend was a greedy, selfish and shameless figure. He always asked poor little Hans for a favor as a return for his generous present, a broken wheelbarrow, which he didn’t give to Hans even when Hans was dead. Even though he was rich, he always tried to extort some benefit from Hans. He was one of those who only ask but never give. The above excerpt was Wilde’s satirical description of the Miller’s noble idea of friendship. The words and sentences “should be”, “at least”, and “I am sure I am right” in the original text vividly showed the Miller’s arrogant tone. In Ba Jin's translation, they were translated as “应该”, “至少”, and “我相信我是对的”, --[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

It can be seen from the above analysis that Ba Jin highly respected the original writer’s writing style. In fact, when it comes to translation of style, he said, “Translation should firstly be loyal to the original work. The style of translation should be based upon that of the original work. The tone and lingering charm should be remained as much as possible so as to reproduce the original style.” It is his translation attitude of faithfulness, fully comprehension of the whole text and his own natural and smooth expression that lead the readers back to Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to appreciate the beauty of style in the original work.

===Conclusion===

Oscar Wilde had an erudite way with words and is often quoted to this day. His collection of short stories is imbued with a timeless quality. The tales possess such romantic charm and moral charge that they read like traditional fables crafted and refined by generations of storytellers over one hundred of years.

It was Ba Jin who brought those wonderful stories to Chinese readers at large. In his translation, readers could feel the same aesthetic effect. As a literary giant in China, Ba Jin created dozens of marvelous novels and translation works. Learning and practice helped him accumulate rich aesthetic experience and deepened his aesthetic consciousness. The sufficient aesthetic conditions laid solid foundation for his transfer of beauty in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales.

On sound level, he mainly used imitation to convey beauty in the original work. Repetition, parallelism and assonance in the original text largely remained in his translation. But his imitation was not rigid. It was a kind of creative imitation in order to better reproduce the sound beauty in the original work. On diction level, he thought highly of faithfulness and the idiomaticity of the target language. He tried to choose the most appropriate and vivid word in Chinese to translate the word in the original text so as to being faithful to the aesthetic effect in the original text. On image level, he used visualization and empathy to reproduce the beauty in the original text.On style level, he stressed the importance of faithfulness and endeavored to maintain the tone and lingering charm as much as possible to reproduce the style of the original work.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

On sound level, he mainly used imitation to convey beauty in the original work. Repetition, parallelism and assonance in the original text largely remained in his translation. But his imitation was not rigid. It was a kind of creative imitation in order to better reproduce the sound beauty in the original work.

On diction level, he thought highly of faithfulness and the idiomaticity of the target language. He tried to choose the most appropriate and vivid word in Chinese to translate the word in the original text so as to being faithful to the aesthetic effect in the original text.

On image level, he used visualization and empathy to reproduce the beauty in the original text.

On style level, he stressed the importance of faithfulness and endeavored to maintain the tone and lingering charm as much as possible to reproduce the style of the original work.

Therefore, Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales is natural, smooth and beautiful, leading the readers back to the wonderful world Wilde created. One obvious feature of Ba Jin's translation is that he put an emphasis on faithfulness. But his faithfulness transcended only being faithful to the logical information in the original text, being loyal to the aesthetic information was also incorporated in his faithfulness to the original text. This provides us with much enlightenment on translating a literary work. Thanks to Oscar Wilde, it was him who presented us with such beautiful fairy tales. And thanks to Ba Jin, it was him that reproduced the beauty of the original work.

Oscar Wilde had an erudite way with words and is often quoted to this day. His collection of short stories is imbued with a timeless quality. The tales possess such romantic charm and moral charge that they read like traditional fables crafted and refined by generations of storytellers over one hundred of years.

It was Ba Jin who brought those wonderful stories to Chinese readers at large. In his translation, readers could feel the same aesthetic effect. As a literary giant in China, Ba Jin created dozens of marvelous novels and translation works. Learning and practice helped him accumulate rich aesthetic experience and deepened his aesthetic consciousness. The sufficient aesthetic conditions laid solid foundation for his transfer of beauty in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. On sound level, he mainly used imitation to convey beauty in the original work. Repetition, parallelism and assonance in the original text largely remained in his translation. But his imitation was not rigid. It was a kind of creative imitation in order to better reproduce the sound beauty in the original work. On diction level, he thought highly of faithfulness and the idiomaticity of the target language. He tried to choose the most appropriate and vivid word in Chinese to translate the word in the original text so as to being faithful to the aesthetic effect in the original text. On image level, he used visualization and empathy to reproduce the beauty in the original text. On style level, he stressed the importance of faithfulness and endeavored to maintain the tone and lingering charm as much as possible to reproduce the style of the original work. Therefore, Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales is natural, smooth and beautiful, leading the readers back to the wonderful world Wilde created. One obvious feature of Ba Jin's translation is that he put an emphasis on faithfulness. But his faithfulness transcended only being faithful to the logical information in the original text, being loyal to the aesthetic information was also incorporated in his faithfulness to the original text. This provides us with much enlightenment on translating a literary work. Thanks to Oscar Wilde, it was him who presented us with such beautiful fairy tales. And thanks to Ba Jin, it was him that reproduced the beauty of the original work.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

===References===

[1] Bloom, H edit. (2011). Bloom’s Modern Critical Views: Oscar Wilde—New Edition. New York: Infobase Publishing.

[2] Jiang, Q X. (2002). Aesthetic Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization. Beijing: The Commercial Press.

[3] Wilde, O. (2015). The Happy Prince and Other Stories. London: HaperCollinsPublishers.

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Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). 翻译基础 [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学.

[4] Ba Jin 巴金译, Oscar Wilde 王尔德著. (1981). 快乐王子 [The Happy Prince and Other Stories]. Shanghai上海：Juvenile & Children's Publishing House 少年儿童出版社

[5] Ba Jin 巴金. (2003). 巴金译文选集 [Collection of Ba Jin's Translation Works]. Beijing 北京: SDX Joint Publishing Company 生活·读书·新知三联书店

[6] Ba Jin 巴金译, Oscar Wilde 王尔德著. (2010). 快乐王子 [The Happy Prince and Other Stories]. Shanghai 上海: Shanghai Translation Publishing House上海译文出版社

[7] Fang Mengzhi 方梦之. (2004). 译学辞典 [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. Shanghai 上海: Shanghai Foreing Languages Education Press上海外语教育出版社

[8] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1986).翻译美学概述 [A Survey of Translation Aesthetics].外国语(上海外国语学报) Journal of Foreign Languages, (02):48-53.

[9] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1986). 翻译美学基本理论构想 [A Basic Theoretical Supposition of Translation Aesthetics].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal, (04):19-24.

[10] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2005). 翻译美学导论 [An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics]. Bei Jing 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司China Translation & Publishing Corporation

[11] Lin Lin 林琳. (2007). 从美学视角看巴金译《快乐王子及其他故事》[An Aesthetic Perspective of Ba Jin's Translation of The Happy Prince and Other Stories]. Shanghai International Studies University 上海外国语大学.

[12] Liu Xiaoyin 刘孝银. (2012). 从翻译美学析巴金译王尔德童话 [Translation Aesthetics Study on Ba Jin's Translation of Oscar Wilde's Fairy Tales]. Shanxi Normal University 山西师范大学.

[13] Mao Ronggui毛荣贵. (2005). 翻译美学 [Translation Aesthetics]. Shanghai上海: Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press上海交通大学出版社

[14] Wang Zhanbin 王占斌. (2007).巴金翻译思想探析 [An Exploration and Analysis of Ba Jin's Translation Theories].English Studies英语研究, 5(03):19-22.

[15] Wu Jinhua 吴金华. (1999). 试析奥斯卡·王尔德作品的语言特色 [An Analysis of Linguistic Features of Oscar Wilde's works].Journal of Ningxia University(Philosophy and Social Sciences)宁夏大学学报(哲学社会科学版), (02):107-109+128.

[16] Xiang Hongquan 向洪全. (2016). 翻译家巴金研究 [An Research on the Translator Ba Jin]. Shanghai 上海：Fudan University Press 复旦大学出版社.

[17] Yang Liqiu 杨立秋. (2016). 巴金翻译美学特征探析 [On Ba Jin's Aesthetic Features in Translation: A Case Study of The Fairy Tales of Oscar Wilde].Beijing Foreign Studies University 北京外国语大学.

==The Comparison between Lexical Gap in Linguistics and It in Translatology From the Perspective of Skopos Theory 孟莹 Meng Ying==

===Abstract===

Because of globalization, the cross-cultural communication becomes more and more important. The lexical gap causes difficulty in mutual understanding between two cultures. Even though the lexical gap is borrowed from semantics to translatology, they are different. The paper compares the definition, the classification in lexical gap in linguistics and in translatology and find that the lexical gap in linguistics mainly concerns the unlexicalized concept within one language, while the lexical gap in Translatology mainly focus on the culture-specific words and denotation and connotation divergence between equivalents in two languages. Besides, the paper also analyzes the causes of lexical gap from cognitive perspective. The experiential and perceptual causes are the main causes of lexical gap. Besides, to solve the lexical gap in linguistics and in translatology respectively, the paper provides different translation strategies for the two kinds based on Skopos theory.

===Keywords===

Lexical Gap, Culrure-loaded Words, Skopos Theory

===摘要===

由于全球化的发展，跨文化交际变得越来越重要。词汇的差异导致两种文化之间难以相互理解。虽然词空缺是从语义学借用到翻译学，但两者互不相同。本文从定义,分类比较了词汇空缺在语言学和翻译学中的不同，发现语言学的词汇空缺主要关注在同一语言中没有被词汇化的概念，而翻译学的词汇空缺主要指文化造成的概念空缺和两个语言中对应词汇在外延和内涵上的不同。此外，本文还从认知角度分析了造成词汇空缺的原因。经验缺失和认知差异是造成词汇空缺的主要原因。此外，为了解决语言学和翻译学上的词汇空缺，本文基于目的论为这两种词汇空缺提出了不同的翻译策略。

===关键词===

词汇空缺；文化负载词；目的论

===Introduction===

Word is a basic unit of language. “The vocabulary of a particular language is not just a random list of words. As a matter of fact, the vocabulary is organized in terms of lexical fields.” (Wang Quanzhi, 2017, 748) In a lexical field, if a concept exists, but the word that represents the concept is absent, so the lexical gap within a language will occur, which is the meaning of lexical gap in linguistics.

The term of "lexical gap" is originated from a French word "lacuna". (Qian Jing, 2013:11-12) . The “lacuna” means vacancy, therefore, the lexical gap means word vacancy. Researchers in linguistic and researchers in translatology defines lexical gap differently. In translatology, the lexical gap is defined across two languages. The lexical gap in translatology is mainly caused by culture and society difference. However, no researchers until now tries to compare the difference between lexical gap in linguistics and in translatology. Therefore, the paper will try to compare them form definition, classification, translation strategy. (Wang Quanzhi, 2017, 748)

Besides, some reseachers equates the lexical gap with the culture-loaded words, but the paper does not agree. Therefore, the paper tries to compare them. (Tian & Yang, 2005: 55)

Nowadays, the cross-cultural communication become more and more important because of the globalization. To break the language barrier, the translation become very significant. However, the lexical gap confuses the translator in a large scale. Therefore, to know it clearly and to grasp its translation strategy is urgent for the successful communication and culture spreading. The skopos theory provides us a new way to see translation. With different purposes, different translation strategies should be applied. translation for successful communication and translation for culture spreading should apply different strategies. (Qian Jing, 2013:11-12)

The structure of the thesis is given below. Section 1 introduces the three rules of skopos theory. Section 2 introduces the difference between definitions, classifications of lexical gap in linguistics and in translatology and also discusses the causes of lexical gap. Section 3 put forward different translation strategies for the two kinds of lexical gap based on the skopos theory. Section 5 concludes the whole paper.

===Introduction of Skopos Theory===
====Development of Skopos Theory====
The origin of Skopos theory can be dated back to Katharina Reiss’s book Possibilities and Limitations in Translation Criticism in 1971. In Skopos theory, translation is considered as a human behaviors with certain purposes rather than translating processes. The judgement of a successful translation is whether the translation accords with the intended purpose. (Zhao Xiuxing, 2015, 14)

The development of Skopos Theory can be divided into three phases. In 1971, Katherina Reiss firstly proposed the base form of functionalist approach to translation. On one hand, Reiss suggested that the perfect translation should be translation “in which the aim in the TL is equivalence as regards the conceptual content, linguistic form and communicative function of a SL text”. Reiss defines this kind of translation as “integral communicative performance”; On the other hand, she admits that the absolute equivalence is impossible, besides, in some situations, is not required. The translation should have its own translation brief. In some cases, the different function of the original text is different with the target one, so Reiss proposes that the translator is supposed to pay attention to the function not the equivalence. (Zhang Jinlan, 2004, 35-36)

Hans Vermeer puts forward Skopos theory based on the ideas of his teacher Katherina Reiss. Vermeer believes that translation is a kind of transformation, that is, the transfer of communicative linguistic signs and non-linguistic signs from one language to another. Translation is also a kind of human action. According to the action theory, Vermeer considers translation as the intentional and purposeful behavior under specific circumstances. Translator should translate the original text selectively based on the intentions of translation and the requirements of target readers. Vermeer also emphasizes that translation is not a one-to-one language transformation activity because the human behaviors take place in culturals context and different cultures have different customs and values. (Zhang Jinlan, 2004, 35-36)

Based on action theory, Justa Holz Manttari (1984) develops the ideas of Vermeer Manttari believes that translation designed to satisfy a particular intention with the coverage of all forms of intercultural transfer, including textural material, pictures, sounds, body movements and so on. Therefore, he emphasizes translating process, the roles of the participants and the situation in which the activities occur. (Zhao Xiuxing, 2015, 14-15)

====Principles of Skopos Theory====

There are three rules in Skopos Theory including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule. Actually, the skopos rule is the primary rule among the three rules.

The Skopos theory means that the translational purposes of the target text determine the translation process. The skopos rule can be explained as translate or express the original text in a way that admits your translation to satisfy the function the target readers or you clients want. The rule indicates that the translator may use the free or faithful translation or combination of the two extremes depending on the purposes that the target text requires. That is to say, there is no better way between free translation and faithful translation. The point is how to use them properly. ( Nord, Christiane, 2001, 29)

By Coherence rule, the standard of “intratextual coherence” should be conformed in the target language (Reiss and Vermeer 1984: 109). That is to say, that the target text that a translator translates should be understood by the receivers. Besides, the words and expressions in the target text should be meaningful and understandable in the culture and communicative situation where target language is used, which means that the target reader can easily comprehend the purposes of the target text quickly. (Tian Xiaoqin, 2006, 23)

Therefore, the translators have to grasp the the social and cultural knowledge of the target receivers and the original text. based on the absolute understanding of the two culture, the translator can comprehend the inherent meaning of the original text, select the useful message that should be translated in the source text and find or create proper expressions in the target language for the better understanding of target text to make sure the successful cross-culture communication. (Zhao Xiuxing, 2015, 16-17)

Fidelity rule, also called intertextual coherence between source text and target text. As we have discussed above, the purposes that the target text want to satisfy is the most important in the translation, which means the translator may subordinate the faithfulness to the source text to the satisfaction of the purposes. However, it does not mean that the faithfulness is not required. The translators should try their best to be faithful and achieve the purposes at the same time. The degree of the fidelity actually relies on the purpose the translator’s understanding of the source text. (Zhao Xiuxing, 2015, 16-17)

As mentioned above, it is doubtless that skopos rule is the core of Skopos theory. The coherence rule is more important than fidelity rule. If the skopos changes, the degree of inter-textual coherence between source text and target text will change. If the skopos does not require intratextual coherence, the coherence rule is not needed (Nord, Christiane, 2001, 33).

===Introduction of Lexical Gap and Culture-loaded Words===

====The Definition of Lexical Gap in Linguistics and Translatology====

By reading different papers, the paper finds that the different definitions of lexical gap in Linguistics and Translatology. Therefore, the paper discusses the difference between the two definitions and the problems caused by the biased understanding of the lexical gap in Translatology.

In 1957, Lado R (cf Tan Zaixi, 1982: 6-10) first proposed the concept of "Lexical gaps" in Linguistics across Cultures. In Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics, the definition of the lexical gap is “the absence of a word in a particular place in a lexical field of a language.” (Richards et al, 2002: 305). Besides, the lexical gap is also defined “a lexical item which has the potential to be lexicalized, but is not actually lexicalized, in the vocabulary according to the rules governing the phonological system, the morpheme combination and the sememe combination of the language in question.” (Wang Qianzhi, 2017, 749-750)

Though the lexical gap is firstly appeared in the field of the linguistics, the term is also used in the study of translation. The basic idea “the absence of a word” in the definition of lexical gap is used to describe the phenomenon that “the absence in the target language of a word, an expression that exists in the target language.” (Delisle, Jean et al, 1988,77)

Therefore, in Translatology, the concept of lexical gap is always infused with the concept of culture, especially in China.
The concept of lexical gap is firstly applied by Tan Zaixi (1982). (Qian Jing, 2013, 11-12). As the researcher proposes, the unique characteristics of a culture will be embodied in the language. When the culture uniqueness is reflected in vocabulary, the lexical gap will arise between two languages. (Tan Zaixi, 1982, 6)

Guo Aixian( 1998) sums up three definitions of lexical gap according to the previous researches, firstly, it refers to unique words of each culture. Secondly, they are the words of the source language that are easily misunderstood in the target language. Thirdly, they are culture-loaded words and expressions. (Guo Aixian, 1998: 42)

In Sum up, the Lexical gap in linguistics is discussed with a language and the component of culture is not considered, while the lexical gap in Translatology is studied from the perspective of interlanguage and is infused with culture.

====The Classification of Lexical Gap in Linguistics and Translatology====
=====The Classification of Lexical Gap in Linguistics=====

Wenxu (2003) believes that the lexical gap is caused mainly by the hyponymy, antonymy, synonymy and part-whole relation. He puts forward to use the three lexical semantic relations that are proposed by Cruse (1986) to classify the lexical gap, which includes proportional series, hierarchies and opposites. (Wen Xu, 2003, 81)

Wen also illustrate the three classification of the lexical gap.

For the proportional series, he gives an example like human—corpse, animal—carcass, plant—?. In this example, human and corpse as well as animal and carcass constitute an intact minimal unit, while the vacancy in the place that express the concept of “dead plant” is a lexical gap in English. (ibid)
By hierarchies, Wen suggests that the hyponymy is a kind of hierarchies. His example is that no hypernym in the category of verbs that express moving in the ground, but there are “swim”, “fly” to express moving in the water and sky, so a lexical gap occurs. By the opposites, Wen proposes that there may exist lexical gap in antonymy. For example, blind, deaf, dumb have no lexicalized antonyms. (ibid)

From the three classification of the lexical gap in linguistics, it is found that the lexical gap in linguistics mainly occur in the lexical sematic relations within a language. (ibid)

=====The Classification of Lexical Gap in Translatology=====

However, when the “gap” is used to refer to the difference between two languages.

Therefore, Han (2009) classifies the lexical gap in translatology into two categories and four subcatergories. The two categories are lexical gap including concept vacancy and expression vacancy as well as semi-lexical gap including denotation divergence and connotation divergence. (Han Luan, 2009, 4-6)

A. Lexical Gap Proper—No Equivalent

Lexical gap proper means that there exists no equivalent of the words or expressions of the source language in the target language. Lexical gap proper is manifested by two kinds: concept vacancy and expression vacancy. (Huan Luan, 2009, 6-12)

a. Concept vacancy

Concept vacancy is a kind of lexical gap that is related to the difference of culture because of the culture difference. The present concept in source language may be absent in the target language. For example, the concept of “土地庙” does not exist in English, and the concept of “Lazy Susan” cannot find equivalent in Chinese. Those words are created based on the unique characteristics of the culture. That is to say, the culture uniqueness causes the absence of concepts in a language. (Huan Luan, 2009, 6-12)

b. Expression Vacancy

Expression Vacancy refers to the non-lexicalized concept in the target language, which means that a concept may be represented by a lexicon but by a free combination of words in the target one. For example, Chinese people may use “笔” to refer to the general name of a category, while there exists no such a general name in English. There is no doubt that the English speakers know what is “笔”. They just have no such a word for reference. (Huan Luan, 2009, 6-12)

B. Semi-lexical Gap—Partial Equivalent

Actually, semi-lexical gap means partial equivalence. That is to say, even though words and expressions in source language can find equivalents in target language, but they are not totally same. The divergence may occur in the denotation and connotation of the concept. (Huan Luan, 2009, 6-12)

a. Denotation Divergence and Connotation Divergence

Here the paper gives examples to illustrate the kind of lexical gap. For example, the “龙” in Chinese and “dragon” in English. They are always translated as each other, but they have difference in denotation and connotation. The “龙” in China represents power and goodness, while the “dragon” in English represents evil and badness.

The color “red” in Chinese and English may have same denotation, but they are difference in connotation. The “neighbor” and “邻居” also different in denotation. The range of “neighbor” is much greater than that of “邻居”.
To compare the lexical gap in linguistics and in translatology, we can find that the denotation of lexical gap in translatology is richer than that in linguistics. In linguistics, the lexical gap only refers to the absence lexicon or expression that is admitted to exist according to the structure of a language. That is to say, the concept has existed in the language but not be lexicalized. However, in translatology, the lexical gap can not only refer to the lexical gap in linguistics, but also refers to any kinds of lexical vacancy between two languages. The vacancy may be caused by concept absence based on culture difference or caused by semantic difference in the corresponding concept. (Huan Luan, 2009, 6-12)

====The Relation and Difference between Lexical Gap and Culture-loaded Word====

It can be found that the definition of lexical gap in Translatology adds the components of culture. Actually, some researchers including Xu Guozhang even equate the lexical gap with culture loaded words. (Tian Xianzhi & Yang Jinxue, 2005, 55). However, the paper believes that the lexical gap is not equivalent to the culture-loaded words.

=====The Overlap Between Lexical Gap and Culture-loaded Words=====

Tang (2006) defines culture-loaded words as “the words or expressions that carry the meaning of a cultural trait to a certain socio-cultural community, and their referent also exists in other communities, but doesn’t overlap the one in other community completely in semantic category, and therefore that just has, to some extent, a corresponding equivalent when used in cross-cultural communication.” (Tang Xiuqiong, 2006: 126-127)

Li & Guo & Yuan (2008) defines the culture-loaded words as words and expressions that carries culture connotation in a specific culture of a nation or a region. The culture connotation of a culture-loaded word is culture-specific and conventional abstract and concrete concept. (Li Yingyu & Guo Jirong & Yuan Liling, 2008, 64)

From the definition of culture-loaded words, we can find that the culture-loaded words has some similarities with lexical gap in the category of semi-lexical gap. The concept exists in the source language and target language, while the denotation and connotation of the concept in the two languages are not same. Based on the definition of Tang (2006), the concept vacancy does not belong to the category of culture-loaded words. However， the definition of Li & Guo & Yuan (2008) admits that the concept vacancy is a kind of culture-loaded words.

Therefore, the part of denotation of culture-loaded words overlaps with part of denotation of lexical gap, but their connotations are totally different.

=====The difference between Lexical Gap and Culture-loaded Words=====

Even though there are some similarities between the denotation of lexical gap and that of culture-loaded words, but some difference can also easily found. For example, in China, we use “出轨“ to refer to ”have an affair“ in English, while we also use “戴绿帽子” to represent the same concept. However, the “戴绿帽子” cannot be considered as lexical gap according to the definition of lexical gap, because the concept of “戴绿帽子” has an equivalent expression in English, which means the concept has been filled in English, but Chinese creates another expression to represent the concept based on its culture. Therefore, the “戴绿帽子” is a culture-loaded words but not lexical gap.

In sum up, there exists some conventionalized expressions that carries culture traits in a language to represents the lexicalized concept. Because the concept has been lexicalized, so there is no lexical gap that need to fill. That is to say, the conventionalized expressions as “戴绿帽子” is just a culture-loaded words but not a lexical gap.

====The Causes of Lexical Gap====

=====Experiential Causes=====

There is no such experience in a culture. Therefore, corresponding concept does not exist in the language. For example, most English speaker never know what the “醪糟” is，while most Chinese never know what the Macaroni and Cheese is. (Han Luan, 2009, 39-40)

=====Psychological Causes and Perceptual Causes=====

The death of an animal may evoke emotions of human, while the death of a plant may not, which may be caused by construal of human. Human always pays their attention to the animate and movable entity as figure firstly, while the unmovable entities are considered as ground. That is why the plant is ignored. (Han Luan, 2009, 39-40)

In conclusion, the psychological causes is always combined with the perceptual causes because human’s perception is subjective, which causes the conscious and unconscious absence of an expression. (Han Luan, 2009, 39-40)

===Translation of Lexical Gap===

====Translatability and Untranslatability====

Translatability and untranslatability are a famous and still unsolved paradox. “Translatability is mostly understood as the capacity for some kind of meaning to be transferred from one language to another without undergoing radical change” (Baker, 1998/2004: 273). Wilss (1982/2001: 49) put forwards that translatability of a text can “be measured in terms of the degree to which it can be recontextualized in the TL, taking into account all linguistic factors”. Untranslatability is defined as “impossible to build functionally relevant features of the situation into the contextual meaning.” (Catford, 1965, 94) “Translatability is more like a continuum than a well-defined dichotomy. The text or unit of the primitive is more or less translatable, not absolutely untranslatable. (ibid, 93)”.

From the definition of the translatability and untranslatability, it can be concluded that untranslatable phenomenon definitely exists in language if we see translatability as a continuum. Because of the difference in culture and lexicalization in different languages, the lexical gap in linguistics may not be translated but can be borrowed. However, lexical gap in translatology can be translated in various ways.

====The Translation Strategy of Lexical Gap Between English and Chinese Based on the Skopos Theory====

Because lexical gap in linguistics is caused by the concept vacancy and non-lexicalization of concepts. Based on the Skopos theory, the purpose of translation determines what kinds of strategies are selected in translation. In translation of Lexical gap, different translation strategies should be applied while facing different purpose.

If the purpose is successful communication , we may choose not to translation the lexical gap if it will not influence the success of the communication. However, if the purpose is to introduce the culture of source language to the target one, the translation is necessary. Of course, there are lots of purposes of translation and the purpose depends on the genre of source text. If the translation of lexical gap is necessary, several strategies are provided below.

=====Translation Strategy of Lexical Gap in Linguistics=====

The translation strategies of lexical gap in linguistic includes mainly borrowing. As we have discussed above, the lexical gap in linguistics can be divided into three categories including proportional gap, hierarchies and opposites.

For the translation of the three kinds, borrowing is the main methods. English borrows lots of words from French to fill the lexical gap years ago. For example, beef for the meat of cow, loot for war trophies from India. These concepts exist in the mind of English people, but these concepts are not lexicalized, so English loans words from other languages.

=====Translation Strategy of Lexical Gap in Translatology=====

As we have given Above, the lexical gap in translatology is separated into four kinds: concept vacancy, expression vacancy, denotation divergence and connotation divergence.

a. Concept Vacancy

For concept vacancy, the first purpose of translation is to introduce the concept to the target readers and let them understand what the concepts are. Therefore, there exists four strategies to translate it.

For concept vacancy, transliteration are easily used.

For example, “豆腐”, “饺子”, “混沌”, “叉烧”, “炒面” are translated into “tofu”, “jiaozi” “won ton”, “char shiu” and “chow mein”. (Shun Kaixi, 2013, 30-31). In E-C translation, AIDS is translated into “爱滋病”, “gene” into “基因”, “Internet” into “因特网”, “clone” as “克隆”. This kind of strategy pays attention to the formal fidelity because the concept is absent in the target language. So introducing concept is main purpose in the strategy. (Zhang Lei, 2008, 35-36)

The literal translation is also applied in translating concept vacancy. For example, we translate “孩奴” as “child slave”, “四书” as “Four Books”. In E-C translation, Ten Commandments is translated into “十诫”, “fast food” into “快餐”，hot dog into“热狗”, “bubble economy” into “泡沫经济”, “e-mail” into “电子邮件”, “honeymoon” into “蜜月”. (Wu Leya, 2019, 45)

The free translation also can be used. In the process of using literal translation, misunderstandings sometimes occur due to the cultural gap. For example, a famous Sichuan dish “夫妻肺片” is literally translated as "Husband and wife's lung slice". Then foreigners would never dare to taste it. Therefore, it is translated as “sliced beef and ox tongue in chili sauce”. (Wu Leya, 2019, 62)

In addition, westerners' love of cheese has led to the development of many expressions using cheese, for example, “get the cheese”, “the big cheese”. If these expressions are translated literally as “得到奶酪”, “大奶酪”，nobody will understand what the expressions mean. Therefore, they are translated as “碰钉子”, “重要事物”. (Wu Leya, 2019, 62) In fact, the free translation is for easy understanding. If the easy understanding is the purpose of the translation, the fidelity of meaning prevails.

Besides, by using notes, we can explain the concept vacancy in translating. Sometimes, due to the limitations of transliteration and literal translation, the target language readers may misunderstand the transliteration and literal translation and fail to understand its loaded cultural connotation. However, we still want to keep some original things to introduce cultures. Therefore, we can improve the transliteration by adding explanatory notes. “风水” is translated into Fengshui (a traditional Chinese practice of determining the location of a house, tomb, etc.). “阴阳” is translated into Yin and yang (the two opposite principles/forces existing in nature and the human world). (ibid)

Sme literal translation is hard to understand for target language reader, so somenotes should be added to explain it. For example, “Big Apple” is translated as “大苹果”（纽约的别称）; “裹足” is translated as “bound feet: a vile feudal practice which crippled women both physically and spiritually.” (ibid)
From these examples, it can concluded that strategies like transliteration, literal translation, free translation and using notes.

b. Expression Vacancy

For expression vacancy, the main strategy is using general or specific words to replace the lexical gap. For example ,“笔” is usually translated into “pen”. In fact, “笔” is the general name of the category including things like “pen”, “pencil” that function as tools for writing. However, “pen” is just a kind of “笔”. Here, the translator uses a more specific word to translate. In many occasion, the translation does not influence the understanding of the readers according to the theory of Skopos, which emphasis purpose than faithfulness.

In English, pineapple is used to refer to the two kinds of Chinese fruits “凤梨 (fengli)” and “菠萝 (boluo)”. However, in translation, the pineapple is just translated as “凤梨” or “菠萝”.

c. Denotation Divergence and Connotation Divergence

For semi-lexical gap, finding its equivalent expression is a good way for purpose of easy understanding. For example, from “邻居” to “neighbor”, from “龙” to “dragon”, from “red” to “红色”. In fact the denotational meaning and connotational meaning between lexical pair is different. The relation of Chinese “邻居” is closer than English “neighbor” and the range of the “邻居” is narrower than “neighbor”. The image of “龙” and that of “dragon” is different in a large scale. Besides, the Chinese “龙” is kind and good, while the English “dragon” is evil. The “红色” in Chinese is a symbol for happiness and enthusiasm, while the “red” in English means violence and damage. These words can be translated into each other because of the existence of context.

If the context is absent and the purpose is to introduce the source culture more definitely, the transliteration with notes can be used to translate these words.

===Conclusion===

The paper compares the meaning, the classification, the translation strategy of lexical gap in linguistic and translatology.

It is found that the definition of lexical gap in linguistics is reflected within one language. it refers to the unlexicalized concepts in a language. That is to say, the word should have existed in the language. However, the definition of lexical gap in translatology is based on the difference between two languages. The lexical gap in translatology is much broader than that in linguistics. the lexical gap in translatology can refer to lexical difference totally because of the difference of culture and some word equivalents that has not only similarities but also divergence in denotation and connotation.

Based on the definition, the classification of the two kinds of lexical gap is discussed. Because of the lexical gap in linguistics is defined within a language, the classification of this kind includes proportional gap, hierarchies and opposites because the lexical gap can occur in the three sematic relations. However, the lexical gap in translatology is classified based on the reason why the lexical gap exists. The category of the lexical gap in translatology includes concept vacancy, expression vacancy, denotation divergence and connotation divergence.

Based on the classification of the two kinds of lexical gap, the translation strategies of the two kinds are different. The translation strategy of the lexical gap in linguistics is mainly borrowing. However, the translation strategies of lexical gap in translatology includes transliteration, literal translation, free translation, adding notes and using general and specific words.

Besides, the overlap and difference between lexical gap and culture-loaded words is discussed. The culture-loaded words include kinds of words that can find definite equivalents in target language, while the lexical gap does not include.

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