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20211215 homework

2021-12-29T11:40:19Z

Yan Jing: /* 颜静 Yán Jìng 语言智能与跨文化传播研究女 202120081536 */

20211124 homework

2021-12-29T11:24:02Z

Yan Jing: /* 颜静 Yán Jìng 语言智能与跨文化传播研究女 202120081536 */

20211020 homework

2021-12-29T11:13:43Z

Yan Jing: /* 颜静 Yán Jìng 语言智能与跨文化传播研究女 202120081536 */

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==陈静 Chén Jìng 国别女 202020080595==

太宗曾多次谕令“金、汉之人都要读书”，认为发展文教裨益于国家治理，而翻译和讲解汉文书籍则是旗人教育中的重要环节。[] 罗振玉：《天聪朝臣工奏议》，北京：中国人民大学出版社，1989年，第13页。为推进旗人教育，给朝廷选拔人才，太宗又对汉人进行考试，“分别优取”，赏以银两或差事。

The Emperor Taizong(Li Shiming) repeatedly ordered that the people of Jin and Han should be educated, believing that the development of culture and education is beneficial to national governance, and the translation and interpretation of Chinese books is an important part of education for Bannermen.(Luo Zhenyu. The Proposal From the Courtier During the Tiancong Period. Beijing : Renmin University Press, 1989, p. 13.). In order to promote the education of the Bannermen and select talents for the court, Emperor Li carried out examinations among the Han people to select the excellent and rewarded them with money or jobs.--[[User:Chen Jing|Chen Jing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jing|talk]]) 08:48, 20 October 2021 (UTC)

Taizong has repeatedly ordered that "people of Jin and Han Dynasties should study", believing that the development of culture and education is beneficial to national governance, and the translation and interpretation of Han books is an important link in the education of Manchu. [] Luo Zhenyu: Memorial of Tiancong courtiers, Beijing: China Renmin University Press, 1989, P. 13. In order to promote the education of the Manchu and select talents for the imperial court, Taizong also conducted an examination of the Han people, "selected the best respectively" and rewarded them with silver or errand.
--[[User:Cai Zhufeng|Cai Zhufeng]] ([[User talk:Cai Zhufeng|talk]]) 10:57, 20 October 2021 (UTC)

==蔡珠凤 Cài Zhūfèng 日语语言文学女 202120081477==

太祖、太宗等人的支持使得清初之际的汉籍翻译蔚然成风，且旗人教育为之一变，为后来的旗学设立和旗学教育营造了条件。旗学之兴及其翻译人才培养之定位。顺治朝以后，随着政权推进和时局变化，入关之初所谓“满洲、蒙古、汉军皆通国语”的情况不复存在，新任官吏中因为语言不通导致政务受阻者，成渐长之势。

The support of Taizu, Taizong and others made Han books’s translation popular in the early Qing Dynasty, and the education of Manchu changed, which created conditions for the establishment and education of Manchu. The flourish of Manchu studies and the orientation of translation talent training. After the Shunzhi Dynasty, with the advancement of the political power and the change of the current situation, the so-called "Manchuria, Mongolia and the Han army all know the national language" at the beginning of entering Han no longer exists. Among the new officials, those whose government affairs are blocked due to linguistic barrier have gradually grown.
--[[User:Cai Zhufeng|Cai Zhufeng]] ([[User talk:Cai Zhufeng|talk]]) 16:53, 16 October 2021 (UTC)

The support of Taizu, Taizong and others made Han books’s translation popular in the early Qing Dynasty, and the education of Manchu changed, which created conditions for the establishment and education of Manchu. The flourish of Manchu studies and the orientation of translation talent training. After the Shunzhi Dynasty, with the advancement of the political power and the change of the current situation, the so-called "Manchuria, Mongolia and the Han army all know manchu language" at the beginning of Qing’s army entering Central Plains no longer exists. Among the new officials, those whose government affairs are blocked due to linguistic barrier have gradually grown.--[[User:Zeng Junlin|Zeng Junlin]] ([[User talk:Zeng Junlin|talk]]) 11:00, 20 October 2021 (UTC)

==曾俊霖 Zēng Jùnlín 国别男 202120081478==

尤其是地方督抚等汉籍官员，凡遇到国书文移，往往都不认识，只能委任“内三院”中通晓翻译的笔帖式，代为办理。[] 昭梿：《啸亭杂录》，北京：中华书局，1980年，第254页。但代为办理自有其弊，如“猜疑推诿”等，因而如何解决旗人读书，为国家培养语言人才，便成为当务之急。

In particular, Chinese officials including local governors often don't know the imperial decrees declared by the Cabinet, so they can only appoint translators in the "three courts of Cabinet" to handle it on their behalf. (Zhao Lian: Records of Howling Pavilion, Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1980, P. 254.) However, it has its own disadvantages, such as "suspicion and prevarication". Therefore, how to solve the problem of studying for the people of Eight Banners and cultivate language talents for the country has become a top priority.--[[User:Zeng Junlin|Zeng Junlin]] ([[User talk:Zeng Junlin|talk]]) 01:44, 20 October 2021 (UTC)

Expescially Chinese officials including the local governors often don't know the imperial decrees declared by the Cabinet, so they can only appoint translators in the "three courts of Cabinet" to handle it on their behalf. (Zhao Lian: Records of Howling Pavilion, Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1980, P. 254.) However, it has its own disadvantages, such as "suspicion and prevarication". Therefore, how to solve the problem of studying for the people of Eight Banners and cultivating language talents for the country has become a mergent task.--[[User:Chen Huini|Chen Huini]] ([[User talk:Chen Huini|talk]]) 06:41, 20 October 2021 (UTC)Chen Huini

==陈惠妮 Chén Huìnī 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081479==

顺治元年，国子监祭酒李若琳（？-1651）上疏世祖，奏请效仿明初之制，扩大国子监的生员人数，为国家培养人才。摄政王多尔衮对此颁布圣谕，敕令不论满、汉官员，其子弟中有愿读清、汉书者，皆可入国子监学习。同年十一月，李若琳就太学事宜再次上奏，要求增补教官，并以“晷短途遥”为由，建议在各八旗辖地觅空房一所，设立书院，此即为八旗官学之始。[]

In the first year of Emperor Shunzhi, Directorate of Imperial Academy Li Ruoling （？-1651）submitted memorials to the throne to imitate the institution of the early Ming Dynasty, expanding the number of people who went to the Imperial College and cultivating talents for the country. Prince Regent Duoergun issued an edict that whoever the officers of Man or Han, anyone of them can study in the Imperial Academy as long as they were willing to learn the books and classics of Qing and Han. In the same year of November, Li Ruoling submitted to the Emperor again on the issue of school, proposing to add more instructaors. Because of the short white day and long distance, she also proposed to build School on the vacant room of every jurisdictional areas, which was the beginning of eight banners of official school. --[[User:Chen Huini|Chen Huini]] ([[User talk:Chen Huini|talk]]) 14:38, 16 October 2021 (UTC)Chen Huini

In the first year of Emperor Shunzhi（1644）, Directorate of Imperial Academy Li Ruoling （？-1651）submitted memorials to the throne to advise the imitation of institutions in the early years of Ming Dynasty.He suggested to larger the number of people who enrolled in the Imperial College and cultivate talents for the country. Prince Regent Duoergun issued an edict that whoever the officers of Man or Han, anyone of them can study in the Imperial Academy as long as they were willing to learn the books and classics of Qing and Han. In the same year of November, Li Ruoling submitted to the Emperor again on the issue of school, proposing to add more instructaors. Because of the short white day and long distance, she also proposed to build School on the vacant room of every jurisdictional areas, which was the beginning of eight banners of official school. --[[User:Chen Xiangqiong|Chen Xiangqiong]] ([[User talk:Chen Xiangqiong|talk]]) 10:18, 17 October 2021 (UTC)

==陈湘琼 Chén Xiāngqióng 外国语言学及应用语言学女 202120081480==

鄂尔泰等：《清实录·世祖章皇帝实录》，北京：中华书局，1985年，第112页。从顺治元年设立国子监八旗官学，到顺治九年设置宗学，再到康熙二十五年设立景山官学，以及雍正七年设立咸安宫官学，再到驻防各省八旗官学、义学和清文学等的相继设立，清代的旗学体系经历了从无到有，从零散到完备的发展过程。这些学校不仅教授涉及满洲根本及其文化特征的各种科目，如清语、骑射等，也教授翻译、汉书等科目，目的是在八旗满洲、蒙古和汉军中兴贤育才，将文、武学业综于一体，教导民族特质，并为朝廷培养治理人才，尤其是翻译专才。

Eertai et al. Chronicles of Qing Dynasty •Chronicles of Chongde Emperor [Z].Beijing: Chinese Publishing House, 1985:112）Since the construction of Guozijian Manchu Eight Banners Official School in 1644, many schools were built accordingly from Patriarchal school in 1653, Jingshan Official School in 1686, Xianangong Official School in 1729, to Provincial Manchu Eight Banners Official School, Yi School and Qing Literature School. School systems of Qing dynasty grew out of nothing and became perfect.These schools not only taught subjects rooting in Manchu culture like:Qing language, riding and shooting, but also taught translation and Han books.They aimed to encourage and educate talents and virtues, combine literature and martial arts, cultivate national features and develop officials with governability, especially with translation ability.--[[User:Chen Xiangqiong|Chen Xiangqiong]] ([[User talk:Chen Xiangqiong|talk]]) 09:23, 17 October 2021 (UTC)

Ertai et al. Chronicles of Qing Dynasty •Chronicles of Chongde Emperor [Z].Beijing: Chinese Publishing House, 1985, p. 112. From the first year of Shunzhi to set up the eight banners official school, to the ninth year of Shunzhi set up educational institutions for royal clan, to the 25th year of Kangxi set up Jingshan official school, as well as the seventh year of Yongzheng set up Xian'an Palace official school, and then stationed in the provinces of the eight banners official school, community-run schools charging no tuition and literature of Qing dynasty , etc. The banner school system in the Qing dynasty has undergone the development process from nonexistence to pass into existence, from fragmented to complete. These schools not only taught a variety of subjects involving the fundamental and cultural characteristics of Manchuria, such as Qing language, archery, etc., but also taught translation, Han books and other subjects. The purpose was to raise talents in the eight banners Manchurian, Mongolian and Chinese army. It was a combination of literature, martial arts, teaching national characteristics, and for the imperial court to cultivate governance talent, especially translation expertise.--[[User:Chen Xinyi|Chen Xinyi]] ([[User talk:Chen Xinyi|talk]]) 09:47, 18 October 2021 (UTC)

==陈心怡 Chén Xīnyí 翻译学女 202120081481==

鄂尔泰等修，李洵、赵德贵点校：《八旗通志·初集》，长春：东北师范大学出版，1986年，第895页。旗学教育的兴起是政治考量和文化统制的产物，从一开始便有着明确的目标性和指向性。一方面，它是为了培养和提升旗人的语言能力与文化素质；另一方面，则是为了培养旗人从事满、汉或满、蒙翻译，以及处理国家政务的能力。

Ertai et al., punctuation collated by Li Xun and Zhao Degui, "The Eight Banners - The First Collection", Changchun: Published by Northeast Normal University, 1986, p. 895. The rise of banner education was a product of political consideration and cultural unification, and had a clear goal and direction from the beginning. On the one hand, it is to cultivate and improve the language ability and cultural quality of banners; on the other hand, it is to cultivate banners to engage in translation between Manchu and Chinese or Manchu and Mongolian, as well as the ability to deal with state affairs.--[[User:Chen Xinyi|Chen Xinyi]] ([[User talk:Chen Xinyi|talk]]) 08:47, 18 October 2021 (UTC)
Ertai et al., punctuation collated by Li Xun and Zhao Degui, "The General Annals of the Eight Banners - The First Collection", Changchun: Published by Northeast Normal University, 1986, p. 895. The rise of the education of the Banners’ schools was a product of political consideration and cultural unification, and had a clear goal and direction from the beginning. On the one hand, it was to cultivate and improve the language ability and cultural quality of banners; on the other hand, it was to cultivate banners to engage in translation between Manchu and Chinese or Manchu and Mongolian, as well as the ability to deal with state affairs.--[[User:Cheng Yang|Cheng Yang]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yang|talk]]) 02:24, 20 October 2021 (UTC)

==程杨 Chéng Yáng 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081482==

因而，和汉书翻译、翻译科考一样，旗学教育中也天然地植入了翻译课业与考课的成分。嘉庆四年，铁保奉敕修撰《八旗通志》，其中论及八旗官学的作用，认为旗学之重心在于儒家礼教，而非翻译，其中指出：至中人以上、以下，课以经义，则不能不从事于讲肄；从事于讲肄，则不能不读圣贤之书；读圣贤之书，则耳濡目染，渐至于心领神会，晓然于事理之是非。
Therefore, as in translation of books of the Han Dynasty and translation tests, the components of translation and examination were naturally implanted. In the fourth year of Jia Qing, a reign title of Qing Dynasty from 1796 to 1821, Tie Bao, in accordance with the emperor’s order, compiled ''the General Annuals of the Eight Banners'', which discussed the functions of official schools of Eight Banners, thought that the essential of Banners’ schools is Confucian etiquette, not translation. It pointed out: as for those with medium talents above or below, they had to learn the Confucian classics argumentation, then we must participate in lectures; if they wanted to participate in lectures, they had to read the book of sages; if they read the book of sages, they would be influenced by what one constantly sees and hears, and they would gradually understand the Confucian etiquette, then understand the truth of things right and wrong.--[[User:Cheng Yang|Cheng Yang]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yang|talk]]) 02:20, 20 October 2021 (UTC)

Therefore, as the translation of Han Books and translation tests, the components of translation lessons and examinations were naturally implanted in Banner Education. In the fourth year of Jia Qing, a reign title of Qing Dynasty from 1796 to 1821, Tie Bao, in accordance with the emperor’s order, compiled ''the General Annuals of the Eight Banners'' in which he discussed the functions of official schools of Eight Banners and thought that the core of Banner Education is Confucian etiquette rather than translation. He pointed out: as for those with medium talents above or below, they had to learn the Confucian classics argumentation and they must participate in lectures; if they wanted to participate in lectures, they had to read the book of sages; if they read the book of sages, they would be influenced by what one constantly sees and hears, and they would gradually understand the Confucian etiquette and quite distinguish the correctness and falsity of things. --[[User:Ding Xuan|Ding Xuan]] ([[User talk:Ding Xuan|talk]]) 07:26, 20 October 2021 (UTC)

==丁旋 Dīng Xuán 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081483==

事君必能知大义，临事亦必能知大体，即其限於材质，不能大成者，亦可娴于礼教，明於廉耻，凜然不敢妄为，而不失开国敦庞之旧俗。[] 铁保等：《钦定八旗通志》，台北：台湾商务印书馆，1983年，第2-3页。铁保的说法不是没有道理，但旗学目的与功能的转向，反映的不是旗学教育对于翻译教学的剥离与舍弃。

One can show his loyalty to the emperor he serves and pay attention to the interests of the whole when coping with matters. Though he could not obtain great achievements for his disability, he can be acquainted with courtesy and distinguish probity and corruption well. He definitely dare not do everything at his will, which is conducive to maintaining the old conventions since the foundation of this country. Tie Bao: ''King James Instituted the Eight Banners'', Taibei: Taiwan Commercial Press, 1983, P2-P3. Tie Bao’s argument is not unreasonable, but the shift of Banner Education’s purpose and function did not reflect the peeling and abandonment for translation teaching. --[[User:Ding Xuan|Ding Xuan]] ([[User talk:Ding Xuan|talk]]) 03:05, 20 October 2021 (UTC)

One can show his righteousness and pay attention to the interests of the whole when coping with matters. Though he could not obtain great achievements for his disability, he can be proficient with courtesy and distinguish probity and corruption well. He definitely dare not act recklessly and abandon the old conventions since the foundation of this country. Tie Bao: ''General Annal of the Eight Banners Made by Imperial Order'', Taibei: Taiwan Commercial Press, 1983, P2-P3. Tie Bao’s argument is not unreasonable, but the shift of Banner Education’s purpose and function had not reflected the stripping and abandonment from translation teaching. --[[User:Du Lina|Du Lina]] ([[User talk:Du Lina|talk]]) 06:31, 20 October 2021 (UTC)

==杜莉娜 Dù Lìnà英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081484==

恰恰相反，旗学教育之所以偏重儒教而非翻译，正是因为长期以来旗学教育中重视汉族文化与汉籍翻译的传统所致。换言之，正是因为旗学中长期使用汉籍满文译本作为教学内容，使得八旗官学生逐渐被汉族文化浸染，导致思维取向和价值观念发生变化。同时，频密、深刻的民族交往使得满族旗人的汉语能力日益提升，翻译能力因之渐长，而无需在旗学教育中专门培养。

On the contrary,the reason why the education of Manchu focused on Confucianism rather than translation is that for a long time it had attached Chinese cultures and translation of Chinese books as importance. In other words,long using translation of Chinese books by Manchu as teaching contents, the officers of the Manchu Eight Banners and students had been gradually influenced by Chinese cultures,which has resulted in the changes of thinking orientation and values of theirs. Meanwhile,the frequent and deep communication between Han and Manchu had contributed to the gradual enhancement of Chinese skills and translation ability of the Manchu Eight Banners, without being taught by the special education of Manchu.--[[User:Du Lina|Du Lina]] ([[User talk:Du Lina|talk]]) 13:17, 19 October 2021 (UTC)

On the contrary,the reason why the education of Manchu focused on Confucianism rather than translation is that for a long time it had attached Chinese cultures and translation of Chinese books as importance. In other words,long using translation of Chinese books by Manchu as teaching contents, the officers of the Manchu Eight Banners and students had been gradually influenced by Chinese cultures,which has resulted in the changes of thinking orientation and values. Meanwhile,the frequent and deep communication between Han and Manchu had contributed to the gradual enhancement of Chinese skills and translation ability of the Manchu Eight Banners, without being taught by the special education of Manchu.--[[User:Fu Hongyan|Fu Hongyan]] ([[User talk:Fu Hongyan|talk]]) 11:06, 20 October 2021 (UTC)

==付红岩 Fù Hóngyán 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081485==

但不可否认的是，旗学作为整体仍与翻译有着千丝万缕的关系。如清太祖努尔哈赤十三世孙爱新觉罗瀛生（1922-2013）在总结旗学教育时指出的那样，旗学中的官学生除了学习满语语法之外，也需要学习大量汉文典籍（满文译本），如满汉合璧本的《三字经》和《四书》等，其实质内容与汉族教育并无不同，这么做即是为了使学生兼通满、汉，熟读经史，掌握翻译之术，为朝廷所用。[] 爱新觉罗瀛生：《谈谈清代满语教学》，《满族研究》，1990年第3期，第43-49页。

What isn’t refutable is that the education of Manchu, on the whole was inextricably linked to the translation. For instance, just as Arising Gioro Yingsheng, the thirteenth grandson of Nurhaci made a summary about the education of Manchu, the offspring of the officials were supposed to learn the Manchu grammar, besides a number of Chinese classics(the Manchu versions ), for example, Three Character Primer or Four Books edited with Chinese and Manchu. Indeed, the education of Manchu, to the great extent, was much the same as Han education, the purpose of which was to equip the students with the abilities of mastering the Manchu and Chinese, profound understanding of Chinese classics, and got the political career. Arising Gioro Yingsheng: Simple Analysis of Manchu teaching in Qing Dynasty, Manchu Research. From page 43-49, the third issue in 1990. --[[User:Fu Hongyan|Fu Hongyan]] ([[User talk:Fu Hongyan|talk]]) 04:41, 20 October 2021 (UTC)

But what is undeniable is that the education of Manchu on the whole is still inextricably linked to translation. Just as Aixinjueluo Yingsheng(1922-2013), the thirteenth generation of Nuerhachi, made a summary about the education of Manchu, in addition to learning the Manchu grammar, official students also need to learn a lot of Chinese classics(Manchu translation). For example, “Three-Character Canon” and “The Four Books” edited in combination of Chinese and Manchu, to the great extent, was much the same as the education of Han. This is to enable students to understand both Manchu and Chinese, familiarize themselves with scriptures and history, and master the skills of translation, so as to serve for the imperial court. [] Aixinjueluo Yingsheng: “ Simple Analysis of Manchu teaching in Qing Dynasty, Manchu Research. From page 43-49, the third issue in 1990.--[[User:Fu Shiyu|Fu Shiyu]] ([[User talk:Fu Shiyu|talk]]) 09:54, 20 October 2021 (UTC)

==付诗雨 Fù Shīyǔ 日语语言文学女 202120081486==

满洲入主中原之后，统治上采取旗、民分治的形式，维护统治阶级的政治优势。为了巩固新生政权，虽然统治者不得不在满、汉之间寻找平衡点，审慎考量汉族士子和汉民利益，以免因为失去民心而危及稳定，但为了维护统治集团的特殊地位，又不惜牺牲汉人利益。而创办官学，倡导国语骑射，正可以保持满洲的民族特质，抵御汉文化冲击。

After Manchu entered and hosted the central China, the ruling classes took a divided governance of Manchu and Han to maintain their political dominance. In order to consolidate the new political power, rulers had to to find a balance between Manchu and Han, and deliberate for both Han scholars and ordinary people’s interests, so as not to lose the hearts and minds of the common people which would endanger the stability of the governance. But they had no choice but to sacrifice the interests of Han people, in order to safeguard the special position of the ruling classes. However, the establishment of office schools and the promotion of Manchu language , horsemanship and marksmanship just could maintain the national characteristics of Manchu and resist the impact of Han culture.--[[User:Fu Shiyu|Fu Shiyu]] ([[User talk:Fu Shiyu|talk]]) 14:53, 16 October 2021 (UTC)

After Manchu entered and hosted the central China, the ruling class took a divided governance of Manchu and Han to maintain their political dominance. In order to consolidate the new political power, the ruler had to find a balance between Manchu and Han, deliberating for the interests of both Han scholars and ordinary people so as not to endanger the stability of the governance for losing the hearts and minds of the common people. However, to safeguard the special position of the ruling class, they had no choice but to sacrifice the interests of Han people. And the establishment of official schools and the promotion of Manchu language, horsemanship and marksmanship could help maintain the national characteristics of Manchu and resist the impact of Han culture.--[[User:Gao Mi|Gao Mi]] ([[User talk:Gao Mi|talk]]) 04:26, 18 October 2021 (UTC)

==高蜜 Gāo Mì 翻译学女 202120081487==

兴办旗学，使八旗人等兼通满、汉，既学习语言，又学习骑射，兼习翻译，一则可以沟通政事，二则可以学习汉制，可谓一举多得。正是由于有了这样的功能设定，旗学教育自其创设之日起，便与翻译结下了不解之缘。以宗学为例，该学初设时，只对满洲教习、满语学习做了规定，而未对汉语进行要求，但统治者从国家治理的需要出发，仍对宗室的翻译能力留有期待。

The promotion of the Eight Banner official education enabled such people as the Eight Banners to master both Munchu and Chinese, learn riding and shooting and the intertranslation of munchu and Chinese. It could not only contribute to the consultation of political affairs, but also the learning of Han policies, which was literally killing two birds with one stone. It’s exactly due to such functions that the Eight Banner official education has been inextricably bound to translation. Take the education institution for royal clans for example. When it was first established, the institution only made rules with regard to staff recruitment and Munchu language learning, whereas no requirement was made of Chinese learning. However, the ruler, given the need of national governance, still expected members of the royal clan could develop their competence in translation.--[[User:Gao Mi|Gao Mi]] ([[User talk:Gao Mi|talk]]) 04:24, 18 October 2021 (UTC)

The promotion of the Eight Banner official education enabled such people as the Eight Banners to master both Munchu and Chinese, learn riding and shooting and the intertranslation of munchu and Chinese. It could not only contribute to the consultation of political affairs, but also the learning of Han policies, which achieve many things at one stroke. It’s exactly due to such functions that the Eight Banner official education has been inextricably bound to translation. Take the education institution for royal clans for example. When it was first established, the institution only made rules with regard to staff recruitment and Munchu language learning, whereas no requirement was made of Chinese learning. However, the ruler, starting from the needs of national governance, still has expectations for the translation ability of the royal clan.--[[User:Gong Boya|Gong Boya]] ([[User talk:Gong Boya|talk]]) 14:05, 19 October 2021 (UTC)

==宫博雅 Gōng Bóyǎ 俄语语言文学女 202120081488==

《清朝文献通考》中说，宗室子弟不仅要“咸涵于礼仪道德之途”，“讲明与伦纪纲常之大”，而且应该“服习于书射翻译之业”。[] 刘锦藻：《清朝文献通考》，杭州，浙江古籍出版社，2000年，第5437页。又以八旗蒙古官学为例，该官学虽于雍正六年停办，但吏部在给出的裁撤理由中，也明确提及蒙古官学生和监学生等均需学习翻译，并认为这一点与国子监官学中蒙古官学生的学习内容相同，因而“实属多设”。[]

In the comprehensive studies of Qing documents, it is said that the children of the imperial clan should not only "be well-educated, immerse in etiquette and morality", "be civilized, take the Principal Relationships and Constant Virtues as the most important", but also "learn to read, shoot an arrow and translate". [] Liu Jinzao, Comprehensive studies of Qing documents, Hangzhou, Zhejiang ancient Books publishing house, 2000, p. 5437. Taking the “Eight Banners” Mongolian official school as an example, although it was suspended in the sixth year of Yongzheng, the Ministry of Appointments also explicitly mentioned in the reasons for the abolition that Mongolian official students and students of the Imperial Academy were required to learn translation, and thought that this was the same as the learning content of Mongolian official students in the directorate of Imperial Academy, so it was "multi-set". []--[[User:Gong Boya|Gong Boya]] ([[User talk:Gong Boya|talk]]) 03:09, 18 October 2021 (UTC)

In ''A Comprehensive Studies on Qing Dynasty Literature'', it was said that the offsprings of the imperial family should not only be “well-educated and immerse in etiquette and morality” and “prioritizing manners and moral principles”, but also be engaged in “reading, archery and translation” [Liu Jinzao, ''A Comprehensive Studies on Qing Dynasty Literature'', Hangzhou, Zhejiang Chinese Ancient Classics Publishing House, 2000, p. 5437.] Example was taken that the Eight Banners Mongolian Official Academy was though suspended in the sixth year in the reign of Emperor Yongzheng, for it was redundant, according to the Ministry of Official Personnel Affairs, in that translation was a required course in both Mongolian official Academy and Imperial Academy.--[[User:He Qin|He Qin]] ([[User talk:He Qin|talk]]) 15:27, 19 October 2021 (UTC)

==何芩 Hé Qín 翻译学女 202120081489==

鄂尔泰等：《清实录·世宗宪皇帝实录》，北京：中华书局，1985年，第1089页。清军入关之后，随着政权范围的日益扩大，驻防体系随之变动。但就旗学体系而言，除特殊区域因特殊目的设置旗学之外，其余旗学基本定在京畿，其作用主要是为了教导在京八旗子弟，而驻防各地设学并不普遍，导致驻防八旗弟子无法与京师旗人子弟一样，获得同样的教育机会。

[Er Ertai etc. ''Records of the Qing Dynasty—Records of Emperor Shizongxian'', Beijing: Zhonghua Publishing House, 1985, p.1089. ] Since the Qing army crossed the Shanhai Pass, its garrison system changed accordingly with its increasing scope of the regime. However, in terms of the Banner School system, Schools were established basically in the Capital City and its Environs, except for special areas where the Banner Schools were set up for special purposes, for the Banner School was mainly to teach the Eight Banners and their offsprings in Beijing. But the Eight Banners in other territories could not have the same education opportunity as their clansmen in Beijing and its Environs because the Banner School was not common in other territories.--[[User:He Qin|He Qin]] ([[User talk:He Qin|talk]]) 14:43, 17 October 2021 (UTC)

[E Ertai etc. ''Records of the Qing Dynasty—Records of Emperor Shizongxian'', Beijing: Zhonghua Publishing House, 1985, p.1089. ] Since the Qing army entered the Shanhai Pass, with the increasing scope of the regime, its garrison system changed. But as to the Banner school system, except the schools established for special aims in special areas, the rests were basically set up in the Capital City, whose function was mainly to educate offsprings of the Eight Banners in Beijing. While schools were scarcely set up in the garrisons, resulting in that the offsprings outside Beijing could not get the same educational opportunity as the offsprings of the Eight Banners in Beijing.--[[User:Hu Shuqing|Hu Shuqing]] ([[User talk:Hu Shuqing|talk]]) 04:47, 18 October 2021 (UTC)

==胡舒情 Hú Shūqíng 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081490==

即便如此，驻防各地旗学中，仍有不少明确规定教习翻译。如康熙三十二年设防的荆州，于乾隆二十四年兴建学舍，设置八旗两翼义学，后又于乾隆四十五年添设各旗义学一所，并专设八旗翻译义学一所。绥远城于乾隆二年设防，乾隆八年兴建学舍，除设立义学八所各十二间之外，也设立满、汉翻译学一所共十间。

Even so, lots of the Banner schools of the garrisons still clearly specified that translation should be taught and learned. For example, in Jingzhou, garrisoned in the 32nd year of the reign of Kangxi, there were many schools built in the 24th year of the reign of Qianlong and free schools for the Eight Banners set. Later, every banner added a free school in the 45th year of the reign of Qianlong, and specially established a free school of translation for the Eight Banners. In the city of Suiyuan, fortified in the 2nd year of the reign of Qianlong, there were numerous schools in the 8th year of the reign of Qianlong. Besides the establishment of eight free schools with 12 rooms respectively, there was also a school for translation between Manchu and Chinese with 10 rooms established.--[[User:Hu Shuqing|Hu Shuqing]] ([[User talk:Hu Shuqing|talk]]) 04:36, 18 October 2021 (UTC)

Even then there were lots of places requiring translation study among those Banner’s station. For example, Jingzhou which was militarized in the 32th year of the reign of Kangxi then built many schools in the 24th year of the reign of Qianlong, especially public schools for all eight banners. Later every banner set up a new public school, and another for the translation of Eight Banners in the 45th year of the reign of Qianlong. Suiyuan Ctiy, militarized in the second year of the reign of Qianlong, secured many schools in the 8th year of the reign of Qianlong. Except for the 8 public schools with 12 classrooms for every banner, there were another 10 classrooms for translation of Man and Han. --[[User:Huang Jinyun|Huang Jinyun]] ([[User talk:Huang Jinyun|talk]]) 06:30, 19 October 2021 (UTC)

==黄锦云 Huáng Jǐnyún 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081491==

伊犁古扎尔城（即宁远城）于乾隆二十六年设防，乾隆三十四年兴建学舍，设各旗满、汉学房四间，并设满、汉翻译蒙古学舍一所共九间。清初之际朝廷究竟在各省驻防之地设立官学多少，实难考证。其中原因，与《八旗通志》和《钦定八旗通志》等主要文献中的记载不详有关。

The city, Guozard（Ning Yuan）in Ili was fortified in the 26th year of the reign of Qing Emperor Qianlong；there were lots of schools built in the 34th year of the reign of Qing Emperor Qianlong, four for learning Man and Han’s culture, nine for learning Man and Han’s translation into Mongolian. It was difficult to verify how much administrative institutions and schools were built in early Qing Dynasty because of the lack of information in major classical books like the General History of the Eight Banners and Qinding Baqi Tongzhi.--[[User:Huang Jinyun|Huang Jinyun]] ([[User talk:Huang Jinyun|talk]]) 06:49, 17 October 2021 (UTC)

Guerzha city（Ningyuan）in Ili was fortified in the 26th year of the reign of Emperor Qianlong. There were lots of schools built in the 34th year of the reign of Qing Emperor Qianlong, four for learning Man and Han’s culture, nine for learning Man and Han’s translation into Mongolian. It was difficult to figure out how many official educational institutions were built in early Qing Dynasty because of the lack of detailed information in classical books like the General Annals of the Eight Banners and the authorized version of the book.--[[User:Huang Yiyan1|Huang Yiyan1]] ([[User talk:Huang Yiyan1|talk]]) 13:47, 17 October 2021 (UTC)

==黄逸妍 Huáng Yìyán 外国语言学及应用语言学女 202120081492==

例如，《八旗通志》中，对于湖北荆州兴建学舍与官学一事只字未提，但在希元修纂的《荆州驻防八旗志》（《续修四库全书》第859册）中，则记有乾隆四十五年长泰（右翼蒙古协领）奏设满、汉官学、义学，以及八旗翻译学之事。[] 希元等：《荊州驻防八旗志》，上海：上海古籍出版社，1997年，第473页。虽然驻防各地旗学名称不一，其中有名官学者，也有名义学者，更有名翻译义学者，但教学内容上有着极大的相似性，其紧要者无非语言（清语、汉语、蒙语）、骑射，以及翻译。

For example, there was nothing about school building in Jingzhou, Hubei Province in the General Annals of Eight Banners. However, it was recorded that in the 45th year during the reign of Emperor Qianlong, Changtai (right-wing Mongolian general) advised to build schools imparting knowledge about Man's culture and Eight Banners' translation, official educational institutions with Han's pattern and public schools. And this record was written in the Annals of Eight Banners' Garrison in Jingzhou proofread by Xiyuan. (《Complete Library in the Four Branches of Literature(revised edition)》Book 859)[Xiyuan et al: 《the Annals of Eight Banners' Garrison in Jingzhou》, Shanghai: Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House,1997,page 473] Although the names of schools for Eight Banners were called differently such as official educational institutions, public schools and even translation public schools, varying with different garrisons, these schools shared extremely similar courses content. And they focused on language (language used by Qing, Han people and Mongolian), horseback archery and translation.--[[User:Huang Yiyan1|Huang Yiyan1]] ([[User talk:Huang Yiyan1|talk]]) 13:39, 17 October 2021 (UTC)

For example, there exists nothing about building schools and official schools in Jingzhou, Hubei Province in ''the General Annals of Ba Qi''. However, it was recorded that in the 45th year during the reign of Emperor Qianlong, Changtai (right-wing Mongolian general) advised to build schools imparting knowledge about Man's culture and Ba Qi's translation, official educational institutions with Han's pattern and public schools. And this record was written in ''the Annals of Ba Qi's Garrison'' in Jingzhou proofread by Xiyuan. (''Complete Library in the Four Branches of Literature(revised edition)Book 859'')[Xiyuan et al: ''the Annals of Eight Banners' Garrison in Jingzhou'', Shanghai, Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House,1997,p. 473] Although the names of schools for Ba Qi were called differently such as official educational institutions, public schools and even translation public schools, varying with different garrisons, these schools shared extremely similar course contents. And they focused on language teaching (language used by Manchu, Han people and Mongolian), horseback archery and translation.--[[User:Huang Zhuliang|Huang Zhuliang]] ([[User talk:Huang Zhuliang|talk]]) 02:12, 20 October 2021 (UTC)Huang Zhuliang

==黄柱梁 Huáng Zhùliáng 国别男 202120081493==

1.旗学教育与翻译教学契合的典范：绥远城官学。乾隆六年十二月初六日，绥远城扬威将军补熙等奏请设立满、蒙学馆，教育兵丁子弟。奏章指出，绥远城地处偏远，咨报、文移和案件审理等政务活动均用满、蒙文字，如果不加以教习，则政令之推行难以为继。A model of the combination of Manchu education and Translation Teaching is the Official School in Suiyuan City. On the sixth day of December (lunar calendar) in the sixth year of Emperor Qianlong's reign, General Bu Xi and others in Suiyuan City asked to set up Manchu and Mongolian schools to educate the children of soldiers. The memorial pointed out that Suiyuan City is located in a remote area, and government activities such as consultation, document transfer and case trial all use Manchu and Mongolian characters. If the children are not taught, the implementation of government orders will be unsustainable.--[[User:Huang Zhuliang|Huang Zhuliang]] ([[User talk:Huang Zhuliang|talk]]) 02:04, 20 October 2021 (UTC)Huang Zhuliang

A model of integration of Manchu education and Translation Teaching is the Official School of Suiyuan City. On the sixth day of December (lunar calendar) in the sixth year of Emperor Qianlong's reign, General Bu Xi and others in Suiyuan City asked to set up Manchu and Mongolian academies to educate the children of soldiers. The memorial to the throne pointed out that Suiyuan City is located in a remote area, and government activities such as consultation, document transfer and case trial all use Manchu and Mongolian characters. If the children are not taught, the implementation of government orders will be unsustainable.--[[User:Jin Xiaotong|Jin Xiaotong]] ([[User talk:Jin Xiaotong|talk]]) 02:53, 20 October 2021 (UTC)

==金晓童 Jīn Xiǎotóng 202120081494==

虽然此前经皇帝御批，并着军机处大臣等议奏，同意从归化城（呼和浩特）都统衙门中挑选二人，派往绥远城，专司翻译、书写蒙古文字，但军机处并没有同意设立满、蒙学馆，以教习满、蒙语言文字。然而，补熙认为，绥远城咨行各地方官府的差务甚多，而移驻兵丁均来自包衣，通晓满、蒙者实属寥寥，如不能设立学馆，教习旗人子孙，则现役旗人兵丁亡故后，满、蒙语言文字无以为继。这一点不仅于满洲旧俗不合，而且遇有政务时，会无人差遣。
Although approved by the emperor and discussed by the minister of Office of Military Secret，they agreed to select two people from the Provisional Government of Guihua City(Hohhot) and send them to Suiyuan City to be responsible for the translation and writing of Mongolian characters, the Office of Military Secret didn’t agree to set up Manchu and Mongolian academies to teach Manchu and Mongolian characters and languages.However,Buxi believed that advisors of local governments of Suiyuan City had a lot of work to do,and the soldiers stationed in the city were all born in Baoyi family(servant),so few of them knew Manchu and Mongolian characters well.If they could not set up academies to teach the descendants of the people of Baqi,the Manchu and Mongolian languages would disappear after the death of the soldiers in active service.This is not only inappropriate manchurian old customs,and no one can be send when meeting government affairs.--[[User:Jin Xiaotong|Jin Xiaotong]] ([[User talk:Jin Xiaotong|talk]]) 09:26, 18 October 2021 (UTC)

Although approved by the emperor and discussed by the minister of Ministry of Defense，they agreed to select two people from the Provisional Government of Guihua City(Hohhot) and send them to Suiyuan City to be responsible for the translation and writing of Mongolian characters, the Office of Military Secret didn’t agree to set up official schools of Manchu and Mongolian to teach Manchu and Mongolian characters and languages.However,Buxi believed that advisors of local governments of Suiyuan City had a lot of work to do,and the soldiers stationed in the city were all born in Baoyi family(servant),so few of them knew Manchu and Mongolian characters well.If they could not set up academies to teach the descendants of the people of Baqi,the Manchu and Mongolian languages would disappear after the death of the soldiers in active service.This is not only inappropriate manchurian old customs,and no one can be send when meeting government affairs.--[[User:Kuang Yanli|Kuang Yanli]] ([[User talk:Kuang Yanli|talk]]) 11:12, 20 October 2021 (UTC)

==邝艳丽 Kuàng Yànl 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081495==

补熙所奏虽名为满、蒙选馆，实则为满、蒙翻译官学，意在培养翻译专才，处理以满、蒙文字书写的文移，或者以上述两种文字推行的政务。同年十二月十八日，即补熙奏陈之后不出半月，大学士兼军机处大臣鄂尔泰上疏皇帝，议准设立满、蒙官学，拟敕交吏部，由吏部从蒙古旗革职人员中拣选通晓满、蒙文字者二人，委任其以巴克什身份进行教学。

What Bu Xi, a vice director of the Court of Colonial Affairs, submitted to the emperor referred to the government officials selected from Manchu and Mongolian nationality on the surface, but in fact, the official school which was engaged in translation between the two languages. It aimed to train professional translators so as to deal with official documents or the government affairs written in Manchu and Mongolian. No longer after Buxi submitted a written statement, Ertai, the Bachelor and Minister of The Grand Council, submitted his proposals to the emperor on December 18th of the same year. It was agreed that the official school would be established and the order of the emperor will be handed in to the official department. It was responsible for the official department to select two ones who were good at Manchu and Mongolian from the demobilized personnel of Mongolian Banner and who was appointed to teach them as Barksh.--[[User:Kuang Yanli|Kuang Yanli]] ([[User talk:Kuang Yanli|talk]]) 10:21, 17 October 2021 (UTC)

What Buxi, the vice director of the Court of Colonial Affairs, submitted to the emperor referred to the government officials selected from Manchu and Mongolian nationality on the surface. In fact, it referred to the official school which was engaged in translation between the two languages. It aimed to train professional translators so as to deal with official documents or the government affairs written in Manchu and Mongolian. No longer after Buxi submitted a written statement, Ertai, the Grand Secretary and Minister of The Grand Council, submitted his proposals to the emperor on December 18th of the same year. It was agreed that the official school would be established and the order of the emperor will be handed in to the official department. It was responsible for the official department to select two ones who were good at Manchu and Mongolian from the demobilized personnel of Mongolian Banner and who was appointed to teach them as Barksh.--[[User:Li Aixuan|Li Aixuan]] ([[User talk:Li Aixuan|talk]]) 01:14, 20 October 2021 (UTC)

==李爱璇 Lǐ Àixuán 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081496==

乾隆帝批复“依议。钦此”，于是绥远城翻译官学得以设立。[] 中国第一历史档案馆（郭美兰编译）：《乾隆朝绥远城设立八旗官学满文档案》，《历史档案》，2012年第2期，第47页。乾隆八年九月初三日，补熙和副都统纳明等奏请设立蒙古学，以便翻译文移资用。

Emperor Qianlong gave a written reply, ''consent and implement now'', so the translation official school of Suiyuan city was established. [] The First Chinese Historical Archive (translated and edited by Guo Meilan): ''Manchu Archives of Eight Banners Official Schools Established in Suiyuan City During the Qianlong Dynasty'', ''Historical Archives'', 2012(02): p47. On September 3,the 8th year in the period of Emperor Qianlong, Buxi and the deputy lieutenant-general Naming, etc. reported to the emperor for the establishment of Mongolian studies and then they could have funds to translate documents.--[[User:Li Aixuan|Li Aixuan]] ([[User talk:Li Aixuan|talk]]) 08:16, 17 October 2021 (UTC)

Emperor Qianlong gave an official written reply, ”Consent and implement. By command of the Emperor”, so the translation official school in Suiyuan city was established. [] The First Historical Archives of China (translated and edited by Guo Meilan): ''Manchu Archives of Eight Banners Official Schools Established in Suiyuan City During the Qianlong Period of Qing Dynasty'', ''Historical Archives'', 2012(02): p47. On September 3, the 8th year in the period of Emperor Qianlong, Buxi and deputy lieutenant-general Naming, etc. submitted memorials to the emperor for establishing Mongolian studies which could be conductive to documents and affairs.--[[User:Li Ruiyang|Li Ruiyang]] ([[User talk:Li Ruiyang|talk]]) 12:25, 18 October 2021 (UTC)

==李瑞洋 Lǐ Ruìyáng 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081497==

补熙认为，绥远城地处旷野，政务繁多，若只设官学（满蒙官学），恐为不够，且教习由京城择员派往，也与省城之例不合。关于教习满文一事，补熙奏称已照军机处先前所议，由各旗自行组织，教习之遴选并不困难，而所难者在于蒙古文的教习。原因在于，虽然绥远城内有会蒙古语者，但其语言能力不足以充任教习之责。

The official Bu Xi believed that Suiyuan city had a remote location but heavy government affairs, so it was not enough to set up the official school of Manchu and Mongolia only. And teachers sent from Central Government were unfamiliar with specific circumstances of Suiyuan city. As for teaching language of Manchus, Bu Xi submitted memorials to the emperor that each banner would have a self-organize according to the previous resolution of Privy Council. The difficulty was not the selection of teacher but teaching Mongolian, since the language competence of Mongolian speakers in Suiyuan city was insufficient for teaching.--[[User:Li Ruiyang|Li Ruiyang]] ([[User talk:Li Ruiyang|talk]]) 12:23, 18 October 2021 (UTC)

The official Bu Xi believed that since Suiyuan city was located in a remote place and burdened with heavy government affairs, it was not enough to set up the official school of Manchu and Mongolia only. And teachers dispatched from Central Government were unfamiliar with specific circumstances of Suiyuan city. As for teaching the language of Manchus, Bu Xi has submitted memorials to the emperor that each banner would self-organize in light of the previous resolutions of Privy Council. The difficulty lied not in the selection but the teaching of the Mongolian language, as Mongolian speakers in Suiyuan city were not competent for teaching the language.--[[User:Li Shan|Li Shan]] ([[User talk:Li Shan|talk]]) 00:42, 20 October 2021 (UTC)

==李姗 Lǐ Shān 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081498==

奏陈云：查，归化城土默特二旗，每旗各设学校一所，教习兵丁子弟翻译满蒙语文，每月支给巴克什等各银一两五钱，学生每日每人支给制钱十文。此项开支之银钱，由其所得房租银内动支。于雍正元年奏准施行，如今甚有裨益。

Then he proposed to Chen Yun, that a school should be respectively instituted in the two areas of Cha and Tumot, to teach the soldiers and warriors to translate the language of Manchu and Mongolia, and every month each school should be granted 15 Qian (about 1500 to 2250 Wen) and each student should be granted 10 Wen every day. And this bill could be paid by the rents of the houses constructed by them. Officially carried out in the first year of Yong Zheng's reign, this programm was still of great benefits.--[[User:Li Shan|Li Shan]] ([[User talk:Li Shan|talk]]) 06:49, 17 October 2021 (UTC)

Chen Yun propose that a school should be respectively instituted in the two areas of Cha and Tumed, that soldiers should lear to translate the language of Manchu and Mongolia, and that every month teachers should be granted 15 Qian (about 1500 to 2250 Wen) and each student should be granted 10 Wen every day. And this bill could be paid by the rents of their houses. Officially carried out in the first year of Yong Zheng's reign, this programm is still of great benefits.--[[User:Li Shuang|Li Shuang]] ([[User talk:Li Shuang|talk]]) 10:03, 20 October 2021 (UTC)

==李双 Lǐ Shuāng 翻译学女 202120081499==

窃思，臣等管带官兵驻防口外蒙古旷野地方，与各扎萨克往来文移甚多，蒙古语文极为重要，现若不设立蒙古学，拣选巴克什施教，蒙古语文必将无以为继。请准我属绥远城亦照归化城土默特设立旗学之例，每翼各设学馆一所，由土默特二旗内挑选通晓蒙古语文且能翻译者两人作为巴克什，每学视兵丁子弟之俊秀挑取十名教育。至巴克什、学生应得之项，照土默特旗之例，均由本城公用房租银钱内动支销算。

I think that officials and solders garrison the vast Mongolia which is outside the Great Wall, and that they have a lot of correspondence with county magistrates. The teaching of Mongolian is therefore very important. If the study of Mongolian isn’t set up, and that there is no knowledgeable literati who is familiar with Mongolia, this study won’t be passed on. Please allow Suiyuan City also as the same of Tumed of Guihua City to set up official studies, establish a school respectively in each army, and select two persons who have a good knowledge of Mongolian and can translate from two Tumeds as teachers. Every semester, we select 10 outstanding young soldiers to educate. As for the rewards of teachers and students, according to the banner of Tumed, they are reimbursed by the common rent money of the city.--[[User:Li Shuang|Li Shuang]] ([[User talk:Li Shuang|talk]]) 02:29, 20 October 2021 (UTC)

I thought that officials and solders garrisoned the vast Mongolia which was outside the Great Wall, and that they had a lot of correspondence with county magistrates. The teaching of Mongolian was therefore very important. If the study of Mongolian wasn’t set up, and that there was no knowledgeable literati who was familiar with Mongolia, this study won’t be passed on. Please allow Suiyuan City also as the same of Tumed of Guihua City to set up official studies, establish a school respectively in each army, and select two persons who had a good knowledge of Mongolian and can translate from two Tumeds as teachers. Every semester, we selected 10 outstanding young soldiers to educate. As for the rewards of teachers and students, according to the banner of Tumed, they were reimbursed by the common rent money of the city. --[[User:Li Wenxuan|Li Wenxuan]] ([[User talk:Li Wenxuan|talk]]) 10:58, 20 October 2021 (UTC)

==李文璇 Lǐ Wénxuán 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081500==

又查，现经军机大臣等议准，为撰拟翻译本城咨行各扎萨克之文移，由归化城土默特旗兵丁内选取两人在司行走。唯彼等不食饷米，每日来本城应差，倘不酌赏饭茶之份，贫苦蒙古委实难以当差。请亦照户部所定本地同知、通判衙门支给撰拟满蒙文移之土默特蒙古等饭食银之例，每月支给银五钱。

After the second examination, now, with the approval of the grand minister of state, we will select two soldiers in the Tumote Qi of the Guihua city working in this area in oder to compile and translate the compositions in this city. However, only you went to our city applying for the job without eating food and even no tea and something else. In this way, it was really difficult for you in poor Mongolia. Please following the stipulation stated by the Ministry of Revenue in feudal China, we should pay five yuan a month as their wage for food to the people who wrote the Manchu-Mongolian language translation according to the example of local Tongzhi office and Tongan Yemen. --[[User:Li Wenxuan|Li Wenxuan]] ([[User talk:Li Wenxuan|talk]]) 05:59, 17 October 2021 (UTC)
After the second examination, with the approval of the grand ministers , we selected two soldiers in the Tumote department of the Guihua city to work in this area in oder to compile and translate the compositions in this city. However, only you went to our city applying for the job without asking salary and not to say tea and something else. In this way, it was really difficult for you to make a live in such poor Mongolia. Please follow the stipulation stated by the Ministry of Revenue in feudal China.We should pay five strings of silver coins a month as their wage to the people who wrote the Manchu-Mongolian language translation according to the example of local Tongzhi office and Tongan Yemen.--[[User:Li Wen|Li Wen]] ([[User talk:Li Wen|talk]]) 06:22, 19 October 2021 (UTC)

==李雯 Lǐ Wén 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081501==

俟本城学习之人能翻译蒙古语文后，将土默特旗两名兵丁仍行遣回本旗。倘蒙圣主恩准施行，不仅臣等办理口外诸务无误，且大有裨益。[] 中国第一历史档案馆（郭美兰编译）：《乾隆朝绥远城设立八旗官学满文档案》，《历史档案》，2012年第2期，第47-48页。
Since scholars of the city could translate Meng character, two soldiers of Tu Moteqi were recalled to the original department.If Emperor have allowed the implement, not only could the ministers deal with affairs correctly, but also it would be greatly helpful.[The First Historical Archives of China (translated and compiled by Guo Meilan): Archives in QianLong Dynasty of Sui Yuan City,Historical Archives, The Second Phase in 2012, Page47-48] --[[User:Li Wen|Li Wen]] ([[User talk:Li Wen|talk]]) 06:14, 19 October 2021 (UTC)

Two soldiers of Tumed Banner will be sent back to their own banner as soon as those studying in the city can translate the Mongolian language. If granted by the Grace of The Lord, it will not only be right, but also beneficial. [] The First Historical Archives of China (compiled by Guo Meilan) : Manchu Archives of eight Banners Official School set up in Suiyuan City during The Qianlong Dynasty, Historical Archives, no.2, 2012, pp. 47-48.
----
--[[User:Li Xinxing|Li Xinxing]] ([[User talk:Li Xinxing|talk]]) 11:02, 20 October 2021 (UTC)

==李新星 Lǐ Xīnxīng 亚非语言文学女 202120081503==

以“地处口外蒙古旷野”、“文移甚多”作为设立绥远城旗学的理由，这一点不只适用于此奏中提及的蒙古学，而且也适用于乾隆六年奏设的绥远城翻译官学，又名满、蒙官学。此折中，补熙不仅提到雍正年间于归化城土默特二旗设立旗学，教习兵丁子弟翻译满、蒙语言文字的事，而且建议朝廷允许绥远城效仿归化城之例，设立蒙古学，从巴克什中考选教习二人，但该教习必须通晓满、蒙文字，且精于翻译，并照土默特之例给予教习薪酬，同时给予学生生活补贴。

To "located in the outer Mongolian wilderness", "a lot of text shift" as the reason for the establishment of the Yanyuan City flag school, this not only applies to the Mongolian studies mentioned in this play, but also applies to Qianlong six years of the Yuyuan City translation officer, also known as full, Mongolian official studies. In this compromise, Tsushi not only mentioned the establishment of the flag school in the naturalized city of Tummert during the Yuzheng years, teaching the teachers and children to translate full, Mongolian language and writing, but also suggested that the court allow the city to follow the example of naturalized city, the establishment of Mongolian studies, from Bakshi to choose two people, but the teaching must be familiar with full, Mongolian script, and fine translation, and according to the example of the local special to give teaching and teaching pay, while giving students living allowance.--[[User:Li Xinxing|Li Xinxing]] ([[User talk:Li Xinxing|talk]]) 03:49, 19 October 2021 (UTC)

The reason for the establishment of suiyuan City banner School is that "it is located in the Mongolian wilderness outside the mouth" and "there is a lot of literary movement", which is not only applicable to the Mongolian studies mentioned in this play, but also applicable to suiyuan City Translation official school, also known as Manchu and Mongolian official School, which was played in the sixth year of Qianlong. Fill this compromise, the city is not only mentioned the yongzheng years in GuiHuaCheng tumed flag flag and establishing learning, teaching and the soldiers' children is full, the language of the translation, and suggested that the court permits suiyuan city to follow the example of GuiHuaCheng, set up the Mongolian learning, from buck assorted tests to choose the two teaching, but the teaching must be familiar with text, manchu, Mongol and skilled in translation, and tumed as the example to give teacher pay, At the same time, students are given living allowances.--[[User:Li Yi|Li Yi]] ([[User talk:Li Yi|talk]]) 01:24, 20 October 2021 (UTC)

==李怡 Lǐ Yí 法语语言文学女 202120081504==

至于绥化城咨送各下辖地之文移，经军机处议准，皆循例由土默特旗兵丁中，选取通晓满、蒙语者二人进行翻译和撰拟，但此二人并未获得朝廷酬佣。因此，补熙一并奏请按土默特翻译满、蒙文字者之例，给予每月银五钱的饷米。同年九月十三日，乾隆帝朱批“依议。该部知道。钦此。”，同意了补熙所奏。[]
As for the documents sent by Suihua city to each region under its jurisdiction, according to the approval of the Military Intelligence Office, two soldiers from Tumed banner who were proficient in Manchu and Mongolian were selected to translate and draft the documents, but these two men were not paid by the court. Therefore, Buxi also asked for a monthly rate of five coins for the interpreter of the Manchu and Mongolian languages according to the example of Tumed. On September 13 of the same year, Zhu PI, emperor Qianlong, "complied with the proposal. The ministry knows. Qin here." And agreed to buhee's play--[[User:Li Yi|Li Yi]] ([[User talk:Li Yi|talk]]) 02:05, 19 October 2021 (UTC)

According to the approval of the Military Intelligence Office, the documents sent by Suihua city to each jurisdiction were translated and drafted by two soldiers, who were selected from Tumed banner and proficient in Manchu and Mongolian. But these two men were not paid by the court. Therefore, Buxi presented a memorial and asked for five coins a month as salary with reference to the translators and interpreters of the Manchu and Mongolian in Tumed. On September 13 of the same year, emperor Qianlong wrote a response in red, "Proposal approved. The ministry informed. End here." and he agreed what Buxi put forward.--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 08:23, 19 October 2021 (UTC)

==刘沛婷 Liú Pèitíng 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081505==

乾隆十一年二月十三日，经吏部奏准，朝廷规定嗣后省城将军、副都统等衙门随印笔帖式，不再由京城委任，而改为本地兵丁内考取。因应此例，绥远城满洲、蒙古笔帖式的考选也做了调整，即从本地八旗兵丁中挑选适当人选，通过考试翻译（满、汉翻译）进行选任。由于绥远城蒙古学设立之初，蒙文教习系从归化城土默特巴克什中进行考选，因而补熙、保云、布彦图等又在乾隆十一年四月初三日联名具折，拟对蒙古学教习进行改选，并请设立满、蒙文翻译教习。

On February 13, the 11th year of qianlong's reign, after the approval of the Ministry of Personnel, the imperial court stipulated that the provincial generals, deputy dutong and other clerks in Yamen(government office in feudal China) were no longer appointed by the capital, but were selected from local soldiers. In response to this rule, the test and selection of Manchuria in Suiyuan city and Mongolia clerks has also been adjusted, that is, to select appropriate candidates from the local soldiers of the eight banners through the translation test (Manchu and Chinese translation). At the beginning of the establishment of Mongolian Studies in Suiyuan city, the Mongolian language teaching department selected students from tumot Bakshi, a naturalization city, so Buxi, Baoyun and Buyantu signed a joint proposal on April 3, the 11th year of qianlong, to change the teaching of Mongolian studies, and requested the establishment of Manchu and Mongolian translation teaching.--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 13:56, 17 October 2021 (UTC)

On February 13, the 11th year of Qianlong's reign, with the approval of the official department, the imperial court stipulated that the provincial capital generals, deputy lieutenant-generals and other officials would no longer be appointed by the capital but would be admitted by local soldiers. In response to this regulation, the way to examine and select Manchuria and Mongolia clerks in Suiyuan city was also adjusted, that is, appropriate candidates were selected and appointed from the local soldiers of the “Eight Banners” through translation examinations (Manchu and Chinese translation). At the beginning of the establishment of Mongolian Studies in Suiyuan City, examinations were conducted in Guihua city, namely Tumert Bakshi to select Mongolian instructors. Therefore, Buxi, Baoyun, Bu Yantu and others jointly signed a letter to the throne on the third day of April in the eleventh year of Qianlong. They planned to reelect Mongolian instructors and seek to set up Manchu and Mongolian instructors of translation.--[[User:Liu Shengnan|Liu Shengnan]] ([[User talk:Liu Shengnan|talk]]) 14:26, 18 October 2021 (UTC)

==刘胜楠 Liú Shèngnán 翻译学女 202120081506==

具体而言便是，从将军随印三名笔帖式内，挑选精通满、汉文翻译者二人，照吏部所定之例考试录用。同时，由于绥远城旗人中，懂汉文者甚少，因此拟请将原来所设的蒙古笔帖式缺（一人）改为满、蒙文翻译笔帖式缺，从蒙古旗人中加以考取。三个月之后，即七月十四日，补熙等人再次递呈奏折，请设满、汉翻译学，以便考选笔帖式。

Specifically, two translators proficient in Manchu and Chinese were selected from the three clerks named bithesi accompanying the general, and employed in accord with the prescribed procedures set by the Ministry of Personnel. Meanwhile, few people of “Eight Banners” mastered Chinese in Suiyuan city, and therefore it was proposed to change the original lack of Mongolian clerk (one person) to the lack of Manchu and Mongolian translation clerks. The candidates for the positions were selected from the Mongolian Manchu people. Three months later, namely, on July 14, presenting their memorials to the throne again, Buxi and others asked for setting up Manchu and Chinese translation studies in order to test and select clerks.--[[User:Liu Shengnan|Liu Shengnan]] ([[User talk:Liu Shengnan|talk]]) 12:54, 17 October 2021 (UTC)

Specifically, two translators proficient in Manchu—Chinese were selected from the three bithesis by the general, and employed according to the example set by the Ministry of officials.At the same time, there are few people who understand Chinese among the Eight Banners in Suiyuan city. Therefore, it is proposed to change the original lack of Mongolian bithesi(one person) to the lack of Manchu-Chinese and Mongolian-Chinese translation bithesis, and take it from the Mongolian.Three months later, on July 14, Buxi and others submitted their memorials again and askde for setting up Manchu-Chinese translation studies in order to test and select the bithesi. --[[User:Liu Wei|Liu Wei]] ([[User talk:Liu Wei|talk]]) 14:00, 17 October 2021 (UTC)Liu Wei

==刘薇 Liú Wēi 国别女 202120081507==

此奏折的撰拟源于乾隆十一年三月十六日吏部的一纸奏定，后者规定嗣后各省城驻防将军、副都统，以及城守尉随印笔帖式，停止由京城补放，一律改为各省地方考取。此例出台之后，绥远城即在辖地八旗兵丁内，办理满、汉翻译考试，试图选取随印笔帖式七人。但令人以外的是，应试考生中多数不通汉文，个别能说汉文者，也只是粗通翻译，译文既不流畅，也不确切。

The compilation of this memorial originated from a paper written by the Ministry of officials on March 16, the eleventh year of the Emperor Qianlong's reign.
According to the regulations of the Ministry of officials,stipulated that the provincial capital garrison generals, the vice capital, as well as the city guard officers with the bithesis, stopped by the capital replacement, must be admitted to provinces and localities provincial examinations.After the promulgation of this regulation,Suiyuan city conducted Manchu and Chinese translation examinations in the soldiers of the Eight Banners under its jurisdiction, trying to select seven people with the bithesis.But surprisingly, most of the examinees do not understand Chinese.some can speak Chinese, they can only translate roughly,and the translation is neither smooth nor accurate. --[[User:Liu Wei|Liu Wei]] ([[User talk:Liu Wei|talk]]) 14:34, 16 October 2021 (UTC)Liu Wei

The edict originated from a memorial to the throne written by the Ministry of Civil Affairs on March 16, the eleventh year under the Emperor Qianlong's reign. The memorial stipulated that the appointment of the provincial capital garrison generals, the vice capital, as well as the bithesis of the city guard officers, should be made through provincial examinations rather than the capital decisions. After the promulgation of this regulation, Suiyuan conducted Manchu－Chinese translation examinations in the soldiers of the Eight Banners under its jurisdiction, trying to select seven people as the bithesis. But surprisingly, most of the examinees did not know Chinese. Even some could speak, they could only do the translation roughly, which was neither smooth nor accurate. --[[User:Liu Xiao|Liu Xiao]] ([[User talk:Liu Xiao|talk]]) 15:03, 16 October 2021 (UTC)

==刘晓 Liú Xiǎo 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081508==

故而，只能勉强从中选取考卷三份，加以阅读分析。由于绥远城中通汉文者甚少，长于翻译满、汉文者亦少，因而蒙古学设立三年以来，学生仍以参加满、蒙文考试居多，而以满、汉文考试为少。而自从将随印笔帖式改为从八旗兵丁内考选之后，汉文的学习越发重要，因为不学习汉文，便无法进行满、汉翻译。

Constraintly, the officials could only pick three papers to read. As few people in Suiyuan knew Chinese, as well as people who mastered the Manchu-Chinese translation, the majority of students still took Manchu-Mongolian examinations, with fewer people taking the Manchu-Chinese examinations since the Mongolian Language Studies had been set three years ago. However, since the general bithesi exmabination had been changed to choosing bithesi from soldiers among the Eight Banners, the study of Chinese became more and more important, for without learning Chinese, it was impossible to carry out Manchu－Chinese translation.--[[User:Liu Xiao|Liu Xiao]] ([[User talk:Liu Xiao|talk]]) 15:04, 16 October 2021 (UTC)

Therefore, the officials could only reluctantly select three test papers for reading and analysis. Due to the fact that few people in Suiyuan are proficient in Chinese, and few mastered the Manchu-Chinese translation, the majority of students still took Manchu-Mongolian examinations, with fewer people taking the Manchu-Chinese examinations since the Mongolian Language Studies had been set three years ago. However since the general bithesi exmabination had been changed to choosing bithesi from soldiers among the Eight Banners, the study of Chinese became more and more important, for without learning Chinese, it was impossible to translate Manchu－Chinese.--[[User:Liu Yue|Liu Yue]] ([[User talk:Liu Yue|talk]]) 22:55, 18 October 2021 (UTC)

==刘越 Liú Yuè 亚非语言文学女 202120081509==

因此，对于绥远城而言，仿照蒙古官学之例，设立满、汉翻译官学便显得非常重要。因为绥远城内无人可堪满、汉翻译教习之用，因而满、汉翻译官学设立之后，应当由吏部从京城八旗之内，挑选合适者充任。除此以外，补熙等人也在奏折中，一并奏请朝廷拨付用于翻译教学的笔墨、纸张等。

Therefore, for Suiyuan City, it is very important to establish Manchu and Chinese translation official schools, following the example of Mongolian official schools. Since there was no one in Suiyuan can be used to teach Manchu and Chinese translation, after the establishment of Manchu and Chinese translation official schools, the Ministry of officials should select suitable ones from the Eight Banners in the capital. In addition, bu Xi and others are also wrote memorials，requesting the court to allocate pen, ink and paper for translation teaching.--[[User:Liu Yue|Liu Yue]] ([[User talk:Liu Yue|talk]]) 13:32, 18 October 2021 (UTC)

Therefore, for Suiyuan city, it then became very important to establish the official school of Manchu and Chinese translation following the example of Mongolian official school. Since no one in Suiyuan city was eligible to teach Manchu and Chinese translation, after the establishment of the official school of Manchu and Chinese translation, the Ministry of Officials should select suitable candidates from the Eight Banners in the capital. In addition, Bu Xi and other officials also requested the imperial court to allocate pen, ink and paper for translation teaching in memorials to the throne.

==刘运心 Liú Yùnxīn 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081510==

补熙认为，只有照此设立满、汉翻译官学，才能确保翻译满、汉文的笔帖式考选得以顺利进行。乾隆三十七年九月，继任绥远城将军容保奏请支付满、蒙八旗学教习和学生银两，其中提到补熙奏准设立的满、蒙翻译官学（即乾隆六年设立的满、蒙学馆）和十一年设立的满、汉翻译官学，以及两所学校教习的选拔。容保认为，满、蒙翻译官学和满、汉翻译官学的四名翻译教习并没有其它差务，而只是专于教学，因而每月支银各一两五钱，即每年支银七十二两，实属过分，应予以全数抽出。

Bu Xi believed that only by establishing the official school of Manchu and Chinese translation in such a way could ensure the success of selective test for bithesi. In September of the 37th year of Qianlong Emperor's reign, Rong Bao, the successor to the former General of Suiyuan, proposed that financial support should be provided for the teachers and students who were Manchu and Mongolian Eight Banners. The official school of Manchu and Mongolian translation (the Manchu and Mongolian school founded in the sixth year of Qianlong's administration) suggested by Bu Xi, the official school of Manchu and Chinese translation and the selection of their teachers are mentioned in the proposition. Bao Rong insisted that since the four teachers in the two schools have no other job but teaching, offering them 1 silver coin and 5 copper coins per month, namely 72 silver coins per year is excessive and thus all the money should be reallocated.--[[User:Liu Yunxin|Liu Yunxin]] ([[User talk:Liu Yunxin|talk]]) 12:36, 24 October 2021 (UTC)

Bu Xi believed that only by establishing the official school of Manchu-Chinese translation in such a way could the success of selective test for bithesi be ensured. In September of the 37th year of Qianlong Emperor' s reign, Rong Bao, the successor to the General of Suiyuan city, proposed that financial support should be provided for the teachers and students who were Manchu and Mongolian Eight Banners. The proposal also mentioned the official school of Manchu-Mongolian translation (founded in the sixth year of Qianlong) and the official school of Manchu-Chinese translation, which both built on the advice of Bu Xi, As well as the selection of schools' teachers. Bao Rong considered that since the four teachers in these schools had no other job but teaching, it was wasteful to offer them 1 silver coin and 5 copper coins per month, namely 72 silver coins per year. Thus all the money should be reallocated.--[[User:Luo Anyi|Luo Anyi]] ([[User talk:Luo Anyi|talk]]) 09:13, 19 October 2021 (UTC)

==罗安怡 Luó Ānyí 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081511==

逮于绥远城设立官学五所之后，遂将四名翻译教习，以及抽出的银两等，一同拨付给前者。虽然乾隆帝对于此折只是简单地批复道“知道了”，但根据后来的文献记载，容保所奏仍然得到了允准。如乾隆五十年九月二十二日，集福以绥远城将军身份上疏高宗，奏请改设满、汉翻译官学，其中便提到容保奏请裁汰翻译官学之事，其中指出：
Only after the five official schools were built in Suiyuan city, the imperial court then should allocate 4 translation teachers and salaries to the schools. Though Emperor Qianlong merely replied these memorials with "got it”, the sebsequent documents suggest that the memorial presented by Rong Bao had been approved by Emperor. For instance, on September 22rd, the fiftieth year of emperor Qianlong（1785), Ji Fu presented a memorial as the general of Suiyuan city, asking for a transformation of officals schools of Manchu-Chinese translation. Thereinto, he mentioned the advise proposed by RongBao that government should make a modification of officiall translation schools . It pointed out that:--[[User:Luo Anyi|Luo Anyi]] ([[User talk:Luo Anyi|talk]]) 06:10, 19 October 2021 (UTC)

Only after five official educational institutions had been set up,did these four translation teachers, the collected fund and so on been allocated to the institutions.Though Emperor Qianlong just replied “I see”，Rong Bao’s memorial still got approval according to the documents afterward.For instance， on September 22rd, the fiftieth year of emperor Qianlong（1785)，Ji Fu presented a memorial as the general of Suiyuan city, asking for setting up officals schools of Manchu-Chinese translation，in the case of which，he mentioned Rong Bao’s suggestion that the official educational institutions should be shut down.It pointed out that:----[[User:Luo Xi|Luo Xi]] ([[User talk:Luo Xi|talk]]) 02:38, 20 October 2021 (UTC)

==罗曦 Luó Xī 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081512==

奴才查，乾隆十一年经前任将军补熙奏准，在绥远城设立满蒙翻译学，考取两名教习，挑选八旗子弟二十名教育，俟三年期满后，诚能勤勉从事，所教有成，则将该教习保奏，记名挑补骁骑校。乾隆三十七年，经前任将军容保奏准，裁汰翻译学，设立五所满洲学，每学各设教习四名，教育所有年轻养育兵及闲散幼丁。奴才等查，每学现有学生百余名，徒有其名而已，并未得以好好学习，于学生甚无益处，反被耽误。

I have searched that in the eleventh year of Qian Long’s reign，the translation subject of Man and Meng nations had been settled down in Sui Yuan city under the approval of the former general———— Bu Xi，recruiting two teachers to teach twenty royal students enrolled，who will honored to be Tiao Buxiaoqixiao without test if he is literally diligent in teaching and has made an achievement during three years.In the thirty seventh year of Qian Long’s reign，the translation subject had been cancelled under the approval of the former general———— Rong Bao，and five Man Zhou institutions were set down with every institution having four teachers to teach those young soldiers and free childrens.We have investigated that every institution has more than one hundred student，who were not deserved to be called educational institution，cause students cannot study well but were reversely misled.

I had searched that in 1746, the 11th year under the reign of Qianlong, the former general named Bu Xi had got permission from the Emperor to set up Manchurian-Mongolian translation studies in Suiyuan city, recruited two instructors to teach 20 students enrolled in the Eight Banners who will be honored as candidate for valiant cavalry if he is diligent in learning and made an achievement during three years' training. In 1772, the 37th year under the reign of Qianlong, the formal general Rong Bao had approved the decision to cancel the translation studies and set up five Manchurian schools, each with four instructors, to teach those young soldiers and idle toddlers. We had investigated that every school had more than one hundred students with an undeserved reputation, which benefited nothing for students but delayed them on the contrary.--[[User:Ma Xin|Ma Xin]] ([[User talk:Ma Xin|talk]]) 05:14, 18 October 2021 (UTC)

==马新 Mǎ Xīn 外国语言学及应用语言学女 202120081513==

况且自裁汰翻译学以来，考取笔帖式及撰拟咨行各地汉字文稿，日渐难以得人。奴才等加紧训练兵丁之满洲语言外，自到任后即行整修将军衙门内房屋十五间，将八旗近三百名俊秀子弟编为五所学校，挑选贤能教习，每日教授满洲语言及马步箭。今经查看，已有成效，再加紧教习一二年后，皆可成长。

Besides, since the elimination of translation studies, it has become increasingly difficult to find people who passed the examination for bithesi and excelled at writing manuscripts in various industries and places with Chinese characters. In addition to stepping up the soldiers' Manchurian language training, we have also renovated 15 houses in the General's Yamun since taking office, grouped nearly 300 outstanding intelligence in the Eight Banners into five schools and selected talented instructors to teach them Manchuria language and horseback archery. Visible results have been achieved after checking today and they will all able to make greater progress if we step up training for one or two years.--[[User:Ma Xin|Ma Xin]] ([[User talk:Ma Xin|talk]]) 02:28, 18 October 2021 (UTC)

Another version: Moreover, since the abolition of translation studies, it has become increasingly difficult to garner talents to take part in and pass translation examination, and to draw up the drafts of news about all walks of life in various places. Apart from strengthening the soldiers’ training in Manchurian language, we and other ministers immediately arranged to renovate 15 houses in the General’s Yamen (the government office in feudal China) after taking office. The nearly 300 brilliant youths in the Eight Banners will be organized into five schools and taught by the select competent personages in Manchurian language, horse-riding, and arrow-shooting on a daily basis. After today’s checking, these young people have made great progress, and they will achieve more growth with subsequent one-to-two-year effective and intense study. --[[User:Mao Yawen|Mao Yawen]] ([[User talk:Mao Yawen|talk]]) 06:36, 19 October 2021 (UTC)

==毛雅文 Máo Yǎwén 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081514==

奴才等愚见，请将八旗现有五所满洲学概行裁撤，仅留一处校舍，仍照旧例作为满汉翻译学，考取两名翻译教习，挑选八旗俊秀稍大子弟三十名，教授满汉文翻译。每年支给现有五所学校之公用银，即拨给新设翻译学校及将军衙门内所设五所学校使用。其所撤四所学校之房屋，并无用处，相应照先前腾出官署作价之例，交同知作价归入正项钱粮。
In our humble opinion, the five existing Manchurian schools in the Eight-Banners system should be abolished, with only one school building leaved to be used for Manchurian-Chinese translation studies as usual. Meanwhile, two translators will be admitted through tests into the school to teach translation, and thirty youths of outstanding intelligence in the Eight Banners will be selected to impart Manchurian-Chinese translation. The annual public money allocated to the existing five schools should be now distributed among the newly established translation school and the five schools in the General’s Yamen (the government office in feudal China). The four school houses which have been removed are useless, and the fees of these vacant houses will be valued according to the previous examples, handed over to the relevant ministers for pricing, and integrated into the tax and corvee system.--[[User:Mao Yawen|Mao Yawen]] ([[User talk:Mao Yawen|talk]]) 15:09, 16 October 2021 (UTC)

In our humble opinion, the five existing Manchurian schools in the Eight-Banners system should be abolished, with only one school building leaved to be used for Manchurian-Chinese translation studies as usual. Meanwhile, select two translation instructors and thirty of the eight banners excellent older sons and daughters to teach the Manchu-Chinese translation. The annual public money allocated to the existing five schools should be now distributed among the newly established translation school and the five schools in the General’s Yamen (the government office in feudal China). The four school houses which have been removed are useless, and the fees of these vacant houses will be valued according to the previous examples, handed over to the relevant ministers for pricing, and integrated into the tax and corvee system.--[[User:Mao You|Mao You]] ([[User talk:Mao You|talk]]) 16:44, 16 October 2021 (UTC)

==毛优 Máo Yōu 俄语语言文学女 202120081515==

如此稍作调整，则考取笔帖式、撰拟汉字文稿皆可得人，于满洲语言、马步箭等技艺亦有益处。[] 中国第一历史档案馆（郭美兰编译）：《乾隆朝绥远城设立八旗官学满文档案》，《历史档案》，2012年第2期，第50页。根据集福的说法，乾隆三十七年，五所满洲官学设立之后，至今共有官学生五百余人，即每学为百余人，教习共二十人，即每学为四人，但这些学生自入学以后，并未专心学习，所谓肄业只是徒有其名。

With a little adjustment like this, you can become a bithesi, compose a kanji manuscript better than others, and benefit from skills such as Manchurian language and horseback archery. The First Historical Archives of China (compiled by Guo Meilan): "Manchu Archives of the Establishment of the Eight Banners Official School in Suiyuan City during the Qianlong Dynasty," Historical Archives, 2012, No. 2, p. 50. According to Ji Fu, in the thirty-seventh year of the Qianlong era, after the establishment of five Manchurian government schools, so far there are more than 500 students, that is, each school for more than 100 people, teachers a total of 20 people, that is, each school for four people. However, these students have not concentrated on their studies since they enrolled, and the so-called studies are only in name.--[[User:Mao You|Mao You]] ([[User talk:Mao You|talk]]) 16:32, 16 October 2021 (UTC)

With a little adjustment like this, talents emerged passing the test of bethesi and able to write Chinese texts. Manchurian language and Mabu archery and other skills all benefited from it. According to The First Historical Archives of China (compiled by Guo Meilan): "Manchu Archives of the Establishment of the Eight Banners Official School in Suiyuan City during the Qianlong Dynasty," Historical Archives, 2012, No. 2, p. 50. According to Ji Fu, in the thirty-seventh year of the Qianlong era, after the establishment of five Manchurian government schools, so far there are more than 500 students, that is, each school for more than 100 people, teachers a total of 20 people, that is, each school for four people. However, these students have not concentrated on their studies since they enrolled, and the so-called studies are only in name.--[[User:Mou Yixin|Mou Yixin]] ([[User talk:Mou Yixin|talk]]) 07:31, 18 October 2021 (UTC)

==牟一心 Móu Yīxīn 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081516==

然而，集福自称自其就任以来，不仅强化八旗兵丁的满洲语言学习，从中挑选俊秀者充补至将军衙门内新设的五所学校，而且在教习的问题上挑贤选能，令其勤于教习，凡此种种已使学生的培养初见成效。因此，集福请旨将原来所设的五所满洲官学进行裁撤，将其并为一所，仍照旧例定为满、汉翻译官学，以两名翻译教习，教授三十名八旗俊秀子弟满、汉文翻译。乾隆帝为此责令军机大臣和珅等，遵旨议奏。

However, Jifu claimed that since he took office, he has not only strengthened the study of Manchuria language among the Eight Banners soldiers, from whom he selected excellent persons to fill the five new schools in the General's Office, but also selected talents on the issue of teaching, urging them to be diligent in their work. all of which have made the training of students first effective. Therefore, Jifu asked for an order to abolish the original five Manchurian official schools and make them one, which was still ordered as the official school of Manchu and Chinese translation as before. Two teachers were arranged to teach thirty young talents of Eight Banners Manchu and Chinese translation. For this proposition, Emperor Qianlong ordered He Shen and others, ministers of Junjichu, to discuss and make report on Jifu’s proposal.--[[User:Mou Yixin|Mou Yixin]] ([[User talk:Mou Yixin|talk]]) 15:05, 17 October 2021 (UTC)

However, Jifu claimed that since he took office, he has not only strengthened the study of Manchu among the Eight Banners soldiers and selected excellent candidates qualified for the five schools set up newly in the General's Office, but also selected talents on the issue of teaching and urged?them to be diligent in their work. All measures make the development of students first-time results. Therefore, Jifu asked for an order to combine the five Manchurian official schools into one, which was still ordered as the official school of Manchu and Chinese translation as before. Two translators were arranged to teach thirty young talents of Eight Banners Manchu and Chinese translation. For this proposition, Emperor Qianlong ordered He Shen and others ministers of Junjichu, to discuss and make report on Jifu’s proposal.--[[User:Peng Ruixue|Peng Ruixue]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruixue|talk]]) 10:25, 20 October 2021 (UTC)

==彭瑞雪 Péng Ruìxuě 法语语言文学女 202120081517==

于是，十月五日，即集福具折四日之后，和珅遵旨回奏，指出自裁汰翻译官学以来，各部院衙门在考取笔帖式和书写汉字文移时，竟不得人，因而同意了集福之议，裁汰原来所设的五处满洲官学，留一处作为官学房屋，照旧例设立满洲翻译官学，教习八旗英俊子弟满、汉语翻译。和珅在奏章中同时指出，各省将军和地方官员相互行文时，也需要用到汉字，因而也需要教授翻译。同日，乾隆帝即批复“著依议。钦此”，同意了和珅所议。

Therefore, on October 5, four days after the proposal of Jifu, He Shen played back according to his order, pointing out that since the abolition of the official school of translation, the Yamen of various ministries and institutes have been unable to find a qualified person when taking the examination of pen style and writing Chinese characters. Therefore, he agreed with Jifu's proposal to eliminate the five original Manchu official schools leaving one as the official school house, and to set up the Manchu official school of translation according to the old practice in order to teach the distinguished children of the eight banners to translate Manchu and Chinese. In He Shen’s proposal folding, he also pointed out that when provincial generals and local officials write to each other, they also need to use Chinese characters, so they also need to learn translation. On the same day, Qianlong Emperor approved his proposal by "I agree, that’s all" and consented to He Shen’s suggest.--[[User:Peng Ruixue|Peng Ruixue]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruixue|talk]]) 10:26, 20 October 2021 (UTC)

Therefore, on October 5th, four days after the preparation of memorial to the throne of Jifu, He Shen played back according to the emperor’s order, pointing out that since the adjudication and abolition of the official school of translation, the Yamen of various ministries and institutes had been unable to find a qualified person when they craved for the translate position and wrote the official document in Chinese. Therefore, he agreed with Jifu's proposal to eliminate the five original Manchu official schools leaving one as the official school house, and to set up the Manchu official school of translation according to the old practice in order to teach the distinguished children of the eight banners to translate Manchu and Chinese. Meanwhile, He Shen also pointed out in his proposal that when provincial generals and local officials wrote official documents to each other, they also need to use Chinese characters, so they also need to be taught translation. On the same day, Qianlong Emperor approved his proposal by "I agree, that’s all" and consented to He Shen’s suggest.--[[User:Qing Jianan|Qing Jianan]] ([[User talk:Qing Jianan|talk]]) 00:55, 17 October 2021 (UTC)

==秦建安 Qín Jiànān 外国语言学及应用语言学女 202120081518==

显然，无论是补熙和鄂尔泰等奏请设立或复设满蒙学馆，还是补熙奏请设立蒙古学、满汉翻译学，以及改设满蒙文翻译笔帖式，又或是德龄等奏请制定满蒙文翻译生员奖惩章程，容保奏请设立满蒙八旗学五所，以及集福奏请裁汰满蒙八旗学，并改设（复设）满汉翻译学等，凡此种种都表明绥远城官学的翻译人才培养目标与定位，其办学模式和办学效果在清代旗学体系中颇具典范性。

Apparently, whether Buxi and Ertai remit their requirements of establishing or set up the Academy of Manchuria and Mongolia anew to the emperor and Buxi asked the emperor for the instruction of establishing the study of Mongolia, translatology of Manchurian and Han language and authorizing the officers who transcribe and translate the Mongolian and Manchu language, or Deling asked the emperor to formulate the rewarding and penal regulations for Manchurian and Mongolian translators; Rongbao requested instructions from the emperor to found five schools for Manchurian and Mongolian Eight Banners and Jifu appeal for adjudicating and eliminate the study of Manchurian and Mongolian Eight Banners and turning to set up the translatology of Manchurian and Han language, those behaviors manifested the exemplary nature of the training goals and orientation for translation talents, school running modes and school running effects of Suiyuan official school in the system of banner hierarchy in Qing Dynasty.--[[User:Qing Jianan|Qing Jianan]] ([[User talk:Qing Jianan|talk]]) 14:36, 16 October 2021 (UTC)

Apparently, all the following proposals manifested the exemplary nature of the training goals and orientation for translation talents, school running modes and school running effects of Suiyuan official school in the system of Academy of Banner in Qing Dynasty. For example, Buxi and Ertai submitted their requirements to the emperor of establishing or setting up the Academy of Manchuria and Mongolia again; Buxi asked the emperor for the instruction of establishing the study of Mongolia, translatology of the Manchuand Han language and establishing the group of scholars of the Manchu and Mongolian translation; Deling asked the emperor to formulate the rewarding and penal regulations for Manchurian and Mongolian translators; Rongbao requested instructions from the emperor to found five schools for Manchurian and Mongolian Eight Banners; Jifu appealed for adjudicating and eliminating the study of Manchurian and Mongolian Eight Banners and turning to set up the translatology of Manchurian and Han language, etc--[[User:Qiu Tingting|Qiu Tingting]] ([[User talk:Qiu Tingting|talk]]) 03:53, 17 October 2021 (UTC)

==邱婷婷 Qiū Tíngtíng 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081519==

2.旗学教育中的汉籍（书）译本。旗学之设，必有教材方能成行，然而国初之际并无文字，书籍修纂只能借助其它民族文字，颇为不易。太祖、太宗年间，额尔德尼与噶盖受命创制老满文，后经达海改进，不仅给文移往来、记注政事等带来便利，也给满、汉翻译，以及解决旗人教育的教学用书等，创造了条件。

2.Translated version of the Han Dynasty in the education of Academy of Eight Banners. Only with teaching materials could the Academy of Eight Banners’ establishment be accessible, however, at the beginning of the country there was no text. Under this circumstance, books could only be compiled with the help of other nationality characters, which was quite difficult. During the reign of first and second emperors of the Qing Dynasty, Erdeni and Gagai were ordered to create the old Manchu which was later improved by Dahai. Not only made it much easy for official documents communication, political affairs’ notation, but also provided the conditions for the Manchu, Han translation, as well as solving the teaching books of the Bannerman’s education , etc. --[[User:Qiu Tingting|Qiu Tingting]] ([[User talk:Qiu Tingting|talk]]) 03:15, 17 October 2021 (UTC)

Translated version of the Han Dynasty in the education of Academy of Eight Banners. Only with teaching materials could the Academy of Eight Banners be established successfully, however, at the beginning of the country there was no text. Under this circumstance, books could only be compiled with the help of other nationality characters, which was quite difficult. During the reign of first and second emperors of the Qing Dynasty, Erdeni and Gagai were ordered to create the old Manchu which was later improved by Dahai. Not only made it much easier for official documents communication and political affairs’ notation, but also provided the conditions for the Manchu and Han translation, as well as solving the problem of teaching books of the Bannerman’s education , etc. --[[User:Rao Jinying|Rao Jinying]] ([[User talk:Rao Jinying|talk]]) 03:07, 18 October 2021 (UTC)

==饶金盈 Ráo Jīnyíng 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081520==

如太祖曾命达海翻译汉籍，太宗也曾分拨“书房”满官担任“译汉字书籍”的工作，译成之书包括《刑部会典》、《素书》、《三略》、《万宝全书》等。天聪八年，伊成阿（又名宜成格）参加礼部考试，以第一名取中“汉人习满书”举人，授内国史院行走，又翻译《礼部会典》成书。[] 鄂尔泰等：《清实录·太宗文皇帝实录》，北京：中华书局，1985年，第239页；清高宗敕纂：《八旗满洲氏族通谱》，台北：台湾商务印书馆，1983年，第12页。嗣后，大学士希福于崇德元年奉敕翻译《辽》、《金》、《元》三史，崇德四年六月译竣，顺治元年“敬缮成书以进”。[]

For example, Taizu once ordered Dahai to translate Chinese books, and Taizong once assigned Manchu officials in the "Study orgnization" to the work of "translating Chinese books". The successfully translated books include ''the code of the Ministry of punishment'', ''Su Shu'', ''San Lue'', ''Wan Bao Quan Shu''(''General People's Daily Life''), etc. In the eighth year of Tiancong, Yi chenga (also known as Yi chengge) took part in the examination of the Ministry of rites, took the first place in the "Han people's learning full books", was awarded to work part-time at the National Academy of history, and translated ''Ceremony of the Ministry of Rites'' into a book. [] Ertai et al：''Records of Emperor Taizong In Qing Dynasty''，Beijing：Zhong Hua Book Company，1985，p239；Imperial usurpation by Emperor Gaozong of the Qing Dynasty：''General Manual of Manchu Clan in Eight Banners''，Taibei：Taiwan Commercial Press，1983，p12. Subsequently, in the first year of Chongde, the grand seccretary Xi Fu was ordered to translate three historical books: ''Liao'', ''Jin'' and ''yuan'',and the translation work ended in June of the fourth year of Chongde, then the books were presented to the emperor in the first year of Shunzhi.[]--[[User:Rao Jinying|Rao Jinying]] ([[User talk:Rao Jinying|talk]]) 03:02, 18 October 2021 (UTC)

For example, Taizu once ordered Dahai to translate Chinese books, and Taizong assigned Manchu officials in the "Study orgnization" to the work of "translating Chinese books", which included ''the Code of the Ministry of Punishments '', ''Su Shu'', ''San Lue'', ''General People's Daily Life , etc. In the eighth year of Tiancong, Yi Chenga (also known as Yi Cheng’e) took the examination of the Ministry of Rites and won the first place in the "Han people's learning full books". He was awarded to work part-time at the National Academy of History as well as translated ''Ceremony of the Ministry of Rites'' into a book. [] Ertai et al：''Factual Records of Emperor Taizong In the Qing Dynasty''，Beijing：Zhong Hua Book Company，1985，p.239；Imperial usurpation by Emperor Gaozong of the Qing Dynasty：''General Manual of Manchu Clan in Eight Banners''，Taibei：Taiwan Commercial Press，1983，p.12. Subsequently, in the first year of Chongde, the grand secretary Xi Fu was mandated to translate three historical books: ''Liao'', ''Jin'' and ''yuan'',and the translation work ended in June of the fourth year of Chongde, then the books were presented to the emperor in the first year of Shunzhi. --[[User:Shi Liqing|Shi Liqing]] ([[User talk:Shi Liqing|talk]]) 05:08, 18 October 2021 (UTC)

==石丽青 Shí Lìqīng 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081521==

鄂尔泰等：《清实录·太宗文皇帝实录》，北京：中华书局，1985年，第49页。这些满译汉籍或涉及修身正心，或涉及齐家治国，成为统治者了解汉制，学习知识的主要途径，同时也是清初旗人教育的重要来源。例如，顺治初开办国子监八旗官学时，朝廷拟将满、汉官员子弟分为“读清书”、“读汉书”两种，前者正是以汉籍的满文译本作为学习的主要内容。

Ertai et al.: “Factual Records of the Qing Dynasty • Factual Records of Emperor Taizongwen”, Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1985, p. 49. These Chinese books translated in Manchu language, either involving self-cultivation and moral integrity or related to regulating the family and ruling the state, became the main way for governors to learn about the Han system and acquire knowledge, as well as the significant source of Bannerman Education in the early Qing Dynasty. For instance, at the beginning of Emperor Shunzhi’s establishment of the Imperial Academy of Eight Banners, the court intended to divide the children of Manchu and Han officials into two types:” reading books of the Qing Dynasty and of the Han Dynasty, the former of which exactly took the Manchu translation of Chinese books as the main content of learning.--[[User:Shi Liqing|Shi Liqing]] ([[User talk:Shi Liqing|talk]]) 14:35, 16 October 2021 (UTC)

Ertai et al.:” Factual Records of the Qing Dynasty • Factual Records of Emperor Taizongwen”, Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1985, p. 49. These Chinese books translated in Manchu language, either involving self-cultivation and moral integrity or related to regulating the family and ruling the state, became the main way for governors to learn about the Han system and acquire knowledge, as well as the significant source of Bannerman Education in the early Qing Dynasty. For instance,at the time of establishing the Imperial Academy of Eight Banners in the beginning of the rule of Shunzhi, the court intended to divide the children of Manchu and Han officials into two types:” reading books of the Qing Dynasty and of the Han Dynasty, the former of which exactly took the Manchu translation of Chinese books as the main content of learning.--[[User:Sun Yashi|Sun Yashi]] ([[User talk:Sun Yashi|talk]]) 03:26, 17 October 2021 (UTC)

==孙雅诗 Sūn Yǎshī 外国语言学及应用语言学女 202120081522==

顺治年间，他赤哈哈番阿什坦先后翻译《大学》、《中庸》、《孝经》和《通鉴总论》等，这些书籍要么被用作治国理政之参考，要么也被用作旗人教育之教材。[] 鄂尔泰等修，李洵、赵德贵点校：《八旗通志·初集》，长春：东北师范大学出版，1986年，第5339页。据陳康祺在《郎潜纪闻·二笔》中说，“顺治初，翻译《大学》、《中庸》、《孝经》诸书，刊行之，以教旗人，皆出其手”，即是此情况之体现。[]

During the reign of Shunzhi, Tachihahafanashitan translated the ''University'', the ''Moderation'', the ''Classic of Filial Piety'' and ''The General of Tongjian'' one by one, which were either used as a reference for governing the country or as teaching materials for the education of Flag People.[]Revised by Ertai ect. Proofread by Li Xun and Zhao Degui: ''Eight Banner Tongzhi· Initial Collection'', Changchun: Published by Northeast Normal University, 1986, p. 5339.According to Chen Kangqi in ''Lang Qianjiang · Two Bi'', " At the beginning of Shunzhi, he translated the ''University'',the ''Moderation'', the ''Classic of Filial Piety'' and published them to teach the Frag People", which is the embodiment of this situation.[]--[[User:Sun Yashi|Sun Yashi]] ([[User talk:Sun Yashi|talk]]) 03:17, 17 October 2021 (UTC)

During the reign of Shunzhi, Tachihahafanashitan translated the ''University'', the ''Moderation'', the ''Classic of Filial Piety'' and ''The General of Tongjian'' successively， which were either used as a reference for governing the country or as teaching materials for the education of Banner People. []Revised by Ertai ect. Proofread by Li Xun and Zhao Degui: ''General Annals of Eight Banner ·Initial Collection'', Changchun: Published by Northeast Normal University, 1986, p.5339. According to Chen Kangqi in ''Folk Anecdotes Chronicle(Second Version)'', "In the early period of Shunzhi, he translated the ''University'',the ''Moderation'', the ''Classic of Filial Piety'' and published them to educate the Banner People", which is the embodiment of this situation. --[[User:Wang Lifei|Wang Lifei]] ([[User talk:Wang Lifei|talk]]) 04:49, 17 October 2021 (UTC)

==王李菲 Wáng Lǐfēi 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081523==

陈康祺著，晋石点校：《郎潜纪闻·二笔》，北京：中华书局，1997年，第362页。除了是八旗臣民的学习教材之外，汉籍满译本也是最高统治者的学习蓝本，深深影响了清初君主的知识结构。例如，世祖即位之初，仅识满文，逮亲政后方习汉语。《清实录·世祖章皇帝实录》中的说法是“六龄即嗜观史书”，显然世祖是以汉籍的满文译本为限。[]

Written by Chen Kangqi, edited by Jinshi: ''Folk Anecdotes Chronicle(Second Version).'' Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1997, page 362. In addition to being the learning material of the eight banners, the Manchu translation of Chinese classics was also the learning blueprint of the supreme rulers, which deeply influenced the knowledge structure of the early Qing emperors. For example, emperor Shizu only knew Manchu when he just ascended the throne, then he learned Chinese after taking over the reins. In ''the Records of Qing Dynasty· Emperor Fu Lin'', it is said that “be addicted to reading historical books at the age of 6”, which implies that emperor Shizu was limited to the Manchu translation of Han books at that time.--[[User:Wang Lifei|Wang Lifei]] ([[User talk:Wang Lifei|talk]]) 14:35, 16 October 2021 (UTC)

Annotations:
First:the Manchu translation of Chinese-the translation of Han Ji Manchu
Second:emperor Shizu-at the beginning of emperor Shizu’s accession --[[User:Wang Yifan21|Wang Yifan21]] ([[User talk:Wang Yifan21|talk]]) 05:16, 18 October 2021 (UTC)
==王逸凡 Wáng Yìfán 亚非语言文学女 202120081524==

鄂尔泰等：《清实录·世祖章皇帝实录》，北京：中华书局，1985年，第27页。《北游集》中，对于世祖勤学汉文的情形也有记载，认为他所阅读的汉书范围甚广，“《左》、《史》、《庄》、《骚》、先秦、两汉、唐宋八大家，以及元明撰著，无不毕备。”[] 释道忞：《北遊集》，上海：上海古籍出版社，2010年，第47-48页。

Ertai et al., Records of the Qing Dynasty, Records of the Emperor Shizu Zhang, Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1985, p. 27. There is also a record of Shizu's diligent study of The Chinese language in Beiyou, which says that he read a wide range of Han books, including Zuo, Shi, Zhuang, Sao, the eight masters of the Pre-Qin, Han, Tang and Song dynasties, as well as the works of the Yuan and Ming dynasties. [] Daomin Shi: A Journey in North China, Shanghai: Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House, 2010, pp. 47-48.--[[User:Wang Yifan21|Wang Yifan21]] ([[User talk:Wang Yifan21|talk]]) 03:10, 18 October 2021 (UTC)

Ertai et al. Records of emperor shizuzhang in the Qing Dynasty, Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1985, P. 27. There are also records of Shizu's diligent study of Chinese in the collection of northern travels, which holds that he has read a wide range of Han books, "Zuo, Shi, Zhuang, Sao, eight masters in the pre-Qin, Han, Tang and Song Dynasties, as well as the yuan and Ming Dynasties." [] Shi Daoyi: collection of northern travels, Shanghai: Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House, 2010, pp. 47-48.

==王镇隆 Wáng Zhènlóng 英语语言文学（英美文学）男 202120081525==

顺治帝学习汉文之时，内秘书院已完成组织翻译《通鉴》，并另行请译《大学衍义》，这些译本无论成书与否，都对顺治帝奠定知识基础具有重要作用。顺治十年，内院诸臣奉敕翻译《五经》，顺治帝在御览译本初稿时，也以御笔批注译本中的讹错，令译书官更正缮写。正是由于世祖亲近汉官，倾慕汉族文化，虽然因为统治阶级内部的压力，不得不在顺治十一年宣布宗学“永停其习汉字诸书”，但仍在宗学的教学内容上做出让步，允许宗学生“翻译各样汉书观玩”，使得宗学及其它官学仍可以保留满译汉籍文本作为教材。[]

When Emperor Shunzhi studied Chinese, neimi Academy had completed the translation of Tongjian and asked for another translation of University Spread Meaning. Whether these translations were completed or not, they played an important role in laying the knowledge foundation for emperor Shunzhi. In the 10th year of Shunzhi reign, the officials in the inner court translated The Five Classics. When Emperor Shunzhi read the first draft of the translation, he also annotated the errors in the translation with the Royal pen and ordered the translators to correct and rewrite. It was precisely because the ancestors were close to Han officials and admired Han culture,although they had to announce that the patriarchal school "stopped learning Chinese characters and books forever" in the 11th year of Shunzhi because of the pressure within the ruling class, they still made concessions on the teaching content of the patriarchal school and allowed the patriarchal students to "translate all kinds of Chinese books and watch and play", so that the patriarchal school and other official schools can still retain the fully translated Chinese texts as teaching materials. -- translated by Wang Zhenlong

When Emperor Shunzhi studied Chinese, Neimi Academy had completed the translation of ''Tongjian'' and asked for another translation of ''The Derivation of the Great Learning''. Whether these translations were completed or not, they played an important role in laying the knowledge foundation for emperor Shunzhi. In the 10th year of the reign of Emperor Shunzhi, the ministers in the Neimi Academy translated ''The Five Classics''. When Emperor Shunzhi read the first draft of the translation, he also annotated the errors in the translation with the royal pen and ordered the translators to correct and rewrite. They had to announce that the royal family "stopped learning Chinese characters and books forever" in the 11th year of the reign of Emperor Shunzhi because of the pressure within the ruling class. But it was precisely because the ancestors were close to Han officials and admired Han culture, they still made concessions on the teaching content of the royal clan and allowed the students to "translate all kinds of Chinese books and watch and play", so that the patriarchal school and other official schools can still retain the fully translated Chinese texts as teaching materials. --[[User:Wei Yiwen|Wei Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Wei Yiwen|talk]]) 05:20, 19 October 2021 (UTC)

==卫怡雯 Wèi Yíwén 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081526==

至于内秘书院原拟翻译的《大学衍义》，虽迟至康熙十一年完成，并于次年进呈，但无论太皇太后，还是康熙本人，都对该书格外重视，不仅命儒臣翻译刊刻，颁赐群臣，而且将其分发给八旗官学，以资肄习。[]康熙作为千古一帝，在位期间不仅敕译大量儒典，如《日讲四书解义》、《日讲书经解义》、《日讲易经解义》等，也敕撰或御制满汉合璧本的其它汉籍，如《御选古文渊鉴》、《资治通鉴纲目》、《御纂性理精义》等，这些书籍在颁赐大臣和各省之余，也一并被颁赐旗学，以教材资用。

As for The Original Draft of The Derivation of Great Learning by Secretary of Academy, though it was completed until the eleventh year of Kangxi and was presented the next year, both Kangxi’s grandmother and Kangxi himself attached great importance to the book. He not only ordered knowledgeable ministers to translate the cut blocks and gave it as an official favor to all ministers. He also handed it out for Eight Banners (military administrative system of the Manchus in the Qing Dynasty) to encourage them to leave school before graduation. As the first emperor in thousands of years, during the reign, he not only gave imperial order to translate many Confucian classics, such as Explain Four Books Every Day, Explain Books of Documents Every Day, Explain Books of Changes Every Day, but also ordered them to make other Chinese books of the combination of Manchu and Han, such as Imperial Selection of Guwenyuanjian, Compendium of History as a Mirror, Imperial Compile of Xinglijingyi. Besides as an official favor to the ministers and each province, it was also handed out Eight Banners in order to further enrich the use of teaching materials.--[[User:Wei Yiwen|Wei Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Wei Yiwen|talk]]) 04:13, 17 October 2021 (UTC)

As for ''The Original Draft of The Derivation of Great Learning'' by Secretary of Academy, though it was completed until the eleventh year of Kangxi and was presented in the next year, both Kangxi’s grandmother and Kangxi himself attached great importance to the book. He not only ordered knowledgeable ministers to translate and print the book and gave the translations as an official favor to all ministers. He also handed out them to Eight Banners (military administrative system of the Manchus in the Qing Dynasty) for their study. As an excellent emperor in the history, during his reign, Kangxi not only gave imperial order to translate many Confucian classics, such as ''Explain Four Books Every Day'', ''Explain Books of Documents Every Day'', ''Explain Books of Changes Every Day'', but also ordered to compile other Chinese books of the combination of Manchu and Han, such as ''Imperial Selection of Guwenyuanjian'', ''Compendium of History as a Mirror'', ''Imperial Compile of Xinglijingyi''. Besides as an official favor to the ministers and each province, these books were also handed out to Eight Banners as teaching material.--[[User:Wei Chuxuan|Wei Chuxuan]] ([[User talk:Wei Chuxuan|talk]]) 13:58, 17 October 2021 (UTC)

==魏楚璇 Wèi Chǔxuán 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081527==

可以认为，清代的旗学教育从一开始便受到统治者重视与支持。如若不然，则汉籍的满文译本想要进入旗学，必不可能。以《孝经》为例，该书初由阿什坦以满文译成，后被用作旗学教材，其中原因即得益于顺治帝“以孝治天下”的战略。雍正年间，世宗同样力主孝道，以孝道为立教之原、立身之要，令儒臣“专译经文”，以便习诵。[]

It is believed that the education for the offsprings of Eight Banners was attached importance to and supported by the rulers from the very beginning. If it was not so, the Manchu translations of ancient classics of Han culture would never get into the schools for the offsprings of Eight Banners. Take ''The Book of Filial Piety'' as an example. The book was firstly translated by Ashtan with Manchu then was used as textbook for the schools. The reason of this is the strategy put forward by Shunzhi emperor that used the morality of filial piety to run the country. During the ruling years of Yongzheng emperor, he also emphasized the morality which should be the source of education and the core of personal moral cultivation and ordered scholars and officials to translate relevant scriptures for study and recitation.--[[User:Wei Chuxuan|Wei Chuxuan]] ([[User talk:Wei Chuxuan|talk]]) 04:19, 17 October 2021 (UTC)

It was believed that the education for the School for Children of the Eight Banners in Qing Dynasty had received great attention and supported by the rulers from the very beginning. If this was not the case, it was absolutely impossible for the Manchu translations of Chinese books to get into the School. Take ''The Book of Filial Piety'' as an example, this book was firstly translated by Ashtan in Manchu then was used as a textbook for the School. And the reason for that was that the Emperor Shunzhi put forward the strategy, ruling the world with "filial piety". During the year of Yongzheng emperor, he also thought highly of filial piety which should be the source of education and the core of personal moral cultivation. Besides, he also ordered confucian officials to specialize in translating scriptures for people to study and read.--[[User:Wei Zhaoyan|Wei Zhaoyan]] ([[User talk:Wei Zhaoyan|talk]]) 15:04, 17 October 2021 (UTC)

==魏兆妍 Wèi Zhàoyán 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081528==

最终，《孝经》又于雍正五年译印成满、汉合璧本，继续作为旗学教材之用，以助朝廷推行政策之需。当然，清代旗学教材并非仅有中央律定一途，各省驻防也有自行翻译、编纂和刊印者，如嘉庆年间杭州驻防将军萨秉阿重刻九鼐翻译的《戒赌十则》，广州将军衙门编纂的《满汉文八种》，以及光绪年间荆州驻防翻译总学也先后纂辑《吏治辑要》等，这些书籍虽非皇帝敕译、敕纂，但于清廷政治和地方政务亦有所合。上述书籍完成译印之后，即被用于旗学教育，进一步丰富了旗学教材的使用。

At last, ''The Classic on Filial Piety'' was translated and printed into a version included both Manchu and Chinese during the 5th year of Yongzheng, continuing to be used as a teaching material for the School for Children of the Eight Banners in Qing Dynasty in order to meet the needs of the court to carry out a policy. Certainly, the central government was not the only way to set up the textbook of the School. There were also people who translate, compile and print by themselves in the provincial garrison, such as ''Ten Rules for Quitting Gambling'' translated by the nine incense tripod, Sa Bing E Zhong Ke, a general garrison in Hangzhou during the year of Jiaqing and ''Eight Kinds of Manchu and Chinese'' compiled by the General Government of Guangzhou, ''Summary of Official Administration'' successively complied by general translators of Jinzhou garrison during the year of Guangxu. Although these books were not translated and compiled under the order of the emperor, they had some similarities in Qing politics and local government affairs. Upon finishing the translation and printing of these books, they were used in the education of the School, which further enriched the use of its teaching materials.--[[User:Wei Zhaoyan|Wei Zhaoyan]] ([[User talk:Wei Zhaoyan|talk]]) 23:18, 16 October 2021 (UTC)

In the end, ''The Classic on Filial Piety'' was translated and printed into a version included both Manchu and Chinese during the 5th year of Yongzheng, continuing to be used as a teaching material for the School for Children of the Eight Banners in Qing Dynasty in order to meet the needs of the court to carry out a policy. Certainly, the central government was not the only way to set up the textbook of the School. There were also people who translate, compile and print by themselves in the provincial garrison, such as ''Ten Rules for Quitting Gambling'' translated by the nine incense tripod, Sa Bing E Zhong Ke, a general garrison in Hangzhou during the year of Jiaqing and ''Eight Kinds of Manchu and Chinese'' compiled by the General Government of Guangzhou, ''Summary of Official Administration'' successively complied by general translators of Jinzhou garrison during the year of Guangxu. Although these books were not translated and compiled under the order of the emperor, they had some similarities with Qing politics and local government affairs. Upon finishing the translation and printing of these books, they were used in the education of the School( “Qixue”) , which further enriched the use of its teaching materials. --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 04:57, 17 October 2021 (UTC)

==吴婧悦 Wú Jìngyuè 俄语语言文学女 202120081529==

3.旗学教育中的翻译课业与考课。清代旗学的课业要求与其教学重点密切关联，因而考课上并无完全一致的情况。以国子监八旗官学为例，顺治元年即将学生分为习清书、习汉书两类。顺治以后，虽然朝廷对于该学的学生额数屡有调整，但类别上仍保持了原来的习清书、习汉书之分。

Translation course and examination courses in the School(Qixue). The schoolwork requirements of the School in the Qing Dynasty are closely related to its teaching focus, so there is no completely consistent situation in the examination course. Take the official study of the Eight banners of Imperial College as an example, the first year of Shunzhi made students divided into two categories: some of them stydied the Qing Book and the others studied Han Book. After Shunzhi, although the imperial court had repeatedly adjusted the number of students in the study, it still maintained the original study of Qing and Han books in the category. --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 04:46, 17 October 2021 (UTC)
Translation course and examination in flag school education. The academic requirements of the flag school in the Qing Dynasty were closely related to its teaching priorities, so there was no complete consistency in the examination. Taking the Eight Banners official school of the Imperial College as an example, in the first year of Shunzhi, students will be divided into two categories: learning Qingshu and learning Hanshu. After Shunzhi, although the imperial court repeatedly adjusted the number of students in the school, it still maintained the original classification of learning Qing books and learning Han books.--[[User:Wu Yinghong|Wu Yinghong]] ([[User talk:Wu Yinghong|talk]]) 12:07, 18 October 2021 (UTC)

==吴映红 Wú Yìnghóng 日语语言文学女 202120081530==

如雍正五年，世宗令每旗额设国子监八旗官学生一百名，其中满洲六十名，仍分习清文、习汉文，蒙古和汉军各二十名，课业上虽无明确规定，但循例仍应分为两类：习蒙文、汉书，以及习清书、翻译。据时任国子监祭酒孙嘉淦奏报，朝廷在取录学生时，对于习清书、习翻译者的年龄要求有所不同，其中“学满书者，可用幼穉之人”，而“学汉文翻译者，必得十四五以上、资性聪敏之人。”[] 鄂尔泰等修，李洵、赵德贵点校：《八旗通志·初集》，长春：东北师范大学出版，1986年，第913-917页。
For example, in the fifth year of Yongzheng, Emperor Shizong ordered to set up 100 students of the eight banners of the Imperial College, including 60 in Manchuria, who were still divided into Qing and Chinese, and 20 in Mongolia and the Han army. Although there were no clear regulations on their schoolwork, they should still be divided into two categories: learning Mongolian, Chinese, Qing and translation. According to the memorial of sun Jiagan, then the Imperial College's eunuch, when recruiting students, the imperial court had different age requirements for Xi Qingshu and Xi translators. Among them, "those who have learned a lot of books can use young people", while "those who have learned Chinese translators must have more than 15 years of experience and intelligence."

For example, in the fifth year of Yongzheng’s reign, Emperor Shizong ordered to admit 100 students of the eight banners of the Imperial College, 60 of which are Manchurians, divided into two groups correspondingly learning works of Qing Dynasty and Han Dynasty, and the rest of which are soldiers of Mongolia and Han dynasty. Although there were no clear regulations on their learning content, they should still be divided into two categories: learning Mongolian, Works of Han dynasty, and works of Qing dynasty and translation. According to the memorial of sun Jiagan, then the Imperial College's eunuch, when recruiting students, the imperial court had different age requirements for Xi Qingshu and Xi translators. Among them, "those who have learned a lot of books can use young people", while "those who have learned Chinese translators must have more than 15 years of experience and intelligence."--[[User:Xiao Yiyao|Xiao Yiyao]] ([[User talk:Xiao Yiyao|talk]]) 10:52, 20 October 2021 (UTC)

==肖毅瑶 Xiāo Yìyáo 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081531==

自此以后，国子监八旗官学中教习翻译渐成定例。如乾隆年间，国子监议定《八旗官学生条例》，对学生的平时学习、例行测验等做了具体规定，从设立“到学薄”与“功课薄”等，到设立“常课”、“会课”、“会考”等，都是如此。其中，无论是每月一次的常课、会课，还是每年于春、秋二季各办一次的会考，考试环节和内容上均设有翻译一项，只不过考试翻译也分“满馆试”与“蒙古试”，前者试翻译或者清书一题，后者试蒙古翻译一题。[]

Since then, translation teaching has gradually become a routine for the Eight Banners officers in the Imperial Academy. For example, during the reign of Emperor Qianlong, the Imperial Academy proposed the ''Regulations on the Eight Banners Students'' which stipulated specifically their daily study and routine examination, from setting up the attendance record and academic performance record to the establishment of system of regular class, meeting class and general examination. Among them, not only the monthly regular class and meeting class, but also the general examination which were held every spring an autumn, set the translation part and content. There were mainly two types of such translation tests, including Manchu test and Mongolian test, in which the former translated the book in the language of Qing Dynasty ,while the latter tried the question of Mongolian translation.--[[User:Xiao Yiyao|Xiao Yiyao]] ([[User talk:Xiao Yiyao|talk]]) 03:21, 17 October 2021 (UTC)

Since then, teaching translation for the Eight Banners official school of the Imperial Academy has gradually become a rule. For example, during the reign of Emperor Qianlong, the Imperial Academy agreed on the regulations on eight banner students , which made specific provisions on students' daily study and routine tests, from the establishment of "attendance record" and "homework record" to the establishment of "regular classes", "meeting classes" and "general exams". Among them, whether it is the regular classes and meeting class once a month or the general examination held once a year in spring and autumn, there is a translation item in the examination links and contents, but the examination translation is also divided into "Manchu test" and "Mongolian test", in which the former examined Manchu translation ,while the latter tested the question of Mongolian translation.--[[User:Xie Jiafen|Xie Jiafen]] ([[User talk:Xie Jiafen|talk]]) 03:48, 17 October 2021 (UTC)

==谢佳芬 Xiè Jiāfēn 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081532==

之所以要如此组织考试，是为了对师、生形成教、学的压力，特别是对学生的懒惰浮游进行责罚，以励其学。为此，朝廷在教习的选任与考课的要求上，也有严格规定。据孙嘉淦奏报，国子监八旗官学一般为“一旗三学”，即满书（习翻译者往往入满书房）、汉书、蒙文，每学设讲诵之所三、四间，故以每旗三学计，共十三、四间不等。

The reason why the examination is organized in this way is to put the pressure on teachers and students in their teaching and learning , especially to punish the lazy and idle students, so as to encourage them to learn. Therefore, the imperial court also had strict regulations on the selection and examination. According to Sun Jiagan's petition, the eight banners official school of the imperial academy usually set ''three courses for one banner'' , that is, Manchu (learners who study translation need to study in Manchu study), Chinese and Mongolian. Each course has three or four places for recitation. Therefore, based on the three courses of each banner, there are thirteen or fourteen classrooms in total.--[[User:Xie Jiafen|Xie Jiafen]] ([[User talk:Xie Jiafen|talk]]) 03:05, 17 October 2021 (UTC)

The reason for organizing examinations in this way was to put pressure on teachers and students in their teaching and learning , especially to punish the lazy and idle students, so as to encourage them to learn. Therefore, the imperial court also had strict regulations on the selection and examination. According to Sun Jiagan's petition, the eight banners official school of the imperial academy usually set ''three courses for one banner'' , that is, Manchu (learners who study translation need to study in Manchu study), Chinese and Mongolian. Each course has three or four places for recitation. Therefore, based on the three courses of each banner, there are thirteen or fourteen classrooms in total.--[[User:Xie Qinglin|Xie Qinglin]] ([[User talk:Xie Qinglin|talk]]) 15:05, 17 October 2021 (UTC)

==谢庆琳 Xiè Qìnglín 俄语语言文学女 202120081533==

顺治二年，朝廷为每处选任教习十人，乾隆十七年裁撤各旗汉教习一人，并将教射教习咨回本旗，但乾隆三十一年，又于每旗添设满教习一人，专门负责翻译和清书的教授，同时因为汉教习名下已经拨出翻译学生，故将汉教习裁减一名。考课上，国子监八旗官学在经历顺、康、雍、乾四朝年间，也有调整与变化。顺治二年，关于国子监八旗官学的考课规定是“每十日一次赴监考课，遇春秋演射，五日一次，就本处练习”，至康熙元年，考课规定中增加了翻译内容，调整为“每月赴监讲书一次、翻译一次，五日射箭一次。”[]

In the second year of the Shunzhi dynasty, the court selected ten teaching staff for each office, and in the seventeenth year of the Qianlong dynasty, the Chinese teaching staff of each banner was abolished, and the teaching staff of archery was consulted back to the banner, but in the thirty-first year of the Qianlong dynasty, a full teaching staff was added to each banner, specifically responsible for the teaching of translation and Qing books, and at the same time, because the name of the Chinese teaching staff had been allocated to translation students, so the Chinese teaching staff was reduced by one. Examinations, the eight banners of the National Palace of education in the years of Shun, Kang, Yong, Qian four dynasties, there are also adjustments and changes. Shunzhi two years, on the eight banners of the National Palace of Justice official school examination class is "once every ten days to go to the prison examination class, in the event of spring and autumn shooting, once every five days, on the practice of this place", to the first year of the Kangxi, examination class regulations added translation content, adjusted to "once a month to the prison lecture, translation once, five days archery once.--[[User:Xie Qinglin|Xie Qinglin]] ([[User talk:Xie Qinglin|talk]]) 15:01, 17 October 2021 (UTC)

In the second year of the Shunzhi’s reign, the court selected ten teaching staffs for each office, and in the seventeenth year of the Qianlong’s reign, the Chinese teaching staff of each county was laid off, and the teaching staff of archery was consulted back to the county, but in the thirty-first year of the Qianlong dynasty, a Manchu teaching staff was added to each banner, specifically responsible for the teaching of translation and Manchu books, and at the same time, since students for translation had been selected from Chinese teaching staffs, so the Chinese teaching staff was reduced by one. In the examination, the eight banners of the National Palace of education in the years of Shun, Kang, Yong, Qian’s reign, saw adjustments and changes. In the second year of Shunzhi’s reign, on the eight banners of the National Palace of Justice official school examination class was "once every ten days to go to the prison examination class, in the event of spring and autumn shooting, once every five days, on the practice of this place", to the first year of the Kangxi, examination class regulations added translation content, adjusted to "once a month to the prison lecture, translation once, five days archery once.--[[User:Xiong Min|Xiong Min]] ([[User talk:Xiong Min|talk]]) 02:41, 20 October 2021 (UTC)

==熊敏 Xióng Mǐn 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081534==

至乾隆三十一年，进一步提高了考课要求，规定习汉文者在肄业十年之后，如不能获得进身，以及习翻译和清文者如不能考取中书、笔帖式、库使等，均一律咨送本旗，另挑差使。
宗学的情况也与国子监八旗官学的情况类似，其教学重点、教习选任，以及考课规定等同样经历了调适。如顺治九年，宗学于每旗设满洲官，教习满书。雍正二年，朝廷从各部院司官中书中，分别拣选清书、汉书和骑射教习四人，每翼分派二人。

Till the 31st year of Qianlong’s reign, the requirement for examination was higher. It was said that those who were good at Chinese but failed to be office in a decade and those who were skilled in translation and Manchu but failed to obtain Zhongshu, Bi Tieshi, Kushi and so on through examination, would all be sent back to where they belonged and be replaced by others.
Zongxue, school for royal family told the same story. The focus of education and the selecting system also saw adjustments. Take the ninth year of Shunzhi’s reign for example. Zongxue assigned Manchu officer in every county to teach. In the second year of Yongzheng’s reign, the court selected four people as Qingshu, Hanshu, coach for horse riding and archery from every department. Two persons were appointed in each county.

Till the 31st year of Qianlong's reign, the court enhanced requirement for examination. It was said that those who were good at Chinese but failed to be office in a decade and those who were skilled in translation and Manchu but failed to obtain Zhongshu, Bi Tieshi, Kushi and so on through examination, would all be sent back to where they belonged and be replaced by others. Zongxue, school for royal family told the same story. The focus of education and the selecting system also saw adjustments. Take the ninth year of Shunzhi's reign for example. Zongxue assigned Manchu officer in every county to teach. In the second year of Yongzheng's reign, the court selected four people as Manchu, Chinese, coach for horse riding and archery from every department. Two persons were appointed in each county.--[[User:Xu Minyun|Xu Minyun]] ([[User talk:Xu Minyun|talk]]) 09:09, 20 October 2021 (UTC)

==徐敏赟 Xú Mǐnyūn 语言智能与跨文化传播研究男 202120081535==

至乾隆四年，在选任宗学教习时，改为以学生人数为基础进行选派，即每十人选派一名。然而，由于乾隆二十一年起，翻译和清书、骑射一样，成为宗学的三大教学重点之一，于是朝廷裁减了九名汉书教习，俱改为翻译教习。嘉庆朝时期，翻译仍是宗学的教学重点，因而翻译教习得以保留，同时又因为复设了习汉书科目，于是对汉教习进行了改设，规定两翼每学各四名。

In the 4th year of Qianlong reign, when selecting teachers of royal clan education, the selection was based on the number of students, that is, one for every ten students. However, since the 21st year of Qianlong, translation became one of the three major teaching points of royal clan education, just like Manchu and horsemanship and archery. Therefore, the court cut down nine Chinese teachers and changed Chinese teaching to translation teaching. During Jiaqing Dynasty, translation teaching was still the focus of royal clan education, so the teaching of translation was kept. At the same time, because of the re-establishment of the subject of Learning Chinese, the court reformed Chinese teachers and assigned 4 teachers for every subjects of two parts.--[[User:Xu Minyun|Xu Minyun]] ([[User talk:Xu Minyun|talk]]) 09:17, 18 October 2021 (UTC)

In the 4th year of Qianlong reign, the selection for teachers of royal clan education was based on the number, that is, one for every ten students. However, since the 21st year of Qianlong, translation has become one of the three major teaching points of royal clan education, just like Manchu classics and horsemanship and archery. Therefore, the court cut down and changed nine Chinese teachers to translation teachers. During Jiaqing Dynasty, translation teaching was still the focus of royal clan education, so the teaching of translation was kept. At the same time, because of the re-establishment of the subject of Chinese classics, the court reformed Chinese teachers and assigned four teachers for every subjects of two parts.--[[User:Yan Jing|Yan Jing]] ([[User talk:Yan Jing|talk]]) 13:32, 19 October 2021 (UTC)

==颜静 Yán Jìng 语言智能与跨文化传播研究女 202120081536==

考课上，由于乾、嘉两朝中翻译本是宗学的教学重点，考课中自然设有翻译内容。即便在乾隆朝早期，当教学重点主要为清书、汉书和骑射时，朝廷也在左、右翼两学设“总稽课程”各二人，并规定于每月举办考试三次，含经义、射艺和翻译考试各一次，且每年于秋季举办考试一次，其中含翻译、经义、时务策各一题。

In the examination, because the translations in the Qian and Jia Dynasties were the focuses for royal clan education, the translation content was naturally included. Even in the early Qianlong Dynasty, when the teaching focus was mainly on the Qing classics, the Han classics and horsemanship and archery, the imperial court also set up two "general inspectors for courses" on both the left and right sides, and stipulated to hold examinations three times a month, each for one subject of classics, horsemanship and archery and translation, and once a year in the autumn, of which the three questions are respectively about translation, classics and current affairs.--[[User:Yan Jing|Yan Jing]] ([[User talk:Yan Jing|talk]]) 14:13, 19 October 2021 (UTC)

of which the three questions are respectively about translation, classics and current affairs and policies.--[[User:Yan Lili|Yan Lili]] ([[User talk:Yan Lili|talk]]) 02:09, 20 October 2021 (UTC)

==颜莉莉 Yán Lìlì 国别女 202120081537==

礼部义学、咸安宫官学、觉罗学、清文学、盛京宗学和觉罗学等旗学中，翻译考试同样是考课的重要内容。如乾隆五年，礼部选派司员对礼部义学生进行每日稽考，规定学生需每季到部考课翻译经义，以及背书写字等，考试情况详登册籍，年终以优劣决定学生去留。雍正十二年，朝廷对咸安宫官学的教习额数进行调整，将原来所设清语教习九人裁撤三人，俱改为翻译教习，并对考课内容进行了明确规定，即五年考试一次，一次考试三日：第一日考试汉文，拟以《四书》二题的方式进行；

The translation examination is also an important part of the examination course in Yi school, Official school of Xian 'an Palace, Jueluo school, Qing Dynasty Literature, the Royal Clan Education of Shengjing and Jueluo school of the Ministry of Rites.For example, in the fifth year of the Qianlong dynasty, the Ministry of Rites selected and assigned administrators to carries on the daily assessments to the student of the Ministry of Rites, stipulating that students should come to the ministry every quarter to take tests on the translation of Confucian classics argumentation, as well as recite and write, etc. The examination conditions were listed in the books in detail, and the students were decided to stay or leave at the end of the year based on their merits.In the 12th year of Yongzheng,The imperial court adjusted the number of teachers in the Official school of Xian 'an Palace, removing three of the nine qing language teachers and changing them to translation teaching.The content of the examination was clearly stipulated, that is, the examination was conducted once every five years and each examination was conducted for three days: Chinese was tested on the first day, which was planned to be carried out in the way of two questions in the ''Four Books''
--[[User:Yan Lili|Yan Lili]] ([[User talk:Yan Lili|talk]]) 03:22, 17 October 2021 (UTC)

The examination conditions were listed in the books in detail, and the students were decided to stay or leave at the end of the year based on their merits.In the 12th year of Yongzheng,The imperial court adjusted the number of teachers in the Official school of Xian 'an Palace, removing three of the nine qing language teachers and changing them to translation teaching.The content of the examination was clearly stipulated, that is, the examination was conducted once every five years and each examination was conducted for three days: Chinese was tested on the first day, which was planned to be carried out in the way of two questions in the Four Books.--[[User:Yan Zihan|Yan Zihan]] ([[User talk:Yan Zihan|talk]]) 07:28, 29 December 2021 (UTC)

==颜子涵 Yán Zǐhán 国别女 202120081538==

第二日考试翻译、楷书和清字，拟以上谕一段进行；第三日考试骑射、步射。至于觉罗学、清文学、盛京宗学与觉罗学等，虽然考课规定中并没有明确提及翻译，但二者都设有翻译教习，可知翻译教学仍是其教学的重要内容。如雍正七年规定，各部院衙门现任笔帖式中，需考选能翻译者八人，充任觉罗学之清书教习，每旗各分一人。

The next day they took a translation，kai calligraphy and Qing text, which was intended to be tested with part of the emperor's imperial edict; On the third day they tested their horse archery and rifle shooting.As for Jueluo school, Qing Literature, the Royal Clan Education of Shengjing and Jueluo school, Although there was no explicit reference to translation in the examination rules, both had translation teaching. It could be known that translation teaching is still an important part of teaching. For example，the 7th year Yongzheng ruling period，be stipulated that among the current officials in various departments and yamen, Eight translators need to be selected as teachers for Manchu language of the Royal Clan Education of Jueluo school through the exam，they choosed one person per banner.--[[User:Yan Zihan|Yan Zihan]] ([[User talk:Yan Zihan|talk]]) 08:16, 20 October 2021 (UTC)

==阳佳颖 Yáng Jiāyǐng 国别女 202120081540==

同年，又规定清文学教习由汉军各旗会同满洲都统，从满洲闲散官、笔帖式，或者因公诖（guà）误（即，撤职或失官）人员中加以拣选。乾隆八年，朝廷对教习的年龄进行限制，要求翻译教习、清书教习均需年逾三旬。[]既然以上诸学中均设有翻译教习，各学官学生均需要接受翻译教学的内容与环节，那么考课中势必也不能离开翻译。

In the same year, it also made clear that the Qing literature teachers should be selected by the Han Army in the Eight Bannered Army of Qing Dynasty and the commander-in-chief of one of the Eight Banners selected from the manchurian idled officials, clerks, or those who had been dismissed or lost their official posts in the line of duty. In the eighth year of Emperor Qianlong’s reign, the imperial court imposed restrictions on the age of teaching, requiring teachers for translation and Manchu language to be over 30 years old. Since translation teaching is provided in all the above schools, and all students and officials need to accept the content and links of translation teaching, it is inevitable that examination cannot be separated from translation.--[[User:Yang Jiaying|Yang Jiaying]] ([[User talk:Yang Jiaying|talk]]) 06:34, 20 October 2021 (UTC)

In the same year, it also made clear that the Qing literature teachers should be selected by the Han Army in the Eight Bannered Army of Qing Dynasty and the commander-in-chief of one of the Eight Banners selected from the manchurian idled officials, clerks, or those who had been dismissed or lost their official posts in the line of duty. In the eighth year of Emperor Qianlong’s reign, the imperial court imposed restrictions on the age of the teachers, requiring that the teachers who teach translation and Manchu language should be over 30 years old. Since the above schools all have translation teachers and all students (the students in the official schools of Eight Banners) need to accept the contents and procedures of translation teaching, it is inevitble that translation should be included in the examination.--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 12:21, 22 October 2021 (UTC)

==杨爱江 Yáng Àijiāng 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081541==

而盛京宗学觉罗学自设立之初便有详细章程，如规定宗学、觉罗学分别教学，宗学和觉罗学皆由宗学总管管理等。由于该学中翻译一直是教学重点，因而翻译教习的设置更不可缺。如乾隆二年，即设翻译教习四人，与骑射、汉书教习人数相等。乾隆四十三年，汉教习被裁撤，但仍保留翻译教习与骑射教习。

There are detailed regulatios since the inception of the school of Royal Clan in Mudken and Jueluo. For example, school of Jueluo and Royal Clan teaches respectively and both are managed by General Administration office. It is indispensable to have translation teachers because translation is the teaching key point in this school. In the second year of emperor Qianlong, there are four translation teachers, equal to the number of teachers of equitation and toxophily and Han books.In the 43th year of Qianlong, teaching Han books was abolished while the teaching of translation and equitation and toxophily were still retained.--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 12:57, 24 October 2021 (UTC)

There are detailed regulatios since the establishment of the School of Shengjing Royal Clan Education and Jue Luo. For example, school of Jueluo and Royal Clan teached respectively and both are managed by General Administration office. The translation teachers are indispensable because translation is the teaching key point in this school. In the second year of Qianlong, there are four translation teachers, equal to the number of teachers of equitation and toxophily and Han books.In the 43th year of Qianlong, the teacher of Han books was dismissed while the teacher of translation and equitation and toxophily still retained.--[[User:Yang Kun|Yang Kun]] ([[User talk:Yang Kun|talk]]) 14:00, 22 October 2021 (UTC)

==杨堃 Yáng Kūn 法语语言文学女 202120081542==

至嘉庆年间（如嘉庆二年、二十五年），盛京宗学觉罗学虽然增设了满、汉教习，但翻译教习也属重要。盛京宗学觉罗学对教习进行分类选拔，即从现任司官笔帖式内选取精通翻译者，教习清语；从领催骁骑以上和闲散官员以下挑选精于骑射者，教习骑射；从奉天府举贡内挑选学问优长者，教习汉书。三者各自皆为四人，待五年期满后分别考以等第，并据此进行奖惩。

During the period of Jiaqing (such as the second and twenty fifth years of Jiaqing), although the Manchu and Chinese teaching were added to The School of Shengjing Royal Clan Education and Jue Luo, the translation teaching was also important. The School of Shengjing Royal Clan Education and Jue Luo classified and selected the teaching, that is, select the proficient translators from the officials Bithesi to teach the Qing language;choose those who are good at riding and shooting from those above the leader cavalry and those below the idle officials to teach riding and shooting; select the learned elders from the tributes of Fengtian Mansion to teach Han Shu. Each of the three is four. After the five years'expiration, they will be graded respectively, and will be rewarded and punished accordingly.--[[User:Yang Kun|Yang Kun]] ([[User talk:Yang Kun|talk]]) 14:07, 17 October 2021 (UTC)

During the period of Jiaqing (such as the second and twenty fifth years of Jiaqing), although the Manchu and Chinese teaching were added to The School of Royal Clan Education and Jue Luo in Shengjing, the translation teaching was also important. The School of Royal Clan Education and Jue Luo in Shengjing classified and selected the teaching, that is to select the proficient translators from the officials Bithesi to teach the Manchu; to choose those who were good at riding and shooting from those above the leader cavalry and those below the idle officials to teach riding and shooting; and to select the learned elders from the tributes of Fengtian Mansion to teach Han Shu. Each of the three needed four people. After the five years'expiration, they will be graded respectively, and will be rewarded and punished accordingly.--[[User:Yang Liuqing|Yang Liuqing]] ([[User talk:Yang Liuqing|talk]]) 08:07, 18 October 2021 (UTC)

==杨柳青 Yáng Liǔqīng 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081543==

虽然盛京宗学觉罗学也将学生分成习清书、习汉书两类，但无论清书汉书，每日皆有应肄之业，且习清书者兼讲汉书，习汉书者则兼讲满书，目的就在于使学生兼通满、汉，造就翻译之才。教学管理上，盛京宗学觉罗学也对骑射与翻译做了区分，即每逢三、六、九日学习射箭，而每逢五、十日学习翻译，以及作文作诗。盛京宗学觉罗学初用的教材较为简单，后经李治滋奏准，高宗于乾隆九年颁赐《资治纲目》、《大学衍义》、《性理大全》、《古文渊鉴》及《钦定四书》等满汉书籍，其中多数为满文译汉文典籍。

Schools of Royal Clan and Jueluo in Mudken also classified students into two kinds: students studying books of Manchu and students studing books of Han. Even so, students should study everyday no matter books of Manchu or books of Han; those students studying books of Manchu should also study books of Han, and vice versa.In terms of teaching management, schools of Royal Clan and Jueluo also made a distinction between horsemanship and transaltion, that was, students learnt archery on every three, six and nine days and learnt translation, writing composition and Poetry on every five and ten days.The original textbooks used in thses schools were relatively simple, and later some others textbooks were awarded by Gaozong at Li Zhi's suggestion in the ninth year of emperor Qianlong's reign. These books included "Compendium of Zi Zhi mu", "College Yan Yi", " Xingli Daquan", "Gu Wenyuan Jian" and "The Imperial Four Books", most of which were translated into Chinese from Manchu. --[[User:Yang Liuqing|Yang Liuqing]] ([[User talk:Yang Liuqing|talk]]) 08:10, 18 October 2021 (UTC)

Although Schools of Royal Clan and Jueluo in Mudken also classified students into two categories: students studying books of Manchu and students studing books of Han,students should study everyday no matter books of Manchu or books of Han; those students studying books of Manchu should also study books of Han, and vice versa.In terms of teaching management, schools of Royal Clan and Jueluo also made a distinction between horsemanship and transaltion, which is, students learnt archery on every three, six and nine days and learnt translation, writing composition and Poetry on every five and ten days.The original textbooks used in thses schools were relatively simple, and later some others textbooks were awarded by Gaozong at Li Zhi's suggestion in the ninth year of emperor Qianlong's reign. These books included "Compendium of Zi Zhi mu", "College Yan Yi", " Xingli Daquan", "Gu Wenyuan Jian" and "The Imperial Four Books", most of which were translated into Chinese from Manchu.

==叶维杰 Yè Wéijié 国别男 202120081544==

当然，旗学与旗学之间亦有明显区别，如设立时间早晚不同，条例规范详略有异等，但在教学重点上，清书和骑射是其共设科目。在此基础上，不少旗学另从汉书、翻译、蒙文等科目中进行选择，使其符合自身的置办初衷和培养目标。一般来说，学生学习清书、汉书、骑射或（和）翻译等，都得在旗学中按部就班地进行，并随时接受稽查与考核，但宗室和大臣子弟循例可在家学习，这一点给课业及考课造成困难。

Of course, there are also obvious differences between the flag school and the other flag school, such as its establishment time, and the detailed regulations and norms. However, in terms of the focus of teaching, the Qing book and riding and shooting are their common subjects. On this basis, many flag schools choose from Chinese, translation, Mongolian and other subjects to make them meet their original intention and training objectives. Generally speaking, students who study Qingshu, Hanshu, riding and shooting or (and) translation have to go step by step in the flag school and accept inspection and assessment at any time. However, the clan and minister's children can study at home as the rule, which makes it difficult for schoolwork and examination.--[[User:Ye Weijie|Ye Weijie]] ([[User talk:Ye Weijie|talk]]) 01:54, 23 October 2021 (UTC)

Of course, there were also obvious differences between the banner school, such as the time of establishment, and the details of regulations were slightly different, but in teaching focus, the Qing book and riding and archery were the common subjects. On this basis, many banner school chose other subjects such as Chinese classics, translation, Mongolian and so on, so as to met their original intention and training objectives.Generally speaking, students learned Qing book ,Chinese classics, equestrian archery or (and) translation, etc., had to be carried out step by step in the banner school, and to accept inspection and assessment at any time, while royalty and the children of ministers could always study at home, which caused difficulties in the course and examination.--[[User:Yi Yangfan|Yi Yangfan]] ([[User talk:Yi Yangfan|talk]]) 02:32, 23 October 2021 (UTC)Yi Yangfan

==易扬帆 Yì Yángfān 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081545==

如雍正十三年十一月十八日，即乾隆帝即位之初，监察御史玛起元上疏高宗，奏请将八旗荫生拨入各旗义学，一体肄业，并交国子监堂官不时考察，择其娴习经书、通晓翻译者，咨送吏部考试补用。[]乾隆三十九年，高宗因见宗室中竟有不会清语者，令宗人府查明情况。遗憾的是，虽然朝廷对于学生的选补多所要求，对于教习的选任也有规定，并对学生和教习的勤惰不时稽查，但各项规范行之日久，难免废弛。如《钦定国子监则例》中，曾详细记载“满教习报满”、“汉教习报满”的情况，其中写道：

Such as on November 18, 13th year of Yongzheng, which is the beginning of the Emperor Qianlong ascended the throne , the Supervisory Censor Ma Qiyuan reported to the emperor that sent the heirs of Eight Banners to the free school and study together. And sometimes the administer of the Imperial College would test them and chose some person who master the classics or translation to the Ministry of Official Personnel Affairs for supplement. On 39th year of Qianlong, the emperor commanded the office to find out, as he found that some one who cannot speak Manchu in imperial clan. Unfortunately, though the royal had lots of requirements for those students and teachers. And they also checked the students and teachers for laziness from time to time, but the rules had been in place for so long that they were likely to fall apart. Such as some precisely examples in The Regulation of the Imperial College for “Manchu class in full” or “Chinese class is full”, written that:--[[User:Yi Yangfan|Yi Yangfan]] ([[User talk:Yi Yangfan|talk]]) 13:13, 17 October 2021 (UTC)Yi Yangfan

For example, on November 18, the thirteenth year of Yongzheng, which was the beginning of the Emperor Qianlong ascended the throne , the Supervisory Censor Ma Qiyuan proposed to the emperor that sent the heirs of Eight Banners to the free school and study together. And sometimes the administers of the Imperial College would test them and chose some persons who master the Confucian classics or translation to the Ministry of Official Personnel Affairs for supplement. On the thirty-ninth year of Qianlong, the emperor commanded the office to find out the learning process, as he found that some one who cannot speak Manchu in imperial clan. Unfortunately, though the royal had lots of requirements for those students and teachers. And they also supervised the students and teachers from time to time, but the rules had been implemented for so long that they were likely to fall apart. Such as some precisely examples in The Regulation of the Imperial College for “Manchu teaching staff expired”or “Chinese teaching staff expired”, written that:--[[User:Yin Huizhen|Yin Huizhen]] ([[User talk:Yin Huizhen|talk]]) 09:13, 19 October 2021 (UTC)

==殷慧珍 Yīn Huìzhēn 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081546==

（满教习报满）将本名下学生，注明到学几年，現读何书，翻译几名，造冊移交档房，按日积算，如功课缺少，毫无成效者，教习不准报满，助教记大过一次；（汉教习报满）除将考中生员、恩监生、中书等学生开具清冊外，其现在读书者几名，某生若干岁，读经书若干卷；作文者几名，某生若干岁，读过古文、时文若干篇，某作起讲，某半篇，某全篇，并各学生入馆年分，详细造具清冊二本，……满教习报满，亦照此例。[]

（Manchu teaching staff expired）The students under the teacher's name shall be recorded that how many years they have studied, where they are studying now, how many translators have been trained, and the list of students shall be compiled and handed over to the archives room. It shall be recorded on every specific day, if they were absent from class and had no effect in learning, the teacher is not allowed to declare that their work has expired, and the teaching assistant will be recorded a major demerit once.
（Chinese teaching staff expired）In addition to making a list of such students like scholars, the students of the Imperial college, and Zhongshu, it should be recorded that how many of them are still studying, indicating their age and how many volumes of Confucian classics they have read; It also should be recorded that the number of writers, indicating their age, how many classics and Eight legged Essay they have read, articles they have discussed, which half or the whole, and the year of admission of each student should be registered in the two brochures in detail. When Manchu teaching staff expire，they should also follow this regulation.--[[User:Yin Huizhen|Yin Huizhen]] ([[User talk:Yin Huizhen|talk]]) 09:18, 19 October 2021 (UTC)

（Manchu teaching staff expired）The students under the teacher's name shall be recorded as to their period of schooling, books they were reading as well as the amount of translation they had done, which shall be compiled and handed over to the archives room. It shall be recorded on every specific day, if they were absent from class and had no achievement in learning, the teacher shall not declare expiration of their study, and the teaching assistant would be recorded a major demerit for once.
（Chinese teaching staff expired）In addition to making a list of such students as scholars, the students of the Imperial college, one book should be compiled in detail to include the number of students,their age,the number of Confucian classics they had read,the other the number of writers and their age,classics and Eight legged Essays they had read,the abstract of their articles, half or the whole, and the year of admission of each student. When Manchu teaching staff expired，they should also follow the suit.--[[User:Yin Meida|Yin Meida]] ([[User talk:Yin Meida|talk]]) 07:07, 22 October 2021 (UTC)

==殷美达 Yīn Měidá 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081547==

所谓“报满”原指官员任期届满，或历俸已满之意，此处当指教习的期满考核。由此可见，国子监八旗官学中的教习，无论满、汉，在任满三年之职后，都需要将个人名下学生的学习情况，及其绩效等，详细说明并造册入档，作为嗣后铨补的重要依据。同时，也说明国子监对于学生考课，以及教习考核的严格与认真，可谓赏罚分明。如乾隆二十一年，高宗谕令改圆明园学专习清书，以倡导满族传统特质之后，经礼部议准，规定嗣后生徒如能在四年期满时，由翻译考取录用，则“该教习列为一等”。[]
The so-called "full" originally referred to the expiration of an official's term of office, or that he had served a certain period of time, but here refers to the assessment of the instructors for their fulfillment of duty. It could be seen that the instructors in the Eight Banners Official School of Qing Dynasty were required, regardless of being Manchu or Han people, to make detailed explanations and recordings of their students' learning and performance after serving for three years. Meanwhile, it also showed that the Official School was strict and serious about the examination for students and the assessment for instructors, which could be described as putting the shoe on the right foot. For instance, in the 21st year of Emperor Qianlong's reign,after Emperor Gaozong had ordered to specialize in Manchu language for the purpose of promoting traditional Manchurian characteristics, the Ministry of Rites approved that "the instructor should be ranked first class" if the subsequent students could pass the translation examination and get employed by the end of four-year period of his duty.--[[User:Yin Meida|Yin Meida]] ([[User talk:Yin Meida|talk]]) 08:49, 19 October 2021 (UTC)

The so-called "full" originally referred to the expiration of an official's term of office, or that he had served a prescribed period of time, but here refers to the assessment of the instructors for their fulfillment of duty. Therefore, it could be seen that the instructors in the Eight Banners Official School of Qing Dynasty were required, regardless of being Manchu or Han people, to make detailed explanations and recordings of their students' learning and performance after serving for three years. Meanwhile, it also showed that the Official School was strict and serious about the examination of students and the assessment of instructors, which could be described as putting the shoe on the right foot. For instance, in the 21st year of Emperor Qianlong's reign, after Emperor Gaozong had ordered to specialize in Manchu language for the purpose of promoting traditional Manchurian characteristics, the Ministry of Rites approved that "the instructor should be ranked first class" if the subsequent students could be employed after examination by the end of four-year period of his duty.--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 15:03, 19 October 2021 (UTC)

==尹媛 Yǐn Yuán 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081548==

无奈好景不长，至嘉庆、道光年间，国子监八旗官学中教习虚开功课，且学生不常入学肄业的情况并不鲜见。虽然皇帝对此已有觉察，并明令禁止，但终因积习日久，难以遏止，因而整顿旗学之事，有名而无实。清代对于翻译人才的需求源于内生、外在双方面因素的合力。

But it didn't last until Jia Qing and Dao Guang period, when it was common to see the eight Banners of the Imperial Academy teaching lessons irresponsibly, and students didn't often attend the school or study in the school. Although the Emperor had become aware of and prohibited it, this phenomenon, with the bad customs for a long time, couldn't be curbed. Therefore, the rectification of the learning of Manchu culture exists in name only. The demand for translation talents in Qing Dynasty stemmed from internal and external factors.--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 15:16, 16 October 2021 (UTC)

But it didn't last until Jia Qing and Dao Guang period, when it was common to see the eight Banners of the Imperial Academy teaching lessons, and students didn't often attend the school or study in the school. Although the Emperor had become aware of and prohibited it by official order, this phenomenon, with the bad customs for a long time, couldn't be curbed. Therefore, the rectification of the learning of Manchu culture existed in name only. The demand for translation talents in Qing Dynasty stemmed from internal and external factors together.--[[User:Zhan Ruoxuan|Zhan Ruoxuan]] ([[User talk:Zhan Ruoxuan|talk]]) 06:12, 19 October 2021 (UTC)

==詹若萱 Zhān Ruòxuān 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081549==

从内部讲，清代以异族取得政权，历代君主及其统治集团都以八旗为国家根本，又以清语为八旗根本，因而旗人必须学习清语，或具备清语能力。与此同时，为了稳固统治，使旗人“足充任用”，满族又得与其他族群沟通和交流。多语种能力的养成既是翻译的前提条件，又为翻译提供了现实可能。

From the inside, the Qing Dynasty took power by their different race, all previous emperors and their ruling cliques took the eight banners as the foundation of the country, and the Qing language as the foundation of the eight banners, so the banner men must learn the Qing language or had the ability of the Qing language. At the same time, the Manchu had to communicate with other ethnic groups in order to maintain their rule and made the banner men “fully employed”. The cultivation of multilingual competence was not only a prerequisite for translation, but also provided a realistic possibility for translation.--[[User:Zhan Ruoxuan|Zhan Ruoxuan]] ([[User talk:Zhan Ruoxuan|talk]]) 06:02, 19 October 2021 (UTC)
At the same time, in order to stabilize the rule and make the flag people "full appointment", the Manchu had to communicate and communicate with other ethnic groups.--[[User:Zhang Qiuyi|Zhang Qiuyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Qiuyi|talk]]) 06:04, 20 October 2021 (UTC)

==张秋怡 Zhāng Qiūyí 亚非语言文学女 202120081550==

清代的翻译教育与翻译人才培养，无疑也是政治考量的产物。尤其是清军入关后，面对语言文字、文化形态，以及政权结构迥异于自己的汉人族群，如何进行有效统治，维护并巩固统治基础，同时又不致满洲民族特质废弛，乃是统治者不得不考虑的问题。在此情形下，清初统治者循汉人国子监例，创设八旗官学，令八旗弟子学习语言、翻译和骑射等，便成为不二选择。这么做，既不失满洲特色，又增进了民族交流，对于呈现满洲特色的统治特征，以及扩大政权的参与基础等，意义重大。
The translation education and the training of translation talents in the Qing Dynasty are undoubtedly the product of political considerations.Especially after the Qing army entered the customs, facing the Han ethnic group whose language, cultural form and political power structure were very different from their own, how to effectively rule, maintain and consolidate the basis of rule, without the abandonment of Manchuria national characteristics, is the rulers have to consider the issue. Under such circumstances, the early Qing rulers followed the example of the Han Chinese National Sons, creating eight flag official studies, so that the eight-flag disciples learn language, translation and shooting, etc., will become the choice. In doing so, it has not lost the manchuria characteristic, but also enhanced the national exchange, which is of great significance for the ruling characteristics of Manchuria, and for expanding the participation base of the regime.--[[User:Zhang Qiuyi|Zhang Qiuyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Qiuyi|talk]]) 05:58, 20 October 2021 (UTC)

The translation education and the training of translation talents in the Qing Dynasty are undoubtedly the product of political considerations.Especially after Qing army entererd the frontiers, facing the Han ethnic group whose language, cultural form and political power structure were very different from their own, how to effectively rule, maintain and consolidate the basis of rule, without the abandonment of Manchuria national characteristics, is the rulers have to consider the issue. Under such circumstances, the early Qing rulers followed the example of the Han Chinese National Sons, creating eight flag official studies, so that the eight-flag disciples learn language, translation and shooting, etc., will become the choice. In doing so, it has not lost the manchuria characteristic, but also enhanced the national exchange, which is of great significance for the ruling characteristics of Manchuria, and for expanding the participation base of the regime.--[[User:Zhang Yang|Zhang Yang]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yang|talk]]) 09:21, 20 October 2021 (UTC)

==张扬 Zhāng Yáng 国别男 202120081551==

*基金项目：① 教育部人文社科基金项目“清代中前期翻译政策研究”；② 湖南省社会科学基金项目“清代中前期翻译政策的具体形态与变化轨迹研究”，项目批准号：20YBA131；③ 湖南省教育厅重点项目“清代中前期翻译政策研究”，项目批准号：20A222。

* Fund Project: ① Humanities and Social Sciences Fund Project of the Ministry of Education:"A Study on Translation Policy in the Early and Middle Period of Qing Dynasty"; ② Social Science Fund Project in Hunan Province:"A Study on the Specific Form and Variation Track of Translation Policy in the Early and Middle Period of Qing Dynasty", project approval No.: 20YBA131; ③ A Key Project of the Department of Education of Hunan Province:"A Study on Translation Policy in the Early and Middle Period of Qing Dynasty", project approval No.: 20A222.--[[User:Zhang Yang|Zhang Yang]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yang|talk]]) 08:40, 18 October 2021 (UTC)

* Fundation Project: ① Research on ''Translation Policy in the Middle and Early Dynasties of the Qing Dynasty'', Ministry of Education, Humanities and Social Sciences Foundation Project; ② Research on the ''Specific Form and Change Trajectory of Translation Policy in the Middle and Early Dynasties of the Qing Dynasty'', Hunan Provincial Social Science Foundation Project, Project Approval No. 20YBA131: ③ Research on ''Translation Policy in the Middle and Early Dynasties of the Qing Dynasty'', a key project of Hunan Provincial Education Department, project approval number: 20A222.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 07:41, 19 October 2021 (UTC)

==张怡然 Zhāng Yírán 俄语语言文学女 202120081552==

清初旗学中的翻译教育及其变化过程*

摘要：清初的旗学教育是内、外因素合力的结果，其目的是为了提升旗人素质，培养翻译人才，巩固国家统治。清初旗学教育及其翻译人才培养的整体脉络是：兴于顺治，隆于康、雍，驰于乾隆，废于嘉、道。

Translation education in Banner schools in the early Qing Dynasty and its process of change*
Abstract: Banner school education in the early Qing Dynasty was the result of a combination of internal and external factors, and its aim was to improve the quality of bannerman, cultivate translators and consolidate national rule.The overall lineage of Banner school education and its training of translators in the early Qing Dynasty was that it began during the reign of Shunzhi emperor, flourished under the Kangxi and Yongzheng emperors, declined under the Qianlong emperor and was abolished under the Jiaqing and Daoguang emperors.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 07:31, 19 October 2021 (UTC)

Translation education and its changing process in flag education in the early Qing Dynasty
Abstract: the flag education in the early Qing Dynasty was the result of the joint efforts of internal and external factors. Its purpose was to improve the quality of flag people, cultivate translation talents and consolidate national rule. The overall context of flag education and translation talent training in the early Qing Dynasty is starting in Shunzhi, prospering in Kang and Yong, declining in Qianlong, and abolishing in Jia and Tao.--[[User:Zhong Yifei|Zhong Yifei]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yifei|talk]]) 04:45, 19 October 2021 (UTC)

==钟义菲 Zhōng Yìfēi 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081553==

旗学教育的发展、改革与兴盛，其原因主要在于三个方面：历代帝王的支持、满、汉族官员的鼓吹、满洲大儒的力倡。而造成旗学教育最终走向颓势并废弛的因素则包括民族融合的加剧、旗人学习意愿的消退，以及章程管理的松弛等。旗学中的翻译教育主要有两种不同途径，即普通旗学机构中的翻译教育，以及满、汉翻译学、翻译义学中的翻译教育，所培养的翻译人才成为各个时期处理文书，办理翻译事宜的重要来源。

The reasons for the development, reform and prosperity of Banner schools mainly lie in three aspects: the support of emperors in previous dynasties, the advocacy of Manchu and Han officials, and the advocacy of Manchu Confucianism. The factors causing the decline of Banner schools include the intensification of national integration, the decline of banner people's willingness to learn, and the slack management of rules.There are mainly two different ways of translation education in Banner schools，namely, translation education in ordinary Banner schools institutions, and translation education in Manchu, Chinese translation and translation semantics. The trained translation talents have become an important source for dealing with documents and translation matters in various periods.--[[User:Zhong Yifei|Zhong Yifei]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yifei|talk]]) 01:17, 17 October 2021 (UTC)

The reasons for the development, reform and prosperity of Banner education mainly lie in three aspects: the support of emperors in previous dynasties, the advocacy of Manchu and Han officials, as well as the advocacy of Manchu scholars. The factors causing the decline of Banner education include the intensification of national integration, the decline of Banner people's willingness to learn, and the slack management of regulations, etc. There are mainly two different ways of translation education in Banner education, namely, translation education in ordinary Banner education institutions, and translation education in Manchu, Chinese translatology and translation semantics. The trained translation talents provide an important source for dealing with documents and translation matters in various periods.--[[User:Zhong Yulu|Zhong Yulu]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yulu|talk]]) 02:54, 17 October 2021 (UTC)

==钟雨露 Zhōng Yǔlù 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081554==

关键词：旗学；翻译教育；变化过程；翻译考试；汉书翻译1.引言。满洲以少数族群立国并统治中原，如何能保持民族特色，而又能与汉人交流，扩大政权的统治基础，乃是统治者不得不考虑的问题。而设置旗学，教授国语骑射，并推动翻译教育，乃是因应时势之举。

Key words: the School for children of the Eight Banners; translation education; changing process; translation examination; the translation of History of Han Dynasty.
1. Introduction. Manchuria, which was found by minority ethnic groups, ruled the central plains. The rulers had to consider the questions like how to keep the national characteristics and communicate with the Han people to expand the ruling base of the regime. Therefore, the establishment of the School for the children of the Eight Banners, where taught the Manchu language, riding and shooting, in the meantime, helped to promote translation education, was the trend of the times. --[[User:Zhong Yulu|Zhong Yulu]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yulu|talk]]) 02:34, 17 October 2021 (UTC)

Key words: the Banner Education; translation education; changing process; translation examination; the translation of History of Han Dynasty.
1. Introduction. Manchuria, which was founded by minority ethnic groups, ruled the central plains. The rulers had to consider how to keep the national characteristics and communicate with the Han people to expand the ruling base of the regime. Therefore, the establishment of the the Banner Education which taught the Manchu language, riding and shooting and helped to promote translation education as well, was the trend of the times. --[[User:Zhou Jiu|Zhou Jiu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Jiu|talk]]) 03:09, 17 October 2021 (UTC)

==周玖 Zhōu Jiǔ 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081555==

顺治初年，清廷循汉族国子监之例创设旗学，开清代官学教育制度之先河，专供旗人学习语言、骑射与翻译。顺治朝以后，旗学教育屡经调整与改革，不仅在特定区域设学，而且使旗学教育逐渐平民化、普遍化，既稳定了生源，又规范了教习的拣选和稽核，并适时调整旗学机构的设置、复设或改设，以及教学内容与考核方式，确保了旗人的学习品质。由于办理旗学的主要目的即是为了培养翻译人才，和具备多语种能力的治国之才，故旗学中的教学和学习用书多为汉籍译本，其中多数为满文译本，另有部分为蒙文译本，或者满、汉和满、蒙合璧本。

During the early years of Shunzhi Period, the Qing government was the forerunner of the OfficialEducation which was set exclusively for Banner people to learn language, riding, shooting and translation. After the Emperor Shunzhi Perid, the Banner Education, which was adjusted and reformed repeatedly, was set in specific areas. It also gradually became popularization and generalization, which stablized source of students, regulated selection and assessment of instructors. It not only adjusted the establishment, reestablishment and the change of establishment of the Banner's schools, but also adjusted the contents of coueses and assessment methods, which ensured the learning quality of Bannermen. Because of the reason that the Banner Education was aimed to cultivate qualified translators and statemenships possessed with multilanguage, textbooks mostly were Chinese works, most of them were translated into Manchu language; part of them were translated into Mogolian; some translated versions were combinated with Manchu language and Chinese, or Manchu language with Mogolian.--[[User:Zhou Jiu|Zhou Jiu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Jiu|talk]]) 04:48, 17 October 2021 (UTC)

During the early years of Shunzhi Period, the Qing government followed the example of the Official Education which set exclusively for Banner people to learn language, riding, shooting and translation, which was considered as the new way for the educational system since Qing dynasty. After the Emperor Shunzhi Period, the Banner Education, which was adjusted and reformed repeatedly, was set in specific areas. It was gradually popularizing and generalizing, which possess the stable source of students, the regulated selection and the assessment of instructors. It not only adjusted the establishment, reestablishment and the change of establishment of the Banner's schools, but also adjusted the contents of coueses and assessment methods, which ensured the learning quality of Bannermen. The Banner Education was aimed to cultivate qualified translators and ministerial talent who were multilingual, so textbooks mostly were Chinese works, most of them were translated into Manchu language; part of them were translated into Mogolian; some translated versions were combinated with Manchu language and Chinese, or Manchu language with Mogolian.--[[User:Zhou Junhui|Zhou Junhui]] ([[User talk:Zhou Junhui|talk]]) 08:28, 18 October 2021 (UTC)

==周俊辉 Zhōu Jùnhuī 法语语言文学女 202120081556==

虽然乾隆朝尤其是乾隆中期以后，旗学教育多有弊病，如旗学制度流于形式，章程管理日渐松弛，加上旗人子弟仕宦心态突出，致使学习不勤不精，但在最高统治者的要求与支持，以及内、外因素的交互作用下，仍为国家培养了大批治理之才和翻译专才。2.旗学的翻译使命。满族统治中国以来，为维护满洲的民族特质，以及少数族裔的统治优势，统治者一向提倡旗、民分治，要求旗人保持民族特质，习国语，专骑射，维护国家根本。

During the Qianlong period, especially after the middle period, there were many disadvantages that the education of Banner exerted, such as the system of Banner learning becoming a formality, the regulations and management becoming slack, coupled with the prominent attitude of the banner’s student for promotion in officialdom, so that they were nor diligent nor good at learning. But under the support and the request of the supreme ruler, with the interaction of internal and external factors, the education of Banner still cultivated a large number of governance talents and translation specialists for the country. 2. The translation mission of the Banner’s education. Since Manchu ruled China, in order to maintain the ethnic characteristics of Manchuria and the dominance of ethnic minorities, the ruler has always advocated the separate governance of the flag and the people, requiring the flag people to keep their ethnic characteristics, learn the National language, practice riding and archery in order to stabilize the foundation of the country.--[[User:Zhou Junhui|Zhou Junhui]] ([[User talk:Zhou Junhui|talk]]) 02:07, 17 October 2021 (UTC)

Although in the reign of Qianlong, especially after the middle of the Qianlong period, there were many disadvantages in banner school education, such as the system of banner study becaming a mere formality, the management of the articles of association being increasingly relaxed. Furthermore, the prominent official mentality of the banner people's children led to the lack of diligence and precision in learning, a large number of people who were proficient in governing and translating still cultivated for the country under the requirements and support of the emperor and the interaction of internal and external factors. 2. The translation mission of banner studies. Since the Manchu ruled China, in order to maintain the national characteristics of Manchu and the ruling advantages of ethnic minorities, the rulers have always advocated the separation of the banner and the people, requiring the banner people to maintain their national characteristics, learn the national language, specialize in riding and shooting for maintain the foundation of the country.--[[User:Zhou Qiao1|Zhou Qiao1]] ([[User talk:Zhou Qiao1|talk]]) 12:44, 18 October 2021 (UTC)

==周巧 Zhōu Qiǎo 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081557==

然而，为确保国家治理行之有效，国家长治久安，旗人亦必须兼通满、汉，与汉人沟通交往，以便学习其典章制度与执政经验。顺治朝以后，旗学教育逐渐兴起，其中除国子监八旗官学、顺天和奉天府学外，又有咸安宫和景山官学、宗人府宗学和觉罗学，以及各地八旗官学、义学和清文学等，这些官学成为清代兴贤育才，教养备至的重要场所。对于旗人而言，只有接受旗学教育，熟读经史，掌握翻译，练习骑射，才能符合政府的人才标准和要求，为自身的进身入仕觅得正途。

However, for ensuring the effectiveness of national governance and long-term stability of the country, the banner people must be proficient in both Manchu language and Han Language thus communicating with Han people to learn their laws and regulations and ruling experience. After the reign of Shunzhi, the banner education gradually rose. In addition to the eight banner official schools of the Imperial Academy, Shuntian and fengtianfu schools, there were also Xian'an palace and Jingshan official schools, the official school of Imperial Clan Court and Jueluo schools, as well as the eight banner official schools, righteousness schools and Qing literature schools in various places, all of which became an important place to cultivate talents and prepare for education in the Qing Dynasty. As for banner people, only by receiving banner education, reading classical and historical books, mastering translation and practicing riding and shooting can they meet the standards and requirements of the government of choosing people and find a right way for their official career.
--[[User:Zhou Qiao1|Zhou Qiao1]] ([[User talk:Zhou Qiao1|talk]]) 15:12, 16 October 2021 (UTC)

However, in order to ensure the effective governance of the country and the long-term stability of the country, the banner people must also communicate with the Manchu and Han people, and communicate with the Han people to learn their rules, regulations and governing experience. After the Shunzhi dynasty, banner education gradually emerged. In addition to the eight banner official school, Shuntian and Fengtian school, Xian’an Palace and Jingshan official school, Zongrenfuzong school and Jueluo school, as well as the eight banner official school, Yi school and Qing Dynasty Literature, etc., these official schools became an important place for educating and cultivating talents in the Qing Dynasty. For banner people, only by receiving banner education, learning by heart in classics and history, mastering translation, and practicing riding and shooting, can they meet the government's talent standards and requirements and find a right path for their own career.--[[User:Zhou Qing|Zhou Qing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Qing|talk]]) 13:31, 16 October 2021 (UTC)

==周清 Zhōu Qīng 法语语言文学女 202120081558==

而统治者之所以重视满、汉语学习，以及翻译能力的培养，乃是国家行政和治理的需要所致。众所周知，国初之际，官员的日常行政广泛使用满文，政务的推动离不开翻译。《钦定大清会典则例（乾隆朝）》中说，清初以来，皇帝颁发满、汉文谕旨时，往往先由内阁进行翻译，或将清字译汉，或将汉文翻清，如此才能上传下达，确保政令畅通。

The reason why the rulers attach importance to the study of Manchu and Chinese language and the cultivation of translation ability is due to the needs of national administration and governance. As we all know, in the early days of the country, officials widely used Manchu language in their daily administration, and the promotion of government affairs was inseparable from translation. According to the Rules and Regulations of the King's Chamber of the Qing Dynasty (Qianlong Dynasty), since the beginning of the Qing Dynasty, when the emperor issued a decree in Manchu and Chinese, the cabinet often translated it first, or translated the Qing characters into Chinese, or translated the Chinese into Manchu language, to deliver the message and ensure the smooth flow of government orders.

The reason why the rulers attach importance to the study of Manchu and Chinese language and the cultivation of translation ability is due to the needs of national administration and governance. As we all know, in the early days of the country, officials widely used Manchu language in their daily administration, government affairs cannot be handled without translation. According to the Rules and Regulations of the King's Chamber of the Qing Dynasty (Qianlong Dynasty), since the beginning of the Qing Dynasty, when the emperor issued a decree in Manchu and Chinese, the cabinet often translated it first. They translated the Manchu language into Chinese, or translated the Chinese into Manchu language, to deliver the message and ensure the decisions of the government are carried out effectively.--[[User:Zhou Xiaoxue|Zhou Xiaoxue]] ([[User talk:Zhou Xiaoxue|talk]]) 08:38, 17 October 2021 (UTC)

==周小雪 Zhōu Xiǎoxuě 日语语言文学女 202120081559==

各部院衙门撰写本章时，虽然兼用清、汉双语，但直省本章中不使用清字者较为常见，这种情况下则往往由通政司将本章咨送内阁，再由后者送交汉本房进行翻译，事毕之后由满本房誊写。（允祹等，1983：4）各省驻防将军、副都统等遇奏事之时，也只使用满语，因而旗籍官员中办理文书业务者，也必须娴熟翻译。（曹振镛，1986：488）至清末之际，虽然旗学中清语荒废的情形日益严重，学生的翻译能力每况愈下，但国家对于翻译人才的需求并没有完全消失。

When yamen(government office in feudal China) writes documents, although both uses Manchu and Chinese can be used, but people who do not use Manchu are more common in departmental documents. In this case, the the office of transmission would send the document to the cabinet, which would send it to the Hanbenfang(An organization that translates Manchu into Chinese)for translation, and then the Manbenfang(An organization that translates Chinese into Manchu) would copy it.(Yun Taodeng, 1983:4) Because the generals of garrison and deputy lieutenant-general used only Manchu when handing in documents,among the officials of the Qing Dynasty, those who handle documents must also be skilled in translation.(Cao Zhenpu, 1986:488) In the late Qing Dynasty, although abandonment of Qing language in the Banners study is becoming more and more serious and the translation ability of the students became worse and worse, the country's demand for translation talent did not completely disappeared.--[[User:Zhou Xiaoxue|Zhou Xiaoxue]] ([[User talk:Zhou Xiaoxue|talk]]) 08:22, 17 October 2021 (UTC)

When yamen(government office in feudal China) writes documents, although both Manchu and Chinese can be used,people who do not use Manchu are common in departmental documents. In this case, the office of transmission would send the document to the cabinet, which would send it to the Hanbenfang(An organization that translates Manchu into Chinese)for translation, and then the Manbenfang(An organization that translates Chinese into Manchu) would transcribe it.(Yun Taodeng, 1983:4) Because the generals of garrison and deputy lieutenant-general used only Manchu when handing in documents, so among the officials of the Qing Dynasty, those who handle documents must also be skilled in translation.(Cao Zhenpu, 1986:488) At the end of Qing Dynasty, although abandonment of Qing language in the Manchu study was becoming more and more serious and the translation ability of the students became worse and worse, the country's demand for translation talent did not completely disappeared.--[[User:Zhou Xiaoxue|Zhou Xiaoxue]] ([[User talk:Zhou Xiaoxue|talk]]) 08:22, 17 October 2021 (UTC)
--[[User:Zhu Suzhen|Zhu Suzhen]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suzhen|talk]]) 11:58, 19 October 2021 (UTC)

==朱素珍 Zhū Sùzhēn 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081561==

然而，有清一代，旗学教育到底兴于何时，旗学中培养的翻译人才究竟几何，等等问题仍存争议。即以宗学的设置时间为例，不同文献的记载便不相同。如《八旗通志·初集》和《钦定八旗通志》中，都载有顺、康年间宗学变化之事，但《（雍正）大清会典》中，却未见有此段史实，反而将宗学之设归于雍正二年。（鄂尔泰等，1986：945-946；铁保等，1983：1-2；允禄等，1995：26）

However, in the Qing Dynasty, there were still disputes about when the Manchu education was prosperous and how many translation talents were trained and so on. That is to say, taking the setting time of zongxue as an example, the records of different documents were different. For example, the first collection of Pa Ch'i T'ung Chih and Tongshu of Manchukuo Family in Eight Banner of Qinding contained the changes of zongxue during the years of Shun and Kang. However, this historical fact was not found in the (Emperor Yongzheng) Great Qing conference, but the establishment of zongxue was attributed to the second year of Emperor Yongzheng. (Ertai etc 1986:945-946; Tiebao etc 1983:1-2; Yunlu etc 1995:26)

annotation:
1. zongxue: educational institutions for royal clan
2. Pa Ch'i T'ung Chih: a book recording of Eight Banners system in detail;general annals of the Eight Banners

However, in the Qing Dynasty, there were still disputes about when the flag school education was prosperous and how many translation talents were trained in the flag school. That is, taking the setting time of zongxue as an example, the records of different documents are different. For example, the first collection of Tongzhi of the eight banners and the Tongzhi of the imperial eight banners contain the changes of zongxue during the years of Shun and Kang. However, this historical fact is not found in the (Yongzheng) Great Qing conference, but the establishment of zongxue is attributed to the second year of Yongzheng.--[[User:Zou Yueli|Zou Yueli]] ([[User talk:Zou Yueli|talk]]) 12:22, 20 October 2021 (UTC)

==邹岳丽 Zōu Yuèlí 日语语言文学女 202120081562==

虽然如此，有两点却可肯定：其一，不论雍正二年办理的宗室之学是“复开”，还是“创设”，其中原因确与康熙朝晚期的皇子夺嫡事件有关。《清世宗实录》中对此已有说法：朕惟睦族敦宗，务先教化。尝见宗室中，习气未善，各怀私心，互相倾轧，並无扶持爱护之意，惟知宠厚妻党姻娅，其于本支骨肉，视若仇敌，殊为悖谬。

Nevertheless, two points can be confirmed: first, whether the imperial clan school handled by Yongzheng in the second year of Yongzheng was "reopened" or "created", the reason is indeed related to the emperor's son's seizing the throne in the late Kangxi Dynasty. It has been said in the《true records of emperor Shizong of the Qing Dynasty》 that In order to make the family harmonious,relatives and friends sincere, we must educate them first. I often see some people in the imperial clan who are not kind-hearted, have selfish intentions, frame each other, and do not love each other. It's absurd to spoil your wife and treat other concubines as enemies.

Nevertheless, there are two points to be sure. For one thing, no matter whether the school for the imperial family in the second year of Yongzheng(1724) were reopened or created, the reason was indeed related to the prince’s replacement in the late Kangxi Period(1675-1722). In True Records of Emperor Shizong of the Qing Dynasty, it mentioned that: “In order to make the family harmonious, and relatives and friends sincere, they need to be educated first. I often see some people in the imperial clan who are not kind-hearted, have selfish intentions, frame each other, and do not love each other. It's absurd to spoil your wife and treat other concubines as enemies.--[[User:Chen Jing|Chen Jing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jing|talk]]) 09:05, 20 October 2021 (UTC)

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Machine Trans EN 7

2021-12-13T11:45:42Z

Yan Jing:

=Chapter 7:The Cultivation of artificial intelligence and translation talents in the Belt and Road Initiative=
'''一带一路背景下人工智能与翻译人才的培养'''

颜莉莉 Yan Lili, Hunan Normal University, China

===Abstract===
In the era of artificial intelligence, artificial intelligence has been applied to various fields. In the field of translation, traditional translation models can no longer meet the rapid development and updating of the information age. The development of machine translation has brought structural changes to the language service industry, which poses challenges to the cultivation of translation talents. Under the background of "The Belt and Road initiative", translation talents have higher and higher requirements on translation literacy. Artificial intelligence and translation technology are used to reform the training mode of translation talents, so as to better serve the development of The Times. This paper mainly explores the cultivation of artificial intelligence and translation talents under the background of the Belt and Road Initiative. The cultivation of translation talents is moving towards comprehensive cultivation of talents. On the contrary, artificial intelligence and machine translation can also be used to improve the teaching mode and teaching content, so as to win together in cooperation.
===Key words===
Artificial Intelligence; Machine Translation; Cultivation of Translation Talents; "The Belt and Road Initiative"

===摘要===
进入人工智能时代，人工智能被应用于各个领域。在翻译领域，传统的翻译模式已无法满足信息化时代的飞速发展和更新，机器翻译的发展给语言服务行业带来了结构性改变，这对翻译人才的培养提出了挑战。“一带一路”背景下，对翻译人才的翻译素养要求越来越高，利用人工智能和翻译技术对翻译人才培养模式进行革新，更好为时代发展服务。本文主要探究在一带一路背景下人工智能和翻译人才培养，翻译人才的培养过程中正向对人才的综合性培养，反之也可以利用人工智能和机器翻译完善教学模式和教学内容，在合作中共赢。
===关键词===
人工智能；机器翻译；翻译人才培养；一带一路

===1. Introduction===
With the development of science and technology in China, artificial intelligence has also been greatly improved, and related technologies have been applied to various fields, such as the use of intelligent robots to deliver food to quarantined people during the epidemic, which has made people's lives more convenient. The most controversial and widely discussed issue is machine translation. Before the emergence of machine translation, translation was generally dominated by human translation, including translation and interpretation, which was divided into simultaneous interpretation and hand transmission, etc. It takes a lot of time and energy to cultivate a translation talent. However, nowadays, the era is developing rapidly and information is updated rapidly. As a translation talent, it is necessary to constantly update its knowledge reserve to keep up with the pace of The Times. The emergence of machine translation has also posed challenges to translation talents and the training of translation talents. Although machine translation had some problems in the early stage, it is now constantly improving its functions. In the context of the belt and Road Initiative, both machine translation and human translation are facing difficulties. Regardless of whether human translation is still needed, what is more important at present is how to train translators to adapt to difficulties and promote the cooperation between human translation and machine translation.

===2.Development status of machine translation in the era of artificial intelligence ===
With the development of AI technology, machine translation has made great progress and has been applied to people's lives. For example, more and more tourists choose to download translation software when traveling abroad, which makes machine translation take an absolute advantage in daily email reply and other translation activities that do not require high accuracy. The translation software commonly used by netizens include Google Translation, Baidu Translation, Youdao Translation, IFly.com Translation, etc. Even wechat and other chat software can also carry out instant Translation into English. Some companies have also launched translation pens, translation machines and other equipment, which enables even native speakers to rely on machine translation to carry out basic communication with other Chinese people.
But so far, machine translation still faces huge problems. Although machine translation has made great progress, it is highly dependent on corpus and other big data matching. It does not reach the thinking level of human brain, and cannot deal with the problem of translation differences caused by culture and religion. In addition, many minor languages cannot be translated by machine due to lack of corpus.

What's more, most of the corpus is about developed countries such as Britain and France, and most of the corpus is about diplomacy, politics, science and technology, etc., while there are very few about nationality, culture, religion, etc.

In addition, machine translation can only be used for daily communication at present. If it involves important occasions such as large conferences and international affairs, it is impossible to risk using machine translation for translation work. Professional translators are required to carry out translation work. So machine translation still has a long way to go.

===3.Challenges in the training of translation talents in universities===
The cultivation of translators is targeted at the market. Professors Zhu Yifan and Guan Xinchao from the School of Foreign Languages at Shanghai Jiao Tong University believe that the cultivation of translators can be divided into four types: high-end translators and interpreters, senior translators and researchers, compound translators and applied translators.

From their names, it can be seen that high-end translators and interpreters and senior translators and researchers talents have high requirements on the knowledge and quality of interpreters, because they have to face the changing international situation, and have to deal with all kinds of sensitive relations and political related content, they should have flexible cross-cultural communication skills. In addition, for literature, sociology and humanities academic works, it is not only necessary to translate their content, but also to understand their essence. Therefore, translators should not only have humanistic feelings, but also need to have a deep understanding of Chinese and western culture.

However, there is not much demand for this kind of translation in the society. Such high-level translation requirements are not needed in daily life and work. The greatest demand is for compound translators, which means that they should master knowledge in a specific field while mastering a foreign language. For example, compound translators in the financial field should not only be good at foreign languages, but also master financial knowledge, including professional terms, special expressions and sentence patterns.(Zhu,Guan 2019:40, 41)#

Now we say that machine translation can replace human translation should refer to the field of compound translation talents. Although AI technology has enabled machine translation to participate in creation, it does not mean that compound translation talents will be replaced by machines. The complexity of language and the flexible cross-cultural awareness required in communication make it impossible for machine translation to completely replace human translation.

The last type of applied translation talents are mostly involved in the general text without too much technical content and few professional terms, so it is easy to be replaced by machine translation.

Therefore, the author thinks that what universities are facing at present is not only how to train translation talents to cope with the development of machine translation, but to consider the application of machine translation in the process of training translation talents to achieve human-machine integration, so as to better complete the translation work.(Zhu,Guan 2019:40, 41)#

===4.The Language environment and opportunities and challenges of the Belt and Road initiative===
During visits to Central and Southeast Asian countries in September and October 2013, Chinese President Xi Jinping put forward the major initiative of jointly building the Silk Road Economic Belt and the 21st Century Maritime Silk Road. And began to be abbreviated as the Belt and Road Initiative.

According to the Vision and Actions for Jointly Building silk Road Economic Belt and 21st Century Maritime Silk Road, the Silk Road Economic Belt focuses on connecting China, Central Asia, Russia and Europe (the Baltic Sea). From China to the Persian Gulf and the Mediterranean Sea via Central and West Asia; China to Southeast Asia, South Asia, Indian Ocean. The focus of the 21st Century Maritime Silk Road is to stretch from China's coastal ports to Europe, through the South China Sea and the Indian Ocean. From China's coastal ports across the South China Sea to the South Pacific.

The Belt and Road "construction is comply with the world multi-polarization and economic globalization, cultural diversity, the initiative of social informatization tide, drive along the countries achieve economic policy coordination, to carry out a wider range, higher level, the deeper regional cooperation and jointly create open, inclusive and balanced, pratt &whitney regional economic cooperation framework.

====4.1The language environment of the Belt and Road====
The "Belt and Road" involves a wide range of countries and regions, and their languages and cultures are very complex. How to make good use of language, do a good job in translation services, actively spread Chinese culture to the world, strengthen the ability of discourse, and tell Chinese stories well, the first thing to do is to understand the language situation of the countries along the "Belt and Road".

=====4.1.1The most common language in countries along the "Belt and Road" =====

There are a wide variety of languages spoken in 65 countries along the Belt and Road, involving nine language families. However, The status of English as the first language in the world is undeniable. Most of the countries participating in the Belt and Road are developing countries, and many of them speak English as their first foreign language. Especially in southeast Asian and South Asian countries, English plays an important role in foreign communication, whether as the official language or the first foreign language. Besides English, more than 100 million people speak Russian, Hindi, Bengali, Arabic and other major languages in the "Belt and Road" countries. It can also be seen that a common feature of languages in countries along the "Belt and Road" is the popularization of English education. English is widely used in international politics, economy, culture, education, science and technology, playing the role of the most important language in the world.(Zhang,Zhang 2019:147)#

=====4.1.2The complex language conditions of countries along the "Belt and Road" =====

The languages spoken in countries along the Belt and Road involve nine major language families and almost all the world's religious types. Differences in religious beliefs also result in differences in culture, customs and social values behind languages. The languages of some countries along the belt and Road have also been influenced by historical and realistic factors, such as colonization, internal division and immigration.

India, for example, has no national language, but more than 20 official languages. India is a multi-ethnic country, a total of more than 100 people, one of the most obvious difference between nation and nation is the language problem. Therefore, according to the difference of language, India divides different ethnic groups into different states, big and small. Ethnic groups that use the same language are divided into one state. If there are two languages in a state, the state is divided into two parts. And Indian languages differ not only in word order but also in the way they are written. In India, for example, Hindi is spoken by the largest number of people in the north, with about 700 million speakers and 530 million as their first language. It is written in The Hindu language and belongs to the Indo-European language family. Telugu in the east is spoken by about 95 million people and 81.13 million as their first language. It is written in Telugu, which belongs to the Dravidian language family and is quite different from Hindi. As a result, a parliamentary session in India requires dozens of interpreters.(Zhang,Zhang 2019:147)#

These factors cannot be ignored in the process of translation, from language communication to cultural understanding, from text to thought exchange, through the bridge of language to truly connect the people, so as to avoid misreading and misunderstanding caused by differences in language and national conditions.

====4.2 Opportunities and challenges of the "Belt and Road" ====
With the promotion of the Belt and Road Initiative, there has been an unprecedented boom in translation. In the previous translation boom in China, most of the foreign languages were translated into Chinese, and most of the foreign cultures were imported into China. However, this time, in the context of the "Belt and Road" initiative, translating Chinese into foreign languages has become an important task for translators. As is known to all, there are many different kinds of "One Belt And One Road" along the national language and culture is complex, the service "area" construction has become a factor in Chinese translation talents training mode reform, one of the foreign language universities have action, many colleges and universities to establish the "area" all the way along the country's small language major, as a result, "One Belt And One Road" initiative to promote, It has brought unprecedented opportunities for human translation. The cultivation of diversified translation talents and the cultivation of translation talents in small languages is an urgent problem to be solved in China. The cultivation of translation talents cannot be completed overnight, and the state needs to reform the training mode of translation talents from the perspective of language strategic development. Only in this way can we meet the new demand for human translation under the new situation of the belt and Road Initiative.

For a long time, the traditional orientation of translation curriculum and training goal in colleges and universities is to train translation teachers and translators in need of society through translation theory and practice and literary translation practice, which cannot meet the needs of society. Since 2007, in order to meet the needs of the socialist market economy for application-oriented high-level professionals, the Academic Degrees Committee of The State Council approved the establishment of Master of Translation and Interpreting (MTI for short). After joining the pilot program of MTI, more and more universities are reforming the curriculum and training mode of master of Translation in order to cultivate translators who meet the needs of the society.

Language is an important carrier of culture, and translation is an important link for exporting culture. The quality of translation output also reflects the cultural soft power of a country. With the rise of China, more and more people are interested in Chinese culture, and the number of Chinese learners keeps increasing. Under the background of "One Belt and One Road", excellent translators are urgently needed to spread Chinese culture. With the promotion of "One Belt and One Road" Initiative, the number of other countries learning mutual learning and cultural exchanges with China has increased unprecedeningly, bringing vigorous opportunities for the spread of Chinese culture. Translation talents who understand small languages and multi-lingual translators are needed. They should not only use language to convey information, but also use language as a lubricant for communication.

===5.Training translation talents from the perspective of machine translation===
Under the prevailing environment of machine translation, it poses a great challenge to the cultivation of translation talents. According to the current situation, translation needs and the shortage of translation talents, colleges and universities should reform and innovate the existing training programs for translation talents in terms of the quality of translation talents, the reform of training mode and the use of artificial intelligence. Based on the obtained data and literature, the author discusses how to train translation talents in the perspective of machine translation from the following aspects.

====5.1 Quality requirements for translation talents ====
Zhong Weihe and Murray made a more detailed and profound discussion on translator's literacy, believing that "translators should not only be proficient in two languages, but also have extensive cultural and encyclopedic knowledge and relevant professional knowledge; Master a variety of translation skills, a lot of translation practice; Have a clear translator role awareness, good professional ethics, practical and enterprising style of work, conscious team spirit and calm psychological quality ". According to the collected data, the author will elaborate the requirements for translation talents from four aspects: language literacy, humanistic literacy, translation ability and innovation ability.(Zhang,Zhang 2017:54)#

The first is language literacy, which is the most basic and important requirement. MAO Dun pointed out that "mastery of mother tongue and target language are the foundation of translation". A solid foundation of bilingual skills is the basic skills of translators. Poor language proficiency seems to be a common problem among students majoring in translation and interpreting. Many translation diseases are caused by poor Chinese foundation. As part of going global, the belt and Road initiative is to tell Chinese culture and Chinese stories, which requires translators to be able to use both languages flexibly. Therefore, the first problem that colleges and universities face to solve is to improve the language level of foreign language learners.(Zhang,Zhang 2017:57)#

The second is humanistic literacy. Humanistic literacy is mainly manifested by a good command of politics, economy, history, literature and other knowledge, which is particularly important for interpreters. In addition, cross-cultural communication cannot be ignored. In the process of communicating with foreigners or translating, translators often encounter the first cross-cultural contradiction. Cross-culture refers to having a full and correct understanding of cultural phenomena, customs and habits that differ or conflict with the national culture, and accepting and adapting to them in an inclusive manner on this basis. So the interpreter can first fully understand and master the national conditions and culture of the target country, which is particularly important in the "Belt and Road". There are more than 60 countries along the "Belt and Road", and it takes a lot of energy to master their national conditions and culture.(Zhang,Zhang 2017:58)#

The third is translation ability. We should distinguish between translation ability and language ability. Translation ability is actually a system of knowledge and skills necessary for translation, the core of which is conversion ability. First of all, it reflects the ability to use tools to assist translation, such as computer application, translation technology and so on. In addition, interpreters should have enough healthy psychological quality and good professional quality. In terms of translation ability, the current training model of translation talents is inadequate.

The last one is innovation. The cultivation of learners' thinking ability is the key to translation teaching and the cultivation of thoughtful translators should be the connotation of translation teaching. Therefore, the interpreter is not only a translation tool, which is no different from machine translation. More importantly, it is necessary to explore translation with thoughts, have a sense of lifelong learning and innovation consciousness. Translators must constantly innovate themselves, learn new knowledge, and strive to seek reform and innovation. Many colleges and universities should also consciously cultivate students' innovation ability and broaden their thinking and vision.

====5.2 The reform of college curriculum setting====
We will further reform the curriculum of colleges and universities. More courses on economics, law and engineering, which are very important in the Belt and Road initiative. According to the author's personal experience, the most typical problem of foreign language majors in colleges and universities is the single learning of foreign languages. More professional foreign language colleges and universities will add some literature courses and national conditions courses of the language target countries. Obviously, whether foreign language graduates are engaged in translation work or not, such knowledge is not enough. Of course, great reforms have been carried out in foreign language teaching, such as combining foreign language with finance, law, diplomacy and so on, and taking the way of minor training foreign language majors.

Domestic enterprises with a high degree of internationalization attach great importance to translation. Their translation research includes cutting-edge theoretical and applied research, involving machine translation, natural language processing and AI theory, algorithm and model. With such a foundation, enterprises can solve problems by themselves, such as embedding automatic translation functions in mobile phones. International enterprises not only do technical translation, but also deal with all forms of translation and localization in society. At present, translation teaching in most colleges and universities is still in the early mode, and it is an objective fact that it is divorced from the workplace and has a gap with the needs of enterprises.

Second, we should adjust and strengthen the construction of second foreign language teaching for foreign language majors. In the 1980s, our country was in urgent need of Russian translation. At that time, students majoring in English could translate microelectronic product manuals and related business documents in English and Russian at the same time after learning Russian for half a year. The mutual conversion between English and Russian played a great role in practice. According to the author, in the Graduate Institute of Interpretation and Translation of Beijing Foreign Studies University a very few students majored in multiple languages at the graduate level, that is, they majored in minor languages at the undergraduate level and were admitted to the Graduate Institute of Interpretation and Translation in English. Their training mode is to study English in the Graduate Institute of Interpretation and Translation for two years and the third year in the corresponding department of the undergraduate major. Such training mode in my opinion is a bigger model, cost It's more difficult for students.

In addition, there is a great disparity in the development of second foreign language teaching in colleges and universities, and the overall level is not high enough. Part of the second foreign language university foreign language professional may still be too much focus in languages such as German, French and Japanese, should as far as possible, considering the need of the construction of the "region", like Croatia, Serbia, Turkish, Hungarian, Italian, Indonesian, Albanian, these are the countries along the "area" the language of the two countries, Colleges and universities should encourage the teaching of a second foreign language.

Third, the teaching of translation technology should be strengthened. Traditional translation teaching teaches translation skills, such as the translation of words, sentences, texts and figures of speech. Translation technology refers to a series of practical workplace technologies with computer-aided translation software and translation project management as the core, which can greatly improve translation efficiency. However, due to the relative lack of translation technology teachers and equipment in colleges and universities, there is a disconnect between talent training and the requirements of translation technology in the translation field.

====5.3 Application of artificial intelligence to translation teaching practice====
In order to improve the teaching quality and train students' English translation ability, it is necessary to realize the effective integration of ARTIFICIAL intelligence and translation activity courses, which should not only reflect the effectiveness of artificial intelligence translation technology, but also help students establish a healthy concept of English communication. Through the application of artificial intelligence technology, students can strengthen their flexible translation skills through close communication with "AI program" during the learning stage of English translation activity class. For example, teachers can ask students to translate directly against the translation content provided on the translation screen of the ARTIFICIAL intelligence system. After that, the system can collect the translation answers with the help of speech recognition function, and then judge the accuracy of the translation content, thus providing important feedback to students.

China has used such artificial intelligence technology in the Putonghua test to ensure that every student can find a suitable translation method in practical communication. The so-called artificial intelligence technology is a new kind of technology modeled after the characteristics of human neural network thinking, can combine the human mind to respond. If it can be integrated into English translation activity teaching, it can not only improve the teaching efficiency, but also enhance students' enthusiasm in learning the course.

At the same time, during the training of translation talents, teachers also need to take into account the importance of influencing education factors, so that students can form a higher disciplinary quality in translation, so as to fit the concept of quality education in the new era. Only when artificial intelligence translation content is fully integrated into college English translation activity courses can the overall translation ability of college students be maximized.

====5.4The improvement of translator's technical ability====
In the previous part, the author roughly mentioned that translation teaching should be improved, which will be elaborated here. At present, only a few universities can make full use of the advantages of translation technology in translation teaching and focus on cultivating professional translation talents. Most universities still cannot get rid of the traditional teaching mode of "language + relevant professional knowledge" in translation teaching, and generally lack a correct understanding of COMPUTER-aided translation teaching.

According to Wang Huashu et al., the courses that can be offered around the composition of translators' technical literacy include computer-assisted translation, translation and corpus, machine translation and post-translation editing, localization and internationalization, film and television translation (subtitle), technical communication and technical writing, and computer programming. The course modules involved are: Fundamentals of COMPUTER-aided Translation, CAT tool application, corpus alignment and processing, term management, QA technology for translation quality assurance, OFFICE fundamentals, translation management technology, basic computer knowledge, desktop typesetting, localization and internationalization, project management system and content management system, technical writing, basic knowledge of computer programming, basic knowledge of web code, etc.

=====5.4.1 Application of CAT tools=====
The purpose of the computer-aided course is to learn how to use computer-aided translation, so it is obviously the most important and basic to choose the right tools for teaching computer-aided translation. In addition, for the CAT tools involved in the training of translation techniques, neither one simple and easy to use for teaching, nor too many tools can be applied to teaching, there are so many CAT software, teaching can not be comprehensive. Therefore, in the teaching of translation technology, it is the key problem that translation teachers need to face and solve to train students to understand the basic concept of CAT tool, develop the ability to independently learn new technologies and deal with various technical problems.(Fu,Xie 2015:39)#

=====5.4.2 The construction of memory bank and term bank=====
The core of CAT software is Translation Memory (TM). CAT tool can be used to complete translation efficiently, which is in essence to use translation memory technology to complete the memory work in the process of translation, such as term matching, translation name unification, highly similar sentence reproduction and so on by computer. The difference between a term bank and a memory bank is that the former stores terms or words or phrases that translators think are useful, while the latter stores sentences, paragraphs and chapters. The integration of the two can save translators time spent in repeated translation and improve the accuracy of pre-translation. Therefore, in the teaching process, the construction of memory bank and terminology bank plays a crucial role in the formation of the final translation and the completion of the translation project.

In addition, compared with the initial users, translators can better experience the convenience brought by CAT tool after using CAT tool for a period of time. That is to say, using CAT tool in the first few years of teaching needs to spend a lot of energy to build memory and terminology database.(Fu,Xie 2015:40)#

=====5.4.2 The choice of corpus for translation practice=====
Needless to say, the scope of use of COMPUTER-assisted translation is relatively limited. The principle of cad determines that its efficiency depends on the repetition rate of the original text. To give full play to the role of computer-aided translation, the original text should have several characteristics: the consistency of terms and phrases; Concise wording, less ambiguity; It is long and part of it is frequently updated. Obviously, COMPUTER-aided translation is of great help to technical texts with long usage cycle and frequently updated contents, but it is not practical for literary texts with more rhetoric. In the teaching link, if the teacher requires the students to translate the corpus in the memory bank with more than 90% highly matched text, then the training of the students in the practical operation link is mainly technical; On the contrary, if the text is of low matching degree, students are more inclined to have certain translation ability. Therefore, when selecting the corpus for translation practice, it is necessary not only to avoid too many texts with high matching degree, but also to avoid selecting texts with few relevant contents even in the glossary.(Fu,Xie 2015:40)#

===6 Cooperation between machine translation and translation talents in the Belt and Road===
In the context of the Belt and Road Initiative, it is far from enough to rely only on human translation, and there is also a shortage of translators in minor languages. And training translators in minor languages cannot keep up with the pace of the Belt and Road Initiative. At the same time, the corpus data of machine translation are mostly related to the languages of developed countries, such as English, French, German, Japanese, etc., and many smaller languages have no corpus at all.

The promotion of the Belt and Road Initiative makes it an urgent need to introduce Chinese culture to the outside world. The complex language conditions of the countries along the belt and Road mean that translation is not only a simple language transformation between the source language and the target language, but also involves the difference of cultural, customs beliefs and systems behind the language, and these are rely on large of data matching of machine translation, only a good translator can consider other factors in language transformation. During The promotion of the Belt and Road the translation task is much and pressing, So if we want to Better serve Belt and Road Initiative, it is necessary to realize the full cooperation of human translation and machine translation, achieve the efficiency of one plus one greater than two, promote the connectivity between China and these countries along the Belt and Road.

First of all, translators of small languages must be trained purposefully, and high-end translators should be trained with artificial intelligence and corpus, so as to promote the professionalization and irreplaceability of translators. On the other hand to perfect the existing corpus, and create a new corpus, but also make more artificial intelligence, machine translation can be more close to people's thinking mode, it can not only meet the new requirements under the new situation of machine translation, also can reduce the burden of human translation, improve the efficiency of the translation, avoid unnecessary repetition of human translation. It is a good solution to take human translation as the leading and machine translation as the auxiliary.

The implementation of the Belt and Road Initiative is a rare opportunity for our contemporary translators. It is an inevitable trend and an important task for contemporary translators to make science and technology better serve human beings and combine machine translation with human translation to realize that human translation and machine translation should complement each other and help each other in the future, so as to better serve the digital " the Belt and Road ".

===Conclusion===
This paper first discusses the current situation of machine translation and the training of translation talents. Machine translation has been widely used in various fields to facilitate people's life and work, but it still faces the problem of over-dependence on corpus and difficulty in dealing with cultural translation, and the lack of corpus for small languages. On the other hand, human translation is faced with a low degree of translation specialization and high cost of advanced translation training, while applied translation is easily replaced by machine translation.

In addition to this, translation industry faced the test of reality, in the context of "area" all the way, how to service and satisfy the needs of "area" become the challenge of the translation industry, because the countries along the "area", involved in nine languages, each country national condition and culture complex, small language translation talents cultivation become urgent need to solve the problem.

So all should be in the translation talents quality colleges and universities, training mode reform, using artificial intelligence auxiliary aspects of existing translation talents training scheme reform and innovation, improve the translator, the humanities, language literacy ability and innovation ability at the same time also must carry on the reform of the course, integrated financial, diplomatic and legal courses, and use of artificial intelligence and the translation techniques, Strengthen students' translation practice.

It takes years to train a translator, especially for small languages. However, machine translation can reduce the cost and facilitate translators to carry out better translation work once it is perfected. Therefore, realizing the cooperation between manual translation and machine translation is a win-win situation and can better serve the needs of the Belt and Road translation work. Therefore, we should not only strive to improve the translator's ability, but also combine technology with The Times, so that machine translation and human translation complement each other.

===References===
Yu Jinhong 于金红.(2018). 一带一路”背景下翻译技术在翻译人才培养过程中的影响及策略研究[Research on the influence and strategies of translation technology in the training of translation talents under the Background of the Belt and Road Initiative]. 大学英语教学与研究 College English Teaching & Research 2018(03) 08-09.

Zhang Xingling, Zhang Honghong 张杏玲张红红.(2019)“一带一路”背景下机器翻译与人工翻译的未来[The future of machine translation and human translation in the context of the belt and Road Initiative]. 汉字文化Sinogram Culture 2019(12) 147-148.

Li Xin, Feng Yong 李欣,冯勇.(2021). 人工智能背景下高校英语翻译活动课的实践探究[Practical study of English translation activity course in colleges and universities under the background of artificial intelligence]. 北京印刷学院学报 Journal of Beijing Institute of Graphic Communication 2021(09) 158.

Li Qihui, Yue Feng李启辉,岳峰语言服务教改助力一带一路建设[Language service education reform contributes to the Belt and Road Initiative]. 中国社会科学报 Chinese Journal of Social Science 2020(04) 01-02.

Zhu Yifan, Guan Chao朱一凡,管新潮.(2019). 人工智能时代的翻译人才培养：挑战与机遇[Translation talent Training in the era of artificial Intelligence: Challenges and Opportunities]. 上海交通大学学报（哲学社会科学版）JOURNAL OF SJTU(Philosophy and Social Science) 2019(08) 38-42.
Lv Lisong, Mu Lei吕立松,穆雷.(2007). 计算机辅助翻译技术与翻译教学[Computer aided translation technology and translation teaching]. 外语界 Foreign Language World 2007(06) 35-37.

Chen Wenxin 陈稳新.(2021). 关于人工智能产业对应用型翻译人才培养影响探讨[Discussion on the influence of artificial intelligence industry on the training of applied translation talents]. 才智 Ability And Wisdom 2021(08) 02-04.

Xu Jun, Mu Lei 许均,穆雷. (2021). 翻译学概论 [Introduction to Translatology].Beijing: Yilin Publishing House 译林出版社.

Song Shizhen宋仕振.(2019). 试论机器翻译与人工翻译的未来关系[Discussionon the future relationship between machine translation and human translation]. 未来与发展 Future and Development 2019(02) 26-29.

Fu Jingmin, Xie Sha 傅敬民,谢莎.(2015). 翻译技术的发展与翻译教学[Development of translation technology and translation teac[1]hing]. 外语电化教学 TEFLE 2015(11) 39-40.

Zhang Shengxiang, Zhang Chunli 张生祥张春丽.(2017) 翻译人才素养的社会需求分析与培养模式探索[Analysis of social needs and exploration of training model of translation talent literacy]. 上海翻译 Shanghai Journal of Translators 2017(12) 54-58.

corrected by--[[User:Yan Jing|Yan Jing]] ([[User talk:Yan Jing|talk]]) 11:45, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

Machine translation

2021-12-13T11:40:27Z

Yan Jing: /* Chapter 7 颜莉莉(The Cultivation of artificial intelligence and translation talents in the Belt and Road Initiative) */

'''Machine Translation - A challenge or a chance for human translators?'''

[[Machine_translation|Overview Page of Machine Translation]]

30 Chapters（0/30)

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[[Book_projects|Back to translation project overview]]

[[DCG-To-Do|To the To Do list]]

=Chapter 1:A Comparison Between the Quality of Machine Translation and Human Translation——A Case Study of the Application of artificial intelligence in Sports Events=
'''论机器翻译与人工翻译的质量对比——以人工智能在体育赛事领域的应用为例'''

卫怡雯 Wei Yiwen, Hunan Normal University, China

[[Machine_Trans_EN_1]]

=Chapter 3：On the Realm Advantages And Mutual Development of Machine Translation And Huamn Translation)=
"'论机器翻译与人工翻译的领域优势及共同发展'"

肖毅瑶 Xiao Yiyao, Hunan Normal University, China
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=Chapter 4 : A Comparison Between Machine Translation of Netease and Traditional Human Translation—A Case Study of The Economist Articles)=
'''网易有道机器翻译与人工翻译的译文对比——以经济学人语料为例'''

王李菲 Wang Lifei, Hunan Normal University

[[Machine_Trans_EN_4]]

=Chapter 5: Muhammad Saqib Mehran - Problems in translation studies=
[[Machine_Trans_EN_5]]

=6 徐敏赟(Machine Translation Based on Neural Network --Challenge or Chance?)=
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=Chapter 7: The Cultivation of artificial intelligence and translation talents in the Belt and Road Initiative=
[[Machine_Trans_EN_7]]

一带一路背景下人工智能与翻译人才的培养

颜莉莉 Yan Lili, Hunan Normal University, China

=Chapter 8: On Machine Translation Under Lanuguage Intelligence——An Option and Opportunity for Human Translators=
'''论语言智能下的机器翻译——译者的选择与机遇'''

颜静 Yan Jing, Hunan Normal University, China

[[Machine_Trans_EN_8]]

=9 谢佳芬（ Machine Translation and Artificial Translation in the Era of Artificial Intelligence）=
[[Machine_Trans_EN_9]]

=10 熊敏(Research on the English Chinese Translation Ability of Machine Translation for Various Types of Texts)=
[[Machine_Trans_EN_10]]
===Abstract===
The history of machine translation can be traced to 1940s, undergoing germination, recession, revival and flourish. Nowadays, with the rapid development of information technology, machine translation technology emerged and is gradually becoming mature. Whether manual translation can be replaced by machine translation becomes a widely-disputed topic. So in order to explore the ability of machine translation, I adopts two versions of translation, which are manual translation and machine translation(this paper uses Youdao translation) for different types of texts(according to Peter Newmark's types of text：informative text, expressive text and vocative text). The results are quite different in terms of quality and accuracy. The results show that machine translation is more suitable for informative text for its brevity, while the expressive texts especially literary works and vocative texts are difficult to be translated, because there are too many loaded words and cultural images in expressive text and dependence on the readers. To draw a conclusion, the relationship between machine translation and manual translation should be complementary rather than competitive.

===Key words===
machine translation; manual translation; Newmark's type of texts

===题目===
Research on the English Chinese Translation Ability of Machine Translation for Various Types of Texts

===摘要===
机器翻译的历史可以追溯到上个世纪40年代，经历了萌芽期、萧条期、复兴期和繁荣期四个阶段。如今，随着信息技术的高速发展，机器翻译技术日益成熟，于是机器翻译能不能替代人工翻译这个话题引起了广泛热议。为了探究机器翻译的能力水平是否足以替代人工翻译，本人根据皮特纽马克的文本类型分类理论（信息类文本，表达文本，呼吁文本），选择了相应的译文类型，并且将其机器翻译的版本以及人工翻译的版本进行对比。结果发现，就质量和准确度而言，译文的水平大相径庭。因为其简洁的特性，机器比较适合翻译信息文本。而就表达文本，尤其是文学作品，因其存在文化负载词及相应的文化现象，所以机器翻译这类文本存在难度。而呼唤文本因其目的性以及对读者的依赖性较强，翻译难度较大。由此得知，机器翻译和人工翻译的关系应该是互补的，而不是竞争的。

===关键词===
机器翻译；人工翻译；纽马克文本类型

===1. Introduction===
====1.1.Introduction to machine translation====
Machine translation, also known as computer translation is a technique to translating through machine translator, such as Google translation and Youdao translation. Machine translation is one of the branches of computational linguistics, ranging from computer science, statistics, information science and so on. Machine translation plays an important role in all aspects.
Machine translation can be traced back to 1940s, when British engineer Booth and American engineer Weaver proposed using computer to translate and started to study machines used for translation. And the first machine translating system launched in 1954, used in English and Russian translation. And this means machine translation becomes a reality. However, the arrival of new things always accompanies barriers and setbacks. In the 1960s, reports from ALPAC (Automated Language Processing Advisory Committee) showed studies on machine translation had stagnated for a decade. At that time, due to the high cost of machine, choosing human translators to finish translating works was more economical for most companies. What’s worse, machine had difficulty in understanding semantic and pragmatic meanings. Fortunately, in the 1970s, with the advance and popularity of computer, machine translation was gradually back on track. With the development of science and technology, machine translation has better technological guarantee, such as artificial intelligence and computer technology. In the last decades, from the late 90s till now, machine translation is becoming more and more mature. The initial rule-oriented machine translation has been updated and Corpus-aided machine translation appears. And nowadays, technology in voice recognition has been further developed. This technique is frequently applied in speech translation products. Users only need to speak source language to the online translator and instantly it will speak out the target version. But machine can’t fully provide precise and accurate translation without any grammatical or semantic problems. Machine can understand the literal meaning of texts, but not the meaning in context. For example, there is polysemy in English, which refers to words having multiple meanings. So when translating these words, translators should take contexts into consideration. But machine has troubles in this way. In addition, machine has no feeling or intention. Hence, it is also difficult to convey the feelings from the source language.

====1.2.Process of machine translation====
The process of manual translation is different from that of machine translation. Here is the process of the former. (1) Understand source language. (2) Use target language to organize language. (3) Generate translation. Unlike manual translation, machine translation tends to analyze and code source language first, then look for related codes in corpus, and work out the code that represents target language, generating translation. But they share a common feature, which is that Lexicon, grammatical rules and syntactic structure are taken into consideration. This is one of the biggest challenges for machine translation.

===2.Theorectical framework===
====2.1Newmark’s text typology====
Text typology is a theory from linguistics. It undergoes several phrases. Karl Buhler, a German psychologist and linguist defines communicative functions into expressive, information and vocative. Then Roman Jakobson proposes categorization of texts, which are intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. Accordingly, he defines six main functions of language, including the referential function, conative function, emotive function, poetic function, metalingual function and the phatic function. Based on the two theories, Peter Newmark, a translation theorist, summarizes the language function into six parts: the informative function, the vocative function, the expressive function, the phatic function, the aesthetic function, and the metalingual function. Later, he further divided texts into informative type, expressive text and vocative type according to the linguistic functions of various texts.
The core of the informative texts is the truth. It is to convey facts, information, knowledge of certain topics, reality and theories. The language style of the text is objective, logical and standardized. Reports, papers, scientific and technological textbooks are all attributed to informative texts. Translators are required to take format into account for different styles.
The core of the expressive text is the sender’s emotions and attitudes. It is to express sender’s preferences, feelings, views and so on. The language style of it is subjective. Imaginative literature, including fictions, poems and dramas, autobiography and authoritative statements belong to expressive text. It requires translators to be faithful to the source language and maintain the style.
The core of the vocative text is readership. It is to call upon readers to act, think, feel and react in the way intended by the text. So it is reader-oriented. Such texts as advertisement, propaganda and notices are of vocative text. Newmark noted that translators need to consider cultural background of the source language and the semantic and pragmatic effect of target language. If readers can comprehend the meaning at once and do as the text says, then the goal of information communication is achieved.
To draw a conclusion, informative texts focus on the information and facts. Expressive texts center on the mind of addressers, including feelings, prejudices and so on. And vocative texts are oriented on readers and call on them to practice as the texts say.

====2.2Study method====
Manual translations of the three texts are selected from authoritative versions and universally acknowledged. And machine translations of those come from Youdao Translator. And in this thesis I will compare and evaluate the two methods in word diction, sentence structure, word order and redundancy.

===3.Comparison and analysis of machine translation and manual translation ===
====3.1Informative text ====
（1）English into Chinese

①Source language:

Keep the tip of Apple Pencil clean, as dirt and other small particles may cause excessive wear to the tip or damage the screen of i-pad.

Target language:

Machine translation: Apple Pencil笔尖应保持清洁，灰尘等小颗粒可能会导致笔尖过度磨损或损坏ipad屏幕。

Manual translation: 保持Apple Pencil铅笔的笔尖干净，因为灰尘和其他微粒可能会导致笔尖的过度磨损或损坏iPad屏幕。

Analysis: Here is the instruction of Apple Pencil. And the manual translation is the Chinese version on the instruction.Product instruction tends to be professional, since there are many terms for some concepts. Machine can easily identify these terms and provide related words to translate. The machine version is faithful and expressive to the source language. So it is well-qualified and readable for readers to understand the instruction. So we can use machine to translate informative text.

②Source language:

China on Saturday launched a rocket carrying three astronauts-two men and one woman - to the core module of a future space station where they will live and work for six months, the longest orbit for Chinese astronauts.

Target language:

Machine translation: 周六，中国发射了一枚运载三名宇航员(两男一女)的火箭，进入未来空间站的核心舱，他们将在那里生活和工作6个月，这是中国宇航员最长的轨道。

Manual translation: 周六，中国发射了一枚搭载三名宇航员(两男一女)的火箭，进入未来空间站的核心舱，他们将在那里生活和工作6个月，这是中国宇航员最漫长的一次轨道飞行。

Analysis: This is a news from Reuters, reporting that China has launched a rocket.The meaning of the two translations is almost the same, except for some word diction. But there are some details dealt with different choice. For example, the last sentence of the machine translation is a bit of obscure and direct. There are some ambiguous words and expressions.

(2)Chinese into English

Source language:湖南省博物馆是湖南省最大的历史艺术类博物馆，占地面积4.9万平方米，总建筑面积为9.1万平方米，是首批国家一级博物馆，中央地方共建的八个国家级重点博物馆之一、全国文化系统先进集体、文化强省建设有突出贡献先进集体。

Target language:
Manual translation: As the largest history and art museum in Hunan province, the Hunan Museum covers an area of 49,000㎡, with the building area reaching 91,000㎡. It is one of the first batch of national first-level museums and one of the first eight national museums co-funded by central and local governments.

Machine translation: Museum in hunan province is one of the largest historical art museum in hunan province, covers an area of 49000 square meters, a total construction area of 91000 square meters, is the first national museum, the central place to build one of the eight national key museum, national cultural system advanced collectives, strong culture began with outstanding contribution of advanced collective.

Analysis: Machine translation is not faithful enough in content. For instance, “首批国家一级博物馆” is translated into “first national museum”, which is not the meaning of the source language. And there are some obvious grammar mistakes in the machine translation. For example, machine translates it into just one sentence but there are multiple predicates in it. So it is not grammatically permissible. What’s more, the sentence structure of machine translation is confusing and the focus is not specific enough.

====3.2Expressive text ====
(1)English into Chinese

Source language:

An individual human existence should be like a river- small at first, narrowly contained within its banks, and rushing passionately past rocks and over waterfalls. Gradually the river grows wider, the banks recede, the waters flow more quietly, and in the end, without any visible breaks, they become merged in the sea, and painlessly lose their individual being.

Target language:

Machine translation: 一个人的存在应该像一条河流——开始很小，被紧紧地夹在两岸中间，然后热情奔放地冲过岩石，飞下瀑布。渐渐地，河面变宽，两岸后退，水流更加平缓，最后，没有任何明显的停顿，它们汇入大海，毫无痛苦地失去了自己的存在。

Manual translation:人生在世，如若河流；河口初始狭窄，河岸虬曲，而后狂涛击石，飞泻成瀑。河道渐趋开阔，峡岸退去，水流潺缓，终了，一马平川，汇于大海，消逝无影。

Analysis: Here is a well-known metaphor in the prose How to Grow Old written by Bertrand Russell. The manual translation is written by Tian Rongchang.This is a philosophical prose with graceful language. Literary translation is a most important and difficult branch of translation. Translator should focus on the literal meaning, culture, writing style and so on. It is a combination of beauty and elegance. Therefore, translators find it in a dilemma of beauty and faithfulness, let alone translating machine. Compared with manual translation, machine translation has difficulty in word choice. It is faithful and expressive, but not elegant enough.

(2)Chinese into English

Source language:没有一个人将小草叫做“大力士”，但是它的力量之大，的确是世界无比。这种力，是一般人看不见的生命力，只要生命存在，这种力就要显现，上面的石块，丝毫不足以阻挡。因为它是一种“长期抗战”的力，有弹性，能屈能伸的力，有韧性，不达目的不止的力。

Target language:

Machine translation: No one calls the little grass "hercules", but its power is truly matchless in the world. This force is invisible life force. As long as there is life, this force will show itself. The stone above is not strong enough to stop it. Because it is a "long-term resistance" of the force, elastic, can bend and extend force, tenacity, not to achieve the purpose of the force.

Manual translation: Though nobody describes the little grass as a “husky”, yet its herculean strength is unrivalled. It is the force of life invisible to naked eye. It will display itself so long as there is life. The rock is utterly helpless before this force- a force that will forever remain militant, a force that is resilient and can take temporary setbacks calmly, a force that is tenacity itself and will never give up until the goal is reached. (by Zhang Peiji)

Analysis:This is the excerpt of a well-known Chinese prose written by Xia Yan. It is written during the war of Resistance Against Japan. So the prose holds symbolic meaning, eulogizing the invisible tenacious vitality so as to encourage Chinese to have confidence in the anti-aggression war. Compared with manual translation, machine translation is much more abstract and confusing, especially for the word diction. For example, “大力士” is translated into “hercules” which is a man of exceptional strength and size in Greek and Roman Mythology, making it difficult to understand if readers of target language have no idea of the allusion. What’s worse, the machine version doesn’t reveal the symbolic meaning of the text, which is the core of this prose.

====3.3Vocative text ====

(1)English into Chinese

①Source language:

iPhone went to film school, so you don’t have to. (Advertisement of iPhone13)

Target language:

Machine translation: iPhone上的是电影学院，所以你不用去。

Manual translation:电影专业课，iPhone同学替你上完了。

Analysis：Here are advertisements of iPhone on Apple official website. There is a personification in the source language. It is used to stress the advancement and proficiency in camera, which is an appealing selling point to potential buyers. Compared with manual translation, machine translation is plain and not eye-catching enough for customers.

②Source language:

5G speed OMGGGGG

Machine language: 5克的速度 OMGGGGG

Manual translation:

iPhone的5G 巨巨巨巨巨5G

Analysis: The “G” in the source language is the unit of speed, standing for generation. However, it is mistaken as a unit of weight, representing gram in the machine translation. So the meaning is not faithful to the source language at all. As for manual translation, it complies with the source in form. Specifically speaking, five “G”s in the former complies with five characters “巨”in the latter. And the pronunciation of the two is similar. There are two layers of meaning for the 5 “G”s. One exclaims the fast speed of 5 generation network and the other new technology. In the manual version, “巨”can be used to show degree, meaning “quite” or “very”.

③Source language:

History, faith and reason show the way, the way of unity. We can see each other not as adversaries but as neighbors. We can treat each other with dignity and respect, we can join forces, stop the shouting and lower the temperature. For without unity, there is no peace, only bitterness and fury."

Target language:

Machine translation: 历史、信仰和理性指明了团结的道路。我们可以把彼此视为邻居，而不是对手。我们可以尊严地对待彼此，我们可以联合起来，停止大喊大叫，降低温度。因为没有团结，就没有和平，只有痛苦和愤怒。

Manual translation:历史、信仰和理性为我们指明道路。那是团结之路。我们可以把彼此视为邻居，而不是对手。我们可以有尊严地相互尊重。我们可以联合起来，停止喊叫，减少愤怒。因为没有团结就没有和平，只有痛苦和愤怒

Analysis: Speech is a way to propagate some activity in public. It is an art to inspire emotion of the audience. The source language is the excerpt of Joe Biden’s inaugural speech. The speech should be inspiring and logic. The machine translation has some misunderstanding. Taking the translation of “lower the temperature” for example, machine only translates its literal meaning, relating to the temperature itself, without considering the context. What’s more, it is less logic than the manual one. Therefore, it adds difficulty to inspire the audience and infect their emotion.

===4.Common mistakes in machine translation ===

====4.1 lexical mistakes ====

Common lexical mistakes include misunderstandings in word category, lexical meaning and emotive and evaluative meaning. Misunderstanding in word category shows in the classification of word in the source language. As for misunderstanding in lexical meaning, machine has difficulty in precisely reflecting the meaning of the original texts, due to different cultural background and different language system. And for misunderstanding in emotive meaning, machine has no intention and emotion like human-beings. Therefore, it’s impossible for it to know writers’ feelings and their writing purposes. So sometimes, it may translate something negative into something positive.

====4.2 grammatical mistakes====

Grammatical analysis plays an important part in translation. Normally speaking, every language has its own unique grammatical rules. So in the process of translation, if translators don’t know the formation rule well, the sentence meaning will be affected. Even though all the lexical meanings are well-known by translators, the lack of consciousness of grammaticality makes it harder to arrange words according to sequential rule. English tends to be hypotactic, while Chinese tends to be paratactic. English sentences are connected through syntactic devices and lexical devices. While Chinese sentences are semantically connected, which means there are limited logical words and connection words in Chinese. So when translating English sentence, we should first analyze its grammaticality and logical structure and then rearrange its sequence. However, online translating machine has troubles in grammatical analysis, which makes its improvement more difficult.

====4.3 other mistakes====

The two mistakes above are the internal ones. Apart from mistakes in linguistic system, there are some mistakes in other aspects, such as cultural background.

===5.Reasons for its common mistakes ===

====5.1 Difference in two linguistic system====

With different history, English and Chinese have different ways of expression. Commonly speaking, English is synthetic language which expresses grammatical meaning through inflection such as tense and Chinese is analytic language which expresses grammatical meaning through word order and function word. In addition, English is more compact with full sentences. Subordinate sentence is one of the most important features in modern English. Chinese, on the other hand, is more diffusive with minor sentences.

====5.2 Difference in thinking patterns and cultural background====

According to Sapir-Whorf’s Hypothesis, our language helps mould our way of thinking and consequently, different languages may probably express their unique ways of understanding the world. For two different speech communities, the greater their structural differentiations are, the more diverse their conceptualization of the world will be. For example, western culture is more direct and eastern culture more euphemistic. What’s more, English culture tends to be individualism, focusing on detail, through which it reflects the whole, while Chinese culture tends to be collective. Different thinking patterns will add difficulty for machine to translate texts.

====5.3 Limitation of computer====

Recently, there are some breakthroughs and innovation in machine translation. However, due to its own limitation, online translation has limitation in some ways. Firstly, compared with machine, human brain is much more complicated, consisting of ten billions of neuron, each of which has different function to affect human’s daily activities and help humans avoid some errors. However, computer can only function according to preset programming has no intention or consciousness. Until now, countless related scholars have invested much time in machine translation. They upload massive language database, which include almost all linguistic rules. But computers still fail to precisely reflect the meaning of source language for many times due to the complexity and flexibility of language. On the other hand, computers can’t take context into consideration. During translation, it is often the case that machine chooses the most-frequently used meaning of one word. So without the correct and exact meaning, readers are easier to feel confused and even misunderstand the meaning of source language.

===6.Conclusion===
From the analysis above, we can draw a conclusion that machine deals with informative text best, followed by non-literary translation of expressive text. What’s more, machine can be a useful tool to get to know the gist and main idea of a specific topic, for the simple sentence structure and numerous terms. And it can improve translating efficiency with high speed. But machine has difficulty in translating literary works, especially proses and poems.

Machine translation has mixed future. From the perspective of commercial, machine translation boasts a bright future. With the process of globalization, the demand for translation is increasing accordingly. On one hand, if we only depend on human translator to deal with translating works, the quality and accuracy of translation can be greatly affected. On the other hand, if machine is used properly to do some basic work, human translators only need to make preparation before translating, progress, polish and other advanced work, contributing to highly-qualified translation and high working efficiency.

However, compared with manual translation, machine translation has a bleak future. It is still impossible for machine to replace interpreter or translator in a short term. With intelligence and initiative, humans are able to learn new knowledge constantly, which machine will never accomplish. Besides, machine is not used to replace translators but to assist them in work. In other words, translators and machine carry out their own duties and they are not incompatible.

To draw a conclusion, although there are certain limitations of machine translation, it can serve as a catalyst for translating works. Therefore, with the rapid development of artificial intelligence and related technology, there are still many opportunities for machine translation.

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=11 陈惠妮=(Study on Pre- editing of Machine Translation - A Case Study of Medical Abstracts)=
[[Machine_Trans_EN_11]]
===Abstract===
At present, globalization is accelerating and the market demand for language services is rapidly increasing . Machine translation, as an important translation method, can greatly improve translation efficiency due to its low cost and high speed. However, because of the limitations of machine translation and the differences between Chinese and English language, machine translation is not accurate enough. In order to balance translation efficiency and translation quality, a great number of manual revisions in translation are required for the machine translating texts. Medical papers are specialized, special and purposeful, so it requires accurate,qualified and professional translation. However, the quality of translations by machine is inefficient to meet the high-quality requirements of medical papers translation. Therefore, the introduction of pre-editing can greatly improve the efficiency and quality of machine translation.

===Key words===
Pre-editing, Machine translation, Medical texts

===题目===
Study on Pre- editing of Machine Translation - A Case Study of Medical Abstracts

===摘要===
在全球化加速发展的今天，市场对语言服务的需求迅速增加。机器翻译作为一种重要的翻译途径，由于其成本低、速度快，可以大大提高翻译效率。然而，由于机器翻译的局限性以及中英文语言的差异，机器翻译的准确性不高。为了平衡翻译效率和翻译质量，机器翻译文本需要大量的手工修改。
医学论文具有专业性、特殊性和目的性，要求其译文准确、合格、专业。然而，机器翻译的质量较低，无法满足医学论文对翻译的高质量要求。因此，译前编辑的引入可以大大提高机器翻译的效率和质量。

===关键词===
译前编辑；机器翻译；医学文本

===1. Introduction===
===1.1 Definition of Machine Translation===
As Cronin(2013) revealed: "Translation is undergoing a revolutionary upheaval. The influence of digital technology and the Internet on translation is continuous, extensive and profound. From the popularity of automatic online translation applications, translation revolution is everywhere (Cronin,2013) However,the concept of machine translation was firstly proposed in the 1930s. Since 1940s, the machine translation technology has been evolving from rule-based machine translation (RBMT) to statistical machine translation (SMT), and to neural machine translation (NMT). Machine translation refers to the automatic translation of source language into target language by using a computer system. That is, machine translation refers to the automatic translation of text from one language into another natural language by computer software or other online translation webs. Machine translation is also defined as the process of “using a computer system to automatically translate text or speech from one natural language to another” according to the definition by ISO (Cui, 2014).O 'Brien (2002) defines it as "the behavior of modifying errors in machine translation to ensure that the target translation meets certain quality requirements". On the basic level, machine translation performs mechanical substitution of words in one language for words in another language, but that rarely produces a good translation, therefore, recognition of the whole phrases and their closest counterparts in the target language is needed. Not all words in one language have equivalents in another language, and many words have more than one meaning. A huge demand for translation is greatly needed in today’s global world, which creates new opportunities for the development of machine translation, attracts more and more attention and becomes one of the current research focuses.

===1.2 Definition of Pre-editing===
Pre-editing means to adjust and modify the source language to make it fit more with the characteristics of the machine translation software before putting the source language before the into machine translation, so as to improve the quality of the translation machine translation (Wei Changhong, 2008:93-94). Pre-editing is to modify the original text before putting it into machine translation software, in order to improve the recognition rate of machine translation, optimize the output quality of translated text and reduce the workload of post-editing. Because pre-translation editing only needs to be modified in one language, the operation is simpler than post-translation editing, which can realize the double improvement of quality and efficiency. A good pre-editing translation can help machine translation more smoothly, thus improving the machine readability and quality of the output translation. Pre-editing is mostly applied in the following situations: one is when the original text is of poor quality and the machine is difficult to recognize the meaning of the sentence, such as user generated content with poor readability and translatability (Gerlach et al, 2003:45-53); Documents that need to be published in multiple languages; Next is when the original text contains a lot of jargon; The last is the original text has a corresponding translation memory bank. If the original text is edited, it can better match the content of the translation memory bank. Pre-editing is a process of identifying problems. It requires to pre-edit the source texts before putting it into machine translation according to the requirements, listing the expressions or sentences that may have trouble in machine translation and then pre-edit it by human. The purpose is to enable the computer to translate better, improve the translatability of machine translation. (Slype G V & Guinet J F & Seitz F,1984:115)

===1.3 Machine Translation Mode===
According to the different knowledge acquisition methods, machine translation modes can be classified as follows: one is rule-based machine translation, which is based on bilingual dictionaries and a library of language rules for each language. The quality of translation depends on whether the source language conforms to the existing rules, but the inexhaustible rules are the hinders of this model. The second mode is machine translation based on statistics. This translation model relies on the principles of mathematics and statistics to find various existing translations corresponding to the translation tasks through the employment of corpus, analyzing the frequency of their occurrence and selecting the translation with the highest frequency for output. The disadvantage of this translation model is that it ignores the flexibility of language and the importance of context. The last one is neural network language model. This model is different from previous translation models in that it uses end-to-end neural network to realize automatic translation between natural languages. At present, the quality of its translation is much higher than that of the previous translation models.
===1.4 Source of Study Abstracts===
The core medical journals from domestic are selected in order to make the paper more representative and authoritative, such as National Medical Journal of China, Journal of Peking University (Health Science), and Journal of Third Military Medical University. All of them include basic medical science, biomedical technology, laboratory medical science and other fields. In this way, the pre-editing approaches included are applicable enough to machine translation of medical abstracts.
===1.5 Selection of Translation Software===
Generally, machine translation software includes Google Translation, Youdao Translator and Niu Translation, which has their own special use in translation. Take Google as an example, it is more like neurons in human brain, enabling to learn and collect information to establish connections with its neural machine translator’s neurons. However, it also causes many errors because of the lack of enough information. In this paper, contrastive analysis will be carried on by using Google translation. On the one hand, being a pioneer in the translation of NET, it is inevitably to sue Google as the translation software to translate medical texts in this paper. Comparing the program called “Google brain”, other NMT of translation software are relatively disadvantages. On the other hand, the Google translation enjoys the largest users in the world, with its downloads of more than one billion. The output quality of Google translation is more correct and complete than other machine translation software. With years of development and improvement, Google Translation has been greatly promoted. In this paper, Chinese medical abstract will be automatically translated by Google translation, and then the translation output will be compared with the translation by human and the publication of English abstracts. The main purpose is to prove that the improvement and promotion of quality and accuracy in the medical abstracts will be obtained through the pre-editing approaches.

===2.Language Characteristics and Error Division===
Since Chinese and English are two different languages, it is quite neccessary to identify their own characteristics so as to better analyze and understand the two languages. Tytler (1978) argued in his Essay on the Principles of Translation that there are three principles of translation that in all the translation should give readers the same feelings as the source text, except for complete transcript of ideas. There actually also exit some mistakes of these two languages. So the following will make some clarrifications of these two languages to ensure more accurate translation.

===2.1 Language Characteristics of Medical Abstracts===
Chinese and English belong to different language systems, so there are differences in their language structure and the way users think of the languages. When using machine translation from Chinese to English, due to the unequal language levels, there will be many mistakes in the translation process, especially for ESP texts, such as medical papers.
Here, these differences mainly refer to the linguistic characteristics of medical abstracts. In medical abstracts, it usually includes structured and unstructured abstracts. Although in different forms, they both describe the purpose, methods and conclusions of the research.
In the method section of medial abstract, several Chinese sentences can be connected with commas, but each sentence may convey different information. In contrast, English sentences contain a great deal of information, but in order to ensure clarity, some modifiers need to be isolated and then reconstructed. However, in Chinese-English machine translation, a lot of information is put into the sentence because the machine segments the sentence on the basis of the full comma.
In addition, subjectless sentence is used in the objective and method parts of Chinese medical abstracts. The subjectless sentence means the sentence without or free from subject and is usually employed in two contexts. The first is "needless to say". In Chinese sentences, it is common to omit the subject of the sentence. Chinese sentences can convey meanings by using incomplete sentence structures, so Chinese speakers can understand the meanings of the sentences even though the sentence subject is omitted. The second is "emphasis of action". In this context, subjectless sentences are used to describe behaviors, especially in the study of traditional Chinese medicine abstracts. Comparatively speaking, it should be avoided in English medical abstracts. Abstract sentences are more subjective when describing the learning process, while the essential requirement of English medical abstract is objectivity. From this point, sentences without subject should be avoided in English medical abstracts. Another feature is voice. Few words with passive meanings appear in Chinese abstracts. English sentences are more favoured in using passive voice. When translating from Chinese to English, passive voice should be used to make the contents objective, which is also the basic requirement of medical papers.
These are the linguistic features of Chinese medical abstracts. There are great differences in sentence structure and expression between Chinese and English medical abstracts. These differences may reduce the accuracy of machine translation, so it is necessary to introduce pre-editing to edit the source text to ensure that the source text can be accurately recognized by the machine and fully translated into English.
===2.2 Error Division of Machine Translation in Translating Abstracts of Medical Papers from Chinese to English===
In this paper, errors in machine translation are listed out after analyzing. Some are due to the principles, such as statistical-based MT and NMT, employed by machine translation. Based on the original errors, they can be studied from two levels. One is from the macro-level, referring to mistakes caused by objective factors. These are not human factors, but the disadvantage of machine translation and the limitations of language. The limitations of machine translation are derived from the principles and models adopted and manifests itself as a reliance on reference sources. In this case, semantic ambiguity and textual incoherence may occur in the absence of reference sources.
However, for ESP texts such as medical papers, the requirements for terms and sentence patterns are far beyond the existing corpora. For unfamiliar texts (that is, the corresponding texts cannot be found in the corpora). The quality of output translation will be relatively low, which is determined by the principles of machine translation. As mentioned above, machine translation has evolved over the past few decades from rules-based to corp-based statistics to NMT. However, there still exist some limitations in machine translation.
Mistakes on micro-level are mainly caused by the variations and differences of linguistic structure between Chinese and English. Chinese is an implicit language, while English is an explicit one (Lian, 2010) To put it in another way, Chinese expression does not depend on language structures, while English does the opposite. This may result in mismatches between the original and machine translated sentences. This kind of error is mainly divided into two types: component fragment and component missing. For a medical paper, such errors are very serious. As a kind of ESP discourse, medical paper has the characteristics of fixed, objective and accurate language structure. In order to reproduce the characteristics of medical abstracts in translation, it is necessary to avoid errors at the level of words and sentences and pay attention to logic and consistency.
Lexical errors here refer to the inconsistency of fixed expressions in the translation of terms. Although these terms are machine translation based on the corpus, the corpus may not be perfect for ESP texts such as medical papers. Therefore, fixed expressions are not used in term translation. This is also the most common mistake in machine translation (the term here includes but is not limited to nouns). For ESP texts, medical text in particular, the fixed expressions and the accuracy of terms are of great importance.

===3.Approaches Proposed for Pre-editing ===
Generally speaking, there is a close relationship between pre-editing and post-editing, both of which aim to convey information and ensure high or publishable translation quality. Proper pre-editing can improve the quality of machine translation in terms of adequacy and consistency.
Complexity of natural language and people use language arbitrarily, bringing many difficulties to Chinese-English machine translation, Hu Qingping (2005:24) has proposed "the research of translation software and the development of the controlled language are the two directions to improve the quality of machine translation : the former aims at the difficulty in the natural language processing, the latter overcomes the arbitrariness of natural language". Feng Quangong and Gao Lin (2017: 63-68) put forward: "The writing principles of controlled language can be applied to pre-editing of machine translation. Pre-editing based on controlled language can effectively reduce the complexity and ambiguity of source text, improve the identifiability of machine translation (the translatability of source text itself), and thus reduce (fully) the workload of post-editing".
The central task of pre-editing is to transform human-friendly content into machine-friendly content, so words and sentences need to be repositioned or even changed. Based on the analysis of the language characteristics of Chinese and English, the Chinese ideographic group should be split before the Chinese source text is input into the machine software to translate so that the sentence structure is complete which can be easily recognized by the machine translation software.
===3.1 Extraction and Replacement of Terms in the Source Text===
As a branch of applied English, medical English is the product of the combination of English language knowledge and medical knowledge. The terms in medical papers have the characteristics of fixed and complex language structure. Although Google Translation is based on a corpus, the language structure is not fixed due to the limited size of the corpus. Therefore, the following two steps should be followed before machine translation. The first is to extract terms and create a glossary, and then replace the Chinese terms in the source text with the corresponding English expressions in the glossary. Of course, the terms of extraction should be searched and verified according to the actual situation. All of these words are verified before they can be replaced. This method can not only ensure the accuracy of term translation, but also maintain the consistency of expression, especially when dealing with long texts.
Example1
Source abstract: 口腔白斑病癌变相关缺氧应答基因和微小RNA的芯片及表达验证。
Google translation: Microarray detection/Chip detection and expression verification of hypoxia response genes and microRNAs related to oral leukoplakia canceration.
Published translation:Transcriptome array screening and verification of oral leukoplakia carcinogenesis-related hypoxia-responsive gene and microRNA.
Analysis: The expression “ Affymetrix GeneChip” empolyed in this thesis is a human transcription array for transcriptome array. In the source abstract, “芯片检测“ can be meant “screening” but not detection, so the proper and appropriate translation of these expression should be “transcription array screening”, but the Google translates it into “microarry detection of chip detection”. Therefore, term extraction is essential and inevitable before putting the source abstracts into the machine translation software.
After pre-editing source abstracts: 对 oral leukoplakia carcinogenesis 相关 hypoxia-responsive gene 和微小RNA进行 transcriptome array screening 及表达验证。
After pre-editing translation: Transcriptome array screening and expression- verification of hypoxia-responsive genes and microRNAs related to oral leukoplakia carcinogenesis.
===3.2 Explication of Subordination===
As mentioned above, the subordination of Chinese sentences is judged by certain specific words in machine translation . Chinese is a paratactic language, and sentences are often connected by internal logical relationships; while English depends on sentence structure, so sentences are often closely linked by various language forms. In order to improve the accuracy of machine translation, we can adjust the sentence structure and adjust the position of adjectives and their modifiers.
Example 2
Source abstracts:回顾性分析南京医科大学附属儿童医院中重度HIE患儿49例及同期就诊的无神经系统症状体征的足月新生儿为对照组31例的头颅磁共振成像（MRI）资料。
Google translation: A retrospective analysis that the brain magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) data of 49 children with moderate to severe HIE in the Children's Hospital of Nanjing Medical University and full-term neonates with no neurological symptoms and signs during the same period were included in the control group.
Published translation: A total of 49 children with moderate to severe HIE admitted to the children’s Hospital Affiliated to Nanjing Medical University were retrospectively analyzed. Cranial magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) date of 31 full-term neonates without neurological symptoms and signs who visited the hospital during the same period were recruited as the control group.
Analysis: As the above example shows that “中重度HIE患儿” and “足月新生儿” in the source abstracts are from the Children’s Hospital Affiliated Nanjing Medical University. The Google translation shows that 49 children with moderate to severe HIE in the Children's Hospital of Nanjing Medical University. There is an error due to the misuse of subordination. There are some advice in order to solve the problem. That is, first to segment the sentence and then reconstruct the sentence. For instance, the Chinese expression “南京医科大学附属儿童医院” carries many modifiers, which requires to cut the modifiers and reconstruct the sentence. Therefore, the Chinese expression “南京医科大学附属儿童医院’can be divided into abstractions, leaving two sentences instead of one long sentence with modifiers..
After pre-editing source abstracts: 对49例中重度HIE患儿以及31例无神经系统症状体征的足月新生儿的MRI资料进行回顾性分析。这些患者收治于南京医科大学儿童附属医院。
After pre-editing translation: The MRI data of 49 children with moderate to severe HIE and 31 full-term newborns without neurological symptoms and signs were retrospectively analyzed. These patients were admitted to the Children’s Hospital of Nanjing Medical University.
===3.3 Explication of Subject through Voice Changing===
The extensive use of subjectless sentences are quite common in the Chinese abstracts, while English prefers to employ passive voice in the sentences so as to make them object and accurate. In order to take the characteristics of English sentences into great and careful consideration, the sentences written in passive voice in particular, it will be helpful for machine translation to find out the subject and reconstruct a sentence in passive voice (Wang Yan: 2008). The first is to discover the “doee” in a sentence and then is to reconstruct the sentence structure and put the “doee” before the verb. The last is to explicate the passive relation between the noun and the verb.
Example 3
Source abstract: 回顾性分析2018年1月至2020年12月解放军总医院第七医学中心收治的500例老年髋部骨折患者的资料。
Google translation: A retrospective analysis of the data of 500 elderly patients with hip fractures admitted to the Seventh Medical Center of the PLA General Hospital from January 2018 to December 2020.
Published translation: From January 2018 to December 2020, the data of 500 elderly patients with hip fracture treated in the Seventh Medical Center of PLA General Hospital were analyzed retrospectively.
Analysis: The above example indicates that the “回顾性分析”in the Google Translate is a noun phrase, but the source abstracts actually describes an action or a behavior. The reason for such a mistake is that the machine can’t recognize the Chinese subjetless sentences. To find the subject of the sentence, the source abstracts can be revised and adjusted. Finding the “doee” is the first step, which refers to “500例老年髋部骨折患者的资料”in the source abstracts. And next is to put it in front of the verb, that is to place it in the beginning of the sentence. Last but not least, the passive voice should be explicated in the sentence.
After pre-editing source abstract: 500例老年髋部骨折患者的资料被回顾性分析，他们在2018年1月之2020年12月期间收治于解放军总医院第七医学中心。
After pre-editing translation: The data of 500 elderly hip fracture patients were retrospectively analyzed. They were admitted to the Seventh Medical Center of the PLA General Hospital between January 2018 and December 2020.
===3.4 Relocation of Modifiers===
Modifiers, including noun, adverbial and attributive are constantly employed in the Chinese medical papers in order to add information to subject and object in the sentence. By doing this, complicated sentences can be structured, thus causing obstacles to machine translation for recognizing this complex sentence structures when translating Chinese-English sentences. To make the machine translation successfully recognize the sentence structure, simplifying the sentence structure is quite necessary. The key is to moving the location of the modifiers and thus making the modifiers an independent sentence. In other words, the modifiers ought to be put before or behind the main part of the sentence to satisfy the common use of English.
Usually, the modifiers in Chinese sentence can only be placed in front of the core word, while in English, modifiers are very flexible. It is all right to place the modifiers in front of or behind the major part of the sentences with adjective or a connective noun.
Example 4
Source abstracts: 利用DNA重组技术以pET-28a表达系统在E.coli BL21(DE3) 中重组表达Hepl。
Google Translation: Hepl is recombined in E.coli BL21 (DE3) using DNA recombination technology with pET-28a expression system.
Published translation: The recombinant Hcpl protein was expressed by using DNA recombination technology through pET-28a expression system in E. coli BL21 (De3).
Analysis: The Chinese medical text includes two modifiers, “利用DNA”and “以pET-28a)表达系统”. These two modifiers will be translated by machine, which catches more attention to the two constituents. From the Google translation above, one failure is obvious that it misplaces the location of the two modifiers and presents it in not accurate form. To make it translate correctly by machine translation, dividing the sentences is very important so that the source abstracts can be correctly recognized by machine translation.
After pre-editing source abstract: 利用DNA重组技术，Hcp1重组表达在E.coli BL21 (DE3)中，通过pET-28a表达系统在E. coli BL21 (DE3)中。
Google translation: Using DNA recombination technology, Hcp1 recombination is expressed in E.coli BL21 (DE3), via pET-28a expression system in E. coli BL21 (DE3).
The second is the independence of modifiers, that is, modifiers can also be reconstructed into clauses to modify core words. Compared with English, There is no subordinate clause in Chinese, so redundant Chinese modifiers need to be reconstructed into subordinate clauses in Chinese-English translation to meet the characteristics of English. English, especially sentences with multiple modifiers. Otherwise, sentence structure may be confused, such as scattered modifiers of core words. To avoid this mistake, it is necessary to separate the modifier from the main part of the sentence. These modifiers should be reconstituted into clauses. Also, keep your sentences simple and easy to understand.
===3.5 Proper Omission and Deletion of Category Words===
Category words are commonly used in Chinese. Category words complement the meaning of words, including problems, positions, situations and jobs. Adding this supplementary word is more in line with Chinese custom. In many cases, it has no real meaning, so it can be omitted in translation. In Chinese, category words are frequently used. However, it is rarely used in English, which is one of the differences between Chinese and English. There are many kinds of category words. Considering objectivity and the fixed structure of language, redundant category words should be deleted in Chinese-English translation. In the general, the most commonly used category of words in the Chinese medical abstracts are "process", "behavior", and "situation". These categories of words hinder the language conversion of Chinese and English, resulting in redundancy.
Example 5
Source abstract: 探讨口腔白斑病癌变进程中的缺氧应答基因及相关微小RNA (miRNA) 的表达。
Google translation: The expression of hypoxia response genes and associated microRNAs in the process of oral leukoplakia cancer was discussed.
Published translation: To study the hypoxia response gene and microRNA (miRNA)expression profiles in the pathogenesis and progression of oral leukoplakia (OLK).
Analysis: As the above example shows, the Chinese words “进程” belongs to a category word. However, the Chinese expression “癌变”contains the process, so the “进程” expression can be deleted before placing it into the machine translation, because the meaning of it has been overlapping between the expression “癌变”. Therefore, its place can be replaced with preposition “during”.
After pre-editing source abstract: 探讨口腔白斑病癌变中的缺氧应答基因及相关微小RNA (miRNA) 的表达。
Google translation: The expression of hypoxia responsive genes and miRNA in oral leukoplakia cancer was investigated.

===Conclusion===
After years of development, machine translation has made great progress. The accuracy of machine translation has been greatly improved in both text recognition and sentence pattern conversion. However, machine translation has its own limitations. In other words, it needs to rely on the parallel corpus as a reference source for improving its accuracy. ESP text, in particular, is harder to get the high quality by machine translation.
As one of the research papers, the characteristics of medical abstracts are fixed language structures, objectivity and accuracy (Qin Yi:2004). Therefore, medical translation must be accurate, object and understandable to follow the specific demands of the medical paper. Being an important field in the human society, medical paper translation is on a great demand, which means that it needs a huge demand for human labor. However, with the machine translation promoting, it will be more efficient to translate medical papers combining the effort by human and machine. The improvement and development of machine translation requires the joint efforts of computer science, information science, statistics, linguistics and other academic circles to achieve more mature human-computer mutual assistance translation (Li Yafei, Zhang Ruihua : 2019).
However, errors can occur during the process of machine translation of Chinese- English, because of the differences of the Chinese and English and the processing of the machine. Errors from the perspective of linguistic or grammar can affect the machine translation a lot. After division and recognition of errors, some pre-editing approaches are put forward to help the machine translation more accurate and readable, that are, extraction and replacement of terms in the source text, relocation of modifiers, explication of subordination, proper omission, deletion of category words and explication of subject through voice changing.
The paper mainly focuses on the pre-editing machine translation by using medical papers as a case study. The errors of machine translation occurring in the translation of medical abstracts and pre-editing approaches for machine translation. The quality of machine translation of medical papers is greatly improved after employing the pre-editing methods. However, machine translation is not as flexible and accurate as human brain, so it is of importance to combine pre-editing and post-editing approaches with machine translation in order to produce more accurate, more object machine translation of medical papers.

===References===
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[2]. GERLACH J, et al ( 2013). Combining Pre-editing and Post-editing to Improve SMT of User-generated Content[M]// Proceedings of MT Summit XIV Workshop on Post-editing Technology and Practice. 45-53.

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[5]. Tytler, A. F. (1978). Essay On The Principles of Translation[M]. Amsterdam: JohnBenjamins Publishing.

[6] 崔启亮. (2014), 论机器翻译的译后编辑[J], 中国翻译, 035(006):68-73.

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=12 蔡珠凤=(The Mistranslation of C-J Machine Translation of Political Statements)=
[[Machine_Trans_EN_12]]
===Abstract===
Language is the main way of communication between people. With the continuous development of globalization, the scale of cross-border exchanges is also expanding. However, due to cultural differences and diversity, the languages of different countries and regions are very different, which seriously hinders people's communication. The demand for efficient and convenient translation tools is increasing. At the same time, with the development of network technology and artificial intelligence, recognition technology based on deep learning is more and more widely used in English, Japanese and other fields.

===Key words===
machine translation; political statements; mistranslation of C-J machine translation
===题目===
The Mistranslation of C-J Machine Translation of Political Statements
===摘要===
语言是人与人之间交流的主要方式。随着全球化的不断发展，跨境交流的规模也在不断扩大。然而，由于文化的差异和多样性，不同国家和地区的语言差异很大，这严重阻碍了人们的交流。对高效便捷的翻译工具的需求正在增加。同时，随着网络技术和人工智能的发展，基于深度学习的识别技术在英语、日语等领域的应用越来越广泛。

===关键词===
机器翻译；政治发言；政治发言中译日的误译
===1. Introduction===
===Introduction to machine translation===
Machine translation, also known as automatic translation, is a process of using computers to convert one natural language (source language) into another natural language (target language). It is a branch of computational linguistics, one of the ultimate goals of artificial intelligence, and has important scientific research value.At the same time, machine translation has important practical value. With the rapid development of economic globalization and the Internet, machine translation technology plays a more and more important role in promoting political, economic and cultural exchanges.The development of machine translation technology has been closely accompanied by the development of computer technology, information theory, linguistics and other disciplines. From the early dictionary matching, to the rule translation of dictionaries combined with linguistic expert knowledge, and then to the statistical machine translation based on corpus, with the improvement of computer computing power and the explosive growth of multilingual information, machine translation technology gradually stepped out of the ivory tower and began to provide real-time and convenient translation services for general users.（Zhang 2019:5-6)

=== C-J machine translation software===
Today's online machine translation software includes Baidu translation, Tencent translation, Google translation, Youdao translation, Bing translation and so on. Google was the first company to launch the machine translation system, and Baidu was the first company to import the machine translation system in China. In addition, Tencent and Youdao have attracted much attention.Machine translation is the process of using computers to convert one natural language into another. It usually refers to sentence and full-text translation between natural languages. In order to continuously improve the translation quality, R & D personnel have added artificial intelligence technologies such as speech recognition, image processing and deep neural network to machine translation on the basis of traditional machine translation based on rules, statistics and examples.With the increase of using machine translation, the joint cooperation between manual translation and machine translation will also increase significantly in the future. What criteria should be used to evaluate the quality of machine translation? In the evolving field of machine translation, there is an urgent need to clarify the unsolvable questions and solved problems.

===The history of machine translation===
The research history of machine translation can be traced back to the 1930s and 1940s. In the early 1930s, the French scientist G.B. alchuni put forward the idea of using machines for translation. In 1933, Soviet inventor П.П. Trojansky designed a machine to translate one language into another, and registered his invention on September 5 of the same year; However, due to the low technical level in the 1930s, his translation machine was not made. In 1946, the first modern electronic computer ENIAC was born. Shortly after that, W. weaver, an American scientist and A. D. booth, a British engineer, a pioneer of information theory, put forward the idea of automatic language translation by computer in 1947 when discussing the application scope of electronic computer. In 1949, W. Weaver published the translation memorandum, which formally put forward the idea of machine translation. After 60 years of ups and downs, machine translation has experienced a tortuous and long development path. The academic community generally divides it into the following four stages:

Pioneering period（1947-1964）

In 1954, with the cooperation of IBM, Georgetown University completed the English Russian machine translation experiment with ibm-701 computer for the first time, showing the feasibility of machine translation to the public and the scientific community, thus opening the prelude to the study of machine translation.
It is not too late for China to start this research. As early as 1956, the state included this research in the national scientific work development plan. The topic name is "machine translation, the construction of natural language translation rules and the mathematical theory of natural language". In 1957, the Institute of language and the Institute of computing technology of the Chinese Academy of Sciences cooperated in the Russian Chinese machine translation experiment, translating 9 different types of more complex sentences.From the 1950s to the first half of the 1960s, machine translation research has been on the rise. The United States and the former Soviet Union, two superpowers, have provided a lot of financial support for machine translation projects for military, political and economic purposes, while European countries have also paid considerable attention to machine translation research due to geopolitical and economic needs, and machine translation has become an upsurge for a time. In this period, although machine translation is just in the pioneering stage, it has entered an optimistic period of prosperity.

Frustrated period（1964-1975）

In 1964, in order to evaluate the research progress of machine translation, the American Academy of Sciences established the automatic language processing Advisory Committee (Alpac Committee) and began a two-year comprehensive investigation, analysis and test.In November 1966, the committee published a report entitled "language and machine" (Alpac report for short), which comprehensively denied the feasibility of machine translation and suggested stopping the financial support for machine translation projects. The publication of this report has dealt a blow to the booming machine translation, and the research of machine translation has fallen into a standstill. Coincidentally, during this period, China broke out the "ten-year Cultural Revolution", and basically these studies also stagnated. Machine translation has entered a depression.

convalescence（1975-1989）

Since the 1970s, with the development of science and technology and the increasingly frequent exchange of scientific and technological information among countries, the language barriers between countries have become more serious. The traditional manual operation mode has been far from meeting the needs, and there is an urgent need for computers to engage in translation. At the same time, the development of computer science and linguistics, especially the substantial improvement of computer hardware technology and the application of artificial intelligence in natural language processing, have promoted the recovery of machine translation research from the technical level. Machine translation projects have begun to develop again, and various practical and experimental systems have been launched successively, such as weinder system Eurpotra multilingual translation system, taum-meteo system, etc.However, after the end of the "ten-year holocaust", China has perked up again, and machine translation research has been put on the agenda again. The "784" project has paid enough attention to machine translation research. After the mid-1980s, the development of machine translation research in China has further accelerated. Firstly, two English Chinese machine translation systems, ky-1 and MT / ec863, have been successfully developed, indicating that China has made great progress in machine translation technology.

New period(1990 present)

With the universal application of the Internet, the acceleration of the process of world economic integration and the increasingly frequent exchanges in the international community, the traditional way of manual operation is far from meeting the rapidly growing needs of translation. People's demand for machine translation has increased unprecedentedly, and machine translation has ushered in a new development opportunity. International conferences on machine translation research have been held frequently, and China has made unprecedented achievements. A series of machine translation software have been launched, such as "Yixing", "Yaxin", "Tongyi", "Huajian", etc. Driven by the market demand, the commercial machine translation system has entered the practical stage, entered the market and came to the users.Since the new century, with the emergence and popularization of the Internet, the amount of data has increased sharply, and statistical methods have been fully applied. Internet companies have set up machine translation research groups and developed machine translation systems based on Internet big data, so as to make machine translation really practical, such as "Baidu translation", "Google translation", etc. In recent years, with the progress of in-depth learning, machine translation technology has further developed, which has promoted the rapid improvement of translation quality, and the translation in oral and other fields is more authentic and fluent.

===The problem of machine translation at present===
Error is inevitable
Many people have misunderstandings about machine translation. They think that machine translation has great deviation and can't help people solve any problems. In fact, the error is inevitable. The reason is that machine translation uses linguistic principles. The machine automatically recognizes grammar, calls the stored thesaurus and automatically performs corresponding translation. However, errors are inevitable due to changes or irregularities in grammar, morphology and syntax, such as sentences with adverbials after "give me a reason to kill you first" in Dahua journey to the West. After all, a machine is a machine. No one has special feelings for language. How can it feel the lasting charm of "the tenderness of lowering its head, like the shame of a water lotus? After all, the meaning of Chinese is very different due to the changes of morphology, grammar and syntax and the change of context. Even many Chinese people are zhanger monks - they can't touch their heads, let alone machines.
Bottleneck
In fact, no matter which method, the biggest factor affecting the development of machine translation lies in the quality of translation. Judging from the achievements, the quality of machine translation is still far from the ultimate goal.
Chinese mathematician and linguist Zhou Haizhong once pointed out in his paper "fifty years of machine translation": to improve the quality of machine translation, the first thing to solve is the problem of language itself rather than programming; It is certainly impossible to improve the quality of machine translation by relying on several programs alone. At the same time, he also pointed out that it is impossible for machine translation to achieve the degree of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" when human beings have not yet understood how the brain performs fuzzy recognition and logical judgment of language. This view may reveal the bottleneck restricting the quality of translation.
It is worth mentioning that American inventor and futurist ray cozwell predicted in an interview with Huffington Post that the quality of machine translation will reach the level of human translation by 2029. There are still many disputes about this thesis in the academic circles.

===2.Mistranslation of Chinese Japanese machine translation===
===2.1Vocabulary mistranslation in Chinese Japanese machine translation===
===2.1.1Mistranslation of proper nouns===
In political materials, there are often political dignitaries' names, place names or a large number of proper nouns in the political field. The morphemes of such words are definite and inseparable. Mistranslation will make the source language lose its specific meaning.

Japanese translation into Chinese Chinese translation into Japanese

original text translation by Youdao reference translation original text translation by Youdao reference translation

朱鎔基朱基朱镕基栗战书栗戰史書栗戰書

労安劳安劳安李克强李克強李克強

筑紫哲也筑紫哲也筑紫哲也习近平習近平習近平

山口百惠山口百惠山口百惠韩正韓中韓正

田中角栄田中角荣田中角荣王沪宁王上海氏王滬寧

東条英機东条英社东条英机汪洋汪洋汪洋

毛沢东毛泽东毛泽东赵乐际趙樂南趙樂際

トウ・ショウヘイ　　　大酱邓小平江泽民江沢民江沢民

周恩来周恩来周恩来

クリントン克林顿克林顿

The above table counts 18 special names in the two texts, and 7 machine translation errors. In terms of mistranslation, there are not only "战书" but also "戰史" and "史書" in Chinese. "沪" is the abbreviation of Shanghai. In other words, since "战书" and "沪" are originally common nouns, this disrupts the choice of target language in machine translation. Except Katakana interference (except for トウシゃウヘイ, most of the mistranslations appear in the new Standing Committee. It can be seen that the machine translation system does not update the thesaurus in time. Different from other words, people's names have particularity. Especially as members of the Standing Committee of the Political Bureau of the CPC Central Committee, the translation of their names is officially unified. In this regard, public figures such as political dignitaries, stars, famous hosts and important. In addition, the machine also translates Japanese surnames such as "タ二モト" (谷本), "アンドウ" (安藤) into "塔尼莫特" and "龙胆". It can be found that the language feature that Japanese will be written together with Chinese characters and Hiragana also directly affects the translation quality of Japanese Chinese machine translation. Japanese people often use Katakana pronunciation. For example, when Japanese people talk with Premier Zhu, they often use "二ーハウ" (Hello). However, the machine only recognizes the two pseudonyms "二" and "ハ" and transliterates them into "尼哈" , ignoring the long sound after "二" and "ハ".

original text Translation by Youdao reference translation

日美安全体制日米の安全体制日米安保体制

中国共产党第十九次全国代表大会中国共産党第19回全国代表大会中国共産党第19回全国代表大会（第19回党大会）

十八大十八大第18回党大会中国特色社会主义

中国特色社会主義中国の特色ある社会主義第18回党大会

中国共产党中央委员会中国共産党中央委員会中国共産党中央委員会

中国共産党中央委員会十八届中共中央政治局常委第18代中国共產党中央政治局常務委員第18期中共中央政治局常務委員

十八届中共中央政治局委员 18期の中国共產党中央政治局委員第18期中共中央政治局委員

十九届中共中央政治局常委十九回中国共產党中央政治局常務委員第19期中央政治局常務委員

中共十九届一中全会中国共產党第十九回一中央委員会第19期中央委員会第1回全体会議

The above table is a comparison of the original and translated versions of some proper nouns. As shown in the table, the mistranslation problems are mainly reflected in the mismatch of numerals + quantifiers, the wrong addition of case auxiliary word "の", the lack of connectors, the Mistranslation of abbreviations, dead translation, and the writing errors of Chinese characters. The following is a specific analysis one by one.

"十八届中共中央政治局常委", "十八届中共中央政治局委员", "十九届中共中央政治局常委" and "中共十九届一中全会" all have quantifiers "届", which are translated into "代", "期" and "回" respectively. The meaning is vague and should be uniformly translated into "期"; Among them, the translation of the last three proper nouns lacks the Chinese conjunction "第". The case auxiliary word "の" was added by mistake in the translation of "十八届中共中央政治局委员" and "日美安全体制". The "中国共产党中央委员会" did not write in the form of Japanese Ming Dynasty characters, but directly used simplified Chinese characters.

The full name of "中共十九届一中全会" is "中国共产党第十九届中央委员会第一次全体会议", in which "一" stands for "第一次", which is an ordinal word rather than a cardinal word. Machine translation does not produce a correct translation. The fundamental reason is that there are no "规则" for translating such words in machine translation. If we can formulate corresponding rules for such words (for example, 中共m'1届m2 中全会→第m1期中央委员会第m2回全体会议), the translation system must be able to translate well no matter how many plenary sessions of the CPC Central Committee.

===2.1.2Mistranslation of Polysemy===
original text Translation by Youdao reference translation

スタジオ摄影棚/工作室直播现场/演播厅

日中関係の話中日关系的故事就中日关系(话题)

溝水沟鸿沟

それでは日中の問題について質問のある方。那么对白天的问题有提问的人。关于中日问题的话题，举手提问。

私たちのクラスは20人ちょっとですが、我们班有20人左右，我们班二十多人的意见统一很难，

いろいろな意見が出て、まとめるのは大変です。但是又各种各样的意见，总结起来很困难。

一体どうやって、13億人もの人をまとめているんですか。到底是怎么处理13亿的人的呢？中国是怎样把13亿人凝聚在一起的？

In the original text, the word "スタジオ" appeared four times and was translated into "摄影棚" or "工作室" respectively, but the context is on-site interview, not the production site of photography or film. "話" has many semantics, such as "说话", "事情", "道理", etc. In accordance with the practice of the interview program, Premier Zhu Rongji was invited to answer five questions on the topic of China Japan relations. Obviously, the meaning of the word "故事" is very abrupt. The inherent Japanese word "日中" means "晌午、白天". At the same time, it is also the abbreviation of the names of the two countries. The machine failed to deal with it correctly according to the context. "溝" refers to the gap between China and Japan, not a "水沟". The former "まとめる" appears in the original text with the word "意见", which is intended to describe that it is difficult to unify everyone's opinions. The latter "まとめている" also refers to unifying the thoughts of 1.3 billion people, not "处理". Therefore, it is more appropriate to use "统一" and "处理" in human translation, rather than "总结意见" or "处理意见".

Mistranslation of polysemy has always been a difficult problem in machine translation research. The translation of each word is correct, but it is often very different from the original expression in the context. Zhang Zhengzeng said that ambiguity is a common phenomenon in natural language. Its essence is that the same language form may have different meanings, which is also one of the differences between natural language and artificial language. Therefore, one of the difficulties faced by machine translation is language disambiguation (Zhang Zheng, 2005:60). In this regard, we can mark all the meanings of polysemous words and judge which meaning to choose by common collocation with other words. At the same time, strengthen the text recognition ability of the machine to avoid the translation inconsistent with the current context. In this way, we can avoid the mistake of "大酱" in the place where famous figures such as Deng Xiaoping should have appeared in the previous political articles.

===2.1.3Mistranslation of compound words===
Multi class words refer to a word with two or more parts of speech, also known as the same word and different classes.

original text Translation by Youdao reference translation

1998年江泽民主席曾经访问日本, 1998年の江沢民国家主席の日本訪問し、 1998年、江沢民総書記が日本を訪問し、かつ

同已故小渊首相签署了联合宣言。かつて同じ故小渕首相が署名した共同宣言亡くなられた小渕総理と宣言に調印されました

Chinese "同" has two parts of speech: prepositions and conjunctions: "故" has many parts of speech, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives and conjunctions. This directly affects the judgment of the machine at the source language level. The word "同" in the above table is used as a conjunction to indicate the other party of a common act. "故" is used as a verb with the semantic meaning of "死亡", which is a modifier of "小渊首相". The machine regards "同" as an adjective and "故" as a noun "原因", which leads to confusion in the structure and unclear semantics of the translation. Different from the polysemy problem, multi category words have at least two parts of speech, and there is often not only one meaning under each part of speech. In this regard, software R & D personnel should fully consider the existence of multi category words, so that the translation machine can distinguish the meaning of words on the basis of marking the part of speech, so as to select the translation through the context and the components of the word in the sentence. Of course, the realization of this function is difficult, and we need to give full play to the wisdom of R & D personnel.

===2.2 Syntactic mistranslation in Chinese Japanese machine translation===
===2.2.1Mistranslation of tenses===
original text：History is written by the people, and all achievements are attributed to the people.

Translation by Youdao：歴史は人民が書いたものであり、すべての成果は人民のためである。

reference translation：歴史は人民が綴っていくものであり、すべての成果は人民に帰することとなります。

The original sentence meaning is "历史是人民书写的历史" or "历史是人民书写的东西". When translated into Japanese, due to the influence of Japanese language habits, the formal noun "もの" should be supplemented accordingly. In this sentence, both the machine and the interpreter have translated correctly. However, the machine's recognition of "的" is biased, resulting in tense translation errors. The past, present and future will become "history", and this is a continuous action. The form translated as "~ ていく" not only reflects that the action is a continuous action, but also conforms to the tense and semantic information of the original text. In addition, the machine's treatment of the preposition "于" is also inappropriate. In the original text, "人民" is the recipient of action, not the target language. As the most obvious feature of isolated language, function words in Chinese play an important role in semantic expression, and their translation should be regarded as a focus of machine translation research.

original text：李克强同志是十六届中共中央政治局常委,其他五位同志都是十六届中共中央政治局委员。

Translation by Youdao：李克強総理は第16代中国共産党中央政治局常務委員であり、他の５人の同志はいずれも16期の中国共産党中央政治局委員である。

reference translation：李克強同志は第16期中国共産党中央政治局常務委員を務め、他の５人は第16期中共中央政治局委員を務めました。

Judging the verb "是" in the original text plays its most basic positive role, but due to the complexity of Chinese language, "是" often can not be completely transformed into the form of "だ / である" in the process of translation. This sentence is a judgment of what has happened. Compared with the 19th session, the 18th session has become history. This is an implicit temporal information. It is very difficult for machines without human brain to recognize this implicit information. "中共中央政治局常委" is the abbreviation of "中共中央政治局常务委员会委员" and it is a kind of position. In Japanese, often use it with verbs such as "務める","担当する",etc. The translator adopts the past tense of "務める", which conforms to the expression habit of Japanese and deals with the problem of tense at the same time. However, machine translation only mechanically translates this sentence into judgment sentence, and fails to correctly deal with the past information implied by the word "十八届".

===2.2.2Mistranslation of honorifics===
Honorific language is a language means to show respect to the listener. Different from Japanese, there is no grammatical category of honorifics in Chinese. There is no specific fixed grammatical form to express honorifics, self modesty and politeness. Instead, specific words such as "您", "请" and "劳驾" are used to express all kinds of respect or self modesty.

Original text translation by Youdao reference translation

女士们，先生们，同志们，朋友们さんたち、先生たち、同志たち、お友达さん　　ご列席の皆さん

谢谢大家！ありがとうございます！ご清聴ありがとうございました。

これはどうされますか。这是怎么回事呢? 您将如何解决这一问题？

こうした問題をどうお考えでしょうか。我们会如何考虑这些问题呢？您如何看待这一问题？

For example, for the processing of "女士们，先生们，同志们，朋友们", the machine makes the translation correspond to the original one by one based on the principle of unchanged format, but there are errors in semantic communication and pragmatic habits. When speaking on formal occasions, Chinese expression tends to be comprehensive and detailed, as well as the address of the audience. In contrast, Japanese usually uses general terms such as "皆様", "ご臨席の皆さん" or "代表団の方々" as the opening remarks. In terms of Japanese Chinese translation, the machine also failed to recognize the usage of Japanese honorifics such as "される" and "お考え". It can be seen that Chinese Japanese machine translation has a low ability to deal with honorific expressions. The occasion is more formal. A good translation should not only be fluent in meaning, but also conform to the expression habits of the target language and match the current translation environment.

===Conclusion===
In the process of discussing the Mistranslation of machine translation, this paper mainly cites the Mistranslation of Youdao translator. When I studied the problem of machine translation mistranslation, I also used a large number of translation software such as Google and Baidu for parallel comparison, and found that these translation software also had similar problems with Youdao translator. For example, the "新世界新未来" in Chinese ABAC structural phrases is translated by Baidu as "新し世界の新しい未来", which, like Youdao, is not translated in the form of parallel phrases; Google online translation translates the word "“全心全意" into a completely wrong "全面的に"; The original sentence "我吃了很多亏" in the Mistranslation of the unique expression in the language is translated by Google online as "私はたくさんの損失を食べました". Because the "吃" and "亏" in the original text are not closely adjacent, the machine can not recognize this echo and mistakenly treats "亏" as a kind of food, so the machine translates the predicate as "食べました"; Japanese "こうした問題をどう考えでしょうか", Google's online translation is "你如何看待这些问题?", "你" tone can not reflect the tone of Japanese honorific, while Baidu translates as "你怎么想这样的问题呢?" Although the meaning can be understood, it is an irregular spoken language. Google and Baidu also made the same mistakes as Youdao in the translation of proper nouns. For example, they translated "十七届(中共中央政治局常委)”" into "第17回..." .In short, similar mistranslations of Youdao are also common in Baidu and Google. Due to space constraints, they will not be listed one by one here.

Mr. Liu Yongquan, Institute of language, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences (1997) It has been pointed out that machine translation is a linguistic problem in the final analysis. Although corpus based machine translation does not require a lot of linguistic knowledge, language expression is ever-changing. Machine translation based solely on statistical ideas can not avoid the translation quality problems caused by the lack of language rules. The following is based on the analysis of lexical, syntactic and other mistranslations From the perspective of the characteristics of the source language, this paper summarizes some difficulties of Chinese and Japanese in machine translation.

(1) The difficulties of Chinese in machine translation

Chinese is a typical isolated language. The relationship between words needs to be reflected by word order and function words. We should pay attention to the transformation of function words such as "的", "在", "向" and "了". Some special verbs, such as "是", "做" and "作", are widely used. How to translate on the basis of conforming to Japanese pragmatic habits and expressions is a difficulty in machine translation research. In terms of word order, Chinese is basically "subject→predicate→object". At the same time, Chinese pays attention to parataxis, and there is no need to be clear in expression with meaningful cohesion, which increases the difficulty of Chinese Japanese machine translation. When there are multiple verbs or modifier components in complex long sentences, machine translation usually can not accurately divide the components of the sentence, resulting in the result that the translation is completely unreadable.

(2) Difficulties of Japanese in machine translation

Both Chinese and Japanese languages use Chinese characters, and most machines produce the target language through the corresponding translation of Chinese characters. However, pseudonyms in Japanese play an important role in judging the part of speech and meaning, and can not only recognize Chinese characters and judge the structure and semantics of sentences. Japanese vocabulary is composed of Chinese vocabulary, inherent vocabulary and foreign vocabulary. Among them, the first two have a great impact on Chinese Japanese machine translation. For example "提出" is translated as "提出する" or "打ち出す"; and "重视" is translated as "重視する" or "大切にする". Japanese is an adhesive language, which contains a lot of "けど", "が" and "けれども" Some of them are transitional and progressive structures, but there are also some sequential expressions that do not need translation, and these translation software often can not accurately grasp them.

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Networking Linking

http://www.elecfans.com/rengongzhineng/692245.html

https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E6%9C%BA%E5%99%A8%E7%BF%BB%E8%AF%91/411793

=13 陈湘琼Chen Xiangqiong（Study on Post-editing from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory ）=
[[Machine_Trans_EN_13]]

=14 Bi bi Nadia（Machine Translation a Challenge for Human Translators)=
[[Machine_Trans_EN_14]]

===Abstract===
Machine translation is a big obstacle in the way of Human translators or interpretors although it is quick and less time consuming.people are trying to get translation of their target language using through source language.For this purpose they are using digital apps like Google translation Google translation does not give accurate and exact interpretation.Google translator is translates word to word translate that doesn't clarifies it's true and actual meaning.On the other hand human translators can give exact and accurate translation ,they take care of grammatical errors , diction and sentence structure.They clarify the purpose of target language through using source language.

===Keywords===
Descriptive translation, academic, interdiscipline, comparative literature, localization,Translatology,school of thought,translation , studies, linguistics, corresponding.

===Body of article===
Translation is the process of reworking text from one language into another to maintain the original message and communication. But, like everything else, there are different methods of translation, and they vary in form and function. What is translation? The term has become widely used among knowledge transfer researchers and practitioners, especially in the fields of health and health care. In a landmark review, Jonathan Lomas began to argue that 'The tasks… may be defined as to establish and maintain links between researchers and their audience, via the appropriate translation of research findings' (Lomas 1997, p 4). In 2004, the World Health Organization's World Report on Knowledge for Better Health suggested that 'One of the key contributions of research to health systems is the translation of knowledge into actions' (WHO 2004, p 33 and p 100). By 2006, special issues of WHO's Bulletin as well as the journals Evaluation and the Health Professions and the Journal of Continuing Education in the Health Professions were dedicated to translation.But what does 'translation' mean? It may be a new word for an old problem, meaning nothing more than 'transfer'. The rapidly emerging field of 'translational medicine' seems to take translation to mean generally what transfer might have meant, that is the transmission of knowledge and evidence 'from bench to bedside'. As one commentator has observed, "Translational medicine" as a fashionable term is being increasingly used to describe the wish of biomedical researchers to ultimately help patients' (Wehling 2008, abstract).
Semantic uncertainty persists, not least because of the different interests of scientists, clinicians, patients and commercial firms (Littman et al 2007): 'Translational research means different things to different people, but it seems important to almost everyone' (Woolf 2008, p 211).
In related fields, such as public health (Armstrong et al 2006), 'translation' seems to signify dissatisfaction with 'transfer'. It wants to move away from thinking of knowledge transfer as a form of technology transfer or dissemination, rejecting if only by implication its mechanistic assumptions and its model of linear messaging from A to B. But still, what does it signify?

===Why translation?===
'Translation' indicates a closer attention to the problem of shared meaning and how it might be developed. It seems to represent some new epistemological lubricant, facilitating the dissemination of texts and the application and use of the knowledge and information they in. Simply, translation might be the key to transfer. And yet, when we stop to think, we are more ambivalent. What is translated often seems somehow inferior, not real or original. Note how readily commentators reach for the idea that things might be 'lost in translation'. Knowing at a distance – made in and mediated by translation - makes for incomplete renditions, blurred images, partial truths. So what might 'translation' really mean? The purpose of this paper is to set out, for policy makers and practitioners, the theoretical and conceptual resources translation holds and seems to represent. In doing so, it explores understandings of translation in the fields of literature and linguistics and in the sociology of science and technology. It begins by setting out just why this idea of translation should make immediate, intuitive sense in relation to research, policy and practice.
1translation in research, policy and practice research as translation
Research often entails translation from one language to another: where data is collected from more than one ethnic group, for example, or where the language of the researcher is other than that of the research subject. It may draw on a secondary literature or source documents written in different languages, and may be published and disseminated in languages other than the one in which it is first written up.
2In a different way, to conduct an interview is to ask for an account of experience and its meanings, but it is also to construct and translate that experience in terms defined at least in part by the researcher. In representing what is said, transcripts then select data, usually excluding significant gesture and eye-contact, for example. Often, certain characteristics of speech-acts (such as hesitations) will be edited out. In turn, the format of the transcript shapes the analytic use the researcher may make of it. The basis of research 'findings', then, is an artefact, a transcript or translation, not an original interaction (Ochs 1979, Barnes, Bloor and Henry 1996, Ross 2009).
3In this way, the researcher recasts aspects of his or her problem or topic in new, scientific form: 'All researchers "translate" the experiences of others' (Temple 1997, p 609). Research is invariably conducted in a sort of 'metalanguage' (Hantrais and Ager 1985): the research process can be conceived as one of successive translations (from theoretical formulation to operationalization, transcription, interpretation and dissemination). Theorization is a process of reciprocal back and forth between theory and fact, in which conceptions of each are revised in order that one fit the other (Baldamus 1974).
4 It is a kind of translation: a rereading, re-use, re-application or re-representation of what we know in new terms (Turner 1980). Referencing, too, is an act of translation, a form of appropriation and incorporation of one text by another (Gilbert 1977).policy as translation Each of the fields covered by the paper is diverse and ill-defined, and there is no intention here to provide a comprehensive account of any them. Sources have been chosen for their relevance: main references are cited in the text, and additional sources listed in footnotes.

2For a brief introduction to the technical issues involved in social research in more than one language, see Birbili (2000). For translation issues in survey research and question design in general, see Ervin and Bower (1952) and Deutscher (1968); on translating survey research instruments (in this instance health-related quality of life measures), Bowden and Fox-Rushby (2003). On the use of translators and interpreters, see Temple (1997) and Jentsch (1998).
3For an interesting discussion of this problem, see Bourdieu (1999), esp pp 621-626, 'The risks of writing'.
===Difference between machine translation and human translators===
Few people disagree on the differences between the two, but many argue over the quality of the translations. How accurate are machine translations? How reliable are human translations? Some say machine translation produces near-perfect translations while others are adamant that translations are incomprehensible and cause more problems than they solve. Results will, of course, vary depending on the source and target languages, the machine translation service used (e.g. Google Translate), and the complexity of the original text.
Machine translation, love it or hate it, is here to stay. In fact, the machine translation market is growing at such a fast pace that it is predicted to reach $980 million by 2022.
===Machine translation: the pros and cons===
The advantages of machine translation generally come down to two factors: it’s faster and cheaper. The downside to this is the standard of translation can be anywhere from inaccurate, to incomprehensible, and potentially dangerous (more on that shortly).
==The advantages of machine translation==
Many free tools are readily available (Google Translate, Skype Translator, etc.)
Quick turnaround time
You can translate between multiple languages using one tool
Translation technology is constantly improving
The disadvantages of machine translation
Level of accuracy can be very low
Accuracy is also very inconsistent across different languages
==Machines can't translate context ==
Mistakes are sometimes costly
Sometimes translation simply doesn’t work
The most important thing to consider with any kind of translation is the cost of potential mistakes. Translating instructions for medical equipment, aviation manuals, legal documents and many other kinds of content require 100% accuracy. In such cases, mistakes can cost lives, huge amounts of money and irreparable damage to your company’s image. So choose carefully!
Human translation: the pros and cons
Human translation essentially switches the table in terms of pros and cons. A higher standard of accuracy comes at the price of longer turnaround times and higher costs. What you have to decide is whether that initial investment outweighs the potential cost of mistakes. Alternatively, whether mistakes simply aren’t an option, like the cases we looked at in the previous section.

==The advantages of human translation ==
It’s a translator’s job to ensure the highest accuracy
Humans can interpret context and capture the same meaning, rather than simply translating words
Human translators can review their work and provide a quality process
Humans can interpret the creative use of language, e.g. puns, metaphors, slogans, etc.
Professional translators understand the idiomatic differences between their languages
Humans can spot pieces of content where literal translation isn’t possible and find the most suitable alternative
The disadvantages of human translation
Turnaround time is longer
Translators rarely work for free
Unless you use a translation agency, with access to thousands of translators, you’re limited to the languages any one translator can work with
Simply put, human translation is your best option when accuracy is even remotely important. Other considerations to make are the complexity of your source material and the two languages you’re translating between – both of which can render machines pretty useless.

When to use machine and human translation
The truth is, the debate over machine vs human translation is an unnecessary distraction. What we should really be talking about is when to use these two different types of translation services, because they both serve a very valid purpose.

Examples of when to use machine translation
When you have a large bulk of content to translate and the general meaning is enough
When your translation never reaches the final audience, e.g. you’re translating a resource as research for another piece of content
Translating documents for internal use within a company, provided 100% accuracy isn’t needed
To partially translate large chunks of content for a human translator to improve upon
Examples of when to use human translation
When accuracy is important
Most cases where your translated content is received by a consumer audience
When you have a duty of care to provide accurate translations (e.g. legal documents, product instructions, medical guidelines or health and safety content)
When translating marketing material or other texts for creative language uses.

types of machine translation.

What is Machine Translation? Rule Based Machine Translation vs. Statistical Machine Translation. Machine translation (MT) is automated translation. It is the process by which computer software is used to translate a text from one natural language (such as English) to another (such as Spanish).

To process any translation, human or automated, the meaning of a text in the original (source) language must be fully restored in the target language, i.e. the translation. While on the surface this seems straightforward, it is far more complex. Translation is not a mere word-for-word substitution. A translator must interpret and analyze all of the elements in the text and know how each word may influence another. This requires extensive expertise in grammar, syntax (sentence structure), semantics (meanings), etc., in the source and target languages, as well as familiarity with each local region.

Human and machine translation each have their share of challenges. For example, no two individual translators can produce identical translations of the same text in the same language pair, and it may take several rounds of revisions to meet customer satisfaction. But the greater challenge lies in how machine translation can produce publishable quality translations.

Rule-Based Machine Translation Technology
Rule-based machine translation relies on countless built-in linguistic rules and millions of bilingual dictionaries for each language pair.
The software parses text and creates a transitional representation from which the text in the target language is generated. This process requires extensive lexicons with morphological, syntactic, and semantic information, and large sets of rules. The software uses these complex rule sets and then transfers the grammatical structure of the source language into the target language.
Translations are built on gigantic dictionaries and sophisticated linguistic rules. Users can improve the out-of-the-box translation quality by adding their terminology into the translation process. They create user-defined dictionaries which override the system’s default settings.
In most cases, there are two steps: an initial investment that significantly increases the quality at a limited cost, and an ongoing investment to increase quality incrementally. While rule-based MT brings companies to the quality threshold and beyond, the quality improvement process may be long and expensive.

Statistical Machine Translation Technology
Statistical machine translation utilizes statistical translation models whose parameters stem from the analysis of monolingual and bilingual corpora. Building statistical translation models is a quick process, but the technology relies heavily on existing multilingual corpora. A minimum of 2 million words for a specific domain and even more for general language are required. Theoretically it is possible to reach the quality threshold but most companies do not have such large amounts of existing multilingual corpora to build the necessary translation models. Additionally, statistical machine translation is CPU intensive and requires an extensive hardware configuration to run translation models for average performance levels.

Rule-Based MT vs. Statistical MT
Rule-based MT provides good out-of-domain quality and is by nature predictable. Dictionary-based customization guarantees improved quality and compliance with corporate terminology. But translation results may lack the fluency readers expect. In terms of investment, the customization cycle needed to reach the quality threshold can be long and costly. The performance is high even on standard hardware.

Statistical MT provides good quality when large and qualified corpora are available. The translation is fluent, meaning it reads well and therefore meets user expectations. However, the translation is neither predictable nor consistent. Training from good corpora is automated and cheaper. But training on general language corpora, meaning text other than the specified domain, is poor. Furthermore, statistical MT requires significant hardware to build and manage large translation models.

Rule-Based MT Statistical MT
+ Consistent and predictable quality – Unpredictable translation quality
+ Out-of-domain translation quality – Poor out-of-domain quality
+ Knows grammatical rules – Does not know grammar
+ High performance and robustness – High CPU and disk space requirements
+ Consistency between versions – Inconsistency between versions
– Lack of fluency + Good fluency
– Hard to handle exceptions to rules + Good for catching exceptions to rules
– High development and customization costs + Rapid and cost-effective development costs provided the required corpus exists
Given the overall requirements, there is a clear need for a third approach through which users would reach better translation quality and high performance (similar to rule-based MT), with less investment (similar to statistical MT).
Post-Edited Machine Translation (PEMT)
Often, PEMT is used to bridge the gap between the speed of machine translation and the quality of human translation, as translators review, edit and improve machine-translated texts. PEMT services cost more than plain machine translations but less than 100% human translation, especially since the post-editors don’t have to be fluently bilingual—they just have to be skilled proofreaders with some experience in the language and target region.
Successful translation is about more than just the words, which is why we advocate for not just human translation by skilled linguists, but for translation by people deeply familiar with the cultures they’re writing for. Life experience, study and the knowledge that only comes from living in a geographic region can make the difference between words that are understandable and language that is capable of having real, positive impact.

PacTranz
The HUGE list of 51 translation types, methods and techniques
Upper section of infographic of 51 common types of translation classified in 4 broad categoriesThere are a bewildering number of different types of translation.
So we’ve identified the 51 types you’re most likely to come across, and explain exactly what each one means.
This includes all the main translation methods, techniques, strategies, procedures and areas of specialisation.
It’s our way of helping you make sense of the many different kinds of translation – and deciding which ones are right for you.
Don’t miss our free summary pdf download later in the article!
The 51 types of translation we’ve identified fall neatly into four distinct categories.
Translation Category A: 15 types of translation based on the technical field or subject area of the text
Icons representing 15 types of translation categorised by the technical field or subject area of the textTranslation companies often define the various kinds of translation they provide according to the subject area of the text.
This is a useful way of classifying translation types because specialist texts normally require translators with specialist knowledge.
Here are the most common types you’re like to come across in this category.

1. General Translation
What is it?
The translation of non-specialised text. That is, text that we can all understand without needing specialist knowledge in some area.
The text may still contain some technical terms and jargon, but these will either be widely understood, or easily researched.
What this means
The implication is that you don’t need someone with specialist knowledge for this type of translation – any professional translator can handle them.
Translators who only do this kind of translation (don’t have a specialist field) are sometimes referred to as ‘generalist’ or ‘general purpose’ translators.
Examples
Most business correspondence, website content, company and product/service info, non-technical reports.
Most of the rest of the translation types in this Category do require specialist translators.
Check out our video on 13 types of translation requiring special translator expertise:

2. Technical Translation
What is it?
We use the term “technical translation” in two different ways:
Broad meaning: any translation where the translator needs specialist knowledge in some domain or area.
This definition would include almost all the translation types described in this section.
Narrow meaning: limited to the translation of engineering (in all its forms), IT and industrial texts.
This narrower meaning would exclude legal, financial and medical translations for example, where these would be included in the broader definition.
What this means
Technical translations require knowledge of the specialist field or domain of the text.
That’s because without it translators won’t completely understand the text and its implications. And this is essential if we want a fully accurate and appropriate translation.Good to know Many technical translation projects also have a typesetting/dtp requirement. Be sure your translation provider can handle this component, and that you’ve allowed for it in your project costings and time frames.
Examples
Manuals, specialist reports, product brochures

3. Scientific Translation
What is it?
The translation of scientific research or documents relating to it.
What this means
These texts invariably contain domain-specific terminology, and often involve cutting edge research.
So it’s imperative the translator has the necessary knowledge of the field to fully understand the text. That’s why scientific translators are typically either experts in the field who have turned to translation, or professionally qualified translators who also have qualifications and/or experience in that domain.
On occasion the translator may have to consult either with the author or other domain experts to fully comprehend the material and so translate it appropriately.
Examples
Research papers, journal articles, experiment/trial results

4. Medical Translation
What is it?
The translation of healthcare, medical product, pharmaceutical and biotechnology materials.
Medical translation is a very broad term covering a wide variety of specialist areas and materials – everything from patient information to regulatory, marketing and technical documents.
As a result, this translation type has numerous potential sub-categories – ‘medical device translations’ and ‘clinical trial translations’, for example.
What this means
As with any text, the translators need to fully understand the materials they’re translating. That means sound knowledge of medical terminology and they’ll often also need specific subject-matter expertise.
Good to know
Many countries have specific requirements governing the translation of medical device and pharmaceutical documentation. This includes both your client-facing and product-related materials.
Examples
Medical reports, product instructions, labeling, clinical trial documentation

5. Financial Translation
What is it?
In broad terms, the translation of banking, stock exchange, forex, financing and financial reporting documents.
However, the term is generally used only for the more technical of these documents that require translators with knowledge of the field.
Any competent translator could translate a bank statement, for example, so that wouldn’t typically be considered a financial translation.
What this means
You need translators with domain expertise to correctly understand and translate the financial terminology in these texts.
Examples
Company accounts, annual reports, fund or product prospectuses, audit reports, IPO documentation

6. Economic Translations
What is it?
1. Sometimes used as a synonym for financial translations.
2. Other times used somewhat loosely to refer to any area of economic activity – so combining business/commercial, financial and some types of technical translations.
3. More narrowly, the translation of documents relating specifically to the economy and the field of economics.
What this means
As always, you need translators with the relevant expertise and knowledge for this type of translation.

7. Legal Translation
What is it?
The translation of documents relating to the law and legal process.
What this means
Legal texts require translators with a legal background.
That’s because without it, a translator may not:
– fully understand the legal concepts
– write in legal style
– understand the differences between legal systems, and how best to translate concepts that don’t correspond.
And we need all that to produce professional quality legal translations – translations that are accurate, terminologically correct and stylistically appropriate.
Examples
Contracts, legal reports, court judgments, expert opinions, legislation

8. Juridical Translation
What is it?
1. Generally used as a synonym for legal translations.
2. Alternatively, can refer to translations requiring some form of legal verification, certification or notarization that is common in many jurisdictions.

9. Judicial Translation
What is it?
1. Most commonly a synonym for legal translations.
2. Rarely, used to refer specifically to the translation of court proceeding documentation – so judgments, minutes, testimonies, etc.

10. Patent Translation
What is it?
The translation of intellectual property and patent-related documents.
Key features
Patents have a specific structure, established terminology and a requirement for complete consistency throughout – read more on this here. These are key aspects to patent translations that translators need to get right.
In addition, subject matter can be highly technical.
What this means
You need translators who have been trained in the specific requirements for translating patent documents. And with the domain expertise needed to handle any technical content.
Examples
Patent specifications, prior art documents, oppositions, opinions

11. Literary Translation
What is it?
The translation of literary works – novels, short stories, plays, essays, poems.
Key features
Literary translation is widely regarded as the most difficult form of translation.
That’s because it involves much more than simply conveying all meaning in an appropriate style. The translator’s challenge is to also reproduce the character, subtlety and impact of the original – the essence of what makes that work unique.
This is a monumental task, and why it’s often said that the translation of a literary work should be a literary work in its own right.
What this means
Literary translators must be talented wordsmiths with exceptional creative writing skills.
Because few translators have this skillset, you should only consider dedicated literary translators for this type of translation.

12. Commercial Translation
What is it?
The translation of documents relating to the world of business.
This is a very generic, wide-reaching translation type. It includes other more specialised forms of translation – legal, financial and technical, for example. And all types of more general business documentation.
Also, some documents will require familiarity with business jargon and an ability to write in that style.
What this means
Different translators will be required for different document types – specialists should handle materials involving technical and specialist fields, whereas generalist translators can translate non-specialist materials.
Examples
Business correspondence, reports, marketing and promotional materials, sales proposals

13. Business Translations
What is it?
A synonym for Commercial Translations.

14. Administrative Translations
What is it?
The translation of business management and administration documents.
So it’s a subset of business / commercial translations.
What this means
The implication is these documents will include business jargon and ‘management speak’, so require a translator familiar with, and practised at, writing in that style.
Examples
Management reports and proposals

15. Marketing Translations
What is it?
The translation of advertising, marketing and promotional materials.
This is a subset of business or commercial translations.
Key features
Marketing copy is designed to have a specific impact on the audience – to appeal and persuade.
So the translated copy must do this too.
But a direct translation will seldom achieve this – so translators need to adapt their wording to produce the impact the text is seeking.
And sometimes a completely new message might be needed – see transcreation in our next category of translation types.
What this means
Marketing translations require translators who are skilled writers with a flair for producing persuasive, impactful copy.
As relatively few translators have these skills, engaging the right translator is key.
Good to know
This type of translation often comes with a typesetting or dtp requirement – particularly for adverts, posters, brochures, etc.
Its best for your translation provider to handle this component. That’s because multilingual typesetters understand the design and aesthetic conventions in other languages/cultures. And these are essential to ensure your materials have the desired impact and appeal in your target markets.
Examples
Advertising, brochures, some website/social media text.
Translation Category B: 14 types of translation based on the end product or use of the translation
This category is all about how the translation is going to be used or the end product that’s produced.
Most of these types involve either adapting or processing a completed translation in some way, or converting or incorporating it into another program or format.
You’ll see that some are very specialised, and complex.
It’s another way translation providers refer to the range of services they provide.
Check out our video of the most specialised of these types of translation:

16. Document Translations
What is it?
The translation of documents of all sorts.
Here the translation itself is the end product and needs no further processing beyond standard formatting and layout.

17. Text Translations
What is it?
A synonym for document translation.

18. Certified Translations
What is it?
A translation with some form of certification.
Key features
The certification can take many forms. It can be a statement by the translation company, signed and dated, and optionally with their company seal. Or a similar certification by the translator.
The exact format and wording will depend on what clients and authorities require – here’s an example.

19. Official Translations
What is it?
1. Generally used as a synonym for certified translations.
2. Can also refer to the translation of ‘official’ documents issued by the authorities in a foreign country. These will almost always need to be certified.

20. Software Localisation
What is it?
Adapting software for another language/culture.
Key features
The goal of software localisation is not just to make the program or product available in other languages. It’s also about ensuring the user experience in those languages is as natural and effective as possible.
Translating the user interface, messaging, documentation, etc is a major part of the process.
Also key is a customisation process to ensure everything matches the conventions, norms and expectations of the target cultures.
Adjusting time, date and currency formats are examples of simple customisations. Others might involve adapting symbols, graphics, colours and even concepts and ideas.
Localisation is often preceded by internationalisation – a review process to ensure the software is optimally designed to handle other languages.
And it’s almost always followed by thorough testing – to ensure all text is in the correct place and fits the space, and that everything makes sense, functions as intended and is culturally appropriate.
Localisation is often abbreviated to L10N, internationalisation to i18n.
What this means
Software localisation is a specialised kind of translation, and you should always engage a company that specialises in it.
They’ll have the systems, tools, personnel and experience needed to achieve top quality outcomes for your product.

21. Game Localisation
What is it?
Adapting games for other languages and markets.

It’s a subset of software localisation.
Key features
The goal of game localisation is to provide an engaging and fun gaming experience for speakers of other languages.

It involves translating all text and recording any required foreign language audio.

But also adapting anything that would clash with the target culture’s customs, sensibilities and regulations.

For example, content involving alcohol, violence or gambling may either be censored or inappropriate in the target market.

And at a more basic level, anything that makes users feel uncomfortable or awkward will detract from their experience and thus the success of the game in that market.

So portions of the game may have to be removed, added to or re-worked.

Game localisation involves at least the steps of translation, adaptation, integrating the translations and adaptations into the game, and testing.

What this means
Game localisation is a very specialised type of translation best left to those with specific expertise and experience in this area.

22. Multimedia Localisation
What is it?
Adapting multimedia for other languages and cultures.

Multimedia refers to any material that combines visual, audio and/or interactive elements. So videos and movies, on-line presentations, e-Learning courses, etc.
Key features
Anything a user can see or hear may need localising.

That means the audio and any text appearing on screen or in images and animations.

Plus it can mean reviewing and adapting the visuals and/or script if these aren’t suitable for the target culture.

The localisation process will typical involve:
– Translation
– Modifying the translation for cultural reasons and/or to meet technical requirements
– Producing the other language versions

Audio output may be voice-overs, dubbing or subtitling.

And output for visuals can involve re-creating elements, or supplying the translated text for the designers/engineers to incorporate.

What this means
Multimedia localisation projects vary hugely, and it’s essential your translation providers have the specific expertise needed for your materials.

23. Script Translations
What is it?
Preparing the text of recorded material for recording in other languages.
Key features
There are several issues with script translation.

One is that translations typically end up longer than the original script. So voicing the translation would take up more space/time on the video than the original language.

Sometimes that space will be available and this will be OK.

But generally it won’t be. So the translation has to be edited back until it can be comfortably voiced within the time available on the video.

Another challenge is the translation may have to synchronise with specific actions, animations or text on screen.

Also, some scripts also deal with technical subject areas involving specialist technical terminology.

Finally, some scripts may be very culture-specific – featuring humour, customs or activities that won’t work well in another language. Here the script, and sometimes also the associated visuals, may need to be adjusted before beginning the translation process.

It goes without saying that a script translation must be done well. If it’s not, there’ll be problems producing a good foreign language audio, which will compromise the effectiveness of the video.

Translators typically work from a time-coded transcript. This is the original script marked to show the time available for each section of the translation.

What this means
There are several potential pitfalls in script translations. So it’s vital your translation provider is practiced at this type of translation and able to handle any technical content.

24. Voice-over and Dubbing Projects
What is it?
Translation and recording of scripts in other languages.

Voice-overs vs dubbing
There is a technical difference.
A voice-over adds a new track to the production, dubbing replaces an existing one.

Key features
These projects involve two parts:
– a script translation (as described above), and
– producing the audio

So they involve the combined efforts of translators and voice artists.
The task for the voice artist is to produce a high quality read. That’s one that matches the style, tone and richness of the original.

Often each section of the new audio will need to be the same length as the original.

But sometimes the segments will need to be shorter – for example where the voice-over lags the original by a second or two. This is common in interviews etc, where the original voice is heard initially then drops out.

The most difficult form of dubbing is lip-syncing – where the new audio needs to synchronise with the original speaker’s lip movements, gestures and actions.

Lip-syncing requires an exceptionally skilled voice talent and considerable time spent rehearsing and fine tuning the translation.

What this means
You need to use experienced professionals every step of the way in this type of project.

That’s to ensure firstly that your foreign-language scripts are first class, then that the voicing is of high professional standard.

Anything less will mean your foreign language versions will be way less effective and appealing to your target audience.

25. Subtitle Translations
What is it?
Producing foreign language captions for sub or surtitles.
Key features
The goal with subtitling is to produce captions that viewers can comfortably read in the time available and still follow what’s happening on the video.

To achieve this, languages have “rules” governing the number of characters per line and the minimum time each subtitle should display.

Sticking to these guidelines is essential if your subtitles are to be effective.

But this is no easy task – it requires simple language, short words, and a very succinct style. Translators will spend considerable time mulling over and re-working their translation to get it just right.

Most subtitle translators use specialised software that will output the captions in the format sound engineers need for incorporation into the video.

What this means
As with other specialised types of translation, you should only use translators with specific expertise and experience in subtitling.

26. Website Localisation
What is it?
The translation and adapting of relevant content on a website to best suit the target language and culture.

Note: Many providers use the term website translation as a synonym for localisation. Strictly speaking though, translation is just one part of localisation.
Key features

Not all pages on a website may need to be localised – clients should review their content to identify what’s relevant for the other language versions.
Some content may need specialist translators – legal and technical pages for example.
There may also be videos, linked documents, and text or captions in graphics to translate.
Adaptation can mean changing date, time, currency and number formats, units of measure, etc.
But also images, colours and even the overall site design and style if these won’t have the desired impact in the target culture.
Translated files can be supplied in a wide range of formats – translators usually coordinate output with the site webmasters.
New language versions are normally thoroughly reviewed and tested before going live to confirm everything is displaying correctly, works as intended and is cultural appropriate.
What this means
The first step should be to review your content and identify what needs to be translated. This might lead you to modify some pages for the foreign language versions.

In choosing your translation providers be sure they can:
– handle any technical or legal content,
– provide your webmaster with the file types they want.

And you should always get your translators to systematically review the foreign language versions before going live.

27. Transcreation
What is it?
Adapting a message to elicit the same emotional response in another language and culture.
Translation is all about conveying the message or meaning of a text in another language. But sometimes that message or meaning won’t have the desired effect in the target culture.

This is where transcreation comes in. Transcreation creates a new message that will get the desired emotional response in that culture, while preserving the style and tone of the original.

So it’s a sort of creative translation – which is where the word comes from, a combination of ‘translation’ and ‘creation’.

At one level transcreation may be as simple as choosing an appropriate idiom to convey the same intent in the target language – something translators do all the time.

But mostly the term is used to refer to adapting key advertising and marketing messaging. Which requires copywriting skills, cultural awareness and an excellent knowledge of the target market.

Who does it?
Some translation companies have suitably skilled personnel and offer transcreation services.

Often though it’s done in the target country by specialist copywriters or an advertising or marketing agency – particularly for significant campaigns and to establish a brand in the target marketplace.

What this means
Most general marketing and promotional texts won’t need transcreation – they can be handled by a translator with excellent creative writing skills.

But slogans, by-lines, advertising copy and branding statements often do.

Whether you should opt for a translation company or an in-market agency will depend on the nature and importance of the material, and of course your budget.

28. Audio Translations
What is it?
Broad meaning: the translation of any type of recorded material into another language.

More commonly: the translation of a foreign language video or audio recording into your own language. So this is where you want to know and document what a recording says.
Key features
The first challenge with audio translations is it’s often impossible to pick up every word that’s said. That’s because audio quality, speech clarity and speaking speed can all vary enormously.

It’s also a mentally challenging task to listen to an audio and translate it directly into another language. It’s easy to miss a word or an aspect of meaning.

So best practice is to first transcribe the audio (type up exactly what is said in the language it is spoken in), then translate that transcription.

However, this is time consuming and therefore costly, and there are other options if lesser precision is acceptable.

What this means
It’s best to discuss your requirements for this kind of translation with your translation provider. They’ll be able to suggest the best translation process for your needs.

Examples
Interviews, product videos, police recordings, social media videos.

29. Translations with DTP
What is it?
Translation incorporated into graphic design files.multilingual dtp example in the form of a Rubik's Cube with foreign text on each square
Key features
Graphic design programs are used by professional designers and graphic artists to combine text and images to create brochures, books, posters, packaging, etc.

Translation plus dtp projects involve 3 steps – translation, typesetting, output.

The typesetting component requires specific expertise and resources – software and fonts, typesetting know-how, an appreciation of foreign language display conventions and aesthetics.

What this means
Make sure your translation company has the required multilingual typesetting/desktop publishing expertise whenever you’re translating a document created in a graphic design program.

Translation Category C: 13 types of translation based on the translation method employed
This category has two sub-groups:
– the practical methods translation providers use to produce their translations, and
– the translation strategies/methods identified and discussed within academia.

The translation methods translation providers use
There are 4 main methods used in the translation industry today. We have an overview of each below, but for more detail, including when to use each one, see our comprehensive blog article.

Or watch our video.

Important: If you’re a client you need to understand these 4 methods – choose the wrong one and the translation you end up with may not meet your needs!

30. Machine Translation (MT)
What is it?
A translation produced entirely by a software program with no human intervention.

A widely used, and free, example is Google Translate. And there are also commercial MT engines, generally tailored to specific domains, languages and/or clients.

Pros and cons
There are two limitations to MT:
– they make mistakes (incorrect translations), and
– quality of wording is patchy (some parts good, others unnatural or even nonsensical)

On they positive side they are virtually instantaneous and many are free.

Best suited for:
Getting the general idea of what a text says.

This method should never be relied on when high accuracy and/or good quality wording is needed.

31. Machine Translation plus Human Editing (PEMT)
What is it?
A machine translation subsequently edited by a human translator or editor (often called Post-editing Machine Translation = PEMT).

The editing process is designed to rectify some of the deficiencies of a machine translation.

This process can take different forms, with different desired outcomes. Probably most common is a ‘light editing’ process where the editor ensures the text is understandable, without trying to fix quality of expression.

Pros and cons
This method won’t necessarily eliminate all translation mistakes. That’s because the program may have chosen a wrong word (meaning) that wasn’t obvious to the editor.

And wording won’t generally be as good as a professional human translator would produce.

Its advantage is it’s generally quicker and a little cheaper than a full translation by a professional translator.

Best suited for:
Translations for information purposes only.

Again, this method shouldn’t be used when full accuracy and/or consistent, natural wording is needed.

32. Human Translation
What is it?
Translation by a professional human translator.
Pros and cons
Professional translators should produce translations that are fully accurate and well-worded.

That said, there is always the possibility of ‘human error’, which is why translation companies like us typically offer an additional review process – see next method.

This method will take a little longer and likely cost more than the PEMT method.

Best suited for:
Most if not all translation purposes.

33. Human Translation + Revision
What is it?
A human translation with an additional review by a second translator.

The review is essentially a safety check – designed to pick up any translation errors and refine wording if need be.

Pros and cons
This produces the highest level of translation quality.

It’s also the most expensive of the 4 methods, and takes the longest.

Best suited for:
All translation purposes.

Gearwheel with 5 practical translation methods written on the teeth
There’s also one other common term used by practitioners and academics alike to describe a type (method) of translation:

34. Computer-Assisted Translation (CAT)
What is it?
A human translator using computer tools to aid the translation process.

Key features
Virtually all translators use such tools these days.

The most prevalent tool is Translation Memory (TM) software. This creates a database of previous translations that can be accessed for future work.

TM software is particularly useful when dealing with repeated and closely-matching text, and for ensuring consistency of terminology. For certain projects it can speed up the translation process.

The translation methods described by academia
A great deal has been written within academia analysing how human translators go about their craft.

Seminal has been the work of Newmark, and the following methods of translation attributed to him are widely discussed in the literature.Gearwheel with Newmark's 8 translation methods written on the teeth
These methods are approaches and strategies for translating the text as a whole, not techniques for handling smaller text units, which we discuss in our final translation category.

35. Word-for-word Translation
This method translates each word into the other language using its most common meaning and keeping the word order of the original language.

So the translator deliberately ignores context and target language grammar and syntax.

Its main purpose is to help understand the source language structure and word use.

Often the translation will be placed below the original text to aid comparison.

36. Literal Translation
Words are again translated independently using their most common meanings and out of context, but word order changed to the closest acceptable target language grammatical structure to the original.

Its main suggested purpose is to help someone read the original text.

37. Faithful Translation
Faithful translation focuses on the intention of the author and seeks to convey the precise meaning of the original text.

It uses correct target language structures, but structure is less important than meaning.

38. Semantic Translation
Semantic translation is also author-focused and seeks to convey the exact meaning.

Where it differs from faithful translation is that it places equal emphasis on aesthetics, ie the ‘sounds’ of the text – repetition, word play, assonance, etc.

In this method form is as important as meaning as it seeks to “recreate the precise flavour and tone of the original” (Newmark).slide showing definition of semantic translation as a translation method

39. Communicative Translation
Seeks to communicate the message and meaning of the text in a natural and easily understood way.

It’s described as reader-focused, seeking to produce the same effect on the reader as the original text.

A good comparison of Communicative and Semantic translation can be found here.

40. Free Translation
Here conveying the meaning and effect of the original are all important.

There are no constraints on grammatical form or word choice to achieve this.

Often the translation will paraphrase, so may be of markedly different length to the original.

41. Adaptation
Mainly used for poetry and plays, this method involves re-writing the text where the translation would otherwise lack the same resonance and impact on the audience.

Themes, storylines and characters will generally be retained, but cultural references, acts and situations adapted to relevant target culture ones.

So this is effectively a re-creation of the work for the target culture.

42. Idiomatic Translation
Reproduces the meaning or message of the text using idioms and colloquial expressions and language wherever possible.

The goal is to produce a translation with language that is as natural as possible.

Translation Category D: 9 types of translation based on the translation technique used
These translation types are specific strategies, techniques and procedures for dealing with short chunks of text – generally words or phrases.

They’re often thought of as techniques for solving translation problems.

They differ from the translation methods of the previous category which deal with the text as a whole.
9 translation techniques as titles of books in a bookcase

43. Borrowing
What is it?
Using a word or phrase from the original text unchanged in the translation.

Key features
With this procedure we don’t translate the word or phrase at all – we simply ‘borrow’ it from the source language.

Borrowing is a very common strategy across languages. Initially, borrowed words seem clearly ‘foreign’, but as they become more familiar, they can lose that ‘foreignness’.

Translators use this technique:
– when it’s the best word to use – either because it has become the standard, or it’s the most precise term, or
– for stylist effect – borrowings can add a prestigious or scholarly flavour.

Borrowed words or phrases are often italicised in English.

Examples of borrowings in English
grand prix, kindergarten, tango, perestroika, barista, sampan, karaoke, tofu

44. Transliteration
What is it?
Reproducing the approximate sounds of a name or term from a language with a different writing system.

Key features
In English we use the Roman (Latin) alphabet in common with many other languages including almost all European languages.

Other writing systems include Arabic, Cyrillic, Chinese, Japanese, Korean, Thai, and the Indian languages.

Transliteration from such systems into the Roman alphabet is also called romanisation.

There are accepted systems for how individual letters/sounds should be romanised from most other languages – there are three common systems for Chinese, for example.

English borrowings from languages using non-Roman writing systems also require transliteration – perestroika, sampan, karaoke, tofu are examples from the above list.

Translators mostly use transliteration as a procedure for translating proper names.

Examples
毛泽东 Mao Tse-tung or Mao Zedong
Владимир Путин Vladimir Putin
서울 Seoul
ភ្នំពេញ Phnom Penh

45. Calque or Loan Translation
What is it?
A literal translation of a foreign word or phrase to create a new term with the same meaning in the target language.

So a calque is a borrowing with translation if you like. The new term may be changed slightly to reflect target language structures.

Examples
German ‘Kindergarten’ has been calqued as детский сад in Russian, literally ‘children garden’ in both languages.

Chinese 洗腦 ‘wash’ + ‘brain’ is the origin of ‘brainwash’ in English.

English skyscraper is calqued as gratte-ciel in French and rascacielos in Spanish, literally ‘scratches sky’ in both languages.

46. Word-for-word translation
What is it?
A literal translation that is natural and correct in the target language.

Alternative names are ‘literal translation’ or ‘metaphrase’.

Note: this technique is different to the translation method of the same name, which does not produce correct and natural text and has a different purpose.

Key features
This translation strategy will only work between languages that have very similar grammatical structures.

And even then, only sometimes.

For example, standard word order in Turkish is Subject-Object-Verb whereas in English it’s Subject-Verb-Object. So a literal translation between these two will seldom work:
– Yusuf elmayı yedi is literally ‘Joseph the apple ate’.

When word-for-word translations don’t produce natural and correct text, translators resort to some of the other techniques described below.
Examples
French ‘Quelle heure est-il?’ works into English as ‘What time is it?’.

Russian ‘Oн хочет что-нибудь поесть’ is ‘He wants something to eat’.

47. Transposition
What is it?
Translation with a change of grammatical structure.

This technique gives the translation more natural wording and/or makes it grammatically correct.

Examples
A change in word order:
Our Turkish example Yusuf elmayı yedi (literally ‘Joseph the apple ate’) –> Joseph ate the apple.

Spanish La Casa Blanca (literally ‘The House White’) –> The White House

A change in grammatical category:
German Er hört gerne Musik (literally ‘he listens gladly [to] music’)
= subject pronoun + verb + adverb + noun
becomes Spanish Le gusta escuchar música (literally ‘[to] him [it] pleases to listen [to] music’)
= indirect object pronoun + verb + infinitive + noun
and English He likes listening to music
= subject pronoun + verb + gerund + noun.

48. Modulation
What is it?
Translation with a change of focus or point of view in the target language.

This technique makes the translation more idiomatic – how people would normally say it in the language.

Examples
English talks of the ‘top floor’ of a building, French the dernier étage = last floor. ‘Last floor’ would be unnatural in English, so too ‘top floor’ in French.

German uses the term Lebensgefahr (literally ‘danger to life’) where in English we’d be more likely to say ‘risk of death’.
In English we’d say ‘I dropped the key’, in Spanish se me cayó la llave, literally ‘the key fell from me’. The English perspective is that I did something (dropped the key), whereas in Spanish something happened to me – I’m the recipient of the action.

49. Equivalence or Reformulation
What is it?
Translating the underlying concept or meaning using a totally different expression.

This technique is widely used when translating idioms and proverbs.

And it’s common in titles and advertising slogans.

It’s a common strategy where a direct translation either wouldn’t make sense or wouldn’t resonate in the same way.

Examples
Here are some equivalents of the English saying “Pigs may fly”, meaning something will never happen, or “you’re being unrealistic” (Source):
– Thai: ชาติหน้าตอนบ่าย ๆ – literally, ‘One afternoon in your next reincarnation’
– French: Quand les poules auront des dents – literally, ‘When hens have teeth’
– Russian, Когда рак на горе свистнет – literally, ‘When a lobster whistles on top of a mountain’
– Dutch, Als de koeien op het ijs dansen – literally, ‘When the cows dance on the ice’
– Chinese: 除非太陽從西邊出來！– literally, ‘Only if the sun rises in the west’

50. Adaptation
What is it?
A translation that substitutes a culturally-specific reference with something that’s more relevant or meaningful in the target language.

It’s also known as cultural substitution or cultural equivalence.

It’s a useful technique when a reference wouldn’t be understood at all, or the associated nuances or connotations would be lost in the target language.

Note: the translation method of the same name is a similar concept but applied to the text as a whole.

Examples
Different cultures celebrate different coming of age birthdays – 21 in many cultures, 20, 15 or 16 in others. A translator might consider changing the age to the target culture custom where the coming of age implications were important in the original text.
Animals have different connotations across languages and cultures. Owls for example are associated with wisdom in English, but are a bad omen to Vietnamese. A translator might want to remove or amend an animal reference where this would create a different image in the target language.

51. Compensation
What is it?
A meaning or nuance that can’t be directly translated is expressed in another way in the text.
Example
Many languages have ways of expressing social status (honorifics) encoded into their grammatical structures.

So you can convey different levels of respect, politeness, humility, etc simply by choosing different forms of words or grammatical elements.
But these nuances will be lost when translating into languages that don’t have these structures.
Then translating into languages that don’t have these structures
Then translating into languages that don’t have these structures.

===Conclusion ===

In the light of above mentioned facts and figures here by we would say that machine translation is challenge for human translators because it can reduces the wokload of translation but can't give accurate and exact translation of the traget language.It can be less reliable than human translation..

Machine translation

2021-12-13T11:39:37Z

Yan Jing: /* 7 颜莉莉(The Cultivation of artificial intelligence and translation talents in the Belt and Road Initiative) */

'''Machine Translation - A challenge or a chance for human translators?'''

[[Machine_translation|Overview Page of Machine Translation]]

30 Chapters（0/30)

[[Machine_Trans_EN_1]] [[Machine_Trans_EN_2]] [[Machine_Trans_EN_3]] [[Machine_Trans_EN_4]] [[Machine_Trans_EN_5]] [[Machine_Trans_EN_6]] [[Machine_Trans_EN_7]] [[Machine_Trans_EN_8]] [[Machine_Trans_EN_9]] [[Machine_Trans_EN_10]] [[Machine_Trans_EN_11]] [[Machine_Trans_EN_12]] [[Machine_Trans_EN_13]] [[Machine_Trans_EN_14]] [[Machine_Trans_EN_15]] [[Machine_Trans_EN_16]] [[Machine_Trans_EN_17]] [[Machine_Trans_EN_18]] [[Machine_Trans_EN_19]] [[Machine_Trans_EN_20]] [[Machine_Trans_EN_21]] [[Machine_Trans_EN_22]] [[Machine_Trans_EN_23]] [[Machine_Trans_EN_24]] [[Machine_Trans_EN_25]] [[Machine_Trans_EN_26]] [[Machine_Trans_EN_27]] [[Machine_Trans_EN_28]] [[Machine_Trans_EN_29]] [[Machine_Trans_EN_30]] ...

[[Book_projects|Back to translation project overview]]

[[DCG-To-Do|To the To Do list]]

=Chapter 1:A Comparison Between the Quality of Machine Translation and Human Translation——A Case Study of the Application of artificial intelligence in Sports Events=
'''论机器翻译与人工翻译的质量对比——以人工智能在体育赛事领域的应用为例'''

卫怡雯 Wei Yiwen, Hunan Normal University, China

[[Machine_Trans_EN_1]]

=Chapter 3：On the Realm Advantages And Mutual Development of Machine Translation And Huamn Translation)=
"'论机器翻译与人工翻译的领域优势及共同发展'"

肖毅瑶 Xiao Yiyao, Hunan Normal University, China
[[Machine_Trans_EN_3]]

=Chapter 4 : A Comparison Between Machine Translation of Netease and Traditional Human Translation—A Case Study of The Economist Articles)=
'''网易有道机器翻译与人工翻译的译文对比——以经济学人语料为例'''

王李菲 Wang Lifei, Hunan Normal University

[[Machine_Trans_EN_4]]

=Chapter 5: Muhammad Saqib Mehran - Problems in translation studies=
[[Machine_Trans_EN_5]]

=6 徐敏赟(Machine Translation Based on Neural Network --Challenge or Chance?)=
[[Machine_Trans_EN_6]]

=Chapter 7 颜莉莉(The Cultivation of artificial intelligence and translation talents in the Belt and Road Initiative)=
[[Machine_Trans_EN_7]]

一带一路背景下人工智能与翻译人才的培养

颜莉莉 Yan Lili, Hunan Normal University, China

=Chapter 8: On Machine Translation Under Lanuguage Intelligence——An Option and Opportunity for Human Translators=
'''论语言智能下的机器翻译——译者的选择与机遇'''

颜静 Yan Jing, Hunan Normal University, China

[[Machine_Trans_EN_8]]

=9 谢佳芬（ Machine Translation and Artificial Translation in the Era of Artificial Intelligence）=
[[Machine_Trans_EN_9]]

=10 熊敏(Research on the English Chinese Translation Ability of Machine Translation for Various Types of Texts)=
[[Machine_Trans_EN_10]]
===Abstract===
The history of machine translation can be traced to 1940s, undergoing germination, recession, revival and flourish. Nowadays, with the rapid development of information technology, machine translation technology emerged and is gradually becoming mature. Whether manual translation can be replaced by machine translation becomes a widely-disputed topic. So in order to explore the ability of machine translation, I adopts two versions of translation, which are manual translation and machine translation(this paper uses Youdao translation) for different types of texts(according to Peter Newmark's types of text：informative text, expressive text and vocative text). The results are quite different in terms of quality and accuracy. The results show that machine translation is more suitable for informative text for its brevity, while the expressive texts especially literary works and vocative texts are difficult to be translated, because there are too many loaded words and cultural images in expressive text and dependence on the readers. To draw a conclusion, the relationship between machine translation and manual translation should be complementary rather than competitive.

===Key words===
machine translation; manual translation; Newmark's type of texts

===题目===
Research on the English Chinese Translation Ability of Machine Translation for Various Types of Texts

===摘要===
机器翻译的历史可以追溯到上个世纪40年代，经历了萌芽期、萧条期、复兴期和繁荣期四个阶段。如今，随着信息技术的高速发展，机器翻译技术日益成熟，于是机器翻译能不能替代人工翻译这个话题引起了广泛热议。为了探究机器翻译的能力水平是否足以替代人工翻译，本人根据皮特纽马克的文本类型分类理论（信息类文本，表达文本，呼吁文本），选择了相应的译文类型，并且将其机器翻译的版本以及人工翻译的版本进行对比。结果发现，就质量和准确度而言，译文的水平大相径庭。因为其简洁的特性，机器比较适合翻译信息文本。而就表达文本，尤其是文学作品，因其存在文化负载词及相应的文化现象，所以机器翻译这类文本存在难度。而呼唤文本因其目的性以及对读者的依赖性较强，翻译难度较大。由此得知，机器翻译和人工翻译的关系应该是互补的，而不是竞争的。

===关键词===
机器翻译；人工翻译；纽马克文本类型

===1. Introduction===
====1.1.Introduction to machine translation====
Machine translation, also known as computer translation is a technique to translating through machine translator, such as Google translation and Youdao translation. Machine translation is one of the branches of computational linguistics, ranging from computer science, statistics, information science and so on. Machine translation plays an important role in all aspects.
Machine translation can be traced back to 1940s, when British engineer Booth and American engineer Weaver proposed using computer to translate and started to study machines used for translation. And the first machine translating system launched in 1954, used in English and Russian translation. And this means machine translation becomes a reality. However, the arrival of new things always accompanies barriers and setbacks. In the 1960s, reports from ALPAC (Automated Language Processing Advisory Committee) showed studies on machine translation had stagnated for a decade. At that time, due to the high cost of machine, choosing human translators to finish translating works was more economical for most companies. What’s worse, machine had difficulty in understanding semantic and pragmatic meanings. Fortunately, in the 1970s, with the advance and popularity of computer, machine translation was gradually back on track. With the development of science and technology, machine translation has better technological guarantee, such as artificial intelligence and computer technology. In the last decades, from the late 90s till now, machine translation is becoming more and more mature. The initial rule-oriented machine translation has been updated and Corpus-aided machine translation appears. And nowadays, technology in voice recognition has been further developed. This technique is frequently applied in speech translation products. Users only need to speak source language to the online translator and instantly it will speak out the target version. But machine can’t fully provide precise and accurate translation without any grammatical or semantic problems. Machine can understand the literal meaning of texts, but not the meaning in context. For example, there is polysemy in English, which refers to words having multiple meanings. So when translating these words, translators should take contexts into consideration. But machine has troubles in this way. In addition, machine has no feeling or intention. Hence, it is also difficult to convey the feelings from the source language.

====1.2.Process of machine translation====
The process of manual translation is different from that of machine translation. Here is the process of the former. (1) Understand source language. (2) Use target language to organize language. (3) Generate translation. Unlike manual translation, machine translation tends to analyze and code source language first, then look for related codes in corpus, and work out the code that represents target language, generating translation. But they share a common feature, which is that Lexicon, grammatical rules and syntactic structure are taken into consideration. This is one of the biggest challenges for machine translation.

===2.Theorectical framework===
====2.1Newmark’s text typology====
Text typology is a theory from linguistics. It undergoes several phrases. Karl Buhler, a German psychologist and linguist defines communicative functions into expressive, information and vocative. Then Roman Jakobson proposes categorization of texts, which are intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. Accordingly, he defines six main functions of language, including the referential function, conative function, emotive function, poetic function, metalingual function and the phatic function. Based on the two theories, Peter Newmark, a translation theorist, summarizes the language function into six parts: the informative function, the vocative function, the expressive function, the phatic function, the aesthetic function, and the metalingual function. Later, he further divided texts into informative type, expressive text and vocative type according to the linguistic functions of various texts.
The core of the informative texts is the truth. It is to convey facts, information, knowledge of certain topics, reality and theories. The language style of the text is objective, logical and standardized. Reports, papers, scientific and technological textbooks are all attributed to informative texts. Translators are required to take format into account for different styles.
The core of the expressive text is the sender’s emotions and attitudes. It is to express sender’s preferences, feelings, views and so on. The language style of it is subjective. Imaginative literature, including fictions, poems and dramas, autobiography and authoritative statements belong to expressive text. It requires translators to be faithful to the source language and maintain the style.
The core of the vocative text is readership. It is to call upon readers to act, think, feel and react in the way intended by the text. So it is reader-oriented. Such texts as advertisement, propaganda and notices are of vocative text. Newmark noted that translators need to consider cultural background of the source language and the semantic and pragmatic effect of target language. If readers can comprehend the meaning at once and do as the text says, then the goal of information communication is achieved.
To draw a conclusion, informative texts focus on the information and facts. Expressive texts center on the mind of addressers, including feelings, prejudices and so on. And vocative texts are oriented on readers and call on them to practice as the texts say.

====2.2Study method====
Manual translations of the three texts are selected from authoritative versions and universally acknowledged. And machine translations of those come from Youdao Translator. And in this thesis I will compare and evaluate the two methods in word diction, sentence structure, word order and redundancy.

===3.Comparison and analysis of machine translation and manual translation ===
====3.1Informative text ====
（1）English into Chinese

①Source language:

Keep the tip of Apple Pencil clean, as dirt and other small particles may cause excessive wear to the tip or damage the screen of i-pad.

Target language:

Machine translation: Apple Pencil笔尖应保持清洁，灰尘等小颗粒可能会导致笔尖过度磨损或损坏ipad屏幕。

Manual translation: 保持Apple Pencil铅笔的笔尖干净，因为灰尘和其他微粒可能会导致笔尖的过度磨损或损坏iPad屏幕。

Analysis: Here is the instruction of Apple Pencil. And the manual translation is the Chinese version on the instruction.Product instruction tends to be professional, since there are many terms for some concepts. Machine can easily identify these terms and provide related words to translate. The machine version is faithful and expressive to the source language. So it is well-qualified and readable for readers to understand the instruction. So we can use machine to translate informative text.

②Source language:

China on Saturday launched a rocket carrying three astronauts-two men and one woman - to the core module of a future space station where they will live and work for six months, the longest orbit for Chinese astronauts.

Target language:

Machine translation: 周六，中国发射了一枚运载三名宇航员(两男一女)的火箭，进入未来空间站的核心舱，他们将在那里生活和工作6个月，这是中国宇航员最长的轨道。

Manual translation: 周六，中国发射了一枚搭载三名宇航员(两男一女)的火箭，进入未来空间站的核心舱，他们将在那里生活和工作6个月，这是中国宇航员最漫长的一次轨道飞行。

Analysis: This is a news from Reuters, reporting that China has launched a rocket.The meaning of the two translations is almost the same, except for some word diction. But there are some details dealt with different choice. For example, the last sentence of the machine translation is a bit of obscure and direct. There are some ambiguous words and expressions.

(2)Chinese into English

Source language:湖南省博物馆是湖南省最大的历史艺术类博物馆，占地面积4.9万平方米，总建筑面积为9.1万平方米，是首批国家一级博物馆，中央地方共建的八个国家级重点博物馆之一、全国文化系统先进集体、文化强省建设有突出贡献先进集体。

Target language:
Manual translation: As the largest history and art museum in Hunan province, the Hunan Museum covers an area of 49,000㎡, with the building area reaching 91,000㎡. It is one of the first batch of national first-level museums and one of the first eight national museums co-funded by central and local governments.

Machine translation: Museum in hunan province is one of the largest historical art museum in hunan province, covers an area of 49000 square meters, a total construction area of 91000 square meters, is the first national museum, the central place to build one of the eight national key museum, national cultural system advanced collectives, strong culture began with outstanding contribution of advanced collective.

Analysis: Machine translation is not faithful enough in content. For instance, “首批国家一级博物馆” is translated into “first national museum”, which is not the meaning of the source language. And there are some obvious grammar mistakes in the machine translation. For example, machine translates it into just one sentence but there are multiple predicates in it. So it is not grammatically permissible. What’s more, the sentence structure of machine translation is confusing and the focus is not specific enough.

====3.2Expressive text ====
(1)English into Chinese

Source language:

An individual human existence should be like a river- small at first, narrowly contained within its banks, and rushing passionately past rocks and over waterfalls. Gradually the river grows wider, the banks recede, the waters flow more quietly, and in the end, without any visible breaks, they become merged in the sea, and painlessly lose their individual being.

Target language:

Machine translation: 一个人的存在应该像一条河流——开始很小，被紧紧地夹在两岸中间，然后热情奔放地冲过岩石，飞下瀑布。渐渐地，河面变宽，两岸后退，水流更加平缓，最后，没有任何明显的停顿，它们汇入大海，毫无痛苦地失去了自己的存在。

Manual translation:人生在世，如若河流；河口初始狭窄，河岸虬曲，而后狂涛击石，飞泻成瀑。河道渐趋开阔，峡岸退去，水流潺缓，终了，一马平川，汇于大海，消逝无影。

Analysis: Here is a well-known metaphor in the prose How to Grow Old written by Bertrand Russell. The manual translation is written by Tian Rongchang.This is a philosophical prose with graceful language. Literary translation is a most important and difficult branch of translation. Translator should focus on the literal meaning, culture, writing style and so on. It is a combination of beauty and elegance. Therefore, translators find it in a dilemma of beauty and faithfulness, let alone translating machine. Compared with manual translation, machine translation has difficulty in word choice. It is faithful and expressive, but not elegant enough.

(2)Chinese into English

Source language:没有一个人将小草叫做“大力士”，但是它的力量之大，的确是世界无比。这种力，是一般人看不见的生命力，只要生命存在，这种力就要显现，上面的石块，丝毫不足以阻挡。因为它是一种“长期抗战”的力，有弹性，能屈能伸的力，有韧性，不达目的不止的力。

Target language:

Machine translation: No one calls the little grass "hercules", but its power is truly matchless in the world. This force is invisible life force. As long as there is life, this force will show itself. The stone above is not strong enough to stop it. Because it is a "long-term resistance" of the force, elastic, can bend and extend force, tenacity, not to achieve the purpose of the force.

Manual translation: Though nobody describes the little grass as a “husky”, yet its herculean strength is unrivalled. It is the force of life invisible to naked eye. It will display itself so long as there is life. The rock is utterly helpless before this force- a force that will forever remain militant, a force that is resilient and can take temporary setbacks calmly, a force that is tenacity itself and will never give up until the goal is reached. (by Zhang Peiji)

Analysis:This is the excerpt of a well-known Chinese prose written by Xia Yan. It is written during the war of Resistance Against Japan. So the prose holds symbolic meaning, eulogizing the invisible tenacious vitality so as to encourage Chinese to have confidence in the anti-aggression war. Compared with manual translation, machine translation is much more abstract and confusing, especially for the word diction. For example, “大力士” is translated into “hercules” which is a man of exceptional strength and size in Greek and Roman Mythology, making it difficult to understand if readers of target language have no idea of the allusion. What’s worse, the machine version doesn’t reveal the symbolic meaning of the text, which is the core of this prose.

====3.3Vocative text ====

(1)English into Chinese

①Source language:

iPhone went to film school, so you don’t have to. (Advertisement of iPhone13)

Target language:

Machine translation: iPhone上的是电影学院，所以你不用去。

Manual translation:电影专业课，iPhone同学替你上完了。

Analysis：Here are advertisements of iPhone on Apple official website. There is a personification in the source language. It is used to stress the advancement and proficiency in camera, which is an appealing selling point to potential buyers. Compared with manual translation, machine translation is plain and not eye-catching enough for customers.

②Source language:

5G speed OMGGGGG

Machine language: 5克的速度 OMGGGGG

Manual translation:

iPhone的5G 巨巨巨巨巨5G

Analysis: The “G” in the source language is the unit of speed, standing for generation. However, it is mistaken as a unit of weight, representing gram in the machine translation. So the meaning is not faithful to the source language at all. As for manual translation, it complies with the source in form. Specifically speaking, five “G”s in the former complies with five characters “巨”in the latter. And the pronunciation of the two is similar. There are two layers of meaning for the 5 “G”s. One exclaims the fast speed of 5 generation network and the other new technology. In the manual version, “巨”can be used to show degree, meaning “quite” or “very”.

③Source language:

History, faith and reason show the way, the way of unity. We can see each other not as adversaries but as neighbors. We can treat each other with dignity and respect, we can join forces, stop the shouting and lower the temperature. For without unity, there is no peace, only bitterness and fury."

Target language:

Machine translation: 历史、信仰和理性指明了团结的道路。我们可以把彼此视为邻居，而不是对手。我们可以尊严地对待彼此，我们可以联合起来，停止大喊大叫，降低温度。因为没有团结，就没有和平，只有痛苦和愤怒。

Manual translation:历史、信仰和理性为我们指明道路。那是团结之路。我们可以把彼此视为邻居，而不是对手。我们可以有尊严地相互尊重。我们可以联合起来，停止喊叫，减少愤怒。因为没有团结就没有和平，只有痛苦和愤怒

Analysis: Speech is a way to propagate some activity in public. It is an art to inspire emotion of the audience. The source language is the excerpt of Joe Biden’s inaugural speech. The speech should be inspiring and logic. The machine translation has some misunderstanding. Taking the translation of “lower the temperature” for example, machine only translates its literal meaning, relating to the temperature itself, without considering the context. What’s more, it is less logic than the manual one. Therefore, it adds difficulty to inspire the audience and infect their emotion.

===4.Common mistakes in machine translation ===

====4.1 lexical mistakes ====

Common lexical mistakes include misunderstandings in word category, lexical meaning and emotive and evaluative meaning. Misunderstanding in word category shows in the classification of word in the source language. As for misunderstanding in lexical meaning, machine has difficulty in precisely reflecting the meaning of the original texts, due to different cultural background and different language system. And for misunderstanding in emotive meaning, machine has no intention and emotion like human-beings. Therefore, it’s impossible for it to know writers’ feelings and their writing purposes. So sometimes, it may translate something negative into something positive.

====4.2 grammatical mistakes====

Grammatical analysis plays an important part in translation. Normally speaking, every language has its own unique grammatical rules. So in the process of translation, if translators don’t know the formation rule well, the sentence meaning will be affected. Even though all the lexical meanings are well-known by translators, the lack of consciousness of grammaticality makes it harder to arrange words according to sequential rule. English tends to be hypotactic, while Chinese tends to be paratactic. English sentences are connected through syntactic devices and lexical devices. While Chinese sentences are semantically connected, which means there are limited logical words and connection words in Chinese. So when translating English sentence, we should first analyze its grammaticality and logical structure and then rearrange its sequence. However, online translating machine has troubles in grammatical analysis, which makes its improvement more difficult.

====4.3 other mistakes====

The two mistakes above are the internal ones. Apart from mistakes in linguistic system, there are some mistakes in other aspects, such as cultural background.

===5.Reasons for its common mistakes ===

====5.1 Difference in two linguistic system====

With different history, English and Chinese have different ways of expression. Commonly speaking, English is synthetic language which expresses grammatical meaning through inflection such as tense and Chinese is analytic language which expresses grammatical meaning through word order and function word. In addition, English is more compact with full sentences. Subordinate sentence is one of the most important features in modern English. Chinese, on the other hand, is more diffusive with minor sentences.

====5.2 Difference in thinking patterns and cultural background====

According to Sapir-Whorf’s Hypothesis, our language helps mould our way of thinking and consequently, different languages may probably express their unique ways of understanding the world. For two different speech communities, the greater their structural differentiations are, the more diverse their conceptualization of the world will be. For example, western culture is more direct and eastern culture more euphemistic. What’s more, English culture tends to be individualism, focusing on detail, through which it reflects the whole, while Chinese culture tends to be collective. Different thinking patterns will add difficulty for machine to translate texts.

====5.3 Limitation of computer====

Recently, there are some breakthroughs and innovation in machine translation. However, due to its own limitation, online translation has limitation in some ways. Firstly, compared with machine, human brain is much more complicated, consisting of ten billions of neuron, each of which has different function to affect human’s daily activities and help humans avoid some errors. However, computer can only function according to preset programming has no intention or consciousness. Until now, countless related scholars have invested much time in machine translation. They upload massive language database, which include almost all linguistic rules. But computers still fail to precisely reflect the meaning of source language for many times due to the complexity and flexibility of language. On the other hand, computers can’t take context into consideration. During translation, it is often the case that machine chooses the most-frequently used meaning of one word. So without the correct and exact meaning, readers are easier to feel confused and even misunderstand the meaning of source language.

===6.Conclusion===
From the analysis above, we can draw a conclusion that machine deals with informative text best, followed by non-literary translation of expressive text. What’s more, machine can be a useful tool to get to know the gist and main idea of a specific topic, for the simple sentence structure and numerous terms. And it can improve translating efficiency with high speed. But machine has difficulty in translating literary works, especially proses and poems.

Machine translation has mixed future. From the perspective of commercial, machine translation boasts a bright future. With the process of globalization, the demand for translation is increasing accordingly. On one hand, if we only depend on human translator to deal with translating works, the quality and accuracy of translation can be greatly affected. On the other hand, if machine is used properly to do some basic work, human translators only need to make preparation before translating, progress, polish and other advanced work, contributing to highly-qualified translation and high working efficiency.

However, compared with manual translation, machine translation has a bleak future. It is still impossible for machine to replace interpreter or translator in a short term. With intelligence and initiative, humans are able to learn new knowledge constantly, which machine will never accomplish. Besides, machine is not used to replace translators but to assist them in work. In other words, translators and machine carry out their own duties and they are not incompatible.

To draw a conclusion, although there are certain limitations of machine translation, it can serve as a catalyst for translating works. Therefore, with the rapid development of artificial intelligence and related technology, there are still many opportunities for machine translation.

===Reference ===

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=11 陈惠妮=(Study on Pre- editing of Machine Translation - A Case Study of Medical Abstracts)=
[[Machine_Trans_EN_11]]
===Abstract===
At present, globalization is accelerating and the market demand for language services is rapidly increasing . Machine translation, as an important translation method, can greatly improve translation efficiency due to its low cost and high speed. However, because of the limitations of machine translation and the differences between Chinese and English language, machine translation is not accurate enough. In order to balance translation efficiency and translation quality, a great number of manual revisions in translation are required for the machine translating texts. Medical papers are specialized, special and purposeful, so it requires accurate,qualified and professional translation. However, the quality of translations by machine is inefficient to meet the high-quality requirements of medical papers translation. Therefore, the introduction of pre-editing can greatly improve the efficiency and quality of machine translation.

===Key words===
Pre-editing, Machine translation, Medical texts

===题目===
Study on Pre- editing of Machine Translation - A Case Study of Medical Abstracts

===摘要===
在全球化加速发展的今天，市场对语言服务的需求迅速增加。机器翻译作为一种重要的翻译途径，由于其成本低、速度快，可以大大提高翻译效率。然而，由于机器翻译的局限性以及中英文语言的差异，机器翻译的准确性不高。为了平衡翻译效率和翻译质量，机器翻译文本需要大量的手工修改。
医学论文具有专业性、特殊性和目的性，要求其译文准确、合格、专业。然而，机器翻译的质量较低，无法满足医学论文对翻译的高质量要求。因此，译前编辑的引入可以大大提高机器翻译的效率和质量。

===关键词===
译前编辑；机器翻译；医学文本

===1. Introduction===
===1.1 Definition of Machine Translation===
As Cronin(2013) revealed: "Translation is undergoing a revolutionary upheaval. The influence of digital technology and the Internet on translation is continuous, extensive and profound. From the popularity of automatic online translation applications, translation revolution is everywhere (Cronin,2013) However,the concept of machine translation was firstly proposed in the 1930s. Since 1940s, the machine translation technology has been evolving from rule-based machine translation (RBMT) to statistical machine translation (SMT), and to neural machine translation (NMT). Machine translation refers to the automatic translation of source language into target language by using a computer system. That is, machine translation refers to the automatic translation of text from one language into another natural language by computer software or other online translation webs. Machine translation is also defined as the process of “using a computer system to automatically translate text or speech from one natural language to another” according to the definition by ISO (Cui, 2014).O 'Brien (2002) defines it as "the behavior of modifying errors in machine translation to ensure that the target translation meets certain quality requirements". On the basic level, machine translation performs mechanical substitution of words in one language for words in another language, but that rarely produces a good translation, therefore, recognition of the whole phrases and their closest counterparts in the target language is needed. Not all words in one language have equivalents in another language, and many words have more than one meaning. A huge demand for translation is greatly needed in today’s global world, which creates new opportunities for the development of machine translation, attracts more and more attention and becomes one of the current research focuses.

===1.2 Definition of Pre-editing===
Pre-editing means to adjust and modify the source language to make it fit more with the characteristics of the machine translation software before putting the source language before the into machine translation, so as to improve the quality of the translation machine translation (Wei Changhong, 2008:93-94). Pre-editing is to modify the original text before putting it into machine translation software, in order to improve the recognition rate of machine translation, optimize the output quality of translated text and reduce the workload of post-editing. Because pre-translation editing only needs to be modified in one language, the operation is simpler than post-translation editing, which can realize the double improvement of quality and efficiency. A good pre-editing translation can help machine translation more smoothly, thus improving the machine readability and quality of the output translation. Pre-editing is mostly applied in the following situations: one is when the original text is of poor quality and the machine is difficult to recognize the meaning of the sentence, such as user generated content with poor readability and translatability (Gerlach et al, 2003:45-53); Documents that need to be published in multiple languages; Next is when the original text contains a lot of jargon; The last is the original text has a corresponding translation memory bank. If the original text is edited, it can better match the content of the translation memory bank. Pre-editing is a process of identifying problems. It requires to pre-edit the source texts before putting it into machine translation according to the requirements, listing the expressions or sentences that may have trouble in machine translation and then pre-edit it by human. The purpose is to enable the computer to translate better, improve the translatability of machine translation. (Slype G V & Guinet J F & Seitz F,1984:115)

===1.3 Machine Translation Mode===
According to the different knowledge acquisition methods, machine translation modes can be classified as follows: one is rule-based machine translation, which is based on bilingual dictionaries and a library of language rules for each language. The quality of translation depends on whether the source language conforms to the existing rules, but the inexhaustible rules are the hinders of this model. The second mode is machine translation based on statistics. This translation model relies on the principles of mathematics and statistics to find various existing translations corresponding to the translation tasks through the employment of corpus, analyzing the frequency of their occurrence and selecting the translation with the highest frequency for output. The disadvantage of this translation model is that it ignores the flexibility of language and the importance of context. The last one is neural network language model. This model is different from previous translation models in that it uses end-to-end neural network to realize automatic translation between natural languages. At present, the quality of its translation is much higher than that of the previous translation models.
===1.4 Source of Study Abstracts===
The core medical journals from domestic are selected in order to make the paper more representative and authoritative, such as National Medical Journal of China, Journal of Peking University (Health Science), and Journal of Third Military Medical University. All of them include basic medical science, biomedical technology, laboratory medical science and other fields. In this way, the pre-editing approaches included are applicable enough to machine translation of medical abstracts.
===1.5 Selection of Translation Software===
Generally, machine translation software includes Google Translation, Youdao Translator and Niu Translation, which has their own special use in translation. Take Google as an example, it is more like neurons in human brain, enabling to learn and collect information to establish connections with its neural machine translator’s neurons. However, it also causes many errors because of the lack of enough information. In this paper, contrastive analysis will be carried on by using Google translation. On the one hand, being a pioneer in the translation of NET, it is inevitably to sue Google as the translation software to translate medical texts in this paper. Comparing the program called “Google brain”, other NMT of translation software are relatively disadvantages. On the other hand, the Google translation enjoys the largest users in the world, with its downloads of more than one billion. The output quality of Google translation is more correct and complete than other machine translation software. With years of development and improvement, Google Translation has been greatly promoted. In this paper, Chinese medical abstract will be automatically translated by Google translation, and then the translation output will be compared with the translation by human and the publication of English abstracts. The main purpose is to prove that the improvement and promotion of quality and accuracy in the medical abstracts will be obtained through the pre-editing approaches.

===2.Language Characteristics and Error Division===
Since Chinese and English are two different languages, it is quite neccessary to identify their own characteristics so as to better analyze and understand the two languages. Tytler (1978) argued in his Essay on the Principles of Translation that there are three principles of translation that in all the translation should give readers the same feelings as the source text, except for complete transcript of ideas. There actually also exit some mistakes of these two languages. So the following will make some clarrifications of these two languages to ensure more accurate translation.

===2.1 Language Characteristics of Medical Abstracts===
Chinese and English belong to different language systems, so there are differences in their language structure and the way users think of the languages. When using machine translation from Chinese to English, due to the unequal language levels, there will be many mistakes in the translation process, especially for ESP texts, such as medical papers.
Here, these differences mainly refer to the linguistic characteristics of medical abstracts. In medical abstracts, it usually includes structured and unstructured abstracts. Although in different forms, they both describe the purpose, methods and conclusions of the research.
In the method section of medial abstract, several Chinese sentences can be connected with commas, but each sentence may convey different information. In contrast, English sentences contain a great deal of information, but in order to ensure clarity, some modifiers need to be isolated and then reconstructed. However, in Chinese-English machine translation, a lot of information is put into the sentence because the machine segments the sentence on the basis of the full comma.
In addition, subjectless sentence is used in the objective and method parts of Chinese medical abstracts. The subjectless sentence means the sentence without or free from subject and is usually employed in two contexts. The first is "needless to say". In Chinese sentences, it is common to omit the subject of the sentence. Chinese sentences can convey meanings by using incomplete sentence structures, so Chinese speakers can understand the meanings of the sentences even though the sentence subject is omitted. The second is "emphasis of action". In this context, subjectless sentences are used to describe behaviors, especially in the study of traditional Chinese medicine abstracts. Comparatively speaking, it should be avoided in English medical abstracts. Abstract sentences are more subjective when describing the learning process, while the essential requirement of English medical abstract is objectivity. From this point, sentences without subject should be avoided in English medical abstracts. Another feature is voice. Few words with passive meanings appear in Chinese abstracts. English sentences are more favoured in using passive voice. When translating from Chinese to English, passive voice should be used to make the contents objective, which is also the basic requirement of medical papers.
These are the linguistic features of Chinese medical abstracts. There are great differences in sentence structure and expression between Chinese and English medical abstracts. These differences may reduce the accuracy of machine translation, so it is necessary to introduce pre-editing to edit the source text to ensure that the source text can be accurately recognized by the machine and fully translated into English.
===2.2 Error Division of Machine Translation in Translating Abstracts of Medical Papers from Chinese to English===
In this paper, errors in machine translation are listed out after analyzing. Some are due to the principles, such as statistical-based MT and NMT, employed by machine translation. Based on the original errors, they can be studied from two levels. One is from the macro-level, referring to mistakes caused by objective factors. These are not human factors, but the disadvantage of machine translation and the limitations of language. The limitations of machine translation are derived from the principles and models adopted and manifests itself as a reliance on reference sources. In this case, semantic ambiguity and textual incoherence may occur in the absence of reference sources.
However, for ESP texts such as medical papers, the requirements for terms and sentence patterns are far beyond the existing corpora. For unfamiliar texts (that is, the corresponding texts cannot be found in the corpora). The quality of output translation will be relatively low, which is determined by the principles of machine translation. As mentioned above, machine translation has evolved over the past few decades from rules-based to corp-based statistics to NMT. However, there still exist some limitations in machine translation.
Mistakes on micro-level are mainly caused by the variations and differences of linguistic structure between Chinese and English. Chinese is an implicit language, while English is an explicit one (Lian, 2010) To put it in another way, Chinese expression does not depend on language structures, while English does the opposite. This may result in mismatches between the original and machine translated sentences. This kind of error is mainly divided into two types: component fragment and component missing. For a medical paper, such errors are very serious. As a kind of ESP discourse, medical paper has the characteristics of fixed, objective and accurate language structure. In order to reproduce the characteristics of medical abstracts in translation, it is necessary to avoid errors at the level of words and sentences and pay attention to logic and consistency.
Lexical errors here refer to the inconsistency of fixed expressions in the translation of terms. Although these terms are machine translation based on the corpus, the corpus may not be perfect for ESP texts such as medical papers. Therefore, fixed expressions are not used in term translation. This is also the most common mistake in machine translation (the term here includes but is not limited to nouns). For ESP texts, medical text in particular, the fixed expressions and the accuracy of terms are of great importance.

===3.Approaches Proposed for Pre-editing ===
Generally speaking, there is a close relationship between pre-editing and post-editing, both of which aim to convey information and ensure high or publishable translation quality. Proper pre-editing can improve the quality of machine translation in terms of adequacy and consistency.
Complexity of natural language and people use language arbitrarily, bringing many difficulties to Chinese-English machine translation, Hu Qingping (2005:24) has proposed "the research of translation software and the development of the controlled language are the two directions to improve the quality of machine translation : the former aims at the difficulty in the natural language processing, the latter overcomes the arbitrariness of natural language". Feng Quangong and Gao Lin (2017: 63-68) put forward: "The writing principles of controlled language can be applied to pre-editing of machine translation. Pre-editing based on controlled language can effectively reduce the complexity and ambiguity of source text, improve the identifiability of machine translation (the translatability of source text itself), and thus reduce (fully) the workload of post-editing".
The central task of pre-editing is to transform human-friendly content into machine-friendly content, so words and sentences need to be repositioned or even changed. Based on the analysis of the language characteristics of Chinese and English, the Chinese ideographic group should be split before the Chinese source text is input into the machine software to translate so that the sentence structure is complete which can be easily recognized by the machine translation software.
===3.1 Extraction and Replacement of Terms in the Source Text===
As a branch of applied English, medical English is the product of the combination of English language knowledge and medical knowledge. The terms in medical papers have the characteristics of fixed and complex language structure. Although Google Translation is based on a corpus, the language structure is not fixed due to the limited size of the corpus. Therefore, the following two steps should be followed before machine translation. The first is to extract terms and create a glossary, and then replace the Chinese terms in the source text with the corresponding English expressions in the glossary. Of course, the terms of extraction should be searched and verified according to the actual situation. All of these words are verified before they can be replaced. This method can not only ensure the accuracy of term translation, but also maintain the consistency of expression, especially when dealing with long texts.
Example1
Source abstract: 口腔白斑病癌变相关缺氧应答基因和微小RNA的芯片及表达验证。
Google translation: Microarray detection/Chip detection and expression verification of hypoxia response genes and microRNAs related to oral leukoplakia canceration.
Published translation:Transcriptome array screening and verification of oral leukoplakia carcinogenesis-related hypoxia-responsive gene and microRNA.
Analysis: The expression “ Affymetrix GeneChip” empolyed in this thesis is a human transcription array for transcriptome array. In the source abstract, “芯片检测“ can be meant “screening” but not detection, so the proper and appropriate translation of these expression should be “transcription array screening”, but the Google translates it into “microarry detection of chip detection”. Therefore, term extraction is essential and inevitable before putting the source abstracts into the machine translation software.
After pre-editing source abstracts: 对 oral leukoplakia carcinogenesis 相关 hypoxia-responsive gene 和微小RNA进行 transcriptome array screening 及表达验证。
After pre-editing translation: Transcriptome array screening and expression- verification of hypoxia-responsive genes and microRNAs related to oral leukoplakia carcinogenesis.
===3.2 Explication of Subordination===
As mentioned above, the subordination of Chinese sentences is judged by certain specific words in machine translation . Chinese is a paratactic language, and sentences are often connected by internal logical relationships; while English depends on sentence structure, so sentences are often closely linked by various language forms. In order to improve the accuracy of machine translation, we can adjust the sentence structure and adjust the position of adjectives and their modifiers.
Example 2
Source abstracts:回顾性分析南京医科大学附属儿童医院中重度HIE患儿49例及同期就诊的无神经系统症状体征的足月新生儿为对照组31例的头颅磁共振成像（MRI）资料。
Google translation: A retrospective analysis that the brain magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) data of 49 children with moderate to severe HIE in the Children's Hospital of Nanjing Medical University and full-term neonates with no neurological symptoms and signs during the same period were included in the control group.
Published translation: A total of 49 children with moderate to severe HIE admitted to the children’s Hospital Affiliated to Nanjing Medical University were retrospectively analyzed. Cranial magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) date of 31 full-term neonates without neurological symptoms and signs who visited the hospital during the same period were recruited as the control group.
Analysis: As the above example shows that “中重度HIE患儿” and “足月新生儿” in the source abstracts are from the Children’s Hospital Affiliated Nanjing Medical University. The Google translation shows that 49 children with moderate to severe HIE in the Children's Hospital of Nanjing Medical University. There is an error due to the misuse of subordination. There are some advice in order to solve the problem. That is, first to segment the sentence and then reconstruct the sentence. For instance, the Chinese expression “南京医科大学附属儿童医院” carries many modifiers, which requires to cut the modifiers and reconstruct the sentence. Therefore, the Chinese expression “南京医科大学附属儿童医院’can be divided into abstractions, leaving two sentences instead of one long sentence with modifiers..
After pre-editing source abstracts: 对49例中重度HIE患儿以及31例无神经系统症状体征的足月新生儿的MRI资料进行回顾性分析。这些患者收治于南京医科大学儿童附属医院。
After pre-editing translation: The MRI data of 49 children with moderate to severe HIE and 31 full-term newborns without neurological symptoms and signs were retrospectively analyzed. These patients were admitted to the Children’s Hospital of Nanjing Medical University.
===3.3 Explication of Subject through Voice Changing===
The extensive use of subjectless sentences are quite common in the Chinese abstracts, while English prefers to employ passive voice in the sentences so as to make them object and accurate. In order to take the characteristics of English sentences into great and careful consideration, the sentences written in passive voice in particular, it will be helpful for machine translation to find out the subject and reconstruct a sentence in passive voice (Wang Yan: 2008). The first is to discover the “doee” in a sentence and then is to reconstruct the sentence structure and put the “doee” before the verb. The last is to explicate the passive relation between the noun and the verb.
Example 3
Source abstract: 回顾性分析2018年1月至2020年12月解放军总医院第七医学中心收治的500例老年髋部骨折患者的资料。
Google translation: A retrospective analysis of the data of 500 elderly patients with hip fractures admitted to the Seventh Medical Center of the PLA General Hospital from January 2018 to December 2020.
Published translation: From January 2018 to December 2020, the data of 500 elderly patients with hip fracture treated in the Seventh Medical Center of PLA General Hospital were analyzed retrospectively.
Analysis: The above example indicates that the “回顾性分析”in the Google Translate is a noun phrase, but the source abstracts actually describes an action or a behavior. The reason for such a mistake is that the machine can’t recognize the Chinese subjetless sentences. To find the subject of the sentence, the source abstracts can be revised and adjusted. Finding the “doee” is the first step, which refers to “500例老年髋部骨折患者的资料”in the source abstracts. And next is to put it in front of the verb, that is to place it in the beginning of the sentence. Last but not least, the passive voice should be explicated in the sentence.
After pre-editing source abstract: 500例老年髋部骨折患者的资料被回顾性分析，他们在2018年1月之2020年12月期间收治于解放军总医院第七医学中心。
After pre-editing translation: The data of 500 elderly hip fracture patients were retrospectively analyzed. They were admitted to the Seventh Medical Center of the PLA General Hospital between January 2018 and December 2020.
===3.4 Relocation of Modifiers===
Modifiers, including noun, adverbial and attributive are constantly employed in the Chinese medical papers in order to add information to subject and object in the sentence. By doing this, complicated sentences can be structured, thus causing obstacles to machine translation for recognizing this complex sentence structures when translating Chinese-English sentences. To make the machine translation successfully recognize the sentence structure, simplifying the sentence structure is quite necessary. The key is to moving the location of the modifiers and thus making the modifiers an independent sentence. In other words, the modifiers ought to be put before or behind the main part of the sentence to satisfy the common use of English.
Usually, the modifiers in Chinese sentence can only be placed in front of the core word, while in English, modifiers are very flexible. It is all right to place the modifiers in front of or behind the major part of the sentences with adjective or a connective noun.
Example 4
Source abstracts: 利用DNA重组技术以pET-28a表达系统在E.coli BL21(DE3) 中重组表达Hepl。
Google Translation: Hepl is recombined in E.coli BL21 (DE3) using DNA recombination technology with pET-28a expression system.
Published translation: The recombinant Hcpl protein was expressed by using DNA recombination technology through pET-28a expression system in E. coli BL21 (De3).
Analysis: The Chinese medical text includes two modifiers, “利用DNA”and “以pET-28a)表达系统”. These two modifiers will be translated by machine, which catches more attention to the two constituents. From the Google translation above, one failure is obvious that it misplaces the location of the two modifiers and presents it in not accurate form. To make it translate correctly by machine translation, dividing the sentences is very important so that the source abstracts can be correctly recognized by machine translation.
After pre-editing source abstract: 利用DNA重组技术，Hcp1重组表达在E.coli BL21 (DE3)中，通过pET-28a表达系统在E. coli BL21 (DE3)中。
Google translation: Using DNA recombination technology, Hcp1 recombination is expressed in E.coli BL21 (DE3), via pET-28a expression system in E. coli BL21 (DE3).
The second is the independence of modifiers, that is, modifiers can also be reconstructed into clauses to modify core words. Compared with English, There is no subordinate clause in Chinese, so redundant Chinese modifiers need to be reconstructed into subordinate clauses in Chinese-English translation to meet the characteristics of English. English, especially sentences with multiple modifiers. Otherwise, sentence structure may be confused, such as scattered modifiers of core words. To avoid this mistake, it is necessary to separate the modifier from the main part of the sentence. These modifiers should be reconstituted into clauses. Also, keep your sentences simple and easy to understand.
===3.5 Proper Omission and Deletion of Category Words===
Category words are commonly used in Chinese. Category words complement the meaning of words, including problems, positions, situations and jobs. Adding this supplementary word is more in line with Chinese custom. In many cases, it has no real meaning, so it can be omitted in translation. In Chinese, category words are frequently used. However, it is rarely used in English, which is one of the differences between Chinese and English. There are many kinds of category words. Considering objectivity and the fixed structure of language, redundant category words should be deleted in Chinese-English translation. In the general, the most commonly used category of words in the Chinese medical abstracts are "process", "behavior", and "situation". These categories of words hinder the language conversion of Chinese and English, resulting in redundancy.
Example 5
Source abstract: 探讨口腔白斑病癌变进程中的缺氧应答基因及相关微小RNA (miRNA) 的表达。
Google translation: The expression of hypoxia response genes and associated microRNAs in the process of oral leukoplakia cancer was discussed.
Published translation: To study the hypoxia response gene and microRNA (miRNA)expression profiles in the pathogenesis and progression of oral leukoplakia (OLK).
Analysis: As the above example shows, the Chinese words “进程” belongs to a category word. However, the Chinese expression “癌变”contains the process, so the “进程” expression can be deleted before placing it into the machine translation, because the meaning of it has been overlapping between the expression “癌变”. Therefore, its place can be replaced with preposition “during”.
After pre-editing source abstract: 探讨口腔白斑病癌变中的缺氧应答基因及相关微小RNA (miRNA) 的表达。
Google translation: The expression of hypoxia responsive genes and miRNA in oral leukoplakia cancer was investigated.

===Conclusion===
After years of development, machine translation has made great progress. The accuracy of machine translation has been greatly improved in both text recognition and sentence pattern conversion. However, machine translation has its own limitations. In other words, it needs to rely on the parallel corpus as a reference source for improving its accuracy. ESP text, in particular, is harder to get the high quality by machine translation.
As one of the research papers, the characteristics of medical abstracts are fixed language structures, objectivity and accuracy (Qin Yi:2004). Therefore, medical translation must be accurate, object and understandable to follow the specific demands of the medical paper. Being an important field in the human society, medical paper translation is on a great demand, which means that it needs a huge demand for human labor. However, with the machine translation promoting, it will be more efficient to translate medical papers combining the effort by human and machine. The improvement and development of machine translation requires the joint efforts of computer science, information science, statistics, linguistics and other academic circles to achieve more mature human-computer mutual assistance translation (Li Yafei, Zhang Ruihua : 2019).
However, errors can occur during the process of machine translation of Chinese- English, because of the differences of the Chinese and English and the processing of the machine. Errors from the perspective of linguistic or grammar can affect the machine translation a lot. After division and recognition of errors, some pre-editing approaches are put forward to help the machine translation more accurate and readable, that are, extraction and replacement of terms in the source text, relocation of modifiers, explication of subordination, proper omission, deletion of category words and explication of subject through voice changing.
The paper mainly focuses on the pre-editing machine translation by using medical papers as a case study. The errors of machine translation occurring in the translation of medical abstracts and pre-editing approaches for machine translation. The quality of machine translation of medical papers is greatly improved after employing the pre-editing methods. However, machine translation is not as flexible and accurate as human brain, so it is of importance to combine pre-editing and post-editing approaches with machine translation in order to produce more accurate, more object machine translation of medical papers.

===References===
[1]. Cronin, Michael (2013). Translation in the Digital Age[M]. New York&London: Routledge.

[2]. GERLACH J, et al ( 2013). Combining Pre-editing and Post-editing to Improve SMT of User-generated Content[M]// Proceedings of MT Summit XIV Workshop on Post-editing Technology and Practice. 45-53.

[3]. Slype G V & Guinet J F & Seitz F (1984). Better Translation for Better Communication [M] .Oxford: Pergamon Press Ltd (U.K.),

[4]. O'Brien S (2002). Teaching Post-editing: A Proposal for Course Con-tent [EB/OL]. http://mt-archive. Info/EAMT-2002-0brien. Pdf.

[5]. Tytler, A. F. (1978). Essay On The Principles of Translation[M]. Amsterdam: JohnBenjamins Publishing.

[6] 崔启亮. (2014), 论机器翻译的译后编辑[J], 中国翻译, 035(006):68-73.

[7] 冯全功,高琳 (2017) 基于受控语言的译前编辑对机器翻译的影响[J]. 当代外语研究,(2): 63-68+87+110.

[8] 胡清平(2005). 机器翻译中的受控语言[J]. 中国科技翻译, (03): 24-27.

[9] 连淑能 (2010). 英汉对比研究增订本[M]. 北京:高等教育出版社.

[10] 黎亚飞,张瑞华 (2019). 机器翻译发展与现状[J]. 中国轻工教育,(5):38-45.

[11] 秦毅(2004),从翻译基本标准议医学英语的翻译[J]. 遵义医学院学报,27 (4): 421-423.

[12] 王燕 (2008). 医学英语翻译与写作教程[M]. 重庆:重庆大学出版社

=12 蔡珠凤=(The Mistranslation of C-J Machine Translation of Political Statements)=
[[Machine_Trans_EN_12]]
===Abstract===
Language is the main way of communication between people. With the continuous development of globalization, the scale of cross-border exchanges is also expanding. However, due to cultural differences and diversity, the languages of different countries and regions are very different, which seriously hinders people's communication. The demand for efficient and convenient translation tools is increasing. At the same time, with the development of network technology and artificial intelligence, recognition technology based on deep learning is more and more widely used in English, Japanese and other fields.

===Key words===
machine translation; political statements; mistranslation of C-J machine translation
===题目===
The Mistranslation of C-J Machine Translation of Political Statements
===摘要===
语言是人与人之间交流的主要方式。随着全球化的不断发展，跨境交流的规模也在不断扩大。然而，由于文化的差异和多样性，不同国家和地区的语言差异很大，这严重阻碍了人们的交流。对高效便捷的翻译工具的需求正在增加。同时，随着网络技术和人工智能的发展，基于深度学习的识别技术在英语、日语等领域的应用越来越广泛。

===关键词===
机器翻译；政治发言；政治发言中译日的误译
===1. Introduction===
===Introduction to machine translation===
Machine translation, also known as automatic translation, is a process of using computers to convert one natural language (source language) into another natural language (target language). It is a branch of computational linguistics, one of the ultimate goals of artificial intelligence, and has important scientific research value.At the same time, machine translation has important practical value. With the rapid development of economic globalization and the Internet, machine translation technology plays a more and more important role in promoting political, economic and cultural exchanges.The development of machine translation technology has been closely accompanied by the development of computer technology, information theory, linguistics and other disciplines. From the early dictionary matching, to the rule translation of dictionaries combined with linguistic expert knowledge, and then to the statistical machine translation based on corpus, with the improvement of computer computing power and the explosive growth of multilingual information, machine translation technology gradually stepped out of the ivory tower and began to provide real-time and convenient translation services for general users.（Zhang 2019:5-6)

=== C-J machine translation software===
Today's online machine translation software includes Baidu translation, Tencent translation, Google translation, Youdao translation, Bing translation and so on. Google was the first company to launch the machine translation system, and Baidu was the first company to import the machine translation system in China. In addition, Tencent and Youdao have attracted much attention.Machine translation is the process of using computers to convert one natural language into another. It usually refers to sentence and full-text translation between natural languages. In order to continuously improve the translation quality, R & D personnel have added artificial intelligence technologies such as speech recognition, image processing and deep neural network to machine translation on the basis of traditional machine translation based on rules, statistics and examples.With the increase of using machine translation, the joint cooperation between manual translation and machine translation will also increase significantly in the future. What criteria should be used to evaluate the quality of machine translation? In the evolving field of machine translation, there is an urgent need to clarify the unsolvable questions and solved problems.

===The history of machine translation===
The research history of machine translation can be traced back to the 1930s and 1940s. In the early 1930s, the French scientist G.B. alchuni put forward the idea of using machines for translation. In 1933, Soviet inventor П.П. Trojansky designed a machine to translate one language into another, and registered his invention on September 5 of the same year; However, due to the low technical level in the 1930s, his translation machine was not made. In 1946, the first modern electronic computer ENIAC was born. Shortly after that, W. weaver, an American scientist and A. D. booth, a British engineer, a pioneer of information theory, put forward the idea of automatic language translation by computer in 1947 when discussing the application scope of electronic computer. In 1949, W. Weaver published the translation memorandum, which formally put forward the idea of machine translation. After 60 years of ups and downs, machine translation has experienced a tortuous and long development path. The academic community generally divides it into the following four stages:

Pioneering period（1947-1964）

In 1954, with the cooperation of IBM, Georgetown University completed the English Russian machine translation experiment with ibm-701 computer for the first time, showing the feasibility of machine translation to the public and the scientific community, thus opening the prelude to the study of machine translation.
It is not too late for China to start this research. As early as 1956, the state included this research in the national scientific work development plan. The topic name is "machine translation, the construction of natural language translation rules and the mathematical theory of natural language". In 1957, the Institute of language and the Institute of computing technology of the Chinese Academy of Sciences cooperated in the Russian Chinese machine translation experiment, translating 9 different types of more complex sentences.From the 1950s to the first half of the 1960s, machine translation research has been on the rise. The United States and the former Soviet Union, two superpowers, have provided a lot of financial support for machine translation projects for military, political and economic purposes, while European countries have also paid considerable attention to machine translation research due to geopolitical and economic needs, and machine translation has become an upsurge for a time. In this period, although machine translation is just in the pioneering stage, it has entered an optimistic period of prosperity.

Frustrated period（1964-1975）

In 1964, in order to evaluate the research progress of machine translation, the American Academy of Sciences established the automatic language processing Advisory Committee (Alpac Committee) and began a two-year comprehensive investigation, analysis and test.In November 1966, the committee published a report entitled "language and machine" (Alpac report for short), which comprehensively denied the feasibility of machine translation and suggested stopping the financial support for machine translation projects. The publication of this report has dealt a blow to the booming machine translation, and the research of machine translation has fallen into a standstill. Coincidentally, during this period, China broke out the "ten-year Cultural Revolution", and basically these studies also stagnated. Machine translation has entered a depression.

convalescence（1975-1989）

Since the 1970s, with the development of science and technology and the increasingly frequent exchange of scientific and technological information among countries, the language barriers between countries have become more serious. The traditional manual operation mode has been far from meeting the needs, and there is an urgent need for computers to engage in translation. At the same time, the development of computer science and linguistics, especially the substantial improvement of computer hardware technology and the application of artificial intelligence in natural language processing, have promoted the recovery of machine translation research from the technical level. Machine translation projects have begun to develop again, and various practical and experimental systems have been launched successively, such as weinder system Eurpotra multilingual translation system, taum-meteo system, etc.However, after the end of the "ten-year holocaust", China has perked up again, and machine translation research has been put on the agenda again. The "784" project has paid enough attention to machine translation research. After the mid-1980s, the development of machine translation research in China has further accelerated. Firstly, two English Chinese machine translation systems, ky-1 and MT / ec863, have been successfully developed, indicating that China has made great progress in machine translation technology.

New period(1990 present)

With the universal application of the Internet, the acceleration of the process of world economic integration and the increasingly frequent exchanges in the international community, the traditional way of manual operation is far from meeting the rapidly growing needs of translation. People's demand for machine translation has increased unprecedentedly, and machine translation has ushered in a new development opportunity. International conferences on machine translation research have been held frequently, and China has made unprecedented achievements. A series of machine translation software have been launched, such as "Yixing", "Yaxin", "Tongyi", "Huajian", etc. Driven by the market demand, the commercial machine translation system has entered the practical stage, entered the market and came to the users.Since the new century, with the emergence and popularization of the Internet, the amount of data has increased sharply, and statistical methods have been fully applied. Internet companies have set up machine translation research groups and developed machine translation systems based on Internet big data, so as to make machine translation really practical, such as "Baidu translation", "Google translation", etc. In recent years, with the progress of in-depth learning, machine translation technology has further developed, which has promoted the rapid improvement of translation quality, and the translation in oral and other fields is more authentic and fluent.

===The problem of machine translation at present===
Error is inevitable
Many people have misunderstandings about machine translation. They think that machine translation has great deviation and can't help people solve any problems. In fact, the error is inevitable. The reason is that machine translation uses linguistic principles. The machine automatically recognizes grammar, calls the stored thesaurus and automatically performs corresponding translation. However, errors are inevitable due to changes or irregularities in grammar, morphology and syntax, such as sentences with adverbials after "give me a reason to kill you first" in Dahua journey to the West. After all, a machine is a machine. No one has special feelings for language. How can it feel the lasting charm of "the tenderness of lowering its head, like the shame of a water lotus? After all, the meaning of Chinese is very different due to the changes of morphology, grammar and syntax and the change of context. Even many Chinese people are zhanger monks - they can't touch their heads, let alone machines.
Bottleneck
In fact, no matter which method, the biggest factor affecting the development of machine translation lies in the quality of translation. Judging from the achievements, the quality of machine translation is still far from the ultimate goal.
Chinese mathematician and linguist Zhou Haizhong once pointed out in his paper "fifty years of machine translation": to improve the quality of machine translation, the first thing to solve is the problem of language itself rather than programming; It is certainly impossible to improve the quality of machine translation by relying on several programs alone. At the same time, he also pointed out that it is impossible for machine translation to achieve the degree of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" when human beings have not yet understood how the brain performs fuzzy recognition and logical judgment of language. This view may reveal the bottleneck restricting the quality of translation.
It is worth mentioning that American inventor and futurist ray cozwell predicted in an interview with Huffington Post that the quality of machine translation will reach the level of human translation by 2029. There are still many disputes about this thesis in the academic circles.

===2.Mistranslation of Chinese Japanese machine translation===
===2.1Vocabulary mistranslation in Chinese Japanese machine translation===
===2.1.1Mistranslation of proper nouns===
In political materials, there are often political dignitaries' names, place names or a large number of proper nouns in the political field. The morphemes of such words are definite and inseparable. Mistranslation will make the source language lose its specific meaning.

Japanese translation into Chinese Chinese translation into Japanese

original text translation by Youdao reference translation original text translation by Youdao reference translation

朱鎔基朱基朱镕基栗战书栗戰史書栗戰書

労安劳安劳安李克强李克強李克強

筑紫哲也筑紫哲也筑紫哲也习近平習近平習近平

山口百惠山口百惠山口百惠韩正韓中韓正

田中角栄田中角荣田中角荣王沪宁王上海氏王滬寧

東条英機东条英社东条英机汪洋汪洋汪洋

毛沢东毛泽东毛泽东赵乐际趙樂南趙樂際

トウ・ショウヘイ　　　大酱邓小平江泽民江沢民江沢民

周恩来周恩来周恩来

クリントン克林顿克林顿

The above table counts 18 special names in the two texts, and 7 machine translation errors. In terms of mistranslation, there are not only "战书" but also "戰史" and "史書" in Chinese. "沪" is the abbreviation of Shanghai. In other words, since "战书" and "沪" are originally common nouns, this disrupts the choice of target language in machine translation. Except Katakana interference (except for トウシゃウヘイ, most of the mistranslations appear in the new Standing Committee. It can be seen that the machine translation system does not update the thesaurus in time. Different from other words, people's names have particularity. Especially as members of the Standing Committee of the Political Bureau of the CPC Central Committee, the translation of their names is officially unified. In this regard, public figures such as political dignitaries, stars, famous hosts and important. In addition, the machine also translates Japanese surnames such as "タ二モト" (谷本), "アンドウ" (安藤) into "塔尼莫特" and "龙胆". It can be found that the language feature that Japanese will be written together with Chinese characters and Hiragana also directly affects the translation quality of Japanese Chinese machine translation. Japanese people often use Katakana pronunciation. For example, when Japanese people talk with Premier Zhu, they often use "二ーハウ" (Hello). However, the machine only recognizes the two pseudonyms "二" and "ハ" and transliterates them into "尼哈" , ignoring the long sound after "二" and "ハ".

original text Translation by Youdao reference translation

日美安全体制日米の安全体制日米安保体制

中国共产党第十九次全国代表大会中国共産党第19回全国代表大会中国共産党第19回全国代表大会（第19回党大会）

十八大十八大第18回党大会中国特色社会主义

中国特色社会主義中国の特色ある社会主義第18回党大会

中国共产党中央委员会中国共産党中央委員会中国共産党中央委員会

中国共産党中央委員会十八届中共中央政治局常委第18代中国共產党中央政治局常務委員第18期中共中央政治局常務委員

十八届中共中央政治局委员 18期の中国共產党中央政治局委員第18期中共中央政治局委員

十九届中共中央政治局常委十九回中国共產党中央政治局常務委員第19期中央政治局常務委員

中共十九届一中全会中国共產党第十九回一中央委員会第19期中央委員会第1回全体会議

The above table is a comparison of the original and translated versions of some proper nouns. As shown in the table, the mistranslation problems are mainly reflected in the mismatch of numerals + quantifiers, the wrong addition of case auxiliary word "の", the lack of connectors, the Mistranslation of abbreviations, dead translation, and the writing errors of Chinese characters. The following is a specific analysis one by one.

"十八届中共中央政治局常委", "十八届中共中央政治局委员", "十九届中共中央政治局常委" and "中共十九届一中全会" all have quantifiers "届", which are translated into "代", "期" and "回" respectively. The meaning is vague and should be uniformly translated into "期"; Among them, the translation of the last three proper nouns lacks the Chinese conjunction "第". The case auxiliary word "の" was added by mistake in the translation of "十八届中共中央政治局委员" and "日美安全体制". The "中国共产党中央委员会" did not write in the form of Japanese Ming Dynasty characters, but directly used simplified Chinese characters.

The full name of "中共十九届一中全会" is "中国共产党第十九届中央委员会第一次全体会议", in which "一" stands for "第一次", which is an ordinal word rather than a cardinal word. Machine translation does not produce a correct translation. The fundamental reason is that there are no "规则" for translating such words in machine translation. If we can formulate corresponding rules for such words (for example, 中共m'1届m2 中全会→第m1期中央委员会第m2回全体会议), the translation system must be able to translate well no matter how many plenary sessions of the CPC Central Committee.

===2.1.2Mistranslation of Polysemy===
original text Translation by Youdao reference translation

スタジオ摄影棚/工作室直播现场/演播厅

日中関係の話中日关系的故事就中日关系(话题)

溝水沟鸿沟

それでは日中の問題について質問のある方。那么对白天的问题有提问的人。关于中日问题的话题，举手提问。

私たちのクラスは20人ちょっとですが、我们班有20人左右，我们班二十多人的意见统一很难，

いろいろな意見が出て、まとめるのは大変です。但是又各种各样的意见，总结起来很困难。

一体どうやって、13億人もの人をまとめているんですか。到底是怎么处理13亿的人的呢？中国是怎样把13亿人凝聚在一起的？

In the original text, the word "スタジオ" appeared four times and was translated into "摄影棚" or "工作室" respectively, but the context is on-site interview, not the production site of photography or film. "話" has many semantics, such as "说话", "事情", "道理", etc. In accordance with the practice of the interview program, Premier Zhu Rongji was invited to answer five questions on the topic of China Japan relations. Obviously, the meaning of the word "故事" is very abrupt. The inherent Japanese word "日中" means "晌午、白天". At the same time, it is also the abbreviation of the names of the two countries. The machine failed to deal with it correctly according to the context. "溝" refers to the gap between China and Japan, not a "水沟". The former "まとめる" appears in the original text with the word "意见", which is intended to describe that it is difficult to unify everyone's opinions. The latter "まとめている" also refers to unifying the thoughts of 1.3 billion people, not "处理". Therefore, it is more appropriate to use "统一" and "处理" in human translation, rather than "总结意见" or "处理意见".

Mistranslation of polysemy has always been a difficult problem in machine translation research. The translation of each word is correct, but it is often very different from the original expression in the context. Zhang Zhengzeng said that ambiguity is a common phenomenon in natural language. Its essence is that the same language form may have different meanings, which is also one of the differences between natural language and artificial language. Therefore, one of the difficulties faced by machine translation is language disambiguation (Zhang Zheng, 2005:60). In this regard, we can mark all the meanings of polysemous words and judge which meaning to choose by common collocation with other words. At the same time, strengthen the text recognition ability of the machine to avoid the translation inconsistent with the current context. In this way, we can avoid the mistake of "大酱" in the place where famous figures such as Deng Xiaoping should have appeared in the previous political articles.

===2.1.3Mistranslation of compound words===
Multi class words refer to a word with two or more parts of speech, also known as the same word and different classes.

original text Translation by Youdao reference translation

1998年江泽民主席曾经访问日本, 1998年の江沢民国家主席の日本訪問し、 1998年、江沢民総書記が日本を訪問し、かつ

同已故小渊首相签署了联合宣言。かつて同じ故小渕首相が署名した共同宣言亡くなられた小渕総理と宣言に調印されました

Chinese "同" has two parts of speech: prepositions and conjunctions: "故" has many parts of speech, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives and conjunctions. This directly affects the judgment of the machine at the source language level. The word "同" in the above table is used as a conjunction to indicate the other party of a common act. "故" is used as a verb with the semantic meaning of "死亡", which is a modifier of "小渊首相". The machine regards "同" as an adjective and "故" as a noun "原因", which leads to confusion in the structure and unclear semantics of the translation. Different from the polysemy problem, multi category words have at least two parts of speech, and there is often not only one meaning under each part of speech. In this regard, software R & D personnel should fully consider the existence of multi category words, so that the translation machine can distinguish the meaning of words on the basis of marking the part of speech, so as to select the translation through the context and the components of the word in the sentence. Of course, the realization of this function is difficult, and we need to give full play to the wisdom of R & D personnel.

===2.2 Syntactic mistranslation in Chinese Japanese machine translation===
===2.2.1Mistranslation of tenses===
original text：History is written by the people, and all achievements are attributed to the people.

Translation by Youdao：歴史は人民が書いたものであり、すべての成果は人民のためである。

reference translation：歴史は人民が綴っていくものであり、すべての成果は人民に帰することとなります。

The original sentence meaning is "历史是人民书写的历史" or "历史是人民书写的东西". When translated into Japanese, due to the influence of Japanese language habits, the formal noun "もの" should be supplemented accordingly. In this sentence, both the machine and the interpreter have translated correctly. However, the machine's recognition of "的" is biased, resulting in tense translation errors. The past, present and future will become "history", and this is a continuous action. The form translated as "~ ていく" not only reflects that the action is a continuous action, but also conforms to the tense and semantic information of the original text. In addition, the machine's treatment of the preposition "于" is also inappropriate. In the original text, "人民" is the recipient of action, not the target language. As the most obvious feature of isolated language, function words in Chinese play an important role in semantic expression, and their translation should be regarded as a focus of machine translation research.

original text：李克强同志是十六届中共中央政治局常委,其他五位同志都是十六届中共中央政治局委员。

Translation by Youdao：李克強総理は第16代中国共産党中央政治局常務委員であり、他の５人の同志はいずれも16期の中国共産党中央政治局委員である。

reference translation：李克強同志は第16期中国共産党中央政治局常務委員を務め、他の５人は第16期中共中央政治局委員を務めました。

Judging the verb "是" in the original text plays its most basic positive role, but due to the complexity of Chinese language, "是" often can not be completely transformed into the form of "だ / である" in the process of translation. This sentence is a judgment of what has happened. Compared with the 19th session, the 18th session has become history. This is an implicit temporal information. It is very difficult for machines without human brain to recognize this implicit information. "中共中央政治局常委" is the abbreviation of "中共中央政治局常务委员会委员" and it is a kind of position. In Japanese, often use it with verbs such as "務める","担当する",etc. The translator adopts the past tense of "務める", which conforms to the expression habit of Japanese and deals with the problem of tense at the same time. However, machine translation only mechanically translates this sentence into judgment sentence, and fails to correctly deal with the past information implied by the word "十八届".

===2.2.2Mistranslation of honorifics===
Honorific language is a language means to show respect to the listener. Different from Japanese, there is no grammatical category of honorifics in Chinese. There is no specific fixed grammatical form to express honorifics, self modesty and politeness. Instead, specific words such as "您", "请" and "劳驾" are used to express all kinds of respect or self modesty.

Original text translation by Youdao reference translation

女士们，先生们，同志们，朋友们さんたち、先生たち、同志たち、お友达さん　　ご列席の皆さん

谢谢大家！ありがとうございます！ご清聴ありがとうございました。

これはどうされますか。这是怎么回事呢? 您将如何解决这一问题？

こうした問題をどうお考えでしょうか。我们会如何考虑这些问题呢？您如何看待这一问题？

For example, for the processing of "女士们，先生们，同志们，朋友们", the machine makes the translation correspond to the original one by one based on the principle of unchanged format, but there are errors in semantic communication and pragmatic habits. When speaking on formal occasions, Chinese expression tends to be comprehensive and detailed, as well as the address of the audience. In contrast, Japanese usually uses general terms such as "皆様", "ご臨席の皆さん" or "代表団の方々" as the opening remarks. In terms of Japanese Chinese translation, the machine also failed to recognize the usage of Japanese honorifics such as "される" and "お考え". It can be seen that Chinese Japanese machine translation has a low ability to deal with honorific expressions. The occasion is more formal. A good translation should not only be fluent in meaning, but also conform to the expression habits of the target language and match the current translation environment.

===Conclusion===
In the process of discussing the Mistranslation of machine translation, this paper mainly cites the Mistranslation of Youdao translator. When I studied the problem of machine translation mistranslation, I also used a large number of translation software such as Google and Baidu for parallel comparison, and found that these translation software also had similar problems with Youdao translator. For example, the "新世界新未来" in Chinese ABAC structural phrases is translated by Baidu as "新し世界の新しい未来", which, like Youdao, is not translated in the form of parallel phrases; Google online translation translates the word "“全心全意" into a completely wrong "全面的に"; The original sentence "我吃了很多亏" in the Mistranslation of the unique expression in the language is translated by Google online as "私はたくさんの損失を食べました". Because the "吃" and "亏" in the original text are not closely adjacent, the machine can not recognize this echo and mistakenly treats "亏" as a kind of food, so the machine translates the predicate as "食べました"; Japanese "こうした問題をどう考えでしょうか", Google's online translation is "你如何看待这些问题?", "你" tone can not reflect the tone of Japanese honorific, while Baidu translates as "你怎么想这样的问题呢?" Although the meaning can be understood, it is an irregular spoken language. Google and Baidu also made the same mistakes as Youdao in the translation of proper nouns. For example, they translated "十七届(中共中央政治局常委)”" into "第17回..." .In short, similar mistranslations of Youdao are also common in Baidu and Google. Due to space constraints, they will not be listed one by one here.

Mr. Liu Yongquan, Institute of language, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences (1997) It has been pointed out that machine translation is a linguistic problem in the final analysis. Although corpus based machine translation does not require a lot of linguistic knowledge, language expression is ever-changing. Machine translation based solely on statistical ideas can not avoid the translation quality problems caused by the lack of language rules. The following is based on the analysis of lexical, syntactic and other mistranslations From the perspective of the characteristics of the source language, this paper summarizes some difficulties of Chinese and Japanese in machine translation.

(1) The difficulties of Chinese in machine translation

Chinese is a typical isolated language. The relationship between words needs to be reflected by word order and function words. We should pay attention to the transformation of function words such as "的", "在", "向" and "了". Some special verbs, such as "是", "做" and "作", are widely used. How to translate on the basis of conforming to Japanese pragmatic habits and expressions is a difficulty in machine translation research. In terms of word order, Chinese is basically "subject→predicate→object". At the same time, Chinese pays attention to parataxis, and there is no need to be clear in expression with meaningful cohesion, which increases the difficulty of Chinese Japanese machine translation. When there are multiple verbs or modifier components in complex long sentences, machine translation usually can not accurately divide the components of the sentence, resulting in the result that the translation is completely unreadable.

(2) Difficulties of Japanese in machine translation

Both Chinese and Japanese languages use Chinese characters, and most machines produce the target language through the corresponding translation of Chinese characters. However, pseudonyms in Japanese play an important role in judging the part of speech and meaning, and can not only recognize Chinese characters and judge the structure and semantics of sentences. Japanese vocabulary is composed of Chinese vocabulary, inherent vocabulary and foreign vocabulary. Among them, the first two have a great impact on Chinese Japanese machine translation. For example "提出" is translated as "提出する" or "打ち出す"; and "重视" is translated as "重視する" or "大切にする". Japanese is an adhesive language, which contains a lot of "けど", "が" and "けれども" Some of them are transitional and progressive structures, but there are also some sequential expressions that do not need translation, and these translation software often can not accurately grasp them.

===References===
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[2] Cao Qianyu;Hao Hanmei;Ahmed Syed Hassan.A Chaotic Neural Network Model for English Machine Translation Based on Big Data Analysis[J].Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience,2021,2021:3274326-3274326.

[3]Hwang Yongkeun;Kim Yanghoon;Jung Kyomin.Context-Aware Neural Machine Translation for Korean Honorific Expressions[J].Electronics,2021,10(13):1589-1589.

[4]Zakaryia Almahasees.Analysing English-Arabic Machine Translation:Google Translate, Microsoft Translator and Sakhr,2021.

[5]Machine learning in translation[J].Nature Biomedical Engineering,2021,5(6):485-486.

[6]Shaimaa Marzouk.An in-depth analysis of the individual impact of controlled language rules on machine translation output: a mixed-methods approach[J].Machine Translation,2021(prepublish):1-37.

[7]Welnitzová Katarína;Munková Daša.Sentence-structure errors of machine translation into Slovak[J].Topics in Linguistics,2021,22(1):78-92.

[8]Xu Xueyuan.Machine learning-based prediction of urban soil environment and corpus translation teaching[J].Arabian Journal of Geosciences,2021,14(11).

[9]陈丙昌.機械翻訳の誤訳分析【D】.贵州大学.2016(05)

[10]呂寅秋.機械翻訳の言語規則と伝統文法との相違点.日本学研究.1996(00):21-22

[11]刘君.基于语料库的中日同形词词义用法对比及其日中机器翻译研究【D】.广西大学.2014(03)

[12]崔倩倩.机器翻译错误与译后编辑策略研究【D】.北京外国语大学.2019(09)

[13]张义.机器翻译的译文分析【D】.西安外国语大学.2019(10)

[14]张琳婧.在线机器翻译中日翻译错误原因及对策【D】.山西大学.2019(02)

[15]王丹.基于机器翻译的专利文本译后编辑对策研究【D】.大连理工大学.2020(06)

[16]杨晓琨.日中机器翻译中的前编辑规则与效果验证【D】.大连理工大学.2020(06)

[17]左嘉. 机器翻译日译汉误译研究[D]. 北京第二外国语学院, 2021.

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Networking Linking

http://www.elecfans.com/rengongzhineng/692245.html

https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E6%9C%BA%E5%99%A8%E7%BF%BB%E8%AF%91/411793

=13 陈湘琼Chen Xiangqiong（Study on Post-editing from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory ）=
[[Machine_Trans_EN_13]]

=14 Bi bi Nadia（Machine Translation a Challenge for Human Translators)=
[[Machine_Trans_EN_14]]

===Abstract===
Machine translation is a big obstacle in the way of Human translators or interpretors although it is quick and less time consuming.people are trying to get translation of their target language using through source language.For this purpose they are using digital apps like Google translation Google translation does not give accurate and exact interpretation.Google translator is translates word to word translate that doesn't clarifies it's true and actual meaning.On the other hand human translators can give exact and accurate translation ,they take care of grammatical errors , diction and sentence structure.They clarify the purpose of target language through using source language.

===Keywords===
Descriptive translation, academic, interdiscipline, comparative literature, localization,Translatology,school of thought,translation , studies, linguistics, corresponding.

===Body of article===
Translation is the process of reworking text from one language into another to maintain the original message and communication. But, like everything else, there are different methods of translation, and they vary in form and function. What is translation? The term has become widely used among knowledge transfer researchers and practitioners, especially in the fields of health and health care. In a landmark review, Jonathan Lomas began to argue that 'The tasks… may be defined as to establish and maintain links between researchers and their audience, via the appropriate translation of research findings' (Lomas 1997, p 4). In 2004, the World Health Organization's World Report on Knowledge for Better Health suggested that 'One of the key contributions of research to health systems is the translation of knowledge into actions' (WHO 2004, p 33 and p 100). By 2006, special issues of WHO's Bulletin as well as the journals Evaluation and the Health Professions and the Journal of Continuing Education in the Health Professions were dedicated to translation.But what does 'translation' mean? It may be a new word for an old problem, meaning nothing more than 'transfer'. The rapidly emerging field of 'translational medicine' seems to take translation to mean generally what transfer might have meant, that is the transmission of knowledge and evidence 'from bench to bedside'. As one commentator has observed, "Translational medicine" as a fashionable term is being increasingly used to describe the wish of biomedical researchers to ultimately help patients' (Wehling 2008, abstract).
Semantic uncertainty persists, not least because of the different interests of scientists, clinicians, patients and commercial firms (Littman et al 2007): 'Translational research means different things to different people, but it seems important to almost everyone' (Woolf 2008, p 211).
In related fields, such as public health (Armstrong et al 2006), 'translation' seems to signify dissatisfaction with 'transfer'. It wants to move away from thinking of knowledge transfer as a form of technology transfer or dissemination, rejecting if only by implication its mechanistic assumptions and its model of linear messaging from A to B. But still, what does it signify?

===Why translation?===
'Translation' indicates a closer attention to the problem of shared meaning and how it might be developed. It seems to represent some new epistemological lubricant, facilitating the dissemination of texts and the application and use of the knowledge and information they in. Simply, translation might be the key to transfer. And yet, when we stop to think, we are more ambivalent. What is translated often seems somehow inferior, not real or original. Note how readily commentators reach for the idea that things might be 'lost in translation'. Knowing at a distance – made in and mediated by translation - makes for incomplete renditions, blurred images, partial truths. So what might 'translation' really mean? The purpose of this paper is to set out, for policy makers and practitioners, the theoretical and conceptual resources translation holds and seems to represent. In doing so, it explores understandings of translation in the fields of literature and linguistics and in the sociology of science and technology. It begins by setting out just why this idea of translation should make immediate, intuitive sense in relation to research, policy and practice.
1translation in research, policy and practice research as translation
Research often entails translation from one language to another: where data is collected from more than one ethnic group, for example, or where the language of the researcher is other than that of the research subject. It may draw on a secondary literature or source documents written in different languages, and may be published and disseminated in languages other than the one in which it is first written up.
2In a different way, to conduct an interview is to ask for an account of experience and its meanings, but it is also to construct and translate that experience in terms defined at least in part by the researcher. In representing what is said, transcripts then select data, usually excluding significant gesture and eye-contact, for example. Often, certain characteristics of speech-acts (such as hesitations) will be edited out. In turn, the format of the transcript shapes the analytic use the researcher may make of it. The basis of research 'findings', then, is an artefact, a transcript or translation, not an original interaction (Ochs 1979, Barnes, Bloor and Henry 1996, Ross 2009).
3In this way, the researcher recasts aspects of his or her problem or topic in new, scientific form: 'All researchers "translate" the experiences of others' (Temple 1997, p 609). Research is invariably conducted in a sort of 'metalanguage' (Hantrais and Ager 1985): the research process can be conceived as one of successive translations (from theoretical formulation to operationalization, transcription, interpretation and dissemination). Theorization is a process of reciprocal back and forth between theory and fact, in which conceptions of each are revised in order that one fit the other (Baldamus 1974).
4 It is a kind of translation: a rereading, re-use, re-application or re-representation of what we know in new terms (Turner 1980). Referencing, too, is an act of translation, a form of appropriation and incorporation of one text by another (Gilbert 1977).policy as translation Each of the fields covered by the paper is diverse and ill-defined, and there is no intention here to provide a comprehensive account of any them. Sources have been chosen for their relevance: main references are cited in the text, and additional sources listed in footnotes.

2For a brief introduction to the technical issues involved in social research in more than one language, see Birbili (2000). For translation issues in survey research and question design in general, see Ervin and Bower (1952) and Deutscher (1968); on translating survey research instruments (in this instance health-related quality of life measures), Bowden and Fox-Rushby (2003). On the use of translators and interpreters, see Temple (1997) and Jentsch (1998).
3For an interesting discussion of this problem, see Bourdieu (1999), esp pp 621-626, 'The risks of writing'.
===Difference between machine translation and human translators===
Few people disagree on the differences between the two, but many argue over the quality of the translations. How accurate are machine translations? How reliable are human translations? Some say machine translation produces near-perfect translations while others are adamant that translations are incomprehensible and cause more problems than they solve. Results will, of course, vary depending on the source and target languages, the machine translation service used (e.g. Google Translate), and the complexity of the original text.
Machine translation, love it or hate it, is here to stay. In fact, the machine translation market is growing at such a fast pace that it is predicted to reach $980 million by 2022.
===Machine translation: the pros and cons===
The advantages of machine translation generally come down to two factors: it’s faster and cheaper. The downside to this is the standard of translation can be anywhere from inaccurate, to incomprehensible, and potentially dangerous (more on that shortly).
==The advantages of machine translation==
Many free tools are readily available (Google Translate, Skype Translator, etc.)
Quick turnaround time
You can translate between multiple languages using one tool
Translation technology is constantly improving
The disadvantages of machine translation
Level of accuracy can be very low
Accuracy is also very inconsistent across different languages
==Machines can't translate context ==
Mistakes are sometimes costly
Sometimes translation simply doesn’t work
The most important thing to consider with any kind of translation is the cost of potential mistakes. Translating instructions for medical equipment, aviation manuals, legal documents and many other kinds of content require 100% accuracy. In such cases, mistakes can cost lives, huge amounts of money and irreparable damage to your company’s image. So choose carefully!
Human translation: the pros and cons
Human translation essentially switches the table in terms of pros and cons. A higher standard of accuracy comes at the price of longer turnaround times and higher costs. What you have to decide is whether that initial investment outweighs the potential cost of mistakes. Alternatively, whether mistakes simply aren’t an option, like the cases we looked at in the previous section.

==The advantages of human translation ==
It’s a translator’s job to ensure the highest accuracy
Humans can interpret context and capture the same meaning, rather than simply translating words
Human translators can review their work and provide a quality process
Humans can interpret the creative use of language, e.g. puns, metaphors, slogans, etc.
Professional translators understand the idiomatic differences between their languages
Humans can spot pieces of content where literal translation isn’t possible and find the most suitable alternative
The disadvantages of human translation
Turnaround time is longer
Translators rarely work for free
Unless you use a translation agency, with access to thousands of translators, you’re limited to the languages any one translator can work with
Simply put, human translation is your best option when accuracy is even remotely important. Other considerations to make are the complexity of your source material and the two languages you’re translating between – both of which can render machines pretty useless.

When to use machine and human translation
The truth is, the debate over machine vs human translation is an unnecessary distraction. What we should really be talking about is when to use these two different types of translation services, because they both serve a very valid purpose.

Examples of when to use machine translation
When you have a large bulk of content to translate and the general meaning is enough
When your translation never reaches the final audience, e.g. you’re translating a resource as research for another piece of content
Translating documents for internal use within a company, provided 100% accuracy isn’t needed
To partially translate large chunks of content for a human translator to improve upon
Examples of when to use human translation
When accuracy is important
Most cases where your translated content is received by a consumer audience
When you have a duty of care to provide accurate translations (e.g. legal documents, product instructions, medical guidelines or health and safety content)
When translating marketing material or other texts for creative language uses.

types of machine translation.

What is Machine Translation? Rule Based Machine Translation vs. Statistical Machine Translation. Machine translation (MT) is automated translation. It is the process by which computer software is used to translate a text from one natural language (such as English) to another (such as Spanish).

To process any translation, human or automated, the meaning of a text in the original (source) language must be fully restored in the target language, i.e. the translation. While on the surface this seems straightforward, it is far more complex. Translation is not a mere word-for-word substitution. A translator must interpret and analyze all of the elements in the text and know how each word may influence another. This requires extensive expertise in grammar, syntax (sentence structure), semantics (meanings), etc., in the source and target languages, as well as familiarity with each local region.

Human and machine translation each have their share of challenges. For example, no two individual translators can produce identical translations of the same text in the same language pair, and it may take several rounds of revisions to meet customer satisfaction. But the greater challenge lies in how machine translation can produce publishable quality translations.

Rule-Based Machine Translation Technology
Rule-based machine translation relies on countless built-in linguistic rules and millions of bilingual dictionaries for each language pair.
The software parses text and creates a transitional representation from which the text in the target language is generated. This process requires extensive lexicons with morphological, syntactic, and semantic information, and large sets of rules. The software uses these complex rule sets and then transfers the grammatical structure of the source language into the target language.
Translations are built on gigantic dictionaries and sophisticated linguistic rules. Users can improve the out-of-the-box translation quality by adding their terminology into the translation process. They create user-defined dictionaries which override the system’s default settings.
In most cases, there are two steps: an initial investment that significantly increases the quality at a limited cost, and an ongoing investment to increase quality incrementally. While rule-based MT brings companies to the quality threshold and beyond, the quality improvement process may be long and expensive.

Statistical Machine Translation Technology
Statistical machine translation utilizes statistical translation models whose parameters stem from the analysis of monolingual and bilingual corpora. Building statistical translation models is a quick process, but the technology relies heavily on existing multilingual corpora. A minimum of 2 million words for a specific domain and even more for general language are required. Theoretically it is possible to reach the quality threshold but most companies do not have such large amounts of existing multilingual corpora to build the necessary translation models. Additionally, statistical machine translation is CPU intensive and requires an extensive hardware configuration to run translation models for average performance levels.

Rule-Based MT vs. Statistical MT
Rule-based MT provides good out-of-domain quality and is by nature predictable. Dictionary-based customization guarantees improved quality and compliance with corporate terminology. But translation results may lack the fluency readers expect. In terms of investment, the customization cycle needed to reach the quality threshold can be long and costly. The performance is high even on standard hardware.

Statistical MT provides good quality when large and qualified corpora are available. The translation is fluent, meaning it reads well and therefore meets user expectations. However, the translation is neither predictable nor consistent. Training from good corpora is automated and cheaper. But training on general language corpora, meaning text other than the specified domain, is poor. Furthermore, statistical MT requires significant hardware to build and manage large translation models.

Rule-Based MT Statistical MT
+ Consistent and predictable quality – Unpredictable translation quality
+ Out-of-domain translation quality – Poor out-of-domain quality
+ Knows grammatical rules – Does not know grammar
+ High performance and robustness – High CPU and disk space requirements
+ Consistency between versions – Inconsistency between versions
– Lack of fluency + Good fluency
– Hard to handle exceptions to rules + Good for catching exceptions to rules
– High development and customization costs + Rapid and cost-effective development costs provided the required corpus exists
Given the overall requirements, there is a clear need for a third approach through which users would reach better translation quality and high performance (similar to rule-based MT), with less investment (similar to statistical MT).
Post-Edited Machine Translation (PEMT)
Often, PEMT is used to bridge the gap between the speed of machine translation and the quality of human translation, as translators review, edit and improve machine-translated texts. PEMT services cost more than plain machine translations but less than 100% human translation, especially since the post-editors don’t have to be fluently bilingual—they just have to be skilled proofreaders with some experience in the language and target region.
Successful translation is about more than just the words, which is why we advocate for not just human translation by skilled linguists, but for translation by people deeply familiar with the cultures they’re writing for. Life experience, study and the knowledge that only comes from living in a geographic region can make the difference between words that are understandable and language that is capable of having real, positive impact.

PacTranz
The HUGE list of 51 translation types, methods and techniques
Upper section of infographic of 51 common types of translation classified in 4 broad categoriesThere are a bewildering number of different types of translation.
So we’ve identified the 51 types you’re most likely to come across, and explain exactly what each one means.
This includes all the main translation methods, techniques, strategies, procedures and areas of specialisation.
It’s our way of helping you make sense of the many different kinds of translation – and deciding which ones are right for you.
Don’t miss our free summary pdf download later in the article!
The 51 types of translation we’ve identified fall neatly into four distinct categories.
Translation Category A: 15 types of translation based on the technical field or subject area of the text
Icons representing 15 types of translation categorised by the technical field or subject area of the textTranslation companies often define the various kinds of translation they provide according to the subject area of the text.
This is a useful way of classifying translation types because specialist texts normally require translators with specialist knowledge.
Here are the most common types you’re like to come across in this category.

1. General Translation
What is it?
The translation of non-specialised text. That is, text that we can all understand without needing specialist knowledge in some area.
The text may still contain some technical terms and jargon, but these will either be widely understood, or easily researched.
What this means
The implication is that you don’t need someone with specialist knowledge for this type of translation – any professional translator can handle them.
Translators who only do this kind of translation (don’t have a specialist field) are sometimes referred to as ‘generalist’ or ‘general purpose’ translators.
Examples
Most business correspondence, website content, company and product/service info, non-technical reports.
Most of the rest of the translation types in this Category do require specialist translators.
Check out our video on 13 types of translation requiring special translator expertise:

2. Technical Translation
What is it?
We use the term “technical translation” in two different ways:
Broad meaning: any translation where the translator needs specialist knowledge in some domain or area.
This definition would include almost all the translation types described in this section.
Narrow meaning: limited to the translation of engineering (in all its forms), IT and industrial texts.
This narrower meaning would exclude legal, financial and medical translations for example, where these would be included in the broader definition.
What this means
Technical translations require knowledge of the specialist field or domain of the text.
That’s because without it translators won’t completely understand the text and its implications. And this is essential if we want a fully accurate and appropriate translation.Good to know Many technical translation projects also have a typesetting/dtp requirement. Be sure your translation provider can handle this component, and that you’ve allowed for it in your project costings and time frames.
Examples
Manuals, specialist reports, product brochures

3. Scientific Translation
What is it?
The translation of scientific research or documents relating to it.
What this means
These texts invariably contain domain-specific terminology, and often involve cutting edge research.
So it’s imperative the translator has the necessary knowledge of the field to fully understand the text. That’s why scientific translators are typically either experts in the field who have turned to translation, or professionally qualified translators who also have qualifications and/or experience in that domain.
On occasion the translator may have to consult either with the author or other domain experts to fully comprehend the material and so translate it appropriately.
Examples
Research papers, journal articles, experiment/trial results

4. Medical Translation
What is it?
The translation of healthcare, medical product, pharmaceutical and biotechnology materials.
Medical translation is a very broad term covering a wide variety of specialist areas and materials – everything from patient information to regulatory, marketing and technical documents.
As a result, this translation type has numerous potential sub-categories – ‘medical device translations’ and ‘clinical trial translations’, for example.
What this means
As with any text, the translators need to fully understand the materials they’re translating. That means sound knowledge of medical terminology and they’ll often also need specific subject-matter expertise.
Good to know
Many countries have specific requirements governing the translation of medical device and pharmaceutical documentation. This includes both your client-facing and product-related materials.
Examples
Medical reports, product instructions, labeling, clinical trial documentation

5. Financial Translation
What is it?
In broad terms, the translation of banking, stock exchange, forex, financing and financial reporting documents.
However, the term is generally used only for the more technical of these documents that require translators with knowledge of the field.
Any competent translator could translate a bank statement, for example, so that wouldn’t typically be considered a financial translation.
What this means
You need translators with domain expertise to correctly understand and translate the financial terminology in these texts.
Examples
Company accounts, annual reports, fund or product prospectuses, audit reports, IPO documentation

6. Economic Translations
What is it?
1. Sometimes used as a synonym for financial translations.
2. Other times used somewhat loosely to refer to any area of economic activity – so combining business/commercial, financial and some types of technical translations.
3. More narrowly, the translation of documents relating specifically to the economy and the field of economics.
What this means
As always, you need translators with the relevant expertise and knowledge for this type of translation.

7. Legal Translation
What is it?
The translation of documents relating to the law and legal process.
What this means
Legal texts require translators with a legal background.
That’s because without it, a translator may not:
– fully understand the legal concepts
– write in legal style
– understand the differences between legal systems, and how best to translate concepts that don’t correspond.
And we need all that to produce professional quality legal translations – translations that are accurate, terminologically correct and stylistically appropriate.
Examples
Contracts, legal reports, court judgments, expert opinions, legislation

8. Juridical Translation
What is it?
1. Generally used as a synonym for legal translations.
2. Alternatively, can refer to translations requiring some form of legal verification, certification or notarization that is common in many jurisdictions.

9. Judicial Translation
What is it?
1. Most commonly a synonym for legal translations.
2. Rarely, used to refer specifically to the translation of court proceeding documentation – so judgments, minutes, testimonies, etc.

10. Patent Translation
What is it?
The translation of intellectual property and patent-related documents.
Key features
Patents have a specific structure, established terminology and a requirement for complete consistency throughout – read more on this here. These are key aspects to patent translations that translators need to get right.
In addition, subject matter can be highly technical.
What this means
You need translators who have been trained in the specific requirements for translating patent documents. And with the domain expertise needed to handle any technical content.
Examples
Patent specifications, prior art documents, oppositions, opinions

11. Literary Translation
What is it?
The translation of literary works – novels, short stories, plays, essays, poems.
Key features
Literary translation is widely regarded as the most difficult form of translation.
That’s because it involves much more than simply conveying all meaning in an appropriate style. The translator’s challenge is to also reproduce the character, subtlety and impact of the original – the essence of what makes that work unique.
This is a monumental task, and why it’s often said that the translation of a literary work should be a literary work in its own right.
What this means
Literary translators must be talented wordsmiths with exceptional creative writing skills.
Because few translators have this skillset, you should only consider dedicated literary translators for this type of translation.

12. Commercial Translation
What is it?
The translation of documents relating to the world of business.
This is a very generic, wide-reaching translation type. It includes other more specialised forms of translation – legal, financial and technical, for example. And all types of more general business documentation.
Also, some documents will require familiarity with business jargon and an ability to write in that style.
What this means
Different translators will be required for different document types – specialists should handle materials involving technical and specialist fields, whereas generalist translators can translate non-specialist materials.
Examples
Business correspondence, reports, marketing and promotional materials, sales proposals

13. Business Translations
What is it?
A synonym for Commercial Translations.

14. Administrative Translations
What is it?
The translation of business management and administration documents.
So it’s a subset of business / commercial translations.
What this means
The implication is these documents will include business jargon and ‘management speak’, so require a translator familiar with, and practised at, writing in that style.
Examples
Management reports and proposals

15. Marketing Translations
What is it?
The translation of advertising, marketing and promotional materials.
This is a subset of business or commercial translations.
Key features
Marketing copy is designed to have a specific impact on the audience – to appeal and persuade.
So the translated copy must do this too.
But a direct translation will seldom achieve this – so translators need to adapt their wording to produce the impact the text is seeking.
And sometimes a completely new message might be needed – see transcreation in our next category of translation types.
What this means
Marketing translations require translators who are skilled writers with a flair for producing persuasive, impactful copy.
As relatively few translators have these skills, engaging the right translator is key.
Good to know
This type of translation often comes with a typesetting or dtp requirement – particularly for adverts, posters, brochures, etc.
Its best for your translation provider to handle this component. That’s because multilingual typesetters understand the design and aesthetic conventions in other languages/cultures. And these are essential to ensure your materials have the desired impact and appeal in your target markets.
Examples
Advertising, brochures, some website/social media text.
Translation Category B: 14 types of translation based on the end product or use of the translation
This category is all about how the translation is going to be used or the end product that’s produced.
Most of these types involve either adapting or processing a completed translation in some way, or converting or incorporating it into another program or format.
You’ll see that some are very specialised, and complex.
It’s another way translation providers refer to the range of services they provide.
Check out our video of the most specialised of these types of translation:

16. Document Translations
What is it?
The translation of documents of all sorts.
Here the translation itself is the end product and needs no further processing beyond standard formatting and layout.

17. Text Translations
What is it?
A synonym for document translation.

18. Certified Translations
What is it?
A translation with some form of certification.
Key features
The certification can take many forms. It can be a statement by the translation company, signed and dated, and optionally with their company seal. Or a similar certification by the translator.
The exact format and wording will depend on what clients and authorities require – here’s an example.

19. Official Translations
What is it?
1. Generally used as a synonym for certified translations.
2. Can also refer to the translation of ‘official’ documents issued by the authorities in a foreign country. These will almost always need to be certified.

20. Software Localisation
What is it?
Adapting software for another language/culture.
Key features
The goal of software localisation is not just to make the program or product available in other languages. It’s also about ensuring the user experience in those languages is as natural and effective as possible.
Translating the user interface, messaging, documentation, etc is a major part of the process.
Also key is a customisation process to ensure everything matches the conventions, norms and expectations of the target cultures.
Adjusting time, date and currency formats are examples of simple customisations. Others might involve adapting symbols, graphics, colours and even concepts and ideas.
Localisation is often preceded by internationalisation – a review process to ensure the software is optimally designed to handle other languages.
And it’s almost always followed by thorough testing – to ensure all text is in the correct place and fits the space, and that everything makes sense, functions as intended and is culturally appropriate.
Localisation is often abbreviated to L10N, internationalisation to i18n.
What this means
Software localisation is a specialised kind of translation, and you should always engage a company that specialises in it.
They’ll have the systems, tools, personnel and experience needed to achieve top quality outcomes for your product.

21. Game Localisation
What is it?
Adapting games for other languages and markets.

It’s a subset of software localisation.
Key features
The goal of game localisation is to provide an engaging and fun gaming experience for speakers of other languages.

It involves translating all text and recording any required foreign language audio.

But also adapting anything that would clash with the target culture’s customs, sensibilities and regulations.

For example, content involving alcohol, violence or gambling may either be censored or inappropriate in the target market.

And at a more basic level, anything that makes users feel uncomfortable or awkward will detract from their experience and thus the success of the game in that market.

So portions of the game may have to be removed, added to or re-worked.

Game localisation involves at least the steps of translation, adaptation, integrating the translations and adaptations into the game, and testing.

What this means
Game localisation is a very specialised type of translation best left to those with specific expertise and experience in this area.

22. Multimedia Localisation
What is it?
Adapting multimedia for other languages and cultures.

Multimedia refers to any material that combines visual, audio and/or interactive elements. So videos and movies, on-line presentations, e-Learning courses, etc.
Key features
Anything a user can see or hear may need localising.

That means the audio and any text appearing on screen or in images and animations.

Plus it can mean reviewing and adapting the visuals and/or script if these aren’t suitable for the target culture.

The localisation process will typical involve:
– Translation
– Modifying the translation for cultural reasons and/or to meet technical requirements
– Producing the other language versions

Audio output may be voice-overs, dubbing or subtitling.

And output for visuals can involve re-creating elements, or supplying the translated text for the designers/engineers to incorporate.

What this means
Multimedia localisation projects vary hugely, and it’s essential your translation providers have the specific expertise needed for your materials.

23. Script Translations
What is it?
Preparing the text of recorded material for recording in other languages.
Key features
There are several issues with script translation.

One is that translations typically end up longer than the original script. So voicing the translation would take up more space/time on the video than the original language.

Sometimes that space will be available and this will be OK.

But generally it won’t be. So the translation has to be edited back until it can be comfortably voiced within the time available on the video.

Another challenge is the translation may have to synchronise with specific actions, animations or text on screen.

Also, some scripts also deal with technical subject areas involving specialist technical terminology.

Finally, some scripts may be very culture-specific – featuring humour, customs or activities that won’t work well in another language. Here the script, and sometimes also the associated visuals, may need to be adjusted before beginning the translation process.

It goes without saying that a script translation must be done well. If it’s not, there’ll be problems producing a good foreign language audio, which will compromise the effectiveness of the video.

Translators typically work from a time-coded transcript. This is the original script marked to show the time available for each section of the translation.

What this means
There are several potential pitfalls in script translations. So it’s vital your translation provider is practiced at this type of translation and able to handle any technical content.

24. Voice-over and Dubbing Projects
What is it?
Translation and recording of scripts in other languages.

Voice-overs vs dubbing
There is a technical difference.
A voice-over adds a new track to the production, dubbing replaces an existing one.

Key features
These projects involve two parts:
– a script translation (as described above), and
– producing the audio

So they involve the combined efforts of translators and voice artists.
The task for the voice artist is to produce a high quality read. That’s one that matches the style, tone and richness of the original.

Often each section of the new audio will need to be the same length as the original.

But sometimes the segments will need to be shorter – for example where the voice-over lags the original by a second or two. This is common in interviews etc, where the original voice is heard initially then drops out.

The most difficult form of dubbing is lip-syncing – where the new audio needs to synchronise with the original speaker’s lip movements, gestures and actions.

Lip-syncing requires an exceptionally skilled voice talent and considerable time spent rehearsing and fine tuning the translation.

What this means
You need to use experienced professionals every step of the way in this type of project.

That’s to ensure firstly that your foreign-language scripts are first class, then that the voicing is of high professional standard.

Anything less will mean your foreign language versions will be way less effective and appealing to your target audience.

25. Subtitle Translations
What is it?
Producing foreign language captions for sub or surtitles.
Key features
The goal with subtitling is to produce captions that viewers can comfortably read in the time available and still follow what’s happening on the video.

To achieve this, languages have “rules” governing the number of characters per line and the minimum time each subtitle should display.

Sticking to these guidelines is essential if your subtitles are to be effective.

But this is no easy task – it requires simple language, short words, and a very succinct style. Translators will spend considerable time mulling over and re-working their translation to get it just right.

Most subtitle translators use specialised software that will output the captions in the format sound engineers need for incorporation into the video.

What this means
As with other specialised types of translation, you should only use translators with specific expertise and experience in subtitling.

26. Website Localisation
What is it?
The translation and adapting of relevant content on a website to best suit the target language and culture.

Note: Many providers use the term website translation as a synonym for localisation. Strictly speaking though, translation is just one part of localisation.
Key features

Not all pages on a website may need to be localised – clients should review their content to identify what’s relevant for the other language versions.
Some content may need specialist translators – legal and technical pages for example.
There may also be videos, linked documents, and text or captions in graphics to translate.
Adaptation can mean changing date, time, currency and number formats, units of measure, etc.
But also images, colours and even the overall site design and style if these won’t have the desired impact in the target culture.
Translated files can be supplied in a wide range of formats – translators usually coordinate output with the site webmasters.
New language versions are normally thoroughly reviewed and tested before going live to confirm everything is displaying correctly, works as intended and is cultural appropriate.
What this means
The first step should be to review your content and identify what needs to be translated. This might lead you to modify some pages for the foreign language versions.

In choosing your translation providers be sure they can:
– handle any technical or legal content,
– provide your webmaster with the file types they want.

And you should always get your translators to systematically review the foreign language versions before going live.

27. Transcreation
What is it?
Adapting a message to elicit the same emotional response in another language and culture.
Translation is all about conveying the message or meaning of a text in another language. But sometimes that message or meaning won’t have the desired effect in the target culture.

This is where transcreation comes in. Transcreation creates a new message that will get the desired emotional response in that culture, while preserving the style and tone of the original.

So it’s a sort of creative translation – which is where the word comes from, a combination of ‘translation’ and ‘creation’.

At one level transcreation may be as simple as choosing an appropriate idiom to convey the same intent in the target language – something translators do all the time.

But mostly the term is used to refer to adapting key advertising and marketing messaging. Which requires copywriting skills, cultural awareness and an excellent knowledge of the target market.

Who does it?
Some translation companies have suitably skilled personnel and offer transcreation services.

Often though it’s done in the target country by specialist copywriters or an advertising or marketing agency – particularly for significant campaigns and to establish a brand in the target marketplace.

What this means
Most general marketing and promotional texts won’t need transcreation – they can be handled by a translator with excellent creative writing skills.

But slogans, by-lines, advertising copy and branding statements often do.

Whether you should opt for a translation company or an in-market agency will depend on the nature and importance of the material, and of course your budget.

28. Audio Translations
What is it?
Broad meaning: the translation of any type of recorded material into another language.

More commonly: the translation of a foreign language video or audio recording into your own language. So this is where you want to know and document what a recording says.
Key features
The first challenge with audio translations is it’s often impossible to pick up every word that’s said. That’s because audio quality, speech clarity and speaking speed can all vary enormously.

It’s also a mentally challenging task to listen to an audio and translate it directly into another language. It’s easy to miss a word or an aspect of meaning.

So best practice is to first transcribe the audio (type up exactly what is said in the language it is spoken in), then translate that transcription.

However, this is time consuming and therefore costly, and there are other options if lesser precision is acceptable.

What this means
It’s best to discuss your requirements for this kind of translation with your translation provider. They’ll be able to suggest the best translation process for your needs.

Examples
Interviews, product videos, police recordings, social media videos.

29. Translations with DTP
What is it?
Translation incorporated into graphic design files.multilingual dtp example in the form of a Rubik's Cube with foreign text on each square
Key features
Graphic design programs are used by professional designers and graphic artists to combine text and images to create brochures, books, posters, packaging, etc.

Translation plus dtp projects involve 3 steps – translation, typesetting, output.

The typesetting component requires specific expertise and resources – software and fonts, typesetting know-how, an appreciation of foreign language display conventions and aesthetics.

What this means
Make sure your translation company has the required multilingual typesetting/desktop publishing expertise whenever you’re translating a document created in a graphic design program.

Translation Category C: 13 types of translation based on the translation method employed
This category has two sub-groups:
– the practical methods translation providers use to produce their translations, and
– the translation strategies/methods identified and discussed within academia.

The translation methods translation providers use
There are 4 main methods used in the translation industry today. We have an overview of each below, but for more detail, including when to use each one, see our comprehensive blog article.

Or watch our video.

Important: If you’re a client you need to understand these 4 methods – choose the wrong one and the translation you end up with may not meet your needs!

30. Machine Translation (MT)
What is it?
A translation produced entirely by a software program with no human intervention.

A widely used, and free, example is Google Translate. And there are also commercial MT engines, generally tailored to specific domains, languages and/or clients.

Pros and cons
There are two limitations to MT:
– they make mistakes (incorrect translations), and
– quality of wording is patchy (some parts good, others unnatural or even nonsensical)

On they positive side they are virtually instantaneous and many are free.

Best suited for:
Getting the general idea of what a text says.

This method should never be relied on when high accuracy and/or good quality wording is needed.

31. Machine Translation plus Human Editing (PEMT)
What is it?
A machine translation subsequently edited by a human translator or editor (often called Post-editing Machine Translation = PEMT).

The editing process is designed to rectify some of the deficiencies of a machine translation.

This process can take different forms, with different desired outcomes. Probably most common is a ‘light editing’ process where the editor ensures the text is understandable, without trying to fix quality of expression.

Pros and cons
This method won’t necessarily eliminate all translation mistakes. That’s because the program may have chosen a wrong word (meaning) that wasn’t obvious to the editor.

And wording won’t generally be as good as a professional human translator would produce.

Its advantage is it’s generally quicker and a little cheaper than a full translation by a professional translator.

Best suited for:
Translations for information purposes only.

Again, this method shouldn’t be used when full accuracy and/or consistent, natural wording is needed.

32. Human Translation
What is it?
Translation by a professional human translator.
Pros and cons
Professional translators should produce translations that are fully accurate and well-worded.

That said, there is always the possibility of ‘human error’, which is why translation companies like us typically offer an additional review process – see next method.

This method will take a little longer and likely cost more than the PEMT method.

Best suited for:
Most if not all translation purposes.

33. Human Translation + Revision
What is it?
A human translation with an additional review by a second translator.

The review is essentially a safety check – designed to pick up any translation errors and refine wording if need be.

Pros and cons
This produces the highest level of translation quality.

It’s also the most expensive of the 4 methods, and takes the longest.

Best suited for:
All translation purposes.

Gearwheel with 5 practical translation methods written on the teeth
There’s also one other common term used by practitioners and academics alike to describe a type (method) of translation:

34. Computer-Assisted Translation (CAT)
What is it?
A human translator using computer tools to aid the translation process.

Key features
Virtually all translators use such tools these days.

The most prevalent tool is Translation Memory (TM) software. This creates a database of previous translations that can be accessed for future work.

TM software is particularly useful when dealing with repeated and closely-matching text, and for ensuring consistency of terminology. For certain projects it can speed up the translation process.

The translation methods described by academia
A great deal has been written within academia analysing how human translators go about their craft.

Seminal has been the work of Newmark, and the following methods of translation attributed to him are widely discussed in the literature.Gearwheel with Newmark's 8 translation methods written on the teeth
These methods are approaches and strategies for translating the text as a whole, not techniques for handling smaller text units, which we discuss in our final translation category.

35. Word-for-word Translation
This method translates each word into the other language using its most common meaning and keeping the word order of the original language.

So the translator deliberately ignores context and target language grammar and syntax.

Its main purpose is to help understand the source language structure and word use.

Often the translation will be placed below the original text to aid comparison.

36. Literal Translation
Words are again translated independently using their most common meanings and out of context, but word order changed to the closest acceptable target language grammatical structure to the original.

Its main suggested purpose is to help someone read the original text.

37. Faithful Translation
Faithful translation focuses on the intention of the author and seeks to convey the precise meaning of the original text.

It uses correct target language structures, but structure is less important than meaning.

38. Semantic Translation
Semantic translation is also author-focused and seeks to convey the exact meaning.

Where it differs from faithful translation is that it places equal emphasis on aesthetics, ie the ‘sounds’ of the text – repetition, word play, assonance, etc.

In this method form is as important as meaning as it seeks to “recreate the precise flavour and tone of the original” (Newmark).slide showing definition of semantic translation as a translation method

39. Communicative Translation
Seeks to communicate the message and meaning of the text in a natural and easily understood way.

It’s described as reader-focused, seeking to produce the same effect on the reader as the original text.

A good comparison of Communicative and Semantic translation can be found here.

40. Free Translation
Here conveying the meaning and effect of the original are all important.

There are no constraints on grammatical form or word choice to achieve this.

Often the translation will paraphrase, so may be of markedly different length to the original.

41. Adaptation
Mainly used for poetry and plays, this method involves re-writing the text where the translation would otherwise lack the same resonance and impact on the audience.

Themes, storylines and characters will generally be retained, but cultural references, acts and situations adapted to relevant target culture ones.

So this is effectively a re-creation of the work for the target culture.

42. Idiomatic Translation
Reproduces the meaning or message of the text using idioms and colloquial expressions and language wherever possible.

The goal is to produce a translation with language that is as natural as possible.

Translation Category D: 9 types of translation based on the translation technique used
These translation types are specific strategies, techniques and procedures for dealing with short chunks of text – generally words or phrases.

They’re often thought of as techniques for solving translation problems.

They differ from the translation methods of the previous category which deal with the text as a whole.
9 translation techniques as titles of books in a bookcase

43. Borrowing
What is it?
Using a word or phrase from the original text unchanged in the translation.

Key features
With this procedure we don’t translate the word or phrase at all – we simply ‘borrow’ it from the source language.

Borrowing is a very common strategy across languages. Initially, borrowed words seem clearly ‘foreign’, but as they become more familiar, they can lose that ‘foreignness’.

Translators use this technique:
– when it’s the best word to use – either because it has become the standard, or it’s the most precise term, or
– for stylist effect – borrowings can add a prestigious or scholarly flavour.

Borrowed words or phrases are often italicised in English.

Examples of borrowings in English
grand prix, kindergarten, tango, perestroika, barista, sampan, karaoke, tofu

44. Transliteration
What is it?
Reproducing the approximate sounds of a name or term from a language with a different writing system.

Key features
In English we use the Roman (Latin) alphabet in common with many other languages including almost all European languages.

Other writing systems include Arabic, Cyrillic, Chinese, Japanese, Korean, Thai, and the Indian languages.

Transliteration from such systems into the Roman alphabet is also called romanisation.

There are accepted systems for how individual letters/sounds should be romanised from most other languages – there are three common systems for Chinese, for example.

English borrowings from languages using non-Roman writing systems also require transliteration – perestroika, sampan, karaoke, tofu are examples from the above list.

Translators mostly use transliteration as a procedure for translating proper names.

Examples
毛泽东 Mao Tse-tung or Mao Zedong
Владимир Путин Vladimir Putin
서울 Seoul
ភ្នំពេញ Phnom Penh

45. Calque or Loan Translation
What is it?
A literal translation of a foreign word or phrase to create a new term with the same meaning in the target language.

So a calque is a borrowing with translation if you like. The new term may be changed slightly to reflect target language structures.

Examples
German ‘Kindergarten’ has been calqued as детский сад in Russian, literally ‘children garden’ in both languages.

Chinese 洗腦 ‘wash’ + ‘brain’ is the origin of ‘brainwash’ in English.

English skyscraper is calqued as gratte-ciel in French and rascacielos in Spanish, literally ‘scratches sky’ in both languages.

46. Word-for-word translation
What is it?
A literal translation that is natural and correct in the target language.

Alternative names are ‘literal translation’ or ‘metaphrase’.

Note: this technique is different to the translation method of the same name, which does not produce correct and natural text and has a different purpose.

Key features
This translation strategy will only work between languages that have very similar grammatical structures.

And even then, only sometimes.

For example, standard word order in Turkish is Subject-Object-Verb whereas in English it’s Subject-Verb-Object. So a literal translation between these two will seldom work:
– Yusuf elmayı yedi is literally ‘Joseph the apple ate’.

When word-for-word translations don’t produce natural and correct text, translators resort to some of the other techniques described below.
Examples
French ‘Quelle heure est-il?’ works into English as ‘What time is it?’.

Russian ‘Oн хочет что-нибудь поесть’ is ‘He wants something to eat’.

47. Transposition
What is it?
Translation with a change of grammatical structure.

This technique gives the translation more natural wording and/or makes it grammatically correct.

Examples
A change in word order:
Our Turkish example Yusuf elmayı yedi (literally ‘Joseph the apple ate’) –> Joseph ate the apple.

Spanish La Casa Blanca (literally ‘The House White’) –> The White House

A change in grammatical category:
German Er hört gerne Musik (literally ‘he listens gladly [to] music’)
= subject pronoun + verb + adverb + noun
becomes Spanish Le gusta escuchar música (literally ‘[to] him [it] pleases to listen [to] music’)
= indirect object pronoun + verb + infinitive + noun
and English He likes listening to music
= subject pronoun + verb + gerund + noun.

48. Modulation
What is it?
Translation with a change of focus or point of view in the target language.

This technique makes the translation more idiomatic – how people would normally say it in the language.

Examples
English talks of the ‘top floor’ of a building, French the dernier étage = last floor. ‘Last floor’ would be unnatural in English, so too ‘top floor’ in French.

German uses the term Lebensgefahr (literally ‘danger to life’) where in English we’d be more likely to say ‘risk of death’.
In English we’d say ‘I dropped the key’, in Spanish se me cayó la llave, literally ‘the key fell from me’. The English perspective is that I did something (dropped the key), whereas in Spanish something happened to me – I’m the recipient of the action.

49. Equivalence or Reformulation
What is it?
Translating the underlying concept or meaning using a totally different expression.

This technique is widely used when translating idioms and proverbs.

And it’s common in titles and advertising slogans.

It’s a common strategy where a direct translation either wouldn’t make sense or wouldn’t resonate in the same way.

Examples
Here are some equivalents of the English saying “Pigs may fly”, meaning something will never happen, or “you’re being unrealistic” (Source):
– Thai: ชาติหน้าตอนบ่าย ๆ – literally, ‘One afternoon in your next reincarnation’
– French: Quand les poules auront des dents – literally, ‘When hens have teeth’
– Russian, Когда рак на горе свистнет – literally, ‘When a lobster whistles on top of a mountain’
– Dutch, Als de koeien op het ijs dansen – literally, ‘When the cows dance on the ice’
– Chinese: 除非太陽從西邊出來！– literally, ‘Only if the sun rises in the west’

50. Adaptation
What is it?
A translation that substitutes a culturally-specific reference with something that’s more relevant or meaningful in the target language.

It’s also known as cultural substitution or cultural equivalence.

It’s a useful technique when a reference wouldn’t be understood at all, or the associated nuances or connotations would be lost in the target language.

Note: the translation method of the same name is a similar concept but applied to the text as a whole.

Examples
Different cultures celebrate different coming of age birthdays – 21 in many cultures, 20, 15 or 16 in others. A translator might consider changing the age to the target culture custom where the coming of age implications were important in the original text.
Animals have different connotations across languages and cultures. Owls for example are associated with wisdom in English, but are a bad omen to Vietnamese. A translator might want to remove or amend an animal reference where this would create a different image in the target language.

51. Compensation
What is it?
A meaning or nuance that can’t be directly translated is expressed in another way in the text.
Example
Many languages have ways of expressing social status (honorifics) encoded into their grammatical structures.

So you can convey different levels of respect, politeness, humility, etc simply by choosing different forms of words or grammatical elements.
But these nuances will be lost when translating into languages that don’t have these structures.
Then translating into languages that don’t have these structures
Then translating into languages that don’t have these structures.

===Conclusion ===

In the light of above mentioned facts and figures here by we would say that machine translation is challenge for human translators because it can reduces the wokload of translation but can't give accurate and exact translation of the traget language.It can be less reliable than human translation..

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Yan Jing:

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Yan Jing:

Machine translation

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Yan Jing:

'''Machine Translation - A challenge or a chance for human translators?'''

[[Machine_translation|Overview Page of Machine Translation]]

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[[Book_projects|Back to translation project overview]]

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=Chapter 1:A Comparison Between the Quality of Machine Translation and Human Translation——A Case Study of the Application of artificial intelligence in Sports Events=
'''论机器翻译与人工翻译的质量对比——以人工智能在体育赛事领域的应用为例'''

卫怡雯 Wei Yiwen, Hunan Normal University, China

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=2 吴映红（The Introduction of Machine Translation)=
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=Chapter 3：On the Realm Advantages And Mutual Development of Machine Translation And Huamn Translation)=
"'论机器翻译与人工翻译的领域优势及共同发展'"

肖毅瑶 Xiao Yiyao, Hunan Normal University, China
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=Chapter 4 : A Comparison Between Machine Translation of Netease and Traditional Human Translation—A Case Study of The Economist Articles)=
'''网易有道机器翻译与人工翻译的译文对比——以经济学人语料为例'''

王李菲 Wang Lifei, Hunan Normal University

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=Chapter 5: Muhammad Saqib Mehran - Problems in translation studies=
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=6 徐敏赟(Machine Translation Based on Neural Network --Challenge or Chance?)=
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=7 颜莉莉(一带一路背景下人工智能与翻译人才的培养)=
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=Chapter 8: On Machine Translation Under Lanuguage Intelligence——An Option and Opportunity for Human Translators=
'''论语言智能下的机器翻译——译者的选择与机遇'''

颜静 Yan Jing, Hunan Normal University, China

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=9 谢佳芬（人工智能时代下的机器翻译与人工翻译）=
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=10 熊敏(Research on the English Chinese Translation Ability of Machine Translation for Various Types of Texts)=
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===Abstract===
The history of machine translation can be traced to 1940s, undergoing germination, recession, revival and flourish. Nowadays, with the rapid development of information technology, machine translation technology emerged and is gradually becoming mature. Whether manual translation can be replaced by machine translation becomes a widely-disputed topic. So in order to explore the ability of machine translation, I adopts two versions of translation, which are manual translation and machine translation(this paper uses Youdao translation) for different types of texts(according to Peter Newmark's types of text：informative text, expressive text and vocative text). The results are quite different in terms of quality and accuracy. The results show that machine translation is more suitable for informative text for its brevity, while the expressive texts especially literary works and vocative texts are difficult to be translated, because there are too many loaded words and cultural images in expressive text and dependence on the readers. To draw a conclusion, the relationship between machine translation and manual translation should be complementary rather than competitive.

===Key words===
machine translation; manual translation; Newmark's type of texts

===题目===
Research on the English Chinese Translation Ability of Machine Translation for Various Types of Texts

===摘要===
机器翻译的历史可以追溯到上个世纪40年代，经历了萌芽期、萧条期、复兴期和繁荣期四个阶段。如今，随着信息技术的高速发展，机器翻译技术日益成熟，于是机器翻译能不能替代人工翻译这个话题引起了广泛热议。为了探究机器翻译的能力水平是否足以替代人工翻译，本人根据皮特纽马克的文本类型分类理论（信息类文本，表达文本，呼吁文本），选择了相应的译文类型，并且将其机器翻译的版本以及人工翻译的版本进行对比。结果发现，就质量和准确度而言，译文的水平大相径庭。因为其简洁的特性，机器比较适合翻译信息文本。而就表达文本，尤其是文学作品，因其存在文化负载词及相应的文化现象，所以机器翻译这类文本存在难度。而呼唤文本因其目的性以及对读者的依赖性较强，翻译难度较大。由此得知，机器翻译和人工翻译的关系应该是互补的，而不是竞争的。

===关键词===
机器翻译；人工翻译；纽马克文本类型

===1. Introduction===
====1.1.Introduction to machine translation====
Machine translation, also known as computer translation is a technique to translating through machine translator, such as Google translation and Youdao translation. Machine translation is one of the branches of computational linguistics, ranging from computer science, statistics, information science and so on. Machine translation plays an important role in all aspects.
Machine translation can be traced back to 1940s, when British engineer Booth and American engineer Weaver proposed using computer to translate and started to study machines used for translation. And the first machine translating system launched in 1954, used in English and Russian translation. And this means machine translation becomes a reality. However, the arrival of new things always accompanies barriers and setbacks. In the 1960s, reports from ALPAC (Automated Language Processing Advisory Committee) showed studies on machine translation had stagnated for a decade. At that time, due to the high cost of machine, choosing human translators to finish translating works was more economical for most companies. What’s worse, machine had difficulty in understanding semantic and pragmatic meanings. Fortunately, in the 1970s, with the advance and popularity of computer, machine translation was gradually back on track. With the development of science and technology, machine translation has better technological guarantee, such as artificial intelligence and computer technology. In the last decades, from the late 90s till now, machine translation is becoming more and more mature. The initial rule-oriented machine translation has been updated and Corpus-aided machine translation appears. And nowadays, technology in voice recognition has been further developed. This technique is frequently applied in speech translation products. Users only need to speak source language to the online translator and instantly it will speak out the target version. But machine can’t fully provide precise and accurate translation without any grammatical or semantic problems. Machine can understand the literal meaning of texts, but not the meaning in context. For example, there is polysemy in English, which refers to words having multiple meanings. So when translating these words, translators should take contexts into consideration. But machine has troubles in this way. In addition, machine has no feeling or intention. Hence, it is also difficult to convey the feelings from the source language.

====1.2.Process of machine translation====
The process of manual translation is different from that of machine translation. Here is the process of the former. (1) Understand source language. (2) Use target language to organize language. (3) Generate translation. Unlike manual translation, machine translation tends to analyze and code source language first, then look for related codes in corpus, and work out the code that represents target language, generating translation. But they share a common feature, which is that Lexicon, grammatical rules and syntactic structure are taken into consideration. This is one of the biggest challenges for machine translation.

===2.Theorectical framework===
====2.1Newmark’s text typology====
Text typology is a theory from linguistics. It undergoes several phrases. Karl Buhler, a German psychologist and linguist defines communicative functions into expressive, information and vocative. Then Roman Jakobson proposes categorization of texts, which are intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. Accordingly, he defines six main functions of language, including the referential function, conative function, emotive function, poetic function, metalingual function and the phatic function. Based on the two theories, Peter Newmark, a translation theorist, summarizes the language function into six parts: the informative function, the vocative function, the expressive function, the phatic function, the aesthetic function, and the metalingual function. Later, he further divided texts into informative type, expressive text and vocative type according to the linguistic functions of various texts.
The core of the informative texts is the truth. It is to convey facts, information, knowledge of certain topics, reality and theories. The language style of the text is objective, logical and standardized. Reports, papers, scientific and technological textbooks are all attributed to informative texts. Translators are required to take format into account for different styles.
The core of the expressive text is the sender’s emotions and attitudes. It is to express sender’s preferences, feelings, views and so on. The language style of it is subjective. Imaginative literature, including fictions, poems and dramas, autobiography and authoritative statements belong to expressive text. It requires translators to be faithful to the source language and maintain the style.
The core of the vocative text is readership. It is to call upon readers to act, think, feel and react in the way intended by the text. So it is reader-oriented. Such texts as advertisement, propaganda and notices are of vocative text. Newmark noted that translators need to consider cultural background of the source language and the semantic and pragmatic effect of target language. If readers can comprehend the meaning at once and do as the text says, then the goal of information communication is achieved.
To draw a conclusion, informative texts focus on the information and facts. Expressive texts center on the mind of addressers, including feelings, prejudices and so on. And vocative texts are oriented on readers and call on them to practice as the texts say.

====2.2Study method====
Manual translations of the three texts are selected from authoritative versions and universally acknowledged. And machine translations of those come from Youdao Translator. And in this thesis I will compare and evaluate the two methods in word diction, sentence structure, word order and redundancy.

===3.Comparison and analysis of machine translation and manual translation ===
====3.1Informative text ====
（1）English into Chinese

①Source language:

Keep the tip of Apple Pencil clean, as dirt and other small particles may cause excessive wear to the tip or damage the screen of i-pad.

Target language:

Machine translation: Apple Pencil笔尖应保持清洁，灰尘等小颗粒可能会导致笔尖过度磨损或损坏ipad屏幕。

Manual translation: 保持Apple Pencil铅笔的笔尖干净，因为灰尘和其他微粒可能会导致笔尖的过度磨损或损坏iPad屏幕。

Analysis: Here is the instruction of Apple Pencil. And the manual translation is the Chinese version on the instruction.Product instruction tends to be professional, since there are many terms for some concepts. Machine can easily identify these terms and provide related words to translate. The machine version is faithful and expressive to the source language. So it is well-qualified and readable for readers to understand the instruction. So we can use machine to translate informative text.

②Source language:

China on Saturday launched a rocket carrying three astronauts-two men and one woman - to the core module of a future space station where they will live and work for six months, the longest orbit for Chinese astronauts.

Target language:

Machine translation: 周六，中国发射了一枚运载三名宇航员(两男一女)的火箭，进入未来空间站的核心舱，他们将在那里生活和工作6个月，这是中国宇航员最长的轨道。

Manual translation: 周六，中国发射了一枚搭载三名宇航员(两男一女)的火箭，进入未来空间站的核心舱，他们将在那里生活和工作6个月，这是中国宇航员最漫长的一次轨道飞行。

Analysis: This is a news from Reuters, reporting that China has launched a rocket.The meaning of the two translations is almost the same, except for some word diction. But there are some details dealt with different choice. For example, the last sentence of the machine translation is a bit of obscure and direct. There are some ambiguous words and expressions.

(2)Chinese into English

Source language:湖南省博物馆是湖南省最大的历史艺术类博物馆，占地面积4.9万平方米，总建筑面积为9.1万平方米，是首批国家一级博物馆，中央地方共建的八个国家级重点博物馆之一、全国文化系统先进集体、文化强省建设有突出贡献先进集体。

Target language:
Manual translation: As the largest history and art museum in Hunan province, the Hunan Museum covers an area of 49,000㎡, with the building area reaching 91,000㎡. It is one of the first batch of national first-level museums and one of the first eight national museums co-funded by central and local governments.

Machine translation: Museum in hunan province is one of the largest historical art museum in hunan province, covers an area of 49000 square meters, a total construction area of 91000 square meters, is the first national museum, the central place to build one of the eight national key museum, national cultural system advanced collectives, strong culture began with outstanding contribution of advanced collective.

Analysis: Machine translation is not faithful enough in content. For instance, “首批国家一级博物馆” is translated into “first national museum”, which is not the meaning of the source language. And there are some obvious grammar mistakes in the machine translation. For example, machine translates it into just one sentence but there are multiple predicates in it. So it is not grammatically permissible. What’s more, the sentence structure of machine translation is confusing and the focus is not specific enough.

====3.2Expressive text ====
(1)English into Chinese

Source language:

An individual human existence should be like a river- small at first, narrowly contained within its banks, and rushing passionately past rocks and over waterfalls. Gradually the river grows wider, the banks recede, the waters flow more quietly, and in the end, without any visible breaks, they become merged in the sea, and painlessly lose their individual being.

Target language:

Machine translation: 一个人的存在应该像一条河流——开始很小，被紧紧地夹在两岸中间，然后热情奔放地冲过岩石，飞下瀑布。渐渐地，河面变宽，两岸后退，水流更加平缓，最后，没有任何明显的停顿，它们汇入大海，毫无痛苦地失去了自己的存在。

Manual translation:人生在世，如若河流；河口初始狭窄，河岸虬曲，而后狂涛击石，飞泻成瀑。河道渐趋开阔，峡岸退去，水流潺缓，终了，一马平川，汇于大海，消逝无影。

Analysis: Here is a well-known metaphor in the prose How to Grow Old written by Bertrand Russell. The manual translation is written by Tian Rongchang.This is a philosophical prose with graceful language. Literary translation is a most important and difficult branch of translation. Translator should focus on the literal meaning, culture, writing style and so on. It is a combination of beauty and elegance. Therefore, translators find it in a dilemma of beauty and faithfulness, let alone translating machine. Compared with manual translation, machine translation has difficulty in word choice. It is faithful and expressive, but not elegant enough.

(2)Chinese into English

Source language:没有一个人将小草叫做“大力士”，但是它的力量之大，的确是世界无比。这种力，是一般人看不见的生命力，只要生命存在，这种力就要显现，上面的石块，丝毫不足以阻挡。因为它是一种“长期抗战”的力，有弹性，能屈能伸的力，有韧性，不达目的不止的力。

Target language:

Machine translation: No one calls the little grass "hercules", but its power is truly matchless in the world. This force is invisible life force. As long as there is life, this force will show itself. The stone above is not strong enough to stop it. Because it is a "long-term resistance" of the force, elastic, can bend and extend force, tenacity, not to achieve the purpose of the force.

Manual translation: Though nobody describes the little grass as a “husky”, yet its herculean strength is unrivalled. It is the force of life invisible to naked eye. It will display itself so long as there is life. The rock is utterly helpless before this force- a force that will forever remain militant, a force that is resilient and can take temporary setbacks calmly, a force that is tenacity itself and will never give up until the goal is reached. (by Zhang Peiji)

Analysis:This is the excerpt of a well-known Chinese prose written by Xia Yan. It is written during the war of Resistance Against Japan. So the prose holds symbolic meaning, eulogizing the invisible tenacious vitality so as to encourage Chinese to have confidence in the anti-aggression war. Compared with manual translation, machine translation is much more abstract and confusing, especially for the word diction. For example, “大力士” is translated into “hercules” which is a man of exceptional strength and size in Greek and Roman Mythology, making it difficult to understand if readers of target language have no idea of the allusion. What’s worse, the machine version doesn’t reveal the symbolic meaning of the text, which is the core of this prose.

====3.3Vocative text ====

(1)English into Chinese

①Source language:

iPhone went to film school, so you don’t have to. (Advertisement of iPhone13)

Target language:

Machine translation: iPhone上的是电影学院，所以你不用去。

Manual translation:电影专业课，iPhone同学替你上完了。

Analysis：Here are advertisements of iPhone on Apple official website. There is a personification in the source language. It is used to stress the advancement and proficiency in camera, which is an appealing selling point to potential buyers. Compared with manual translation, machine translation is plain and not eye-catching enough for customers.

②Source language:

5G speed OMGGGGG

Machine language: 5克的速度 OMGGGGG

Manual translation:

iPhone的5G 巨巨巨巨巨5G

Analysis: The “G” in the source language is the unit of speed, standing for generation. However, it is mistaken as a unit of weight, representing gram in the machine translation. So the meaning is not faithful to the source language at all. As for manual translation, it complies with the source in form. Specifically speaking, five “G”s in the former complies with five characters “巨”in the latter. And the pronunciation of the two is similar. There are two layers of meaning for the 5 “G”s. One exclaims the fast speed of 5 generation network and the other new technology. In the manual version, “巨”can be used to show degree, meaning “quite” or “very”.

③Source language:

History, faith and reason show the way, the way of unity. We can see each other not as adversaries but as neighbors. We can treat each other with dignity and respect, we can join forces, stop the shouting and lower the temperature. For without unity, there is no peace, only bitterness and fury."

Target language:

Machine translation: 历史、信仰和理性指明了团结的道路。我们可以把彼此视为邻居，而不是对手。我们可以尊严地对待彼此，我们可以联合起来，停止大喊大叫，降低温度。因为没有团结，就没有和平，只有痛苦和愤怒。

Manual translation:历史、信仰和理性为我们指明道路。那是团结之路。我们可以把彼此视为邻居，而不是对手。我们可以有尊严地相互尊重。我们可以联合起来，停止喊叫，减少愤怒。因为没有团结就没有和平，只有痛苦和愤怒

Analysis: Speech is a way to propagate some activity in public. It is an art to inspire emotion of the audience. The source language is the excerpt of Joe Biden’s inaugural speech. The speech should be inspiring and logic. The machine translation has some misunderstanding. Taking the translation of “lower the temperature” for example, machine only translates its literal meaning, relating to the temperature itself, without considering the context. What’s more, it is less logic than the manual one. Therefore, it adds difficulty to inspire the audience and infect their emotion.

===4.Common mistakes in machine translation ===

====4.1 lexical mistakes ====

Common lexical mistakes include misunderstandings in word category, lexical meaning and emotive and evaluative meaning. Misunderstanding in word category shows in the classification of word in the source language. As for misunderstanding in lexical meaning, machine has difficulty in precisely reflecting the meaning of the original texts, due to different cultural background and different language system. And for misunderstanding in emotive meaning, machine has no intention and emotion like human-beings. Therefore, it’s impossible for it to know writers’ feelings and their writing purposes. So sometimes, it may translate something negative into something positive.

====4.2 grammatical mistakes====

Grammatical analysis plays an important part in translation. Normally speaking, every language has its own unique grammatical rules. So in the process of translation, if translators don’t know the formation rule well, the sentence meaning will be affected. Even though all the lexical meanings are well-known by translators, the lack of consciousness of grammaticality makes it harder to arrange words according to sequential rule. English tends to be hypotactic, while Chinese tends to be paratactic. English sentences are connected through syntactic devices and lexical devices. While Chinese sentences are semantically connected, which means there are limited logical words and connection words in Chinese. So when translating English sentence, we should first analyze its grammaticality and logical structure and then rearrange its sequence. However, online translating machine has troubles in grammatical analysis, which makes its improvement more difficult.

====4.3 other mistakes====

The two mistakes above are the internal ones. Apart from mistakes in linguistic system, there are some mistakes in other aspects, such as cultural background.

===5.Reasons for its common mistakes ===

====5.1 Difference in two linguistic system====

With different history, English and Chinese have different ways of expression. Commonly speaking, English is synthetic language which expresses grammatical meaning through inflection such as tense and Chinese is analytic language which expresses grammatical meaning through word order and function word. In addition, English is more compact with full sentences. Subordinate sentence is one of the most important features in modern English. Chinese, on the other hand, is more diffusive with minor sentences.

====5.2 Difference in thinking patterns and cultural background====

According to Sapir-Whorf’s Hypothesis, our language helps mould our way of thinking and consequently, different languages may probably express their unique ways of understanding the world. For two different speech communities, the greater their structural differentiations are, the more diverse their conceptualization of the world will be. For example, western culture is more direct and eastern culture more euphemistic. What’s more, English culture tends to be individualism, focusing on detail, through which it reflects the whole, while Chinese culture tends to be collective. Different thinking patterns will add difficulty for machine to translate texts.

====5.3 Limitation of computer====

Recently, there are some breakthroughs and innovation in machine translation. However, due to its own limitation, online translation has limitation in some ways. Firstly, compared with machine, human brain is much more complicated, consisting of ten billions of neuron, each of which has different function to affect human’s daily activities and help humans avoid some errors. However, computer can only function according to preset programming has no intention or consciousness. Until now, countless related scholars have invested much time in machine translation. They upload massive language database, which include almost all linguistic rules. But computers still fail to precisely reflect the meaning of source language for many times due to the complexity and flexibility of language. On the other hand, computers can’t take context into consideration. During translation, it is often the case that machine chooses the most-frequently used meaning of one word. So without the correct and exact meaning, readers are easier to feel confused and even misunderstand the meaning of source language.

===6.Conclusion===
From the analysis above, we can draw a conclusion that machine deals with informative text best, followed by non-literary translation of expressive text. What’s more, machine can be a useful tool to get to know the gist and main idea of a specific topic, for the simple sentence structure and numerous terms. And it can improve translating efficiency with high speed. But machine has difficulty in translating literary works, especially proses and poems.

Machine translation has mixed future. From the perspective of commercial, machine translation boasts a bright future. With the process of globalization, the demand for translation is increasing accordingly. On one hand, if we only depend on human translator to deal with translating works, the quality and accuracy of translation can be greatly affected. On the other hand, if machine is used properly to do some basic work, human translators only need to make preparation before translating, progress, polish and other advanced work, contributing to highly-qualified translation and high working efficiency.

However, compared with manual translation, machine translation has a bleak future. It is still impossible for machine to replace interpreter or translator in a short term. With intelligence and initiative, humans are able to learn new knowledge constantly, which machine will never accomplish. Besides, machine is not used to replace translators but to assist them in work. In other words, translators and machine carry out their own duties and they are not incompatible.

To draw a conclusion, although there are certain limitations of machine translation, it can serve as a catalyst for translating works. Therefore, with the rapid development of artificial intelligence and related technology, there are still many opportunities for machine translation.

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=11 陈惠妮=(Study on Pre- editing of Machine Translation - A Case Study of Medical Abstracts)=
[[Machine_Trans_EN_11]]
===Abstract===
At present, globalization is accelerating and the market demand for language services is rapidly increasing . Machine translation, as an important translation method, can greatly improve translation efficiency due to its low cost and high speed. However, because of the limitations of machine translation and the differences between Chinese and English language, machine translation is not accurate enough. In order to balance translation efficiency and translation quality, a great number of manual revisions in translation are required for the machine translating texts. Medical papers are specialized, special and purposeful, so it requires accurate,qualified and professional translation. However, the quality of translations by machine is inefficient to meet the high-quality requirements of medical papers translation. Therefore, the introduction of pre-editing can greatly improve the efficiency and quality of machine translation.

===Key words===
Pre-editing, Machine translation, Medical texts

===题目===
Study on Pre- editing of Machine Translation - A Case Study of Medical Abstracts

===摘要===
在全球化加速发展的今天，市场对语言服务的需求迅速增加。机器翻译作为一种重要的翻译途径，由于其成本低、速度快，可以大大提高翻译效率。然而，由于机器翻译的局限性以及中英文语言的差异，机器翻译的准确性不高。为了平衡翻译效率和翻译质量，机器翻译文本需要大量的手工修改。
医学论文具有专业性、特殊性和目的性，要求其译文准确、合格、专业。然而，机器翻译的质量较低，无法满足医学论文对翻译的高质量要求。因此，译前编辑的引入可以大大提高机器翻译的效率和质量。

===关键词===
译前编辑；机器翻译；医学文本

===1. Introduction===
===1.1 Definition of Machine Translation===
As Cronin(2013) revealed: "Translation is undergoing a revolutionary upheaval. The influence of digital technology and the Internet on translation is continuous, extensive and profound. From the popularity of automatic online translation applications, translation revolution is everywhere (Cronin,2013) However,the concept of machine translation was firstly proposed in the 1930s. Since 1940s, the machine translation technology has been evolving from rule-based machine translation (RBMT) to statistical machine translation (SMT), and to neural machine translation (NMT). Machine translation refers to the automatic translation of source language into target language by using a computer system. That is, machine translation refers to the automatic translation of text from one language into another natural language by computer software or other online translation webs. Machine translation is also defined as the process of “using a computer system to automatically translate text or speech from one natural language to another” according to the definition by ISO (Cui, 2014).O 'Brien (2002) defines it as "the behavior of modifying errors in machine translation to ensure that the target translation meets certain quality requirements". On the basic level, machine translation performs mechanical substitution of words in one language for words in another language, but that rarely produces a good translation, therefore, recognition of the whole phrases and their closest counterparts in the target language is needed. Not all words in one language have equivalents in another language, and many words have more than one meaning. A huge demand for translation is greatly needed in today’s global world, which creates new opportunities for the development of machine translation, attracts more and more attention and becomes one of the current research focuses.

===1.2 Definition of Pre-editing===
Pre-editing means to adjust and modify the source language to make it fit more with the characteristics of the machine translation software before putting the source language before the into machine translation, so as to improve the quality of the translation machine translation (Wei Changhong, 2008:93-94). Pre-editing is to modify the original text before putting it into machine translation software, in order to improve the recognition rate of machine translation, optimize the output quality of translated text and reduce the workload of post-editing. Because pre-translation editing only needs to be modified in one language, the operation is simpler than post-translation editing, which can realize the double improvement of quality and efficiency. A good pre-editing translation can help machine translation more smoothly, thus improving the machine readability and quality of the output translation. Pre-editing is mostly applied in the following situations: one is when the original text is of poor quality and the machine is difficult to recognize the meaning of the sentence, such as user generated content with poor readability and translatability (Gerlach et al, 2003:45-53); Documents that need to be published in multiple languages; Next is when the original text contains a lot of jargon; The last is the original text has a corresponding translation memory bank. If the original text is edited, it can better match the content of the translation memory bank. Pre-editing is a process of identifying problems. It requires to pre-edit the source texts before putting it into machine translation according to the requirements, listing the expressions or sentences that may have trouble in machine translation and then pre-edit it by human. The purpose is to enable the computer to translate better, improve the translatability of machine translation. (Slype G V & Guinet J F & Seitz F,1984:115)

===1.3 Machine Translation Mode===
According to the different knowledge acquisition methods, machine translation modes can be classified as follows: one is rule-based machine translation, which is based on bilingual dictionaries and a library of language rules for each language. The quality of translation depends on whether the source language conforms to the existing rules, but the inexhaustible rules are the hinders of this model. The second mode is machine translation based on statistics. This translation model relies on the principles of mathematics and statistics to find various existing translations corresponding to the translation tasks through the employment of corpus, analyzing the frequency of their occurrence and selecting the translation with the highest frequency for output. The disadvantage of this translation model is that it ignores the flexibility of language and the importance of context. The last one is neural network language model. This model is different from previous translation models in that it uses end-to-end neural network to realize automatic translation between natural languages. At present, the quality of its translation is much higher than that of the previous translation models.
===1.4 Source of Study Abstracts===
The core medical journals from domestic are selected in order to make the paper more representative and authoritative, such as National Medical Journal of China, Journal of Peking University (Health Science), and Journal of Third Military Medical University. All of them include basic medical science, biomedical technology, laboratory medical science and other fields. In this way, the pre-editing approaches included are applicable enough to machine translation of medical abstracts.
===1.5 Selection of Translation Software===
Generally, machine translation software includes Google Translation, Youdao Translator and Niu Translation, which has their own special use in translation. Take Google as an example, it is more like neurons in human brain, enabling to learn and collect information to establish connections with its neural machine translator’s neurons. However, it also causes many errors because of the lack of enough information. In this paper, contrastive analysis will be carried on by using Google translation. On the one hand, being a pioneer in the translation of NET, it is inevitably to sue Google as the translation software to translate medical texts in this paper. Comparing the program called “Google brain”, other NMT of translation software are relatively disadvantages. On the other hand, the Google translation enjoys the largest users in the world, with its downloads of more than one billion. The output quality of Google translation is more correct and complete than other machine translation software. With years of development and improvement, Google Translation has been greatly promoted. In this paper, Chinese medical abstract will be automatically translated by Google translation, and then the translation output will be compared with the translation by human and the publication of English abstracts. The main purpose is to prove that the improvement and promotion of quality and accuracy in the medical abstracts will be obtained through the pre-editing approaches.

===2.Language Characteristics and Error Division===
Since Chinese and English are two different languages, it is quite neccessary to identify their own characteristics so as to better analyze and understand the two languages. Tytler (1978) argued in his Essay on the Principles of Translation that there are three principles of translation that in all the translation should give readers the same feelings as the source text, except for complete transcript of ideas. There actually also exit some mistakes of these two languages. So the following will make some clarrifications of these two languages to ensure more accurate translation.

===2.1 Language Characteristics of Medical Abstracts===
Chinese and English belong to different language systems, so there are differences in their language structure and the way users think of the languages. When using machine translation from Chinese to English, due to the unequal language levels, there will be many mistakes in the translation process, especially for ESP texts, such as medical papers.
Here, these differences mainly refer to the linguistic characteristics of medical abstracts. In medical abstracts, it usually includes structured and unstructured abstracts. Although in different forms, they both describe the purpose, methods and conclusions of the research.
In the method section of medial abstract, several Chinese sentences can be connected with commas, but each sentence may convey different information. In contrast, English sentences contain a great deal of information, but in order to ensure clarity, some modifiers need to be isolated and then reconstructed. However, in Chinese-English machine translation, a lot of information is put into the sentence because the machine segments the sentence on the basis of the full comma.
In addition, subjectless sentence is used in the objective and method parts of Chinese medical abstracts. The subjectless sentence means the sentence without or free from subject and is usually employed in two contexts. The first is "needless to say". In Chinese sentences, it is common to omit the subject of the sentence. Chinese sentences can convey meanings by using incomplete sentence structures, so Chinese speakers can understand the meanings of the sentences even though the sentence subject is omitted. The second is "emphasis of action". In this context, subjectless sentences are used to describe behaviors, especially in the study of traditional Chinese medicine abstracts. Comparatively speaking, it should be avoided in English medical abstracts. Abstract sentences are more subjective when describing the learning process, while the essential requirement of English medical abstract is objectivity. From this point, sentences without subject should be avoided in English medical abstracts. Another feature is voice. Few words with passive meanings appear in Chinese abstracts. English sentences are more favoured in using passive voice. When translating from Chinese to English, passive voice should be used to make the contents objective, which is also the basic requirement of medical papers.
These are the linguistic features of Chinese medical abstracts. There are great differences in sentence structure and expression between Chinese and English medical abstracts. These differences may reduce the accuracy of machine translation, so it is necessary to introduce pre-editing to edit the source text to ensure that the source text can be accurately recognized by the machine and fully translated into English.
===2.2 Error Division of Machine Translation in Translating Abstracts of Medical Papers from Chinese to English===
In this paper, errors in machine translation are listed out after analyzing. Some are due to the principles, such as statistical-based MT and NMT, employed by machine translation. Based on the original errors, they can be studied from two levels. One is from the macro-level, referring to mistakes caused by objective factors. These are not human factors, but the disadvantage of machine translation and the limitations of language. The limitations of machine translation are derived from the principles and models adopted and manifests itself as a reliance on reference sources. In this case, semantic ambiguity and textual incoherence may occur in the absence of reference sources.
However, for ESP texts such as medical papers, the requirements for terms and sentence patterns are far beyond the existing corpora. For unfamiliar texts (that is, the corresponding texts cannot be found in the corpora). The quality of output translation will be relatively low, which is determined by the principles of machine translation. As mentioned above, machine translation has evolved over the past few decades from rules-based to corp-based statistics to NMT. However, there still exist some limitations in machine translation.
Mistakes on micro-level are mainly caused by the variations and differences of linguistic structure between Chinese and English. Chinese is an implicit language, while English is an explicit one (Lian, 2010) To put it in another way, Chinese expression does not depend on language structures, while English does the opposite. This may result in mismatches between the original and machine translated sentences. This kind of error is mainly divided into two types: component fragment and component missing. For a medical paper, such errors are very serious. As a kind of ESP discourse, medical paper has the characteristics of fixed, objective and accurate language structure. In order to reproduce the characteristics of medical abstracts in translation, it is necessary to avoid errors at the level of words and sentences and pay attention to logic and consistency.
Lexical errors here refer to the inconsistency of fixed expressions in the translation of terms. Although these terms are machine translation based on the corpus, the corpus may not be perfect for ESP texts such as medical papers. Therefore, fixed expressions are not used in term translation. This is also the most common mistake in machine translation (the term here includes but is not limited to nouns). For ESP texts, medical text in particular, the fixed expressions and the accuracy of terms are of great importance.

===3.Approaches Proposed for Pre-editing ===
Generally speaking, there is a close relationship between pre-editing and post-editing, both of which aim to convey information and ensure high or publishable translation quality. Proper pre-editing can improve the quality of machine translation in terms of adequacy and consistency.
Complexity of natural language and people use language arbitrarily, bringing many difficulties to Chinese-English machine translation, Hu Qingping (2005:24) has proposed "the research of translation software and the development of the controlled language are the two directions to improve the quality of machine translation : the former aims at the difficulty in the natural language processing, the latter overcomes the arbitrariness of natural language". Feng Quangong and Gao Lin (2017: 63-68) put forward: "The writing principles of controlled language can be applied to pre-editing of machine translation. Pre-editing based on controlled language can effectively reduce the complexity and ambiguity of source text, improve the identifiability of machine translation (the translatability of source text itself), and thus reduce (fully) the workload of post-editing".
The central task of pre-editing is to transform human-friendly content into machine-friendly content, so words and sentences need to be repositioned or even changed. Based on the analysis of the language characteristics of Chinese and English, the Chinese ideographic group should be split before the Chinese source text is input into the machine software to translate so that the sentence structure is complete which can be easily recognized by the machine translation software.
===3.1 Extraction and Replacement of Terms in the Source Text===
As a branch of applied English, medical English is the product of the combination of English language knowledge and medical knowledge. The terms in medical papers have the characteristics of fixed and complex language structure. Although Google Translation is based on a corpus, the language structure is not fixed due to the limited size of the corpus. Therefore, the following two steps should be followed before machine translation. The first is to extract terms and create a glossary, and then replace the Chinese terms in the source text with the corresponding English expressions in the glossary. Of course, the terms of extraction should be searched and verified according to the actual situation. All of these words are verified before they can be replaced. This method can not only ensure the accuracy of term translation, but also maintain the consistency of expression, especially when dealing with long texts.
Example1
Source abstract: 口腔白斑病癌变相关缺氧应答基因和微小RNA的芯片及表达验证。
Google translation: Microarray detection/Chip detection and expression verification of hypoxia response genes and microRNAs related to oral leukoplakia canceration.
Published translation:Transcriptome array screening and verification of oral leukoplakia carcinogenesis-related hypoxia-responsive gene and microRNA.
Analysis: The expression “ Affymetrix GeneChip” empolyed in this thesis is a human transcription array for transcriptome array. In the source abstract, “芯片检测“ can be meant “screening” but not detection, so the proper and appropriate translation of these expression should be “transcription array screening”, but the Google translates it into “microarry detection of chip detection”. Therefore, term extraction is essential and inevitable before putting the source abstracts into the machine translation software.
After pre-editing source abstracts: 对 oral leukoplakia carcinogenesis 相关 hypoxia-responsive gene 和微小RNA进行 transcriptome array screening 及表达验证。
After pre-editing translation: Transcriptome array screening and expression- verification of hypoxia-responsive genes and microRNAs related to oral leukoplakia carcinogenesis.
===3.2 Explication of Subordination===
As mentioned above, the subordination of Chinese sentences is judged by certain specific words in machine translation . Chinese is a paratactic language, and sentences are often connected by internal logical relationships; while English depends on sentence structure, so sentences are often closely linked by various language forms. In order to improve the accuracy of machine translation, we can adjust the sentence structure and adjust the position of adjectives and their modifiers.
Example 2
Source abstracts:回顾性分析南京医科大学附属儿童医院中重度HIE患儿49例及同期就诊的无神经系统症状体征的足月新生儿为对照组31例的头颅磁共振成像（MRI）资料。
Google translation: A retrospective analysis that the brain magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) data of 49 children with moderate to severe HIE in the Children's Hospital of Nanjing Medical University and full-term neonates with no neurological symptoms and signs during the same period were included in the control group.
Published translation: A total of 49 children with moderate to severe HIE admitted to the children’s Hospital Affiliated to Nanjing Medical University were retrospectively analyzed. Cranial magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) date of 31 full-term neonates without neurological symptoms and signs who visited the hospital during the same period were recruited as the control group.
Analysis: As the above example shows that “中重度HIE患儿” and “足月新生儿” in the source abstracts are from the Children’s Hospital Affiliated Nanjing Medical University. The Google translation shows that 49 children with moderate to severe HIE in the Children's Hospital of Nanjing Medical University. There is an error due to the misuse of subordination. There are some advice in order to solve the problem. That is, first to segment the sentence and then reconstruct the sentence. For instance, the Chinese expression “南京医科大学附属儿童医院” carries many modifiers, which requires to cut the modifiers and reconstruct the sentence. Therefore, the Chinese expression “南京医科大学附属儿童医院’can be divided into abstractions, leaving two sentences instead of one long sentence with modifiers..
After pre-editing source abstracts: 对49例中重度HIE患儿以及31例无神经系统症状体征的足月新生儿的MRI资料进行回顾性分析。这些患者收治于南京医科大学儿童附属医院。
After pre-editing translation: The MRI data of 49 children with moderate to severe HIE and 31 full-term newborns without neurological symptoms and signs were retrospectively analyzed. These patients were admitted to the Children’s Hospital of Nanjing Medical University.
===3.3 Explication of Subject through Voice Changing===
The extensive use of subjectless sentences are quite common in the Chinese abstracts, while English prefers to employ passive voice in the sentences so as to make them object and accurate. In order to take the characteristics of English sentences into great and careful consideration, the sentences written in passive voice in particular, it will be helpful for machine translation to find out the subject and reconstruct a sentence in passive voice (Wang Yan: 2008). The first is to discover the “doee” in a sentence and then is to reconstruct the sentence structure and put the “doee” before the verb. The last is to explicate the passive relation between the noun and the verb.
Example 3
Source abstract: 回顾性分析2018年1月至2020年12月解放军总医院第七医学中心收治的500例老年髋部骨折患者的资料。
Google translation: A retrospective analysis of the data of 500 elderly patients with hip fractures admitted to the Seventh Medical Center of the PLA General Hospital from January 2018 to December 2020.
Published translation: From January 2018 to December 2020, the data of 500 elderly patients with hip fracture treated in the Seventh Medical Center of PLA General Hospital were analyzed retrospectively.
Analysis: The above example indicates that the “回顾性分析”in the Google Translate is a noun phrase, but the source abstracts actually describes an action or a behavior. The reason for such a mistake is that the machine can’t recognize the Chinese subjetless sentences. To find the subject of the sentence, the source abstracts can be revised and adjusted. Finding the “doee” is the first step, which refers to “500例老年髋部骨折患者的资料”in the source abstracts. And next is to put it in front of the verb, that is to place it in the beginning of the sentence. Last but not least, the passive voice should be explicated in the sentence.
After pre-editing source abstract: 500例老年髋部骨折患者的资料被回顾性分析，他们在2018年1月之2020年12月期间收治于解放军总医院第七医学中心。
After pre-editing translation: The data of 500 elderly hip fracture patients were retrospectively analyzed. They were admitted to the Seventh Medical Center of the PLA General Hospital between January 2018 and December 2020.
===3.4 Relocation of Modifiers===
Modifiers, including noun, adverbial and attributive are constantly employed in the Chinese medical papers in order to add information to subject and object in the sentence. By doing this, complicated sentences can be structured, thus causing obstacles to machine translation for recognizing this complex sentence structures when translating Chinese-English sentences. To make the machine translation successfully recognize the sentence structure, simplifying the sentence structure is quite necessary. The key is to moving the location of the modifiers and thus making the modifiers an independent sentence. In other words, the modifiers ought to be put before or behind the main part of the sentence to satisfy the common use of English.
Usually, the modifiers in Chinese sentence can only be placed in front of the core word, while in English, modifiers are very flexible. It is all right to place the modifiers in front of or behind the major part of the sentences with adjective or a connective noun.
Example 4
Source abstracts: 利用DNA重组技术以pET-28a表达系统在E.coli BL21(DE3) 中重组表达Hepl。
Google Translation: Hepl is recombined in E.coli BL21 (DE3) using DNA recombination technology with pET-28a expression system.
Published translation: The recombinant Hcpl protein was expressed by using DNA recombination technology through pET-28a expression system in E. coli BL21 (De3).
Analysis: The Chinese medical text includes two modifiers, “利用DNA”and “以pET-28a)表达系统”. These two modifiers will be translated by machine, which catches more attention to the two constituents. From the Google translation above, one failure is obvious that it misplaces the location of the two modifiers and presents it in not accurate form. To make it translate correctly by machine translation, dividing the sentences is very important so that the source abstracts can be correctly recognized by machine translation.
After pre-editing source abstract: 利用DNA重组技术，Hcp1重组表达在E.coli BL21 (DE3)中，通过pET-28a表达系统在E. coli BL21 (DE3)中。
Google translation: Using DNA recombination technology, Hcp1 recombination is expressed in E.coli BL21 (DE3), via pET-28a expression system in E. coli BL21 (DE3).
The second is the independence of modifiers, that is, modifiers can also be reconstructed into clauses to modify core words. Compared with English, There is no subordinate clause in Chinese, so redundant Chinese modifiers need to be reconstructed into subordinate clauses in Chinese-English translation to meet the characteristics of English. English, especially sentences with multiple modifiers. Otherwise, sentence structure may be confused, such as scattered modifiers of core words. To avoid this mistake, it is necessary to separate the modifier from the main part of the sentence. These modifiers should be reconstituted into clauses. Also, keep your sentences simple and easy to understand.
===3.5 Proper Omission and Deletion of Category Words===
Category words are commonly used in Chinese. Category words complement the meaning of words, including problems, positions, situations and jobs. Adding this supplementary word is more in line with Chinese custom. In many cases, it has no real meaning, so it can be omitted in translation. In Chinese, category words are frequently used. However, it is rarely used in English, which is one of the differences between Chinese and English. There are many kinds of category words. Considering objectivity and the fixed structure of language, redundant category words should be deleted in Chinese-English translation. In the general, the most commonly used category of words in the Chinese medical abstracts are "process", "behavior", and "situation". These categories of words hinder the language conversion of Chinese and English, resulting in redundancy.
Example 5
Source abstract: 探讨口腔白斑病癌变进程中的缺氧应答基因及相关微小RNA (miRNA) 的表达。
Google translation: The expression of hypoxia response genes and associated microRNAs in the process of oral leukoplakia cancer was discussed.
Published translation: To study the hypoxia response gene and microRNA (miRNA)expression profiles in the pathogenesis and progression of oral leukoplakia (OLK).
Analysis: As the above example shows, the Chinese words “进程” belongs to a category word. However, the Chinese expression “癌变”contains the process, so the “进程” expression can be deleted before placing it into the machine translation, because the meaning of it has been overlapping between the expression “癌变”. Therefore, its place can be replaced with preposition “during”.
After pre-editing source abstract: 探讨口腔白斑病癌变中的缺氧应答基因及相关微小RNA (miRNA) 的表达。
Google translation: The expression of hypoxia responsive genes and miRNA in oral leukoplakia cancer was investigated.

===Conclusion===
After years of development, machine translation has made great progress. The accuracy of machine translation has been greatly improved in both text recognition and sentence pattern conversion. However, machine translation has its own limitations. In other words, it needs to rely on the parallel corpus as a reference source for improving its accuracy. ESP text, in particular, is harder to get the high quality by machine translation.
As one of the research papers, the characteristics of medical abstracts are fixed language structures, objectivity and accuracy (Qin Yi:2004). Therefore, medical translation must be accurate, object and understandable to follow the specific demands of the medical paper. Being an important field in the human society, medical paper translation is on a great demand, which means that it needs a huge demand for human labor. However, with the machine translation promoting, it will be more efficient to translate medical papers combining the effort by human and machine. The improvement and development of machine translation requires the joint efforts of computer science, information science, statistics, linguistics and other academic circles to achieve more mature human-computer mutual assistance translation (Li Yafei, Zhang Ruihua : 2019).
However, errors can occur during the process of machine translation of Chinese- English, because of the differences of the Chinese and English and the processing of the machine. Errors from the perspective of linguistic or grammar can affect the machine translation a lot. After division and recognition of errors, some pre-editing approaches are put forward to help the machine translation more accurate and readable, that are, extraction and replacement of terms in the source text, relocation of modifiers, explication of subordination, proper omission, deletion of category words and explication of subject through voice changing.
The paper mainly focuses on the pre-editing machine translation by using medical papers as a case study. The errors of machine translation occurring in the translation of medical abstracts and pre-editing approaches for machine translation. The quality of machine translation of medical papers is greatly improved after employing the pre-editing methods. However, machine translation is not as flexible and accurate as human brain, so it is of importance to combine pre-editing and post-editing approaches with machine translation in order to produce more accurate, more object machine translation of medical papers.

===References===
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=12 蔡珠凤=(The Mistranslation of C-J Machine Translation of Political Statements)=
[[Machine_Trans_EN_12]]
===Abstract===
Language is the main way of communication between people. With the continuous development of globalization, the scale of cross-border exchanges is also expanding. However, due to cultural differences and diversity, the languages of different countries and regions are very different, which seriously hinders people's communication. The demand for efficient and convenient translation tools is increasing. At the same time, with the development of network technology and artificial intelligence, recognition technology based on deep learning is more and more widely used in English, Japanese and other fields.

===Key words===
machine translation; political statements; mistranslation of C-J machine translation
===题目===
The Mistranslation of C-J Machine Translation of Political Statements
===摘要===
语言是人与人之间交流的主要方式。随着全球化的不断发展，跨境交流的规模也在不断扩大。然而，由于文化的差异和多样性，不同国家和地区的语言差异很大，这严重阻碍了人们的交流。对高效便捷的翻译工具的需求正在增加。同时，随着网络技术和人工智能的发展，基于深度学习的识别技术在英语、日语等领域的应用越来越广泛。

===关键词===
机器翻译；政治发言；政治发言中译日的误译
===1. Introduction===
===Introduction to machine translation===
Machine translation, also known as automatic translation, is a process of using computers to convert one natural language (source language) into another natural language (target language). It is a branch of computational linguistics, one of the ultimate goals of artificial intelligence, and has important scientific research value.At the same time, machine translation has important practical value. With the rapid development of economic globalization and the Internet, machine translation technology plays a more and more important role in promoting political, economic and cultural exchanges.The development of machine translation technology has been closely accompanied by the development of computer technology, information theory, linguistics and other disciplines. From the early dictionary matching, to the rule translation of dictionaries combined with linguistic expert knowledge, and then to the statistical machine translation based on corpus, with the improvement of computer computing power and the explosive growth of multilingual information, machine translation technology gradually stepped out of the ivory tower and began to provide real-time and convenient translation services for general users.

=== C-J machine translation software===
Today's online machine translation software includes Baidu translation, Tencent translation, Google translation, Youdao translation, Bing translation and so on. Google was the first company to launch the machine translation system, and Baidu was the first company to import the machine translation system in China. In addition, Tencent and Youdao have attracted much attention.Machine translation is the process of using computers to convert one natural language into another. It usually refers to sentence and full-text translation between natural languages. In order to continuously improve the translation quality, R & D personnel have added artificial intelligence technologies such as speech recognition, image processing and deep neural network to machine translation on the basis of traditional machine translation based on rules, statistics and examples.With the increase of using machine translation, the joint cooperation between manual translation and machine translation will also increase significantly in the future. What criteria should be used to evaluate the quality of machine translation? In the evolving field of machine translation, there is an urgent need to clarify the unsolvable questions and solved problems.

===The history of machine translation===
The research history of machine translation can be traced back to the 1930s and 1940s. In the early 1930s, the French scientist G.B. alchuni put forward the idea of using machines for translation. In 1933, Soviet inventor П.П. Trojansky designed a machine to translate one language into another, and registered his invention on September 5 of the same year; However, due to the low technical level in the 1930s, his translation machine was not made. In 1946, the first modern electronic computer ENIAC was born. Shortly after that, W. weaver, an American scientist and A. D. booth, a British engineer, a pioneer of information theory, put forward the idea of automatic language translation by computer in 1947 when discussing the application scope of electronic computer. In 1949, W. Weaver published the translation memorandum, which formally put forward the idea of machine translation. After 60 years of ups and downs, machine translation has experienced a tortuous and long development path. The academic community generally divides it into the following four stages:

Pioneering period（1947-1964）

In 1954, with the cooperation of IBM, Georgetown University completed the English Russian machine translation experiment with ibm-701 computer for the first time, showing the feasibility of machine translation to the public and the scientific community, thus opening the prelude to the study of machine translation.
It is not too late for China to start this research. As early as 1956, the state included this research in the national scientific work development plan. The topic name is "machine translation, the construction of natural language translation rules and the mathematical theory of natural language". In 1957, the Institute of language and the Institute of computing technology of the Chinese Academy of Sciences cooperated in the Russian Chinese machine translation experiment, translating 9 different types of more complex sentences.From the 1950s to the first half of the 1960s, machine translation research has been on the rise. The United States and the former Soviet Union, two superpowers, have provided a lot of financial support for machine translation projects for military, political and economic purposes, while European countries have also paid considerable attention to machine translation research due to geopolitical and economic needs, and machine translation has become an upsurge for a time. In this period, although machine translation is just in the pioneering stage, it has entered an optimistic period of prosperity.

Frustrated period（1964-1975）

In 1964, in order to evaluate the research progress of machine translation, the American Academy of Sciences established the automatic language processing Advisory Committee (Alpac Committee) and began a two-year comprehensive investigation, analysis and test.In November 1966, the committee published a report entitled "language and machine" (Alpac report for short), which comprehensively denied the feasibility of machine translation and suggested stopping the financial support for machine translation projects. The publication of this report has dealt a blow to the booming machine translation, and the research of machine translation has fallen into a standstill. Coincidentally, during this period, China broke out the "ten-year Cultural Revolution", and basically these studies also stagnated. Machine translation has entered a depression.

convalescence（1975-1989）

Since the 1970s, with the development of science and technology and the increasingly frequent exchange of scientific and technological information among countries, the language barriers between countries have become more serious. The traditional manual operation mode has been far from meeting the needs, and there is an urgent need for computers to engage in translation. At the same time, the development of computer science and linguistics, especially the substantial improvement of computer hardware technology and the application of artificial intelligence in natural language processing, have promoted the recovery of machine translation research from the technical level. Machine translation projects have begun to develop again, and various practical and experimental systems have been launched successively, such as weinder system Eurpotra multilingual translation system, taum-meteo system, etc.However, after the end of the "ten-year holocaust", China has perked up again, and machine translation research has been put on the agenda again. The "784" project has paid enough attention to machine translation research. After the mid-1980s, the development of machine translation research in China has further accelerated. Firstly, two English Chinese machine translation systems, ky-1 and MT / ec863, have been successfully developed, indicating that China has made great progress in machine translation technology.

New period(1990 present)

With the universal application of the Internet, the acceleration of the process of world economic integration and the increasingly frequent exchanges in the international community, the traditional way of manual operation is far from meeting the rapidly growing needs of translation. People's demand for machine translation has increased unprecedentedly, and machine translation has ushered in a new development opportunity. International conferences on machine translation research have been held frequently, and China has made unprecedented achievements. A series of machine translation software have been launched, such as "Yixing", "Yaxin", "Tongyi", "Huajian", etc. Driven by the market demand, the commercial machine translation system has entered the practical stage, entered the market and came to the users.Since the new century, with the emergence and popularization of the Internet, the amount of data has increased sharply, and statistical methods have been fully applied. Internet companies have set up machine translation research groups and developed machine translation systems based on Internet big data, so as to make machine translation really practical, such as "Baidu translation", "Google translation", etc. In recent years, with the progress of in-depth learning, machine translation technology has further developed, which has promoted the rapid improvement of translation quality, and the translation in oral and other fields is more authentic and fluent.

===The problem of machine translation at present===
Error is inevitable
Many people have misunderstandings about machine translation. They think that machine translation has great deviation and can't help people solve any problems. In fact, the error is inevitable. The reason is that machine translation uses linguistic principles. The machine automatically recognizes grammar, calls the stored thesaurus and automatically performs corresponding translation. However, errors are inevitable due to changes or irregularities in grammar, morphology and syntax, such as sentences with adverbials after "give me a reason to kill you first" in Dahua journey to the West. After all, a machine is a machine. No one has special feelings for language. How can it feel the lasting charm of "the tenderness of lowering its head, like the shame of a water lotus? After all, the meaning of Chinese is very different due to the changes of morphology, grammar and syntax and the change of context. Even many Chinese people are zhanger monks - they can't touch their heads, let alone machines.
Bottleneck
In fact, no matter which method, the biggest factor affecting the development of machine translation lies in the quality of translation. Judging from the achievements, the quality of machine translation is still far from the ultimate goal.
Chinese mathematician and linguist Zhou Haizhong once pointed out in his paper "fifty years of machine translation": to improve the quality of machine translation, the first thing to solve is the problem of language itself rather than programming; It is certainly impossible to improve the quality of machine translation by relying on several programs alone. At the same time, he also pointed out that it is impossible for machine translation to achieve the degree of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" when human beings have not yet understood how the brain performs fuzzy recognition and logical judgment of language. This view may reveal the bottleneck restricting the quality of translation.
It is worth mentioning that American inventor and futurist ray cozwell predicted in an interview with Huffington Post that the quality of machine translation will reach the level of human translation by 2029. There are still many disputes about this thesis in the academic circles.

===2.Mistranslation of Chinese Japanese machine translation===
===2.1Vocabulary mistranslation in Chinese Japanese machine translation===
===2.1.1Mistranslation of proper nouns===
In political materials, there are often political dignitaries' names, place names or a large number of proper nouns in the political field. The morphemes of such words are definite and inseparable. Mistranslation will make the source language lose its specific meaning.

Japanese translation into Chinese Chinese translation into Japanese

original text translation by Youdao reference translation original text translation by Youdao reference translation

朱鎔基朱基朱镕基栗战书栗戰史書栗戰書

労安劳安劳安李克强李克強李克強

筑紫哲也筑紫哲也筑紫哲也习近平習近平習近平

山口百惠山口百惠山口百惠韩正韓中韓正

田中角栄田中角荣田中角荣王沪宁王上海氏王滬寧

東条英機东条英社东条英机汪洋汪洋汪洋

毛沢东毛泽东毛泽东赵乐际趙樂南趙樂際

トウ・ショウヘイ　　　大酱邓小平江泽民江沢民江沢民

周恩来周恩来周恩来

クリントン克林顿克林顿

The above table counts 18 special names in the two texts, and 7 machine translation errors. In terms of mistranslation, there are not only "战书" but also "戰史" and "史書" in Chinese. "沪" is the abbreviation of Shanghai. In other words, since "战书" and "沪" are originally common nouns, this disrupts the choice of target language in machine translation. Except Katakana interference (except for トウシゃウヘイ, most of the mistranslations appear in the new Standing Committee. It can be seen that the machine translation system does not update the thesaurus in time. Different from other words, people's names have particularity. Especially as members of the Standing Committee of the Political Bureau of the CPC Central Committee, the translation of their names is officially unified. In this regard, public figures such as political dignitaries, stars, famous hosts and important. In addition, the machine also translates Japanese surnames such as "タ二モト" (谷本), "アンドウ" (安藤) into "塔尼莫特" and "龙胆". It can be found that the language feature that Japanese will be written together with Chinese characters and Hiragana also directly affects the translation quality of Japanese Chinese machine translation. Japanese people often use Katakana pronunciation. For example, when Japanese people talk with Premier Zhu, they often use "二ーハウ" (Hello). However, the machine only recognizes the two pseudonyms "二" and "ハ" and transliterates them into "尼哈" , ignoring the long sound after "二" and "ハ".

original text Translation by Youdao reference translation

日美安全体制日米の安全体制日米安保体制

中国共产党第十九次全国代表大会中国共産党第19回全国代表大会中国共産党第19回全国代表大会（第19回党大会）

十八大十八大第18回党大会中国特色社会主义

中国特色社会主義中国の特色ある社会主義第18回党大会

中国共产党中央委员会中国共産党中央委員会中国共産党中央委員会

中国共産党中央委員会十八届中共中央政治局常委第18代中国共產党中央政治局常務委員第18期中共中央政治局常務委員

十八届中共中央政治局委员 18期の中国共產党中央政治局委員第18期中共中央政治局委員

十九届中共中央政治局常委十九回中国共產党中央政治局常務委員第19期中央政治局常務委員

中共十九届一中全会中国共產党第十九回一中央委員会第19期中央委員会第1回全体会議

The above table is a comparison of the original and translated versions of some proper nouns. As shown in the table, the mistranslation problems are mainly reflected in the mismatch of numerals + quantifiers, the wrong addition of case auxiliary word "の", the lack of connectors, the Mistranslation of abbreviations, dead translation, and the writing errors of Chinese characters. The following is a specific analysis one by one.

"十八届中共中央政治局常委", "十八届中共中央政治局委员", "十九届中共中央政治局常委" and "中共十九届一中全会" all have quantifiers "届", which are translated into "代", "期" and "回" respectively. The meaning is vague and should be uniformly translated into "期"; Among them, the translation of the last three proper nouns lacks the Chinese conjunction "第". The case auxiliary word "の" was added by mistake in the translation of "十八届中共中央政治局委员" and "日美安全体制". The "中国共产党中央委员会" did not write in the form of Japanese Ming Dynasty characters, but directly used simplified Chinese characters.

The full name of "中共十九届一中全会" is "中国共产党第十九届中央委员会第一次全体会议", in which "一" stands for "第一次", which is an ordinal word rather than a cardinal word. Machine translation does not produce a correct translation. The fundamental reason is that there are no "规则" for translating such words in machine translation. If we can formulate corresponding rules for such words (for example, 中共m'1届m2 中全会→第m1期中央委员会第m2回全体会议), the translation system must be able to translate well no matter how many plenary sessions of the CPC Central Committee.

===2.1.2Mistranslation of Polysemy===
original text Translation by Youdao reference translation

スタジオ摄影棚/工作室直播现场/演播厅

日中関係の話中日关系的故事就中日关系(话题)

溝水沟鸿沟

それでは日中の問題について質問のある方。那么对白天的问题有提问的人。关于中日问题的话题，举手提问。

私たちのクラスは20人ちょっとですが、我们班有20人左右，我们班二十多人的意见统一很难，

いろいろな意見が出て、まとめるのは大変です。但是又各种各样的意见，总结起来很困难。

一体どうやって、13億人もの人をまとめているんですか。到底是怎么处理13亿的人的呢？中国是怎样把13亿人凝聚在一起的？

In the original text, the word "スタジオ" appeared four times and was translated into "摄影棚" or "工作室" respectively, but the context is on-site interview, not the production site of photography or film. "話" has many semantics, such as "说话", "事情", "道理", etc. In accordance with the practice of the interview program, Premier Zhu Rongji was invited to answer five questions on the topic of China Japan relations. Obviously, the meaning of the word "故事" is very abrupt. The inherent Japanese word "日中" means "晌午、白天". At the same time, it is also the abbreviation of the names of the two countries. The machine failed to deal with it correctly according to the context. "溝" refers to the gap between China and Japan, not a "水沟". The former "まとめる" appears in the original text with the word "意见", which is intended to describe that it is difficult to unify everyone's opinions. The latter "まとめている" also refers to unifying the thoughts of 1.3 billion people, not "处理". Therefore, it is more appropriate to use "统一" and "处理" in human translation, rather than "总结意见" or "处理意见".

Mistranslation of polysemy has always been a difficult problem in machine translation research. The translation of each word is correct, but it is often very different from the original expression in the context. Zhang Zhengzeng said that ambiguity is a common phenomenon in natural language. Its essence is that the same language form may have different meanings, which is also one of the differences between natural language and artificial language. Therefore, one of the difficulties faced by machine translation is language disambiguation (Zhang Zheng, 2005:60). In this regard, we can mark all the meanings of polysemous words and judge which meaning to choose by common collocation with other words. At the same time, strengthen the text recognition ability of the machine to avoid the translation inconsistent with the current context. In this way, we can avoid the mistake of "大酱" in the place where famous figures such as Deng Xiaoping should have appeared in the previous political articles.

===2.1.3Mistranslation of compound words===
Multi class words refer to a word with two or more parts of speech, also known as the same word and different classes.

original text Translation by Youdao reference translation

1998年江泽民主席曾经访问日本, 1998年の江沢民国家主席の日本訪問し、 1998年、江沢民総書記が日本を訪問し、かつ

同已故小渊首相签署了联合宣言。かつて同じ故小渕首相が署名した共同宣言亡くなられた小渕総理と宣言に調印されました

Chinese "同" has two parts of speech: prepositions and conjunctions: "故" has many parts of speech, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives and conjunctions. This directly affects the judgment of the machine at the source language level. The word "同" in the above table is used as a conjunction to indicate the other party of a common act. "故" is used as a verb with the semantic meaning of "死亡", which is a modifier of "小渊首相". The machine regards "同" as an adjective and "故" as a noun "原因", which leads to confusion in the structure and unclear semantics of the translation. Different from the polysemy problem, multi category words have at least two parts of speech, and there is often not only one meaning under each part of speech. In this regard, software R & D personnel should fully consider the existence of multi category words, so that the translation machine can distinguish the meaning of words on the basis of marking the part of speech, so as to select the translation through the context and the components of the word in the sentence. Of course, the realization of this function is difficult, and we need to give full play to the wisdom of R & D personnel.

===2.2 Syntactic mistranslation in Chinese Japanese machine translation===
===2.2.1Mistranslation of tenses===
original text：History is written by the people, and all achievements are attributed to the people.

Translation by Youdao：歴史は人民が書いたものであり、すべての成果は人民のためである。

reference translation：歴史は人民が綴っていくものであり、すべての成果は人民に帰することとなります。

The original sentence meaning is "历史是人民书写的历史" or "历史是人民书写的东西". When translated into Japanese, due to the influence of Japanese language habits, the formal noun "もの" should be supplemented accordingly. In this sentence, both the machine and the interpreter have translated correctly. However, the machine's recognition of "的" is biased, resulting in tense translation errors. The past, present and future will become "history", and this is a continuous action. The form translated as "~ ていく" not only reflects that the action is a continuous action, but also conforms to the tense and semantic information of the original text. In addition, the machine's treatment of the preposition "于" is also inappropriate. In the original text, "人民" is the recipient of action, not the target language. As the most obvious feature of isolated language, function words in Chinese play an important role in semantic expression, and their translation should be regarded as a focus of machine translation research.

original text：李克强同志是十六届中共中央政治局常委,其他五位同志都是十六届中共中央政治局委员。

Translation by Youdao：李克強総理は第16代中国共産党中央政治局常務委員であり、他の５人の同志はいずれも16期の中国共産党中央政治局委員である。

reference translation：李克強同志は第16期中国共産党中央政治局常務委員を務め、他の５人は第16期中共中央政治局委員を務めました。

Judging the verb "是" in the original text plays its most basic positive role, but due to the complexity of Chinese language, "是" often can not be completely transformed into the form of "だ / である" in the process of translation. This sentence is a judgment of what has happened. Compared with the 19th session, the 18th session has become history. This is an implicit temporal information. It is very difficult for machines without human brain to recognize this implicit information. "中共中央政治局常委" is the abbreviation of "中共中央政治局常务委员会委员" and it is a kind of position. In Japanese, often use it with verbs such as "務める","担当する",etc. The translator adopts the past tense of "務める", which conforms to the expression habit of Japanese and deals with the problem of tense at the same time. However, machine translation only mechanically translates this sentence into judgment sentence, and fails to correctly deal with the past information implied by the word "十八届".

===2.2.2Mistranslation of honorifics===
Honorific language is a language means to show respect to the listener. Different from Japanese, there is no grammatical category of honorifics in Chinese. There is no specific fixed grammatical form to express honorifics, self modesty and politeness. Instead, specific words such as "您", "请" and "劳驾" are used to express all kinds of respect or self modesty.

Original text translation by Youdao reference translation

女士们，先生们，同志们，朋友们さんたち、先生たち、同志たち、お友达さん　　ご列席の皆さん

谢谢大家！ありがとうございます！ご清聴ありがとうございました。

これはどうされますか。这是怎么回事呢? 您将如何解决这一问题？

こうした問題をどうお考えでしょうか。我们会如何考虑这些问题呢？您如何看待这一问题？

For example, for the processing of "女士们，先生们，同志们，朋友们", the machine makes the translation correspond to the original one by one based on the principle of unchanged format, but there are errors in semantic communication and pragmatic habits. When speaking on formal occasions, Chinese expression tends to be comprehensive and detailed, as well as the address of the audience. In contrast, Japanese usually uses general terms such as "皆様", "ご臨席の皆さん" or "代表団の方々" as the opening remarks. In terms of Japanese Chinese translation, the machine also failed to recognize the usage of Japanese honorifics such as "される" and "お考え". It can be seen that Chinese Japanese machine translation has a low ability to deal with honorific expressions. The occasion is more formal. A good translation should not only be fluent in meaning, but also conform to the expression habits of the target language and match the current translation environment.

===Conclusion===
In the process of discussing the Mistranslation of machine translation, this paper mainly cites the Mistranslation of Youdao translator. When I studied the problem of machine translation mistranslation, I also used a large number of translation software such as Google and Baidu for parallel comparison, and found that these translation software also had similar problems with Youdao translator. For example, the "新世界新未来" in Chinese ABAC structural phrases is translated by Baidu as "新し世界の新しい未来", which, like Youdao, is not translated in the form of parallel phrases; Google online translation translates the word "“全心全意" into a completely wrong "全面的に"; The original sentence "我吃了很多亏" in the Mistranslation of the unique expression in the language is translated by Google online as "私はたくさんの損失を食べました". Because the "吃" and "亏" in the original text are not closely adjacent, the machine can not recognize this echo and mistakenly treats "亏" as a kind of food, so the machine translates the predicate as "食べました"; Japanese "こうした問題をどう考えでしょうか", Google's online translation is "你如何看待这些问题?", "你" tone can not reflect the tone of Japanese honorific, while Baidu translates as "你怎么想这样的问题呢?" Although the meaning can be understood, it is an irregular spoken language. Google and Baidu also made the same mistakes as Youdao in the translation of proper nouns. For example, they translated "十七届(中共中央政治局常委)”" into "第17回..." .In short, similar mistranslations of Youdao are also common in Baidu and Google. Due to space constraints, they will not be listed one by one here.

Mr. Liu Yongquan, Institute of language, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences (1997) It has been pointed out that machine translation is a linguistic problem in the final analysis. Although corpus based machine translation does not require a lot of linguistic knowledge, language expression is ever-changing. Machine translation based solely on statistical ideas can not avoid the translation quality problems caused by the lack of language rules. The following is based on the analysis of lexical, syntactic and other mistranslations From the perspective of the characteristics of the source language, this paper summarizes some difficulties of Chinese and Japanese in machine translation.

(1) The difficulties of Chinese in machine translation

Chinese is a typical isolated language. The relationship between words needs to be reflected by word order and function words. We should pay attention to the transformation of function words such as "的", "在", "向" and "了". Some special verbs, such as "是", "做" and "作", are widely used. How to translate on the basis of conforming to Japanese pragmatic habits and expressions is a difficulty in machine translation research. In terms of word order, Chinese is basically "subject→predicate→object". At the same time, Chinese pays attention to parataxis, and there is no need to be clear in expression with meaningful cohesion, which increases the difficulty of Chinese Japanese machine translation. When there are multiple verbs or modifier components in complex long sentences, machine translation usually can not accurately divide the components of the sentence, resulting in the result that the translation is completely unreadable.

(2) Difficulties of Japanese in machine translation

Both Chinese and Japanese languages use Chinese characters, and most machines produce the target language through the corresponding translation of Chinese characters. However, pseudonyms in Japanese play an important role in judging the part of speech and meaning, and can not only recognize Chinese characters and judge the structure and semantics of sentences. Japanese vocabulary is composed of Chinese vocabulary, inherent vocabulary and foreign vocabulary. Among them, the first two have a great impact on Chinese Japanese machine translation. For example "提出" is translated as "提出する" or "打ち出す"; and "重视" is translated as "重視する" or "大切にする". Japanese is an adhesive language, which contains a lot of "けど", "が" and "けれども" Some of them are transitional and progressive structures, but there are also some sequential expressions that do not need translation, and these translation software often can not accurately grasp them.

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[18]关碧莹.关于政治类发言的汉日机器翻译误译分析[D].哈尔滨理工大学, 2018.

[19]车彤.汉译日机器翻译质量评估及译后编辑策略研究【D】.北京外国语大学.2021(09)

Networking Linking

http://www.elecfans.com/rengongzhineng/692245.html

https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E6%9C%BA%E5%99%A8%E7%BF%BB%E8%AF%91/411793

=13 陈湘琼Chen Xiangqiong（Study on Post-editing from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory ）=
[[Machine_Trans_EN_13]]

=14 Bi bi Nadia（Machine Translation a Challenge for Human Translators)=
[[Machine_Trans_EN_14]]

===Abstract===
Machine translation is a big obstacle in the way of Human translators or interpretors although it is quick and less time consuming.people are trying to get translation of their target language using through source language.For this purpose they are using digital apps like Google translation Google translation does not give accurate and exact interpretation.Google translator is translates word to word translate that doesn't clarifies it's true and actual meaning.On the other hand human translators can give exact and accurate translation ,they take care of grammatical errors , diction and sentence structure.They clarify the purpose of target language through using source language.
===Keywords===
Descriptive translation, academic, interdiscipline, comparative literature, localization,Translatology,school of thought, translation , studies, linguistics, corresponding
===Body of article===
Translation is the process of reworking text from one language into another to maintain the original message and communication. But, like everything else, there are different methods of translation, and they vary in form and function. What is translation? The term has become widely used among knowledge transfer researchers and practitioners, especially in the fields of health and health care. In a landmark review, Jonathan Lomas began to argue that 'The tasks… may be defined as to establish and maintain links between researchers and their audience, via the appropriate translation of research findings' (Lomas 1997, p 4). In 2004, the World Health Organization's World Report on Knowledge for Better Health suggested that 'One of the key contributions of research to health systems is the translation of knowledge into actions' (WHO 2004, p 33 and p 100). By 2006, special issues of WHO's Bulletin as well as the journals Evaluation and the Health Professions and the Journal of Continuing Education in the Health Professions were dedicated to translation.But what does 'translation' mean? It may be a new word for an old problem, meaning nothing more than 'transfer'. The rapidly emerging field of 'translational medicine' seems to take translation to mean generally what transfer might have meant, that is the transmission of knowledge and evidence 'from bench to bedside'. As one commentator has observed, "Translational medicine" as a fashionable term is being increasingly used to describe the wish of biomedical researchers to ultimately help patients' (Wehling 2008, abstract).
Semantic uncertainty persists, not least because of the different interests of scientists, clinicians, patients and commercial firms (Littman et al 2007): 'Translational research means different things to different people, but it seems important to almost everyone' (Woolf 2008, p 211).
In related fields, such as public health (Armstrong et al 2006), 'translation' seems to signify dissatisfaction with 'transfer'. It wants to move away from thinking of knowledge transfer as a form of technology transfer or dissemination, rejecting if only by implication its mechanistic assumptions and its model of linear messaging from A to B. But still, what does it signify?

===Why translation?===
'Translation' indicates a closer attention to the problem of shared meaning and how it might be developed. It seems to represent some new epistemological lubricant, facilitating the dissemination of texts and the application and use of the knowledge and information they in. Simply, translation might be the key to transfer. And yet, when we stop to think, we are more ambivalent. What is translated often seems somehow inferior, not real or original. Note how readily commentators reach for the idea that things might be 'lost in translation'. Knowing at a distance – made in and mediated by translation - makes for incomplete renditions, blurred images, partial truths. So what might 'translation' really mean? The purpose of this paper is to set out, for policy makers and practitioners, the theoretical and conceptual resources translation holds and seems to represent. In doing so, it explores understandings of translation in the fields of literature and linguistics and in the sociology of science and technology. It begins by setting out just why this idea of translation should make immediate, intuitive sense in relation to research, policy and practice.
1translation in research, policy and practice research as translation
Research often entails translation from one language to another: where data is collected from more than one ethnic group, for example, or where the language of the researcher is other than that of the research subject. It may draw on a secondary literature or source documents written in different languages, and may be published and disseminated in languages other than the one in which it is first written up.
2In a different way, to conduct an interview is to ask for an account of experience and its meanings, but it is also to construct and translate that experience in terms defined at least in part by the researcher. In representing what is said, transcripts then select data, usually excluding significant gesture and eye-contact, for example. Often, certain characteristics of speech-acts (such as hesitations) will be edited out. In turn, the format of the transcript shapes the analytic use the researcher may make of it. The basis of research 'findings', then, is an artefact, a transcript or translation, not an original interaction (Ochs 1979, Barnes, Bloor and Henry 1996, Ross 2009).
3In this way, the researcher recasts aspects of his or her problem or topic in new, scientific form: 'All researchers "translate" the experiences of others' (Temple 1997, p 609). Research is invariably conducted in a sort of 'metalanguage' (Hantrais and Ager 1985): the research process can be conceived as one of successive translations (from theoretical formulation to operationalization, transcription, interpretation and dissemination). Theorization is a process of reciprocal back and forth between theory and fact, in which conceptions of each are revised in order that one fit the other (Baldamus 1974).
4 It is a kind of translation: a rereading, re-use, re-application or re-representation of what we know in new terms (Turner 1980). Referencing, too, is an act of translation, a form of appropriation and incorporation of one text by another (Gilbert 1977).policy as translation Each of the fields covered by the paper is diverse and ill-defined, and there is no intention here to provide a comprehensive account of any them. Sources have been chosen for their relevance: main references are cited in the text, and additional sources listed in footnotes.

2For a brief introduction to the technical issues involved in social research in more than one language, see Birbili (2000). For translation issues in survey research and question design in general, see Ervin and Bower (1952) and Deutscher (1968); on translating survey research instruments (in this instance health-related quality of life measures), Bowden and Fox-Rushby (2003). On the use of translators and interpreters, see Temple (1997) and Jentsch (1998).
3For an interesting discussion of this problem, see Bourdieu (1999), esp pp 621-626, 'The risks of writing'.
===Difference between machine translation and human translators===
Few people disagree on the differences between the two, but many argue over the quality of the translations. How accurate are machine translations? How reliable are human translations? Some say machine translation produces near-perfect translations while others are adamant that translations are incomprehensible and cause more problems than they solve. Results will, of course, vary depending on the source and target languages, the machine translation service used (e.g. Google Translate), and the complexity of the original text.
Machine translation, love it or hate it, is here to stay. In fact, the machine translation market is growing at such a fast pace that it is predicted to reach $980 million by 2022.
===Machine translation: the pros and cons===
The advantages of machine translation generally come down to two factors: it’s faster and cheaper. The downside to this is the standard of translation can be anywhere from inaccurate, to incomprehensible, and potentially dangerous (more on that shortly).
==The advantages of machine translation==
Many free tools are readily available (Google Translate, Skype Translator, etc.)
Quick turnaround time
You can translate between multiple languages using one tool
Translation technology is constantly improving
The disadvantages of machine translation
Level of accuracy can be very low
Accuracy is also very inconsistent across different languages
==Machines can't translate context ==
Mistakes are sometimes costly
Sometimes translation simply doesn’t work
The most important thing to consider with any kind of translation is the cost of potential mistakes. Translating instructions for medical equipment, aviation manuals, legal documents and many other kinds of content require 100% accuracy. In such cases, mistakes can cost lives, huge amounts of money and irreparable damage to your company’s image. So choose carefully!
Human translation: the pros and cons
Human translation essentially switches the table in terms of pros and cons. A higher standard of accuracy comes at the price of longer turnaround times and higher costs. What you have to decide is whether that initial investment outweighs the potential cost of mistakes. Alternatively, whether mistakes simply aren’t an option, like the cases we looked at in the previous section.

==The advantages of human translation ==
It’s a translator’s job to ensure the highest accuracy
Humans can interpret context and capture the same meaning, rather than simply translating words
Human translators can review their work and provide a quality process
Humans can interpret the creative use of language, e.g. puns, metaphors, slogans, etc.
Professional translators understand the idiomatic differences between their languages
Humans can spot pieces of content where literal translation isn’t possible and find the most suitable alternative
The disadvantages of human translation
Turnaround time is longer
Translators rarely work for free
Unless you use a translation agency, with access to thousands of translators, you’re limited to the languages any one translator can work with
Simply put, human translation is your best option when accuracy is even remotely important. Other considerations to make are the complexity of your source material and the two languages you’re translating between – both of which can render machines pretty useless.

When to use machine and human translation
The truth is, the debate over machine vs human translation is an unnecessary distraction. What we should really be talking about is when to use these two different types of translation services, because they both serve a very valid purpose.

Examples of when to use machine translation
When you have a large bulk of content to translate and the general meaning is enough
When your translation never reaches the final audience, e.g. you’re translating a resource as research for another piece of content
Translating documents for internal use within a company, provided 100% accuracy isn’t needed
To partially translate large chunks of content for a human translator to improve upon
Examples of when to use human translation
When accuracy is important
Most cases where your translated content is received by a consumer audience
When you have a duty of care to provide accurate translations (e.g. legal documents, product instructions, medical guidelines or health and safety content)
When translating marketing material or other texts for creative language uses.

===Conclusion ===

In the light of above mentioned facts and figures here by we would say that machine translation is challenge for human translators because it can reduces the wokload of translation but can't give accurate and exact translation of the traget language.It can be less reliable than human translation..

Machine translation

2021-12-11T13:33:49Z

Yan Jing:

'''Machine Translation - A challenge or a chance for human translators?'''

[[Machine_translation|Overview Page of Machine Translation]]

30 Chapters（0/30)

[[Machine_Trans_EN_1]] [[Machine_Trans_EN_2]] [[Machine_Trans_EN_3]] [[Machine_Trans_EN_4]] [[Machine_Trans_EN_5]] [[Machine_Trans_EN_6]] [[Machine_Trans_EN_7]] [[Machine_Trans_EN_8]] [[Machine_Trans_EN_9]] [[Machine_Trans_EN_10]] [[Machine_Trans_EN_11]] [[Machine_Trans_EN_12]] [[Machine_Trans_EN_13]] [[Machine_Trans_EN_14]] [[Machine_Trans_EN_15]] [[Machine_Trans_EN_16]] [[Machine_Trans_EN_17]] [[Machine_Trans_EN_18]] [[Machine_Trans_EN_19]] [[Machine_Trans_EN_20]] [[Machine_Trans_EN_21]] [[Machine_Trans_EN_22]] [[Machine_Trans_EN_23]] [[Machine_Trans_EN_24]] [[Machine_Trans_EN_25]] [[Machine_Trans_EN_26]] [[Machine_Trans_EN_27]] [[Machine_Trans_EN_28]] [[Machine_Trans_EN_29]] [[Machine_Trans_EN_30]] ...

[[Book_projects|Back to translation project overview]]

[[DCG-To-Do|To the To Do list]]

=Chapter 1:A Comparison Between the Quality of Machine Translation and Human Translation——A Case Study of the Application of artificial intelligence in Sports Events=
'''论机器翻译与人工翻译的质量对比——以人工智能在体育赛事领域的应用为例'''

卫怡雯 Wei Yiwen, Hunan Normal University, China

[[Machine_Trans_EN_1]]

=2 吴映红（The Introduction of Machine Translation)=
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=Chapter 3：On the Realm Advantages And Mutual Development of Machine Translation And Huamn Translation)=
"'论机器翻译与人工翻译的领域优势及共同发展'"

肖毅瑶 Xiao Yiyao, Hunan Normal University, China
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=Chapter 4 : A Comparison Between Machine Translation of Netease and Traditional Human Translation—A Case Study of The Economist Articles)=
'''网易有道机器翻译与人工翻译的译文对比——以经济学人语料为例'''

王李菲 Wang Lifei, Hunan Normal University

[[Machine_Trans_EN_4]]

=Chapter 5: Muhammad Saqib Mehran - Problems in translation studies=
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=6 徐敏赟(Machine Translation Based on Neural Network --Challenge or Chance?)=
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=7 颜莉莉(一带一路背景下人工智能与翻译人才的培养)=
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=Chapter 8: On Machine Translation Under Lanuguage Intelligence——An Option and Opportunity for Human Translators=
'''论语言智能下的机器翻译——译者的选择与机遇'''
颜静 Yan Jing, Hunan Normal University, China

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=9 谢佳芬（人工智能时代下的机器翻译与人工翻译）=
[[Machine_Trans_EN_9]]

=10 熊敏(Research on the English Chinese Translation Ability of Machine Translation for Various Types of Texts)=
[[Machine_Trans_EN_10]]
===Abstract===
The history of machine translation can be traced to 1940s, undergoing germination, recession, revival and flourish. Nowadays, with the rapid development of information technology, machine translation technology emerged and is gradually becoming mature. Whether manual translation can be replaced by machine translation becomes a widely-disputed topic. So in order to explore the ability of machine translation, I adopts two versions of translation, which are manual translation and machine translation(this paper uses Youdao translation) for different types of texts(according to Peter Newmark's types of text：informative text, expressive text and vocative text). The results are quite different in terms of quality and accuracy. The results show that machine translation is more suitable for informative text for its brevity, while the expressive texts especially literary works and vocative texts are difficult to be translated, because there are too many loaded words and cultural images in expressive text and dependence on the readers. To draw a conclusion, the relationship between machine translation and manual translation should be complementary rather than competitive.

===Key words===
machine translation; manual translation; Newmark's type of texts

===题目===
Research on the English Chinese Translation Ability of Machine Translation for Various Types of Texts

===摘要===
机器翻译的历史可以追溯到上个世纪40年代，经历了萌芽期、萧条期、复兴期和繁荣期四个阶段。如今，随着信息技术的高速发展，机器翻译技术日益成熟，于是机器翻译能不能替代人工翻译这个话题引起了广泛热议。为了探究机器翻译的能力水平是否足以替代人工翻译，本人根据皮特纽马克的文本类型分类理论（信息类文本，表达文本，呼吁文本），选择了相应的译文类型，并且将其机器翻译的版本以及人工翻译的版本进行对比。结果发现，就质量和准确度而言，译文的水平大相径庭。因为其简洁的特性，机器比较适合翻译信息文本。而就表达文本，尤其是文学作品，因其存在文化负载词及相应的文化现象，所以机器翻译这类文本存在难度。而呼唤文本因其目的性以及对读者的依赖性较强，翻译难度较大。由此得知，机器翻译和人工翻译的关系应该是互补的，而不是竞争的。

===关键词===
机器翻译；人工翻译；纽马克文本类型

===1. Introduction===
====1.1.Introduction to machine translation====
Machine translation, also known as computer translation is a technique to translating through machine translator, such as Google translation and Youdao translation. Machine translation is one of the branches of computational linguistics, ranging from computer science, statistics, information science and so on. Machine translation plays an important role in all aspects.
Machine translation can be traced back to 1940s, when British engineer Booth and American engineer Weaver proposed using computer to translate and started to study machines used for translation. And the first machine translating system launched in 1954, used in English and Russian translation. And this means machine translation becomes a reality. However, the arrival of new things always accompanies barriers and setbacks. In the 1960s, reports from ALPAC (Automated Language Processing Advisory Committee) showed studies on machine translation had stagnated for a decade. At that time, due to the high cost of machine, choosing human translators to finish translating works was more economical for most companies. What’s worse, machine had difficulty in understanding semantic and pragmatic meanings. Fortunately, in the 1970s, with the advance and popularity of computer, machine translation was gradually back on track. With the development of science and technology, machine translation has better technological guarantee, such as artificial intelligence and computer technology. In the last decades, from the late 90s till now, machine translation is becoming more and more mature. The initial rule-oriented machine translation has been updated and Corpus-aided machine translation appears. And nowadays, technology in voice recognition has been further developed. This technique is frequently applied in speech translation products. Users only need to speak source language to the online translator and instantly it will speak out the target version. But machine can’t fully provide precise and accurate translation without any grammatical or semantic problems. Machine can understand the literal meaning of texts, but not the meaning in context. For example, there is polysemy in English, which refers to words having multiple meanings. So when translating these words, translators should take contexts into consideration. But machine has troubles in this way. In addition, machine has no feeling or intention. Hence, it is also difficult to convey the feelings from the source language.

====1.2.Process of machine translation====
The process of manual translation is different from that of machine translation. Here is the process of the former. (1) Understand source language. (2) Use target language to organize language. (3) Generate translation. Unlike manual translation, machine translation tends to analyze and code source language first, then look for related codes in corpus, and work out the code that represents target language, generating translation. But they share a common feature, which is that Lexicon, grammatical rules and syntactic structure are taken into consideration. This is one of the biggest challenges for machine translation.

===2.Theorectical framework===
====2.1Newmark’s text typology====
Text typology is a theory from linguistics. It undergoes several phrases. Karl Buhler, a German psychologist and linguist defines communicative functions into expressive, information and vocative. Then Roman Jakobson proposes categorization of texts, which are intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. Accordingly, he defines six main functions of language, including the referential function, conative function, emotive function, poetic function, metalingual function and the phatic function. Based on the two theories, Peter Newmark, a translation theorist, summarizes the language function into six parts: the informative function, the vocative function, the expressive function, the phatic function, the aesthetic function, and the metalingual function. Later, he further divided texts into informative type, expressive text and vocative type according to the linguistic functions of various texts.
The core of the informative texts is the truth. It is to convey facts, information, knowledge of certain topics, reality and theories. The language style of the text is objective, logical and standardized. Reports, papers, scientific and technological textbooks are all attributed to informative texts. Translators are required to take format into account for different styles.
The core of the expressive text is the sender’s emotions and attitudes. It is to express sender’s preferences, feelings, views and so on. The language style of it is subjective. Imaginative literature, including fictions, poems and dramas, autobiography and authoritative statements belong to expressive text. It requires translators to be faithful to the source language and maintain the style.
The core of the vocative text is readership. It is to call upon readers to act, think, feel and react in the way intended by the text. So it is reader-oriented. Such texts as advertisement, propaganda and notices are of vocative text. Newmark noted that translators need to consider cultural background of the source language and the semantic and pragmatic effect of target language. If readers can comprehend the meaning at once and do as the text says, then the goal of information communication is achieved.
To draw a conclusion, informative texts focus on the information and facts. Expressive texts center on the mind of addressers, including feelings, prejudices and so on. And vocative texts are oriented on readers and call on them to practice as the texts say.

====2.2Study method====
Manual translations of the three texts are selected from authoritative versions and universally acknowledged. And machine translations of those come from Youdao Translator. And in this thesis I will compare and evaluate the two methods in word diction, sentence structure, word order and redundancy.

===3.Comparison and analysis of machine translation and manual translation ===
====3.1Informative text ====
（1）English into Chinese

①Source language:

Keep the tip of Apple Pencil clean, as dirt and other small particles may cause excessive wear to the tip or damage the screen of i-pad.

Target language:

Machine translation: Apple Pencil笔尖应保持清洁，灰尘等小颗粒可能会导致笔尖过度磨损或损坏ipad屏幕。

Manual translation: 保持Apple Pencil铅笔的笔尖干净，因为灰尘和其他微粒可能会导致笔尖的过度磨损或损坏iPad屏幕。

Analysis: Here is the instruction of Apple Pencil. And the manual translation is the Chinese version on the instruction.Product instruction tends to be professional, since there are many terms for some concepts. Machine can easily identify these terms and provide related words to translate. The machine version is faithful and expressive to the source language. So it is well-qualified and readable for readers to understand the instruction. So we can use machine to translate informative text.

②Source language:

China on Saturday launched a rocket carrying three astronauts-two men and one woman - to the core module of a future space station where they will live and work for six months, the longest orbit for Chinese astronauts.

Target language:

Machine translation: 周六，中国发射了一枚运载三名宇航员(两男一女)的火箭，进入未来空间站的核心舱，他们将在那里生活和工作6个月，这是中国宇航员最长的轨道。

Manual translation: 周六，中国发射了一枚搭载三名宇航员(两男一女)的火箭，进入未来空间站的核心舱，他们将在那里生活和工作6个月，这是中国宇航员最漫长的一次轨道飞行。

Analysis: This is a news from Reuters, reporting that China has launched a rocket.The meaning of the two translations is almost the same, except for some word diction. But there are some details dealt with different choice. For example, the last sentence of the machine translation is a bit of obscure and direct. There are some ambiguous words and expressions.

(2)Chinese into English

Source language:湖南省博物馆是湖南省最大的历史艺术类博物馆，占地面积4.9万平方米，总建筑面积为9.1万平方米，是首批国家一级博物馆，中央地方共建的八个国家级重点博物馆之一、全国文化系统先进集体、文化强省建设有突出贡献先进集体。

Target language:
Manual translation: As the largest history and art museum in Hunan province, the Hunan Museum covers an area of 49,000㎡, with the building area reaching 91,000㎡. It is one of the first batch of national first-level museums and one of the first eight national museums co-funded by central and local governments.

Machine translation: Museum in hunan province is one of the largest historical art museum in hunan province, covers an area of 49000 square meters, a total construction area of 91000 square meters, is the first national museum, the central place to build one of the eight national key museum, national cultural system advanced collectives, strong culture began with outstanding contribution of advanced collective.

Analysis: Machine translation is not faithful enough in content. For instance, “首批国家一级博物馆” is translated into “first national museum”, which is not the meaning of the source language. And there are some obvious grammar mistakes in the machine translation. For example, machine translates it into just one sentence but there are multiple predicates in it. So it is not grammatically permissible. What’s more, the sentence structure of machine translation is confusing and the focus is not specific enough.

====3.2Expressive text ====
(1)English into Chinese

Source language:

An individual human existence should be like a river- small at first, narrowly contained within its banks, and rushing passionately past rocks and over waterfalls. Gradually the river grows wider, the banks recede, the waters flow more quietly, and in the end, without any visible breaks, they become merged in the sea, and painlessly lose their individual being.

Target language:

Machine translation: 一个人的存在应该像一条河流——开始很小，被紧紧地夹在两岸中间，然后热情奔放地冲过岩石，飞下瀑布。渐渐地，河面变宽，两岸后退，水流更加平缓，最后，没有任何明显的停顿，它们汇入大海，毫无痛苦地失去了自己的存在。

Manual translation:人生在世，如若河流；河口初始狭窄，河岸虬曲，而后狂涛击石，飞泻成瀑。河道渐趋开阔，峡岸退去，水流潺缓，终了，一马平川，汇于大海，消逝无影。

Analysis: Here is a well-known metaphor in the prose How to Grow Old written by Bertrand Russell. The manual translation is written by Tian Rongchang.This is a philosophical prose with graceful language. Literary translation is a most important and difficult branch of translation. Translator should focus on the literal meaning, culture, writing style and so on. It is a combination of beauty and elegance. Therefore, translators find it in a dilemma of beauty and faithfulness, let alone translating machine. Compared with manual translation, machine translation has difficulty in word choice. It is faithful and expressive, but not elegant enough.

(2)Chinese into English

Source language:没有一个人将小草叫做“大力士”，但是它的力量之大，的确是世界无比。这种力，是一般人看不见的生命力，只要生命存在，这种力就要显现，上面的石块，丝毫不足以阻挡。因为它是一种“长期抗战”的力，有弹性，能屈能伸的力，有韧性，不达目的不止的力。

Target language:

Machine translation: No one calls the little grass "hercules", but its power is truly matchless in the world. This force is invisible life force. As long as there is life, this force will show itself. The stone above is not strong enough to stop it. Because it is a "long-term resistance" of the force, elastic, can bend and extend force, tenacity, not to achieve the purpose of the force.

Manual translation: Though nobody describes the little grass as a “husky”, yet its herculean strength is unrivalled. It is the force of life invisible to naked eye. It will display itself so long as there is life. The rock is utterly helpless before this force- a force that will forever remain militant, a force that is resilient and can take temporary setbacks calmly, a force that is tenacity itself and will never give up until the goal is reached. (by Zhang Peiji)

Analysis:This is the excerpt of a well-known Chinese prose written by Xia Yan. It is written during the war of Resistance Against Japan. So the prose holds symbolic meaning, eulogizing the invisible tenacious vitality so as to encourage Chinese to have confidence in the anti-aggression war. Compared with manual translation, machine translation is much more abstract and confusing, especially for the word diction. For example, “大力士” is translated into “hercules” which is a man of exceptional strength and size in Greek and Roman Mythology, making it difficult to understand if readers of target language have no idea of the allusion. What’s worse, the machine version doesn’t reveal the symbolic meaning of the text, which is the core of this prose.

====3.3Vocative text ====

(1)English into Chinese

①Source language:

iPhone went to film school, so you don’t have to. (Advertisement of iPhone13)

Target language:

Machine translation: iPhone上的是电影学院，所以你不用去。

Manual translation:电影专业课，iPhone同学替你上完了。

Analysis：Here are advertisements of iPhone on Apple official website. There is a personification in the source language. It is used to stress the advancement and proficiency in camera, which is an appealing selling point to potential buyers. Compared with manual translation, machine translation is plain and not eye-catching enough for customers.

②Source language:

5G speed OMGGGGG

Machine language: 5克的速度 OMGGGGG

Manual translation:

iPhone的5G 巨巨巨巨巨5G

Analysis: The “G” in the source language is the unit of speed, standing for generation. However, it is mistaken as a unit of weight, representing gram in the machine translation. So the meaning is not faithful to the source language at all. As for manual translation, it complies with the source in form. Specifically speaking, five “G”s in the former complies with five characters “巨”in the latter. And the pronunciation of the two is similar. There are two layers of meaning for the 5 “G”s. One exclaims the fast speed of 5 generation network and the other new technology. In the manual version, “巨”can be used to show degree, meaning “quite” or “very”.

③Source language:

History, faith and reason show the way, the way of unity. We can see each other not as adversaries but as neighbors. We can treat each other with dignity and respect, we can join forces, stop the shouting and lower the temperature. For without unity, there is no peace, only bitterness and fury."

Target language:

Machine translation: 历史、信仰和理性指明了团结的道路。我们可以把彼此视为邻居，而不是对手。我们可以尊严地对待彼此，我们可以联合起来，停止大喊大叫，降低温度。因为没有团结，就没有和平，只有痛苦和愤怒。

Manual translation:历史、信仰和理性为我们指明道路。那是团结之路。我们可以把彼此视为邻居，而不是对手。我们可以有尊严地相互尊重。我们可以联合起来，停止喊叫，减少愤怒。因为没有团结就没有和平，只有痛苦和愤怒

Analysis: Speech is a way to propagate some activity in public. It is an art to inspire emotion of the audience. The source language is the excerpt of Joe Biden’s inaugural speech. The speech should be inspiring and logic. The machine translation has some misunderstanding. Taking the translation of “lower the temperature” for example, machine only translates its literal meaning, relating to the temperature itself, without considering the context. What’s more, it is less logic than the manual one. Therefore, it adds difficulty to inspire the audience and infect their emotion.

===4.Common mistakes in machine translation ===

====4.1 lexical mistakes ====

Common lexical mistakes include misunderstandings in word category, lexical meaning and emotive and evaluative meaning. Misunderstanding in word category shows in the classification of word in the source language. As for misunderstanding in lexical meaning, machine has difficulty in precisely reflecting the meaning of the original texts, due to different cultural background and different language system. And for misunderstanding in emotive meaning, machine has no intention and emotion like human-beings. Therefore, it’s impossible for it to know writers’ feelings and their writing purposes. So sometimes, it may translate something negative into something positive.

====4.2 grammatical mistakes====

Grammatical analysis plays an important part in translation. Normally speaking, every language has its own unique grammatical rules. So in the process of translation, if translators don’t know the formation rule well, the sentence meaning will be affected. Even though all the lexical meanings are well-known by translators, the lack of consciousness of grammaticality makes it harder to arrange words according to sequential rule. English tends to be hypotactic, while Chinese tends to be paratactic. English sentences are connected through syntactic devices and lexical devices. While Chinese sentences are semantically connected, which means there are limited logical words and connection words in Chinese. So when translating English sentence, we should first analyze its grammaticality and logical structure and then rearrange its sequence. However, online translating machine has troubles in grammatical analysis, which makes its improvement more difficult.

====4.3 other mistakes====

The two mistakes above are the internal ones. Apart from mistakes in linguistic system, there are some mistakes in other aspects, such as cultural background.

===5.Reasons for its common mistakes ===

====5.1 Difference in two linguistic system====

With different history, English and Chinese have different ways of expression. Commonly speaking, English is synthetic language which expresses grammatical meaning through inflection such as tense and Chinese is analytic language which expresses grammatical meaning through word order and function word. In addition, English is more compact with full sentences. Subordinate sentence is one of the most important features in modern English. Chinese, on the other hand, is more diffusive with minor sentences.

====5.2 Difference in thinking patterns and cultural background====

According to Sapir-Whorf’s Hypothesis, our language helps mould our way of thinking and consequently, different languages may probably express their unique ways of understanding the world. For two different speech communities, the greater their structural differentiations are, the more diverse their conceptualization of the world will be. For example, western culture is more direct and eastern culture more euphemistic. What’s more, English culture tends to be individualism, focusing on detail, through which it reflects the whole, while Chinese culture tends to be collective. Different thinking patterns will add difficulty for machine to translate texts.

====5.3 Limitation of computer====

Recently, there are some breakthroughs and innovation in machine translation. However, due to its own limitation, online translation has limitation in some ways. Firstly, compared with machine, human brain is much more complicated, consisting of ten billions of neuron, each of which has different function to affect human’s daily activities and help humans avoid some errors. However, computer can only function according to preset programming has no intention or consciousness. Until now, countless related scholars have invested much time in machine translation. They upload massive language database, which include almost all linguistic rules. But computers still fail to precisely reflect the meaning of source language for many times due to the complexity and flexibility of language. On the other hand, computers can’t take context into consideration. During translation, it is often the case that machine chooses the most-frequently used meaning of one word. So without the correct and exact meaning, readers are easier to feel confused and even misunderstand the meaning of source language.

===6.Conclusion===
From the analysis above, we can draw a conclusion that machine deals with informative text best, followed by non-literary translation of expressive text. What’s more, machine can be a useful tool to get to know the gist and main idea of a specific topic, for the simple sentence structure and numerous terms. And it can improve translating efficiency with high speed. But machine has difficulty in translating literary works, especially proses and poems.

Machine translation has mixed future. From the perspective of commercial, machine translation boasts a bright future. With the process of globalization, the demand for translation is increasing accordingly. On one hand, if we only depend on human translator to deal with translating works, the quality and accuracy of translation can be greatly affected. On the other hand, if machine is used properly to do some basic work, human translators only need to make preparation before translating, progress, polish and other advanced work, contributing to highly-qualified translation and high working efficiency.

However, compared with manual translation, machine translation has a bleak future. It is still impossible for machine to replace interpreter or translator in a short term. With intelligence and initiative, humans are able to learn new knowledge constantly, which machine will never accomplish. Besides, machine is not used to replace translators but to assist them in work. In other words, translators and machine carry out their own duties and they are not incompatible.

To draw a conclusion, although there are certain limitations of machine translation, it can serve as a catalyst for translating works. Therefore, with the rapid development of artificial intelligence and related technology, there are still many opportunities for machine translation.

===Reference ===

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=11 陈惠妮=(Study on Pre- editing of Machine Translation - A Case Study of Medical Abstracts)=
[[Machine_Trans_EN_11]]
===Abstract===
At present, globalization is accelerating and the market demand for language services is rapidly increasing . Machine translation, as an important translation method, can greatly improve translation efficiency due to its low cost and high speed. However, because of the limitations of machine translation and the differences between Chinese and English language, machine translation is not accurate enough. In order to balance translation efficiency and translation quality, a great number of manual revisions in translation are required for the machine translating texts. Medical papers are specialized, special and purposeful, so it requires accurate,qualified and professional translation. However, the quality of translations by machine is inefficient to meet the high-quality requirements of medical papers translation. Therefore, the introduction of pre-editing can greatly improve the efficiency and quality of machine translation.

===Key words===
Pre-editing, Machine translation, Medical texts

===题目===
Study on Pre- editing of Machine Translation - A Case Study of Medical Abstracts

===摘要===
在全球化加速发展的今天，市场对语言服务的需求迅速增加。机器翻译作为一种重要的翻译途径，由于其成本低、速度快，可以大大提高翻译效率。然而，由于机器翻译的局限性以及中英文语言的差异，机器翻译的准确性不高。为了平衡翻译效率和翻译质量，机器翻译文本需要大量的手工修改。
医学论文具有专业性、特殊性和目的性，要求其译文准确、合格、专业。然而，机器翻译的质量较低，无法满足医学论文对翻译的高质量要求。因此，译前编辑的引入可以大大提高机器翻译的效率和质量。

===关键词===
译前编辑；机器翻译；医学文本

===1. Introduction===
===1.1 Definition of Machine Translation===
As Cronin(2013) revealed: "Translation is undergoing a revolutionary upheaval. The influence of digital technology and the Internet on translation is continuous, extensive and profound. From the popularity of automatic online translation applications, translation revolution is everywhere (Cronin,2013) However,the concept of machine translation was firstly proposed in the 1930s. Since 1940s, the machine translation technology has been evolving from rule-based machine translation (RBMT) to statistical machine translation (SMT), and to neural machine translation (NMT). Machine translation refers to the automatic translation of source language into target language by using a computer system. That is, machine translation refers to the automatic translation of text from one language into another natural language by computer software or other online translation webs. Machine translation is also defined as the process of “using a computer system to automatically translate text or speech from one natural language to another” according to the definition by ISO (Cui, 2014).O 'Brien (2002) defines it as "the behavior of modifying errors in machine translation to ensure that the target translation meets certain quality requirements". On the basic level, machine translation performs mechanical substitution of words in one language for words in another language, but that rarely produces a good translation, therefore, recognition of the whole phrases and their closest counterparts in the target language is needed. Not all words in one language have equivalents in another language, and many words have more than one meaning. A huge demand for translation is greatly needed in today’s global world, which creates new opportunities for the development of machine translation, attracts more and more attention and becomes one of the current research focuses.

===1.2 Definition of Pre-editing===
Pre-editing means to adjust and modify the source language to make it fit more with the characteristics of the machine translation software before putting the source language before the into machine translation, so as to improve the quality of the translation machine translation (Wei Changhong, 2008:93-94). Pre-editing is to modify the original text before putting it into machine translation software, in order to improve the recognition rate of machine translation, optimize the output quality of translated text and reduce the workload of post-editing. Because pre-translation editing only needs to be modified in one language, the operation is simpler than post-translation editing, which can realize the double improvement of quality and efficiency. A good pre-editing translation can help machine translation more smoothly, thus improving the machine readability and quality of the output translation. Pre-editing is mostly applied in the following situations: one is when the original text is of poor quality and the machine is difficult to recognize the meaning of the sentence, such as user generated content with poor readability and translatability (Gerlach et al, 2003:45-53); Documents that need to be published in multiple languages; Next is when the original text contains a lot of jargon; The last is the original text has a corresponding translation memory bank. If the original text is edited, it can better match the content of the translation memory bank. Pre-editing is a process of identifying problems. It requires to pre-edit the source texts before putting it into machine translation according to the requirements, listing the expressions or sentences that may have trouble in machine translation and then pre-edit it by human. The purpose is to enable the computer to translate better, improve the translatability of machine translation. (Slype G V & Guinet J F & Seitz F,1984:115)

===1.3 Machine Translation Mode===
According to the different knowledge acquisition methods, machine translation modes can be classified as follows: one is rule-based machine translation, which is based on bilingual dictionaries and a library of language rules for each language. The quality of translation depends on whether the source language conforms to the existing rules, but the inexhaustible rules are the hinders of this model. The second mode is machine translation based on statistics. This translation model relies on the principles of mathematics and statistics to find various existing translations corresponding to the translation tasks through the employment of corpus, analyzing the frequency of their occurrence and selecting the translation with the highest frequency for output. The disadvantage of this translation model is that it ignores the flexibility of language and the importance of context. The last one is neural network language model. This model is different from previous translation models in that it uses end-to-end neural network to realize automatic translation between natural languages. At present, the quality of its translation is much higher than that of the previous translation models.
===1.4 Source of Study Abstracts===
The core medical journals from domestic are selected in order to make the paper more representative and authoritative, such as National Medical Journal of China, Journal of Peking University (Health Science), and Journal of Third Military Medical University. All of them include basic medical science, biomedical technology, laboratory medical science and other fields. In this way, the pre-editing approaches included are applicable enough to machine translation of medical abstracts.
===1.5 Selection of Translation Software===
Generally, machine translation software includes Google Translation, Youdao Translator and Niu Translation, which has their own special use in translation. Take Google as an example, it is more like neurons in human brain, enabling to learn and collect information to establish connections with its neural machine translator’s neurons. However, it also causes many errors because of the lack of enough information. In this paper, contrastive analysis will be carried on by using Google translation. On the one hand, being a pioneer in the translation of NET, it is inevitably to sue Google as the translation software to translate medical texts in this paper. Comparing the program called “Google brain”, other NMT of translation software are relatively disadvantages. On the other hand, the Google translation enjoys the largest users in the world, with its downloads of more than one billion. The output quality of Google translation is more correct and complete than other machine translation software. With years of development and improvement, Google Translation has been greatly promoted. In this paper, Chinese medical abstract will be automatically translated by Google translation, and then the translation output will be compared with the translation by human and the publication of English abstracts. The main purpose is to prove that the improvement and promotion of quality and accuracy in the medical abstracts will be obtained through the pre-editing approaches.

===2.Language Characteristics and Error Division===
Since Chinese and English are two different languages, it is quite neccessary to identify their own characteristics so as to better analyze and understand the two languages. Tytler (1978) argued in his Essay on the Principles of Translation that there are three principles of translation that in all the translation should give readers the same feelings as the source text, except for complete transcript of ideas. There actually also exit some mistakes of these two languages. So the following will make some clarrifications of these two languages to ensure more accurate translation.

===2.1 Language Characteristics of Medical Abstracts===
Chinese and English belong to different language systems, so there are differences in their language structure and the way users think of the languages. When using machine translation from Chinese to English, due to the unequal language levels, there will be many mistakes in the translation process, especially for ESP texts, such as medical papers.
Here, these differences mainly refer to the linguistic characteristics of medical abstracts. In medical abstracts, it usually includes structured and unstructured abstracts. Although in different forms, they both describe the purpose, methods and conclusions of the research.
In the method section of medial abstract, several Chinese sentences can be connected with commas, but each sentence may convey different information. In contrast, English sentences contain a great deal of information, but in order to ensure clarity, some modifiers need to be isolated and then reconstructed. However, in Chinese-English machine translation, a lot of information is put into the sentence because the machine segments the sentence on the basis of the full comma.
In addition, subjectless sentence is used in the objective and method parts of Chinese medical abstracts. The subjectless sentence means the sentence without or free from subject and is usually employed in two contexts. The first is "needless to say". In Chinese sentences, it is common to omit the subject of the sentence. Chinese sentences can convey meanings by using incomplete sentence structures, so Chinese speakers can understand the meanings of the sentences even though the sentence subject is omitted. The second is "emphasis of action". In this context, subjectless sentences are used to describe behaviors, especially in the study of traditional Chinese medicine abstracts. Comparatively speaking, it should be avoided in English medical abstracts. Abstract sentences are more subjective when describing the learning process, while the essential requirement of English medical abstract is objectivity. From this point, sentences without subject should be avoided in English medical abstracts. Another feature is voice. Few words with passive meanings appear in Chinese abstracts. English sentences are more favoured in using passive voice. When translating from Chinese to English, passive voice should be used to make the contents objective, which is also the basic requirement of medical papers.
These are the linguistic features of Chinese medical abstracts. There are great differences in sentence structure and expression between Chinese and English medical abstracts. These differences may reduce the accuracy of machine translation, so it is necessary to introduce pre-editing to edit the source text to ensure that the source text can be accurately recognized by the machine and fully translated into English.
===2.2 Error Division of Machine Translation in Translating Abstracts of Medical Papers from Chinese to English===
In this paper, errors in machine translation are listed out after analyzing. Some are due to the principles, such as statistical-based MT and NMT, employed by machine translation. Based on the original errors, they can be studied from two levels. One is from the macro-level, referring to mistakes caused by objective factors. These are not human factors, but the disadvantage of machine translation and the limitations of language. The limitations of machine translation are derived from the principles and models adopted and manifests itself as a reliance on reference sources. In this case, semantic ambiguity and textual incoherence may occur in the absence of reference sources.
However, for ESP texts such as medical papers, the requirements for terms and sentence patterns are far beyond the existing corpora. For unfamiliar texts (that is, the corresponding texts cannot be found in the corpora). The quality of output translation will be relatively low, which is determined by the principles of machine translation. As mentioned above, machine translation has evolved over the past few decades from rules-based to corp-based statistics to NMT. However, there still exist some limitations in machine translation.
Mistakes on micro-level are mainly caused by the variations and differences of linguistic structure between Chinese and English. Chinese is an implicit language, while English is an explicit one (Lian, 2010) To put it in another way, Chinese expression does not depend on language structures, while English does the opposite. This may result in mismatches between the original and machine translated sentences. This kind of error is mainly divided into two types: component fragment and component missing. For a medical paper, such errors are very serious. As a kind of ESP discourse, medical paper has the characteristics of fixed, objective and accurate language structure. In order to reproduce the characteristics of medical abstracts in translation, it is necessary to avoid errors at the level of words and sentences and pay attention to logic and consistency.
Lexical errors here refer to the inconsistency of fixed expressions in the translation of terms. Although these terms are machine translation based on the corpus, the corpus may not be perfect for ESP texts such as medical papers. Therefore, fixed expressions are not used in term translation. This is also the most common mistake in machine translation (the term here includes but is not limited to nouns). For ESP texts, medical text in particular, the fixed expressions and the accuracy of terms are of great importance.

===3.Approaches Proposed for Pre-editing ===
Generally speaking, there is a close relationship between pre-editing and post-editing, both of which aim to convey information and ensure high or publishable translation quality. Proper pre-editing can improve the quality of machine translation in terms of adequacy and consistency.
Complexity of natural language and people use language arbitrarily, bringing many difficulties to Chinese-English machine translation, Hu Qingping (2005:24) has proposed "the research of translation software and the development of the controlled language are the two directions to improve the quality of machine translation : the former aims at the difficulty in the natural language processing, the latter overcomes the arbitrariness of natural language". Feng Quangong and Gao Lin (2017: 63-68) put forward: "The writing principles of controlled language can be applied to pre-editing of machine translation. Pre-editing based on controlled language can effectively reduce the complexity and ambiguity of source text, improve the identifiability of machine translation (the translatability of source text itself), and thus reduce (fully) the workload of post-editing".
The central task of pre-editing is to transform human-friendly content into machine-friendly content, so words and sentences need to be repositioned or even changed. Based on the analysis of the language characteristics of Chinese and English, the Chinese ideographic group should be split before the Chinese source text is input into the machine software to translate so that the sentence structure is complete which can be easily recognized by the machine translation software.
===3.1 Extraction and Replacement of Terms in the Source Text===
As a branch of applied English, medical English is the product of the combination of English language knowledge and medical knowledge. The terms in medical papers have the characteristics of fixed and complex language structure. Although Google Translation is based on a corpus, the language structure is not fixed due to the limited size of the corpus. Therefore, the following two steps should be followed before machine translation. The first is to extract terms and create a glossary, and then replace the Chinese terms in the source text with the corresponding English expressions in the glossary. Of course, the terms of extraction should be searched and verified according to the actual situation. All of these words are verified before they can be replaced. This method can not only ensure the accuracy of term translation, but also maintain the consistency of expression, especially when dealing with long texts.
Example1
Source abstract: 口腔白斑病癌变相关缺氧应答基因和微小RNA的芯片及表达验证。
Google translation: Microarray detection/Chip detection and expression verification of hypoxia response genes and microRNAs related to oral leukoplakia canceration.
Published translation:Transcriptome array screening and verification of oral leukoplakia carcinogenesis-related hypoxia-responsive gene and microRNA.
Analysis: The expression “ Affymetrix GeneChip” empolyed in this thesis is a human transcription array for transcriptome array. In the source abstract, “芯片检测“ can be meant “screening” but not detection, so the proper and appropriate translation of these expression should be “transcription array screening”, but the Google translates it into “microarry detection of chip detection”. Therefore, term extraction is essential and inevitable before putting the source abstracts into the machine translation software.
After pre-editing source abstracts: 对 oral leukoplakia carcinogenesis 相关 hypoxia-responsive gene 和微小RNA进行 transcriptome array screening 及表达验证。
After pre-editing translation: Transcriptome array screening and expression- verification of hypoxia-responsive genes and microRNAs related to oral leukoplakia carcinogenesis.
===3.2 Explication of Subordination===
As mentioned above, the subordination of Chinese sentences is judged by certain specific words in machine translation . Chinese is a paratactic language, and sentences are often connected by internal logical relationships; while English depends on sentence structure, so sentences are often closely linked by various language forms. In order to improve the accuracy of machine translation, we can adjust the sentence structure and adjust the position of adjectives and their modifiers.
Example 2
Source abstracts:回顾性分析南京医科大学附属儿童医院中重度HIE患儿49例及同期就诊的无神经系统症状体征的足月新生儿为对照组31例的头颅磁共振成像（MRI）资料。
Google translation: A retrospective analysis that the brain magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) data of 49 children with moderate to severe HIE in the Children's Hospital of Nanjing Medical University and full-term neonates with no neurological symptoms and signs during the same period were included in the control group.
Published translation: A total of 49 children with moderate to severe HIE admitted to the children’s Hospital Affiliated to Nanjing Medical University were retrospectively analyzed. Cranial magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) date of 31 full-term neonates without neurological symptoms and signs who visited the hospital during the same period were recruited as the control group.
Analysis: As the above example shows that “中重度HIE患儿” and “足月新生儿” in the source abstracts are from the Children’s Hospital Affiliated Nanjing Medical University. The Google translation shows that 49 children with moderate to severe HIE in the Children's Hospital of Nanjing Medical University. There is an error due to the misuse of subordination. There are some advice in order to solve the problem. That is, first to segment the sentence and then reconstruct the sentence. For instance, the Chinese expression “南京医科大学附属儿童医院” carries many modifiers, which requires to cut the modifiers and reconstruct the sentence. Therefore, the Chinese expression “南京医科大学附属儿童医院’can be divided into abstractions, leaving two sentences instead of one long sentence with modifiers..
After pre-editing source abstracts: 对49例中重度HIE患儿以及31例无神经系统症状体征的足月新生儿的MRI资料进行回顾性分析。这些患者收治于南京医科大学儿童附属医院。
After pre-editing translation: The MRI data of 49 children with moderate to severe HIE and 31 full-term newborns without neurological symptoms and signs were retrospectively analyzed. These patients were admitted to the Children’s Hospital of Nanjing Medical University.
===3.3 Explication of Subject through Voice Changing===
The extensive use of subjectless sentences are quite common in the Chinese abstracts, while English prefers to employ passive voice in the sentences so as to make them object and accurate. In order to take the characteristics of English sentences into great and careful consideration, the sentences written in passive voice in particular, it will be helpful for machine translation to find out the subject and reconstruct a sentence in passive voice (Wang Yan: 2008). The first is to discover the “doee” in a sentence and then is to reconstruct the sentence structure and put the “doee” before the verb. The last is to explicate the passive relation between the noun and the verb.
Example 3
Source abstract: 回顾性分析2018年1月至2020年12月解放军总医院第七医学中心收治的500例老年髋部骨折患者的资料。
Google translation: A retrospective analysis of the data of 500 elderly patients with hip fractures admitted to the Seventh Medical Center of the PLA General Hospital from January 2018 to December 2020.
Published translation: From January 2018 to December 2020, the data of 500 elderly patients with hip fracture treated in the Seventh Medical Center of PLA General Hospital were analyzed retrospectively.
Analysis: The above example indicates that the “回顾性分析”in the Google Translate is a noun phrase, but the source abstracts actually describes an action or a behavior. The reason for such a mistake is that the machine can’t recognize the Chinese subjetless sentences. To find the subject of the sentence, the source abstracts can be revised and adjusted. Finding the “doee” is the first step, which refers to “500例老年髋部骨折患者的资料”in the source abstracts. And next is to put it in front of the verb, that is to place it in the beginning of the sentence. Last but not least, the passive voice should be explicated in the sentence.
After pre-editing source abstract: 500例老年髋部骨折患者的资料被回顾性分析，他们在2018年1月之2020年12月期间收治于解放军总医院第七医学中心。
After pre-editing translation: The data of 500 elderly hip fracture patients were retrospectively analyzed. They were admitted to the Seventh Medical Center of the PLA General Hospital between January 2018 and December 2020.
===3.4 Relocation of Modifiers===
Modifiers, including noun, adverbial and attributive are constantly employed in the Chinese medical papers in order to add information to subject and object in the sentence. By doing this, complicated sentences can be structured, thus causing obstacles to machine translation for recognizing this complex sentence structures when translating Chinese-English sentences. To make the machine translation successfully recognize the sentence structure, simplifying the sentence structure is quite necessary. The key is to moving the location of the modifiers and thus making the modifiers an independent sentence. In other words, the modifiers ought to be put before or behind the main part of the sentence to satisfy the common use of English.
Usually, the modifiers in Chinese sentence can only be placed in front of the core word, while in English, modifiers are very flexible. It is all right to place the modifiers in front of or behind the major part of the sentences with adjective or a connective noun.
Example 4
Source abstracts: 利用DNA重组技术以pET-28a表达系统在E.coli BL21(DE3) 中重组表达Hepl。
Google Translation: Hepl is recombined in E.coli BL21 (DE3) using DNA recombination technology with pET-28a expression system.
Published translation: The recombinant Hcpl protein was expressed by using DNA recombination technology through pET-28a expression system in E. coli BL21 (De3).
Analysis: The Chinese medical text includes two modifiers, “利用DNA”and “以pET-28a)表达系统”. These two modifiers will be translated by machine, which catches more attention to the two constituents. From the Google translation above, one failure is obvious that it misplaces the location of the two modifiers and presents it in not accurate form. To make it translate correctly by machine translation, dividing the sentences is very important so that the source abstracts can be correctly recognized by machine translation.
After pre-editing source abstract: 利用DNA重组技术，Hcp1重组表达在E.coli BL21 (DE3)中，通过pET-28a表达系统在E. coli BL21 (DE3)中。
Google translation: Using DNA recombination technology, Hcp1 recombination is expressed in E.coli BL21 (DE3), via pET-28a expression system in E. coli BL21 (DE3).
The second is the independence of modifiers, that is, modifiers can also be reconstructed into clauses to modify core words. Compared with English, There is no subordinate clause in Chinese, so redundant Chinese modifiers need to be reconstructed into subordinate clauses in Chinese-English translation to meet the characteristics of English. English, especially sentences with multiple modifiers. Otherwise, sentence structure may be confused, such as scattered modifiers of core words. To avoid this mistake, it is necessary to separate the modifier from the main part of the sentence. These modifiers should be reconstituted into clauses. Also, keep your sentences simple and easy to understand.
===3.5 Proper Omission and Deletion of Category Words===
Category words are commonly used in Chinese. Category words complement the meaning of words, including problems, positions, situations and jobs. Adding this supplementary word is more in line with Chinese custom. In many cases, it has no real meaning, so it can be omitted in translation. In Chinese, category words are frequently used. However, it is rarely used in English, which is one of the differences between Chinese and English. There are many kinds of category words. Considering objectivity and the fixed structure of language, redundant category words should be deleted in Chinese-English translation. In the general, the most commonly used category of words in the Chinese medical abstracts are "process", "behavior", and "situation". These categories of words hinder the language conversion of Chinese and English, resulting in redundancy.
Example 5
Source abstract: 探讨口腔白斑病癌变进程中的缺氧应答基因及相关微小RNA (miRNA) 的表达。
Google translation: The expression of hypoxia response genes and associated microRNAs in the process of oral leukoplakia cancer was discussed.
Published translation: To study the hypoxia response gene and microRNA (miRNA)expression profiles in the pathogenesis and progression of oral leukoplakia (OLK).
Analysis: As the above example shows, the Chinese words “进程” belongs to a category word. However, the Chinese expression “癌变”contains the process, so the “进程” expression can be deleted before placing it into the machine translation, because the meaning of it has been overlapping between the expression “癌变”. Therefore, its place can be replaced with preposition “during”.
After pre-editing source abstract: 探讨口腔白斑病癌变中的缺氧应答基因及相关微小RNA (miRNA) 的表达。
Google translation: The expression of hypoxia responsive genes and miRNA in oral leukoplakia cancer was investigated.

===Conclusion===
After years of development, machine translation has made great progress. The accuracy of machine translation has been greatly improved in both text recognition and sentence pattern conversion. However, machine translation has its own limitations. In other words, it needs to rely on the parallel corpus as a reference source for improving its accuracy. ESP text, in particular, is harder to get the high quality by machine translation.
As one of the research papers, the characteristics of medical abstracts are fixed language structures, objectivity and accuracy (Qin Yi:2004). Therefore, medical translation must be accurate, object and understandable to follow the specific demands of the medical paper. Being an important field in the human society, medical paper translation is on a great demand, which means that it needs a huge demand for human labor. However, with the machine translation promoting, it will be more efficient to translate medical papers combining the effort by human and machine. The improvement and development of machine translation requires the joint efforts of computer science, information science, statistics, linguistics and other academic circles to achieve more mature human-computer mutual assistance translation (Li Yafei, Zhang Ruihua : 2019).
However, errors can occur during the process of machine translation of Chinese- English, because of the differences of the Chinese and English and the processing of the machine. Errors from the perspective of linguistic or grammar can affect the machine translation a lot. After division and recognition of errors, some pre-editing approaches are put forward to help the machine translation more accurate and readable, that are, extraction and replacement of terms in the source text, relocation of modifiers, explication of subordination, proper omission, deletion of category words and explication of subject through voice changing.
The paper mainly focuses on the pre-editing machine translation by using medical papers as a case study. The errors of machine translation occurring in the translation of medical abstracts and pre-editing approaches for machine translation. The quality of machine translation of medical papers is greatly improved after employing the pre-editing methods. However, machine translation is not as flexible and accurate as human brain, so it is of importance to combine pre-editing and post-editing approaches with machine translation in order to produce more accurate, more object machine translation of medical papers.

===References===
[1]. Cronin, Michael (2013). Translation in the Digital Age[M]. New York&London: Routledge.

[2]. GERLACH J, et al ( 2013). Combining Pre-editing and Post-editing to Improve SMT of User-generated Content[M]// Proceedings of MT Summit XIV Workshop on Post-editing Technology and Practice. 45-53.

[3]. Slype G V & Guinet J F & Seitz F (1984). Better Translation for Better Communication [M] .Oxford: Pergamon Press Ltd (U.K.),

[4]. O'Brien S (2002). Teaching Post-editing: A Proposal for Course Con-tent [EB/OL]. http://mt-archive. Info/EAMT-2002-0brien. Pdf.

[5]. Tytler, A. F. (1978). Essay On The Principles of Translation[M]. Amsterdam: JohnBenjamins Publishing.

[6] 崔启亮. (2014), 论机器翻译的译后编辑[J], 中国翻译, 035(006):68-73.

[7] 冯全功,高琳 (2017) 基于受控语言的译前编辑对机器翻译的影响[J]. 当代外语研究,(2): 63-68+87+110.

[8] 胡清平(2005). 机器翻译中的受控语言[J]. 中国科技翻译, (03): 24-27.

[9] 连淑能 (2010). 英汉对比研究增订本[M]. 北京:高等教育出版社.

[10] 黎亚飞,张瑞华 (2019). 机器翻译发展与现状[J]. 中国轻工教育,(5):38-45.

[11] 秦毅(2004),从翻译基本标准议医学英语的翻译[J]. 遵义医学院学报,27 (4): 421-423.

[12] 王燕 (2008). 医学英语翻译与写作教程[M]. 重庆:重庆大学出版社

=12 蔡珠凤=(The Mistranslation of C-J Machine Translation of Political Statements)=
[[Machine_Trans_EN_12]]
===Abstract===
Language is the main way of communication between people. With the continuous development of globalization, the scale of cross-border exchanges is also expanding. However, due to cultural differences and diversity, the languages of different countries and regions are very different, which seriously hinders people's communication. The demand for efficient and convenient translation tools is increasing. At the same time, with the development of network technology and artificial intelligence, recognition technology based on deep learning is more and more widely used in English, Japanese and other fields.

===Key words===
machine translation; political statements; mistranslation of C-J machine translation
===题目===
The Mistranslation of C-J Machine Translation of Political Statements
===摘要===
语言是人与人之间交流的主要方式。随着全球化的不断发展，跨境交流的规模也在不断扩大。然而，由于文化的差异和多样性，不同国家和地区的语言差异很大，这严重阻碍了人们的交流。对高效便捷的翻译工具的需求正在增加。同时，随着网络技术和人工智能的发展，基于深度学习的识别技术在英语、日语等领域的应用越来越广泛。

===关键词===
机器翻译；政治发言；政治发言中译日的误译
===1. Introduction===
===Introduction to machine translation===
Machine translation, also known as automatic translation, is a process of using computers to convert one natural language (source language) into another natural language (target language). It is a branch of computational linguistics, one of the ultimate goals of artificial intelligence, and has important scientific research value.At the same time, machine translation has important practical value. With the rapid development of economic globalization and the Internet, machine translation technology plays a more and more important role in promoting political, economic and cultural exchanges.The development of machine translation technology has been closely accompanied by the development of computer technology, information theory, linguistics and other disciplines. From the early dictionary matching, to the rule translation of dictionaries combined with linguistic expert knowledge, and then to the statistical machine translation based on corpus, with the improvement of computer computing power and the explosive growth of multilingual information, machine translation technology gradually stepped out of the ivory tower and began to provide real-time and convenient translation services for general users.

=== C-J machine translation software===
Today's online machine translation software includes Baidu translation, Tencent translation, Google translation, Youdao translation, Bing translation and so on. Google was the first company to launch the machine translation system, and Baidu was the first company to import the machine translation system in China. In addition, Tencent and Youdao have attracted much attention.Machine translation is the process of using computers to convert one natural language into another. It usually refers to sentence and full-text translation between natural languages. In order to continuously improve the translation quality, R & D personnel have added artificial intelligence technologies such as speech recognition, image processing and deep neural network to machine translation on the basis of traditional machine translation based on rules, statistics and examples.With the increase of using machine translation, the joint cooperation between manual translation and machine translation will also increase significantly in the future. What criteria should be used to evaluate the quality of machine translation? In the evolving field of machine translation, there is an urgent need to clarify the unsolvable questions and solved problems.

===The history of machine translation===
The research history of machine translation can be traced back to the 1930s and 1940s. In the early 1930s, the French scientist G.B. alchuni put forward the idea of using machines for translation. In 1933, Soviet inventor П.П. Trojansky designed a machine to translate one language into another, and registered his invention on September 5 of the same year; However, due to the low technical level in the 1930s, his translation machine was not made. In 1946, the first modern electronic computer ENIAC was born. Shortly after that, W. weaver, an American scientist and A. D. booth, a British engineer, a pioneer of information theory, put forward the idea of automatic language translation by computer in 1947 when discussing the application scope of electronic computer. In 1949, W. Weaver published the translation memorandum, which formally put forward the idea of machine translation. After 60 years of ups and downs, machine translation has experienced a tortuous and long development path. The academic community generally divides it into the following four stages:

Pioneering period（1947-1964）

In 1954, with the cooperation of IBM, Georgetown University completed the English Russian machine translation experiment with ibm-701 computer for the first time, showing the feasibility of machine translation to the public and the scientific community, thus opening the prelude to the study of machine translation.
It is not too late for China to start this research. As early as 1956, the state included this research in the national scientific work development plan. The topic name is "machine translation, the construction of natural language translation rules and the mathematical theory of natural language". In 1957, the Institute of language and the Institute of computing technology of the Chinese Academy of Sciences cooperated in the Russian Chinese machine translation experiment, translating 9 different types of more complex sentences.From the 1950s to the first half of the 1960s, machine translation research has been on the rise. The United States and the former Soviet Union, two superpowers, have provided a lot of financial support for machine translation projects for military, political and economic purposes, while European countries have also paid considerable attention to machine translation research due to geopolitical and economic needs, and machine translation has become an upsurge for a time. In this period, although machine translation is just in the pioneering stage, it has entered an optimistic period of prosperity.

Frustrated period（1964-1975）

In 1964, in order to evaluate the research progress of machine translation, the American Academy of Sciences established the automatic language processing Advisory Committee (Alpac Committee) and began a two-year comprehensive investigation, analysis and test.In November 1966, the committee published a report entitled "language and machine" (Alpac report for short), which comprehensively denied the feasibility of machine translation and suggested stopping the financial support for machine translation projects. The publication of this report has dealt a blow to the booming machine translation, and the research of machine translation has fallen into a standstill. Coincidentally, during this period, China broke out the "ten-year Cultural Revolution", and basically these studies also stagnated. Machine translation has entered a depression.

convalescence（1975-1989）

Since the 1970s, with the development of science and technology and the increasingly frequent exchange of scientific and technological information among countries, the language barriers between countries have become more serious. The traditional manual operation mode has been far from meeting the needs, and there is an urgent need for computers to engage in translation. At the same time, the development of computer science and linguistics, especially the substantial improvement of computer hardware technology and the application of artificial intelligence in natural language processing, have promoted the recovery of machine translation research from the technical level. Machine translation projects have begun to develop again, and various practical and experimental systems have been launched successively, such as weinder system Eurpotra multilingual translation system, taum-meteo system, etc.However, after the end of the "ten-year holocaust", China has perked up again, and machine translation research has been put on the agenda again. The "784" project has paid enough attention to machine translation research. After the mid-1980s, the development of machine translation research in China has further accelerated. Firstly, two English Chinese machine translation systems, ky-1 and MT / ec863, have been successfully developed, indicating that China has made great progress in machine translation technology.

New period(1990 present)

With the universal application of the Internet, the acceleration of the process of world economic integration and the increasingly frequent exchanges in the international community, the traditional way of manual operation is far from meeting the rapidly growing needs of translation. People's demand for machine translation has increased unprecedentedly, and machine translation has ushered in a new development opportunity. International conferences on machine translation research have been held frequently, and China has made unprecedented achievements. A series of machine translation software have been launched, such as "Yixing", "Yaxin", "Tongyi", "Huajian", etc. Driven by the market demand, the commercial machine translation system has entered the practical stage, entered the market and came to the users.Since the new century, with the emergence and popularization of the Internet, the amount of data has increased sharply, and statistical methods have been fully applied. Internet companies have set up machine translation research groups and developed machine translation systems based on Internet big data, so as to make machine translation really practical, such as "Baidu translation", "Google translation", etc. In recent years, with the progress of in-depth learning, machine translation technology has further developed, which has promoted the rapid improvement of translation quality, and the translation in oral and other fields is more authentic and fluent.

===The problem of machine translation at present===
Error is inevitable
Many people have misunderstandings about machine translation. They think that machine translation has great deviation and can't help people solve any problems. In fact, the error is inevitable. The reason is that machine translation uses linguistic principles. The machine automatically recognizes grammar, calls the stored thesaurus and automatically performs corresponding translation. However, errors are inevitable due to changes or irregularities in grammar, morphology and syntax, such as sentences with adverbials after "give me a reason to kill you first" in Dahua journey to the West. After all, a machine is a machine. No one has special feelings for language. How can it feel the lasting charm of "the tenderness of lowering its head, like the shame of a water lotus? After all, the meaning of Chinese is very different due to the changes of morphology, grammar and syntax and the change of context. Even many Chinese people are zhanger monks - they can't touch their heads, let alone machines.
Bottleneck
In fact, no matter which method, the biggest factor affecting the development of machine translation lies in the quality of translation. Judging from the achievements, the quality of machine translation is still far from the ultimate goal.
Chinese mathematician and linguist Zhou Haizhong once pointed out in his paper "fifty years of machine translation": to improve the quality of machine translation, the first thing to solve is the problem of language itself rather than programming; It is certainly impossible to improve the quality of machine translation by relying on several programs alone. At the same time, he also pointed out that it is impossible for machine translation to achieve the degree of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" when human beings have not yet understood how the brain performs fuzzy recognition and logical judgment of language. This view may reveal the bottleneck restricting the quality of translation.
It is worth mentioning that American inventor and futurist ray cozwell predicted in an interview with Huffington Post that the quality of machine translation will reach the level of human translation by 2029. There are still many disputes about this thesis in the academic circles.

===2.Mistranslation of Chinese Japanese machine translation===
===2.1Vocabulary mistranslation in Chinese Japanese machine translation===
===2.1.1Mistranslation of proper nouns===
In political materials, there are often political dignitaries' names, place names or a large number of proper nouns in the political field. The morphemes of such words are definite and inseparable. Mistranslation will make the source language lose its specific meaning.

Japanese translation into Chinese Chinese translation into Japanese

original text translation by Youdao reference translation original text translation by Youdao reference translation

朱鎔基朱基朱镕基栗战书栗戰史書栗戰書

労安劳安劳安李克强李克強李克強

筑紫哲也筑紫哲也筑紫哲也习近平習近平習近平

山口百惠山口百惠山口百惠韩正韓中韓正

田中角栄田中角荣田中角荣王沪宁王上海氏王滬寧

東条英機东条英社东条英机汪洋汪洋汪洋

毛沢东毛泽东毛泽东赵乐际趙樂南趙樂際

トウ・ショウヘイ　　　大酱邓小平江泽民江沢民江沢民

周恩来周恩来周恩来

クリントン克林顿克林顿

The above table counts 18 special names in the two texts, and 7 machine translation errors. In terms of mistranslation, there are not only "战书" but also "戰史" and "史書" in Chinese. "沪" is the abbreviation of Shanghai. In other words, since "战书" and "沪" are originally common nouns, this disrupts the choice of target language in machine translation. Except Katakana interference (except for トウシゃウヘイ, most of the mistranslations appear in the new Standing Committee. It can be seen that the machine translation system does not update the thesaurus in time. Different from other words, people's names have particularity. Especially as members of the Standing Committee of the Political Bureau of the CPC Central Committee, the translation of their names is officially unified. In this regard, public figures such as political dignitaries, stars, famous hosts and important. In addition, the machine also translates Japanese surnames such as "タ二モト" (谷本), "アンドウ" (安藤) into "塔尼莫特" and "龙胆". It can be found that the language feature that Japanese will be written together with Chinese characters and Hiragana also directly affects the translation quality of Japanese Chinese machine translation. Japanese people often use Katakana pronunciation. For example, when Japanese people talk with Premier Zhu, they often use "二ーハウ" (Hello). However, the machine only recognizes the two pseudonyms "二" and "ハ" and transliterates them into "尼哈" , ignoring the long sound after "二" and "ハ".

original text Translation by Youdao reference translation

日美安全体制日米の安全体制日米安保体制

中国共产党第十九次全国代表大会中国共産党第19回全国代表大会中国共産党第19回全国代表大会（第19回党大会）

十八大十八大第18回党大会中国特色社会主义

中国特色社会主義中国の特色ある社会主義第18回党大会

中国共产党中央委员会中国共産党中央委員会中国共産党中央委員会

中国共産党中央委員会十八届中共中央政治局常委第18代中国共產党中央政治局常務委員第18期中共中央政治局常務委員

十八届中共中央政治局委员 18期の中国共產党中央政治局委員第18期中共中央政治局委員

十九届中共中央政治局常委十九回中国共產党中央政治局常務委員第19期中央政治局常務委員

中共十九届一中全会中国共產党第十九回一中央委員会第19期中央委員会第1回全体会議

The above table is a comparison of the original and translated versions of some proper nouns. As shown in the table, the mistranslation problems are mainly reflected in the mismatch of numerals + quantifiers, the wrong addition of case auxiliary word "の", the lack of connectors, the Mistranslation of abbreviations, dead translation, and the writing errors of Chinese characters. The following is a specific analysis one by one.

"十八届中共中央政治局常委", "十八届中共中央政治局委员", "十九届中共中央政治局常委" and "中共十九届一中全会" all have quantifiers "届", which are translated into "代", "期" and "回" respectively. The meaning is vague and should be uniformly translated into "期"; Among them, the translation of the last three proper nouns lacks the Chinese conjunction "第". The case auxiliary word "の" was added by mistake in the translation of "十八届中共中央政治局委员" and "日美安全体制". The "中国共产党中央委员会" did not write in the form of Japanese Ming Dynasty characters, but directly used simplified Chinese characters.

The full name of "中共十九届一中全会" is "中国共产党第十九届中央委员会第一次全体会议", in which "一" stands for "第一次", which is an ordinal word rather than a cardinal word. Machine translation does not produce a correct translation. The fundamental reason is that there are no "规则" for translating such words in machine translation. If we can formulate corresponding rules for such words (for example, 中共m'1届m2 中全会→第m1期中央委员会第m2回全体会议), the translation system must be able to translate well no matter how many plenary sessions of the CPC Central Committee.

===2.1.2Mistranslation of Polysemy===
original text Translation by Youdao reference translation

スタジオ摄影棚/工作室直播现场/演播厅

日中関係の話中日关系的故事就中日关系(话题)

溝水沟鸿沟

それでは日中の問題について質問のある方。那么对白天的问题有提问的人。关于中日问题的话题，举手提问。

私たちのクラスは20人ちょっとですが、我们班有20人左右，我们班二十多人的意见统一很难，

いろいろな意見が出て、まとめるのは大変です。但是又各种各样的意见，总结起来很困难。

一体どうやって、13億人もの人をまとめているんですか。到底是怎么处理13亿的人的呢？中国是怎样把13亿人凝聚在一起的？

In the original text, the word "スタジオ" appeared four times and was translated into "摄影棚" or "工作室" respectively, but the context is on-site interview, not the production site of photography or film. "話" has many semantics, such as "说话", "事情", "道理", etc. In accordance with the practice of the interview program, Premier Zhu Rongji was invited to answer five questions on the topic of China Japan relations. Obviously, the meaning of the word "故事" is very abrupt. The inherent Japanese word "日中" means "晌午、白天". At the same time, it is also the abbreviation of the names of the two countries. The machine failed to deal with it correctly according to the context. "溝" refers to the gap between China and Japan, not a "水沟". The former "まとめる" appears in the original text with the word "意见", which is intended to describe that it is difficult to unify everyone's opinions. The latter "まとめている" also refers to unifying the thoughts of 1.3 billion people, not "处理". Therefore, it is more appropriate to use "统一" and "处理" in human translation, rather than "总结意见" or "处理意见".

Mistranslation of polysemy has always been a difficult problem in machine translation research. The translation of each word is correct, but it is often very different from the original expression in the context. Zhang Zhengzeng said that ambiguity is a common phenomenon in natural language. Its essence is that the same language form may have different meanings, which is also one of the differences between natural language and artificial language. Therefore, one of the difficulties faced by machine translation is language disambiguation (Zhang Zheng, 2005:60). In this regard, we can mark all the meanings of polysemous words and judge which meaning to choose by common collocation with other words. At the same time, strengthen the text recognition ability of the machine to avoid the translation inconsistent with the current context. In this way, we can avoid the mistake of "大酱" in the place where famous figures such as Deng Xiaoping should have appeared in the previous political articles.

===2.1.3Mistranslation of compound words===
Multi class words refer to a word with two or more parts of speech, also known as the same word and different classes.

original text Translation by Youdao reference translation

1998年江泽民主席曾经访问日本, 1998年の江沢民国家主席の日本訪問し、 1998年、江沢民総書記が日本を訪問し、かつ

同已故小渊首相签署了联合宣言。かつて同じ故小渕首相が署名した共同宣言亡くなられた小渕総理と宣言に調印されました

Chinese "同" has two parts of speech: prepositions and conjunctions: "故" has many parts of speech, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives and conjunctions. This directly affects the judgment of the machine at the source language level. The word "同" in the above table is used as a conjunction to indicate the other party of a common act. "故" is used as a verb with the semantic meaning of "死亡", which is a modifier of "小渊首相". The machine regards "同" as an adjective and "故" as a noun "原因", which leads to confusion in the structure and unclear semantics of the translation. Different from the polysemy problem, multi category words have at least two parts of speech, and there is often not only one meaning under each part of speech. In this regard, software R & D personnel should fully consider the existence of multi category words, so that the translation machine can distinguish the meaning of words on the basis of marking the part of speech, so as to select the translation through the context and the components of the word in the sentence. Of course, the realization of this function is difficult, and we need to give full play to the wisdom of R & D personnel.

===2.2 Syntactic mistranslation in Chinese Japanese machine translation===
===2.2.1Mistranslation of tenses===
original text：History is written by the people, and all achievements are attributed to the people.

Translation by Youdao：歴史は人民が書いたものであり、すべての成果は人民のためである。

reference translation：歴史は人民が綴っていくものであり、すべての成果は人民に帰することとなります。

The original sentence meaning is "历史是人民书写的历史" or "历史是人民书写的东西". When translated into Japanese, due to the influence of Japanese language habits, the formal noun "もの" should be supplemented accordingly. In this sentence, both the machine and the interpreter have translated correctly. However, the machine's recognition of "的" is biased, resulting in tense translation errors. The past, present and future will become "history", and this is a continuous action. The form translated as "~ ていく" not only reflects that the action is a continuous action, but also conforms to the tense and semantic information of the original text. In addition, the machine's treatment of the preposition "于" is also inappropriate. In the original text, "人民" is the recipient of action, not the target language. As the most obvious feature of isolated language, function words in Chinese play an important role in semantic expression, and their translation should be regarded as a focus of machine translation research.

original text：李克强同志是十六届中共中央政治局常委,其他五位同志都是十六届中共中央政治局委员。

Translation by Youdao：李克強総理は第16代中国共産党中央政治局常務委員であり、他の５人の同志はいずれも16期の中国共産党中央政治局委員である。

reference translation：李克強同志は第16期中国共産党中央政治局常務委員を務め、他の５人は第16期中共中央政治局委員を務めました。

Judging the verb "是" in the original text plays its most basic positive role, but due to the complexity of Chinese language, "是" often can not be completely transformed into the form of "だ / である" in the process of translation. This sentence is a judgment of what has happened. Compared with the 19th session, the 18th session has become history. This is an implicit temporal information. It is very difficult for machines without human brain to recognize this implicit information. "中共中央政治局常委" is the abbreviation of "中共中央政治局常务委员会委员" and it is a kind of position. In Japanese, often use it with verbs such as "務める","担当する",etc. The translator adopts the past tense of "務める", which conforms to the expression habit of Japanese and deals with the problem of tense at the same time. However, machine translation only mechanically translates this sentence into judgment sentence, and fails to correctly deal with the past information implied by the word "十八届".

===2.2.2Mistranslation of honorifics===
Honorific language is a language means to show respect to the listener. Different from Japanese, there is no grammatical category of honorifics in Chinese. There is no specific fixed grammatical form to express honorifics, self modesty and politeness. Instead, specific words such as "您", "请" and "劳驾" are used to express all kinds of respect or self modesty.

Original text translation by Youdao reference translation

女士们，先生们，同志们，朋友们さんたち、先生たち、同志たち、お友达さん　　ご列席の皆さん

谢谢大家！ありがとうございます！ご清聴ありがとうございました。

これはどうされますか。这是怎么回事呢? 您将如何解决这一问题？

こうした問題をどうお考えでしょうか。我们会如何考虑这些问题呢？您如何看待这一问题？

For example, for the processing of "女士们，先生们，同志们，朋友们", the machine makes the translation correspond to the original one by one based on the principle of unchanged format, but there are errors in semantic communication and pragmatic habits. When speaking on formal occasions, Chinese expression tends to be comprehensive and detailed, as well as the address of the audience. In contrast, Japanese usually uses general terms such as "皆様", "ご臨席の皆さん" or "代表団の方々" as the opening remarks. In terms of Japanese Chinese translation, the machine also failed to recognize the usage of Japanese honorifics such as "される" and "お考え". It can be seen that Chinese Japanese machine translation has a low ability to deal with honorific expressions. The occasion is more formal. A good translation should not only be fluent in meaning, but also conform to the expression habits of the target language and match the current translation environment.

===Conclusion===
In the process of discussing the Mistranslation of machine translation, this paper mainly cites the Mistranslation of Youdao translator. When I studied the problem of machine translation mistranslation, I also used a large number of translation software such as Google and Baidu for parallel comparison, and found that these translation software also had similar problems with Youdao translator. For example, the "新世界新未来" in Chinese ABAC structural phrases is translated by Baidu as "新し世界の新しい未来", which, like Youdao, is not translated in the form of parallel phrases; Google online translation translates the word "“全心全意" into a completely wrong "全面的に"; The original sentence "我吃了很多亏" in the Mistranslation of the unique expression in the language is translated by Google online as "私はたくさんの損失を食べました". Because the "吃" and "亏" in the original text are not closely adjacent, the machine can not recognize this echo and mistakenly treats "亏" as a kind of food, so the machine translates the predicate as "食べました"; Japanese "こうした問題をどう考えでしょうか", Google's online translation is "你如何看待这些问题?", "你" tone can not reflect the tone of Japanese honorific, while Baidu translates as "你怎么想这样的问题呢?" Although the meaning can be understood, it is an irregular spoken language. Google and Baidu also made the same mistakes as Youdao in the translation of proper nouns. For example, they translated "十七届(中共中央政治局常委)”" into "第17回..." .In short, similar mistranslations of Youdao are also common in Baidu and Google. Due to space constraints, they will not be listed one by one here.

Mr. Liu Yongquan, Institute of language, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences (1997) It has been pointed out that machine translation is a linguistic problem in the final analysis. Although corpus based machine translation does not require a lot of linguistic knowledge, language expression is ever-changing. Machine translation based solely on statistical ideas can not avoid the translation quality problems caused by the lack of language rules. The following is based on the analysis of lexical, syntactic and other mistranslations From the perspective of the characteristics of the source language, this paper summarizes some difficulties of Chinese and Japanese in machine translation.

(1) The difficulties of Chinese in machine translation

Chinese is a typical isolated language. The relationship between words needs to be reflected by word order and function words. We should pay attention to the transformation of function words such as "的", "在", "向" and "了". Some special verbs, such as "是", "做" and "作", are widely used. How to translate on the basis of conforming to Japanese pragmatic habits and expressions is a difficulty in machine translation research. In terms of word order, Chinese is basically "subject→predicate→object". At the same time, Chinese pays attention to parataxis, and there is no need to be clear in expression with meaningful cohesion, which increases the difficulty of Chinese Japanese machine translation. When there are multiple verbs or modifier components in complex long sentences, machine translation usually can not accurately divide the components of the sentence, resulting in the result that the translation is completely unreadable.

(2) Difficulties of Japanese in machine translation

Both Chinese and Japanese languages use Chinese characters, and most machines produce the target language through the corresponding translation of Chinese characters. However, pseudonyms in Japanese play an important role in judging the part of speech and meaning, and can not only recognize Chinese characters and judge the structure and semantics of sentences. Japanese vocabulary is composed of Chinese vocabulary, inherent vocabulary and foreign vocabulary. Among them, the first two have a great impact on Chinese Japanese machine translation. For example "提出" is translated as "提出する" or "打ち出す"; and "重视" is translated as "重視する" or "大切にする". Japanese is an adhesive language, which contains a lot of "けど", "が" and "けれども" Some of them are transitional and progressive structures, but there are also some sequential expressions that do not need translation, and these translation software often can not accurately grasp them.

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[2] Cao Qianyu;Hao Hanmei;Ahmed Syed Hassan.A Chaotic Neural Network Model for English Machine Translation Based on Big Data Analysis[J].Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience,2021,2021:3274326-3274326.

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[12]崔倩倩.机器翻译错误与译后编辑策略研究【D】.北京外国语大学.2019(09)

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Networking Linking

http://www.elecfans.com/rengongzhineng/692245.html

https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E6%9C%BA%E5%99%A8%E7%BF%BB%E8%AF%91/411793

=13 陈湘琼Chen Xiangqiong（Study on Post-editing from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory ）=
[[Machine_Trans_EN_13]]

=14 Bi bi Nadia（Machine Translation a Challenge for Human Translators)=
[[Machine_Trans_EN_14]]

===Abstract===
Machine translation is a big obstacle in the way of Human translators or interpretors although it is quick and less time consuming.people are trying to get translation of their target language using through source language.For this purpose they are using digital apps like Google translation Google translation does not give accurate and exact interpretation.Google translator is translates word to word translate that doesn't clarifies it's true and actual meaning.On the other hand human translators can give exact and accurate translation ,they take care of grammatical errors , diction and sentence structure.They clarify the purpose of target language through using source language.
===Keywords===
Descriptive translation, academic, interdiscipline, comparative literature, localization,Translatology,school of thought, translation , studies, linguistics, corresponding
===Body of article===
Translation is the process of reworking text from one language into another to maintain the original message and communication. But, like everything else, there are different methods of translation, and they vary in form and function. What is translation? The term has become widely used among knowledge transfer researchers and practitioners, especially in the fields of health and health care. In a landmark review, Jonathan Lomas began to argue that 'The tasks… may be defined as to establish and maintain links between researchers and their audience, via the appropriate translation of research findings' (Lomas 1997, p 4). In 2004, the World Health Organization's World Report on Knowledge for Better Health suggested that 'One of the key contributions of research to health systems is the translation of knowledge into actions' (WHO 2004, p 33 and p 100). By 2006, special issues of WHO's Bulletin as well as the journals Evaluation and the Health Professions and the Journal of Continuing Education in the Health Professions were dedicated to translation.But what does 'translation' mean? It may be a new word for an old problem, meaning nothing more than 'transfer'. The rapidly emerging field of 'translational medicine' seems to take translation to mean generally what transfer might have meant, that is the transmission of knowledge and evidence 'from bench to bedside'. As one commentator has observed, "Translational medicine" as a fashionable term is being increasingly used to describe the wish of biomedical researchers to ultimately help patients' (Wehling 2008, abstract).
Semantic uncertainty persists, not least because of the different interests of scientists, clinicians, patients and commercial firms (Littman et al 2007): 'Translational research means different things to different people, but it seems important to almost everyone' (Woolf 2008, p 211).
In related fields, such as public health (Armstrong et al 2006), 'translation' seems to signify dissatisfaction with 'transfer'. It wants to move away from thinking of knowledge transfer as a form of technology transfer or dissemination, rejecting if only by implication its mechanistic assumptions and its model of linear messaging from A to B. But still, what does it signify?

===Why translation?===
'Translation' indicates a closer attention to the problem of shared meaning and how it might be developed. It seems to represent some new epistemological lubricant, facilitating the dissemination of texts and the application and use of the knowledge and information they in. Simply, translation might be the key to transfer. And yet, when we stop to think, we are more ambivalent. What is translated often seems somehow inferior, not real or original. Note how readily commentators reach for the idea that things might be 'lost in translation'. Knowing at a distance – made in and mediated by translation - makes for incomplete renditions, blurred images, partial truths. So what might 'translation' really mean? The purpose of this paper is to set out, for policy makers and practitioners, the theoretical and conceptual resources translation holds and seems to represent. In doing so, it explores understandings of translation in the fields of literature and linguistics and in the sociology of science and technology. It begins by setting out just why this idea of translation should make immediate, intuitive sense in relation to research, policy and practice.
1translation in research, policy and practice research as translation
Research often entails translation from one language to another: where data is collected from more than one ethnic group, for example, or where the language of the researcher is other than that of the research subject. It may draw on a secondary literature or source documents written in different languages, and may be published and disseminated in languages other than the one in which it is first written up.
2In a different way, to conduct an interview is to ask for an account of experience and its meanings, but it is also to construct and translate that experience in terms defined at least in part by the researcher. In representing what is said, transcripts then select data, usually excluding significant gesture and eye-contact, for example. Often, certain characteristics of speech-acts (such as hesitations) will be edited out. In turn, the format of the transcript shapes the analytic use the researcher may make of it. The basis of research 'findings', then, is an artefact, a transcript or translation, not an original interaction (Ochs 1979, Barnes, Bloor and Henry 1996, Ross 2009).
3In this way, the researcher recasts aspects of his or her problem or topic in new, scientific form: 'All researchers "translate" the experiences of others' (Temple 1997, p 609). Research is invariably conducted in a sort of 'metalanguage' (Hantrais and Ager 1985): the research process can be conceived as one of successive translations (from theoretical formulation to operationalization, transcription, interpretation and dissemination). Theorization is a process of reciprocal back and forth between theory and fact, in which conceptions of each are revised in order that one fit the other (Baldamus 1974).
4 It is a kind of translation: a rereading, re-use, re-application or re-representation of what we know in new terms (Turner 1980). Referencing, too, is an act of translation, a form of appropriation and incorporation of one text by another (Gilbert 1977).policy as translation Each of the fields covered by the paper is diverse and ill-defined, and there is no intention here to provide a comprehensive account of any them. Sources have been chosen for their relevance: main references are cited in the text, and additional sources listed in footnotes.

2For a brief introduction to the technical issues involved in social research in more than one language, see Birbili (2000). For translation issues in survey research and question design in general, see Ervin and Bower (1952) and Deutscher (1968); on translating survey research instruments (in this instance health-related quality of life measures), Bowden and Fox-Rushby (2003). On the use of translators and interpreters, see Temple (1997) and Jentsch (1998).
3For an interesting discussion of this problem, see Bourdieu (1999), esp pp 621-626, 'The risks of writing'.
===Difference between machine translation and human translators===
Few people disagree on the differences between the two, but many argue over the quality of the translations. How accurate are machine translations? How reliable are human translations? Some say machine translation produces near-perfect translations while others are adamant that translations are incomprehensible and cause more problems than they solve. Results will, of course, vary depending on the source and target languages, the machine translation service used (e.g. Google Translate), and the complexity of the original text.
Machine translation, love it or hate it, is here to stay. In fact, the machine translation market is growing at such a fast pace that it is predicted to reach $980 million by 2022.
===Machine translation: the pros and cons===
The advantages of machine translation generally come down to two factors: it’s faster and cheaper. The downside to this is the standard of translation can be anywhere from inaccurate, to incomprehensible, and potentially dangerous (more on that shortly).
==The advantages of machine translation==
Many free tools are readily available (Google Translate, Skype Translator, etc.)
Quick turnaround time
You can translate between multiple languages using one tool
Translation technology is constantly improving
The disadvantages of machine translation
Level of accuracy can be very low
Accuracy is also very inconsistent across different languages
==Machines can't translate context ==
Mistakes are sometimes costly
Sometimes translation simply doesn’t work
The most important thing to consider with any kind of translation is the cost of potential mistakes. Translating instructions for medical equipment, aviation manuals, legal documents and many other kinds of content require 100% accuracy. In such cases, mistakes can cost lives, huge amounts of money and irreparable damage to your company’s image. So choose carefully!
Human translation: the pros and cons
Human translation essentially switches the table in terms of pros and cons. A higher standard of accuracy comes at the price of longer turnaround times and higher costs. What you have to decide is whether that initial investment outweighs the potential cost of mistakes. Alternatively, whether mistakes simply aren’t an option, like the cases we looked at in the previous section.

==The advantages of human translation ==
It’s a translator’s job to ensure the highest accuracy
Humans can interpret context and capture the same meaning, rather than simply translating words
Human translators can review their work and provide a quality process
Humans can interpret the creative use of language, e.g. puns, metaphors, slogans, etc.
Professional translators understand the idiomatic differences between their languages
Humans can spot pieces of content where literal translation isn’t possible and find the most suitable alternative
The disadvantages of human translation
Turnaround time is longer
Translators rarely work for free
Unless you use a translation agency, with access to thousands of translators, you’re limited to the languages any one translator can work with
Simply put, human translation is your best option when accuracy is even remotely important. Other considerations to make are the complexity of your source material and the two languages you’re translating between – both of which can render machines pretty useless.

When to use machine and human translation
The truth is, the debate over machine vs human translation is an unnecessary distraction. What we should really be talking about is when to use these two different types of translation services, because they both serve a very valid purpose.

Examples of when to use machine translation
When you have a large bulk of content to translate and the general meaning is enough
When your translation never reaches the final audience, e.g. you’re translating a resource as research for another piece of content
Translating documents for internal use within a company, provided 100% accuracy isn’t needed
To partially translate large chunks of content for a human translator to improve upon
Examples of when to use human translation
When accuracy is important
Most cases where your translated content is received by a consumer audience
When you have a duty of care to provide accurate translations (e.g. legal documents, product instructions, medical guidelines or health and safety content)
When translating marketing material or other texts for creative language uses.

===Conclusion ===

In the light of above mentioned facts and figures here by we would say that machine translation is challenge for human translators because it can reduces the wokload of translation but can't give accurate and exact translation of the traget language.It can be less reliable than human translation..

Machine translation

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Yan Jing:

Machine Trans EN 8

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Yan Jing: /* 题目 */

20220112 final exam

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Yan Jing: /* Final exam papers */

20211208 homework

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Yan Jing: /* 颜静 Yán Jìng 语言智能与跨文化传播研究女 202120081536 */