China Studies Wiki - User contributions [en]

20201221 cult

2020-12-25T07:54:49Z

Yang chenting: /* Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲 */

==Alsied, Saffana==

==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==

==Chen Han 陈涵==

==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==

==Dashkin, Gennadii==

==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==

==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==

==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==

==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==

==Grosheva, Anna==

==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==

==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==

==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==

==Guirou, Barthelemy==

==Guo Lu 郭露==

1. 丝绸之路是古代横贯亚欧的通道。其起点一般认为是长安（今西安），其实它随朝代更替政治中心转移而变化。长安（今西安）、洛阳、平城（今大同）、汴梁（今开封）、北京曾先后为丝路起点。

The Silk Road is an ancient across of asia-europe. Its starting point is usually ascribed to Changan (now xian), actually the starting point is changed according to the changed political center. Changan (now Xian), Luoyang, Pingcheng (now Datong), Bianliang (today Kaifeng), and Beijing has been the starting point of the Silk Road.

2. 海上丝绸之路较之陆上，有共性，也有特性；有优势和潜力，也有难度和挑战。要推进21世纪海上丝绸之路建设，要在对接合作上下功夫。

Compared with the Silk Road, the Maritime Silk Road shares similarities but also has its unique characters. It has its own set of advantages, potentials, as well as difficulties and challenges. Going forward, I believe the success of the Maritime Silk Road of the 21st Century would require effective efforts to coordinate our cooperation.

Compared with the Silk Road, the Maritime Silk Road shares similarities but also has its unique characteristics. It has its own set of advantages, potentials, as well as difficulties and challenges. Going forward, the success of the Maritime Silk Road of the 21st Century would require effective efforts to coordinate cooperation.--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:14, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

3. 在西学东渐大潮中兴起的近代报刊改变了传统的审美机制，使美学从内容到形式都发生了根本性的变化，从而促成了中国美学的现代转型。

The rising modern press during the period of the Eastward Spread of Western Learning deeply transformed the traditional aesthetic mechanism from the content to the form. Then the modern press has facilitated the modern reforms of Chinese esthetics.

4. 这场运动由士大夫们领导，比如李鸿章（1823——1901）和左宗棠（1812——1885），他们曾在太平起义中与政府军作战。1861到1894年间，现在成为大臣们的这些人负责建立了现代的机构，发展基础工业、通信和交通业并是军队现代化。

The movement was championed by scholar-generals like Li Hongzhang (1823—1901) and Zuo Zongtang (1812—1885), who had fought with the government forces in the Taiping Rebellion. From 1861 to 1894, leaders such as these, now turned scholar-administrators, were responsible for establishing modem institutions, developing basic industries, communications, and transportation, and modernizing the military.
--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 03:01, 24 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ha, Thi Thu Hang==

==He Changqi 何长琦==

==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==

==Hu Jin 胡瑾==

==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==

==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==
1.张骞（前164年-前114年），字子文，西汉外交家、探险家，是“丝绸之路的开拓者”“东方的哥伦布”。前139年，张骞奉汉武帝之命，出使西域，打通了汉朝通往西域的道路，即赫赫有名的丝绸之路，促进了东西方文明的交流。汉武帝以军功封其为博望侯。史学家司马迁高度称赞了其出使西域。

Zhang Qian( B.C. 164- B.C. 114), whose style name is Ziwen, was the diplomat and explorer in Western Han dynasty. He was called as the pioneer of the Silk Road and the Columbus of the East. In B.C. 139, at the command of Emperor Wu of Western Han dynasty, Zhang Qian visited Western Regions and carved out a way, advancing the communication between the Eastern and Western civilization. Therefore, Emperor Wu of the Han dynasty granted him the title of Marquis Bowang with military merit. And Historian Sima Qian highly praised his work.--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:12, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

2.海上丝绸之路是古代中国与外国交通贸易和文化交往的海上通道，分为东海航线和南海航线两条线路，主要以南海为中心。海上丝路萌芽于商周，发展于春秋战国，形成于秦汉，兴于唐宋，转变于明清，是已知最为古老的海上航线。海上丝绸之路途经100多个国家和地区，是中国与外国贸易往来和文化交流的海上大通道，推动了沿线各国的共同发展。

The Maritime Silk Road was a maritime route for traffic, trade and cultural exchanges between ancient China and foreign countries. It was divided into two routes, the East China Sea route and the South China Sea route, with the South China Sea as the center. The Maritime Silk Road originated in the Shang and Zhou dynasties, developed in the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods, formed in the Qin and Han dynasties, flourished in the Tang and Song dynasties, and transformed in the Ming and Qing dynasties. And it is the oldest known maritime route. The Maritime Silk Road, passing through more than 100 countries and regions, is a major maritime corridor for trade and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries and has promoted the common development of countries along the route.--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:12, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

3.西学东渐是指近代西方学术思想向中国传播的历史过程，通常而言是指在明末清初以及晚清民初两个时期之中，欧洲及美国等地学术思想的传入。

The Eastward Spread of Western Learning refers to the historical process of the spread of western academic ideas to China in modern times. Generally speaking, it is the introduction of academic ideas from Europe and America in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties and the early Ming and Early Ming Dynasties.--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:12, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

4.洋务运动是19世纪60到90年代晚清洋务派进行的一场引进西方军事装备、机器生产和科学技术以挽救清朝统治的自救运动。前期，洋务派以“自强”为旗号，创办了一批近代军事工业。后期，以“求富”为旗号，兴办了一批民用工业。甲午中日战争中，北洋海军全军覆没，洋务运动宣告破产。洋务运动虽然没有使中国富强起来，但期间引进了西方先进的科学技术，客观上促进了民族资本主义的产生和发展。

The Westernization Movement was a self-help movement carried out by the Westernization Group of the Qing Dynasty from the 1960s to the late 1990s, which introduced western military equipment, machine production and science and technology to save the Qing dynasty. In the early stage, the Westernization Movement established a number of modern military industries under the banner of "self-improvement". In the later period, under the banner of "seeking wealth", lots of civil industries were set up. In the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895, the entire Beiyang Navy was wiped out, and the Westernization Movement was bankrupt. Although Westernization Movement did not make China rich and powerful, it drew in advanced science and technology from the West, which objectively promoted the emergence and development of national capitalism.--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:12, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==

==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==

==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==

==Li Lili 李丽丽==

==Li Liqin 李丽琴==

==Liu Liu 刘柳==

1.张骞先后两次出使西域，打开了中国与中亚、西亚、南亚以至通往欧洲的陆路交通，从此中国人通过这条通道向西域和中亚等国出售丝绸、茶叶、漆器和其他产品，同时从欧洲、西亚和中亚引进宝石、玻璃器等产品。

2.“海上丝绸之路”是古代中国与外国交通贸易和文化交往的海上通道，该路主要以南海为中心，所以又称南海丝绸之路。海上丝绸之路形成于秦汉时期，发展于三国至隋朝时期，繁荣于唐宋时期，转变于明清时期，是已知的最为古老的海上航线。

3.西学东渐将西方近代各种学术上的新成果带入了中国，深深影响到各种学术的发展，而许多在传统中国不被重视甚至不存在的学科也在此影响下得到发展。

4.洋务运动虽然在客观上刺激中国资本主义发展、并且在一定程度上抵制了外国资本主义的经济输入，但并没有使中国走上富强之路。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 06:42, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Ou 刘欧==

==Liu Yi 刘艺==

==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==

==Lo, Minh Thao==

==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==

==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==

==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==

==Mo Ling 莫玲==

==Ngo, Thi Minh Huong==

==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==
1.建元二年（前139年），张骞率领100多名随行人员，由匈奴人堂邑父为向导从长安出发前往西域。西行进入河西走廊。这一地区自月氏人西迁后，已完全为匈奴人所控制。正当张骞一行匆匆穿过河西走廊时，不幸碰上匈奴的骑兵，他们全部被抓获。

In the second year of Jianyuan(139 B.C.), Zhang Qian set off to the Western Regions leading an entourage of more than 100 men from Chang'an under the guidance of Tang Yifu who is a Hun. They travelled westward into the Hexi Corridor which had been completely controlled by the Huns since they moved westward. When they tried to hurry through this region, unfortunately they met the Hun cavalry, and they were all captured.

2.郑和下西洋所到之处主要是开展贸易活动，以“朝贡贸易”为基本形式，同时推行“官方贸易”、带动“民间互市”等。

Zheng He's voyages are mainly to carry out trade activities, during which they took "tribute trade" as the basic activity, and at the same time promoted "official trade" and "non-governmental trade".

3.在明末清初的一波西学东渐中，传教士扮演著相当重要的角色，当时主要以天主教耶稣会为主的传教士们，在试图将天主教传入中国的同时，引介了西方的科技学术思想，译著了大量的西方学术相关书籍。

From the late Ming Dynasty to the early Qing Dynasty, missionaries played an important role in the Eastward Spread of Western Learning. While trying to introduce Catholicism into China, the missionaries mainly composed of the Catholic Jesuits introduced western scientific and technological thoughts and translated a large number of western academic books.

4.在洋务运动存续的35年里，文化出版事业的发展达到了一个前所未有的水平。译书经历了由单纯的西方科技著作和书籍，向自然科学和社会科学，人文科学等著作并重，甚至后者略占上风的过程。

During the 35 years of Westernization Movement, the development of cultural publishing reached an unprecedentedly high level. The translation of books experienced a process from the dominance of western scientific and technological works to the emphasis laid equally on works of natural and social sciences and humanities, and even the latter took the majority.--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 12:15, 24 December 2020 (UTC)

1. In the second year of Jian Yuan (139 BC), Zhang Qian led more than 100 serve men, with the Xiongnu man Tang Yi as the guide, to set off from Chang’ an to the West. This area has been completely controlled by the Xiongnu since the westward migration of the Ziyue people. Just as Zhang Qian passed through the Hexi Corridor, they unfortunately ran into the Xiongnu cavalry, who captured them all.

2. Zheng He mainly carried out trade activities in all the places he visited, taking “tribute trade” as the basic form. At the same time, he also promoted “official trade” and “private mutual market”.

3. In the wave of Western learning in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, missionaries played an important role, mainly the Jesuit missionaries, who tried to introduce Catholicism into China, introduced Western scientific and academic ideas, and translated a large number of Western academic books.

4. During the 35 years’ Westernization Movement, the development of publishing reached an unprecedented level. The translation of books went through a process from purely Western scientific and technological works and books to works on natural sciences and social sciences, humanities, etc., with the latter even slightly prevailing.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:54, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting

==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==

==Phyo, Su Kyi==
1-张谦出生于西汉（公元前206年至公元24年）的城固县（今陕西省城固县）。他是中国历史上杰出的使节和探险家，开辟了古老的丝绸之路，并带来了有关西部地区的可靠信息.

Zhang Qian was born in Chenggu (the present Chenggu County of Shaanxi Province) of Western Han Dynasty (206 BC-24 AD). He was an outstanding envoy and explorer in Chinese history, opening up the ancient Silk Road and bringing reliable information about the Western Regions.

2-郑和（1371-1433）是一位伟大的中国探险家和舰队司令。他进行了七次主要探险，以探索中国皇帝的世界并在新地区建立中国贸易。

Zheng He (1371 - 1433) was a great Chinese explorer and fleet commander. He went on seven major expeditions to explore the world for the Chinese emperor and to establish Chinese trade in new areas.

Zheng He, a great Chinese explorer and fleet captain, has carrried out 7 major explorations to broaden Chinese emperor's world and establish Chinese trade in new regions.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 10:02, 24 December 2020 (UTC)

3-西方的儒道教说，为中西文化交流做出了贡献。

The West Chinese Confucian and Daoist doctrines, and made contributions to cultural exchange between China and the West.

4-自强运动，又称为洋务运动（西洋运动或西洋运动）（约1861年至1895年），是鸦片战争的军事灾难后在清朝后期在中国发起的体制改革时期。

The Self-Strengthening Movement, also known as the Westernization or Western Affairs Movement ( c. 1861–1895), was a period of institutional reforms initiated in China during the late Qing dynasty following the military disasters of the Opium Wars.--[[User:Phyo Su Kyi 1|Phyo Su Kyi 1]] ([[User talk:Phyo Su Kyi 1|talk]]) 09:43, 24 December 2020 (UTC)Phyo Su Kyi

==Pingki, Tanchangya==

==Qu Miao 瞿淼==

==Rajabov, Anushervon==

==Seydou, Sagara==

==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==

==Si Yu 司妤==

==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==

==Tang Bei 汤蓓==

==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==

==Wang Meiling 王美玲==

==Wang Xuan 王轩==
1. 张骞出使西域，既是一次极为艰险的外交旅行，同时也是一次卓有成效的科学考察。张骞对广阔的西域进行了实地的调查研究工作。
Zhang Qian's mission to the western regions was not only an extremely difficult diplomatic trip, but also an effective scientific investigation. Zhang Qian made a field investigation on the vast western regions.

2. 十五世纪初期，郑和下西洋作为军事史上一项意义重大的事件，当前学术界从郑和下西洋的政治、经济及文化等角度对该事件的作用及影响进行了分析，鲜少从历史意义层面进行研究。郑和七次下西洋所到达的地区、实施的措施在人类航行史上占据至关重要的地位，了解郑和下西洋的历史意义非常必要。
At the beginning of the 15th century, Zheng He's voyages to the West was a significant event in the military history. At present, the academic circles have analyzed the role and influence of Zheng He's voyages from the political, economic and cultural perspectives, but rarely from the perspective of historical significance. The area Zheng He arrived at and the measures he took during his seven voyages to the West occupy an important position in the history of human navigation. It is necessary to understand the historical significance of Zheng He's voyages to the West.

==Wu Qiong 吴琼==

==Wu Yilu 吴一露==

==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==

==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==

==Xiao Ting 肖婷==

==Xie Fan 解帆==

==Xu Jia 徐佳==

==Xu Jing 许静==

==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==

1. 丝绸之路经济带，是在古丝绸之路概念基础上形成的一个新的经济发展区域。包括西北五省区陕西、甘肃、青海、宁夏、新疆。

1. Silk Road Economic Belt is a new economic development region formed on the basis of the ancient Silk Road. It includes the five northwestern provinces—Shaanxi, Gansu, Qinghai, Ningxia and Xinjiang.

The Silk Road Economic Belt is a new economic development region based on the ancient Silk Road. It includes the five northwestern provinces—Shaanxi, Gansu, Qinghai, Ningxia and Xinjiang. --[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 03:03, 24 December 2020 (UTC)

2. 海上丝绸之路，是古代中国与外国交通贸易和文化交往的海上通道，也称"海上陶瓷之路"和“海上香料之路”，1913年由法国的东方学家沙畹首次提及。

2. Maritime Silk Road is a maritime route of trade and cultural exchanges between ancient China and foreign countries, also known as “Maritime Ceramic Road” and “Maritime Spice Road”, first mentioned by the French orientalist Chavan in 1913.

3. 西学东渐是指从明朝末年到近代的西方学术思想向中国传播的历史过程，虽然也可以泛指自上古以来一直到到当代的各种西方事物传入中国，但通常而言是指明末清初以及晚清民初两个时期之中，欧洲及美国等地学术思传入。

3. The Eastward Spread of Western Learning is a historical process of spreading Western academic thought to China from the late Ming Dynasty to modern times. Although it can also refer to the introduction of various Western things into China from ancient times to contemporary times, but usually refers to the introduction of academic thought from Europe and the United States in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties.

4. 鸦片战争后，他们的基本思想就是了解夷情,“师夷长技以制夷”。这些卓识远见表明近代向西方学习的思潮的始初就和爱国精神交融在一起。

4. After the Opium War, their basic idea was to understand the situation of the barbarians and “learn from them in order to control them”. These insights show that the modern trend of learning from the West was intertwined with the spirit of patriotism from the very beginning.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 02:34, 24 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

==Yang Hairong 杨海容==

==Yang Hui 阳慧==

==Yang Yue 杨悦==

==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==

==Yi Zichu 义子楚==

==You Yuting 游雨婷==

==Yu Ni 余妮==

==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==

唐代丝绸之路的畅通繁荣，也进一步促进了东西方思想文化交流，对以后相互的社会和民族意识形态发展，产生了很多积极、深远的影响。

The smooth and prosperous development of the Silk Road in the Tang Dynasty also further accelerated the ideological and cultural exchanges between the East and the West, causing a lot of positive and far-reaching influences on the development of mutual social and national ideologies in the future.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 10:00, 24 December 2020 (UTC)

宋代海上丝绸之路的持续发展，大大增加了朝廷和港市的财政深收入，一定程度上促进了经济发展和城市化生活，也为中外文化交流提供了便利条件。

The continuous development of the Maritime Silk Road in the Song Dynasty greatly increased the deep financial income of the imperial court and the port city, promoted the economic development and urban life to a certain extent, and also provided convenient conditions for the cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 10:00, 24 December 2020 (UTC)

西学东渐将西方近代各种学术上的新成果带入了中国，深深影响到各种学术的发展，而许多在传统中国不被重视甚至不存在的学科也在此影响下得到发展，

The eastward spread of Western learning brought various new academic achievements of modern Western learning into China, which deeply influenced the development of various academic disciplines. Under such an influence, many disciplines that were not valued or even did not exist in traditional China also developed.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 10:00, 24 December 2020 (UTC)

甲午中日战争中，北洋海军全军覆没，标志着清朝海军实力的完全丧失，也标志着35年的洋务运动宣告破产。

The total annihilation of the Beiyang Navy in the Sino-Japanese War marked the complete loss of naval power in the Qing Dynasty and the bankruptcy of the 35-year-old Westernization Movement.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 10:00, 24 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Liang 曾良==

==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==

==Zhang Hui 张慧==

==Zhang Ling 张玲==

==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==

==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==

==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==

==Zhang Yu 张瑜==

==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==

==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==

==Zhao Xi 赵茜==

==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==

==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==

==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==

==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==

==Zhu Xu 朱旭==

==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==

==Zubareva, Ekaterina==

20201228 trans

2020-12-25T07:39:44Z

Yang chenting: /* Zeng Liang 曾良 */

==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==
'''Zhu Ziqing'''

A third example, where an author shows another face in his essays is Zhu Ziqing. He is known as the author of the most often reprinted story-like Chinese essay "''Back View''" (Beiying), a standard school text. The success of this essay lies in the fact, that it applies to filial pity. From the reported fare-well scene with his father at the train station, he learned that his father loved him and that he had grown-up too now.
==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==
This self-reflective essay helped Zhu to find himself through the observation of the other (here his father). The 2nd often printed essay is also from Zhu. Parallelistic and repetitive structures are the driving factor in the atmospherical nebulous lyrical landscape desription "''The Moonlit Lotus Pond''", whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader.

Zhu Ziqing supposedly opposed all political engagement and, wrote about unspectacular things. In Taiwan he became a type of substitute for the categorically refused state writer of the People’s Republic, Lu Xun, mainly because of Zhu’s supposed political independence.
==Chen Han 陈涵==
I would like to show with three examples that Zhu had absolutely clear political ideas: He had taken part in the demonstration March 18, 1926, which ended in a massacre. Zhu described this in ''"Report On the Massacre of the Government''"[ (Zhizhengfu da tusha ji).].

''Shots were still being fired, and the entrance of the east gate was packed with people. [...] Pushing and shoving, we climbed over them with great effort. We must have lost our senses then, not seeing, to our shame, the grotesqueness of our action. ''
==Chen Hui 陈惠==
''[...]I was still walking on top of the people. No one dared to miss a single step, filing through the gate that divided safety from danger, one that would give us life or take our lives away. [...] My efforts finally brought me down to the ground, sealing my fate as I rolled down from the human pile. [...] I learned later that some of the people by the gate were dead, killed by the pistol squad firing from the other side of the gate. When I recall stepping over dead bodies, I cannot help but tremble with fear. [...]''
==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==
From this experience, Zhu addresses directly the repsonsible political leaders:

''Duan Qirui, you must think about it! [...] How could we explain this to the world? [...] Granted, Duan Qirui and others could commit such atrocities without a thought; but how could we, the people of China, face the world with such a shameless government? [...] We, [...], must ask, „So many were killed—what should we do?“''
==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==
In contrast, Lu Xun has portrayed the same massacre with sighing undertone and Zhou Zuoren bitter-humorously in his "''Ways to die''"[ (Si fa).] - in which he finds "to be shot" the best method to die. The supposedly less politically engaged Zhu shows here more engagement.

The essay "''Facing the New China''"[ (Xin Zhongguo zai wang zhong).] is Zhu's political manifest: He asks for democracy, enlightenment and an increase of the education level.
==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==
''China has to be born again through democratization. [...] The people should express their own will, concentrate on their own strength. Every level of administration should build up on the expressed will and strength of the people and struggle for the majority and its greatest happiness. This means that the people govern, the people own, the people enjoy.''

A few weeks before his death, he demanded in the speech ''"Today's duty of the Intellectuals''"[ (Zhishifenzi jintian de renwu).] the participation of the intellectual in the struggle for a better society.
==Chen Sha 陈莎==
With only a handful of essays I have demonstrated, that the picture of these three authors changes substantially, if we read carefully also their less known essayistic work. Imagine now how the picture of 20th century Chinese literature might change, if the literary histories and anthologies would not only tell the history of drama, fiction and poetry, but would also grant the essay its proper place. The following part of my paper are results of my monograph on the 20th century Chinese essay.
==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==
'''The essay boom as a mirror reflecting growing individuality, participation in the public sphere, and the giddy-paced character of modern Chinese society'''

Acquiring an overview of the essay and assessing its essence has required extensive research in bookstores and libraries, in the People's Republic of China, Taiwan, Hong Kong and the United States for available resources in the form of essay book collections as well as secondary literature dealing with the essay.
==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==
I built a database for a statistical analysis to rank more than 5000 essays and 1400 essayists. It turned out that out of the top 60 most famous Chinese essays only 14 had been translated into English so far. The forthcoming collection of Tam King-fai adds 4 and my own one the remaining 42.

Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report[ (baogao wenxue) (Klaschka 1998).].
==Cheng Yusi 成于思==
The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous essay bookseries[ sanwen congshu 散文叢書.].

The reason for the increase in essay production, which we can date right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in the sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for the survey. There are three reasons for the increase in Chinese essay production and popularity in the mid-1990s:
==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==
1, The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts, as Hall has put it: “[...] we live in an age of exposition”[ (Hall 1984:xiii).].

2, The increasing consciousness of individuality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands.

3, A revival of interest in discussing socio-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.
==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==
If we look carefully at essay collections not only published in the United States, but also in Hong Kong, Taiwan and the People’s Republic, we find the following three reasons for the under- and overestimation of single essayists or essays which correspond to regional differences:

1, EXOTIC In the United States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones.
==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==
2, SOCIO-POLITICAL In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, as the mentioned survey proofs, he ranks 12th among modern authors there. Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.

3, PERSONAL Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by his disciple Huang Weiliang in favor for Yu.[ (see Lin Yaode 1989:50).]

Having named reasons for the essay boom and for the support for and the suppression of different actors in the cultural field of the essay, I would like to finish my paper by naming a few trends of the essay as they appear at the eve of the century.
==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==
The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consumer-orientation of the masses. The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educational claim with the exception of essays which claim to be "art pourt l'art".
==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==
The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing ("''On dreams''"[ "Shuo meng 說夢" On dreams in: Zhu Ziqing 1928.]) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 ("''My own garden''"[ 9.1923.], "''The Fly''"[ 1924.], "''Reading on the Toilet''"[ 1936.]), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the newly encountered world of mass consumerism.
==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==
In the end of this century not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. Among the upper list places of the political essay after 1949 there are critical essays. For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain.
==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==
A sign for the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publishing houses with an orientation for customers (former: "readers"). Following the emotional essays of Zhu Ziqing who rank 1st and 2nd, ''nostalgia'' is the element of emotional identification in "''Wild vegetables of my home region''" by Zhou Zuoren, which ranks 3rd[ In Jia Pingwa's "Moon traces", which ranks 11, and in Ba Jin's "''Paradise for Birds''", which ranks 19]. Therefore one can state, that moving essays form the top.
==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==
In 1927, Chinese literature took the form of 'engaged literature'. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics in daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology. In the later half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of individuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife.
==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==
In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only remiscent element left is the patriotism.[ ''Trends like the use of ordinary language'', which one finds in novels since 1993 (''Jia Pingwa'', Feidu; ''Gu Cheng'', Yingger) and New Borderlessness since 1995, cannot be proven in the essaywriting.The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable ''object d'art''.]

'''References''' [partly mentioned with German translation] （不用翻）

Vera Schwarcz 1996, Vera Schwarcz, "The pain of sorrow: public uses of personal grief in modern China", in Daedalus: Journal of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (Winter 1996)

Ba Jin 1982, Ba Jin: "Yi feng huixin 一封回信" (Ein Antwortbrief (26.10.1982)), in: Bing zhong ji 病中集 (Auf dem Krankenlager), Hongkong 香港 1984(?) (Series Suixiang lu 隨想錄 (Thoughts) Bd 4), 147 pp.

Ba Jin 1982a, Ba Jin: "Yi pian xuwen 一篇序文" (Ein Vorwort) [dated 1982.9/10], in: Ba Jin: Auf dem Krankenlager 1984

Ba Jin 1956, Ba Jin 巴金: "Duli sikao 獨立思考" (Unabhängig denken), in: Li Jisheng 李濟生, Li Xiaolin 李小林 (Hgg.): Ba Jin liushi nian wenxuan (1927 - 1986), Suixiang lu, zagan, sanwen, xuba, yanjiang, shuxin 巴金六十年文選（１９２７－１９８６）隨想錄·雜感·散文·序跋· 演講·書信 (Ba Jin. Werkauswahl aus 60 Jahren (1927 - 1986), Gedanken, vermischte Gefühle, Essays, Vor- und Nachworte, Reden, Briefe), Shanghai 上海: Shanghai wenyi chubanshe 上海文藝出版社 (Literatur- und Kunstverlag Shanghai), 1986.12, S. 461 - 462 [Datiert auf 1956.]

Ba Jin 1962, "Zuojia de yongqi yu zerenxin 作家的勇氣與責任心" (Mut und Verantwortungsbewußtsein der Schrifsteller) 1962; der Essay von Zhou Zuoren 周作人: "Wenxue tan 文學談" (Über Literatur), in: Tan long ji 談龍集 (Über Drachen. Sammlung), Shanghai 上海: Kaiming shudian 開明書店 (Kaiming Buchladen) 1927.12, Nachdruck: Hongkong 香港: Shiyong shuju 使用書局 (Praxisverlag) 1972.1, 310 S., S. 165 - 167

Zhou Zuoren 1919, Zhou Zuoren, "Zuxian chongbai 1919 (Ancestor Worship)," in Early Essays, op.cit., pp. 78

Zhou Zuoren 1920: Zhou Zuoren 周作人, Xin wenxue de yaoqiu 新文學的要求" (The demand of the New Literature) [lecture], in Beiping shaonian xuehui 北平少年學會 (Beiping youth conference) 1920.1.6, in: Zhang Ruoying 長若英: Xin wenxue yundong shi ziliao 新文學運動史資料 (Material on the history of the New Literature movement), Shanghai 上海: Guangming shuju 光明書局 (Guangming bookstore) (1934.9) ²1936.9, 291-296

Zhou Zuoren 1923, Zhou Zuoren: Yanzhicao ba (Preface to Yu Pingbo's Yanzhicao), in: Yongri ji (Book of Eternal Day), Shanghai: Beixin shuju 1929, 180-181

Zhou Zuoren 1929, Zhou Zuoren: Ertong de shu (The books of children), in: Chenbao fukan (1923.8.17)

Zhou Zuoren yuanliu, Zhou Zuoren: Zhongguo xin wenxue de yuanliu (Sources of New Chinese Literature), p 71

Zhou Zuoren 1932, Zhou Zuoren: Lun baguwen 1932, in: Kanyun ji p. 148

Source: NEAAS annual meeting 10/09/1999 New Haven (Yale University)
==Guo Lu 郭露==
'''Modern Chinese Literature and the Essay Genre: A New Perspective'''

''Martin Woesler''

In this paper, I will not recount the contents and propose interpretations of any essays, nor will I outline the main topics or styles of essaywriting in China, but I would like to take the opportunity to reflect a little bit on the phenomenon of the genre itself and discuss some conclusions and hypotheses with the attentive and critical audience which can be found at only a few places on earth, EALC at Harvard definitely being one of them.

《中国现代文学与散文体裁：以新视角》

''吴漠汀''

在本文中,我将不再赘述任何文章的内容和提出的观点,我也不会列出其主要主题或风格,但是我想借此机会,反映一些现象本身的类型，并与包括哈佛大学学生在内的观众对一些结论和假设进行探讨。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:16, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

《中国现代文学与散文体裁：新视角》

吴漠汀

本文将不再赘述或解释任何文章的内容，也不会列出中国散文的主要主题或风格。我想借此机会，反思体裁现象，同乐于助人、至关重要且世间少有的读者，包括哈佛大学东亚语言和文化学院的学生，对一些结论和假设进行探讨。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:28, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==
'''1. The unknown genre'''

The literary-historical narrative told by anthologies and collections of the 20th century has drawn an incomplete picture of Chinese literature: The genre of the essay was lacking. In my paper I will ask, if the picture of literature can remain unchanged, if we take into consideration also the essay. The genre has been neglected for a long time as a genre of merit (Margouliès 1949, Schmidt-Glintzer 1990) or overlooked (McNaughton 1974, Leiden 1988-90, McDougall 1998);
==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==
whereas its elder brother, fiction, has been prized ever since the valuing of fictional literature and the vernacularisation of writing in early Republican China, which followed from the master narrative established by the May 4th movement. Modern anthologies would have the reader believe that a triumvirate of poetry, fiction and drama forms the backbone of modern Chinese literary output.
==He Changqi 何长琦==
'''Excursion: Defining the essay as a non-fictional subjective representation in a free form'''

Similar to international literature, the basic subdivision of literature in China in general is one in three types: epic (with xiaoshuo (fiction), sanwen (non-fictional prose)), lyrics (shige) and drama (xiqu). Though there is no pure epic form, fiction and prose are often jointly addressed with the Chinese term "wu yunwen" which corresponds to the term "epic" in the West. The types may be distinguished roughly by their nature in the following way: In the epic, bygone events are retold, a broad, filled story dominates the foreground.
==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==
In the lyrics, the reader is encouraged to feel the current sensations and often confessionlike feelings of the poet. The drama recalls a self-contained action directly in monologue or dialogue and in this way unburdens the re-creative imagination of the readers/spectators through it. The essay as a genre of the epic is a detached non-fictional subjective representation in a free form.
==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==
"Essay", Chinese mostly ''sanwen'', is a genre term for shorter, self-contained non-fictional prose texts, in which the author tries to mediate individual experiences on an object or a question out of subjective I-perspective. This it tries associatively and from different sides, not as a text for daily use, but with artistic or educationally demanding means of language, nevertheless in an accessible form. The resource is mastered by the essayist sovereignly and the topic is seen in a larger context and can even be presented humorously. Freedom in form and content is essential for the essay.
==Hu Jin 胡瑾==
Different perspectives range in the international genre of the essay: Genres are primarily divisions of literature through the scholarship of literature for specialized contemplation and in order to be able to compare similar texts more easily. On the other hand, a subcategorization in numerous small entities, like Zheng Mingli does with the essay, questions the sense of such subdivisioning in reference to hermeneutic findings. One must also stay aware of the changing nature of literature itself and the relativity of the scientific perspective, which is still a timely one, even if its accepted internationally.
==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==
Regional deviations seem less important for the essay than for established genres like short stories, novels etc., and far less important than for poems. All these other genres are seen as international genres. My hypothesis, that the Chinese and the Western essay also belong to the same international genre maybe proved by the crosscultural mutualities both in form and content.
==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==
In the 21st century, the world is growing together and culture is mainly determined by the grade of modernization. The Chinese essay, as we find it in newspapers today, has taken on the form and content of the Western essay and is aimed at a target group comparable to that of the Western essay. This is a second hint that the modern Chinese essay belongs to the international genre of the essay.
==Jiang Hao 姜好==
Even though the translation of ''duanpian xiaoshuo'' with ''short stories'' is commonly accepted, both are less closely related than the Western essay and its Chinese counterpart. The definition, which I developed out of a sample of more than 5000 modern Chinese essays, fits also the special international understanding of the essay (following Bolz 1992 13:269-272 on the development of the western essay; Butrym 1989 on the theory of the western essay).
==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==
Besides the trend towards a globalized society, first expressed in Zhou Zuoren's call to adopt the English essay style, there are special local characteristics of the Chinese essay. How is the Chinese essay to determine culturally, what makes it "Chinese"? In the occidental essay the form seems to be a more important criterion of differentiation than in its Chinese counterpart. In China even those texts are included, which have only a similar content, but cross the borders of the formal generical framework.

除了首先由周作人表达出来的社会全球化趋势，号召采用英语散文风格，中文散文有独特本土的特征。中文散文如何形成其特有文化，其中文性又由何组成？和中文散文相比，西方散文的文章形式似乎是更重要的分类标准。在中国，甚至有些文章内容相似，但形式和类别大相径庭。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 02:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

除了最初由周作人表达出来的社会全球化趋势，号召采用英语散文风格，中文散文具有独特的本土特色。中文散文如何形成其特有文化，其中文性又由何组成？与中文散文相比，西方散文的形式分类标准似乎更重要。在中国，有些文章甚至是内容相似，但形式和类别大相径庭。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:18, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==
This can be shown with Zheng Mingli, who subcategorises the "unfinished diary" or the "unfinished letter". Those texts belong - within the Western context - to texts of personal use and therefor to the non-fictional prose works. Only after they have been altered into essays (Zheng Mingli: "essay in diary form" and "essay in letter form"), they are accepted as essays.
==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==
'''The Chinese understanding of the genre is tendencially broader'''

This tendencial broader understanding of the essay in China can be traced back directly to the connotation, that the term ''sanwen'' possesses in Chinese: ''wú yùnwén'' "non-rhythmic prose", which originally meant all non-fictional prose. In this broader meaning, also texts for personal or everyday use are included. However I deal only with ''sanwen'' in the narrower meaning "short literary essay pieces".

Further differences are that Chinese essays often have ideological contents and show stylistic characteristics like repetitions and the usage of sayings.
==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==
'''The Chinese essay is booming again in the 1980s and 1990s'''

Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report (''baogao wenxue'').[ Klaschka 1998.] The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous ''sanwen congshu'' 散文叢書 (essay bookseries).
==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==
The increase in essay production right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in a sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for a survey.

Thanks to the work of some major Chinese editors, the whole essay culture was compiled from magazines and newspapers and was published in a flood of anthologies since the 1970s. This boom is comparable to the cultural fever of undigging xiangtu literature, which rose in Taiwan in front of the background of the movement of self-identification and independance.
==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==
'''2. Why is the essay as abundant as fiction?'''

Let me name a few reasons, why the essay in fact is as abundant as its prose brother, fiction, and its lyrical sister, poetry, and why it must be valued as highly:

- The essay had a direct impact on Chinese society throughout history (the reform ideas from the end of the Qing dynasty through the May Fourth period with the literary theorethical pieces and the daily political zawen of Lu Xun, until today are mostly presented in essay form). The impact on literary reflection and theory is shown in the collection "Modern Chinese Literary Thought" 1996. The effect of the essay genre with its direct language, its connection to life (e.g. its role in the coming to terms with the cultural revolution), and its direct access to the individual reader through newspapers. This impact is larger than the indirect one of fiction or poetry. The poem is the genre of retreat from social life, from political issues and time references.
==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==
Hu Shi argues, that ''poetry'' is most important in the process of modernity, since poetry rises emotions. But it relies also on images and on linguistic rhythm. Liang Qichao stresses the role of novel and opera in the changing society. But ''sanwen'' is able to name things, it reflects life, caleidoscopic. Modern subjectivity is constructed with the tool of ''sanwen''.

- The essay also reflects trends in the society better than poetry and fiction: Individualism is expressed in the essay more directly than in the poem with its limitation in content and form. Ephemerality is reflected in the short form of the essay, which may be read in the subway on the way to work, where poems may not be so spontaneously enjoyed.
==Li Haiquan 李海泉==
- The essay reaches a larger part of the population than poetry, the amount of time spended on reading novels goes back, too. The essay itself a genre of high actuality, if not simply the genre of today.

- The essay tells us more about an author and his time than fiction or poetry, because in this genre, we encounter the author himself without metrical restrictions. We look trough authentic eyes on his contemporary society. Many authors turned to essay writing in the later periods of their lifes, like Lu Xun, Ba Jin, and Wang Meng.
==Li Lili 李丽丽==
- The volume of ''essay'' production exceeds the volume of ''xiaoshuo'' production: Chinese newspapers since the 1870s on[ Shenbao, Shibao etc. Liang Qichao sees the role of the newspaper both as liberal and authoritative: He understands the press as an institution to control the government, on the other hand he favors censorship.] and as a mass media from the early 20th century presented only one or two fictional stories in a serialized form, but invented essay columns like ''zagan'' (from which Lu Xun developed his ''zawen''), ''suibi'' or ''suixiang'' (from which famous collections like Ba Jin's ''Suixiang lu'' derived).
==Li Lingyue 李凌月==
'''3. Let us assign the essay its proper place'''
The consequence which must be driven from the above presented contrast between value and valuing of the essay is: Let us assign the essay its proper place! I will describe the beginnings of the discovery of the essay.
Despite the increase in essay writing from 1979 on, it took a decade for the first theoretical reflections on this phenomenon to appear. It took another decade before the international scholarship of Chinese Studies became aware of the phenomenon of the essay.
==Li Liqin 李丽琴==
In the 1980s, Chinese scholarship made a first major approach to reflect on essay literature by writing essay histories and collecting papers, which concentrated first on the essayistic work of single authors like Lu Xun. Also two essay conferences in the 1990s showed no move towards international scholarship. Not before 1995 did international scholarship started to use common philological methods to explore single essayists (on Gaylord Leung [Liang Xihua] 梁錫華 Kubin 1995, on Wang Meng 王蒙 Woesler 1995, on Liu Zaifu 劉再復 Mansberg 1995 [unpublished]) or essays of groups (on 'Xīnyùe pài 新月派' Wagner 1996).
==Li Luyi 李璐伊==
Not before the second half of the 1990s, did a history of the Chinese essay using the means of Western philology appear (Woesler 1998) and for the first time, the essay was included in Western anthologies of literature as a genre equal to fiction and poetry (''The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature'' 1995, ''Modern Chinese Literary Thought'' 1996).

Regarding the valuing of essays in China, Taiwan and the West, there are regional differences: In the States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones.
==Li Meng 李梦==
In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, in my survey, which Chinese essayists are printed the most in the 1990s, he ranks 16th. If one only take modern authors into account, he even ranks 12th. Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by Huang Weiliang in favor for the first (see Lin Yaode 1989:50), and Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.

Still it remains a ''desideratum'' to get the most important Chinese essays in Western translation.
==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==
Currently at least three essay collections in English translation are in the reviewing process (Tam King-Fai, Woesler) or already published (Pollard 1999). Pollard's selection is a highly subjective and eclective choice of essays, covering even the premodern essay. This year, scholars will meet on a first international conference on the essay (Achern, Germany August 25-26). In the years to come, a new ''Bonn History of Chinese Literature'' will grant the essay its proper place with two to three volumes only dedicated to the ''biji, youji'' and other essays.
==Li Yu 李玉==
'''4. Taking into consideration the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature'''

I will give a few hints, what the essay can contribute to the picture of Chinese Literature, which so far is overshadowed by fiction through the narrative of C.T. Hsia, Prusek and Anderson.

We are used to established narratives, like the emergence and success of the May-Fourth literature. But this view neglects the role, that for example the ''yuanyang hudie pai'' played in the choir of different voices in the awoken intellectual debate in the beginning of this century.
==Lin Min 林敏==
The May-Fourth group at that time was one voice among many and only succeeded because of its agitation and polemic in the public sphere, so we have to use new means to assign the Chinese essay its proper place. We learn from simplifiying narratives, that it is absolutely necessary to differentiate, and to reconstruct the complex time background. Having understood Chinese literature as determined by the development of fiction and poetry only, a broader understanding will change the whole appearance of Chinese literature. A scholarly endeavour is the use of modern literary theories in the approach to this genre.
==Lin Xin 林鑫==
In the following, I will name three aspects (chronologically sorted by past, modern and contemporary time) to hold the argument, that the taking into consideration of the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature and change our current understanding of it.

'''5. The classical and premodern essay documents Chinese philosophy, early subjectivity and still, a native Chinese tradition is questioned'''

How is the Chinese essay to be positioned historically, how did it emerge, what is its generic background? Generically, the ancestors of the essay are both in China and the West notes written on the margins of books, they are letters and travel notes.

==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==
These notes differed from the canonized literature through its informal style, its expression of individuality und subjectivity, a much earlier document for subjectivity than the first autobiographical Chinese novel, ''The Dream of the Red Chamber''.

From the very beginning, the essay was valued lower than poetry: the oldest reference this far for the term ''sanwen'' that I found is Luo Dajing's 羅大經 (? - after 1248) statement from 1240: “Shī sāomiào tiānxià, ér sǎnwén pōjué suǒsuì júcù.
==Liu Bo 刘博==
詩騷妙天下，而散文頗覺瑣碎局促。” (Poetry is moving mankind in a wonderful way, prose inquires into incoherent bagatels, is limited.) (''Helin yulu''). Another reproach Luo Dajing mentions, is a formal one: In comparison to the highly artistic and century-long tradition of poetic writing, the direct and often vernacular langage of the essay in his eyes had less value.

In the West, a real 'art of the essaywriting' came up in the late 16th century as a medium for the newly reorganized knowledge.
==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==
The reorganization originated from the observations of Kopernikus, which destroyed the whole conception of the world of the Middle Age.

In China, particularly the debates on Buddhism in the 4th and 5th century A.D. saw the origination of a tradition of letters. The Chinese tradition of the ''sanwen'' 散文 (essay) however, in the understanding of sǎn 散 as (to dispel, leisure, loose, relaxed, irregular, independant style, free prose, can be seen not before the detachment from the dialogue - or aphorism, which is still visible in the philosophical ''Lunyu''.
==Liu Liu 刘柳==
Xunzi delivered the prototype of the later essay with his philosophical treatises. They are an early form of philosophical didactical essays, in which general theorems are derived not only from quotations of the canonized classical works, but for the first time also from his own individual experience. The individuality is still a main characteristic of the essay today.

During the dynasties the essay manifested itself further in certain subcategories: From reading-notes written at the paper margins originated the ''biji'' µ§°O (occasional notes), flourishing in the Ming Dynasty.

荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形，它们是哲学教学论文的早期形式。其中的一般定理不仅来自于经典著作的引用，而且第一次从他的个人经验中得出。个性仍是现今散文的主要特点。

历朝历代，散文在某些子类中进一步得以表现，如从写在纸边的读书笔记产生了明朝盛行的偶记。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 02:25, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Ou 刘欧==
The marginalism is a link between Western and Chinese tradition of early essays. Occasional notes could contain private historical notes, anecdotes, communications and contemplations. However, the consciousness of the essay as a genre of its own originated in China not before the Qing ²M dynastie, when numerous essay anthologies were compiled.

Taking into consideration the social-historical background draws a different picture of the old society than short stories and novels: Essays are much closer to real life, since they express individual problems and experiences.
==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==
Until now, the Chinese pre-''Hongloumeng'' individual literature spoke only through the indirect language of poems to us. Rediscovering the essays, we have a splendid source of opinions, social-historical pictures etc.

Premodern essay literature consists of much more than its most well-known example, the formally restrictive ''baguwen''. Lu Xun himself wrote some of his essays in ''baguwen'' style, but on the other hand took it as a synonym for the ancient society. Zhou Zuoren saw the rhythm of the language of the "Eight legged essay" as as appealing and intoxicating as the "pleasure of doing opium.'' (Zhou 1932:148).
==Liu Yi 刘艺==
But he considered it also as a prevalent genre implicit in the modern writings as ''yang bagu'' (westernized bagu) and ''dang bagu'' (party-line bagu) (borrowing from Wu Zhihui, Zhou Yuanliu:71).

Neo-Confucianism stressed ''wen'' (prose) as the most important tool to transmit the ''dao'' (way): ''Wenyi zai dao'' (Literature as the carrier of the way). If we reinterprete this diction in the perspective of genre, we can say, that the essay then has been regarded as an important tool to express truth, subjectivity and Self.
==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==
Liang Qichao developed a ''xīn wéntǐ'' 新文體 (new prose style), which was influenced by Western languages, but the essay became popular not before the newspapers became mass media, and the language changed into ''baihua''.

'''6. The essay as the medium of modernity, the questioning of the genuiness of the Chinese essay'''

To solve first of all the dispute on whether the Chinese essay grew out of a native tradition or was influenced by Western translations, one finds both traditions relevant: The occidental essay was introduced to the writers of the literature reform movement from 1907 on by translations in Chinese (Lin Shu: ''Irving'' 1907, ''Addison'' 1911).
==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==
The current form of the genre is mostly based on the influence of Western essay translations. First developed a Chinese essay tradition, which consciously leaned upon the Western model in language, form and terminology, its own proponents succumbed soon to the temptation to derive a tradition of the Chinese essay from Chinese history only. A seemingly unbroken Chinese tradition of the native Chinese ''wenyan sanwen'' is presented in Chinese textbooks (Yu Zaichun 1978-82, Li Xishang 1985).

This is older than the ones referred to in the ''Large Chinese Dictionary'' of Morohashi (Morohashi undated) and in the ''Encyclopaedic Dictionary of the Chinese Language'' 1966.

==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==
Still, the value of the native tradition of essay writing and the role of the Western influence upon it is discussed controversially among the scholars. Some admit that Western impact played a key role in what we understand as Chinese essays nowadays: Wang Bin 1992, Fan Peisong 1993; for Western impact in general see Průšek 1964, Gálik 1966, McDougall 1971. Other scholars think that Western influence is overestimated - Denton 1996 showed that the theoretical background was missing for understanding Western theories of literature in China, - and recommended that we understand the essay first by its national tradition.
==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==
How far personal opinion may influence the narrative of historical facts can be seen by the example of the legendary authors of the May Fourth movement. All of them considered the English essay as the father of the Chinese essay: Zhou Zuoren 1921, Lu Xun 1933, the anarchist and later member of the Guomindang Wu Zhihui [1934]. Later, some of these authors changed their minds to support their own theories on the essay by looking for proof of a native Chinese essay tradition:
==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==
for example, Lu Xun with his theory "'Zhǎnkāi' shuō yǔ 'méngyá' lùn “展開”說與“萌芽”論"" (Theory of "Starting" and "Blossoming") came to see the fighting and critical character of the essay of the Jin dynasty (265 - 420) as the 'father' of the Chinese essay, and Zhou Zuoren first the English essay (1921) and later the ''biji'' (occasional notes) of the Ming, although he still tried to integrate the English essay in his "Gonganpài yu Yīngguo xiaopin 'hecheng' lun 公安派與英國小品“合成”論" (Theory of the Synthesis of the Gongan School and the English Essay).
==Ma Juan 马娟==
Wang Zengqi regrets that the national Chinese tradition of the essay at the time of the 'May Fourth Movement' has not been taken up again and has not continued in contemporary essays (Wang Zengqi 1993). The Chinese essay is an accommodating object of study, because one may look to it to prove any theory of the essay. One can find examples for each topic in almost every period, simply because the essay has a wide range of subjects.
==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==
When Zhou Zuoren showed that only seven months after the incident at Marco Polo bridge it was again possible to write about a candy seller (1924), he was critizised as "paralyzing" (Lu Xun 1934, Zhu Zhaoluo 1943). When he wrote a piece on the "Fly", he was reproached with dealing with subjects of minor importance. Reproaches like this lie in the very nature of the genre, since ''marginalism'' is substantial to the essay. The mentioned formal reproach of Luo Dajing can be found again in the 1990s, Hong Kong students critisized the literary style as it appears in Ba Jins "Thoughts" (Suixiang lu) as too direct and too less artful. But this perspective does not recognize the very nature of the essay, which is a very individual expression of an author's thoughts and not bound to tradition, and therefore much more free also in content.
==Ma Zhixing 马智星==
The essay - from its very nature free and independant - almost disappeared in the time of the Cultural Revolution and - except for the ideologically influenced essays - had a hard struggle between Yan'an and the loss of moral legitimacy by the leadership in 1989.

The essay was ''the'' genre of the modernizing society of the early 20th century. Many writers had to define and often redefine their position and self-understanding in reaction to war and warlordism and later in the modernizing society, often burying their own ideals, in the larger perspective for the seeming "needs" of society, which also claimed the author to be one of its products.
==Meng Ying 孟莹==
But from its very nature, the essay set new boundaries in form and content, and therefore not only survived the ideological restrictions, but also established its own critical subculture within. The essay was not only a medium of discussion and a documentation of the social-political background for us today, but also a documentation of the personal struggle of the writers finding a position in a changing environment, since the essay is "a genre of self-reflection". Some essays even deconstructed master narratives like the one of leftist ideology, often simply by confronting it with subjective experience, reality or art.

I want to mention another position on literature, which stresses the impact of literature on life, especially on the eve of revolutions - following this view, all literature is political (Jameson).
==Mo Ling 莫玲==
Not only the understanding of literature as a whole changes if we take into consideration the essay, also the view of single authors shifts, if we see not only their novels or poems, but also their essays. I mention only Zhou Zuoren. His ideas connected him spiritually to his contemporary collegues in Europe, Japan and America, but these where ideas for which China turned out to be not yet ready. At that time, China had taken a road which led away from progress, wealth, freedom and spiritual enlightenment. The consequences have yet to be overcome.
==Mo Nan 莫南==
In 1927, Chinese literature has taken the form of 'engaged literature'. The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics of daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology.
==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==
Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consume-orientation of the masses. The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educational claim with the exception of essays which claim to be "art pourt l'art".
==Ou Rong 欧蓉==
The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing ("Shuo meng 說夢" On dreams in: Zhu Ziqing 1928) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 (My own garden 9.1923, "The Fly" 1924, "Reading on the Toilet" 1936), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the new found world of mass consumerism.
==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==
I mentioned the lack of translations in Western languages. One of the reasons might be the impression of some scholars that many of the Chinese essays were just propaganda. This might be true for the 1940s and even the 1950s, but nowadays this has changed, as the overwhelming majority of publications prove. This demands a closer look: Since 1949, politically affirmative literature has been encouraged by the government, resulting in a statistical paradox: not the affirmative authors and their texts form the majority of the essayists read in the 1990s, but the critical essayists, whose texts oppose the order to serve politics through their apolitical, sometimes even defiant character.
==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==
In the 1990s, the texts of 1920s/1930s Republican China are still as often reprinted as their contemporary counterparts. Obviously we can conclude that the politically affirmative essay of the 1950s only survived in special political essay collections and is no longer written by famous contemporary authors nor read by the Chinese audience in the beginning of the 21st century.

Taking into account of a genre shifts the whole perspective on literature, taking into account the essayistic works of an author shifts also the view of the author. I will name only one author as an example for a modern essayist: Zhou Zuoren.

==Peng Dan 彭丹==
'''Zhou Zuoren'''

I mentioned already his theoretical contribution to the Chinese essayism, but still, his essays have been neglected until the 1980s. The reason does not lie in literary quality, but in political valuing. The master narrative of the offical literary history of the People's Republic on Zhou Zuoren is, that the theoretical May Fourth genius "degenerated" and later became a "traitor". Publishing in the Japanese sponsored magazines ''Reminiscences'',* and ''Chinese Literature'', he was blamed together with Zhu Pu and Yuan Xi of collaboration. An unanswered question is, why another author, who published there, Zhang Ailing, was never reproached with collaboratorship. The difference between all of them is that Zhang Ailing tried to avoid political committments, whereas Zhou felt guilty, Zhu justified it and Yuan simply accepted it.
==Peng Juan 彭娟==
''The 'mainstream' writers took an affirmative approach in their writing, whereas the other writers formed a minority. The individual authors did not necessarily belong to either one of these groups throughout their life, but may have moved between them. Since the essay is a medium which enables the individual to express thoughts directly, the writers chosen for this paper can be classified according to their position.''

''Yu Guangzhong's essay'' "The wolves are coming" ''shows that the ideological perspective did not only harm mainland essaywriting.''
==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==
In his small literary pieces, Zhou tried to aesthetizise the little things of the everyday life out of the subjective experience of his private space. The major contribution of Zhou Zuoren is, that he set the turning point in Chinese essay writing with his call for writing short literary pieces (''Meiwen'' 1921).

In foreign literature there is the so-called ''lunwen'' 論文 (treatise), which is roughly divided into two groups: the reflecting ones, piping 批評 (critical), are scientific articles. The others are ''jishu'' 記述 (descriptive) and ''yishuxing'' 藝術性 (artistic), they are also called ''meiwen'' 美文 (aesthetic essay). Within these texts, one can distinguish between ''xushi'' 敘事 (narrative) and ''shuqing'' 抒情 (lyric). But there are also mixed texts. [...] I hope that the aesthetical essay is encouraged to come back, and will open up a new field for the New Literature. Wouldn’t that be wonderful?
==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==
With these words from the essay "''The aesthetic essay''" this new vernacular form was defined. This starting point founded a whole new tradition of essay writing in China. Contemporary writers called this piece the "king of essays".

In order to bring this new form to his compatriots, he tried to find similiarities with the ''xiaopinwen'' of the Ming dynasty. He further discussed these thoughts in his essay theory. In his own essays, he profited a lot from ancient ''suibi''. Later he further developed his literary theory towards an up and down of two trends. In the modernizing society, he advocated the liberation of women and asked to "treat children as full subjects with their own external and internal lives" and to "make children the essence of children's literature" (Zhou 1923). He promoted the ''baguwen'' and the independance of literature from politics and effected the literary scene and the development towards a modern Chinese society especially between 1917 and 1938.

==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==
With this theoretical foundation and his own vo'luÉminous essayistic work, Zhou Zuoren through the example of his own form of short literary pieces within this genre, fought at that stage of the development of his literary theory like Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque 130 years ago in France for the idea "l'art pour l'art" , for individuality and independance of the writer, for disinterested literature. The jugdment, that Zhou was an apolitical author cannot be proved with his essays. Instead, he wanted his abstinence of political statement to be understood as a political statement by itself. For him, literature was a mean not for revolution, but for resistance (Zhou 1929:180-181).
==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==
In fact he saw himself as ‘patriotic underground fighter’ and looked at the collaboration with the Japanese puppet regime as a forced one, following his attempted assasination, through which his driver had lost his life. His own concept of essay writing served less the needs of the building of a nation-state and comes closer to the ideal of the individual.

"I don't really know why, but I am feeling as if I am born into a dark age. I admit, that our forests are not inhabited by dragons, tigers and wolves, but shapeless "monsters" and "goblins" are still creeping around and try to swallow our souls. [...] What alarms me most, is the absence of freedom in this prison, into which we writers have been thrown."
==Qi Kai 漆凯==
Confronting tradition and progress in the essay "''Ancestor Worship''", he is in favor of the latter, since past could only become present through changes (Zhou 1919:7-8).

Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque (1767 - 1830) war französischer Romanschriftsteller und liberaler Politiker, der neben der Freiheit der Kunst nach der Französischen Revolution die Einführung der konstitutionellen Monarchie nach englischem Vorbild forderte.

==Qu Miao 瞿淼==
Siehe ''Journal'' (10.2.1804). Die "Kunst um der Kunst willen" propagierte die Zweckfreiheit der Kunst. Im Gegensatz dazu versteht sich die engagierte Literatur. Die Parallele zwischen Zhou Zuorens Literaturverständnis und dem Konzept "Kunst um der Kunst willen" zieht auch Wolff: ''Chou Tso-jen'' 1971, S. 84.

Siehe Zhou Zuoren: ''Der Ursprung der neuen chinesischen Literatur'' 1934, S. 95 - 98; vgl. auch Chen Zizhan: ''Vorträge zur chinesischen Literaturgeschichte'' 1937, Bd 3, pp. 416 - 422, besonders S. 422. Hinweis in: H. Martin: "''Liang Qichao on Poetry Reform''" 1996, Bd 1, S. 213.
==Quan Meixin 全美欣==
Regarding Zhou Zuoren, I want to correct the official assessment of the People’s Republic, that his work would have experienced a caesura in 1938. In order to explain his opposition of the propaganda to build up national heroes about 1937 and his collaboration from 1939, it has been said officially, that his thoughts had "duoluo 墮落" (degenerated) at that time (Zhu Jinshun 1990:59). In fact, this caesura, namely the change in the style and subject in his essays on literature, art etc. to ''zhengjing'' 正經 (serious, intentional essays), and ''xianshi'' 閑適 (essays for one’s own enjoyment) is located not before his outlawing through Mao Zedong (1942), and his arrest through the Guomindang (1945).
==Sagara Seydou ==
Therefore not the Japanese suppressors are responsible for the retreat of this great writer, but his Chinese compatriots'.

On the basis of the stigma of the 'traitor', he has been undervalued until now. That his work in the 1990s is almost as often published as Lu Xun's and Zhu Ziqing's shows that his texts finally experience a more positive literaric evaluation through the audience, which now must be registered also by scholars.

==Shi Diwen 石迪文==
Another example of a misread Zhou Zuoren is his short essay on "''The Fly''", where he describes his changing attitude towards flies, which he had played with as child but later disgusted when he learned about their danger of passing on diseases. ”''The fly''” shows Zhou Zuoren’s strength to describe details and make them a real topic by recalling memories on them or describing a change of perspective on them. Zhou summarized the philosophical wisdom he learnt from this, that people did not judge on things objectively, but were likely to praise or damn things.
==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==
The official reading re¬proaches Zhou that he "saw only the fly and not the cosmos" , a quotation of the young Zhou about a position he himself clearly opposed.

His ability to chat about the more pleasent things in life is displayed in his essay ”Birds’ twitter”. In ”''Peking cakes and sweet-meat''” and in ”''Wild vegetable of my home region''”, Zhou Zuoren shows his ability to make the reader feel at home at a region, where he feels at home himself, by describing the customs and special regional food.

Siehe Zhou Zuoren: "Cangying 蒼蠅" (Die Stubenfliege), in: ''Chenbao fujuan'' 晨报副镌 (Beilage zur Morgenpost) (1924.7.13). Eine Zu¬sammenfassung des Inhalts findet sich in: Yu Daxiang (Hg.): ''Auswahllexikon chinesischer Essays mit Inhaltsangaben und Analysen'' 1993.

''Siehe Vollständige chinesische Anthologie der Wissenschaften - Bd Chinesische Literatur'' 1988, Bd 2, S. 1300. Dies spielt auf den Essay "''Cangying'' 蒼蠅" (Die Stubenfliege), in: Zhou Zuoren: ''Zhi Tang. Sammlung'' 1933 an.（文献无需翻译）

==Si Yu 司妤==
His piece ”''Bitter rain''” shows the atmosphere, for what his essays had been labelled ”bitter tea”: There remains a taste in one’s mouth after reading. If you compare Lu Xun’s ”''On tea drinking''” (Yang/Yang 1961 3:325-326) with Zhou Zuoren’s essay with the same title, you see the difference of ”short and to the point” and ”eloquent and well-read”. ”''First love''” is more hilarious. The essay ”''Three different ways to die''” shows that Zhou Zuoren can compete with his elder brother in sarcasm. Lu Xun's essay on the same subject, the massacre on March 18, 1926, was a sight.
==Song Jianru 宋建茹==
Zhou asks for the ”best” way to die and favors the short and painless one. In ”''On alcohol''” and ”''The awning bunk boat''” Zhou Zuoren continues the tradition of late Ming ''biji''.

'''7. The essay as a snapshot of contemporary thoughts'''

''What is the state of contemporary essay writing in China? Its position should be brought into its proper relationship to recent approaches, perspectives and terms of categorization, like post-modernist elements, post-colonial thinking, deconstructivism etc.''

==Su Lin 苏琳==
The increase of the essay production after the ‘Cultural Revolution’ might be explained with the ability of the essay, to express personal experiences much more authentically than other genres because of its immanent claim of historical truth. But the essay is not a guarantee for objective truth: In the same time it is subjective, the essayist mediates his image consciously. This restricts the reported truth to a subjective one and bears the risk of a consciously “corrected” truth.
==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==
The individualism of the Republican era has been based on the common feeling to stand at a historical turning point and directed towards common targets like the creation of a New Literature and a new Chinese society. In the 1980s and especially in the 1990s, individualism asks for a critical reflection on the satisfaction of personal consumption needs and tries to give personal orientation, essayists plead for moral virtues (Wang Meng: "''Anxiang'' 安详" (Serene) 1992, "''Zuohao ni ziji de shi'' 做好你自己的事" (First make your own things in a good way) 1994).
==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==
These essays, mainly published in newspapers and magazines, are widely read by people in the rapidly changing, anonymous, alienating and consume-oriented mass cultural society.

Other essays in the 1980s and 1990s are in a kind of new subjectivism targeted away from contemporary contradictions but apply to the feelings of the audience by creating an either positive ("''Shanxi opera''", Jia Pingwa 1984) or negative world ("''The nightmare''", Si Yu 1995).

From the essay, we can see contemporary trends of literature, which are also reasons for the increase in volume of this genre in the 1990s:

==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==
- The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts: “[...] we live in an age of exposition” (Hall 1984:xiii);

- The increasing consciousness of indivi¬duality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjecti¬ve expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands;

- A revival of interest in discussing social-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.

- The banality of everyday life becomes conscious through becoming a literary topic, most commonly in the genre of everyday life, the essay.

==Tang Bei 汤蓓==
- The De-ideologization of Chinese society. Today not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. The mostly read political essays after 1949 are critical essays.

- Regarding the compiling of essay collections: For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain.
==Tang Ming 唐铭==
This is a sign of the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publis¬hing houses with an orientation toward customers (former: "readers").

- The criteria for essay best sellers in the P.R. of China are the following: In the most often printed essay "''The Back View''", filial piety is the driving factor, parallelistic and repetitive structures in the atmospherical nebulous "''The Moonlit Lotus Pond''", both written by Zhu Ziqing, whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader.
==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==
Nostalgic home feelings are the emotional identification element in "''Wild vegetables of my home region''" by Wang Zengqi. Therefore one can state, that moving es¬says form the top.

- ''In the latter half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of in¬dividuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife. Time loses worth, since more and more of the daily acctivities are filled with mechanical and autistic actions.''

==Tao Ye 陶冶==
''In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only political replique is the patriotism, for example expressed in the 1996 published monograph'' China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war (''No''! 1996).

- ''The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable object d'art.''
==Wang Meiling 王美玲==
''Also trends like the use of ordinary language, which one finds in novels since 1993 (Jia Pingwa, Feidu; Gu Cheng, Yingger) and'' New Borderlessness ''since'' 1995, ''cannot be pro-ven in the essaywriting. ''

- Also the fictional realism David Der-Wei Wang sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proves helpful for the understanding of some essays, one being "''The Small Dog Baodi''", written by Ba Jin 1981, in which the author turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in allegoric instead of in descriptive truth as before ("''In memoriam of Xiao Shan II''", Ba Jin 1984).
==Wang Xuan 王轩==
Similar is the concept of imaginery nostalgia, as Wang calls the fictional truth in Shen Congwen's work (David Der-Wei Wang 1992), helpful for the reading of Wang Zengqi's "''Rain in Kunming''" as well as for Jia Pingwa's "''Shanxi opera''".

- The Schwarcz' concept of ''personal grief'' expressed in a ''metaphorical discourse'' helps us to understand how Ba Jin was able to overcome the ''truth of being'' he was known for, only to reach a more convincing fictional truth through the metaphor of his dog Baodi.

Xin zhuangtai xiaoshuo 新狀態小說 new borderless fiction, represented by Chen Dong 韓東, Lu Yang 魯羊, Zhu Wen 朱文, Lin Bai 林白, Chen Liang 陳梁, Zhang Mei 張梅.（文献无需翻译）

''Post-colonialist thinking (Williams et al. 1994), which is to be seen as part of the social-political discourse, appears in essays, especially in the less critical political, but patriotic essays of the 1990s. Kafkaism helps us understand the essay "The nightmare", where Si Yu appears as a de-constructionist, the I-narrator even is drawn near to suicide.''（文献无需翻译）

And maybe for Xie Bingxins* reflections on her experience as one of the chosen voluntaries of the Wuhan military academy: She insisted to remain a lifelong "woman soldier" .（文献无需翻译）

==Wang Yu 王煜==
'''8. Discussion: Is the genre of the essay the form of literary expression in 21st century China?'''

Regarding the future of the Chinese literature, we can only speculate. But out the risk of being wild and provocative, I would like to suggest some questions for considering the place of the essay in the field of Chinese literature and literary studies.

- People have less time for actions like reading, and get used to reduced visualized information through the Internet. Will the brevity of the essay make it the ideal medium?

==Wang Yuan 王源==
- If the Chinese people are rediscovering their individuality, will the essay allow them to express individual thoughts more directly?

- Modern societies are characterized by TV culture, mass consumption, and the loss of consciousness of one's own tradition, often partly due to the American impact on national cultures. Is the essay less bound to the restrictions of tradition, especially compared to the poem and thus more adaptable to the modern phenomenon of mass consumption?

==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==
- The alienation and the anonymity of citylife worldwide, in China is combined with a loss of traditional values like ideology, family, solidarity etc. in favor of the concept of profit for oneself, - if this has produced a longing for new orientation, will it possibly be filled by morally guiding essays or nationalistic thinking?

《红楼梦》与其他世界文学作品的相似性——推荐《红楼梦》列入世界记忆遗产名录

'''Commonness between the Red Chamber Dreams and other World Literature Novels – Proposing the Red Chamber Dreams to the World Documentary Heritage List'''（修改）

吴漠汀，湖南师范大学 Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University

Source: Lecture at Harvard University, Cambridge, MA USA, 14.3.2000（文献无需翻译）
==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==
'''Abstract'''

In every culture, readers associate the literature they know with new literature they read. So literature is always cumulative, it grows out of existing literature and can refer back to it. When Western readers read the Red Chamber Dreams, they foremost associate novels and other pieces of literature of their own cultural tradition with the Dreams. This has also influenced the first full translation into German.

Cao Xueqin and even more his protagonist Jia Baoyu both are early humanists, universalists and world citizens. ''The Red Chamber Dreams'' function worldwide.

摘要

在每一种文化中，读者都会把他们读到的新文学与已知文学联系起来，所以文学总是积累的，它从现有的文学中生长出来，并以已有文学为参考。西方读者在阅读《红楼梦》时，首先会把《红楼梦》与自身文化传统中的小说和其他文学作品联系起来，这也影响了首次德语全译本。

曹雪芹，尤其是他的主人公贾宝玉，都是早期的人文主义者，普世主义者和世界公民。《红楼梦》具有普世价值。（修改）
==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==
''The Dream'' is a complex showroom of diverse aspects of Chinese cultures and is the embodiment and essence of Chinese cultures, but it has also a global impact, therefore it should be honoured as “World Documentary Heritage”.

红楼梦》综合展示了中国的多元文化，是中国文化的集中体现和精华，同时在全球范围内产生影响，理应列入世界记忆遗产名录。（修改）

多元一体

'''Key words'''

Western culture, reception tradition, German translation, Embodiment of Chinese cultures, global compatibility, World Documentary Heritage
==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==
'''1. Chinese Ethics'''

To help the poor and disadvantaged belongs to the traditional core values of Chinese culture.

When we sit in the Beijing Subway today, the loudspeaker announcement reminds us, that it is Chinese traditional ethics to give seats to the disadvantaged (老弱病残孕让座是中国传统道德). We know of Cao Xueqin, that he supported the poor and disadvantaged, and that he made kites for children.

However, when we look closer at these “Chinese Ethics”, we discover, that they are claimed also in Indian Buddhism “karuna” and in the Christian tradition of “caritas” and in almost every civilization. Therefore, we might call these values “human ethics”.

==Wu Kai 吴恺==
'''2. Compatibility
'''
Why do the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' function worldwide and have achieved world literature status even in their translations?

First of all, the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' are, like novels worldwide, a piece of entertainment literature. In comparison to the drama, in which every element is compulsory and plays its part in the overall structure, in the novel the line of action itself is simpler and not so important, most of the scenes or episodes are loosely put together and fit in the broader theme of the novel.
==Wu Qi 吴琪==
However, the lose arrangement of episodes of the ''Dreams'' comes from the tradition of almost unconnected episodes like in the ''Shuihuzhuan'' and is a step towards the greater coherence of the episodes, the aligning into a story line and the greater concentration on fewer protagonists. Therefore, the ''Dreams'' show clearly a step towards the Western tradition of novels, maybe because of growing Western influence in Qing dynasty.

'''3. Impact of translator’s native culture on the translation process'''

There are intercultural parallels between the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' and Western works of literature.
==Wu Qiong 吴琼==
These parallels are fundamental for the translation and were explicitly and implicitly fundamental for the German translator Martin Woesler during his translation and editorial work on the first full German translation. In the following, I will mention some of the Western novels and pieces of literature, which the Western reader of the ''Dreams'' will immediately think of.

'''4. The novel as embodiment of “Zeitgeist”'''

According to Georg Lukács’ ''Theory of the Novel'', while the Epos (like Homer’s ''Ilias'', which like the ''Dream'' reasons the stories in the divine realm) displayed a holistic world experience, a complete, self-contained culture, the novel displays, that the modern world has become infinitely large and has lost its homely quality.
==Wu Xiang 邬香==
The novel as a genre is no longer documenting just one culture, but represents, with the words of Walter Benjamin, the Organon of History. So the understanding of the novel changed with Lukacs to historical-philosophically. A novel is understood as typical for its historical era, the novel embodies the spirit of the epoch (Zeitgeist).

The ''Red Chamber Dreams'' are written in front of the background of the Manchu minority having taken over the power in formerly Han-shaped Ming-China (which was a multi-ethnic and crosscultural society) and families suffering the changing favor of changing emperors, with the Cao family being fostered by Kangxi and being persecuted by Yongzheng.
==Wu Yilu 吴一露==
While the author in his time could not criticize the system and power of emperors, in the novel he came to terms with this life by seeking the guilt for the persecution in the growing decadence of the family (engaging in Daoism, leisure, poetry-writing, arts and music instead of learning for being able to earn a living) and in himself not fulfilling the expectations as the family heir. This description of decadence of a declining family reminds us of the novels of Tschechov (and e.g. in the ''Buddenbrooks'' by Mann, including the turn to arts and music).
==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==
Moreover, with the detailed description of life on all social levels in early Qing Dynasty, the Dream appears as a documentary historical novel very much like Günter Grass’ The Tin Drum 1959.

'''5. Coming-of-age and Alienation'''

Abandoning the paradise-like garden in the Red Chamber Dreams is a symbol for leaving the protected childhood and arriving in the complex world of adults. With George Lukács theory of the novel, the protagonist starts to problematize the sense of his life, in the novel, the protagonist’s self permanently struggles with his environment.
==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==
However, Cao Xueqin’s message is not simply the one of “Paradise Lost”, instead he himself made the best out of his life. Although being less wealthy than when his family still enjoyed the favour of the emperor, there was a payroll system and a social net intact in Early Qing China, where he received enough income to be independent from his rich relatives, to be selective on accepting jobs, to live a relaxed life in a small house in the nature, spending time with his family and friends, follow his own interests, like reading, writing and drinking wine, making kites for the children and thinking of the disadvantaged.
==Xiao Ting 肖婷==
Cao Xueqin was fully aware of his time and China’s cultural achievements, he was familiar with the different levels of society, he was a detailed observer and skilful narrator. He may have conceptualized the ending of the novel as a discussion about the different personalities of the characters in the novel and therefore displaying his reflection about life and his psychological understanding of the diversity of human nature. He was able to grasp the “spirit of time” (Zeitgeist) and with his autobiographical experience create an eternal coming-of-age novel not just for his family, for the Qing-Chinese, for Chinese people, but for mankind.
==Xiao Xi 肖茜==
This tradition of Coming-of-age novels is also a European one, like enlightenment philosopher Voltaire’s novel ''Candide or Optimism''《老实人》shows at the very same time (1759) in Europe. Also Voltaire’s Candide has to leave the luxurious paradise of his childhood and strives for true love, but his main learning is more pessimistic, since Voltaire wrote the novel in opposition to Leibniz, who optimistically looked to China as “the best of all worlds”. Recent research findings show that China had a much larger influence on European enlightenment philosophers and we can be sure, that also Cao Xueqin was aware of some European literary traditions.
==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==
Also the German readership is familiar with the chronological following of the life of the protagonist and his development, the fate of a family over generations, the German readership knows this type of novel as the “Education novel” or “Coming-of-age-novel”. In Germany, the genre of the coming-of-age novel has a long tradition and it is shaped more by single characters, who appear as teachers (Goethe: ''Wilhelm Meister’s Apprenticeship''威廉·麦斯特的学徒岁月 1795-96, Novalis 诺瓦利斯: ''Heinrich von Ofterdingen''《海因利·封·歐福特丁根》1802).
==Xie Fan 解帆==
Wilhelm Meister, parallely to Jia Baoyu, is struggling with the traditional education, in ''Wilhelm Meister'' this is represented with the classics revived in Shakespeare’s dramas. Tradition can give orientation, but the personality of the protagonist needs to develop through emancipation is a wisdom, we can learn from all mentioned novels including the ''Dreams''.

'''6. Pornography and True Love, female rivals'''

Sexuality is a basic human need and has developed into different shapes in all cultures. The German audience is familiar with erotic topics from the Middle Ages, in which sexuality was stylized. In the “Schwänke” of the 15th century (Wittenwielers Ring), erotic scenes are described sexually explicit.
==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==
In the barock literature of the 17th century even the physical act is described extensively.

According to „cumulativity“, every human being is a product of history and literature is based on previous literature, therefore the author of this pager thinks that this background has to be taken into account while translating.

The best study on ''qing'' passion in the Dreams is the one by Anthony Yu, who understood it as ''desire'' and as the central motif of the ''Dreams''. „The centrality of qing in shaping virtually every aspect of The Story of the Stone’s structure and meaning cannot be denied [...].“ (Anthony Yu 2001, 54).

==Xu Jia 徐佳==
In the framework story of the Dreams, the narrator consciously takes a stand against low-action and stereotypical pornographic literature as well as against the widespread romance novels (with the classic roles of the beautiful, talented woman and the poor scholar who finally achieves a respected position and prosperity by passing a civil service exam).

In chapter 1 he says: ”of the true feelings of young people [...] nobody has reported about so far.”

Erotic scenes are described in a decent and associative way (“Game of clouds and rain”), while displaying another quality in its openness e.g. towards bisexuality.

==Xu Jing 许晶==
The ''Dreams'' narrate the story of unfortunate lovers. Unfortunate lovers also in the West have a literary tradition, they constitute an archetype, such as Hero and Leander, Pyramus and Thisbe, Tristan and Isolde, Flore and Blanscheflur as well as Troilus and Cressida, the latter being considered the model for Arthur Brookes, who wrote Romeo and Juliet in 1562 and thus directly influenced Shakespeare.

While Marián Galik saw as the central topic of both, the ''Dream'' and ''Faust'', the eternal feminine, which draws us on high, Gu Cheng called it the “eternal virgine”.

==Xu Jing 许静==
In Goethe’s coming-of-age novel ''Wilhelm Meisters Wanderjahre'', we find a similar motif of female rivals, in the Keller 凯勒 ''The Green Henry'' 《绿衣亨利》1855, the hero turns away from an emphatically sexually designed figure and turns to the 'real' woman. In Jane Austen’s ''Pride and Prejudice'' 1813 Elizabeth and Lin Daiyu are similar, e.g. they both strive for real love (Zhuang 2011).
==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==
'''7. Feudal society and slavery'''

A widespread interpretation is that Jia Baoyu’s equal treatment of family members and slaves would be a manifesto to free the slaves. I also do not share this interpretation, since Aristotle, when he demanded democracy, would exclude slaves from the right to vote. So we cannot use modern concepts to judge on the past. In my understanding, Jia Baoyu was not fighting inequality, but looked at the people as humans and individuals.

==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==
Also the understanding of the servants as slaves does not match the description in the Dream, since some servants had servants themselves, the family took care after they left the Jia family to find a match for them and Jia Zheng refers to his daughter Yingchun as „yatou 丫头“, so it is inappropriate to translate this expression with slave. Therefore, the translator preferred “servant” over “slave” in the translation.

==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==
Mo Yan in his speech at the Frankfurt Bookfair in 2009, when China was the guest of honor, draws the (similarly) parallel between the ''Dream'' and Goethe’s ''Sorrows of the Young Werther'', that both expressed the wish to abandon feudal society. My own impression is that both do not express this wish, but that this is a later concept and interpretation and we should not apply this to judge the past.

2009年，莫言代表中国作为主宾国参加法兰克福书展时，他在演讲中把《梦》和歌德的《少年维特之哀》画上了约等号，表达了抛弃封建社会的愿望。我自己的印象是，两者都没有表达这个愿望，但这是后来的概念和解释，而我们不应该以此来判断过去。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:36, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting

==Yang Hairong 杨海容==
'''8. Tragedy of all tragedies'''

Aristotle explained in ''On the Tragedy'' (Poetics VI), that tragedies move people more than comedies because they “imitate [mimēsis] an action that is serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude” (Aristotle 1971, 51), This high esteem of the tragedy in Europe is partly ascribed to the loss of Aristotle’s work ''On the Comedy''.

==Yang Hui 阳慧==
While Europe has the Hamlet as its tragedy of all tragedies, the lack of tragic literature in Chinese literary tradition has long been lamented. Wang Guowei sees the Dream as "tragedy of all tragedies". To Wang Guowei the suffering of Faust and Jia Baoyu is central in the novels. However, many scholars contest that Faustianism is central for Chinese culture.

In 18th century Europe, we saw a new development in the genre of the drama, to establish a “bourgeois tragedy”.

==Yang Yi 杨逸==
It developed as an emancipatory movement in the 18th century in London, Paris and Germany, and demonstrated that tragedy was not reserved to rulers, but was also imagineable for lower noblemen and ordinary citizens. The ''Dream'' at the same time as the bourgeois tragedy in Europe shows a tragic story of a mid-level noble family which loses its titles and privileges.

==Yang Yue 杨悦==
'''9. “Non-Binary” Novels'''

One of the things attracting Western readers is the adorable but mysterious protagonist Jia Baoyu. With his open bisexual orientation and his interest in his mates regardless of their social status, he appears “modern” or at least displaced in time. His struggle with traditional learning makes him appear sympathetic, his long states of rapture out of the world give him both the aura of a timeless character and of mystery.

==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==
With the bisexual orientation of the Dreams’ protagonist, the novel appears non-binary.
According to Karl-Heinz Pohl, binaries are just superficial, ultimately decisive is the ''Heart Sutra''. Today, the novel is listed among the genre of non-binary literature (see e.g. the bibliographical list on https://www.goodreads.com/list/tag/non-binary), in which contrasts are dissolved deconstructivistically.

==Yao Cheng 姚诚==
'''10. Foreign Cultures in the Red Chamber Dreams'''

Foreign Cultures frequently appear in the Dreams in all kinds of varieties, like exoticism with the many objects in the household and presented to the household as novelties, especially the blond girl of the same age as Baoyu referred to in person (combining different origins and cultures, including European, Japanese, Chinese) or several times on paintings, one time shown with wings as an angel.

==Yao Jia 姚佳==
The playful combination of different traditions we can see also when a religious dress is described, which carries characteristics of different religions. Similarly, the Daoist monk and the Confucian priest appear together. Cao Xueqin wanted to show the richness and diversity, also with the many topics and societal levels of the novel. Even a variety of Christian motifs can be found, like when Jia Baoyu is not recognized by his father in chapter 120 and when he disappears, all parallel to Jesus Christ.

==Yi Huan 易欢==
The variety of cultures is paralleled with the variety of elements of different dynasties, which makes it timeless and therefore even more a masterpiece of Chinese art and a masterpiece of human art. Therefore I would like to nominate the Red Chamber Dreams as “World Documentary Heritage”.

'''References'''（参考文献不用翻译）

Anthony, C. Yu. (2001). ''Rereading the Stone: Desire and the Making of Fiction in Dream of the Red Chamber''. Princeton University Press.

Aristotle. (1971). ''Poetics''. Trans. S. H. Butcher. Ed. Hazard Adams. Critical Theory since Plato. ew York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 48-66.

Woesler, Martin, ed., Cao Xueqin, Gao E et al. (2016). ''Der Traum der Roten Kammer oder Die Geschichte vom Stein'' [''Red Chamber Dreams or The Story of the Stone''], Peking: Foreign Languages Press, ISBN 9787119094120, 4813 pages, 6 vols., hardcover, transl. by Rainer Schwarz and Martin Woesler; Chinese-German bilingual edition

Woesler, Martin. (2011). “Being Explicit About the Implicit – John Minford’s Translation of the last Forty Chapters of The Story of the Stone with a Field Study on two Sexually Arousing Scenes”. ''Hong lou meng xue kan'' 6: 274-289

Woesler, Martin. (2010). “ ’To Amuse the Beaux and Belles’ The Early Western Reception of the Hongloumeng”. ''Journal of Sino-Western Communications'' 2 (2010.12) 2:81-107

Zhuang, Xiuhua. (2011). Self, Ideal and Salvation: A Comparative Study of Jane Austen’s Elizabeth and Cao Xueqin’s Lin Daiyu. ''Journal of Language Teaching and Research'', Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 420-423, March 2011. Fulltext: http://www.academypublication.com/issues/past/jltr/vol02/02/19.pdf.

==Yi Zichu 义子楚==
'''Virtual Communication Between Machines with the Human as Their Object
'''

A new stage of multimodal communication after oral, written, printed, electronic and machine-human communication

Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University

'''Abstract'''

Luhmann and Baecker described the development of communication from orality (media epoch 1.0) to script (2.0), through print (3.0) and finally to digital communication (4.0). In all these stages, technology played only an assisting role.

==You Yuting 游雨婷==
This paper argues, that there is a fundamentally new media epoch of “virtual communication” (communication 5.0), in which artificial intelligence (initialized by humans) has taken over and humans have become the object of analysis and manipulation (as customers, voters etc.).

Algorithms do not only listen to oral or read written human communication (between humans or between humans and bots), but they analyze multimodal communication (including likes, behaviour, surfing habits, mobility profile, values, dreams, aims, beliefs etc.), compare them with Big Data (e.g. cloud data) and base decisions of manipulation on a prediction of behavior according to a personality profile and correlations.

==Yu Ni 余妮==
These algorithms target not only the explicit communications, but the emotions and thoughts of humans too and predict future behavior, therefore allowing simulations of reality. Mightier algorithms have also taken over decision-making roles in societies where they: replace human court decisions, fine tune just-in-time and on-demand production, censor chatrooms etc. Sets of algorithms help to manage smart cities and a whole society.

==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==
Although the human is still part of the communication, especially as the analyzed object and the target of the manipulation, the human is often unaware of the virtual communication and a passive receiver of the machine’s decisions, while the main actors in the virtual communication are machines.

==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==
Research describes these forms of virtual communication, finds evidence in social management systems and credit systems (in Germany, we have the “Schufa”, in the USA there are big players in credit history, which leads to credit-orientation and gamification of human life) or customized (fake) news filter bubbles and in customized consumption offers (Amazon, Facebook, Google, Netflix) and analyzes benefits, including security enhancements through such virtual communication.

==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==
But research also has the duty to warn of abuse or harmful developments and to raise ethical questions. Exoskeletal ethics, imposed by gamifications like credit systems, especially need to be valued against intrinsic ethics.

'''Introduction'''

In this paper dealing with machine to machine communication, I skip the machines assisting humans to make their life more convenient (ranging from “The milk is out, please add the usual amount of milk to the delivery list,” to “The old lady has not left her bed this morning, I’ll better call the doctor”).

==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==
Instead, I deal with communication like: “Let’s create a user personality profile and compare it with Big Data to learn how I can best catch this user’s attention and make him/her vote for presidential candidate A or B.”; “Let’s check this users’ mouse movements and compare it with Big Data to get a correlation to estimate if (and if “yes” when) he will get Parkinson, to decide whether or not to deny him the loan or health insurance.”

==Zeng Liang 曾良==
“Let’s check this users sexual orientation, religious beliefs, fears, secrets like adultery etc. to blackmail him to get ransom money for my programmer.”; or even “Let’s use this user’s location to aim the killer drone.”

The current neoliberal system with Amazon, Facebook, WhatsApp, Instagram, Google, Netflix etc. provides incentives to collect as much user data as possible and to abuse user data for manipulation, which creates huge profits.

“让我们检查该用户的性取向、宗教信仰、恐惧、诸如通奸之类的秘密去勒索他为我的程序员去获取赎金”。或者甚至“使用用户的位置瞄准杀手无人机。”

当前具有亚马逊、脸谱网、瓦茨艾普、照片墙、谷歌、奈飞等的新自由主义系统激励人们尽可能多地收集用户信息，并滥用用户信息进行操纵，从而创造可观利益。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:04, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

"让我们查一查这个用户的性取向、宗教信仰、恐惧、通奸等秘密，以勒索他为我的程序员获取赎金。"；甚至"利用这个用户的位置来瞄准杀手无人机。"
目前亚马逊、脸书、WhatsApp、Instagram、谷歌、奈飞等的新自由主义体系，为收集尽可能多的用户数据，并滥用用户数据，从而创造了巨大的利润。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:39, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting

==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==
Very much like the financial crisis, which was caused by the unregulated use of derivatives, this is a systemic development, which currently follows a path to enslave the human race under the control of algorithms for the benefit of tech companies. The enslavement has already begun, as we can see from the world wide addiction to social media, from the growing mass of conspiracy theorists and from the polarization of the USA over Trump or the polarization of Great Britain over the Brexit.

==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==
'''1 History of Media Epochs'''

Luhmann and Baecker described the development of communication from orality (media epoch 1.0) to script (2.0), through print (3.0) and finally to digital communication (4.0). In all these stages, technology played only an assisting role.

This paper argues, that there is a fundamentally new stage of “virtual communication” (media epoch 5.0), in which artificial intelligence (initialized by humans) has taken over and humans have become the object of analysis and manipulation (as customers, voters etc.).

==Zhang Hu 张虎==
While Luhmann would still summarize this under digital communication, I see a full new quality here, and have therefore coined the term “communication 5.0” or “virtual communication” for it. In Luhmann’s view, the computer consists out of the “surface” of the machine (the visible interfaces like screen, keyboard, mouse) and the “depth” of the machine (the invisible, often incomprehensive inside).

==Zhang Hui 张慧==
However, we are almost constantly producing data, with our chats and geotracked movements, with our addiction to social media, our carrying of cell phones and more and more smart devices at all times, and we are therefore an object of analysis by algorithms.

The traditional setting of a communicative act blurs: The machine can directly communicate with the human (there the Turing test marks a threshold), and, after a certain complexity, it can hide its machine nature.

==Zhang Ling 张玲==
The machine can also indirectly communicate with the human by simply analyzing humans’ verbal communication, non-verbal multimodal communication, behavior, personality etc. and interacting with the human with, or without, revealing its existence. A human, growing up in a filter bubble and believing in conspiracy theories is one such example: The human has been manipulated by social media and news which prefer lies over truth.

==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==
Without even noticing that there was an interaction taking place between the human and the machine, the human has lost his/her independence to the machine.

'''2 Types of communicative acts'''

1.Texts (oral and written comments/chat texts/blogs/emails)

2.Surf behavior (websites visited)

3.Consumer behavior (purchases)

4.Likes (see OCEAN, UEBA)

5.Duration/Attention (see UEBA)

6.habits/repetitiveness/occurrences (is an element of analysis in different AI apps/tools)

==Zhang Qi 张琪==
7.Unconscious, often unique data allowing identification (way of writing, mouse movements pattern, see Raj Kannan 2020)

8.social interaction incl. friendships, sexual relationships

9.mobility behavior/pattern (e.g. immediate environment – e.g. unconsciously recording the inside of houses while playing “Pokemon Go”), travel: Travel Behavior (Yu Cui et al. 2018)

==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==
'''3 Types of analysis'''

1.General (User and Entity Behavior Analytics UEBA: AI-assisted cybersecurity tools like by Gartner, Inc.)

2.True identity (e.g.: mouse movements, face recognition, find real name) (Verschuere 2016)

3.Personality profile: Big Five Personality Inventory: Openness to Experience, Consciousness, Extroversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism “OCEAN” (Golbeck 2011), by only analyzing the users' likes, Facebook can generate personality profiles (AI-Demand 2020)

4.Mobility profile/pattern

==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==
5.Health situation (health apps, ai supported disease research, see Daley 2020)

6.Job situation/job market (Talent Search People 2020 analyzes the job market, and classifies 4 different AI systems: 1. systems that think like humans, 2. systems that act like humans, 3. systems that think rationally, and 4.) systems that act rationally.)

==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==
7.Financial credit-worthiness: E.g. German Schufa company uses AI in addition to human expertise for evaluations, see Banken-Technologie 2020. Banken-Technologie 2020. Schufa’s attempt to gain access to customers’ bank account transfer information was discussed in the news.

8.Consumer Behavior: e.g. the "clickworker" company analyses and optimizes customers' searches in respect to a client company's goals/products with the help of AI (clickworker 2019)

9.Secrets (like adultery)

==Zhang Yu 张瑜==
'''4 Unique quality of media epoch 5.0'''[ I have coined the terms “media epoch 5.0” and “virtual communication” I have developed it from concepts like „Industry 4.0“ in Germany and the four media epochs Luhmann and Baecker developed (by Baecker called 1.0 … 4.0). There are several authors speculating about the media epoch 4.0, like Ray Kurzweil. The Age of Intelligent Machines. 1990.]

1.the human switches from active to passive

2.the human switches from subject to object

3.the human becomes addicted to social media, which enhances depression (Van Den Eijnden et al. 2016, Jasso-Medrano et al. 2018, Shensa et al. 2017)

4.the human switches from puppeteer, or entity with seemingly free will, to puppet

5.nature of the internet turns from freedom to surveillance

==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==
6.direct communication turns into indirect communication (humans may not be aware of this communication/analysis)

7.explicit communication (voice, words) turns into implicit communication (preferences/thoughts/dreams/wishes/ values (first experiments with brain scanners in worker hats have started in Shanghai and Peking))

8.man-man communication turns to man-machine communication (phone bot) to machine-machine

9.4.0 was from centralization to decentralization, 5.0 is partial centralization and partial decentralization, but also concentration

==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==
So far, mass media has been considered one-way. The interaction and processing of data of millions of individual users seemed simply too much work. In the age of virtual communication, the media epoch 5.0, mass media is individualized and interactive and therefore even more influential.

'''5 Types of manipulation (consciously or unconsciously, sometimes half-consciously)
'''

1.Priming by unconscious advertisements: Influencing consumer decisions

2.Filter bubbles => supports conspiracy theories, influences judgments

==Zhao Xi 赵茜==
3.Nature of social media: lies spread 6 times faster than truth. (Vosoughi et al. 2018).

4.Change of political attitude: Case Cambridge Analytica: Helped minority to win election by manipulating young people of majority not to vote (Do so: Don’t vote campaign, Oddleifson 2020); Trump election and Brexit were won by manipulation

5.Use of private information/dependencies to obtain advantages (blackmailing for money or for conducting crimes etc.)

6.Identity theft

==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==
'''6 Consequences'''

1.Virtual Communication is mostly “hidden”, the human is mostly unaware of it, but may endure the consequences (policeman may detain suspect simply because the face recognition glass recognizes a pedestrian passing by and assesses him/her as “dangerous”; loan is declined; insurance company declines to accept new customer)

==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==
2.User becomes transparent (government can fight terrorism, any user can be blackmailed, jealous spouse can check on adultery)

3.Less will to communicate and discuss (since positions are too far apart)

4.Populists and populist views gain supporters

5.Polarization of Society

6.There is an incentive not to reveal how much one knows about the object, because the object then could question the legality, the system etc.

7.Last resort, the thinking, is tackled: Machine interprets “real” attitudes, not lip-service words

==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==
8.The knowing ones (algorithms, hackers, controllers of algorithms) have power over the unknowing ones (victims)

9.Exoskeleton ethics (like points/awards for measurable performances) reduce incentives to build inner ethics
'''
7 Simulation of the imminent future'''

1.The imminent future behavior of a human can be predicted

2.With many analyzed humans, the imminent future of reality can be predicted => simulation

==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==
Is this an Orwellian dystopia or reality? Some cases of the above listed phenomena have been documented. However, we are still at the beginning of “little” AI development (optimizing existing processes) and on the brink of a much more powerful development, that of “big” AI (rethinking whole industries, being able to reproduce and enhance itself). (cf. Euchner 2019).

==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==
'''8 Conclusion and Outlook'''

Data has succeeded oil as the most valuable resource for today’s economy. Big Tech companies already use users’ data and make big profits with it while legislation is delayed and national boundaries (which do not exist for the Tech companies) are struggled over.
Although input-legitimized liberal democracies and market economies, like that of the European Union, still protect privacy and data security, US- and China-based technology companies are already penetrating the European market.

==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==
We need to raise awareness and guide the youth to be careful with screen time and what they share online. We need to avoid addiction to social media.

'''The algorithms do not just check which film to suggest viewing next, they have started to invade the innermost sanctum of personality, our thoughts, dreams, wishes, visions, hopes, fears and secrets.
'''
'''
The listed consequences document a fundamental change of paradigms:
'''

==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==
'''The cause-based decision-making by humans with established institutions like politicians, judges etc. is being replaced with correlation-based decision-making by algorithms which often serve the profit interests of tech companies or the political interests of election-manipulators.
'''

AI took the wrong development path, when it changed from serving humans to trying to manipulate humans for economic or political profit. When AI is used to educate citizens – like helping German customers to keep a clean credit history and a good credit score – then it changes the behavior of citizens to an exoskeletal ethic.

==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==
However, animals with an exoskeleton reduce their inside muscles and develop a soft inside, making them totally incapable of living without the exoskeleton. An exoskeletal ethic, giving reward points, for example, for behavior which is deemed positive and subtracting points for behavior which is deemed negative, deprives the human of the natural learning and developing process, in a social environment, of his responsibility and inner ethical judgment. If you were to meet a human with exoskeletal ethics and one who has inner ethics, whom would you trust more?

==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==
If we want to avoid the consequences listed in point 6, the public needs to become aware of this and nations and supranational organizations need to define legislation to a) protect privacy and data security, and b) give the user the control over his/her data including the commercial use of it where they earn a share from the profit made with the usage of his/her data.

==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==
'''9 Outlook'''

We need to accept, that the development is irreversible. Every new technology has created fears. Important is, that we become aware of the developments and adjust where the development heads into the wrong direction. We need set the right framework and incentives that the new technology stays on track to serve humanity.

==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==
New developments open new possibilities. We need to make sure that not only a few tech companies and terrorists use this powerful new technology to achieve their goals, but that the mass of smart device users emancipate themselves from addiction to and manipulation by technology and gain back their dignity, privacy and free will.

'''References
'''
（参考文献不用翻译）

AI-Demand. (2020). www.ai-demand.com/insights/data/big-data/big-data-and-facebook-the-heavenly-pair-that-isnt-quite-in-heaven/

Baecker, Dirk. (2007). ''Studien zur nächsten Gesellschaft''. Frankfurt 2007

Banken-Technologie. (2020). 26. Handelsblatt Jahrestagung. Banken-Technologie. „New Normal” in der Finanzwirtschaft: digital – intelligent – automatisiert – hybrid. 2. und 3.12.2020, Digital [Conference Announcement] https://veranstaltungen.handelsblatt.com/bankentechnologie/ki-machine-learning-finanzanalyse/

Booth, T. "Cambridge Analytica controversy must spur researchers to update data ethics." ''Nature'' 555.7698 (2018): 559-560.

Clickworker. (2019). www.clickworker.com/2019/04/30/ai-for-ecommerce/

Cui, Yu, Qing He, and Alireza Khani. (2018). Travel behavior classification: an approach with social network and deep learning. ''Transportation research record'', 2672(47), 68-80. https://par.nsf.gov/servlets/purl/10109453

Daley, Sam. (2020). 32 Examples of AI in Healthcare that Will Make you Feel better about the Future (July 4, 2019, updated July 29, 2020). builtin.com/artificial-intelligence/artificial-intelligence-healthcare

Euchner, Jim. (2019). Little ai, Big AI—Good AI, Bad AI. Terminology Management 62:3, 10-12. pdf:

https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/08956308.2019.1587280?needAccess=true

Golbeck, Jennifer, Cristina Robles, and Karen Turner. (2011). "Predicting personality with social media." ''CHI'11 extended abstracts on human factors in computing systems''. 2011. 253-262.

Jasso-Medrano, José Luis, and Fuensanta Lopez-Rosales. (2018). "Measuring the relationship between social media use and addictive behavior and depression and suicide ideation among university students." Computers in Human Behavior 87: 183-191.

Luhmann, Niklas. (1997). ''Die Gesellschaft der Gesellschaft''. 1997

Oddleifson, Evan. 2020, The Effects of Modern Data Analytics in Electoral Politics: Cambridge Analytica’s Suppression of Voter Agency and the Implications for Global Politics, ''Political Sciences Undergraduate Review'' 5 (2020) 7, 1-7.

https://journals.library.ualberta.ca/psur/index.php/psur/article/view/130/90/130-Article%20Text-642-1-10-20200401.pdf

Raj Kannan, J., Sabitha, R., Karthik, S., & Shanthini, J. (2020). Mouse Movement Pattern Based Analysis of Customer Behavior (CBA-MMP) Using Cloud Data Analytics. ''Wireless Personal Communications'', OnlineFirst, 1-17.

Ruan, Lotus, et al. "One App, Two Systems: How WeChat uses one censorship policy in China and another internationally." (2016).
Shensa, Ariel, et al. (2017). "Problematic social media use and depressive symptoms among US young adults: A nationally-representative study." ''Social Science & Medicine ''182: 150-157.

Talent Search People. (2020). How Will Artificial Intelligence Affect the Job Market? www.talentsearchpeople.com/en/blog/494-how-will-artificial-intelligence-affect-the-job-market/.

Van Den Eijnden, Regina JJM, Jeroen S. Lemmens, and Patti M. Valkenburg. (2016). "The social media disorder scale." ''Computers in Human Behavior ''61: 478-487.

Verschuere, Bruno, and Bennett Kleinberg. "ID‐check: Online Concealed Information Test reveals true identity." ''Journal of forensic sciences'' 61 (2016): S237-S240.

Vosoughi, Soroush, Deb Roy, and Sinan Aral. (2018). The spread of true and false news online. Science 359.6380: 1146-1151.. science.sciencemag.org/content/359/6380/1146

==Zhu Xu 朱旭==
'''Bio'''

Martin Woesler, PhD, is Jean Monnet Chair in European Studies with Hunan Normal University since 2020. At its Foreign Studies College, he is Distinguished Professor of Chinese Studies, Translation Studies and Comparative Literature since 2019. Woesler was elected Academian of the European Academy of Sciences and Arts, Salzburg in 2019.
Woesler has co-edited the books "China's Digital Dream", "Ethics of Information Society" and Springer has scheduled to publish the book "Diverse Voices in Chinese Translation and Interpretation" including his book chapter "Modern Interpreting with Digital and Technical Aids" in February 2021.

==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==
Woesler was a Senior Fellow of the German Science Foundation's (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft) Research College "Media Cultures of Computer Simulations" 2019‐2020 and hosted a related workshop with Bertelsmann Foundation in 2020. Woesler is also a researcher with Witten/Herdecke University, Germany, investigating the impact of daily screen time of children and of young people on their health.

20201228 trans

2020-12-25T07:39:06Z

Yang chenting: /* Zeng Liang 曾良 */

==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==
'''Zhu Ziqing'''

A third example, where an author shows another face in his essays is Zhu Ziqing. He is known as the author of the most often reprinted story-like Chinese essay "''Back View''" (Beiying), a standard school text. The success of this essay lies in the fact, that it applies to filial pity. From the reported fare-well scene with his father at the train station, he learned that his father loved him and that he had grown-up too now.
==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==
This self-reflective essay helped Zhu to find himself through the observation of the other (here his father). The 2nd often printed essay is also from Zhu. Parallelistic and repetitive structures are the driving factor in the atmospherical nebulous lyrical landscape desription "''The Moonlit Lotus Pond''", whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader.

Zhu Ziqing supposedly opposed all political engagement and, wrote about unspectacular things. In Taiwan he became a type of substitute for the categorically refused state writer of the People’s Republic, Lu Xun, mainly because of Zhu’s supposed political independence.
==Chen Han 陈涵==
I would like to show with three examples that Zhu had absolutely clear political ideas: He had taken part in the demonstration March 18, 1926, which ended in a massacre. Zhu described this in ''"Report On the Massacre of the Government''"[ (Zhizhengfu da tusha ji).].

''Shots were still being fired, and the entrance of the east gate was packed with people. [...] Pushing and shoving, we climbed over them with great effort. We must have lost our senses then, not seeing, to our shame, the grotesqueness of our action. ''
==Chen Hui 陈惠==
''[...]I was still walking on top of the people. No one dared to miss a single step, filing through the gate that divided safety from danger, one that would give us life or take our lives away. [...] My efforts finally brought me down to the ground, sealing my fate as I rolled down from the human pile. [...] I learned later that some of the people by the gate were dead, killed by the pistol squad firing from the other side of the gate. When I recall stepping over dead bodies, I cannot help but tremble with fear. [...]''
==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==
From this experience, Zhu addresses directly the repsonsible political leaders:

''Duan Qirui, you must think about it! [...] How could we explain this to the world? [...] Granted, Duan Qirui and others could commit such atrocities without a thought; but how could we, the people of China, face the world with such a shameless government? [...] We, [...], must ask, „So many were killed—what should we do?“''
==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==
In contrast, Lu Xun has portrayed the same massacre with sighing undertone and Zhou Zuoren bitter-humorously in his "''Ways to die''"[ (Si fa).] - in which he finds "to be shot" the best method to die. The supposedly less politically engaged Zhu shows here more engagement.

The essay "''Facing the New China''"[ (Xin Zhongguo zai wang zhong).] is Zhu's political manifest: He asks for democracy, enlightenment and an increase of the education level.
==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==
''China has to be born again through democratization. [...] The people should express their own will, concentrate on their own strength. Every level of administration should build up on the expressed will and strength of the people and struggle for the majority and its greatest happiness. This means that the people govern, the people own, the people enjoy.''

A few weeks before his death, he demanded in the speech ''"Today's duty of the Intellectuals''"[ (Zhishifenzi jintian de renwu).] the participation of the intellectual in the struggle for a better society.
==Chen Sha 陈莎==
With only a handful of essays I have demonstrated, that the picture of these three authors changes substantially, if we read carefully also their less known essayistic work. Imagine now how the picture of 20th century Chinese literature might change, if the literary histories and anthologies would not only tell the history of drama, fiction and poetry, but would also grant the essay its proper place. The following part of my paper are results of my monograph on the 20th century Chinese essay.
==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==
'''The essay boom as a mirror reflecting growing individuality, participation in the public sphere, and the giddy-paced character of modern Chinese society'''

Acquiring an overview of the essay and assessing its essence has required extensive research in bookstores and libraries, in the People's Republic of China, Taiwan, Hong Kong and the United States for available resources in the form of essay book collections as well as secondary literature dealing with the essay.
==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==
I built a database for a statistical analysis to rank more than 5000 essays and 1400 essayists. It turned out that out of the top 60 most famous Chinese essays only 14 had been translated into English so far. The forthcoming collection of Tam King-fai adds 4 and my own one the remaining 42.

Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report[ (baogao wenxue) (Klaschka 1998).].
==Cheng Yusi 成于思==
The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous essay bookseries[ sanwen congshu 散文叢書.].

The reason for the increase in essay production, which we can date right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in the sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for the survey. There are three reasons for the increase in Chinese essay production and popularity in the mid-1990s:
==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==
1, The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts, as Hall has put it: “[...] we live in an age of exposition”[ (Hall 1984:xiii).].

2, The increasing consciousness of individuality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands.

3, A revival of interest in discussing socio-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.
==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==
If we look carefully at essay collections not only published in the United States, but also in Hong Kong, Taiwan and the People’s Republic, we find the following three reasons for the under- and overestimation of single essayists or essays which correspond to regional differences:

1, EXOTIC In the United States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones.
==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==
2, SOCIO-POLITICAL In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, as the mentioned survey proofs, he ranks 12th among modern authors there. Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.

3, PERSONAL Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by his disciple Huang Weiliang in favor for Yu.[ (see Lin Yaode 1989:50).]

Having named reasons for the essay boom and for the support for and the suppression of different actors in the cultural field of the essay, I would like to finish my paper by naming a few trends of the essay as they appear at the eve of the century.
==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==
The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consumer-orientation of the masses. The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educational claim with the exception of essays which claim to be "art pourt l'art".
==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==
The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing ("''On dreams''"[ "Shuo meng 說夢" On dreams in: Zhu Ziqing 1928.]) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 ("''My own garden''"[ 9.1923.], "''The Fly''"[ 1924.], "''Reading on the Toilet''"[ 1936.]), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the newly encountered world of mass consumerism.
==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==
In the end of this century not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. Among the upper list places of the political essay after 1949 there are critical essays. For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain.
==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==
A sign for the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publishing houses with an orientation for customers (former: "readers"). Following the emotional essays of Zhu Ziqing who rank 1st and 2nd, ''nostalgia'' is the element of emotional identification in "''Wild vegetables of my home region''" by Zhou Zuoren, which ranks 3rd[ In Jia Pingwa's "Moon traces", which ranks 11, and in Ba Jin's "''Paradise for Birds''", which ranks 19]. Therefore one can state, that moving essays form the top.
==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==
In 1927, Chinese literature took the form of 'engaged literature'. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics in daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology. In the later half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of individuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife.
==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==
In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only remiscent element left is the patriotism.[ ''Trends like the use of ordinary language'', which one finds in novels since 1993 (''Jia Pingwa'', Feidu; ''Gu Cheng'', Yingger) and New Borderlessness since 1995, cannot be proven in the essaywriting.The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable ''object d'art''.]

'''References''' [partly mentioned with German translation] （不用翻）

Vera Schwarcz 1996, Vera Schwarcz, "The pain of sorrow: public uses of personal grief in modern China", in Daedalus: Journal of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (Winter 1996)

Ba Jin 1982, Ba Jin: "Yi feng huixin 一封回信" (Ein Antwortbrief (26.10.1982)), in: Bing zhong ji 病中集 (Auf dem Krankenlager), Hongkong 香港 1984(?) (Series Suixiang lu 隨想錄 (Thoughts) Bd 4), 147 pp.

Ba Jin 1982a, Ba Jin: "Yi pian xuwen 一篇序文" (Ein Vorwort) [dated 1982.9/10], in: Ba Jin: Auf dem Krankenlager 1984

Ba Jin 1956, Ba Jin 巴金: "Duli sikao 獨立思考" (Unabhängig denken), in: Li Jisheng 李濟生, Li Xiaolin 李小林 (Hgg.): Ba Jin liushi nian wenxuan (1927 - 1986), Suixiang lu, zagan, sanwen, xuba, yanjiang, shuxin 巴金六十年文選（１９２７－１９８６）隨想錄·雜感·散文·序跋· 演講·書信 (Ba Jin. Werkauswahl aus 60 Jahren (1927 - 1986), Gedanken, vermischte Gefühle, Essays, Vor- und Nachworte, Reden, Briefe), Shanghai 上海: Shanghai wenyi chubanshe 上海文藝出版社 (Literatur- und Kunstverlag Shanghai), 1986.12, S. 461 - 462 [Datiert auf 1956.]

Ba Jin 1962, "Zuojia de yongqi yu zerenxin 作家的勇氣與責任心" (Mut und Verantwortungsbewußtsein der Schrifsteller) 1962; der Essay von Zhou Zuoren 周作人: "Wenxue tan 文學談" (Über Literatur), in: Tan long ji 談龍集 (Über Drachen. Sammlung), Shanghai 上海: Kaiming shudian 開明書店 (Kaiming Buchladen) 1927.12, Nachdruck: Hongkong 香港: Shiyong shuju 使用書局 (Praxisverlag) 1972.1, 310 S., S. 165 - 167

Zhou Zuoren 1919, Zhou Zuoren, "Zuxian chongbai 1919 (Ancestor Worship)," in Early Essays, op.cit., pp. 78

Zhou Zuoren 1920: Zhou Zuoren 周作人, Xin wenxue de yaoqiu 新文學的要求" (The demand of the New Literature) [lecture], in Beiping shaonian xuehui 北平少年學會 (Beiping youth conference) 1920.1.6, in: Zhang Ruoying 長若英: Xin wenxue yundong shi ziliao 新文學運動史資料 (Material on the history of the New Literature movement), Shanghai 上海: Guangming shuju 光明書局 (Guangming bookstore) (1934.9) ²1936.9, 291-296

Zhou Zuoren 1923, Zhou Zuoren: Yanzhicao ba (Preface to Yu Pingbo's Yanzhicao), in: Yongri ji (Book of Eternal Day), Shanghai: Beixin shuju 1929, 180-181

Zhou Zuoren 1929, Zhou Zuoren: Ertong de shu (The books of children), in: Chenbao fukan (1923.8.17)

Zhou Zuoren yuanliu, Zhou Zuoren: Zhongguo xin wenxue de yuanliu (Sources of New Chinese Literature), p 71

Zhou Zuoren 1932, Zhou Zuoren: Lun baguwen 1932, in: Kanyun ji p. 148

Source: NEAAS annual meeting 10/09/1999 New Haven (Yale University)
==Guo Lu 郭露==
'''Modern Chinese Literature and the Essay Genre: A New Perspective'''

''Martin Woesler''

In this paper, I will not recount the contents and propose interpretations of any essays, nor will I outline the main topics or styles of essaywriting in China, but I would like to take the opportunity to reflect a little bit on the phenomenon of the genre itself and discuss some conclusions and hypotheses with the attentive and critical audience which can be found at only a few places on earth, EALC at Harvard definitely being one of them.

《中国现代文学与散文体裁：以新视角》

''吴漠汀''

在本文中,我将不再赘述任何文章的内容和提出的观点,我也不会列出其主要主题或风格,但是我想借此机会,反映一些现象本身的类型，并与包括哈佛大学学生在内的观众对一些结论和假设进行探讨。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:16, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

《中国现代文学与散文体裁：新视角》

吴漠汀

本文将不再赘述或解释任何文章的内容，也不会列出中国散文的主要主题或风格。我想借此机会，反思体裁现象，同乐于助人、至关重要且世间少有的读者，包括哈佛大学东亚语言和文化学院的学生，对一些结论和假设进行探讨。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:28, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==
'''1. The unknown genre'''

The literary-historical narrative told by anthologies and collections of the 20th century has drawn an incomplete picture of Chinese literature: The genre of the essay was lacking. In my paper I will ask, if the picture of literature can remain unchanged, if we take into consideration also the essay. The genre has been neglected for a long time as a genre of merit (Margouliès 1949, Schmidt-Glintzer 1990) or overlooked (McNaughton 1974, Leiden 1988-90, McDougall 1998);
==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==
whereas its elder brother, fiction, has been prized ever since the valuing of fictional literature and the vernacularisation of writing in early Republican China, which followed from the master narrative established by the May 4th movement. Modern anthologies would have the reader believe that a triumvirate of poetry, fiction and drama forms the backbone of modern Chinese literary output.
==He Changqi 何长琦==
'''Excursion: Defining the essay as a non-fictional subjective representation in a free form'''

Similar to international literature, the basic subdivision of literature in China in general is one in three types: epic (with xiaoshuo (fiction), sanwen (non-fictional prose)), lyrics (shige) and drama (xiqu). Though there is no pure epic form, fiction and prose are often jointly addressed with the Chinese term "wu yunwen" which corresponds to the term "epic" in the West. The types may be distinguished roughly by their nature in the following way: In the epic, bygone events are retold, a broad, filled story dominates the foreground.
==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==
In the lyrics, the reader is encouraged to feel the current sensations and often confessionlike feelings of the poet. The drama recalls a self-contained action directly in monologue or dialogue and in this way unburdens the re-creative imagination of the readers/spectators through it. The essay as a genre of the epic is a detached non-fictional subjective representation in a free form.
==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==
"Essay", Chinese mostly ''sanwen'', is a genre term for shorter, self-contained non-fictional prose texts, in which the author tries to mediate individual experiences on an object or a question out of subjective I-perspective. This it tries associatively and from different sides, not as a text for daily use, but with artistic or educationally demanding means of language, nevertheless in an accessible form. The resource is mastered by the essayist sovereignly and the topic is seen in a larger context and can even be presented humorously. Freedom in form and content is essential for the essay.
==Hu Jin 胡瑾==
Different perspectives range in the international genre of the essay: Genres are primarily divisions of literature through the scholarship of literature for specialized contemplation and in order to be able to compare similar texts more easily. On the other hand, a subcategorization in numerous small entities, like Zheng Mingli does with the essay, questions the sense of such subdivisioning in reference to hermeneutic findings. One must also stay aware of the changing nature of literature itself and the relativity of the scientific perspective, which is still a timely one, even if its accepted internationally.
==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==
Regional deviations seem less important for the essay than for established genres like short stories, novels etc., and far less important than for poems. All these other genres are seen as international genres. My hypothesis, that the Chinese and the Western essay also belong to the same international genre maybe proved by the crosscultural mutualities both in form and content.
==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==
In the 21st century, the world is growing together and culture is mainly determined by the grade of modernization. The Chinese essay, as we find it in newspapers today, has taken on the form and content of the Western essay and is aimed at a target group comparable to that of the Western essay. This is a second hint that the modern Chinese essay belongs to the international genre of the essay.
==Jiang Hao 姜好==
Even though the translation of ''duanpian xiaoshuo'' with ''short stories'' is commonly accepted, both are less closely related than the Western essay and its Chinese counterpart. The definition, which I developed out of a sample of more than 5000 modern Chinese essays, fits also the special international understanding of the essay (following Bolz 1992 13:269-272 on the development of the western essay; Butrym 1989 on the theory of the western essay).
==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==
Besides the trend towards a globalized society, first expressed in Zhou Zuoren's call to adopt the English essay style, there are special local characteristics of the Chinese essay. How is the Chinese essay to determine culturally, what makes it "Chinese"? In the occidental essay the form seems to be a more important criterion of differentiation than in its Chinese counterpart. In China even those texts are included, which have only a similar content, but cross the borders of the formal generical framework.

除了首先由周作人表达出来的社会全球化趋势，号召采用英语散文风格，中文散文有独特本土的特征。中文散文如何形成其特有文化，其中文性又由何组成？和中文散文相比，西方散文的文章形式似乎是更重要的分类标准。在中国，甚至有些文章内容相似，但形式和类别大相径庭。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 02:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

除了最初由周作人表达出来的社会全球化趋势，号召采用英语散文风格，中文散文具有独特的本土特色。中文散文如何形成其特有文化，其中文性又由何组成？与中文散文相比，西方散文的形式分类标准似乎更重要。在中国，有些文章甚至是内容相似，但形式和类别大相径庭。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:18, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==
This can be shown with Zheng Mingli, who subcategorises the "unfinished diary" or the "unfinished letter". Those texts belong - within the Western context - to texts of personal use and therefor to the non-fictional prose works. Only after they have been altered into essays (Zheng Mingli: "essay in diary form" and "essay in letter form"), they are accepted as essays.
==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==
'''The Chinese understanding of the genre is tendencially broader'''

This tendencial broader understanding of the essay in China can be traced back directly to the connotation, that the term ''sanwen'' possesses in Chinese: ''wú yùnwén'' "non-rhythmic prose", which originally meant all non-fictional prose. In this broader meaning, also texts for personal or everyday use are included. However I deal only with ''sanwen'' in the narrower meaning "short literary essay pieces".

Further differences are that Chinese essays often have ideological contents and show stylistic characteristics like repetitions and the usage of sayings.
==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==
'''The Chinese essay is booming again in the 1980s and 1990s'''

Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report (''baogao wenxue'').[ Klaschka 1998.] The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous ''sanwen congshu'' 散文叢書 (essay bookseries).
==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==
The increase in essay production right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in a sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for a survey.

Thanks to the work of some major Chinese editors, the whole essay culture was compiled from magazines and newspapers and was published in a flood of anthologies since the 1970s. This boom is comparable to the cultural fever of undigging xiangtu literature, which rose in Taiwan in front of the background of the movement of self-identification and independance.
==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==
'''2. Why is the essay as abundant as fiction?'''

Let me name a few reasons, why the essay in fact is as abundant as its prose brother, fiction, and its lyrical sister, poetry, and why it must be valued as highly:

- The essay had a direct impact on Chinese society throughout history (the reform ideas from the end of the Qing dynasty through the May Fourth period with the literary theorethical pieces and the daily political zawen of Lu Xun, until today are mostly presented in essay form). The impact on literary reflection and theory is shown in the collection "Modern Chinese Literary Thought" 1996. The effect of the essay genre with its direct language, its connection to life (e.g. its role in the coming to terms with the cultural revolution), and its direct access to the individual reader through newspapers. This impact is larger than the indirect one of fiction or poetry. The poem is the genre of retreat from social life, from political issues and time references.
==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==
Hu Shi argues, that ''poetry'' is most important in the process of modernity, since poetry rises emotions. But it relies also on images and on linguistic rhythm. Liang Qichao stresses the role of novel and opera in the changing society. But ''sanwen'' is able to name things, it reflects life, caleidoscopic. Modern subjectivity is constructed with the tool of ''sanwen''.

- The essay also reflects trends in the society better than poetry and fiction: Individualism is expressed in the essay more directly than in the poem with its limitation in content and form. Ephemerality is reflected in the short form of the essay, which may be read in the subway on the way to work, where poems may not be so spontaneously enjoyed.
==Li Haiquan 李海泉==
- The essay reaches a larger part of the population than poetry, the amount of time spended on reading novels goes back, too. The essay itself a genre of high actuality, if not simply the genre of today.

- The essay tells us more about an author and his time than fiction or poetry, because in this genre, we encounter the author himself without metrical restrictions. We look trough authentic eyes on his contemporary society. Many authors turned to essay writing in the later periods of their lifes, like Lu Xun, Ba Jin, and Wang Meng.
==Li Lili 李丽丽==
- The volume of ''essay'' production exceeds the volume of ''xiaoshuo'' production: Chinese newspapers since the 1870s on[ Shenbao, Shibao etc. Liang Qichao sees the role of the newspaper both as liberal and authoritative: He understands the press as an institution to control the government, on the other hand he favors censorship.] and as a mass media from the early 20th century presented only one or two fictional stories in a serialized form, but invented essay columns like ''zagan'' (from which Lu Xun developed his ''zawen''), ''suibi'' or ''suixiang'' (from which famous collections like Ba Jin's ''Suixiang lu'' derived).
==Li Lingyue 李凌月==
'''3. Let us assign the essay its proper place'''
The consequence which must be driven from the above presented contrast between value and valuing of the essay is: Let us assign the essay its proper place! I will describe the beginnings of the discovery of the essay.
Despite the increase in essay writing from 1979 on, it took a decade for the first theoretical reflections on this phenomenon to appear. It took another decade before the international scholarship of Chinese Studies became aware of the phenomenon of the essay.
==Li Liqin 李丽琴==
In the 1980s, Chinese scholarship made a first major approach to reflect on essay literature by writing essay histories and collecting papers, which concentrated first on the essayistic work of single authors like Lu Xun. Also two essay conferences in the 1990s showed no move towards international scholarship. Not before 1995 did international scholarship started to use common philological methods to explore single essayists (on Gaylord Leung [Liang Xihua] 梁錫華 Kubin 1995, on Wang Meng 王蒙 Woesler 1995, on Liu Zaifu 劉再復 Mansberg 1995 [unpublished]) or essays of groups (on 'Xīnyùe pài 新月派' Wagner 1996).
==Li Luyi 李璐伊==
Not before the second half of the 1990s, did a history of the Chinese essay using the means of Western philology appear (Woesler 1998) and for the first time, the essay was included in Western anthologies of literature as a genre equal to fiction and poetry (''The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature'' 1995, ''Modern Chinese Literary Thought'' 1996).

Regarding the valuing of essays in China, Taiwan and the West, there are regional differences: In the States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones.
==Li Meng 李梦==
In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, in my survey, which Chinese essayists are printed the most in the 1990s, he ranks 16th. If one only take modern authors into account, he even ranks 12th. Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by Huang Weiliang in favor for the first (see Lin Yaode 1989:50), and Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.

Still it remains a ''desideratum'' to get the most important Chinese essays in Western translation.
==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==
Currently at least three essay collections in English translation are in the reviewing process (Tam King-Fai, Woesler) or already published (Pollard 1999). Pollard's selection is a highly subjective and eclective choice of essays, covering even the premodern essay. This year, scholars will meet on a first international conference on the essay (Achern, Germany August 25-26). In the years to come, a new ''Bonn History of Chinese Literature'' will grant the essay its proper place with two to three volumes only dedicated to the ''biji, youji'' and other essays.
==Li Yu 李玉==
'''4. Taking into consideration the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature'''

I will give a few hints, what the essay can contribute to the picture of Chinese Literature, which so far is overshadowed by fiction through the narrative of C.T. Hsia, Prusek and Anderson.

We are used to established narratives, like the emergence and success of the May-Fourth literature. But this view neglects the role, that for example the ''yuanyang hudie pai'' played in the choir of different voices in the awoken intellectual debate in the beginning of this century.
==Lin Min 林敏==
The May-Fourth group at that time was one voice among many and only succeeded because of its agitation and polemic in the public sphere, so we have to use new means to assign the Chinese essay its proper place. We learn from simplifiying narratives, that it is absolutely necessary to differentiate, and to reconstruct the complex time background. Having understood Chinese literature as determined by the development of fiction and poetry only, a broader understanding will change the whole appearance of Chinese literature. A scholarly endeavour is the use of modern literary theories in the approach to this genre.
==Lin Xin 林鑫==
In the following, I will name three aspects (chronologically sorted by past, modern and contemporary time) to hold the argument, that the taking into consideration of the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature and change our current understanding of it.

'''5. The classical and premodern essay documents Chinese philosophy, early subjectivity and still, a native Chinese tradition is questioned'''

How is the Chinese essay to be positioned historically, how did it emerge, what is its generic background? Generically, the ancestors of the essay are both in China and the West notes written on the margins of books, they are letters and travel notes.

==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==
These notes differed from the canonized literature through its informal style, its expression of individuality und subjectivity, a much earlier document for subjectivity than the first autobiographical Chinese novel, ''The Dream of the Red Chamber''.

From the very beginning, the essay was valued lower than poetry: the oldest reference this far for the term ''sanwen'' that I found is Luo Dajing's 羅大經 (? - after 1248) statement from 1240: “Shī sāomiào tiānxià, ér sǎnwén pōjué suǒsuì júcù.
==Liu Bo 刘博==
詩騷妙天下，而散文頗覺瑣碎局促。” (Poetry is moving mankind in a wonderful way, prose inquires into incoherent bagatels, is limited.) (''Helin yulu''). Another reproach Luo Dajing mentions, is a formal one: In comparison to the highly artistic and century-long tradition of poetic writing, the direct and often vernacular langage of the essay in his eyes had less value.

In the West, a real 'art of the essaywriting' came up in the late 16th century as a medium for the newly reorganized knowledge.
==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==
The reorganization originated from the observations of Kopernikus, which destroyed the whole conception of the world of the Middle Age.

In China, particularly the debates on Buddhism in the 4th and 5th century A.D. saw the origination of a tradition of letters. The Chinese tradition of the ''sanwen'' 散文 (essay) however, in the understanding of sǎn 散 as (to dispel, leisure, loose, relaxed, irregular, independant style, free prose, can be seen not before the detachment from the dialogue - or aphorism, which is still visible in the philosophical ''Lunyu''.
==Liu Liu 刘柳==
Xunzi delivered the prototype of the later essay with his philosophical treatises. They are an early form of philosophical didactical essays, in which general theorems are derived not only from quotations of the canonized classical works, but for the first time also from his own individual experience. The individuality is still a main characteristic of the essay today.

During the dynasties the essay manifested itself further in certain subcategories: From reading-notes written at the paper margins originated the ''biji'' µ§°O (occasional notes), flourishing in the Ming Dynasty.

荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形，它们是哲学教学论文的早期形式。其中的一般定理不仅来自于经典著作的引用，而且第一次从他的个人经验中得出。个性仍是现今散文的主要特点。

历朝历代，散文在某些子类中进一步得以表现，如从写在纸边的读书笔记产生了明朝盛行的偶记。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 02:25, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Ou 刘欧==
The marginalism is a link between Western and Chinese tradition of early essays. Occasional notes could contain private historical notes, anecdotes, communications and contemplations. However, the consciousness of the essay as a genre of its own originated in China not before the Qing ²M dynastie, when numerous essay anthologies were compiled.

Taking into consideration the social-historical background draws a different picture of the old society than short stories and novels: Essays are much closer to real life, since they express individual problems and experiences.
==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==
Until now, the Chinese pre-''Hongloumeng'' individual literature spoke only through the indirect language of poems to us. Rediscovering the essays, we have a splendid source of opinions, social-historical pictures etc.

Premodern essay literature consists of much more than its most well-known example, the formally restrictive ''baguwen''. Lu Xun himself wrote some of his essays in ''baguwen'' style, but on the other hand took it as a synonym for the ancient society. Zhou Zuoren saw the rhythm of the language of the "Eight legged essay" as as appealing and intoxicating as the "pleasure of doing opium.'' (Zhou 1932:148).
==Liu Yi 刘艺==
But he considered it also as a prevalent genre implicit in the modern writings as ''yang bagu'' (westernized bagu) and ''dang bagu'' (party-line bagu) (borrowing from Wu Zhihui, Zhou Yuanliu:71).

Neo-Confucianism stressed ''wen'' (prose) as the most important tool to transmit the ''dao'' (way): ''Wenyi zai dao'' (Literature as the carrier of the way). If we reinterprete this diction in the perspective of genre, we can say, that the essay then has been regarded as an important tool to express truth, subjectivity and Self.
==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==
Liang Qichao developed a ''xīn wéntǐ'' 新文體 (new prose style), which was influenced by Western languages, but the essay became popular not before the newspapers became mass media, and the language changed into ''baihua''.

'''6. The essay as the medium of modernity, the questioning of the genuiness of the Chinese essay'''

To solve first of all the dispute on whether the Chinese essay grew out of a native tradition or was influenced by Western translations, one finds both traditions relevant: The occidental essay was introduced to the writers of the literature reform movement from 1907 on by translations in Chinese (Lin Shu: ''Irving'' 1907, ''Addison'' 1911).
==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==
The current form of the genre is mostly based on the influence of Western essay translations. First developed a Chinese essay tradition, which consciously leaned upon the Western model in language, form and terminology, its own proponents succumbed soon to the temptation to derive a tradition of the Chinese essay from Chinese history only. A seemingly unbroken Chinese tradition of the native Chinese ''wenyan sanwen'' is presented in Chinese textbooks (Yu Zaichun 1978-82, Li Xishang 1985).

This is older than the ones referred to in the ''Large Chinese Dictionary'' of Morohashi (Morohashi undated) and in the ''Encyclopaedic Dictionary of the Chinese Language'' 1966.

==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==
Still, the value of the native tradition of essay writing and the role of the Western influence upon it is discussed controversially among the scholars. Some admit that Western impact played a key role in what we understand as Chinese essays nowadays: Wang Bin 1992, Fan Peisong 1993; for Western impact in general see Průšek 1964, Gálik 1966, McDougall 1971. Other scholars think that Western influence is overestimated - Denton 1996 showed that the theoretical background was missing for understanding Western theories of literature in China, - and recommended that we understand the essay first by its national tradition.
==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==
How far personal opinion may influence the narrative of historical facts can be seen by the example of the legendary authors of the May Fourth movement. All of them considered the English essay as the father of the Chinese essay: Zhou Zuoren 1921, Lu Xun 1933, the anarchist and later member of the Guomindang Wu Zhihui [1934]. Later, some of these authors changed their minds to support their own theories on the essay by looking for proof of a native Chinese essay tradition:
==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==
for example, Lu Xun with his theory "'Zhǎnkāi' shuō yǔ 'méngyá' lùn “展開”說與“萌芽”論"" (Theory of "Starting" and "Blossoming") came to see the fighting and critical character of the essay of the Jin dynasty (265 - 420) as the 'father' of the Chinese essay, and Zhou Zuoren first the English essay (1921) and later the ''biji'' (occasional notes) of the Ming, although he still tried to integrate the English essay in his "Gonganpài yu Yīngguo xiaopin 'hecheng' lun 公安派與英國小品“合成”論" (Theory of the Synthesis of the Gongan School and the English Essay).
==Ma Juan 马娟==
Wang Zengqi regrets that the national Chinese tradition of the essay at the time of the 'May Fourth Movement' has not been taken up again and has not continued in contemporary essays (Wang Zengqi 1993). The Chinese essay is an accommodating object of study, because one may look to it to prove any theory of the essay. One can find examples for each topic in almost every period, simply because the essay has a wide range of subjects.
==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==
When Zhou Zuoren showed that only seven months after the incident at Marco Polo bridge it was again possible to write about a candy seller (1924), he was critizised as "paralyzing" (Lu Xun 1934, Zhu Zhaoluo 1943). When he wrote a piece on the "Fly", he was reproached with dealing with subjects of minor importance. Reproaches like this lie in the very nature of the genre, since ''marginalism'' is substantial to the essay. The mentioned formal reproach of Luo Dajing can be found again in the 1990s, Hong Kong students critisized the literary style as it appears in Ba Jins "Thoughts" (Suixiang lu) as too direct and too less artful. But this perspective does not recognize the very nature of the essay, which is a very individual expression of an author's thoughts and not bound to tradition, and therefore much more free also in content.
==Ma Zhixing 马智星==
The essay - from its very nature free and independant - almost disappeared in the time of the Cultural Revolution and - except for the ideologically influenced essays - had a hard struggle between Yan'an and the loss of moral legitimacy by the leadership in 1989.

The essay was ''the'' genre of the modernizing society of the early 20th century. Many writers had to define and often redefine their position and self-understanding in reaction to war and warlordism and later in the modernizing society, often burying their own ideals, in the larger perspective for the seeming "needs" of society, which also claimed the author to be one of its products.
==Meng Ying 孟莹==
But from its very nature, the essay set new boundaries in form and content, and therefore not only survived the ideological restrictions, but also established its own critical subculture within. The essay was not only a medium of discussion and a documentation of the social-political background for us today, but also a documentation of the personal struggle of the writers finding a position in a changing environment, since the essay is "a genre of self-reflection". Some essays even deconstructed master narratives like the one of leftist ideology, often simply by confronting it with subjective experience, reality or art.

I want to mention another position on literature, which stresses the impact of literature on life, especially on the eve of revolutions - following this view, all literature is political (Jameson).
==Mo Ling 莫玲==
Not only the understanding of literature as a whole changes if we take into consideration the essay, also the view of single authors shifts, if we see not only their novels or poems, but also their essays. I mention only Zhou Zuoren. His ideas connected him spiritually to his contemporary collegues in Europe, Japan and America, but these where ideas for which China turned out to be not yet ready. At that time, China had taken a road which led away from progress, wealth, freedom and spiritual enlightenment. The consequences have yet to be overcome.
==Mo Nan 莫南==
In 1927, Chinese literature has taken the form of 'engaged literature'. The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics of daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology.
==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==
Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consume-orientation of the masses. The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educational claim with the exception of essays which claim to be "art pourt l'art".
==Ou Rong 欧蓉==
The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing ("Shuo meng 說夢" On dreams in: Zhu Ziqing 1928) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 (My own garden 9.1923, "The Fly" 1924, "Reading on the Toilet" 1936), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the new found world of mass consumerism.
==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==
I mentioned the lack of translations in Western languages. One of the reasons might be the impression of some scholars that many of the Chinese essays were just propaganda. This might be true for the 1940s and even the 1950s, but nowadays this has changed, as the overwhelming majority of publications prove. This demands a closer look: Since 1949, politically affirmative literature has been encouraged by the government, resulting in a statistical paradox: not the affirmative authors and their texts form the majority of the essayists read in the 1990s, but the critical essayists, whose texts oppose the order to serve politics through their apolitical, sometimes even defiant character.
==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==
In the 1990s, the texts of 1920s/1930s Republican China are still as often reprinted as their contemporary counterparts. Obviously we can conclude that the politically affirmative essay of the 1950s only survived in special political essay collections and is no longer written by famous contemporary authors nor read by the Chinese audience in the beginning of the 21st century.

Taking into account of a genre shifts the whole perspective on literature, taking into account the essayistic works of an author shifts also the view of the author. I will name only one author as an example for a modern essayist: Zhou Zuoren.

==Peng Dan 彭丹==
'''Zhou Zuoren'''

I mentioned already his theoretical contribution to the Chinese essayism, but still, his essays have been neglected until the 1980s. The reason does not lie in literary quality, but in political valuing. The master narrative of the offical literary history of the People's Republic on Zhou Zuoren is, that the theoretical May Fourth genius "degenerated" and later became a "traitor". Publishing in the Japanese sponsored magazines ''Reminiscences'',* and ''Chinese Literature'', he was blamed together with Zhu Pu and Yuan Xi of collaboration. An unanswered question is, why another author, who published there, Zhang Ailing, was never reproached with collaboratorship. The difference between all of them is that Zhang Ailing tried to avoid political committments, whereas Zhou felt guilty, Zhu justified it and Yuan simply accepted it.
==Peng Juan 彭娟==
''The 'mainstream' writers took an affirmative approach in their writing, whereas the other writers formed a minority. The individual authors did not necessarily belong to either one of these groups throughout their life, but may have moved between them. Since the essay is a medium which enables the individual to express thoughts directly, the writers chosen for this paper can be classified according to their position.''

''Yu Guangzhong's essay'' "The wolves are coming" ''shows that the ideological perspective did not only harm mainland essaywriting.''
==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==
In his small literary pieces, Zhou tried to aesthetizise the little things of the everyday life out of the subjective experience of his private space. The major contribution of Zhou Zuoren is, that he set the turning point in Chinese essay writing with his call for writing short literary pieces (''Meiwen'' 1921).

In foreign literature there is the so-called ''lunwen'' 論文 (treatise), which is roughly divided into two groups: the reflecting ones, piping 批評 (critical), are scientific articles. The others are ''jishu'' 記述 (descriptive) and ''yishuxing'' 藝術性 (artistic), they are also called ''meiwen'' 美文 (aesthetic essay). Within these texts, one can distinguish between ''xushi'' 敘事 (narrative) and ''shuqing'' 抒情 (lyric). But there are also mixed texts. [...] I hope that the aesthetical essay is encouraged to come back, and will open up a new field for the New Literature. Wouldn’t that be wonderful?
==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==
With these words from the essay "''The aesthetic essay''" this new vernacular form was defined. This starting point founded a whole new tradition of essay writing in China. Contemporary writers called this piece the "king of essays".

In order to bring this new form to his compatriots, he tried to find similiarities with the ''xiaopinwen'' of the Ming dynasty. He further discussed these thoughts in his essay theory. In his own essays, he profited a lot from ancient ''suibi''. Later he further developed his literary theory towards an up and down of two trends. In the modernizing society, he advocated the liberation of women and asked to "treat children as full subjects with their own external and internal lives" and to "make children the essence of children's literature" (Zhou 1923). He promoted the ''baguwen'' and the independance of literature from politics and effected the literary scene and the development towards a modern Chinese society especially between 1917 and 1938.

==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==
With this theoretical foundation and his own vo'luÉminous essayistic work, Zhou Zuoren through the example of his own form of short literary pieces within this genre, fought at that stage of the development of his literary theory like Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque 130 years ago in France for the idea "l'art pour l'art" , for individuality and independance of the writer, for disinterested literature. The jugdment, that Zhou was an apolitical author cannot be proved with his essays. Instead, he wanted his abstinence of political statement to be understood as a political statement by itself. For him, literature was a mean not for revolution, but for resistance (Zhou 1929:180-181).
==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==
In fact he saw himself as ‘patriotic underground fighter’ and looked at the collaboration with the Japanese puppet regime as a forced one, following his attempted assasination, through which his driver had lost his life. His own concept of essay writing served less the needs of the building of a nation-state and comes closer to the ideal of the individual.

"I don't really know why, but I am feeling as if I am born into a dark age. I admit, that our forests are not inhabited by dragons, tigers and wolves, but shapeless "monsters" and "goblins" are still creeping around and try to swallow our souls. [...] What alarms me most, is the absence of freedom in this prison, into which we writers have been thrown."
==Qi Kai 漆凯==
Confronting tradition and progress in the essay "''Ancestor Worship''", he is in favor of the latter, since past could only become present through changes (Zhou 1919:7-8).

Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque (1767 - 1830) war französischer Romanschriftsteller und liberaler Politiker, der neben der Freiheit der Kunst nach der Französischen Revolution die Einführung der konstitutionellen Monarchie nach englischem Vorbild forderte.

==Qu Miao 瞿淼==
Siehe ''Journal'' (10.2.1804). Die "Kunst um der Kunst willen" propagierte die Zweckfreiheit der Kunst. Im Gegensatz dazu versteht sich die engagierte Literatur. Die Parallele zwischen Zhou Zuorens Literaturverständnis und dem Konzept "Kunst um der Kunst willen" zieht auch Wolff: ''Chou Tso-jen'' 1971, S. 84.

Siehe Zhou Zuoren: ''Der Ursprung der neuen chinesischen Literatur'' 1934, S. 95 - 98; vgl. auch Chen Zizhan: ''Vorträge zur chinesischen Literaturgeschichte'' 1937, Bd 3, pp. 416 - 422, besonders S. 422. Hinweis in: H. Martin: "''Liang Qichao on Poetry Reform''" 1996, Bd 1, S. 213.
==Quan Meixin 全美欣==
Regarding Zhou Zuoren, I want to correct the official assessment of the People’s Republic, that his work would have experienced a caesura in 1938. In order to explain his opposition of the propaganda to build up national heroes about 1937 and his collaboration from 1939, it has been said officially, that his thoughts had "duoluo 墮落" (degenerated) at that time (Zhu Jinshun 1990:59). In fact, this caesura, namely the change in the style and subject in his essays on literature, art etc. to ''zhengjing'' 正經 (serious, intentional essays), and ''xianshi'' 閑適 (essays for one’s own enjoyment) is located not before his outlawing through Mao Zedong (1942), and his arrest through the Guomindang (1945).
==Sagara Seydou ==
Therefore not the Japanese suppressors are responsible for the retreat of this great writer, but his Chinese compatriots'.

On the basis of the stigma of the 'traitor', he has been undervalued until now. That his work in the 1990s is almost as often published as Lu Xun's and Zhu Ziqing's shows that his texts finally experience a more positive literaric evaluation through the audience, which now must be registered also by scholars.

==Shi Diwen 石迪文==
Another example of a misread Zhou Zuoren is his short essay on "''The Fly''", where he describes his changing attitude towards flies, which he had played with as child but later disgusted when he learned about their danger of passing on diseases. ”''The fly''” shows Zhou Zuoren’s strength to describe details and make them a real topic by recalling memories on them or describing a change of perspective on them. Zhou summarized the philosophical wisdom he learnt from this, that people did not judge on things objectively, but were likely to praise or damn things.
==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==
The official reading re¬proaches Zhou that he "saw only the fly and not the cosmos" , a quotation of the young Zhou about a position he himself clearly opposed.

His ability to chat about the more pleasent things in life is displayed in his essay ”Birds’ twitter”. In ”''Peking cakes and sweet-meat''” and in ”''Wild vegetable of my home region''”, Zhou Zuoren shows his ability to make the reader feel at home at a region, where he feels at home himself, by describing the customs and special regional food.

Siehe Zhou Zuoren: "Cangying 蒼蠅" (Die Stubenfliege), in: ''Chenbao fujuan'' 晨报副镌 (Beilage zur Morgenpost) (1924.7.13). Eine Zu¬sammenfassung des Inhalts findet sich in: Yu Daxiang (Hg.): ''Auswahllexikon chinesischer Essays mit Inhaltsangaben und Analysen'' 1993.

''Siehe Vollständige chinesische Anthologie der Wissenschaften - Bd Chinesische Literatur'' 1988, Bd 2, S. 1300. Dies spielt auf den Essay "''Cangying'' 蒼蠅" (Die Stubenfliege), in: Zhou Zuoren: ''Zhi Tang. Sammlung'' 1933 an.（文献无需翻译）

==Si Yu 司妤==
His piece ”''Bitter rain''” shows the atmosphere, for what his essays had been labelled ”bitter tea”: There remains a taste in one’s mouth after reading. If you compare Lu Xun’s ”''On tea drinking''” (Yang/Yang 1961 3:325-326) with Zhou Zuoren’s essay with the same title, you see the difference of ”short and to the point” and ”eloquent and well-read”. ”''First love''” is more hilarious. The essay ”''Three different ways to die''” shows that Zhou Zuoren can compete with his elder brother in sarcasm. Lu Xun's essay on the same subject, the massacre on March 18, 1926, was a sight.
==Song Jianru 宋建茹==
Zhou asks for the ”best” way to die and favors the short and painless one. In ”''On alcohol''” and ”''The awning bunk boat''” Zhou Zuoren continues the tradition of late Ming ''biji''.

'''7. The essay as a snapshot of contemporary thoughts'''

''What is the state of contemporary essay writing in China? Its position should be brought into its proper relationship to recent approaches, perspectives and terms of categorization, like post-modernist elements, post-colonial thinking, deconstructivism etc.''

==Su Lin 苏琳==
The increase of the essay production after the ‘Cultural Revolution’ might be explained with the ability of the essay, to express personal experiences much more authentically than other genres because of its immanent claim of historical truth. But the essay is not a guarantee for objective truth: In the same time it is subjective, the essayist mediates his image consciously. This restricts the reported truth to a subjective one and bears the risk of a consciously “corrected” truth.
==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==
The individualism of the Republican era has been based on the common feeling to stand at a historical turning point and directed towards common targets like the creation of a New Literature and a new Chinese society. In the 1980s and especially in the 1990s, individualism asks for a critical reflection on the satisfaction of personal consumption needs and tries to give personal orientation, essayists plead for moral virtues (Wang Meng: "''Anxiang'' 安详" (Serene) 1992, "''Zuohao ni ziji de shi'' 做好你自己的事" (First make your own things in a good way) 1994).
==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==
These essays, mainly published in newspapers and magazines, are widely read by people in the rapidly changing, anonymous, alienating and consume-oriented mass cultural society.

Other essays in the 1980s and 1990s are in a kind of new subjectivism targeted away from contemporary contradictions but apply to the feelings of the audience by creating an either positive ("''Shanxi opera''", Jia Pingwa 1984) or negative world ("''The nightmare''", Si Yu 1995).

From the essay, we can see contemporary trends of literature, which are also reasons for the increase in volume of this genre in the 1990s:

==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==
- The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts: “[...] we live in an age of exposition” (Hall 1984:xiii);

- The increasing consciousness of indivi¬duality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjecti¬ve expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands;

- A revival of interest in discussing social-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.

- The banality of everyday life becomes conscious through becoming a literary topic, most commonly in the genre of everyday life, the essay.

==Tang Bei 汤蓓==
- The De-ideologization of Chinese society. Today not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. The mostly read political essays after 1949 are critical essays.

- Regarding the compiling of essay collections: For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain.
==Tang Ming 唐铭==
This is a sign of the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publis¬hing houses with an orientation toward customers (former: "readers").

- The criteria for essay best sellers in the P.R. of China are the following: In the most often printed essay "''The Back View''", filial piety is the driving factor, parallelistic and repetitive structures in the atmospherical nebulous "''The Moonlit Lotus Pond''", both written by Zhu Ziqing, whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader.
==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==
Nostalgic home feelings are the emotional identification element in "''Wild vegetables of my home region''" by Wang Zengqi. Therefore one can state, that moving es¬says form the top.

- ''In the latter half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of in¬dividuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife. Time loses worth, since more and more of the daily acctivities are filled with mechanical and autistic actions.''

==Tao Ye 陶冶==
''In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only political replique is the patriotism, for example expressed in the 1996 published monograph'' China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war (''No''! 1996).

- ''The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable object d'art.''
==Wang Meiling 王美玲==
''Also trends like the use of ordinary language, which one finds in novels since 1993 (Jia Pingwa, Feidu; Gu Cheng, Yingger) and'' New Borderlessness ''since'' 1995, ''cannot be pro-ven in the essaywriting. ''

- Also the fictional realism David Der-Wei Wang sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proves helpful for the understanding of some essays, one being "''The Small Dog Baodi''", written by Ba Jin 1981, in which the author turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in allegoric instead of in descriptive truth as before ("''In memoriam of Xiao Shan II''", Ba Jin 1984).
==Wang Xuan 王轩==
Similar is the concept of imaginery nostalgia, as Wang calls the fictional truth in Shen Congwen's work (David Der-Wei Wang 1992), helpful for the reading of Wang Zengqi's "''Rain in Kunming''" as well as for Jia Pingwa's "''Shanxi opera''".

- The Schwarcz' concept of ''personal grief'' expressed in a ''metaphorical discourse'' helps us to understand how Ba Jin was able to overcome the ''truth of being'' he was known for, only to reach a more convincing fictional truth through the metaphor of his dog Baodi.

Xin zhuangtai xiaoshuo 新狀態小說 new borderless fiction, represented by Chen Dong 韓東, Lu Yang 魯羊, Zhu Wen 朱文, Lin Bai 林白, Chen Liang 陳梁, Zhang Mei 張梅.（文献无需翻译）

''Post-colonialist thinking (Williams et al. 1994), which is to be seen as part of the social-political discourse, appears in essays, especially in the less critical political, but patriotic essays of the 1990s. Kafkaism helps us understand the essay "The nightmare", where Si Yu appears as a de-constructionist, the I-narrator even is drawn near to suicide.''（文献无需翻译）

And maybe for Xie Bingxins* reflections on her experience as one of the chosen voluntaries of the Wuhan military academy: She insisted to remain a lifelong "woman soldier" .（文献无需翻译）

==Wang Yu 王煜==
'''8. Discussion: Is the genre of the essay the form of literary expression in 21st century China?'''

Regarding the future of the Chinese literature, we can only speculate. But out the risk of being wild and provocative, I would like to suggest some questions for considering the place of the essay in the field of Chinese literature and literary studies.

- People have less time for actions like reading, and get used to reduced visualized information through the Internet. Will the brevity of the essay make it the ideal medium?

==Wang Yuan 王源==
- If the Chinese people are rediscovering their individuality, will the essay allow them to express individual thoughts more directly?

- Modern societies are characterized by TV culture, mass consumption, and the loss of consciousness of one's own tradition, often partly due to the American impact on national cultures. Is the essay less bound to the restrictions of tradition, especially compared to the poem and thus more adaptable to the modern phenomenon of mass consumption?

==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==
- The alienation and the anonymity of citylife worldwide, in China is combined with a loss of traditional values like ideology, family, solidarity etc. in favor of the concept of profit for oneself, - if this has produced a longing for new orientation, will it possibly be filled by morally guiding essays or nationalistic thinking?

《红楼梦》与其他世界文学作品的相似性——推荐《红楼梦》列入世界记忆遗产名录

'''Commonness between the Red Chamber Dreams and other World Literature Novels – Proposing the Red Chamber Dreams to the World Documentary Heritage List'''（修改）

吴漠汀，湖南师范大学 Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University

Source: Lecture at Harvard University, Cambridge, MA USA, 14.3.2000（文献无需翻译）
==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==
'''Abstract'''

In every culture, readers associate the literature they know with new literature they read. So literature is always cumulative, it grows out of existing literature and can refer back to it. When Western readers read the Red Chamber Dreams, they foremost associate novels and other pieces of literature of their own cultural tradition with the Dreams. This has also influenced the first full translation into German.

Cao Xueqin and even more his protagonist Jia Baoyu both are early humanists, universalists and world citizens. ''The Red Chamber Dreams'' function worldwide.

摘要

在每一种文化中，读者都会把他们读到的新文学与已知文学联系起来，所以文学总是积累的，它从现有的文学中生长出来，并以已有文学为参考。西方读者在阅读《红楼梦》时，首先会把《红楼梦》与自身文化传统中的小说和其他文学作品联系起来，这也影响了首次德语全译本。

曹雪芹，尤其是他的主人公贾宝玉，都是早期的人文主义者，普世主义者和世界公民。《红楼梦》具有普世价值。（修改）
==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==
''The Dream'' is a complex showroom of diverse aspects of Chinese cultures and is the embodiment and essence of Chinese cultures, but it has also a global impact, therefore it should be honoured as “World Documentary Heritage”.

红楼梦》综合展示了中国的多元文化，是中国文化的集中体现和精华，同时在全球范围内产生影响，理应列入世界记忆遗产名录。（修改）

多元一体

'''Key words'''

Western culture, reception tradition, German translation, Embodiment of Chinese cultures, global compatibility, World Documentary Heritage
==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==
'''1. Chinese Ethics'''

To help the poor and disadvantaged belongs to the traditional core values of Chinese culture.

When we sit in the Beijing Subway today, the loudspeaker announcement reminds us, that it is Chinese traditional ethics to give seats to the disadvantaged (老弱病残孕让座是中国传统道德). We know of Cao Xueqin, that he supported the poor and disadvantaged, and that he made kites for children.

However, when we look closer at these “Chinese Ethics”, we discover, that they are claimed also in Indian Buddhism “karuna” and in the Christian tradition of “caritas” and in almost every civilization. Therefore, we might call these values “human ethics”.

==Wu Kai 吴恺==
'''2. Compatibility
'''
Why do the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' function worldwide and have achieved world literature status even in their translations?

First of all, the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' are, like novels worldwide, a piece of entertainment literature. In comparison to the drama, in which every element is compulsory and plays its part in the overall structure, in the novel the line of action itself is simpler and not so important, most of the scenes or episodes are loosely put together and fit in the broader theme of the novel.
==Wu Qi 吴琪==
However, the lose arrangement of episodes of the ''Dreams'' comes from the tradition of almost unconnected episodes like in the ''Shuihuzhuan'' and is a step towards the greater coherence of the episodes, the aligning into a story line and the greater concentration on fewer protagonists. Therefore, the ''Dreams'' show clearly a step towards the Western tradition of novels, maybe because of growing Western influence in Qing dynasty.

'''3. Impact of translator’s native culture on the translation process'''

There are intercultural parallels between the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' and Western works of literature.
==Wu Qiong 吴琼==
These parallels are fundamental for the translation and were explicitly and implicitly fundamental for the German translator Martin Woesler during his translation and editorial work on the first full German translation. In the following, I will mention some of the Western novels and pieces of literature, which the Western reader of the ''Dreams'' will immediately think of.

'''4. The novel as embodiment of “Zeitgeist”'''

According to Georg Lukács’ ''Theory of the Novel'', while the Epos (like Homer’s ''Ilias'', which like the ''Dream'' reasons the stories in the divine realm) displayed a holistic world experience, a complete, self-contained culture, the novel displays, that the modern world has become infinitely large and has lost its homely quality.
==Wu Xiang 邬香==
The novel as a genre is no longer documenting just one culture, but represents, with the words of Walter Benjamin, the Organon of History. So the understanding of the novel changed with Lukacs to historical-philosophically. A novel is understood as typical for its historical era, the novel embodies the spirit of the epoch (Zeitgeist).

The ''Red Chamber Dreams'' are written in front of the background of the Manchu minority having taken over the power in formerly Han-shaped Ming-China (which was a multi-ethnic and crosscultural society) and families suffering the changing favor of changing emperors, with the Cao family being fostered by Kangxi and being persecuted by Yongzheng.
==Wu Yilu 吴一露==
While the author in his time could not criticize the system and power of emperors, in the novel he came to terms with this life by seeking the guilt for the persecution in the growing decadence of the family (engaging in Daoism, leisure, poetry-writing, arts and music instead of learning for being able to earn a living) and in himself not fulfilling the expectations as the family heir. This description of decadence of a declining family reminds us of the novels of Tschechov (and e.g. in the ''Buddenbrooks'' by Mann, including the turn to arts and music).
==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==
Moreover, with the detailed description of life on all social levels in early Qing Dynasty, the Dream appears as a documentary historical novel very much like Günter Grass’ The Tin Drum 1959.

'''5. Coming-of-age and Alienation'''

Abandoning the paradise-like garden in the Red Chamber Dreams is a symbol for leaving the protected childhood and arriving in the complex world of adults. With George Lukács theory of the novel, the protagonist starts to problematize the sense of his life, in the novel, the protagonist’s self permanently struggles with his environment.
==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==
However, Cao Xueqin’s message is not simply the one of “Paradise Lost”, instead he himself made the best out of his life. Although being less wealthy than when his family still enjoyed the favour of the emperor, there was a payroll system and a social net intact in Early Qing China, where he received enough income to be independent from his rich relatives, to be selective on accepting jobs, to live a relaxed life in a small house in the nature, spending time with his family and friends, follow his own interests, like reading, writing and drinking wine, making kites for the children and thinking of the disadvantaged.
==Xiao Ting 肖婷==
Cao Xueqin was fully aware of his time and China’s cultural achievements, he was familiar with the different levels of society, he was a detailed observer and skilful narrator. He may have conceptualized the ending of the novel as a discussion about the different personalities of the characters in the novel and therefore displaying his reflection about life and his psychological understanding of the diversity of human nature. He was able to grasp the “spirit of time” (Zeitgeist) and with his autobiographical experience create an eternal coming-of-age novel not just for his family, for the Qing-Chinese, for Chinese people, but for mankind.
==Xiao Xi 肖茜==
This tradition of Coming-of-age novels is also a European one, like enlightenment philosopher Voltaire’s novel ''Candide or Optimism''《老实人》shows at the very same time (1759) in Europe. Also Voltaire’s Candide has to leave the luxurious paradise of his childhood and strives for true love, but his main learning is more pessimistic, since Voltaire wrote the novel in opposition to Leibniz, who optimistically looked to China as “the best of all worlds”. Recent research findings show that China had a much larger influence on European enlightenment philosophers and we can be sure, that also Cao Xueqin was aware of some European literary traditions.
==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==
Also the German readership is familiar with the chronological following of the life of the protagonist and his development, the fate of a family over generations, the German readership knows this type of novel as the “Education novel” or “Coming-of-age-novel”. In Germany, the genre of the coming-of-age novel has a long tradition and it is shaped more by single characters, who appear as teachers (Goethe: ''Wilhelm Meister’s Apprenticeship''威廉·麦斯特的学徒岁月 1795-96, Novalis 诺瓦利斯: ''Heinrich von Ofterdingen''《海因利·封·歐福特丁根》1802).
==Xie Fan 解帆==
Wilhelm Meister, parallely to Jia Baoyu, is struggling with the traditional education, in ''Wilhelm Meister'' this is represented with the classics revived in Shakespeare’s dramas. Tradition can give orientation, but the personality of the protagonist needs to develop through emancipation is a wisdom, we can learn from all mentioned novels including the ''Dreams''.

'''6. Pornography and True Love, female rivals'''

Sexuality is a basic human need and has developed into different shapes in all cultures. The German audience is familiar with erotic topics from the Middle Ages, in which sexuality was stylized. In the “Schwänke” of the 15th century (Wittenwielers Ring), erotic scenes are described sexually explicit.
==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==
In the barock literature of the 17th century even the physical act is described extensively.

According to „cumulativity“, every human being is a product of history and literature is based on previous literature, therefore the author of this pager thinks that this background has to be taken into account while translating.

The best study on ''qing'' passion in the Dreams is the one by Anthony Yu, who understood it as ''desire'' and as the central motif of the ''Dreams''. „The centrality of qing in shaping virtually every aspect of The Story of the Stone’s structure and meaning cannot be denied [...].“ (Anthony Yu 2001, 54).

==Xu Jia 徐佳==
In the framework story of the Dreams, the narrator consciously takes a stand against low-action and stereotypical pornographic literature as well as against the widespread romance novels (with the classic roles of the beautiful, talented woman and the poor scholar who finally achieves a respected position and prosperity by passing a civil service exam).

In chapter 1 he says: ”of the true feelings of young people [...] nobody has reported about so far.”

Erotic scenes are described in a decent and associative way (“Game of clouds and rain”), while displaying another quality in its openness e.g. towards bisexuality.

==Xu Jing 许晶==
The ''Dreams'' narrate the story of unfortunate lovers. Unfortunate lovers also in the West have a literary tradition, they constitute an archetype, such as Hero and Leander, Pyramus and Thisbe, Tristan and Isolde, Flore and Blanscheflur as well as Troilus and Cressida, the latter being considered the model for Arthur Brookes, who wrote Romeo and Juliet in 1562 and thus directly influenced Shakespeare.

While Marián Galik saw as the central topic of both, the ''Dream'' and ''Faust'', the eternal feminine, which draws us on high, Gu Cheng called it the “eternal virgine”.

==Xu Jing 许静==
In Goethe’s coming-of-age novel ''Wilhelm Meisters Wanderjahre'', we find a similar motif of female rivals, in the Keller 凯勒 ''The Green Henry'' 《绿衣亨利》1855, the hero turns away from an emphatically sexually designed figure and turns to the 'real' woman. In Jane Austen’s ''Pride and Prejudice'' 1813 Elizabeth and Lin Daiyu are similar, e.g. they both strive for real love (Zhuang 2011).
==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==
'''7. Feudal society and slavery'''

A widespread interpretation is that Jia Baoyu’s equal treatment of family members and slaves would be a manifesto to free the slaves. I also do not share this interpretation, since Aristotle, when he demanded democracy, would exclude slaves from the right to vote. So we cannot use modern concepts to judge on the past. In my understanding, Jia Baoyu was not fighting inequality, but looked at the people as humans and individuals.

==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==
Also the understanding of the servants as slaves does not match the description in the Dream, since some servants had servants themselves, the family took care after they left the Jia family to find a match for them and Jia Zheng refers to his daughter Yingchun as „yatou 丫头“, so it is inappropriate to translate this expression with slave. Therefore, the translator preferred “servant” over “slave” in the translation.

==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==
Mo Yan in his speech at the Frankfurt Bookfair in 2009, when China was the guest of honor, draws the (similarly) parallel between the ''Dream'' and Goethe’s ''Sorrows of the Young Werther'', that both expressed the wish to abandon feudal society. My own impression is that both do not express this wish, but that this is a later concept and interpretation and we should not apply this to judge the past.

2009年，莫言代表中国作为主宾国参加法兰克福书展时，他在演讲中把《梦》和歌德的《少年维特之哀》画上了约等号，表达了抛弃封建社会的愿望。我自己的印象是，两者都没有表达这个愿望，但这是后来的概念和解释，而我们不应该以此来判断过去。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:36, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting

==Yang Hairong 杨海容==
'''8. Tragedy of all tragedies'''

Aristotle explained in ''On the Tragedy'' (Poetics VI), that tragedies move people more than comedies because they “imitate [mimēsis] an action that is serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude” (Aristotle 1971, 51), This high esteem of the tragedy in Europe is partly ascribed to the loss of Aristotle’s work ''On the Comedy''.

==Yang Hui 阳慧==
While Europe has the Hamlet as its tragedy of all tragedies, the lack of tragic literature in Chinese literary tradition has long been lamented. Wang Guowei sees the Dream as "tragedy of all tragedies". To Wang Guowei the suffering of Faust and Jia Baoyu is central in the novels. However, many scholars contest that Faustianism is central for Chinese culture.

In 18th century Europe, we saw a new development in the genre of the drama, to establish a “bourgeois tragedy”.

==Yang Yi 杨逸==
It developed as an emancipatory movement in the 18th century in London, Paris and Germany, and demonstrated that tragedy was not reserved to rulers, but was also imagineable for lower noblemen and ordinary citizens. The ''Dream'' at the same time as the bourgeois tragedy in Europe shows a tragic story of a mid-level noble family which loses its titles and privileges.

==Yang Yue 杨悦==
'''9. “Non-Binary” Novels'''

One of the things attracting Western readers is the adorable but mysterious protagonist Jia Baoyu. With his open bisexual orientation and his interest in his mates regardless of their social status, he appears “modern” or at least displaced in time. His struggle with traditional learning makes him appear sympathetic, his long states of rapture out of the world give him both the aura of a timeless character and of mystery.

==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==
With the bisexual orientation of the Dreams’ protagonist, the novel appears non-binary.
According to Karl-Heinz Pohl, binaries are just superficial, ultimately decisive is the ''Heart Sutra''. Today, the novel is listed among the genre of non-binary literature (see e.g. the bibliographical list on https://www.goodreads.com/list/tag/non-binary), in which contrasts are dissolved deconstructivistically.

==Yao Cheng 姚诚==
'''10. Foreign Cultures in the Red Chamber Dreams'''

Foreign Cultures frequently appear in the Dreams in all kinds of varieties, like exoticism with the many objects in the household and presented to the household as novelties, especially the blond girl of the same age as Baoyu referred to in person (combining different origins and cultures, including European, Japanese, Chinese) or several times on paintings, one time shown with wings as an angel.

==Yao Jia 姚佳==
The playful combination of different traditions we can see also when a religious dress is described, which carries characteristics of different religions. Similarly, the Daoist monk and the Confucian priest appear together. Cao Xueqin wanted to show the richness and diversity, also with the many topics and societal levels of the novel. Even a variety of Christian motifs can be found, like when Jia Baoyu is not recognized by his father in chapter 120 and when he disappears, all parallel to Jesus Christ.

==Yi Huan 易欢==
The variety of cultures is paralleled with the variety of elements of different dynasties, which makes it timeless and therefore even more a masterpiece of Chinese art and a masterpiece of human art. Therefore I would like to nominate the Red Chamber Dreams as “World Documentary Heritage”.

'''References'''（参考文献不用翻译）

Anthony, C. Yu. (2001). ''Rereading the Stone: Desire and the Making of Fiction in Dream of the Red Chamber''. Princeton University Press.

Aristotle. (1971). ''Poetics''. Trans. S. H. Butcher. Ed. Hazard Adams. Critical Theory since Plato. ew York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 48-66.

Woesler, Martin, ed., Cao Xueqin, Gao E et al. (2016). ''Der Traum der Roten Kammer oder Die Geschichte vom Stein'' [''Red Chamber Dreams or The Story of the Stone''], Peking: Foreign Languages Press, ISBN 9787119094120, 4813 pages, 6 vols., hardcover, transl. by Rainer Schwarz and Martin Woesler; Chinese-German bilingual edition

Woesler, Martin. (2011). “Being Explicit About the Implicit – John Minford’s Translation of the last Forty Chapters of The Story of the Stone with a Field Study on two Sexually Arousing Scenes”. ''Hong lou meng xue kan'' 6: 274-289

Woesler, Martin. (2010). “ ’To Amuse the Beaux and Belles’ The Early Western Reception of the Hongloumeng”. ''Journal of Sino-Western Communications'' 2 (2010.12) 2:81-107

Zhuang, Xiuhua. (2011). Self, Ideal and Salvation: A Comparative Study of Jane Austen’s Elizabeth and Cao Xueqin’s Lin Daiyu. ''Journal of Language Teaching and Research'', Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 420-423, March 2011. Fulltext: http://www.academypublication.com/issues/past/jltr/vol02/02/19.pdf.

==Yi Zichu 义子楚==
'''Virtual Communication Between Machines with the Human as Their Object
'''

A new stage of multimodal communication after oral, written, printed, electronic and machine-human communication

Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University

'''Abstract'''

Luhmann and Baecker described the development of communication from orality (media epoch 1.0) to script (2.0), through print (3.0) and finally to digital communication (4.0). In all these stages, technology played only an assisting role.

==You Yuting 游雨婷==
This paper argues, that there is a fundamentally new media epoch of “virtual communication” (communication 5.0), in which artificial intelligence (initialized by humans) has taken over and humans have become the object of analysis and manipulation (as customers, voters etc.).

Algorithms do not only listen to oral or read written human communication (between humans or between humans and bots), but they analyze multimodal communication (including likes, behaviour, surfing habits, mobility profile, values, dreams, aims, beliefs etc.), compare them with Big Data (e.g. cloud data) and base decisions of manipulation on a prediction of behavior according to a personality profile and correlations.

==Yu Ni 余妮==
These algorithms target not only the explicit communications, but the emotions and thoughts of humans too and predict future behavior, therefore allowing simulations of reality. Mightier algorithms have also taken over decision-making roles in societies where they: replace human court decisions, fine tune just-in-time and on-demand production, censor chatrooms etc. Sets of algorithms help to manage smart cities and a whole society.

==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==
Although the human is still part of the communication, especially as the analyzed object and the target of the manipulation, the human is often unaware of the virtual communication and a passive receiver of the machine’s decisions, while the main actors in the virtual communication are machines.

==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==
Research describes these forms of virtual communication, finds evidence in social management systems and credit systems (in Germany, we have the “Schufa”, in the USA there are big players in credit history, which leads to credit-orientation and gamification of human life) or customized (fake) news filter bubbles and in customized consumption offers (Amazon, Facebook, Google, Netflix) and analyzes benefits, including security enhancements through such virtual communication.

==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==
But research also has the duty to warn of abuse or harmful developments and to raise ethical questions. Exoskeletal ethics, imposed by gamifications like credit systems, especially need to be valued against intrinsic ethics.

'''Introduction'''

In this paper dealing with machine to machine communication, I skip the machines assisting humans to make their life more convenient (ranging from “The milk is out, please add the usual amount of milk to the delivery list,” to “The old lady has not left her bed this morning, I’ll better call the doctor”).

==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==
Instead, I deal with communication like: “Let’s create a user personality profile and compare it with Big Data to learn how I can best catch this user’s attention and make him/her vote for presidential candidate A or B.”; “Let’s check this users’ mouse movements and compare it with Big Data to get a correlation to estimate if (and if “yes” when) he will get Parkinson, to decide whether or not to deny him the loan or health insurance.”

==Zeng Liang 曾良==
“Let’s check this users sexual orientation, religious beliefs, fears, secrets like adultery etc. to blackmail him to get ransom money for my programmer.”; or even “Let’s use this user’s location to aim the killer drone.”

The current neoliberal system with Amazon, Facebook, WhatsApp, Instagram, Google, Netflix etc. provides incentives to collect as much user data as possible and to abuse user data for manipulation, which creates huge profits.

“让我们检查该用户的性取向、宗教信仰、恐惧、诸如通奸之类的秘密去勒索他为我的程序员去获取赎金”。或者甚至“使用用户的位置瞄准杀手无人机。”

当前具有亚马逊、脸谱网、瓦茨艾普、照片墙、谷歌、奈飞等的新自由主义系统激励人们尽可能多地收集用户信息，并滥用用户信息进行操纵，从而创造可观利益。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:04, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

"让我们查一查这个用户的性取向、宗教信仰、恐惧、通奸等秘密，以勒索他为我的程序员获取赎金。"；甚至"利用这个用户的位置来瞄准杀手无人机。"
目前亚马逊、脸书、WhatsApp、Instagram、谷歌、奈飞等的新自由主义体系，为收集尽可能多的用户数据，并滥用用户数据，从而创造了巨大的利润。

==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==
Very much like the financial crisis, which was caused by the unregulated use of derivatives, this is a systemic development, which currently follows a path to enslave the human race under the control of algorithms for the benefit of tech companies. The enslavement has already begun, as we can see from the world wide addiction to social media, from the growing mass of conspiracy theorists and from the polarization of the USA over Trump or the polarization of Great Britain over the Brexit.

==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==
'''1 History of Media Epochs'''

Luhmann and Baecker described the development of communication from orality (media epoch 1.0) to script (2.0), through print (3.0) and finally to digital communication (4.0). In all these stages, technology played only an assisting role.

This paper argues, that there is a fundamentally new stage of “virtual communication” (media epoch 5.0), in which artificial intelligence (initialized by humans) has taken over and humans have become the object of analysis and manipulation (as customers, voters etc.).

==Zhang Hu 张虎==
While Luhmann would still summarize this under digital communication, I see a full new quality here, and have therefore coined the term “communication 5.0” or “virtual communication” for it. In Luhmann’s view, the computer consists out of the “surface” of the machine (the visible interfaces like screen, keyboard, mouse) and the “depth” of the machine (the invisible, often incomprehensive inside).

==Zhang Hui 张慧==
However, we are almost constantly producing data, with our chats and geotracked movements, with our addiction to social media, our carrying of cell phones and more and more smart devices at all times, and we are therefore an object of analysis by algorithms.

The traditional setting of a communicative act blurs: The machine can directly communicate with the human (there the Turing test marks a threshold), and, after a certain complexity, it can hide its machine nature.

==Zhang Ling 张玲==
The machine can also indirectly communicate with the human by simply analyzing humans’ verbal communication, non-verbal multimodal communication, behavior, personality etc. and interacting with the human with, or without, revealing its existence. A human, growing up in a filter bubble and believing in conspiracy theories is one such example: The human has been manipulated by social media and news which prefer lies over truth.

==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==
Without even noticing that there was an interaction taking place between the human and the machine, the human has lost his/her independence to the machine.

'''2 Types of communicative acts'''

1.Texts (oral and written comments/chat texts/blogs/emails)

2.Surf behavior (websites visited)

3.Consumer behavior (purchases)

4.Likes (see OCEAN, UEBA)

5.Duration/Attention (see UEBA)

6.habits/repetitiveness/occurrences (is an element of analysis in different AI apps/tools)

==Zhang Qi 张琪==
7.Unconscious, often unique data allowing identification (way of writing, mouse movements pattern, see Raj Kannan 2020)

8.social interaction incl. friendships, sexual relationships

9.mobility behavior/pattern (e.g. immediate environment – e.g. unconsciously recording the inside of houses while playing “Pokemon Go”), travel: Travel Behavior (Yu Cui et al. 2018)

==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==
'''3 Types of analysis'''

1.General (User and Entity Behavior Analytics UEBA: AI-assisted cybersecurity tools like by Gartner, Inc.)

2.True identity (e.g.: mouse movements, face recognition, find real name) (Verschuere 2016)

3.Personality profile: Big Five Personality Inventory: Openness to Experience, Consciousness, Extroversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism “OCEAN” (Golbeck 2011), by only analyzing the users' likes, Facebook can generate personality profiles (AI-Demand 2020)

4.Mobility profile/pattern

==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==
5.Health situation (health apps, ai supported disease research, see Daley 2020)

6.Job situation/job market (Talent Search People 2020 analyzes the job market, and classifies 4 different AI systems: 1. systems that think like humans, 2. systems that act like humans, 3. systems that think rationally, and 4.) systems that act rationally.)

==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==
7.Financial credit-worthiness: E.g. German Schufa company uses AI in addition to human expertise for evaluations, see Banken-Technologie 2020. Banken-Technologie 2020. Schufa’s attempt to gain access to customers’ bank account transfer information was discussed in the news.

8.Consumer Behavior: e.g. the "clickworker" company analyses and optimizes customers' searches in respect to a client company's goals/products with the help of AI (clickworker 2019)

9.Secrets (like adultery)

==Zhang Yu 张瑜==
'''4 Unique quality of media epoch 5.0'''[ I have coined the terms “media epoch 5.0” and “virtual communication” I have developed it from concepts like „Industry 4.0“ in Germany and the four media epochs Luhmann and Baecker developed (by Baecker called 1.0 … 4.0). There are several authors speculating about the media epoch 4.0, like Ray Kurzweil. The Age of Intelligent Machines. 1990.]

1.the human switches from active to passive

2.the human switches from subject to object

3.the human becomes addicted to social media, which enhances depression (Van Den Eijnden et al. 2016, Jasso-Medrano et al. 2018, Shensa et al. 2017)

4.the human switches from puppeteer, or entity with seemingly free will, to puppet

5.nature of the internet turns from freedom to surveillance

==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==
6.direct communication turns into indirect communication (humans may not be aware of this communication/analysis)

7.explicit communication (voice, words) turns into implicit communication (preferences/thoughts/dreams/wishes/ values (first experiments with brain scanners in worker hats have started in Shanghai and Peking))

8.man-man communication turns to man-machine communication (phone bot) to machine-machine

9.4.0 was from centralization to decentralization, 5.0 is partial centralization and partial decentralization, but also concentration

==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==
So far, mass media has been considered one-way. The interaction and processing of data of millions of individual users seemed simply too much work. In the age of virtual communication, the media epoch 5.0, mass media is individualized and interactive and therefore even more influential.

'''5 Types of manipulation (consciously or unconsciously, sometimes half-consciously)
'''

1.Priming by unconscious advertisements: Influencing consumer decisions

2.Filter bubbles => supports conspiracy theories, influences judgments

==Zhao Xi 赵茜==
3.Nature of social media: lies spread 6 times faster than truth. (Vosoughi et al. 2018).

4.Change of political attitude: Case Cambridge Analytica: Helped minority to win election by manipulating young people of majority not to vote (Do so: Don’t vote campaign, Oddleifson 2020); Trump election and Brexit were won by manipulation

5.Use of private information/dependencies to obtain advantages (blackmailing for money or for conducting crimes etc.)

6.Identity theft

==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==
'''6 Consequences'''

1.Virtual Communication is mostly “hidden”, the human is mostly unaware of it, but may endure the consequences (policeman may detain suspect simply because the face recognition glass recognizes a pedestrian passing by and assesses him/her as “dangerous”; loan is declined; insurance company declines to accept new customer)

==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==
2.User becomes transparent (government can fight terrorism, any user can be blackmailed, jealous spouse can check on adultery)

3.Less will to communicate and discuss (since positions are too far apart)

4.Populists and populist views gain supporters

5.Polarization of Society

6.There is an incentive not to reveal how much one knows about the object, because the object then could question the legality, the system etc.

7.Last resort, the thinking, is tackled: Machine interprets “real” attitudes, not lip-service words

==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==
8.The knowing ones (algorithms, hackers, controllers of algorithms) have power over the unknowing ones (victims)

9.Exoskeleton ethics (like points/awards for measurable performances) reduce incentives to build inner ethics
'''
7 Simulation of the imminent future'''

1.The imminent future behavior of a human can be predicted

2.With many analyzed humans, the imminent future of reality can be predicted => simulation

==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==
Is this an Orwellian dystopia or reality? Some cases of the above listed phenomena have been documented. However, we are still at the beginning of “little” AI development (optimizing existing processes) and on the brink of a much more powerful development, that of “big” AI (rethinking whole industries, being able to reproduce and enhance itself). (cf. Euchner 2019).

==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==
'''8 Conclusion and Outlook'''

Data has succeeded oil as the most valuable resource for today’s economy. Big Tech companies already use users’ data and make big profits with it while legislation is delayed and national boundaries (which do not exist for the Tech companies) are struggled over.
Although input-legitimized liberal democracies and market economies, like that of the European Union, still protect privacy and data security, US- and China-based technology companies are already penetrating the European market.

==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==
We need to raise awareness and guide the youth to be careful with screen time and what they share online. We need to avoid addiction to social media.

'''The algorithms do not just check which film to suggest viewing next, they have started to invade the innermost sanctum of personality, our thoughts, dreams, wishes, visions, hopes, fears and secrets.
'''
'''
The listed consequences document a fundamental change of paradigms:
'''

==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==
'''The cause-based decision-making by humans with established institutions like politicians, judges etc. is being replaced with correlation-based decision-making by algorithms which often serve the profit interests of tech companies or the political interests of election-manipulators.
'''

AI took the wrong development path, when it changed from serving humans to trying to manipulate humans for economic or political profit. When AI is used to educate citizens – like helping German customers to keep a clean credit history and a good credit score – then it changes the behavior of citizens to an exoskeletal ethic.

==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==
However, animals with an exoskeleton reduce their inside muscles and develop a soft inside, making them totally incapable of living without the exoskeleton. An exoskeletal ethic, giving reward points, for example, for behavior which is deemed positive and subtracting points for behavior which is deemed negative, deprives the human of the natural learning and developing process, in a social environment, of his responsibility and inner ethical judgment. If you were to meet a human with exoskeletal ethics and one who has inner ethics, whom would you trust more?

==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==
If we want to avoid the consequences listed in point 6, the public needs to become aware of this and nations and supranational organizations need to define legislation to a) protect privacy and data security, and b) give the user the control over his/her data including the commercial use of it where they earn a share from the profit made with the usage of his/her data.

==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==
'''9 Outlook'''

We need to accept, that the development is irreversible. Every new technology has created fears. Important is, that we become aware of the developments and adjust where the development heads into the wrong direction. We need set the right framework and incentives that the new technology stays on track to serve humanity.

==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==
New developments open new possibilities. We need to make sure that not only a few tech companies and terrorists use this powerful new technology to achieve their goals, but that the mass of smart device users emancipate themselves from addiction to and manipulation by technology and gain back their dignity, privacy and free will.

'''References
'''
（参考文献不用翻译）

AI-Demand. (2020). www.ai-demand.com/insights/data/big-data/big-data-and-facebook-the-heavenly-pair-that-isnt-quite-in-heaven/

Baecker, Dirk. (2007). ''Studien zur nächsten Gesellschaft''. Frankfurt 2007

Banken-Technologie. (2020). 26. Handelsblatt Jahrestagung. Banken-Technologie. „New Normal” in der Finanzwirtschaft: digital – intelligent – automatisiert – hybrid. 2. und 3.12.2020, Digital [Conference Announcement] https://veranstaltungen.handelsblatt.com/bankentechnologie/ki-machine-learning-finanzanalyse/

Booth, T. "Cambridge Analytica controversy must spur researchers to update data ethics." ''Nature'' 555.7698 (2018): 559-560.

Clickworker. (2019). www.clickworker.com/2019/04/30/ai-for-ecommerce/

Cui, Yu, Qing He, and Alireza Khani. (2018). Travel behavior classification: an approach with social network and deep learning. ''Transportation research record'', 2672(47), 68-80. https://par.nsf.gov/servlets/purl/10109453

Daley, Sam. (2020). 32 Examples of AI in Healthcare that Will Make you Feel better about the Future (July 4, 2019, updated July 29, 2020). builtin.com/artificial-intelligence/artificial-intelligence-healthcare

Euchner, Jim. (2019). Little ai, Big AI—Good AI, Bad AI. Terminology Management 62:3, 10-12. pdf:

https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/08956308.2019.1587280?needAccess=true

Golbeck, Jennifer, Cristina Robles, and Karen Turner. (2011). "Predicting personality with social media." ''CHI'11 extended abstracts on human factors in computing systems''. 2011. 253-262.

Jasso-Medrano, José Luis, and Fuensanta Lopez-Rosales. (2018). "Measuring the relationship between social media use and addictive behavior and depression and suicide ideation among university students." Computers in Human Behavior 87: 183-191.

Luhmann, Niklas. (1997). ''Die Gesellschaft der Gesellschaft''. 1997

Oddleifson, Evan. 2020, The Effects of Modern Data Analytics in Electoral Politics: Cambridge Analytica’s Suppression of Voter Agency and the Implications for Global Politics, ''Political Sciences Undergraduate Review'' 5 (2020) 7, 1-7.

https://journals.library.ualberta.ca/psur/index.php/psur/article/view/130/90/130-Article%20Text-642-1-10-20200401.pdf

Raj Kannan, J., Sabitha, R., Karthik, S., & Shanthini, J. (2020). Mouse Movement Pattern Based Analysis of Customer Behavior (CBA-MMP) Using Cloud Data Analytics. ''Wireless Personal Communications'', OnlineFirst, 1-17.

Ruan, Lotus, et al. "One App, Two Systems: How WeChat uses one censorship policy in China and another internationally." (2016).
Shensa, Ariel, et al. (2017). "Problematic social media use and depressive symptoms among US young adults: A nationally-representative study." ''Social Science & Medicine ''182: 150-157.

Talent Search People. (2020). How Will Artificial Intelligence Affect the Job Market? www.talentsearchpeople.com/en/blog/494-how-will-artificial-intelligence-affect-the-job-market/.

Van Den Eijnden, Regina JJM, Jeroen S. Lemmens, and Patti M. Valkenburg. (2016). "The social media disorder scale." ''Computers in Human Behavior ''61: 478-487.

Verschuere, Bruno, and Bennett Kleinberg. "ID‐check: Online Concealed Information Test reveals true identity." ''Journal of forensic sciences'' 61 (2016): S237-S240.

Vosoughi, Soroush, Deb Roy, and Sinan Aral. (2018). The spread of true and false news online. Science 359.6380: 1146-1151.. science.sciencemag.org/content/359/6380/1146

==Zhu Xu 朱旭==
'''Bio'''

Martin Woesler, PhD, is Jean Monnet Chair in European Studies with Hunan Normal University since 2020. At its Foreign Studies College, he is Distinguished Professor of Chinese Studies, Translation Studies and Comparative Literature since 2019. Woesler was elected Academian of the European Academy of Sciences and Arts, Salzburg in 2019.
Woesler has co-edited the books "China's Digital Dream", "Ethics of Information Society" and Springer has scheduled to publish the book "Diverse Voices in Chinese Translation and Interpretation" including his book chapter "Modern Interpreting with Digital and Technical Aids" in February 2021.

==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==
Woesler was a Senior Fellow of the German Science Foundation's (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft) Research College "Media Cultures of Computer Simulations" 2019‐2020 and hosted a related workshop with Bertelsmann Foundation in 2020. Woesler is also a researcher with Witten/Herdecke University, Germany, investigating the impact of daily screen time of children and of young people on their health.

20201228 trans

2020-12-25T07:36:28Z

Yang chenting: /* Yang Chenting 杨晨婷 */

==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==
'''Zhu Ziqing'''

A third example, where an author shows another face in his essays is Zhu Ziqing. He is known as the author of the most often reprinted story-like Chinese essay "''Back View''" (Beiying), a standard school text. The success of this essay lies in the fact, that it applies to filial pity. From the reported fare-well scene with his father at the train station, he learned that his father loved him and that he had grown-up too now.
==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==
This self-reflective essay helped Zhu to find himself through the observation of the other (here his father). The 2nd often printed essay is also from Zhu. Parallelistic and repetitive structures are the driving factor in the atmospherical nebulous lyrical landscape desription "''The Moonlit Lotus Pond''", whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader.

Zhu Ziqing supposedly opposed all political engagement and, wrote about unspectacular things. In Taiwan he became a type of substitute for the categorically refused state writer of the People’s Republic, Lu Xun, mainly because of Zhu’s supposed political independence.
==Chen Han 陈涵==
I would like to show with three examples that Zhu had absolutely clear political ideas: He had taken part in the demonstration March 18, 1926, which ended in a massacre. Zhu described this in ''"Report On the Massacre of the Government''"[ (Zhizhengfu da tusha ji).].

''Shots were still being fired, and the entrance of the east gate was packed with people. [...] Pushing and shoving, we climbed over them with great effort. We must have lost our senses then, not seeing, to our shame, the grotesqueness of our action. ''
==Chen Hui 陈惠==
''[...]I was still walking on top of the people. No one dared to miss a single step, filing through the gate that divided safety from danger, one that would give us life or take our lives away. [...] My efforts finally brought me down to the ground, sealing my fate as I rolled down from the human pile. [...] I learned later that some of the people by the gate were dead, killed by the pistol squad firing from the other side of the gate. When I recall stepping over dead bodies, I cannot help but tremble with fear. [...]''
==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==
From this experience, Zhu addresses directly the repsonsible political leaders:

''Duan Qirui, you must think about it! [...] How could we explain this to the world? [...] Granted, Duan Qirui and others could commit such atrocities without a thought; but how could we, the people of China, face the world with such a shameless government? [...] We, [...], must ask, „So many were killed—what should we do?“''
==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==
In contrast, Lu Xun has portrayed the same massacre with sighing undertone and Zhou Zuoren bitter-humorously in his "''Ways to die''"[ (Si fa).] - in which he finds "to be shot" the best method to die. The supposedly less politically engaged Zhu shows here more engagement.

The essay "''Facing the New China''"[ (Xin Zhongguo zai wang zhong).] is Zhu's political manifest: He asks for democracy, enlightenment and an increase of the education level.
==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==
''China has to be born again through democratization. [...] The people should express their own will, concentrate on their own strength. Every level of administration should build up on the expressed will and strength of the people and struggle for the majority and its greatest happiness. This means that the people govern, the people own, the people enjoy.''

A few weeks before his death, he demanded in the speech ''"Today's duty of the Intellectuals''"[ (Zhishifenzi jintian de renwu).] the participation of the intellectual in the struggle for a better society.
==Chen Sha 陈莎==
With only a handful of essays I have demonstrated, that the picture of these three authors changes substantially, if we read carefully also their less known essayistic work. Imagine now how the picture of 20th century Chinese literature might change, if the literary histories and anthologies would not only tell the history of drama, fiction and poetry, but would also grant the essay its proper place. The following part of my paper are results of my monograph on the 20th century Chinese essay.
==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==
'''The essay boom as a mirror reflecting growing individuality, participation in the public sphere, and the giddy-paced character of modern Chinese society'''

Acquiring an overview of the essay and assessing its essence has required extensive research in bookstores and libraries, in the People's Republic of China, Taiwan, Hong Kong and the United States for available resources in the form of essay book collections as well as secondary literature dealing with the essay.
==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==
I built a database for a statistical analysis to rank more than 5000 essays and 1400 essayists. It turned out that out of the top 60 most famous Chinese essays only 14 had been translated into English so far. The forthcoming collection of Tam King-fai adds 4 and my own one the remaining 42.

Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report[ (baogao wenxue) (Klaschka 1998).].
==Cheng Yusi 成于思==
The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous essay bookseries[ sanwen congshu 散文叢書.].

The reason for the increase in essay production, which we can date right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in the sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for the survey. There are three reasons for the increase in Chinese essay production and popularity in the mid-1990s:
==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==
1, The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts, as Hall has put it: “[...] we live in an age of exposition”[ (Hall 1984:xiii).].

2, The increasing consciousness of individuality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands.

3, A revival of interest in discussing socio-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.
==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==
If we look carefully at essay collections not only published in the United States, but also in Hong Kong, Taiwan and the People’s Republic, we find the following three reasons for the under- and overestimation of single essayists or essays which correspond to regional differences:

1, EXOTIC In the United States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones.
==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==
2, SOCIO-POLITICAL In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, as the mentioned survey proofs, he ranks 12th among modern authors there. Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.

3, PERSONAL Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by his disciple Huang Weiliang in favor for Yu.[ (see Lin Yaode 1989:50).]

Having named reasons for the essay boom and for the support for and the suppression of different actors in the cultural field of the essay, I would like to finish my paper by naming a few trends of the essay as they appear at the eve of the century.
==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==
The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consumer-orientation of the masses. The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educational claim with the exception of essays which claim to be "art pourt l'art".
==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==
The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing ("''On dreams''"[ "Shuo meng 說夢" On dreams in: Zhu Ziqing 1928.]) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 ("''My own garden''"[ 9.1923.], "''The Fly''"[ 1924.], "''Reading on the Toilet''"[ 1936.]), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the newly encountered world of mass consumerism.
==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==
In the end of this century not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. Among the upper list places of the political essay after 1949 there are critical essays. For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain.
==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==
A sign for the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publishing houses with an orientation for customers (former: "readers"). Following the emotional essays of Zhu Ziqing who rank 1st and 2nd, ''nostalgia'' is the element of emotional identification in "''Wild vegetables of my home region''" by Zhou Zuoren, which ranks 3rd[ In Jia Pingwa's "Moon traces", which ranks 11, and in Ba Jin's "''Paradise for Birds''", which ranks 19]. Therefore one can state, that moving essays form the top.
==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==
In 1927, Chinese literature took the form of 'engaged literature'. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics in daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology. In the later half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of individuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife.
==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==
In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only remiscent element left is the patriotism.[ ''Trends like the use of ordinary language'', which one finds in novels since 1993 (''Jia Pingwa'', Feidu; ''Gu Cheng'', Yingger) and New Borderlessness since 1995, cannot be proven in the essaywriting.The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable ''object d'art''.]

'''References''' [partly mentioned with German translation] （不用翻）

Vera Schwarcz 1996, Vera Schwarcz, "The pain of sorrow: public uses of personal grief in modern China", in Daedalus: Journal of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (Winter 1996)

Ba Jin 1982, Ba Jin: "Yi feng huixin 一封回信" (Ein Antwortbrief (26.10.1982)), in: Bing zhong ji 病中集 (Auf dem Krankenlager), Hongkong 香港 1984(?) (Series Suixiang lu 隨想錄 (Thoughts) Bd 4), 147 pp.

Ba Jin 1982a, Ba Jin: "Yi pian xuwen 一篇序文" (Ein Vorwort) [dated 1982.9/10], in: Ba Jin: Auf dem Krankenlager 1984

Ba Jin 1956, Ba Jin 巴金: "Duli sikao 獨立思考" (Unabhängig denken), in: Li Jisheng 李濟生, Li Xiaolin 李小林 (Hgg.): Ba Jin liushi nian wenxuan (1927 - 1986), Suixiang lu, zagan, sanwen, xuba, yanjiang, shuxin 巴金六十年文選（１９２７－１９８６）隨想錄·雜感·散文·序跋· 演講·書信 (Ba Jin. Werkauswahl aus 60 Jahren (1927 - 1986), Gedanken, vermischte Gefühle, Essays, Vor- und Nachworte, Reden, Briefe), Shanghai 上海: Shanghai wenyi chubanshe 上海文藝出版社 (Literatur- und Kunstverlag Shanghai), 1986.12, S. 461 - 462 [Datiert auf 1956.]

Ba Jin 1962, "Zuojia de yongqi yu zerenxin 作家的勇氣與責任心" (Mut und Verantwortungsbewußtsein der Schrifsteller) 1962; der Essay von Zhou Zuoren 周作人: "Wenxue tan 文學談" (Über Literatur), in: Tan long ji 談龍集 (Über Drachen. Sammlung), Shanghai 上海: Kaiming shudian 開明書店 (Kaiming Buchladen) 1927.12, Nachdruck: Hongkong 香港: Shiyong shuju 使用書局 (Praxisverlag) 1972.1, 310 S., S. 165 - 167

Zhou Zuoren 1919, Zhou Zuoren, "Zuxian chongbai 1919 (Ancestor Worship)," in Early Essays, op.cit., pp. 78

Zhou Zuoren 1920: Zhou Zuoren 周作人, Xin wenxue de yaoqiu 新文學的要求" (The demand of the New Literature) [lecture], in Beiping shaonian xuehui 北平少年學會 (Beiping youth conference) 1920.1.6, in: Zhang Ruoying 長若英: Xin wenxue yundong shi ziliao 新文學運動史資料 (Material on the history of the New Literature movement), Shanghai 上海: Guangming shuju 光明書局 (Guangming bookstore) (1934.9) ²1936.9, 291-296

Zhou Zuoren 1923, Zhou Zuoren: Yanzhicao ba (Preface to Yu Pingbo's Yanzhicao), in: Yongri ji (Book of Eternal Day), Shanghai: Beixin shuju 1929, 180-181

Zhou Zuoren 1929, Zhou Zuoren: Ertong de shu (The books of children), in: Chenbao fukan (1923.8.17)

Zhou Zuoren yuanliu, Zhou Zuoren: Zhongguo xin wenxue de yuanliu (Sources of New Chinese Literature), p 71

Zhou Zuoren 1932, Zhou Zuoren: Lun baguwen 1932, in: Kanyun ji p. 148

Source: NEAAS annual meeting 10/09/1999 New Haven (Yale University)
==Guo Lu 郭露==
'''Modern Chinese Literature and the Essay Genre: A New Perspective'''

''Martin Woesler''

In this paper, I will not recount the contents and propose interpretations of any essays, nor will I outline the main topics or styles of essaywriting in China, but I would like to take the opportunity to reflect a little bit on the phenomenon of the genre itself and discuss some conclusions and hypotheses with the attentive and critical audience which can be found at only a few places on earth, EALC at Harvard definitely being one of them.

《中国现代文学与散文体裁：以新视角》

''吴漠汀''

在本文中,我将不再赘述任何文章的内容和提出的观点,我也不会列出其主要主题或风格,但是我想借此机会,反映一些现象本身的类型，并与包括哈佛大学学生在内的观众对一些结论和假设进行探讨。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:16, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

《中国现代文学与散文体裁：新视角》

吴漠汀

本文将不再赘述或解释任何文章的内容，也不会列出中国散文的主要主题或风格。我想借此机会，反思体裁现象，同乐于助人、至关重要且世间少有的读者，包括哈佛大学东亚语言和文化学院的学生，对一些结论和假设进行探讨。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:28, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==
'''1. The unknown genre'''

The literary-historical narrative told by anthologies and collections of the 20th century has drawn an incomplete picture of Chinese literature: The genre of the essay was lacking. In my paper I will ask, if the picture of literature can remain unchanged, if we take into consideration also the essay. The genre has been neglected for a long time as a genre of merit (Margouliès 1949, Schmidt-Glintzer 1990) or overlooked (McNaughton 1974, Leiden 1988-90, McDougall 1998);
==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==
whereas its elder brother, fiction, has been prized ever since the valuing of fictional literature and the vernacularisation of writing in early Republican China, which followed from the master narrative established by the May 4th movement. Modern anthologies would have the reader believe that a triumvirate of poetry, fiction and drama forms the backbone of modern Chinese literary output.
==He Changqi 何长琦==
'''Excursion: Defining the essay as a non-fictional subjective representation in a free form'''

Similar to international literature, the basic subdivision of literature in China in general is one in three types: epic (with xiaoshuo (fiction), sanwen (non-fictional prose)), lyrics (shige) and drama (xiqu). Though there is no pure epic form, fiction and prose are often jointly addressed with the Chinese term "wu yunwen" which corresponds to the term "epic" in the West. The types may be distinguished roughly by their nature in the following way: In the epic, bygone events are retold, a broad, filled story dominates the foreground.
==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==
In the lyrics, the reader is encouraged to feel the current sensations and often confessionlike feelings of the poet. The drama recalls a self-contained action directly in monologue or dialogue and in this way unburdens the re-creative imagination of the readers/spectators through it. The essay as a genre of the epic is a detached non-fictional subjective representation in a free form.
==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==
"Essay", Chinese mostly ''sanwen'', is a genre term for shorter, self-contained non-fictional prose texts, in which the author tries to mediate individual experiences on an object or a question out of subjective I-perspective. This it tries associatively and from different sides, not as a text for daily use, but with artistic or educationally demanding means of language, nevertheless in an accessible form. The resource is mastered by the essayist sovereignly and the topic is seen in a larger context and can even be presented humorously. Freedom in form and content is essential for the essay.
==Hu Jin 胡瑾==
Different perspectives range in the international genre of the essay: Genres are primarily divisions of literature through the scholarship of literature for specialized contemplation and in order to be able to compare similar texts more easily. On the other hand, a subcategorization in numerous small entities, like Zheng Mingli does with the essay, questions the sense of such subdivisioning in reference to hermeneutic findings. One must also stay aware of the changing nature of literature itself and the relativity of the scientific perspective, which is still a timely one, even if its accepted internationally.
==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==
Regional deviations seem less important for the essay than for established genres like short stories, novels etc., and far less important than for poems. All these other genres are seen as international genres. My hypothesis, that the Chinese and the Western essay also belong to the same international genre maybe proved by the crosscultural mutualities both in form and content.
==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==
In the 21st century, the world is growing together and culture is mainly determined by the grade of modernization. The Chinese essay, as we find it in newspapers today, has taken on the form and content of the Western essay and is aimed at a target group comparable to that of the Western essay. This is a second hint that the modern Chinese essay belongs to the international genre of the essay.
==Jiang Hao 姜好==
Even though the translation of ''duanpian xiaoshuo'' with ''short stories'' is commonly accepted, both are less closely related than the Western essay and its Chinese counterpart. The definition, which I developed out of a sample of more than 5000 modern Chinese essays, fits also the special international understanding of the essay (following Bolz 1992 13:269-272 on the development of the western essay; Butrym 1989 on the theory of the western essay).
==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==
Besides the trend towards a globalized society, first expressed in Zhou Zuoren's call to adopt the English essay style, there are special local characteristics of the Chinese essay. How is the Chinese essay to determine culturally, what makes it "Chinese"? In the occidental essay the form seems to be a more important criterion of differentiation than in its Chinese counterpart. In China even those texts are included, which have only a similar content, but cross the borders of the formal generical framework.

除了首先由周作人表达出来的社会全球化趋势，号召采用英语散文风格，中文散文有独特本土的特征。中文散文如何形成其特有文化，其中文性又由何组成？和中文散文相比，西方散文的文章形式似乎是更重要的分类标准。在中国，甚至有些文章内容相似，但形式和类别大相径庭。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 02:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

除了最初由周作人表达出来的社会全球化趋势，号召采用英语散文风格，中文散文具有独特的本土特色。中文散文如何形成其特有文化，其中文性又由何组成？与中文散文相比，西方散文的形式分类标准似乎更重要。在中国，有些文章甚至是内容相似，但形式和类别大相径庭。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:18, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==
This can be shown with Zheng Mingli, who subcategorises the "unfinished diary" or the "unfinished letter". Those texts belong - within the Western context - to texts of personal use and therefor to the non-fictional prose works. Only after they have been altered into essays (Zheng Mingli: "essay in diary form" and "essay in letter form"), they are accepted as essays.
==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==
'''The Chinese understanding of the genre is tendencially broader'''

This tendencial broader understanding of the essay in China can be traced back directly to the connotation, that the term ''sanwen'' possesses in Chinese: ''wú yùnwén'' "non-rhythmic prose", which originally meant all non-fictional prose. In this broader meaning, also texts for personal or everyday use are included. However I deal only with ''sanwen'' in the narrower meaning "short literary essay pieces".

Further differences are that Chinese essays often have ideological contents and show stylistic characteristics like repetitions and the usage of sayings.
==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==
'''The Chinese essay is booming again in the 1980s and 1990s'''

Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report (''baogao wenxue'').[ Klaschka 1998.] The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous ''sanwen congshu'' 散文叢書 (essay bookseries).
==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==
The increase in essay production right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in a sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for a survey.

Thanks to the work of some major Chinese editors, the whole essay culture was compiled from magazines and newspapers and was published in a flood of anthologies since the 1970s. This boom is comparable to the cultural fever of undigging xiangtu literature, which rose in Taiwan in front of the background of the movement of self-identification and independance.
==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==
'''2. Why is the essay as abundant as fiction?'''

Let me name a few reasons, why the essay in fact is as abundant as its prose brother, fiction, and its lyrical sister, poetry, and why it must be valued as highly:

- The essay had a direct impact on Chinese society throughout history (the reform ideas from the end of the Qing dynasty through the May Fourth period with the literary theorethical pieces and the daily political zawen of Lu Xun, until today are mostly presented in essay form). The impact on literary reflection and theory is shown in the collection "Modern Chinese Literary Thought" 1996. The effect of the essay genre with its direct language, its connection to life (e.g. its role in the coming to terms with the cultural revolution), and its direct access to the individual reader through newspapers. This impact is larger than the indirect one of fiction or poetry. The poem is the genre of retreat from social life, from political issues and time references.
==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==
Hu Shi argues, that ''poetry'' is most important in the process of modernity, since poetry rises emotions. But it relies also on images and on linguistic rhythm. Liang Qichao stresses the role of novel and opera in the changing society. But ''sanwen'' is able to name things, it reflects life, caleidoscopic. Modern subjectivity is constructed with the tool of ''sanwen''.

- The essay also reflects trends in the society better than poetry and fiction: Individualism is expressed in the essay more directly than in the poem with its limitation in content and form. Ephemerality is reflected in the short form of the essay, which may be read in the subway on the way to work, where poems may not be so spontaneously enjoyed.
==Li Haiquan 李海泉==
- The essay reaches a larger part of the population than poetry, the amount of time spended on reading novels goes back, too. The essay itself a genre of high actuality, if not simply the genre of today.

- The essay tells us more about an author and his time than fiction or poetry, because in this genre, we encounter the author himself without metrical restrictions. We look trough authentic eyes on his contemporary society. Many authors turned to essay writing in the later periods of their lifes, like Lu Xun, Ba Jin, and Wang Meng.
==Li Lili 李丽丽==
- The volume of ''essay'' production exceeds the volume of ''xiaoshuo'' production: Chinese newspapers since the 1870s on[ Shenbao, Shibao etc. Liang Qichao sees the role of the newspaper both as liberal and authoritative: He understands the press as an institution to control the government, on the other hand he favors censorship.] and as a mass media from the early 20th century presented only one or two fictional stories in a serialized form, but invented essay columns like ''zagan'' (from which Lu Xun developed his ''zawen''), ''suibi'' or ''suixiang'' (from which famous collections like Ba Jin's ''Suixiang lu'' derived).
==Li Lingyue 李凌月==
'''3. Let us assign the essay its proper place'''
The consequence which must be driven from the above presented contrast between value and valuing of the essay is: Let us assign the essay its proper place! I will describe the beginnings of the discovery of the essay.
Despite the increase in essay writing from 1979 on, it took a decade for the first theoretical reflections on this phenomenon to appear. It took another decade before the international scholarship of Chinese Studies became aware of the phenomenon of the essay.
==Li Liqin 李丽琴==
In the 1980s, Chinese scholarship made a first major approach to reflect on essay literature by writing essay histories and collecting papers, which concentrated first on the essayistic work of single authors like Lu Xun. Also two essay conferences in the 1990s showed no move towards international scholarship. Not before 1995 did international scholarship started to use common philological methods to explore single essayists (on Gaylord Leung [Liang Xihua] 梁錫華 Kubin 1995, on Wang Meng 王蒙 Woesler 1995, on Liu Zaifu 劉再復 Mansberg 1995 [unpublished]) or essays of groups (on 'Xīnyùe pài 新月派' Wagner 1996).
==Li Luyi 李璐伊==
Not before the second half of the 1990s, did a history of the Chinese essay using the means of Western philology appear (Woesler 1998) and for the first time, the essay was included in Western anthologies of literature as a genre equal to fiction and poetry (''The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature'' 1995, ''Modern Chinese Literary Thought'' 1996).

Regarding the valuing of essays in China, Taiwan and the West, there are regional differences: In the States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones.
==Li Meng 李梦==
In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, in my survey, which Chinese essayists are printed the most in the 1990s, he ranks 16th. If one only take modern authors into account, he even ranks 12th. Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by Huang Weiliang in favor for the first (see Lin Yaode 1989:50), and Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.

Still it remains a ''desideratum'' to get the most important Chinese essays in Western translation.
==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==
Currently at least three essay collections in English translation are in the reviewing process (Tam King-Fai, Woesler) or already published (Pollard 1999). Pollard's selection is a highly subjective and eclective choice of essays, covering even the premodern essay. This year, scholars will meet on a first international conference on the essay (Achern, Germany August 25-26). In the years to come, a new ''Bonn History of Chinese Literature'' will grant the essay its proper place with two to three volumes only dedicated to the ''biji, youji'' and other essays.
==Li Yu 李玉==
'''4. Taking into consideration the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature'''

I will give a few hints, what the essay can contribute to the picture of Chinese Literature, which so far is overshadowed by fiction through the narrative of C.T. Hsia, Prusek and Anderson.

We are used to established narratives, like the emergence and success of the May-Fourth literature. But this view neglects the role, that for example the ''yuanyang hudie pai'' played in the choir of different voices in the awoken intellectual debate in the beginning of this century.
==Lin Min 林敏==
The May-Fourth group at that time was one voice among many and only succeeded because of its agitation and polemic in the public sphere, so we have to use new means to assign the Chinese essay its proper place. We learn from simplifiying narratives, that it is absolutely necessary to differentiate, and to reconstruct the complex time background. Having understood Chinese literature as determined by the development of fiction and poetry only, a broader understanding will change the whole appearance of Chinese literature. A scholarly endeavour is the use of modern literary theories in the approach to this genre.
==Lin Xin 林鑫==
In the following, I will name three aspects (chronologically sorted by past, modern and contemporary time) to hold the argument, that the taking into consideration of the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature and change our current understanding of it.

'''5. The classical and premodern essay documents Chinese philosophy, early subjectivity and still, a native Chinese tradition is questioned'''

How is the Chinese essay to be positioned historically, how did it emerge, what is its generic background? Generically, the ancestors of the essay are both in China and the West notes written on the margins of books, they are letters and travel notes.

==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==
These notes differed from the canonized literature through its informal style, its expression of individuality und subjectivity, a much earlier document for subjectivity than the first autobiographical Chinese novel, ''The Dream of the Red Chamber''.

From the very beginning, the essay was valued lower than poetry: the oldest reference this far for the term ''sanwen'' that I found is Luo Dajing's 羅大經 (? - after 1248) statement from 1240: “Shī sāomiào tiānxià, ér sǎnwén pōjué suǒsuì júcù.
==Liu Bo 刘博==
詩騷妙天下，而散文頗覺瑣碎局促。” (Poetry is moving mankind in a wonderful way, prose inquires into incoherent bagatels, is limited.) (''Helin yulu''). Another reproach Luo Dajing mentions, is a formal one: In comparison to the highly artistic and century-long tradition of poetic writing, the direct and often vernacular langage of the essay in his eyes had less value.

In the West, a real 'art of the essaywriting' came up in the late 16th century as a medium for the newly reorganized knowledge.
==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==
The reorganization originated from the observations of Kopernikus, which destroyed the whole conception of the world of the Middle Age.

In China, particularly the debates on Buddhism in the 4th and 5th century A.D. saw the origination of a tradition of letters. The Chinese tradition of the ''sanwen'' 散文 (essay) however, in the understanding of sǎn 散 as (to dispel, leisure, loose, relaxed, irregular, independant style, free prose, can be seen not before the detachment from the dialogue - or aphorism, which is still visible in the philosophical ''Lunyu''.
==Liu Liu 刘柳==
Xunzi delivered the prototype of the later essay with his philosophical treatises. They are an early form of philosophical didactical essays, in which general theorems are derived not only from quotations of the canonized classical works, but for the first time also from his own individual experience. The individuality is still a main characteristic of the essay today.

During the dynasties the essay manifested itself further in certain subcategories: From reading-notes written at the paper margins originated the ''biji'' µ§°O (occasional notes), flourishing in the Ming Dynasty.

荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形，它们是哲学教学论文的早期形式。其中的一般定理不仅来自于经典著作的引用，而且第一次从他的个人经验中得出。个性仍是现今散文的主要特点。

历朝历代，散文在某些子类中进一步得以表现，如从写在纸边的读书笔记产生了明朝盛行的偶记。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 02:25, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Ou 刘欧==
The marginalism is a link between Western and Chinese tradition of early essays. Occasional notes could contain private historical notes, anecdotes, communications and contemplations. However, the consciousness of the essay as a genre of its own originated in China not before the Qing ²M dynastie, when numerous essay anthologies were compiled.

Taking into consideration the social-historical background draws a different picture of the old society than short stories and novels: Essays are much closer to real life, since they express individual problems and experiences.
==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==
Until now, the Chinese pre-''Hongloumeng'' individual literature spoke only through the indirect language of poems to us. Rediscovering the essays, we have a splendid source of opinions, social-historical pictures etc.

Premodern essay literature consists of much more than its most well-known example, the formally restrictive ''baguwen''. Lu Xun himself wrote some of his essays in ''baguwen'' style, but on the other hand took it as a synonym for the ancient society. Zhou Zuoren saw the rhythm of the language of the "Eight legged essay" as as appealing and intoxicating as the "pleasure of doing opium.'' (Zhou 1932:148).
==Liu Yi 刘艺==
But he considered it also as a prevalent genre implicit in the modern writings as ''yang bagu'' (westernized bagu) and ''dang bagu'' (party-line bagu) (borrowing from Wu Zhihui, Zhou Yuanliu:71).

Neo-Confucianism stressed ''wen'' (prose) as the most important tool to transmit the ''dao'' (way): ''Wenyi zai dao'' (Literature as the carrier of the way). If we reinterprete this diction in the perspective of genre, we can say, that the essay then has been regarded as an important tool to express truth, subjectivity and Self.
==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==
Liang Qichao developed a ''xīn wéntǐ'' 新文體 (new prose style), which was influenced by Western languages, but the essay became popular not before the newspapers became mass media, and the language changed into ''baihua''.

'''6. The essay as the medium of modernity, the questioning of the genuiness of the Chinese essay'''

To solve first of all the dispute on whether the Chinese essay grew out of a native tradition or was influenced by Western translations, one finds both traditions relevant: The occidental essay was introduced to the writers of the literature reform movement from 1907 on by translations in Chinese (Lin Shu: ''Irving'' 1907, ''Addison'' 1911).
==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==
The current form of the genre is mostly based on the influence of Western essay translations. First developed a Chinese essay tradition, which consciously leaned upon the Western model in language, form and terminology, its own proponents succumbed soon to the temptation to derive a tradition of the Chinese essay from Chinese history only. A seemingly unbroken Chinese tradition of the native Chinese ''wenyan sanwen'' is presented in Chinese textbooks (Yu Zaichun 1978-82, Li Xishang 1985).

This is older than the ones referred to in the ''Large Chinese Dictionary'' of Morohashi (Morohashi undated) and in the ''Encyclopaedic Dictionary of the Chinese Language'' 1966.

==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==
Still, the value of the native tradition of essay writing and the role of the Western influence upon it is discussed controversially among the scholars. Some admit that Western impact played a key role in what we understand as Chinese essays nowadays: Wang Bin 1992, Fan Peisong 1993; for Western impact in general see Průšek 1964, Gálik 1966, McDougall 1971. Other scholars think that Western influence is overestimated - Denton 1996 showed that the theoretical background was missing for understanding Western theories of literature in China, - and recommended that we understand the essay first by its national tradition.
==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==
How far personal opinion may influence the narrative of historical facts can be seen by the example of the legendary authors of the May Fourth movement. All of them considered the English essay as the father of the Chinese essay: Zhou Zuoren 1921, Lu Xun 1933, the anarchist and later member of the Guomindang Wu Zhihui [1934]. Later, some of these authors changed their minds to support their own theories on the essay by looking for proof of a native Chinese essay tradition:
==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==
for example, Lu Xun with his theory "'Zhǎnkāi' shuō yǔ 'méngyá' lùn “展開”說與“萌芽”論"" (Theory of "Starting" and "Blossoming") came to see the fighting and critical character of the essay of the Jin dynasty (265 - 420) as the 'father' of the Chinese essay, and Zhou Zuoren first the English essay (1921) and later the ''biji'' (occasional notes) of the Ming, although he still tried to integrate the English essay in his "Gonganpài yu Yīngguo xiaopin 'hecheng' lun 公安派與英國小品“合成”論" (Theory of the Synthesis of the Gongan School and the English Essay).
==Ma Juan 马娟==
Wang Zengqi regrets that the national Chinese tradition of the essay at the time of the 'May Fourth Movement' has not been taken up again and has not continued in contemporary essays (Wang Zengqi 1993). The Chinese essay is an accommodating object of study, because one may look to it to prove any theory of the essay. One can find examples for each topic in almost every period, simply because the essay has a wide range of subjects.
==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==
When Zhou Zuoren showed that only seven months after the incident at Marco Polo bridge it was again possible to write about a candy seller (1924), he was critizised as "paralyzing" (Lu Xun 1934, Zhu Zhaoluo 1943). When he wrote a piece on the "Fly", he was reproached with dealing with subjects of minor importance. Reproaches like this lie in the very nature of the genre, since ''marginalism'' is substantial to the essay. The mentioned formal reproach of Luo Dajing can be found again in the 1990s, Hong Kong students critisized the literary style as it appears in Ba Jins "Thoughts" (Suixiang lu) as too direct and too less artful. But this perspective does not recognize the very nature of the essay, which is a very individual expression of an author's thoughts and not bound to tradition, and therefore much more free also in content.
==Ma Zhixing 马智星==
The essay - from its very nature free and independant - almost disappeared in the time of the Cultural Revolution and - except for the ideologically influenced essays - had a hard struggle between Yan'an and the loss of moral legitimacy by the leadership in 1989.

The essay was ''the'' genre of the modernizing society of the early 20th century. Many writers had to define and often redefine their position and self-understanding in reaction to war and warlordism and later in the modernizing society, often burying their own ideals, in the larger perspective for the seeming "needs" of society, which also claimed the author to be one of its products.
==Meng Ying 孟莹==
But from its very nature, the essay set new boundaries in form and content, and therefore not only survived the ideological restrictions, but also established its own critical subculture within. The essay was not only a medium of discussion and a documentation of the social-political background for us today, but also a documentation of the personal struggle of the writers finding a position in a changing environment, since the essay is "a genre of self-reflection". Some essays even deconstructed master narratives like the one of leftist ideology, often simply by confronting it with subjective experience, reality or art.

I want to mention another position on literature, which stresses the impact of literature on life, especially on the eve of revolutions - following this view, all literature is political (Jameson).
==Mo Ling 莫玲==
Not only the understanding of literature as a whole changes if we take into consideration the essay, also the view of single authors shifts, if we see not only their novels or poems, but also their essays. I mention only Zhou Zuoren. His ideas connected him spiritually to his contemporary collegues in Europe, Japan and America, but these where ideas for which China turned out to be not yet ready. At that time, China had taken a road which led away from progress, wealth, freedom and spiritual enlightenment. The consequences have yet to be overcome.
==Mo Nan 莫南==
In 1927, Chinese literature has taken the form of 'engaged literature'. The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics of daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology.
==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==
Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consume-orientation of the masses. The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educational claim with the exception of essays which claim to be "art pourt l'art".
==Ou Rong 欧蓉==
The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing ("Shuo meng 說夢" On dreams in: Zhu Ziqing 1928) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 (My own garden 9.1923, "The Fly" 1924, "Reading on the Toilet" 1936), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the new found world of mass consumerism.
==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==
I mentioned the lack of translations in Western languages. One of the reasons might be the impression of some scholars that many of the Chinese essays were just propaganda. This might be true for the 1940s and even the 1950s, but nowadays this has changed, as the overwhelming majority of publications prove. This demands a closer look: Since 1949, politically affirmative literature has been encouraged by the government, resulting in a statistical paradox: not the affirmative authors and their texts form the majority of the essayists read in the 1990s, but the critical essayists, whose texts oppose the order to serve politics through their apolitical, sometimes even defiant character.
==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==
In the 1990s, the texts of 1920s/1930s Republican China are still as often reprinted as their contemporary counterparts. Obviously we can conclude that the politically affirmative essay of the 1950s only survived in special political essay collections and is no longer written by famous contemporary authors nor read by the Chinese audience in the beginning of the 21st century.

Taking into account of a genre shifts the whole perspective on literature, taking into account the essayistic works of an author shifts also the view of the author. I will name only one author as an example for a modern essayist: Zhou Zuoren.

==Peng Dan 彭丹==
'''Zhou Zuoren'''

I mentioned already his theoretical contribution to the Chinese essayism, but still, his essays have been neglected until the 1980s. The reason does not lie in literary quality, but in political valuing. The master narrative of the offical literary history of the People's Republic on Zhou Zuoren is, that the theoretical May Fourth genius "degenerated" and later became a "traitor". Publishing in the Japanese sponsored magazines ''Reminiscences'',* and ''Chinese Literature'', he was blamed together with Zhu Pu and Yuan Xi of collaboration. An unanswered question is, why another author, who published there, Zhang Ailing, was never reproached with collaboratorship. The difference between all of them is that Zhang Ailing tried to avoid political committments, whereas Zhou felt guilty, Zhu justified it and Yuan simply accepted it.
==Peng Juan 彭娟==
''The 'mainstream' writers took an affirmative approach in their writing, whereas the other writers formed a minority. The individual authors did not necessarily belong to either one of these groups throughout their life, but may have moved between them. Since the essay is a medium which enables the individual to express thoughts directly, the writers chosen for this paper can be classified according to their position.''

''Yu Guangzhong's essay'' "The wolves are coming" ''shows that the ideological perspective did not only harm mainland essaywriting.''
==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==
In his small literary pieces, Zhou tried to aesthetizise the little things of the everyday life out of the subjective experience of his private space. The major contribution of Zhou Zuoren is, that he set the turning point in Chinese essay writing with his call for writing short literary pieces (''Meiwen'' 1921).

In foreign literature there is the so-called ''lunwen'' 論文 (treatise), which is roughly divided into two groups: the reflecting ones, piping 批評 (critical), are scientific articles. The others are ''jishu'' 記述 (descriptive) and ''yishuxing'' 藝術性 (artistic), they are also called ''meiwen'' 美文 (aesthetic essay). Within these texts, one can distinguish between ''xushi'' 敘事 (narrative) and ''shuqing'' 抒情 (lyric). But there are also mixed texts. [...] I hope that the aesthetical essay is encouraged to come back, and will open up a new field for the New Literature. Wouldn’t that be wonderful?
==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==
With these words from the essay "''The aesthetic essay''" this new vernacular form was defined. This starting point founded a whole new tradition of essay writing in China. Contemporary writers called this piece the "king of essays".

In order to bring this new form to his compatriots, he tried to find similiarities with the ''xiaopinwen'' of the Ming dynasty. He further discussed these thoughts in his essay theory. In his own essays, he profited a lot from ancient ''suibi''. Later he further developed his literary theory towards an up and down of two trends. In the modernizing society, he advocated the liberation of women and asked to "treat children as full subjects with their own external and internal lives" and to "make children the essence of children's literature" (Zhou 1923). He promoted the ''baguwen'' and the independance of literature from politics and effected the literary scene and the development towards a modern Chinese society especially between 1917 and 1938.

==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==
With this theoretical foundation and his own vo'luÉminous essayistic work, Zhou Zuoren through the example of his own form of short literary pieces within this genre, fought at that stage of the development of his literary theory like Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque 130 years ago in France for the idea "l'art pour l'art" , for individuality and independance of the writer, for disinterested literature. The jugdment, that Zhou was an apolitical author cannot be proved with his essays. Instead, he wanted his abstinence of political statement to be understood as a political statement by itself. For him, literature was a mean not for revolution, but for resistance (Zhou 1929:180-181).
==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==
In fact he saw himself as ‘patriotic underground fighter’ and looked at the collaboration with the Japanese puppet regime as a forced one, following his attempted assasination, through which his driver had lost his life. His own concept of essay writing served less the needs of the building of a nation-state and comes closer to the ideal of the individual.

"I don't really know why, but I am feeling as if I am born into a dark age. I admit, that our forests are not inhabited by dragons, tigers and wolves, but shapeless "monsters" and "goblins" are still creeping around and try to swallow our souls. [...] What alarms me most, is the absence of freedom in this prison, into which we writers have been thrown."
==Qi Kai 漆凯==
Confronting tradition and progress in the essay "''Ancestor Worship''", he is in favor of the latter, since past could only become present through changes (Zhou 1919:7-8).

Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque (1767 - 1830) war französischer Romanschriftsteller und liberaler Politiker, der neben der Freiheit der Kunst nach der Französischen Revolution die Einführung der konstitutionellen Monarchie nach englischem Vorbild forderte.

==Qu Miao 瞿淼==
Siehe ''Journal'' (10.2.1804). Die "Kunst um der Kunst willen" propagierte die Zweckfreiheit der Kunst. Im Gegensatz dazu versteht sich die engagierte Literatur. Die Parallele zwischen Zhou Zuorens Literaturverständnis und dem Konzept "Kunst um der Kunst willen" zieht auch Wolff: ''Chou Tso-jen'' 1971, S. 84.

Siehe Zhou Zuoren: ''Der Ursprung der neuen chinesischen Literatur'' 1934, S. 95 - 98; vgl. auch Chen Zizhan: ''Vorträge zur chinesischen Literaturgeschichte'' 1937, Bd 3, pp. 416 - 422, besonders S. 422. Hinweis in: H. Martin: "''Liang Qichao on Poetry Reform''" 1996, Bd 1, S. 213.
==Quan Meixin 全美欣==
Regarding Zhou Zuoren, I want to correct the official assessment of the People’s Republic, that his work would have experienced a caesura in 1938. In order to explain his opposition of the propaganda to build up national heroes about 1937 and his collaboration from 1939, it has been said officially, that his thoughts had "duoluo 墮落" (degenerated) at that time (Zhu Jinshun 1990:59). In fact, this caesura, namely the change in the style and subject in his essays on literature, art etc. to ''zhengjing'' 正經 (serious, intentional essays), and ''xianshi'' 閑適 (essays for one’s own enjoyment) is located not before his outlawing through Mao Zedong (1942), and his arrest through the Guomindang (1945).
==Sagara Seydou ==
Therefore not the Japanese suppressors are responsible for the retreat of this great writer, but his Chinese compatriots'.

On the basis of the stigma of the 'traitor', he has been undervalued until now. That his work in the 1990s is almost as often published as Lu Xun's and Zhu Ziqing's shows that his texts finally experience a more positive literaric evaluation through the audience, which now must be registered also by scholars.

==Shi Diwen 石迪文==
Another example of a misread Zhou Zuoren is his short essay on "''The Fly''", where he describes his changing attitude towards flies, which he had played with as child but later disgusted when he learned about their danger of passing on diseases. ”''The fly''” shows Zhou Zuoren’s strength to describe details and make them a real topic by recalling memories on them or describing a change of perspective on them. Zhou summarized the philosophical wisdom he learnt from this, that people did not judge on things objectively, but were likely to praise or damn things.
==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==
The official reading re¬proaches Zhou that he "saw only the fly and not the cosmos" , a quotation of the young Zhou about a position he himself clearly opposed.

His ability to chat about the more pleasent things in life is displayed in his essay ”Birds’ twitter”. In ”''Peking cakes and sweet-meat''” and in ”''Wild vegetable of my home region''”, Zhou Zuoren shows his ability to make the reader feel at home at a region, where he feels at home himself, by describing the customs and special regional food.

Siehe Zhou Zuoren: "Cangying 蒼蠅" (Die Stubenfliege), in: ''Chenbao fujuan'' 晨报副镌 (Beilage zur Morgenpost) (1924.7.13). Eine Zu¬sammenfassung des Inhalts findet sich in: Yu Daxiang (Hg.): ''Auswahllexikon chinesischer Essays mit Inhaltsangaben und Analysen'' 1993.

''Siehe Vollständige chinesische Anthologie der Wissenschaften - Bd Chinesische Literatur'' 1988, Bd 2, S. 1300. Dies spielt auf den Essay "''Cangying'' 蒼蠅" (Die Stubenfliege), in: Zhou Zuoren: ''Zhi Tang. Sammlung'' 1933 an.（文献无需翻译）

==Si Yu 司妤==
His piece ”''Bitter rain''” shows the atmosphere, for what his essays had been labelled ”bitter tea”: There remains a taste in one’s mouth after reading. If you compare Lu Xun’s ”''On tea drinking''” (Yang/Yang 1961 3:325-326) with Zhou Zuoren’s essay with the same title, you see the difference of ”short and to the point” and ”eloquent and well-read”. ”''First love''” is more hilarious. The essay ”''Three different ways to die''” shows that Zhou Zuoren can compete with his elder brother in sarcasm. Lu Xun's essay on the same subject, the massacre on March 18, 1926, was a sight.
==Song Jianru 宋建茹==
Zhou asks for the ”best” way to die and favors the short and painless one. In ”''On alcohol''” and ”''The awning bunk boat''” Zhou Zuoren continues the tradition of late Ming ''biji''.

'''7. The essay as a snapshot of contemporary thoughts'''

''What is the state of contemporary essay writing in China? Its position should be brought into its proper relationship to recent approaches, perspectives and terms of categorization, like post-modernist elements, post-colonial thinking, deconstructivism etc.''

==Su Lin 苏琳==
The increase of the essay production after the ‘Cultural Revolution’ might be explained with the ability of the essay, to express personal experiences much more authentically than other genres because of its immanent claim of historical truth. But the essay is not a guarantee for objective truth: In the same time it is subjective, the essayist mediates his image consciously. This restricts the reported truth to a subjective one and bears the risk of a consciously “corrected” truth.
==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==
The individualism of the Republican era has been based on the common feeling to stand at a historical turning point and directed towards common targets like the creation of a New Literature and a new Chinese society. In the 1980s and especially in the 1990s, individualism asks for a critical reflection on the satisfaction of personal consumption needs and tries to give personal orientation, essayists plead for moral virtues (Wang Meng: "''Anxiang'' 安详" (Serene) 1992, "''Zuohao ni ziji de shi'' 做好你自己的事" (First make your own things in a good way) 1994).
==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==
These essays, mainly published in newspapers and magazines, are widely read by people in the rapidly changing, anonymous, alienating and consume-oriented mass cultural society.

Other essays in the 1980s and 1990s are in a kind of new subjectivism targeted away from contemporary contradictions but apply to the feelings of the audience by creating an either positive ("''Shanxi opera''", Jia Pingwa 1984) or negative world ("''The nightmare''", Si Yu 1995).

From the essay, we can see contemporary trends of literature, which are also reasons for the increase in volume of this genre in the 1990s:

==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==
- The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts: “[...] we live in an age of exposition” (Hall 1984:xiii);

- The increasing consciousness of indivi¬duality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjecti¬ve expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands;

- A revival of interest in discussing social-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.

- The banality of everyday life becomes conscious through becoming a literary topic, most commonly in the genre of everyday life, the essay.

==Tang Bei 汤蓓==
- The De-ideologization of Chinese society. Today not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. The mostly read political essays after 1949 are critical essays.

- Regarding the compiling of essay collections: For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain.
==Tang Ming 唐铭==
This is a sign of the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publis¬hing houses with an orientation toward customers (former: "readers").

- The criteria for essay best sellers in the P.R. of China are the following: In the most often printed essay "''The Back View''", filial piety is the driving factor, parallelistic and repetitive structures in the atmospherical nebulous "''The Moonlit Lotus Pond''", both written by Zhu Ziqing, whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader.
==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==
Nostalgic home feelings are the emotional identification element in "''Wild vegetables of my home region''" by Wang Zengqi. Therefore one can state, that moving es¬says form the top.

- ''In the latter half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of in¬dividuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife. Time loses worth, since more and more of the daily acctivities are filled with mechanical and autistic actions.''

==Tao Ye 陶冶==
''In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only political replique is the patriotism, for example expressed in the 1996 published monograph'' China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war (''No''! 1996).

- ''The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable object d'art.''
==Wang Meiling 王美玲==
''Also trends like the use of ordinary language, which one finds in novels since 1993 (Jia Pingwa, Feidu; Gu Cheng, Yingger) and'' New Borderlessness ''since'' 1995, ''cannot be pro-ven in the essaywriting. ''

- Also the fictional realism David Der-Wei Wang sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proves helpful for the understanding of some essays, one being "''The Small Dog Baodi''", written by Ba Jin 1981, in which the author turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in allegoric instead of in descriptive truth as before ("''In memoriam of Xiao Shan II''", Ba Jin 1984).
==Wang Xuan 王轩==
Similar is the concept of imaginery nostalgia, as Wang calls the fictional truth in Shen Congwen's work (David Der-Wei Wang 1992), helpful for the reading of Wang Zengqi's "''Rain in Kunming''" as well as for Jia Pingwa's "''Shanxi opera''".

- The Schwarcz' concept of ''personal grief'' expressed in a ''metaphorical discourse'' helps us to understand how Ba Jin was able to overcome the ''truth of being'' he was known for, only to reach a more convincing fictional truth through the metaphor of his dog Baodi.

Xin zhuangtai xiaoshuo 新狀態小說 new borderless fiction, represented by Chen Dong 韓東, Lu Yang 魯羊, Zhu Wen 朱文, Lin Bai 林白, Chen Liang 陳梁, Zhang Mei 張梅.（文献无需翻译）

''Post-colonialist thinking (Williams et al. 1994), which is to be seen as part of the social-political discourse, appears in essays, especially in the less critical political, but patriotic essays of the 1990s. Kafkaism helps us understand the essay "The nightmare", where Si Yu appears as a de-constructionist, the I-narrator even is drawn near to suicide.''（文献无需翻译）

And maybe for Xie Bingxins* reflections on her experience as one of the chosen voluntaries of the Wuhan military academy: She insisted to remain a lifelong "woman soldier" .（文献无需翻译）

==Wang Yu 王煜==
'''8. Discussion: Is the genre of the essay the form of literary expression in 21st century China?'''

Regarding the future of the Chinese literature, we can only speculate. But out the risk of being wild and provocative, I would like to suggest some questions for considering the place of the essay in the field of Chinese literature and literary studies.

- People have less time for actions like reading, and get used to reduced visualized information through the Internet. Will the brevity of the essay make it the ideal medium?

==Wang Yuan 王源==
- If the Chinese people are rediscovering their individuality, will the essay allow them to express individual thoughts more directly?

- Modern societies are characterized by TV culture, mass consumption, and the loss of consciousness of one's own tradition, often partly due to the American impact on national cultures. Is the essay less bound to the restrictions of tradition, especially compared to the poem and thus more adaptable to the modern phenomenon of mass consumption?

==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==
- The alienation and the anonymity of citylife worldwide, in China is combined with a loss of traditional values like ideology, family, solidarity etc. in favor of the concept of profit for oneself, - if this has produced a longing for new orientation, will it possibly be filled by morally guiding essays or nationalistic thinking?

《红楼梦》与其他世界文学作品的相似性——推荐《红楼梦》列入世界记忆遗产名录

'''Commonness between the Red Chamber Dreams and other World Literature Novels – Proposing the Red Chamber Dreams to the World Documentary Heritage List'''（修改）

吴漠汀，湖南师范大学 Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University

Source: Lecture at Harvard University, Cambridge, MA USA, 14.3.2000（文献无需翻译）
==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==
'''Abstract'''

In every culture, readers associate the literature they know with new literature they read. So literature is always cumulative, it grows out of existing literature and can refer back to it. When Western readers read the Red Chamber Dreams, they foremost associate novels and other pieces of literature of their own cultural tradition with the Dreams. This has also influenced the first full translation into German.

Cao Xueqin and even more his protagonist Jia Baoyu both are early humanists, universalists and world citizens. ''The Red Chamber Dreams'' function worldwide.

摘要

在每一种文化中，读者都会把他们读到的新文学与已知文学联系起来，所以文学总是积累的，它从现有的文学中生长出来，并以已有文学为参考。西方读者在阅读《红楼梦》时，首先会把《红楼梦》与自身文化传统中的小说和其他文学作品联系起来，这也影响了首次德语全译本。

曹雪芹，尤其是他的主人公贾宝玉，都是早期的人文主义者，普世主义者和世界公民。《红楼梦》具有普世价值。（修改）
==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==
''The Dream'' is a complex showroom of diverse aspects of Chinese cultures and is the embodiment and essence of Chinese cultures, but it has also a global impact, therefore it should be honoured as “World Documentary Heritage”.

红楼梦》综合展示了中国的多元文化，是中国文化的集中体现和精华，同时在全球范围内产生影响，理应列入世界记忆遗产名录。（修改）

多元一体

'''Key words'''

Western culture, reception tradition, German translation, Embodiment of Chinese cultures, global compatibility, World Documentary Heritage
==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==
'''1. Chinese Ethics'''

To help the poor and disadvantaged belongs to the traditional core values of Chinese culture.

When we sit in the Beijing Subway today, the loudspeaker announcement reminds us, that it is Chinese traditional ethics to give seats to the disadvantaged (老弱病残孕让座是中国传统道德). We know of Cao Xueqin, that he supported the poor and disadvantaged, and that he made kites for children.

However, when we look closer at these “Chinese Ethics”, we discover, that they are claimed also in Indian Buddhism “karuna” and in the Christian tradition of “caritas” and in almost every civilization. Therefore, we might call these values “human ethics”.

==Wu Kai 吴恺==
'''2. Compatibility
'''
Why do the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' function worldwide and have achieved world literature status even in their translations?

First of all, the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' are, like novels worldwide, a piece of entertainment literature. In comparison to the drama, in which every element is compulsory and plays its part in the overall structure, in the novel the line of action itself is simpler and not so important, most of the scenes or episodes are loosely put together and fit in the broader theme of the novel.
==Wu Qi 吴琪==
However, the lose arrangement of episodes of the ''Dreams'' comes from the tradition of almost unconnected episodes like in the ''Shuihuzhuan'' and is a step towards the greater coherence of the episodes, the aligning into a story line and the greater concentration on fewer protagonists. Therefore, the ''Dreams'' show clearly a step towards the Western tradition of novels, maybe because of growing Western influence in Qing dynasty.

'''3. Impact of translator’s native culture on the translation process'''

There are intercultural parallels between the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' and Western works of literature.
==Wu Qiong 吴琼==
These parallels are fundamental for the translation and were explicitly and implicitly fundamental for the German translator Martin Woesler during his translation and editorial work on the first full German translation. In the following, I will mention some of the Western novels and pieces of literature, which the Western reader of the ''Dreams'' will immediately think of.

'''4. The novel as embodiment of “Zeitgeist”'''

According to Georg Lukács’ ''Theory of the Novel'', while the Epos (like Homer’s ''Ilias'', which like the ''Dream'' reasons the stories in the divine realm) displayed a holistic world experience, a complete, self-contained culture, the novel displays, that the modern world has become infinitely large and has lost its homely quality.
==Wu Xiang 邬香==
The novel as a genre is no longer documenting just one culture, but represents, with the words of Walter Benjamin, the Organon of History. So the understanding of the novel changed with Lukacs to historical-philosophically. A novel is understood as typical for its historical era, the novel embodies the spirit of the epoch (Zeitgeist).

The ''Red Chamber Dreams'' are written in front of the background of the Manchu minority having taken over the power in formerly Han-shaped Ming-China (which was a multi-ethnic and crosscultural society) and families suffering the changing favor of changing emperors, with the Cao family being fostered by Kangxi and being persecuted by Yongzheng.
==Wu Yilu 吴一露==
While the author in his time could not criticize the system and power of emperors, in the novel he came to terms with this life by seeking the guilt for the persecution in the growing decadence of the family (engaging in Daoism, leisure, poetry-writing, arts and music instead of learning for being able to earn a living) and in himself not fulfilling the expectations as the family heir. This description of decadence of a declining family reminds us of the novels of Tschechov (and e.g. in the ''Buddenbrooks'' by Mann, including the turn to arts and music).
==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==
Moreover, with the detailed description of life on all social levels in early Qing Dynasty, the Dream appears as a documentary historical novel very much like Günter Grass’ The Tin Drum 1959.

'''5. Coming-of-age and Alienation'''

Abandoning the paradise-like garden in the Red Chamber Dreams is a symbol for leaving the protected childhood and arriving in the complex world of adults. With George Lukács theory of the novel, the protagonist starts to problematize the sense of his life, in the novel, the protagonist’s self permanently struggles with his environment.
==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==
However, Cao Xueqin’s message is not simply the one of “Paradise Lost”, instead he himself made the best out of his life. Although being less wealthy than when his family still enjoyed the favour of the emperor, there was a payroll system and a social net intact in Early Qing China, where he received enough income to be independent from his rich relatives, to be selective on accepting jobs, to live a relaxed life in a small house in the nature, spending time with his family and friends, follow his own interests, like reading, writing and drinking wine, making kites for the children and thinking of the disadvantaged.
==Xiao Ting 肖婷==
Cao Xueqin was fully aware of his time and China’s cultural achievements, he was familiar with the different levels of society, he was a detailed observer and skilful narrator. He may have conceptualized the ending of the novel as a discussion about the different personalities of the characters in the novel and therefore displaying his reflection about life and his psychological understanding of the diversity of human nature. He was able to grasp the “spirit of time” (Zeitgeist) and with his autobiographical experience create an eternal coming-of-age novel not just for his family, for the Qing-Chinese, for Chinese people, but for mankind.
==Xiao Xi 肖茜==
This tradition of Coming-of-age novels is also a European one, like enlightenment philosopher Voltaire’s novel ''Candide or Optimism''《老实人》shows at the very same time (1759) in Europe. Also Voltaire’s Candide has to leave the luxurious paradise of his childhood and strives for true love, but his main learning is more pessimistic, since Voltaire wrote the novel in opposition to Leibniz, who optimistically looked to China as “the best of all worlds”. Recent research findings show that China had a much larger influence on European enlightenment philosophers and we can be sure, that also Cao Xueqin was aware of some European literary traditions.
==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==
Also the German readership is familiar with the chronological following of the life of the protagonist and his development, the fate of a family over generations, the German readership knows this type of novel as the “Education novel” or “Coming-of-age-novel”. In Germany, the genre of the coming-of-age novel has a long tradition and it is shaped more by single characters, who appear as teachers (Goethe: ''Wilhelm Meister’s Apprenticeship''威廉·麦斯特的学徒岁月 1795-96, Novalis 诺瓦利斯: ''Heinrich von Ofterdingen''《海因利·封·歐福特丁根》1802).
==Xie Fan 解帆==
Wilhelm Meister, parallely to Jia Baoyu, is struggling with the traditional education, in ''Wilhelm Meister'' this is represented with the classics revived in Shakespeare’s dramas. Tradition can give orientation, but the personality of the protagonist needs to develop through emancipation is a wisdom, we can learn from all mentioned novels including the ''Dreams''.

'''6. Pornography and True Love, female rivals'''

Sexuality is a basic human need and has developed into different shapes in all cultures. The German audience is familiar with erotic topics from the Middle Ages, in which sexuality was stylized. In the “Schwänke” of the 15th century (Wittenwielers Ring), erotic scenes are described sexually explicit.
==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==
In the barock literature of the 17th century even the physical act is described extensively.

According to „cumulativity“, every human being is a product of history and literature is based on previous literature, therefore the author of this pager thinks that this background has to be taken into account while translating.

The best study on ''qing'' passion in the Dreams is the one by Anthony Yu, who understood it as ''desire'' and as the central motif of the ''Dreams''. „The centrality of qing in shaping virtually every aspect of The Story of the Stone’s structure and meaning cannot be denied [...].“ (Anthony Yu 2001, 54).

==Xu Jia 徐佳==
In the framework story of the Dreams, the narrator consciously takes a stand against low-action and stereotypical pornographic literature as well as against the widespread romance novels (with the classic roles of the beautiful, talented woman and the poor scholar who finally achieves a respected position and prosperity by passing a civil service exam).

In chapter 1 he says: ”of the true feelings of young people [...] nobody has reported about so far.”

Erotic scenes are described in a decent and associative way (“Game of clouds and rain”), while displaying another quality in its openness e.g. towards bisexuality.

==Xu Jing 许晶==
The ''Dreams'' narrate the story of unfortunate lovers. Unfortunate lovers also in the West have a literary tradition, they constitute an archetype, such as Hero and Leander, Pyramus and Thisbe, Tristan and Isolde, Flore and Blanscheflur as well as Troilus and Cressida, the latter being considered the model for Arthur Brookes, who wrote Romeo and Juliet in 1562 and thus directly influenced Shakespeare.

While Marián Galik saw as the central topic of both, the ''Dream'' and ''Faust'', the eternal feminine, which draws us on high, Gu Cheng called it the “eternal virgine”.

==Xu Jing 许静==
In Goethe’s coming-of-age novel ''Wilhelm Meisters Wanderjahre'', we find a similar motif of female rivals, in the Keller 凯勒 ''The Green Henry'' 《绿衣亨利》1855, the hero turns away from an emphatically sexually designed figure and turns to the 'real' woman. In Jane Austen’s ''Pride and Prejudice'' 1813 Elizabeth and Lin Daiyu are similar, e.g. they both strive for real love (Zhuang 2011).
==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==
'''7. Feudal society and slavery'''

A widespread interpretation is that Jia Baoyu’s equal treatment of family members and slaves would be a manifesto to free the slaves. I also do not share this interpretation, since Aristotle, when he demanded democracy, would exclude slaves from the right to vote. So we cannot use modern concepts to judge on the past. In my understanding, Jia Baoyu was not fighting inequality, but looked at the people as humans and individuals.

==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==
Also the understanding of the servants as slaves does not match the description in the Dream, since some servants had servants themselves, the family took care after they left the Jia family to find a match for them and Jia Zheng refers to his daughter Yingchun as „yatou 丫头“, so it is inappropriate to translate this expression with slave. Therefore, the translator preferred “servant” over “slave” in the translation.

==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==
Mo Yan in his speech at the Frankfurt Bookfair in 2009, when China was the guest of honor, draws the (similarly) parallel between the ''Dream'' and Goethe’s ''Sorrows of the Young Werther'', that both expressed the wish to abandon feudal society. My own impression is that both do not express this wish, but that this is a later concept and interpretation and we should not apply this to judge the past.

2009年，莫言代表中国作为主宾国参加法兰克福书展时，他在演讲中把《梦》和歌德的《少年维特之哀》画上了约等号，表达了抛弃封建社会的愿望。我自己的印象是，两者都没有表达这个愿望，但这是后来的概念和解释，而我们不应该以此来判断过去。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:36, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting

==Yang Hairong 杨海容==
'''8. Tragedy of all tragedies'''

Aristotle explained in ''On the Tragedy'' (Poetics VI), that tragedies move people more than comedies because they “imitate [mimēsis] an action that is serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude” (Aristotle 1971, 51), This high esteem of the tragedy in Europe is partly ascribed to the loss of Aristotle’s work ''On the Comedy''.

==Yang Hui 阳慧==
While Europe has the Hamlet as its tragedy of all tragedies, the lack of tragic literature in Chinese literary tradition has long been lamented. Wang Guowei sees the Dream as "tragedy of all tragedies". To Wang Guowei the suffering of Faust and Jia Baoyu is central in the novels. However, many scholars contest that Faustianism is central for Chinese culture.

In 18th century Europe, we saw a new development in the genre of the drama, to establish a “bourgeois tragedy”.

==Yang Yi 杨逸==
It developed as an emancipatory movement in the 18th century in London, Paris and Germany, and demonstrated that tragedy was not reserved to rulers, but was also imagineable for lower noblemen and ordinary citizens. The ''Dream'' at the same time as the bourgeois tragedy in Europe shows a tragic story of a mid-level noble family which loses its titles and privileges.

==Yang Yue 杨悦==
'''9. “Non-Binary” Novels'''

One of the things attracting Western readers is the adorable but mysterious protagonist Jia Baoyu. With his open bisexual orientation and his interest in his mates regardless of their social status, he appears “modern” or at least displaced in time. His struggle with traditional learning makes him appear sympathetic, his long states of rapture out of the world give him both the aura of a timeless character and of mystery.

==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==
With the bisexual orientation of the Dreams’ protagonist, the novel appears non-binary.
According to Karl-Heinz Pohl, binaries are just superficial, ultimately decisive is the ''Heart Sutra''. Today, the novel is listed among the genre of non-binary literature (see e.g. the bibliographical list on https://www.goodreads.com/list/tag/non-binary), in which contrasts are dissolved deconstructivistically.

==Yao Cheng 姚诚==
'''10. Foreign Cultures in the Red Chamber Dreams'''

Foreign Cultures frequently appear in the Dreams in all kinds of varieties, like exoticism with the many objects in the household and presented to the household as novelties, especially the blond girl of the same age as Baoyu referred to in person (combining different origins and cultures, including European, Japanese, Chinese) or several times on paintings, one time shown with wings as an angel.

==Yao Jia 姚佳==
The playful combination of different traditions we can see also when a religious dress is described, which carries characteristics of different religions. Similarly, the Daoist monk and the Confucian priest appear together. Cao Xueqin wanted to show the richness and diversity, also with the many topics and societal levels of the novel. Even a variety of Christian motifs can be found, like when Jia Baoyu is not recognized by his father in chapter 120 and when he disappears, all parallel to Jesus Christ.

==Yi Huan 易欢==
The variety of cultures is paralleled with the variety of elements of different dynasties, which makes it timeless and therefore even more a masterpiece of Chinese art and a masterpiece of human art. Therefore I would like to nominate the Red Chamber Dreams as “World Documentary Heritage”.

'''References'''（参考文献不用翻译）

Anthony, C. Yu. (2001). ''Rereading the Stone: Desire and the Making of Fiction in Dream of the Red Chamber''. Princeton University Press.

Aristotle. (1971). ''Poetics''. Trans. S. H. Butcher. Ed. Hazard Adams. Critical Theory since Plato. ew York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 48-66.

Woesler, Martin, ed., Cao Xueqin, Gao E et al. (2016). ''Der Traum der Roten Kammer oder Die Geschichte vom Stein'' [''Red Chamber Dreams or The Story of the Stone''], Peking: Foreign Languages Press, ISBN 9787119094120, 4813 pages, 6 vols., hardcover, transl. by Rainer Schwarz and Martin Woesler; Chinese-German bilingual edition

Woesler, Martin. (2011). “Being Explicit About the Implicit – John Minford’s Translation of the last Forty Chapters of The Story of the Stone with a Field Study on two Sexually Arousing Scenes”. ''Hong lou meng xue kan'' 6: 274-289

Woesler, Martin. (2010). “ ’To Amuse the Beaux and Belles’ The Early Western Reception of the Hongloumeng”. ''Journal of Sino-Western Communications'' 2 (2010.12) 2:81-107

Zhuang, Xiuhua. (2011). Self, Ideal and Salvation: A Comparative Study of Jane Austen’s Elizabeth and Cao Xueqin’s Lin Daiyu. ''Journal of Language Teaching and Research'', Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 420-423, March 2011. Fulltext: http://www.academypublication.com/issues/past/jltr/vol02/02/19.pdf.

==Yi Zichu 义子楚==
'''Virtual Communication Between Machines with the Human as Their Object
'''

A new stage of multimodal communication after oral, written, printed, electronic and machine-human communication

Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University

'''Abstract'''

Luhmann and Baecker described the development of communication from orality (media epoch 1.0) to script (2.0), through print (3.0) and finally to digital communication (4.0). In all these stages, technology played only an assisting role.

==You Yuting 游雨婷==
This paper argues, that there is a fundamentally new media epoch of “virtual communication” (communication 5.0), in which artificial intelligence (initialized by humans) has taken over and humans have become the object of analysis and manipulation (as customers, voters etc.).

Algorithms do not only listen to oral or read written human communication (between humans or between humans and bots), but they analyze multimodal communication (including likes, behaviour, surfing habits, mobility profile, values, dreams, aims, beliefs etc.), compare them with Big Data (e.g. cloud data) and base decisions of manipulation on a prediction of behavior according to a personality profile and correlations.

==Yu Ni 余妮==
These algorithms target not only the explicit communications, but the emotions and thoughts of humans too and predict future behavior, therefore allowing simulations of reality. Mightier algorithms have also taken over decision-making roles in societies where they: replace human court decisions, fine tune just-in-time and on-demand production, censor chatrooms etc. Sets of algorithms help to manage smart cities and a whole society.

==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==
Although the human is still part of the communication, especially as the analyzed object and the target of the manipulation, the human is often unaware of the virtual communication and a passive receiver of the machine’s decisions, while the main actors in the virtual communication are machines.

==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==
Research describes these forms of virtual communication, finds evidence in social management systems and credit systems (in Germany, we have the “Schufa”, in the USA there are big players in credit history, which leads to credit-orientation and gamification of human life) or customized (fake) news filter bubbles and in customized consumption offers (Amazon, Facebook, Google, Netflix) and analyzes benefits, including security enhancements through such virtual communication.

==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==
But research also has the duty to warn of abuse or harmful developments and to raise ethical questions. Exoskeletal ethics, imposed by gamifications like credit systems, especially need to be valued against intrinsic ethics.

'''Introduction'''

In this paper dealing with machine to machine communication, I skip the machines assisting humans to make their life more convenient (ranging from “The milk is out, please add the usual amount of milk to the delivery list,” to “The old lady has not left her bed this morning, I’ll better call the doctor”).

==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==
Instead, I deal with communication like: “Let’s create a user personality profile and compare it with Big Data to learn how I can best catch this user’s attention and make him/her vote for presidential candidate A or B.”; “Let’s check this users’ mouse movements and compare it with Big Data to get a correlation to estimate if (and if “yes” when) he will get Parkinson, to decide whether or not to deny him the loan or health insurance.”

==Zeng Liang 曾良==
“Let’s check this users sexual orientation, religious beliefs, fears, secrets like adultery etc. to blackmail him to get ransom money for my programmer.”; or even “Let’s use this user’s location to aim the killer drone.”

The current neoliberal system with Amazon, Facebook, WhatsApp, Instagram, Google, Netflix etc. provides incentives to collect as much user data as possible and to abuse user data for manipulation, which creates huge profits.

“让我们检查该用户的性取向、宗教信仰、恐惧、诸如通奸之类的秘密去勒索他为我的程序员去获取赎金”。或者甚至“使用用户的位置瞄准杀手无人机。”

当前具有亚马逊、脸谱网、瓦茨艾普、照片墙、谷歌、奈飞等的新自由主义系统激励人们尽可能多地收集用户信息，并滥用用户信息进行操纵，从而创造可观利益。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:04, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==
Very much like the financial crisis, which was caused by the unregulated use of derivatives, this is a systemic development, which currently follows a path to enslave the human race under the control of algorithms for the benefit of tech companies. The enslavement has already begun, as we can see from the world wide addiction to social media, from the growing mass of conspiracy theorists and from the polarization of the USA over Trump or the polarization of Great Britain over the Brexit.

==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==
'''1 History of Media Epochs'''

Luhmann and Baecker described the development of communication from orality (media epoch 1.0) to script (2.0), through print (3.0) and finally to digital communication (4.0). In all these stages, technology played only an assisting role.

This paper argues, that there is a fundamentally new stage of “virtual communication” (media epoch 5.0), in which artificial intelligence (initialized by humans) has taken over and humans have become the object of analysis and manipulation (as customers, voters etc.).

==Zhang Hu 张虎==
While Luhmann would still summarize this under digital communication, I see a full new quality here, and have therefore coined the term “communication 5.0” or “virtual communication” for it. In Luhmann’s view, the computer consists out of the “surface” of the machine (the visible interfaces like screen, keyboard, mouse) and the “depth” of the machine (the invisible, often incomprehensive inside).

==Zhang Hui 张慧==
However, we are almost constantly producing data, with our chats and geotracked movements, with our addiction to social media, our carrying of cell phones and more and more smart devices at all times, and we are therefore an object of analysis by algorithms.

The traditional setting of a communicative act blurs: The machine can directly communicate with the human (there the Turing test marks a threshold), and, after a certain complexity, it can hide its machine nature.

==Zhang Ling 张玲==
The machine can also indirectly communicate with the human by simply analyzing humans’ verbal communication, non-verbal multimodal communication, behavior, personality etc. and interacting with the human with, or without, revealing its existence. A human, growing up in a filter bubble and believing in conspiracy theories is one such example: The human has been manipulated by social media and news which prefer lies over truth.

==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==
Without even noticing that there was an interaction taking place between the human and the machine, the human has lost his/her independence to the machine.

'''2 Types of communicative acts'''

1.Texts (oral and written comments/chat texts/blogs/emails)

2.Surf behavior (websites visited)

3.Consumer behavior (purchases)

4.Likes (see OCEAN, UEBA)

5.Duration/Attention (see UEBA)

6.habits/repetitiveness/occurrences (is an element of analysis in different AI apps/tools)

==Zhang Qi 张琪==
7.Unconscious, often unique data allowing identification (way of writing, mouse movements pattern, see Raj Kannan 2020)

8.social interaction incl. friendships, sexual relationships

9.mobility behavior/pattern (e.g. immediate environment – e.g. unconsciously recording the inside of houses while playing “Pokemon Go”), travel: Travel Behavior (Yu Cui et al. 2018)

==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==
'''3 Types of analysis'''

1.General (User and Entity Behavior Analytics UEBA: AI-assisted cybersecurity tools like by Gartner, Inc.)

2.True identity (e.g.: mouse movements, face recognition, find real name) (Verschuere 2016)

3.Personality profile: Big Five Personality Inventory: Openness to Experience, Consciousness, Extroversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism “OCEAN” (Golbeck 2011), by only analyzing the users' likes, Facebook can generate personality profiles (AI-Demand 2020)

4.Mobility profile/pattern

==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==
5.Health situation (health apps, ai supported disease research, see Daley 2020)

6.Job situation/job market (Talent Search People 2020 analyzes the job market, and classifies 4 different AI systems: 1. systems that think like humans, 2. systems that act like humans, 3. systems that think rationally, and 4.) systems that act rationally.)

==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==
7.Financial credit-worthiness: E.g. German Schufa company uses AI in addition to human expertise for evaluations, see Banken-Technologie 2020. Banken-Technologie 2020. Schufa’s attempt to gain access to customers’ bank account transfer information was discussed in the news.

8.Consumer Behavior: e.g. the "clickworker" company analyses and optimizes customers' searches in respect to a client company's goals/products with the help of AI (clickworker 2019)

9.Secrets (like adultery)

==Zhang Yu 张瑜==
'''4 Unique quality of media epoch 5.0'''[ I have coined the terms “media epoch 5.0” and “virtual communication” I have developed it from concepts like „Industry 4.0“ in Germany and the four media epochs Luhmann and Baecker developed (by Baecker called 1.0 … 4.0). There are several authors speculating about the media epoch 4.0, like Ray Kurzweil. The Age of Intelligent Machines. 1990.]

1.the human switches from active to passive

2.the human switches from subject to object

3.the human becomes addicted to social media, which enhances depression (Van Den Eijnden et al. 2016, Jasso-Medrano et al. 2018, Shensa et al. 2017)

4.the human switches from puppeteer, or entity with seemingly free will, to puppet

5.nature of the internet turns from freedom to surveillance

==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==
6.direct communication turns into indirect communication (humans may not be aware of this communication/analysis)

7.explicit communication (voice, words) turns into implicit communication (preferences/thoughts/dreams/wishes/ values (first experiments with brain scanners in worker hats have started in Shanghai and Peking))

8.man-man communication turns to man-machine communication (phone bot) to machine-machine

9.4.0 was from centralization to decentralization, 5.0 is partial centralization and partial decentralization, but also concentration

==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==
So far, mass media has been considered one-way. The interaction and processing of data of millions of individual users seemed simply too much work. In the age of virtual communication, the media epoch 5.0, mass media is individualized and interactive and therefore even more influential.

'''5 Types of manipulation (consciously or unconsciously, sometimes half-consciously)
'''

1.Priming by unconscious advertisements: Influencing consumer decisions

2.Filter bubbles => supports conspiracy theories, influences judgments

==Zhao Xi 赵茜==
3.Nature of social media: lies spread 6 times faster than truth. (Vosoughi et al. 2018).

4.Change of political attitude: Case Cambridge Analytica: Helped minority to win election by manipulating young people of majority not to vote (Do so: Don’t vote campaign, Oddleifson 2020); Trump election and Brexit were won by manipulation

5.Use of private information/dependencies to obtain advantages (blackmailing for money or for conducting crimes etc.)

6.Identity theft

==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==
'''6 Consequences'''

1.Virtual Communication is mostly “hidden”, the human is mostly unaware of it, but may endure the consequences (policeman may detain suspect simply because the face recognition glass recognizes a pedestrian passing by and assesses him/her as “dangerous”; loan is declined; insurance company declines to accept new customer)

==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==
2.User becomes transparent (government can fight terrorism, any user can be blackmailed, jealous spouse can check on adultery)

3.Less will to communicate and discuss (since positions are too far apart)

4.Populists and populist views gain supporters

5.Polarization of Society

6.There is an incentive not to reveal how much one knows about the object, because the object then could question the legality, the system etc.

7.Last resort, the thinking, is tackled: Machine interprets “real” attitudes, not lip-service words

==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==
8.The knowing ones (algorithms, hackers, controllers of algorithms) have power over the unknowing ones (victims)

9.Exoskeleton ethics (like points/awards for measurable performances) reduce incentives to build inner ethics
'''
7 Simulation of the imminent future'''

1.The imminent future behavior of a human can be predicted

2.With many analyzed humans, the imminent future of reality can be predicted => simulation

==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==
Is this an Orwellian dystopia or reality? Some cases of the above listed phenomena have been documented. However, we are still at the beginning of “little” AI development (optimizing existing processes) and on the brink of a much more powerful development, that of “big” AI (rethinking whole industries, being able to reproduce and enhance itself). (cf. Euchner 2019).

==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==
'''8 Conclusion and Outlook'''

Data has succeeded oil as the most valuable resource for today’s economy. Big Tech companies already use users’ data and make big profits with it while legislation is delayed and national boundaries (which do not exist for the Tech companies) are struggled over.
Although input-legitimized liberal democracies and market economies, like that of the European Union, still protect privacy and data security, US- and China-based technology companies are already penetrating the European market.

==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==
We need to raise awareness and guide the youth to be careful with screen time and what they share online. We need to avoid addiction to social media.

'''The algorithms do not just check which film to suggest viewing next, they have started to invade the innermost sanctum of personality, our thoughts, dreams, wishes, visions, hopes, fears and secrets.
'''
'''
The listed consequences document a fundamental change of paradigms:
'''

==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==
'''The cause-based decision-making by humans with established institutions like politicians, judges etc. is being replaced with correlation-based decision-making by algorithms which often serve the profit interests of tech companies or the political interests of election-manipulators.
'''

AI took the wrong development path, when it changed from serving humans to trying to manipulate humans for economic or political profit. When AI is used to educate citizens – like helping German customers to keep a clean credit history and a good credit score – then it changes the behavior of citizens to an exoskeletal ethic.

==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==
However, animals with an exoskeleton reduce their inside muscles and develop a soft inside, making them totally incapable of living without the exoskeleton. An exoskeletal ethic, giving reward points, for example, for behavior which is deemed positive and subtracting points for behavior which is deemed negative, deprives the human of the natural learning and developing process, in a social environment, of his responsibility and inner ethical judgment. If you were to meet a human with exoskeletal ethics and one who has inner ethics, whom would you trust more?

==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==
If we want to avoid the consequences listed in point 6, the public needs to become aware of this and nations and supranational organizations need to define legislation to a) protect privacy and data security, and b) give the user the control over his/her data including the commercial use of it where they earn a share from the profit made with the usage of his/her data.

==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==
'''9 Outlook'''

We need to accept, that the development is irreversible. Every new technology has created fears. Important is, that we become aware of the developments and adjust where the development heads into the wrong direction. We need set the right framework and incentives that the new technology stays on track to serve humanity.

==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==
New developments open new possibilities. We need to make sure that not only a few tech companies and terrorists use this powerful new technology to achieve their goals, but that the mass of smart device users emancipate themselves from addiction to and manipulation by technology and gain back their dignity, privacy and free will.

'''References
'''
（参考文献不用翻译）

AI-Demand. (2020). www.ai-demand.com/insights/data/big-data/big-data-and-facebook-the-heavenly-pair-that-isnt-quite-in-heaven/

Baecker, Dirk. (2007). ''Studien zur nächsten Gesellschaft''. Frankfurt 2007

Banken-Technologie. (2020). 26. Handelsblatt Jahrestagung. Banken-Technologie. „New Normal” in der Finanzwirtschaft: digital – intelligent – automatisiert – hybrid. 2. und 3.12.2020, Digital [Conference Announcement] https://veranstaltungen.handelsblatt.com/bankentechnologie/ki-machine-learning-finanzanalyse/

Booth, T. "Cambridge Analytica controversy must spur researchers to update data ethics." ''Nature'' 555.7698 (2018): 559-560.

Clickworker. (2019). www.clickworker.com/2019/04/30/ai-for-ecommerce/

Cui, Yu, Qing He, and Alireza Khani. (2018). Travel behavior classification: an approach with social network and deep learning. ''Transportation research record'', 2672(47), 68-80. https://par.nsf.gov/servlets/purl/10109453

Daley, Sam. (2020). 32 Examples of AI in Healthcare that Will Make you Feel better about the Future (July 4, 2019, updated July 29, 2020). builtin.com/artificial-intelligence/artificial-intelligence-healthcare

Euchner, Jim. (2019). Little ai, Big AI—Good AI, Bad AI. Terminology Management 62:3, 10-12. pdf:

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Golbeck, Jennifer, Cristina Robles, and Karen Turner. (2011). "Predicting personality with social media." ''CHI'11 extended abstracts on human factors in computing systems''. 2011. 253-262.

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==Zhu Xu 朱旭==
'''Bio'''

Martin Woesler, PhD, is Jean Monnet Chair in European Studies with Hunan Normal University since 2020. At its Foreign Studies College, he is Distinguished Professor of Chinese Studies, Translation Studies and Comparative Literature since 2019. Woesler was elected Academian of the European Academy of Sciences and Arts, Salzburg in 2019.
Woesler has co-edited the books "China's Digital Dream", "Ethics of Information Society" and Springer has scheduled to publish the book "Diverse Voices in Chinese Translation and Interpretation" including his book chapter "Modern Interpreting with Digital and Technical Aids" in February 2021.

==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==
Woesler was a Senior Fellow of the German Science Foundation's (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft) Research College "Media Cultures of Computer Simulations" 2019‐2020 and hosted a related workshop with Bertelsmann Foundation in 2020. Woesler is also a researcher with Witten/Herdecke University, Germany, investigating the impact of daily screen time of children and of young people on their health.

20201221 cult

2020-12-24T02:34:50Z

Yang chenting: /* Yang Chenting 杨晨婷 */

20201215 cultexam 3

2020-12-21T09:21:50Z

Yang chenting: /* Architecture, Three Great Towers in China, Yang chenting 杨晨婷 No.202070080615 英语笔译 */

*Link to return to [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Chinese_Languages_and_Cultures Course Homepage].
*Link to the other Final Exam paper pages: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_1 1 Alsied, Saffana - Jiang Qiwei]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_2 2 Kang Haoyu - Sagara Seydou]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_3 3 Shi Haiyao - You Yuting]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_4 4 Yu Ni - Zubareva, Ekaterina]. This page has become too large. Do not write on this page any more, but on one of the smaller pages.

'''Final Exam Paper. Please write now and improve until grading on 2020 12 15'''
*You can use the texts in the coursebook as an example (like Unit 1, Text A). You only need to write Text A (like "Longevity Noodles") or Text B ("Mooncakes"), not a whole Unit. But please try to find fellow students who topics fit under the same Unit title ("Festival Meals") and arrange it accordingly.
*In the topic, please write the category, then the topic - your name and student no.
*For the text, please indicate ALL SOURCES with bibliographical references. That means: At least for every paragraph, sometimes for single sentences, you have to indicate at the end, where you have found this information. E.g. (Liu Miqing 2010, 17). This means you have found it in the book or paper written by Ms Liu on page 17.
*Add a section at the end called "References". There you write the full version of the reference: Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学. Similarly, you do it for papers: Jin Wenlu`靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.
*Please also add a list "Terms and Expressions".
*Please add a "Questions" section.
*Please add a "Answers" section.

==Historical Figures, The Four Talented Women of Ancient China- Shi Haiyao 石海瑶 202070080605 英语笔译==
The Four Talented Women of Ancient China
(中国古代四大才女)

===Cai Wenji 蔡文姬===
Cai Wenji, also known as Cai Yan, was a female writer in the Eastern Han Dynasty. As daughter of the great writer Cai Yong, Cai Wenji had received good education since childhood and got high attainments in calligraphy, music and literature. Although her works are not so many, she is recognized as a talented woman in the late Eastern Han Dynasty.Her father, Cai Yong, was a master of calligraphy, and wenji passed it on from her father. Unfortunately, only one piece of calligraphy written by Wenji has been kept so far, and it only has 14 characters, which is a great loss in the history of Chinese calligraphy.

Cai Wenji, also known as Cai Yan, was a female writer in the Eastern Han Dynasty. As the daughter of the great writer Cai Yong, Cai Wenji had received good education since childhood and got high attainments in terms of calligraphy, music and literature. Although her works are not in plenty, she is recognized as a talented woman in the late Eastern Han Dynasty.Her father, Cai Yong, was a master of calligraphy, and wenji passed it on from her father. Unfortunately, only one piece of calligraphy written by Wenji has been kept so far, and it only has 14 characters, which is a great loss in the history of Chinese calligraphy.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 12:32, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

About Wenji’s gift in Guqin, Fan Ye described her in the in The History of the Later Han Dynasty as "knowledgeable, talented , and excellent in melody." The Three Character Classic directly mentioned: "Cai Wenji is adept in distinguishing the sound of different qin." It is said that Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song was written by her. This famous Chinese guqin song is one of the ten famous ancient Chinese songs. " ''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' " includes 18 chapters and 1,297 words in total, reflecting the theme of "Wenji returns to Han". Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song tells the story of Cai Wenji's sufferings in her whole life in a touching tone. It reflects the deep disaster brought by the war, and expresses the strong feeling of missing the motherland and the countryside and the unbearable family separation.

About Wenji’s gift in Guqin, Fan Ye described her in the in The History of the Later Han Dynasty as "knowledgeable, talented , and excellent in melody." The Three Character Classic directly mentioned: "Cai Wenji is adept in distinguishing the sound of different qin." It is said that Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song was written by her. This famous Chinese guqin song is one of the ten famous ancient Chinese songs. " ''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' " includes 18 chapters and 1,297 words in total, reflecting the theme of "Wenji returns to Han". Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song tells the story of Cai Wenji's sufferings in her whole life in a touching tone. It reflects the deep disaster brought by the war, and expresses the strong feeling of missing the motherland and the countryside and of the unbearable family separation. --[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 12:32, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

After Cai Wenji returned to the Han Dynasty, she wrote two ''Indignant Poems'', one of which was five-character verse and another was Sao Style. The poem of five-character verse, which focuses on "sadness and disharmony", is a narrative poem based on feelings and facts, it is the first autobiographical narrative poem in the history of Chinese poetry. ''Indignant Poems'' with Sao style emphasizes on expressing emotions, descriptions of diversified natural landscapes express Wenji's sadness of leaving her hometown.In these depiction of scenery and people, Wenji has enlarged the difference between them and her hometown, so as to describe her grief and anger.

Her life, immersed in the chaotic life, suffering all the trick of fate. She never gave in, even when the chaos caused by war crushed her dignity and pride. Her life force like a weed , and it is this tenacity that makes her become a miracle in troubled times.

Her life was immersed in the chaotic life, suffering all the trick of fate. She never gave in, even when the chaos caused by war crushed her dignity and pride. Her life force like a weed , and it is this tenacity that makes her become a miracle in troubled times.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 12:32, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Zhuo Wenjun 卓文君===
Zhuo Wenjun was born beautiful, gifted and clever as well as adept at poetry and lyrics. The talented but poor Sima Xiangru and Zhuo Wenjun fell in love at first sight. Wenjun broke through the secular concept, regardless of family's obstruction, leaving behind the life of luxury and pursuing love resolutely.

With the support of Zhuo Wenjun, Sima Xiangru was able to make his way to the top, but he shifted his love to another person and had the intention of taking a concubine.In ancient China,a husband can legally marry many wife.Instead of being submissive like a cowardly woman, or being hurt and losing her mind, she wrote poetry to warn her husband and redeem his love. Her Poem of ''Discontent and Letter of Farewell'' persuaded her husband to change his mind. After reading, her husband retrieved his original intention. Zhuo Wenjun's bold pursuit of love was a deviant act in feudal society(Lin Jing,2016:41).

With the support of Zhuo Wenjun, Sima Xiangru was able to make his way to the top, but he shifted his love to another person and had the intention of taking a concubine.In ancient China,a husband can legally marry many wife.Instead of being submissive like a cowardly woman, or being hurt and losing her mind, she wrote poetry to warn her husband and to redeem his love. Her Poem of ''Discontent and Letter of Farewell'' persuaded her husband to change his mind. After reading, her husband retrieved his original intention. Zhuo Wenjun's bold pursuit of love was a deviant act in feudal society(Lin Jing,2016:41).--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 12:32, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In addition, Zhuo Wenjun's experience set an example of free love for later generations. Her poem of Bai Tou Yin is called a classic of love poetry.

The following is the original poem:

白头吟

皑如山上雪, 皎如云间月。

闻君有两意, 故来相决绝。

今日斗酒会, 明旦沟水头;

躞蹀御沟上, 沟水东西流。

愿得一心人，白头不相离。

竹竿何袅袅，鱼尾何簁簁。

男儿重意气，何用钱刀为？

The translated version by Xu Yuanchong is as follows:

Bai Tou Yin

Our love like snow on mountains proud,

Was bright like the moonmid the cloud.

I’m told you’ll leave the old for new;

I come to say goodbye to you.

We drink a cup of wine today;

Tomorrow we’ll go each our way.

By royal moat we’ll walk and go,

Like waters which east or west flow.

Why should I fell so sad and drear,

And like a bride shed tear on tear?

If I’d wed one with single heart,

Even white-haired, we would not part.

Long,long may be your fishing lines,

You cannot catch fishtail while shines.

If your love were constant and true,

Why so much money to go through?(Xu Yuanchong,2012:17)

===Li Qingzhao 李清照===
Li Qingzhao, also known as Yi An Jushi, was a female lyricist in Song dynasty as well as representative of graceful and restrained song lyrics. She was considered "the first talented woman through the ages". Her father, Li Gefei collected numerous books, which laid her literary foundation when she was young. After marrying, she and her husband, Zhao Mingcheng, devoted to collecting and arranging calligraphy, painting, gold and stones. When the Jin soldiers entered the Central Plains, she fled to the south with loneliness. In the early part of his works, she mostly wrote about his leisurely life, but in the later part, she mostly lamented his life and became sentimental. Yi An Jushi Anthology and Yi An Lyrics have been idle, thus, later people compile her text into Shuyu Lyrics. Her lyrics emphasize the concordance, advocating elegance, opposed to the method of making words for poetry. Her poem, not many of which have survived, is partly sentimental, and partly generous, but different from the style of its lyrics.

As a female writer in the history of ancient Chinese literature, Li Qingzhao's patriotic thought embodied in his works has positive social significance. From the historical perspective, Li Qingzhao's patriotic thought represents the ancient Chinese women's pursuit of equality between men and women, concern for state affairs and love for the motherland, so that later generations can get to know the emotional world of ancient Chinese women. From a realistic perspective, Li Qingzhao's patriotic thoughts can make people feel the important role of women in national unity and social progress.

As a female writer in the history of ancient Chinese literature, Li Qingzhao's patriotic thought embodied in her works has positive social significance. From the historical perspective, Li Qingzhao's patriotic thought represents the ancient Chinese women's pursuit of equality between men and women, concern for state affairs and love for the motherland, so that later generations can get to know the emotional world of ancient Chinese women. From a realistic perspective, Li Qingzhao's patriotic thoughts can make people feel the important role of women in national unity and social progress.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 12:32, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Ban Zhao 班昭===
Ban Zhao is a brilliant woman of great learning and virtue,she is a historian, a writer and a politician.Ban Zhao's achievements are highlighted in her research in history, continuing to complete the compilation of the Book of Han after the death of his father, Ban Biao, and his brother, Ban Gu.''The Book of Han'' is a historical masterpiece,enjoying a high reputation of the first chronicle of China's dynastic history(Jin Lulu,2009:122).

Ban Zhao came from a Confucian family, and his father, Ban Biao, was a well-known scholar at that time. Influenced by his father, Ban Zhao was very knowledgeable and talented.At the age of fourteen, Ban Zhao married Cao Shishu. After her husband died in his early years, Ban Zhaog obeyed the rules of women, behaved in with etiquette, and had very good conduct. Compared with Zhuo Wenjun, Ban Zhao's view of love is full of bondage without personal freedom(Jin Lulu,2009:105).

In her later years, Ban Zhao was suffering from illness. When her daughters were just about to get married, Ban Zhao was worried that they would humiliate the clansman if they did not know women's etiquette, so she composed seven chapters of ''The Commandments for Women'' in her spare time, then it spread widely among the people.The concepts advocated by Ban Zhao in the book became the code of conduct for ancient Chinese women.This book confined women's thoughts and freedoms, but it also served as a guide for women's behavior at the time.

In her later years, Ban Zhao suffered from illness. When her daughters were just about to get married, Ban Zhao was worried that they would humiliate the clansman if they did not know women's etiquette. so she composed seven chapters of ''The Commandments for Women'' in her spare time,which,then, spread widely among the people.The concepts advocated by Ban Zhao in the book became the code of conduct for ancient Chinese women.This book confined women's thoughts and freedoms, but it also served as a guide for women's behavior at the time.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 12:32, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Terms and Expressions===
Cai Wenj 蔡文姬

Cai Yong 蔡邕

Fan Ye 范晔

''The History of the Later Han Dynasty'' 《后汉书》

''Three Character Classic'' 《三字经》

''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' 《胡笳十八拍》

''Indignant Poems'' 《悲愤诗》

''five-character verse'' 五言体

Sao style 骚体

autobiographical narrative poem 自传体长篇叙事诗

Li Qingzhao 李清照

''Yi An Jushi Anthology''《易安居士文集》

''Yi An Lyrics''《易安词》

''Shuyu Lyrics''《漱玉词》

Zhuo Wenjun 卓文君

''Poem of Discontent''《怨郎诗》

''Letter of Farewell''《诀别书》

''Bai Tou Yin'' 《白头吟》

''The Book of Han'' 《汉书》

''The Commandments for Women''《女诫》

===References===
[1]金璐璐.班昭及其著述研究[D].首都师范大学.2009

[2]林菁.最是人间留不住[M].北京：民主与建设出版社,2016

[3]宋师道.四大才女之李清照传[M].北京：中国华侨出版社,2011

[4]武昌盛.四大才女之蔡文姬传[M].北京：中国华侨出版社,2011

[5]许渊冲.许渊冲经典英译汉魏六朝诗[M].北京：海豚出版社,2017:17

[6]赵明哲.四大才女之卓文君传[M].北京：中国华侨出版社,2011

===Questions===
1. Who are the four talented women of ancient China?

2. Do you know any representative works written by Cai Wenji?

3. Who is Zhuo Wenjun's husband?

4. What did ZhuoWenjun do to save her marriage?

5. Who is considered "the first talented woman through the ages"?

6. Who is the writer of ''The Commandments for Women''?

7. What are the influences about ''The Commandments for Women''?

===Answers===
1. They are Cai Wenji, Zhuo Wenjun, Li Qingzhao and BanZhao.

2. ''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' and ''Indignant Poems'' .

3. Sima Xiangru.

4. She wrote ''Poem of Discontent'' and ''Letter of Farewell'' to save her marriage.

5. Li Qigzhao.

6. Ban Zhao.

7. This book confined women's thoughts and freedoms, but it also served as a guide for women's behavior at the time.

==Habits, Ways of Contacting - Si Yu 司妤 Student No.202070080606 MTI笔译==

Ancient and Contemporary Ways of Contacting--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 13:27, 22 November 2020 (UTC)

===Ancient and Contemporary Ways of Contacting===

====1.Pigeon post====
Pigeon post is a method of communication among ancient people, where letters are tied to the feet of pigeons and delivered to the person who wants to deliver them. In movies, we see people in western countries using crows to deliver letters, but in China, crows are seen as an inauspicious symbol, so people used to use pigeons to deliver letters. Pigeons can fly and fly faster, can recognize directions, have a good sense of the earth's magnetic field, and are particularly home-loving, so they are used to improve the speed of delivering mail.

In order to get the ideal pigeon, besides careful selection of good breed and scientific feeding management, the most important thing is training. All three complement each other and are indispensable. The basic principle of training is based on the biological characteristics and physiological features of pigeons and the principle of "conditioned reflex".

The fundamental purpose of training is to cultivate, exercise and improve the quality of pigeons, to bring into play their inherent biological characteristics and specialties, so that they have the basic elements and conditions to complete various communication and competition tasks. The basic content of training includes: basic training, flight training, competition training, adaptation training and application training. In principle, the training should start from young pigeons, from simple to complicated, from near to far, from day to night, from basic training to professional training, in short, from easy to difficult.(Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：Pigeon Post,飞鸽传书）

Historically, Genghis Khan used pigeon posts to keep in touch with distant parts of his empire, and even in ancient Greece, carrier pigeons were used to announce major events, such as the Olympic Games! In the 12th century, a fairly extensive network of homing pigeons was established between Syria and Baghdad. One of the last active carrier pigeon posts was in India, but the carrier pigeon was officially retired in 2002. During the war years, carrier pigeons also played a role that could not be ignored. They were able to cross enemy lines more easily than men on horseback. This earned them the name "war pigeon". People continued to use carrier pigeons to deliver letters even up to the time of World War II.
(scienceabc 19 Oct2019)

====2.Paper Letters====

The letter is a kind of application document that transmits information and exchanges thoughts and feelings to a specific object. “Letter" in the ancient text with the meaning of audio, news, in addition, "Letter" also has a trustworthy meaning of the words transmitted by the trustee, whether it is a message sent to a person, or through the letter carrier by letter to the specific object of language and writing to convey information and exchange of ideas and feelings of the letter, there must be three elements: one is the ability to express their thoughts and feelings; two is to have the appropriate writing tools; three is someone to deliver.

Written letters to relatives and friends, not only can convey their thoughts and feelings, but also can give the recipient of the letter a feeling of intimacy; technology continues to progress, and the emergence of the telephone, telegraph, postal tape, video tape, e-mail and other means of exchange of information, it can be expected e-mail will be used by more and more people, which has actually been proven.

With the development of society, the relationship between people and society is also being reconstructed. In addition to the traditional use of correspondence, i.e., official letters and private letters, a new development is the use of personal letters to government agencies, enterprises and institutions, famous scholars, and other individuals for personal needs, and the use of this type of correspondence is gradually increasing and noteworthy. We call them personal correspondence.(Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：Written Letters,手写信件）

====3.E-mails====

E-mail is a way of communication that provides information exchange by electronic means and is the most widely used service of the Internet. Through the network's e-mail system, users can contact network users in any corner of the world at a very low price (no matter where they send it, they only have to pay for the network fee) and in a very fast way (it can be sent to any specified destination in the world within a few seconds).

E-mail can be in many forms such as text, images, sound, etc. At the same time, users can get a large number of free news and feature emails and easily achieve information search. The existence of e-mail greatly facilitates communication and exchange between people and promotes the development of society.

However, there are many drawbacks in using e-mail. For example, there is a risk of information being stolen and there is a lot of spam on the network. To address these two problems, the following solutions are available. Firstly, from the perspective of network security of the website itself, using hardware firewall devices is definitely the best solution. Second, a full-time network administrator should be assigned to regularly maintain the website. Thirdly, when applying for mailbox, choose a more protective username, such as a combination of English and numbers, which can be less harassed by spam. Fourth, avoid disclosing your email address. Fifth, use good mail management and screening function. outlook express, foxmail and qqmail all have good mail management function, users can screen mails by setting rules of mail domain, mail subject, source, length and so on.

The format of an e-mail address consists of three parts. The first part "USER" represents the account number of user mailbox, which must be unique for the same mail receiving server; the second part "@" is the separator; the third part is the domain name of mail receiving server of user mailbox, to mark its location.

According to Internet Week, the world's first email was a short message sent by computer scientist Professor Leonard K. to his colleagues (in October 1969, I believe), which consisted of only two letters: "LO". Professor Leonard K. explained, "Back then I was trying to communicate with a computer at the University of California and another computer at the Stanford Research Center near San Francisco. What we were doing was logging in from one computer to the other. The way to log in at that time was to type L-O-G. So we typed L and asked, 'Do you get L?' The other side replied, 'Yes.' Before we received a confirmation that the other party had received G, the system went down. So the first online message was 'LO', which means 'Hello!'"

The first e-mail from China on September 20, 1987 was sent by Werner Zorn, the "Father of the German Internet," and Wang Yunfeng at the Institute of Applied Computer Technology in Beijing to the University of Karlsruhe in Germany, in English.
Original text: Across the Great Wall we can reach every corner in the world.

It means “跨越长城，走向世界。” This is the first email sent from China to the Global Science Network through the network connection between Beijing and the University of Karlsruhe in Germany.(Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：E-mail 电子邮件）

===References===
1.Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：Pigeon Post,飞鸽传书 https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E9%A3%9E%E9%B8%BD%E4%BC%A0%E4%B9%A6/7009129?fr=aladdin

2.Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：Written Letters,手写信件 https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E4%B9%A6%E4%BF%A1/1095625?fr=aladdin

3.Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：E-mail 电子邮件 https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E7%94%B5%E5%AD%90%E9%82%AE%E4%BB%B6/111106?fr=aladdin

4.scienceabc.How Did the Pigeon Post Work?. https://www.scienceabc.com/19 Oct2019.

===Terms and Expressions===

条件反射conditioned reflex

成吉思汗 Genghis Khan

信鸽驿站pigeon post station

战鸽war pigeon

分隔符separator

服务器域名domain name

互联网周刊Internet Week

===Questions===

1.What part of pigeon is the letter tied to when you want to send a letter?

2.What animals do the western countries use to send letters in spite of pigeons?

3.Why pigeons can be used to send letters?

4.What are the three elements in writing and sending letters?

5.When did the world's first emails appear?

6.How to translate China’s first e-mail “Across the Great Wall we can reach every corner in the world.”

===Answers===

1.Letters are tied to the feet of pigeons.

2.Ravens.

3.Pigeons can fly and fly faster, can recognize directions, have a good sense of the earth's magnetic field,
and are particularly home-loving, so they are used to improve the speed of delivering mail.

4.One is the ability to express their thoughts and feelings; two is to have the appropriate writing tools; three is someone to deliver.

5.October 1969

6.跨越长城，连接世界

==Landscape, Five Famous Mountains - Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛 202070080642 MTI==

Wuyue (五岳) is the general name of the five famous mountains in Chinese Han culture and is the product of the combination of ancient folk mountain god reverence, the concept of the Five Elements and imperial excursions and meditation in ancient times.
The “Five Sacred Mountains” (or Wuyue – 五岳), also referred to as the Five Great Mountains, began with Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty (157 BC – 87 BC). “Yue” in Wuyue means high mountains. During the Wei, Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties, Buddhism and Taoism began to build temples and carry out religious activities on the Five Sacred Mountains.
Emperors of ancient China would perform excursions to the mountain peaks and offer non-human sacrifices on a regular basis. This tradition became a ritual of the state according to Confucianism and was one of the must-do activities upon becoming emperor. This tradition continued right up until the fall of the last dynasty in 1911.
While the Five Great mountains are not denoted as sacred mountains of either Buddhism or Taoism, they do have a strong Taoist presence and many Buddhist temples.
The Five Great Mountains remain places of pilgrimage to this day with many young people having the goal of climbing all five and retracing the footsteps of the ancient emperors during Imperial China. The mountains are popular tourist attractions and are well developed featuring good tourist and transport services and several are national AAAAA rated scenic sites.(Anastasiia Ilina,2017)

===Mount Tai (泰山) – Wuyue East Great Mountain===
Province: Shandong | Height: 1,533 metres (5,030 ft)
Mount Tai, or Taishan, is a mountain of historical and cultural significance located north of the city of Tai’an, in Shandong province, China. Mount Tai has been a place of worship for at least 3,000 years and is a National AAAAA level tourist attraction.
Mount Tai has been worshipped since the time of Shang culture, roughly 3,000 years ago. Emperors of China would come to this mountain to meditate and offer sacrifices, similar to writers and artists who for centuries have visited Mount Tai for inspiration. Given its long-running history of worship, the mountain has been preserved with little alteration. It is also considered one of the most climbed mountains in China. The hike is not an easy one and may take most of the day to reach the top.(Rodney,2019)

Province: Shandong | Height: 1,533 metres (5,030 ft)
Mount Tai, or Taishan, is a mountain of historical and cultural significance located north of the city of Tai’an, in Shandong province, China. Mount Tai has been a place of worship for at least 3,000 years and is a National AAAAA level tourist attraction.
Mount Tai has been worshipped since the time of Shang culture, roughly 3,000 years ago. Emperors of China would come to this mountain to meditate and offer sacrifices, similar to writers and artists who for centuries have visited Mount Tai for inspiration. Given its long-running history of worship, the mountain has been preserved with little alteration. It is also considered one of the most climbed mountains in China. The hike is not an easy one and may take most of the day to reach the top.(Rodney,2019)

===Mount Heng (Hunan) (衡山) – Wuye South Great Mountain===
Province: Hunan | Height: 1,300 metres (4,265 ft)
Hengshan, is a mountain in southcentral China’s Hunan Province known as the southern mountain of the Five Great Mountains of China. Heng Shan is a mountain range 150 kilometres (93 mi) long with 72 peaks. The Huiyan Peak is the south end of the peaks, Yuelu Mountain in Changsha City is the north end, and the Zhurong Peak is the highest at 1,300 metres (4,300 ft) above sea level. At the foot of the mountain stands the largest temple in southern China, the Grand Temple of Mount Heng (Nanyue Damiao), which is the largest group of ancient buildings in Hunan Province.
Mount Heng in the south has a total of 72 peaks all of which are covered in trees, some of which are centuries-old. It is a beautiful spot to hike in the summer to admire the blooming greenery. Among the mountain peaks, a number of Buddhist temples are scattered. Of note is the Grand Temple of Mount Heng located at the foot of the mountain. The temple has survived many dynasties, with the earliest records of its existence dating back to the 8th century AD. Although the temple was severely damaged during the Cultural Revolution, it retains its religious significance to many believers.(Anastasiia Ilina,2017)

===Mount Hua (华山) – Wuyue West Great Mountain===
Province: Shaanxi | Height: 2,160 metres (7,087 ft)
Mount Hua, or Huashan, is located near the city of Huayin in Shaanxi province, about 120 kilometres (75 mi) east of Xi’an. It is the western mountain of the Five Great Mountains of China, and has a long history of religious significance. It is a National AAAAA level scenic spot featuring skywalk, temples, stone formations, caves, waterfall etc.Mount Hua is a popular destination for those staying in the ancient capital of Xi’an. The mountain complex consists of five major peaks, all of which are accessible for hiking. Nevertheless, a number of narrow paths and rugged steps make it a challenging climb, and at the south peak, the narrow plank walk running along the side of the mountain will challenge anybody’s relationship with heights. While walking along two narrow planks (attached with a harness to the edge of the mountain), you can move along the mountain. The trick is that it’s not a one-way path, and your balance will be tested when handling traffic coming from the other direction.(Rodney,2019)

===Mount Heng (Shanxi) (恒山) – Wuyue North Great Mountain===
Province: Shanxi | Height: 2,017 metres (6,617 ft)
Mount Heng, or Hengshan, is located in north-central China’s Shanxi Province, known as the northern mountain of the Five Great Mountains of China. Heng Shan in Shanxi Province is sometimes known as the Northern Heng Shan, and the one in Hunan Province as Southern Heng Shan. Both mountains have the same pronunciation in Chinese, and the Southern Heng Shan is also one of the Five Sacred Mountains.
Similar to many other revered mountains in China, Mount Heng holds meaning for the followers of the Taoist faith. The mountain may not be as popular as the other four, given its northern location, but that can be seen as advantage for a hiker seeking peace and isolation. Located at the foot of the mountain is the Hanging Monastery (Xuankong Si) running along the side of the mountain. The wooden structure is supported by dozens of wooden pillars, and despite its feeble appearance welcomes many visitors every year.(Rodney,2019)

===Mount Song (嵩山) – Wuyue Center Great Mountain===
Province: Henan | Height: 1,500 metres (4,921 ft)
Mount Song, or Songshan, is a mountain in central China’s Henan Province, along the southern bank of the Yellow River, that is known as the central mountain of the Five Great Mountains of China. It is a National AAAAA level tourist attraction and world heritage listed site. It is noted for its rich cultural heritage as the birthplace of Zen, the Taoist holy land, and the origin of kung fu.
One of China’s central mountains, Mount Song is located on the bank of the Yellow River, close to the ancient capital of Luoyang. Mount Song is best known as the location of the Shaolin Temple, the birthplace of Chan Buddhism, and thus retains religious significance to followers of both Buddhism and Taoism. The Shaolin Temple attracts curious visitors who want to observe the practitioners of martial arts demonstrating superb strength and coordination. The area around the mountain peaks has a number of other Taoist and Buddhist monasteries.(Anastasiia Ilina,2017)

===References===
Anastasiia Ilina. The Five Great Mountains of China. https://theculturetrip.com/asia/china/articles/the-five-great-mountains-of-china/.2017

Rodney. The Five Great Mountains of China (Wuyue 五岳). https://welcometochina.com.au/.2019

===Terms and Expressions===

Taoism 道教

cultural revolution 文化大革命

plank 厚木板

Hanging Monastery 悬空寺

Zen 禅宗

Shaolin Temple 少林寺

Wei, Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties 魏晋南北朝

practitioners of martial arts 习武之人

monastery 寺庙

===Questions===

1. What does “Wuyue（五岳）” mean？

2. Do you know any famous Chinese lyrics related to Mount Tai?

3. What is the largest temple in southern China?

4. What are the features of Mount Hua?

5. What is the structure of the Hanging Monastery?

6. What is the famous site in Mount Song?

===Answers===

1.Wuyue (五岳) is the general name of the five famous mountains in Chinese Han culture and is the product of the combination of ancient folk mountain god reverence, the concept of the Five Elements and imperial excursions and meditation in ancient times.

2.会当凌绝顶，一览众山小。——杜甫

四月上泰山，石屏御道开。——李白

泰山不要欺毫末，颜子无心羡老彭。——白居易

3. Grand Temple of Mount Heng (Nanyue Damiao).

4. It features skywalk, temples, stone formations, caves, waterfall etc.

5. It has a feeble appearance with wooden structure supported by dozens of wooden pillars.

6. The Shaolin Temple, the birthplace of Chan Buddhism.

--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 14:36, 9 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ancient Chinese Education - Tang Bei 汤蓓 Student No. 202070080607 英语笔译==

===Ancient Chinese Education===

====History====
China’s ancient education was one of the most splendid components of ancient Chinese culture. Chinese education had a long history dating from the Xia, Shang and Zhou Dynasties 3000/4000 years ago.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Chinese Ancient Education) In the Shang Dynasty (16th-11th century BC), formal schools emerged with the names like “Xiao” (school), “Xue”(study) and “Daxue”(higher school). Teachers then were all government officials and students were all children of the nobility, so that was the earliest “Guan Xue”(Government School/Education). Education became more popular by the Spring Autumn/Warring States period. Confucius became the earliest founder for “Private Education”. This type of private school education is often known as “Si Xue” (private institution).(Zhu Hanming, 2010,342)

From Han till Qing Dynasty, the formation of government institution had been well-established. All the teaching materials and educational training were geared towards the preparation for Imperial examination. After receiving a title in the Imperial examination, one might receive a post in the state bureaucracy. At the same time, private schools were also developing. Most of the famous philosophers and scientists were originated from private schools. Apart from schooling, “Family education” began to play an important role. Many of the famous historical figures grew up under the education and strict ‘teaching’ by their parents or other senior family members, and they studied hard in order to become successful. For instance, it was well documented that Mencius’s mother had moved three times with her son before she eventually found a proper neighborhood for the son’s education. After the Han dynasty, because of the increased status of Confucianism and its influence, the teaching of “poetry and rites” became the basic content for family education. Loyalty, Filial Piety, Benevolence and Righteousness were core values taught in family education.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Chinese Ancient Education)

In ancient Chinese education, there was another form of education system known as “Xue Shu Jiao Yu”. This belongs to neither an institute education nor a family education. These are generally “primary school for the folks”. Sometimes, they were called “Meng Guan”(primary education hall), “Si Shu ” (private school), “Zu Xue” (extended family school) , etc. Most students will first learn how to read characters, then they will learn The Three Character Classic ”, The Hundred Family Surnames, The Thousand Character Classic. Then they will learn the “Four Books”. In addition, they will also learn Chinese calligraphy and character pairing. In this type of school, the rules and regulations are especially strict. There are other methods such as Shuyuan and Guozijian, etc. They all formed a unique way of knowledge teaching and became important system for the development on “study of knowledge”, “teaching method”, etc. All of these formed the basis for today's Chinese education.(Zhu Hanming, 2010, 345)
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 13:20, 29 November 2020 (UTC)

====Confucian Educational Theory====

The historical importance of education in Chinese culture is derived from the teachings of Confucius. The connection between Confucius and the official Chinese educational system thus became permanently linked right into the present time. Confucius broke the rule of “Xue Zai Guan Fu”
(learning at the government hall. He encouraged “learning for all hierarchical levels and for all ages”, and opened the door of education to the commoners. He established his own school and started to spread his teaching, thoughts and views. He became the earliest founder for “Private Education”.

In ancient Chinese education, whether they were government or private school, they all placed a great emphasis on humanities and cultural education, which focused on the teaching of morality and the development of wisdom. It covered philosophy, language, literature and other cultural subjects. The curriculum at the Great Academy was based on the Confucian Five Classics.(Chinasage:Imperial Examination）

Confucius taught his students morality, proper speech, government, and the refined arts. While he also emphasized the “Six Arts” — ritual, music, archery , chariot- riding , calligraphy , and computation — it is clear that he regarded morality as the most important subject.(Biography: Confucius) Confucius had been regarded as the pioneer founder of family education. According to The Analects of Confucius, Confucius wanted his son to learn both poetry and rites. He said, “if one does not learn poetry, one will not be able to talk properly”, “if one does not learn rites, one will never be well footed in the society.” Other than placing a strong emphasis on morality education, Chinese education also emphasized greatly on learning/teaching method and principles. Below are some common Confucian educational philosophies:
Revise the old in order to deduce new things.
Learning and Thinking are equally important.
Learn in a systematic and progressive way, from a beginner’s level to the advanced.
Inspiration and Guidance.
Teach according to students’ ability; use appropriate materials for teaching.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Confucius)

Confucius’s goal was to create gentlemen who carry themselves with grace, speak correctly, and demonstrate integrity in all things. The long The Master said in The Analects that:
“Is it not delightful to acquire knowledge and put it into practice from time to time？“Learning without thought is labor lost; thought without learning is perilous.” (Kong qiu, 2016)
Confucius’s main educational thoughts were to teach students according to their aptitude, to treat students equally and to inspire thinking. His pedagogical methods were striking. He posed questions, cited passages from the classics, or used apt analogies, and waited for his students to arrive at the right answers.

The status of education remained high in Confucian heritage cultures in East Asia. Beyond that, translations of Confucian texts influenced European thinkers of the period as well, particularly among the philosophical groups of the Enlightenment who were interested by the integration of the system of morality of Confucius into Western civilization. The French philosopher Voltaire was also influenced by Confucius, seeing the concept of Confucian rationalism as an alternative to Christian dogma. He praised Confucian ethics and politics, portraying China as a model for Europe.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Confucius)
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 13:20, 29 November 2020 (UTC)

====Chinese Imperial Examination====

The Chinese Imperial Examination was an examination system in Imperial China designed to select talented people for future positions in civil service. This system had a huge influence on both society and culture in Imperial China. It was established in 605 during the Sui Dynasty and lasted more than 1,300 years until the last examination in 1904 when the last Chinese feudal kingdom—the Qing Dynasty—was coming to an end. Somehow the modern examination system for selecting civil service staff also indirectly evolved from the imperial one. It was part of the process by which candidates who passed the exams could receive a title called jinshi, or some other degree, which in turn would generally be followed by appointments to government offices.（Newworldencyclopedia: Imperial Examination）

The first three of Jinshi were ranked Zhuangyuan, Bangyan and Tanhua respectively. The examinations consisted of a battery of tests administered at the district, provincial, and imperial levels. Only three-hundred candidates could pass the imperial examinations, which would be supervised by the Emperor himself. Candidate scholars often took the examinations several times before earning a degree. Each exam taker spent three days and two nights writing “eight-legged essays” — literary compositions with eight distinct sections — in a tiny room with a makeshift bed, a desk, and a bench. There were no interruptions in those three days, nor were candidates’ allowed any communication. Since the pressure to succeed was intense, cheating and corruption were rampant. In order to obtain objectivity in evaluation, candidates were identified by number rather than name, and examination answers were recopied by a third person before being evaluated to prevent the candidate’s handwriting from being recognized. In the ancient society, class consciousness was strong and many people from lower classes would have had little chance to reach high office, not to mention having any position in the official court.（Jin zheng, 1990）

However, once the imperial examination system was introduced, any male adult in China, regardless of his wealth or social status, could become a high-ranking government official by passing the imperial examination and thus realize their self-development. In this sense, passing the imperial examination was also called “carps jumping across the dragon’s gate” . The dragon had always been regarded as the symbol of mighty power and especially that of the rights exercised by the emperor, consequently the success of examination candidates was proudly called “jumping across the dragon’s gate.”(Baidu Encyclopedia: carps jumping across the dragon’s gate)

In late imperial China, the examination system and associated methods of recruitment to the central bureaucracy were major mechanisms by which the central government captured and held the loyalty of local-level elites. The examination system also served to maintain cultural unity and consensus on basic values. The uniformity of the content of the examinations meant that the local elites and ambitious would-be members of those elites across China were taught with the same values. Despite the significant effect of promoting Confucian culture and education, it also influenced education systems in many other countries like Korea, Japan, and Vietnam, and similarities can be found in the personnel selection methods employed in France, America and Britain. Today’s education system is surely its successor.（Newworldencyclopedia: The Imperial Examination）
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 13:20, 29 November 2020 (UTC)

===References===
1.1.Zhu Hanmin 朱汉民.(2010)''中国传统文化导论''[Introduction to Chinese traditional culture]. Hunan:Hunan University Press 湖南大学出版社.

2.Jing Zheng金铮.(1990)''科举制度与中国文化''[Imperial examination system and Chinese culture]. Shanghai:Shanghai People's Publishing Press 上海人民出版社.

3.Kong Qiu& Chen Dian孔丘&陈典.(2016)''论语''[The Analects of Confucius]. Jiangxi：Jiangxi People's Publishing Press 江西人民出版社.

4.Wanghui王惠.(2016)''中国社会与文化翻译教程''[A Coursebook on China’s Society and Culture Translation]. Beijing：Tsinghua University Press 清华大学出版社.

5.Baidu Encyclopedia''百度百科''：Chinese Ancient Education,中国古代教育

6.Baidu Encyclopedia''百度百科''： Confucius,孔子

7.Baidu Encyclopedia''百度百科''： The Imperial Examination,科举制度

8.https://www.biography.com/scholar/confucius

9.https://www.chinasage.info/examinations.htm

10.https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Imperial_Examinations_(Keju)
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 11:59, 13 December 2020 (UTC)

===Terms and Expressions===
Spring Autumn/Warring States period 春秋战国时期

Loyalty 忠

Filial Piety 孝

Benevolence 仁

Righteousness 义

poetry and rites 诗礼

Xue Shu Jiao Yu 学塾教育

Meng Guan 蒙馆

Zu Xue 族学

archery 射

chariot- riding 御

calligraphy 书

computation 数

state bureaucracy 政府机构

The Three Character Classic 《三字经》

The Hundred Family Surnames 《百家姓》

The Thousand Character Classic 《千字文》

Four Books 四书

Shuyuan 书院

Guozijian 国子监

Confucian Five Classics 五经

Six Arts 六艺

Jinshi 进士

Zhuangyuan 状元

Bangyan 榜眼

Tanhua 探花--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 14:31, 7 December 2020 (UTC)

===Questions===
1.What’s Confucius educational goal?

2.What are Confucius main educational thoughts?

3.What became permanently linked right into present time?

4.Before private educationa began, only who could be taught in government schools?

What are the forms of the Chinese Imperial Examination?

6.How did examiners evaluate the examination?

7.What are the functions of the the Chinese Imperial Examination?

8.What kind of far-reaching influence does the Chinese Imperial Examination have?--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 14:31, 7 December 2020 (UTC)

===Answers===
1.Confucius’s goal was to creat gentlemen who carry themselves with grace, speak correctly, and demonstrate integrity in all things.

2.Confucius’s main educational thoughts were to teach students according to their aptitude, to treat students equally and to inspire thinking.

3.The connection between Confucius and the official Chinese educational system.

4.Noblemen’s children

5.The examinations consisted of a battery of tests administered at the district, provincial, and imperial levels. Only three-hundred candidates could pass the imperial examinations, which would be supervised by the Emperor himself. Candidate scholars often took the examinations several times before earning a degree.

6.In order to obtain objectivity in evaluation, candidates were identified by number rather than name, and examination answers were recopied by a third person before being evaluated to prevent the candidate’s handwriting from being recognized.

7.In late imperial China, the examination system and associated methods of recruitment to the central bureaucracy were major mechanisms by which the central government captured and held the loyalty of local-level elites.The examination system also served to maintain cultural unity and consensus on basic values.

8.Despite the significant effect of promoting Confucian culture and education, it also influenced education systems in many other countries like Korea, Japan, and Vietnam, and similarities can be found in the personnel selection methods employed in France, America and Britain. Today’s education system is surely its successor.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 14:31, 7 December 2020 (UTC)

==Cuisine, Chinese Dining Etiquette - Tang Yiran 汤伊然 202070080643 英语口译==

===Chinese Dining Etiquette===

China is a country with a long history of rituals and etiquette, and eating is a highly important feature of China’s culture, so naturally, dining etiquette has developed to a high degree. Dining etiquette is said to have its beginnings in the Zhou Dynasty (1045-256 BC). Through thousands of years of evolution, it has developed into a set of generally accepted dining rituals and practices. (Edward L.Davis 2005, 306)

[[File: A Chinese Dining Table.jpg|400px|thumb||Diagram of A Chinese Dining Table. Click [https://cn.bing.com/images/search?view=detailV2&ccid=NirSI%2bVR&id=F71307AA9E3664A2B8373E6E88E02E5D05C49E65&thid=OIP.NirSI-VRq1BPyCrjxboLtQHaE3&mediaurl=http%3a%2f%2fwww.hwaoconsulting.com%2fwp-content%2fuploads%2f2013%2f10%2fresize-of img_3335b.jpg&exph=567&expw=863&q=chinese+dining+etiquette&simid=608033216312313291&ck=DCAFE6250D3ADA26FE11D0CF34A4591D&selectedIndex=12&FORM=IRPRST&ajaxhist=0/File:A Chinese Dining Table.jpg] for original source.]]

====Attendance====

As a guest at a meal, one should be careful about his or her appearance and determine whether to bring small gifts or good wine, according to the degree of relationship with the master of the banquet. It is important to attend and be punctual. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)

On arrival, one should first introduce himself or herself, or let the master of the banquet do the introduction if unknown to others, and then take a seat following the master of the banquet’s arrangement. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)

====Seating Arrangements for a Chinese Banquet====

Dining etiquette in ancient times was enacted according to four-tier social strata (Edward L.Davis 2005, 306) :

1. the imperial court

2. local authorities

3. trade associations and

4. farmers and workers

In modern dining, seating arrangements have been simplified to:

1. master of the banquet

2. honored guest(s)

3. other guests.

The seat of honor, reserved for the master of the banquet or the guest with the highest status, is the one in the center facing east or facing the entrance. Those of higher position sit closer to the master of the banquet. The guests of the lowest position sit furthest from the seat of honor. When a family holds a banquet, the seat of honor is for the guest with the highest status and the head of the house takes the least prominent seat. (Ruru Zhou, 2018)

If the guest of honor or most senior member is not seated, other people are not allowed to be seated. If he hasn’t eaten, others should not begin to eat. When making toasts, the first toast is made from the seat of honor and continuing down the order of prominence. (Ruru Zhou, 2018)

'''A. Round Table'''

If round tables are used, the seat facing the entrance is the seat of honor. The seats on the left-hand side of the seat of honor are second, fourth, sixth, etc in importance, while those on the right rank at third, fifth, seventh, and so on. In the end, they will join together. (Ruru Zhou, 2018)

'''B. Square Table'''

In ancient times there was a piece of furniture known as an Eight Immortals table, a big square table with benches for two people on each side. If there was a seat facing the entrance, then the right-hand seat when facing the entrance was for the guest of honor. If there was no seat facing the entrance door (presumably if the meal was outside or there were two or more doors of equal importance), then the right-hand seat when facing east was the seat of honor. The seats on the left-hand side of the seat of honor were, in order of importance, second, fourth, sixth, and eighth and those on the right were third, fifth, and seventh. (Ruru Zhou, 2018)

'''C. In Grand Banquet'''

In a grand banquet of many tables, the table of honor is the one furthest from the entrance (or facing east in the event of no clear main entrance). The tables on the left-hand side of the tables of honor are, in order of importance, second, fourth, sixth, and so on, and those on the right are third, fifth, and seventh. Guests are seated according to their status and degree of relationship to the host of the banquet. (Ruru Zhou 2018)

[[File: Seating Arrangements in A Chinese Banquet.jpg|450px|thumb||Diagram of Seating Arrangements for A Chinese Banquet. Click [https://tse3-mm.cn.bing.net/th/id/OIP.qJkC9LsUyfYKOzLWkbS5JwHaGI?w=214&h=180&c=7&o=5&dpr=1.25&pid=1.7/File:Seating Arrangements in A Chinese Banquet.jpg] for original source.]]

====Chinese Table Manners====

Most table manners in China are similar to in the West. Don't be deceived by what you might see in a local restaurant on the streets. Chinese manners are more than slurping food down as quickly as possible, and shouting loudly! When eating a meal in China, people are expected to behave in a civilized manner (according to Chinese customs), pay attention to table manners, and practice good dining habits. In order to avoid offense, diners should pay attention to the following points (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020):

'''A. Considering Others'''

1) Let older people eat first, or you can start to eat if you hear an elder say "let's eat". You should not steal a march on the elders. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)

2) When helping yourself to the dishes, you should take food first from the plates in front of you rather than those in the middle of the table or in front of others. It's bad manners to use your chopsticks to burrow through the food and "dig for treasure" and keep your eyes glued to the plates. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)

3) Even if you find your favorite dish, you should not gobble it up as quickly as possible or put the plate in front of yourself and proceed to eat like a horse. You should consider others at the table. If there is not much left on a plate and you want to finish it, you should consult others. If they say they don’t want anymore, then you can eat proceed. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)

4) Concentrate on the meal and your companions. Watching television, using your phone, or carrying on some other activity while having a meal is considered a bad habit. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)

4) You should try to refill your bowl with rice yourself and take the initiative to fill the bowls of elders with rice and food from the dishes. If elders fill your bowl or add food to your bowl, you should express your thanks. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)

'''B. "Thank you" Gesture'''

Tea usually is served as soon as you have a seat in a restaurant. A waiter/waitress serves you tea while you read the menu and decide what to order. The teapot is left with you on the table after everyone around the table's cup is filled with tea. Guests then serve themselves. When someone pours tea into your cup, you can tap the table with your first two fingers two or three times, showing thanks to the pourer for the service and for being enough tea. The pourer will stop pouring when seeing the gesture. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)

'''C. Elegance'''

1) You should pick up your bowl with your thumb on the mouth of the bowl, first finger, middle finger the third finger supporting the bottom of the bowl, and palm empty. If you don't pick up your bowl, bend over the table, and eat facing your bowl, it will be regarded as bad table manners. Moreover, it will have the consequence of compressing the stomach and restricting digestion. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)

2) It is not good to pick up too much food at a time. You should behave elegantly. When taking food, don’t nudge or push against your neighbor. Don’t let the food splash or let soup or sauce drip onto the table. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)

3) When eating, you should close your mouth to chew food well before you swallow it, which is not only a requirement of etiquette but also better for digestion. You should by no means open your mouth wide, fill it with large pieces of food, and eat up greedily. Don’t put too much food into your mouth at once to avoid leaving a gluttonous impression. Neither should you stretch your neck, open your mouth wide, and extend your tongue to catch food you are lifting to your mouth. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)

4) When removing bones or other inedible parts of the meal from your mouth, use chopsticks or a hand to take them and put them on a side plate (or the table) in front of you, instead of spitting them directly onto the table or the ground. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)

5) If there is food around your mouth, use a tissue or a napkin to wipe it, instead of licking it with your tongue. When chewing food, don't make noises. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)

6) It is best not to talk with others with your mouth full. Be temperate in laughing lest you spew your food or the food goes down your windpipe and causes choking. If you need to talk, you should speak a little and quietly. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)

7) If you want to cough or sneeze, use your hand or a handkerchief to cover your mouth and turn away. If you find something unpleasant in your mouth when chewing or phlegm in the throat, you should leave the dinner table to spit it out. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)

====Rules and Conventions Relating to Chopsticks====

1) Do not stick chopsticks vertically into your food when not using them, especially not into rice, as this will make Chinese people think of funerals. At funerals, joss sticks (sticks of incense) are stuck into a pot by the rice that is put onto the ancestor altar. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)

2) Do not wave your chopsticks around in the air too much or play with them. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)

3) Do not stab or skewer food with your chopsticks. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)

4) Pick food up by exerting sufficient inward pressure on the chopsticks to grasp the food securely and move it smoothly to your mouth or bowl. It is considered a bad manner to drop food, so ensure it is gripped securely before carrying it. Holding one’s bowl close to the dish when serving oneself or close to the mouth when eating helps. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)

5) To separate a piece of food into two pieces, exert controlled pressure on the chopsticks while moving them apart from each other. This needs much practice. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)

6) Some consider it unhygienic to use the chopsticks that have been near (or in) one’s mouth to pick food from the central dishes. Serving spoons or chopsticks can be provided, and in this case, you will need to remember to alternate between using the serving chopsticks to move food to your bowl and your personal chopsticks for transferring the food to your mouth. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)

7) Knives are traditionally seen as violent in China, and breakers of the harmony, so are not provided at the table. Some restaurants in China have forks available and all of them will have spoons. If you are not good at using chopsticks, ask the restaurant staff to provide you with a fork or spoon. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)

[[File: Diagram of Using Chopsticks in a Bad Manner in China.jpg|700px|thumb||Diagram of Using Chopsticks in a Bad Manner in China. Click [https://tse3-mm.cn.bing.net/th/id/OIP.Mm8fEFD8whyIbD1-UdrJEwHaEn?pid=Api&rs=1/File: Diagram of Using Chopsticks in a Bad Manner in China.jpg] for original source.]]

===References===
1. Edward L. Davis. ''Encyclopedia of Contemporary Chinese Culture'' [M]. Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2005.

2. Guo Shangxing, Sheng Xingqing, ''A History of Chinese Culture'', Kaifeng: Henan Uni. Press, 1993.

3. Morton, W. Scott, & Lewis, C. M., ''China: its History and Culture'', New York: MacGraw Hill, Inc., 2005.

4. Sun Xiaoyu, ''A Chinese History Reader'', Singapore: Cengage Learning Asia Pte Ld., 2010.

5. Gavin Van Hinsbergh. How to Eat in China—Chinese Dining Etiquette. https://www.chinahighlights.com/travelguide/chinese-food/dining-etiquette.htm, 2020.

6. Ruru Zhou. Seating Arrangements for a Chinese Banquet. https://www.chinahighlights.com/travelguide/chinese-food/seating-arrangement.htm, 2018.

7. Liao Huayin廖华英主编.(2008). 《中国文化概况》 [An Glimpse of Chinese Culture] Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社. 160-180.

===Terms and Expressions===

seat of honor 上座/尊位

Eight Immortals table 八仙桌

burrow through the food 乱翻食物

“dig for pleasure” 挖宝藏

side plate 小菜碟

napkin 餐巾纸

handkerchief 手帕

phlegm 痰

windpipe 气管

joss sticks （中国祭祀用的）香

ancestor altar 祖先祭坛

skewer 刺穿/串肉扦子

serving chopsticks 公筷

===Questions===

1. What do you know about the history of Chinese dining etiquette?

2. What does the “Seat of Honor” mean? Are there any commons of “Seat of Honor” in different dining situation?

3. How should we deal with our favorite food in a meal？

4. What is the way to show gratitude to the tear pourer?

5. How should we pick up the bowl when eating?

6. What manners of using chopsticks are considered bad in China?

===Answers===

1. Dining etiquette is said to have its beginnings in the Zhou Dynasty (1045-256 BC).

2. The seat of honor is reserved for the master of the banquet or the guest with the highest status. It is commonly the one in the center facing east or facing the entrance.

3. When finding your favorite dish, you should not gobble it up as quickly as possible or put the plate in front of yourself and proceed to eat like a horse. Instead, you should consider others at the table. If there is not much left on a plate and you want to finish it, you should consult others. If they say they don’t want anymore, then you can eat proceed.

4. We can tap the table with our first two fingers two or three times, showing thanks to the pourer for the service and for being enough tea. The pourer will stop pouring when seeing the gesture.

5. You should pick up your bowl with your thumb on the mouth of the bowl, first finger, middle finger the third finger supporting the bottom of the bowl and palm empty.

6. Rummaging through the food in a dish with chopsticks and searching for choice pieces, sticking chopsticks vertically into a bowl of rice, or pointing at people with them are all considered bad table manners.

==Wang Meiling 王美玲 202070080608==

===Three Giant Home Appliance Enterprises In China===

===A.Midea===

Midea is a technology group of consumer electronics, HVAC, robotics and automation systems, and smart supply chain (logistics).Founded in Shunde, China in 1968, Midea officially entered the household appliance industry in 1980. In 1981, Midea registered its brand. The group employs a total of 130000 people, whose headquarter is locate in Shunde, Guangdong Province. Midea Group has about 200 subsidiaries, more than 60 overseas branches and 10 strategic business units worldwide, and is the main shareholder of KUKA group (about 95%) in Germany . Midea now has more than ten brands such as Midea and Little Swan. and has 15 and 6 production bases separately home and abroad.( Midea Co., Ltd, 2020)

Midea's diversified development strategy can reflect its wide range of business : consumer electrical appliances mainly including kitchen appliances, refrigerators, washing machines and all kinds of small household appliances; HVAC business focusing on heating and ventilation systems such as household air conditioning and central air conditioning; robot and industrial automation system business with German KUKA group and Midea robot company as the core.Up to July 2020, Midea ranked 22nd in the list of China's Top 100 Most Valuable Brands in 2020.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Midea)

To some extent, enterprises seems like a person. Generally speaking, the style and personality of an enterprise are greatly affected by the values and behavior styles of enterprise leaders. Enterprise style and characters can determine the fate and future itself.（Liu Buchen，2016:3）

Midea focus on sound operation. If Haier and Gree went to two "extremes", Midea would choose the "middle road", which is neither extreme left nor right. It will not suddenly break the original management framework and organizational structure,which, otherwise, would place the enterprise in high risk. Midea Group’s New Vision, mission,values and business principles are not only rooted in the achievements of historical accumulation, but also the strategic blueprint for the future. The New Vision,“the perfection of science and technology lead to the perfection of life”, continues the Midea’s emphasis on science and technology and human-oriented spirit; The new mission,“connecting people and things, enlightening the world of Midea” reflects its strategic thinking on the development trend of technology, industrial chain and global layout, and makes the linkage between people and things in different scenes more advanced, thus stimulating the leapfrog development of people’s lives and production; Through the value“dare to know the future”, Midea could continue carrying forward its spirits of future orientation and embracing changes.

Midea focuses on sound operation.--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 12:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In the light of the wide range of its business, we can see that Midea is actively promoting diversified development（Liu Buchen，2016:2-3）: in the area of air-conditioning, Midea，since 1998，has made a series of acquisitions and mergers, expanding its air-conditioning capacity and entering the field of air-conditioning compressors. Moreover, it has produced the core components of air conditioning, increased research and development and cooperation in air conditioning, then begun to produce the core components of air conditioning compressor, increased research and development in the core components; as for small household appliances, since 2001, Midea has mastered the core components of microwave oven and become one of the three largest production bases in the world. Subsequently, the Group has reorganized the small appliance business under direct control and developed professionally on the basis of diversification.

Diversification has the advantage of spreading risk, that is the theory of “don’t put all your eggs in one basket” , and its disadvantage lies in the difficulty for firms to concentrate and, relatively speaking, to establish absolute competitive advantage in one or more specific areas.

Midea's business strategy can be described as "two-pronged approach". On the one hand, Midea relies on its own enterprise strength to continuously optimize the performance of its core products and has made earnest efforts to improve the quality of its core products.

On the other hand, through a series of acquisitions and mergers on home appliance brand，Midea has furthered its market penetration, and enhanced the market share, expanded the user group, leading to its accomplishment of “Extension Expansion” strategy. In fact, the strategy is not limited to mergers and acquisitions, but also includes the continuous paces into new industrial fields. Midea is building its own "Second Runway", that is “New Product Incubation Platform”, which is not limited to the field of home appliances. As long as meeting Midea's standards for "innovative products", any products can enter the incubation platform.

In 2020, affected by the COVID-19, the rising leverage ratio of the residential sector, the rising food prices, as well as the continuing low marriage and birth rates, the pace of further expansion of the household appliance market has been hindered. As one of the three giants in China's home appliance market, Midea is naturally deeply aware of the weakness of the home appliance market, which is reflected specifically in the decline of market demand for color TV sets, air conditioners, kitchen appliances and household appliances.

Midea will unswervingly increase R&D investment, maintain high-quality development direction, and adhere to inclusive growth and sustained and effective growth. Midea has further expanded its online market scale which has continuously diverted offline market scale. It has been developing an integrated sales channel with both online and offline, which has been promoted orderly on Suning, Gome, Jingdong, Tmall and other platforms. Facing the domestic market, Midea has been consolidated its basic system and established a unified business language and rules.

In 2020, the global trade friction continues to escalate, tariff barriers increases Midea’s risk of overseas market expansion, and the exchange rate between countries continues fluctuating. All of these factors mentioned above has increased Midea’s risk to engage in product export and to exchange loss.

Facing the overseas market, Midea will adhere to the consumer-oriented and product-leading strategy, give full play to its network advantages in global R&D and user research, grasp the differentiated needs of foreign consumer groups, improve the construction of multi-brand operation system, leading to further open-up of the foreign market and the improvement of market share.

===B.Haier===

Haier, formerly known as Haier Qingdao, is a leading global provider of solutions for a better life. Founded in 1980 and headquartered in Qingdao, Shandong Province, it was listed on the Shanghai Stock Exchange (600690) and the Frankfurt Stock Exchange (690D) in 1993 and 2018, respectively. Relentlessly centered on user experience and geared to the beat of the times, Haier has developed from an insolvent collective small factory on the verge of closure into an ecological enterprise leading the Internet of Things era. It has been the world's only IoT ecological brand for two consecutive years in the BrandZ 100 most valuable global brands. In the Internet of Things era, Haier is leading the world in terms of its ecological brand and single-unit model. Moreover, it boasts the world's largest market share in white goods R&D, production and sales, as well as in the integrated channel business of large appliances.( Haier Co., Ltd, 2020)

Haier adopts Diversification Product strategy, but it differs from Midea's in that the former has broader fields. Its business scope mainly includes the R&D, production and sales of and smart home scene solutions and smart home appliances such as refrigerators, washing machines, air conditioners, water heaters, kitchen appliances, small home appliances. It also engages in IT industry such as digital technology, intelligent technology, software technology, enterprise management services and consulting, information technology services, etc. Through a rich combination of products, brands and solutions, Haier creates a whole scene of intelligent life experience to meet users' pursuit of the good life.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Haier)

Corporate culture is the soul and gene of an enterprise. Haier's corporate culture is one of change, always following the times and continuous innovation and development, which can be summed up in four words: self-righteousness. It means everyone is constantly challenging themselves, overcoming themselves, reinventing themselves, and changing themselves according to external changes. So it can be said that Haier's corporate style is "paradigm change".

Haier has its own core values: the concept of right and wrong of "always take the user as yes, take oneself as no" is Haier's motivation to create users; the concept of development of "everyone is the creator, chain group becomes self-driven" is Haier's way of looking at sustainable development; the concept of "win-win" is the guarantee for Haier's sustainable operation. Haier's corporate spirit is "ecological integrity, win-win evolution". In the process of continuous entrepreneurship and innovation, the Haier Group always adheres to the development main line of "human value first".
Haier has formed a perfect innovation culture which is dynamic and constantly optimized. Zhang Ruimin once said, "There exist no successful enterprises, only enterprises geared to the times."

From 1992, Haier has begun to expand from one product to a variety of products, and comprehensively implemented a diversification strategy. Through mergers, acquisitions, joint ventures, and cooperation, Haier has rapidly entered the field of white goods such as freezes, air conditioners, and washing machines from a single product refrigerator.

In 1997, with the production of digital color TVs as a symbol, Haier entered the field of black home appliances from the field of white goods; in 1998, Haier ventured into the computer industry, which was known abroad as the field of beige home appliances. In 1998, Haier ventured into the computer industry, which is known abroad as the beige home appliance industry. In the process of expansion, Haier has engaged in capital operation in the way of eating "shock fish" and insisted on revitalizing tangible assets with intangible assets, which ensured the success rate of capital operation and the low-cost expansion. In this way, the goal of making Haier bigger and stronger in the shortest period of time was achieved. Haier still takes home appliance industry as its main industry, with sales accounting for about 40-70% of Haier's total sales.

Haier has adopted a parallel strategy：on the one hand: Haier will set self-innovation as the core of corporate culture, the implementation of strategic innovation to establish the corporate brand, focus on making refrigerators upgrade, adhere to the Internet of Things smart home ecological brand strategic direction; on the other hand, Haier is undergoing a large-scale enterprise change, and we can hardly continue to classify Haier as "home appliance enterprises". "After the change in the business model, Haier's many micro and small companies can decide their own development prospects, and the Haier Group does not limit or intervene in the their fields to entry. So the path of extensive expansion Haier takes is very broad.(Huang Xu,2017:2)

During the epidemic, Haier's 3Q report achieved high quality growth, which is closely related to the future layout of Haier since more than 10 years. Haier has been exploring the transformation from "selling products" to "selling scenes" to adapt to the consumption trend of experiential scenes. When realizing differentiated competition, Haier brings user experience and industry development into a new dimension. With a forward-looking strategic layout and strong landing capabilities, Haier has formed industry differentiation advantages in smart package, experience cloud and mass customization, and promoted the company's transition to a smart home ecological brand. Haier is currently the leader in the domestic Internet market, but will face challenges from crossover competitors such as Xiaomi and Huawei, and needs to focus the company's resources to win the battle.

Among the home appliance enterprises, Haier is the first to go abroad, and is also the enterprise with the highest market share in overseas markets. In 2016, Haier also acquired the American General Electric Company at a sky-high price of $5.58 billion, which is the largest overseas merger and acquisition in China's home appliance industry, making Haier leap from a Qingdao local enterprise to a multinational white goods leader, and also marking the acceleration of Haier's internationalization process again. At the same time, Haier has been ranked first in the global home appliance market share for many years, with over 10% of the global home appliance market share.According to Euromonitor, Haier has kept its leading position in the Asia-Pacific and North American markets (the two markets together account for 63.5% of global retail sales). Taking the advantage of the concerted efforts of Candy, Haier merged recently, Haier is expected to achieve its market share among the top five in the European market and to become a true leader in the home appliance industry worldwide.

===C.Gree===

Gree, founded in 1991, is an international home appliance company integrating R&D, production, sales and service, with three brands: Gree, TOSOT and Jinghong, headquartered in Zhuhai, Guangdong Province. Dong Mingzhu Gree's chairman, president and legal representative. In 1996, Gree was listed on the Shenzhen Stock Exchange. Gree has more than 90,000 employees, among whom there are 15,000 R&D personnel and 30,000 technical workers. It has 15 production bases and 15 research institutes at home and abroad. Gree has been on the Fortune Magazine's list of "China's Top 100 Listed Companies" for 9 consecutive years. The "Gree" brand of air conditioners is a "world famous brand" in China's air conditioning industry, with business in more than 100 countries and regions around the world.( Gree Co., Ltd, 2020)

Gree, founded in 1991, is an international home appliance company integrating R&D, production, sales and service, with three brands: Gree, TOSOT and Jinghong, headquartered in Zhuhai, Guangdong Province. Dong Mingzhu is Gree's chairman, president and legal representative. In 1996, Gree was listed on the Shenzhen Stock Exchange. Gree has more than 90,000 employees, among whom there are 15,000 R&D personnel and 30,000 technical workers. It has 15 production bases and 15 research institutes at home and abroad. Gree has been on the Fortune Magazine's list of "China's Top 100 Listed Companies" for 9 consecutive years. The "Gree" brand of air conditioners is a "world famous brand" in China's air conditioning industry, with business in more than 100 countries and regions around the world.( Gree Co., Ltd, 2020)--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 13:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Its business mainly includes: sales, installation and maintenance of central air conditioning, refrigeration, air conditioning equipment, clean air conditioning, heating equipment, ventilation equipment; kitchen utensils, stainless steel products, daily-use hardware; household refrigeration appliances, household air conditioners and related parts; machinery and equipment, and wholesale of electronic products. Unlike Haier and Midea, Gree adopts a specialized product strategy and has been focusing on the research and development of various types of air conditioners. As a large appliance manufacturer focusing on air conditioning products, Gree has established itself as the leader in the domestic air conditioning market, and its brand culture is deeply rooted in the people's hearts, and is well known in the domestic air conditioning market with slogans such as "Fine air conditioning that Gree creates" and "Buy good-quality, choose Gree". Since 2005, Gree has been the global leader in the production and sales of air conditioners for 7 consecutive years.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Gree)

In implementing the strategy of creating a famous brand, Gree prioritizes the construction of corporate culture and strive for corporate culture as a unified goal: the corporate spirit of "Loyalty, Friendliness, Diligence and Progress" fully reflects Gree’s requirements to its employees; the business philosophy of "making the best air conditioners for consumers" accurately and clearly shows Gree’s commitment to the society and consumers, as well as its determination to stick to the road of specialization and its confidence in the pursuit of excellence in product quality; the service concept of "Every little thing you do is a big thing for Gree!" demonstrates that Gree puts service throughout the entire production and operation activities of the enterprise, emphasizing pre-sales, in-sales and after-sales services; the management concept of "Innovation has no limitations" enables Gree to achieve high efficiency and low cost in the production process.

Gree has delivered outstanding performance in air conditioning largely due to the fact that Gree has been focusing on air conditioning for the past few decades without any distractions. Gree have several large production bases around the world, and its research scope includes twenty major categories, more than 400 series, which can meet the various needs of consumers. Gree have so far owned thousands of technical patents of air conditioners, and decades of quality improvement work have made Gree air conditioners achieve a qualitative leap in quality, from "Made in China" to "Created in China".

On the one hand, Gree belongs to the typical intensive growth model, where the driving force for development basically comes from within the enterprise and rarely relies on external forces, such as M&A. Gree takes the path of training talents independently, and has 12 research institutes and more than 30,000 technical developers. Gree sets various series of air conditioners its main business，whose entire production chain of production, processing, sales and marketing channels are operated internally.

On the other hand, compared to Haier and Midea, Gree's outward expansion has been smaller. One of Gree's large-scale mergers and acquisitions of significance was the industrial industry integration that began in early 2004 and was completed in the same year. Gree successfully acquired the Group's shares of Lingda Compressor, Gree Small Appliances, Gree Electric and other companies, contributing to forming an industrial advantage, improving its core competitiveness and seizing the industry high ground.(Duan Qiang,2013:49)Interestingly, Gree announced its intention to enter the new energy vehicle industry by acquiring Zhuhai Yinlong New Energy, which was a huge breakthrough in Gree's long-held intensive growth model in these years.

In 2020, as air conditioners enter the era of saturation, Gree faces difficulty before market opportunities and challenges. In recent years, Gree is obviously increasing the diversification of the layout, in order to disperse the risk that the air conditioning industry may continue to slump in the next few years, Dong Mingzhu hopes to find new growth points through diversification of the layout, which is the reason why Gree cell phones, Gree (Yinlong) new energy vehicle projects have been showed in the market. If new growth points were not cultivated in time, the possibility of continued stagnation of Gree Appliances in the coming years couldn’t be ruled out.

Gree's business is expected to be a high-end intelligent manufacturing equipment in Gree's diversified business. Gree, which has diversified genes and the courage to experiment with various businesses, opened a medical equipment company during the epidemic, and product masks and air purifiers that can kill COVID-19. The enthusiasm for diversified business exploration is closely related to Dong's energetic and aggressive style. But the deeper reason lies in that Gree needs more opportunities to grab the market in areas other than white home appliances, especially air conditioners.

Gree’s air conditioners have gained international recognition for their technology, quality and price advantages,which have been exported to more than 100 countries and regions around the world. Gree's trademark has been applied for international registration in 77 countries around the world, laying a brand foundation for the internationalization of Gree's products. At the same time, Gree is extending its production lines to foreign countries to enhance the confidence of foreign dealers and consumers in Gree and improve its international image.

===Terms and Expressions===

HVAC 暖通空调 Shunde （广东）顺德

Smart supply chain 智能供应链 Intensive Growth 内生式增长

leverage ratio 杠杆率 Second Runway 第二跑道

air conditioning compressor 空调压缩机 Tmall 天猫

Qingdao （山东）青岛 Shock Fish 休克鱼

3Q report 三季报 IoT 物联网

Experience cloud 体验云 Ren Dan He Yi 人单合一

chain group 链群 Euromonitor 欧睿信息咨询公司

Candy （意大利）卡迪集团

TOSOT 大松电器公司 Jinghong 晶弘电器公司

Gree Electric 格力电工 Shenzhen Stock Exchange 深圳证券交易所

Created in China 中国创造 General Electric Company 格力电工

Zhuhai Yinlong New Energy 珠海银隆新能源有限公司 COVID-19 新型冠状病毒

Lingda Compressor 凌达压缩机

HVAC 暖通空调

Shunde （广东）顺德

Smart supply chain 智能供应链

Intensive Growth 内生式增长

leverage ratio 杠杆率

Second Runway 第二跑道

air conditioning compressor 空调压缩机

Tmall 天猫

Qingdao （山东）青岛

Shock Fish 休克鱼

3Q report 三季报

IoT 物联网

Experience cloud 体验云

Ren Dan He Yi 人单合一

chain group 链群

Euromonitor 欧睿信息咨询公司

Candy （意大利）卡迪集团

TOSOT 大松电器公司

Jinghong 晶弘电器公司

Gree Electric 格力电工

Shenzhen Stock Exchange 深圳证券交易所

Created in China 中国创造

General Electric Company 格力电工

Zhuhai Yinlong New Energy 珠海银隆新能源有限公司

COVID-19 新型冠状病毒

Lingda Compressor 凌达压缩机--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 13:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Questions===

1.Why does Midea implement diversified development strategy?

2.what development strategy does Midea adopt?

3.How does Midea differ from Haier and Gree in terms of its style?

4.How will Midea deal with the weakness of home appliance market?

5.What kind of home appliances does Haier focus on the most?

6.What is the difference between Haier and Midea's diversified product strategy?

7.What is Haier's "Ren Dan He Yi" model?

8. The pros and cons of Haier's extensive expansion strategy.

9. Why did Haier transform to a smart home eco-brand?

10. Why has Gree expanded its diversified layout in recent years?

11. Do you think whether Gree should acquire Zhuhai Yinlong New Energy ?

12.What is the impact of Dong Mingzhu's style of work on Gree's development?

===Answers===

1.Diversification has the advantage of spreading risk, that is the theory of “don’t put all your eggs in one basket".

2.Diversified product layout and Intensive growth model and Exclusive expansion model.

3.Midea will unswervingly increase R&D investment on such emerging home appliances, maintain high-quality development direction, and adhere to inclusive growth and sustained and effective growth.

4.Midea focus more on moderate operation.

5.White home appliances.

6.Haier’s diversified product strategy is more wide-ranging.

7.It is a business mode which refers to every employee should face users directly, create user value, and realize their own value sharing when creating value for users.

8.Pros:to expand its business scope and spreading business risk.

Cons:to have difficulty concentrating itself and, relatively speaking, to establish absolute competitive advantage in one or more specific areas.

9. To win the favor of consumers who are in the pursuit of high-quality life and become more and more dissatisfied with household appliances which can only passively follow instructions and complete tasks.

10.(1)To disperse the risk that the air conditioning industry may continue to slump in the next few years.

(2) to find new growth points through diversification of the layout.

(3)to avoid the possibility of continued stagnation of Gree in the coming years.

11.No,because air conditioning and automobile are totally different. Gree's air conditioning technology is not helpful for new energy vehicles. Gree's familiar products and sales processes are also different from those of the automobile industry. Therefore, it is rather risky to enter the automotive field.

12.Dong Mingzhu's energetic and aggressive style will put forward Gree’s diversified business exploration which will create more opportunities and possibilities and also high risks.

===References===

1.Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Gree,格力

2.Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Haier,海尔

3.Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Midea,美的

4.Duan Qiang段强.(2013)格力电器营销战略研究[Research on Marketing Strategy of Gree Electric Appliance]. Huazhong University of Science and Technology 华中科技大学.

5.Huang Xu黄旭.(2017)海尔产品的品牌效应和营销策略[Brand Effect and Marketing Strategy of Haier Products].Industry and Technology Forum 产业与科技论坛.

6.Liu Buchen刘步尘.(2016)中国家电三巨头,谁与争锋[Who is the Top among Three Home Appliance Enterprises in China].Chinese and Foreign Management 中外管理.

7.Haier Co., Ltd,https://www.haier.com/

8.Gree Co., Ltd,https://www.gree.com/

9.Midea Co., Ltd,https://www.midea.com/cn/

[1] Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Gree,格力

[2] Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Haier,海尔

[3] Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Midea,美的

[4] Duan Qiang段强.(2013)格力电器营销战略研究[Research on Marketing Strategy of Gree Electric Appliance]. Huazhong University of Science and Technology 华中科技大学.

[5] Huang Xu黄旭.(2017)海尔产品的品牌效应和营销策略[Brand Effect and Marketing Strategy of Haier Products].Industry and Technology Forum 产业与科技论坛.

[6] Liu Buchen刘步尘.(2016)中国家电三巨头,谁与争锋[Who is the Top among Three Home Appliance Enterprises in China].Chinese and Foreign Management 中外管理.

[7] Haier Co., Ltd,https://www.haier.com/

[8] Gree Co., Ltd,https://www.gree.com/

[9] Midea Co., Ltd,https://www.midea.com/cn/--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 13:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wang Xuan 王轩==
===National Flag of the People’s Republic of China===
===A A brief introduction of National Flag of the People's Republic of China===
The national flag of the people's Republic of China is a five-star red flag, the symbol of the country. Zeng Liansong is the designer of the national flag. Red and rectangular, its length and height are three to two. Five yellow five pointed stars are decorated on the top left of the flag. One star is larger, and its circumscribed circle diameter is three tenths of the flag height, which is on the left; the four stars are smaller, and their circumscribed circle diameter is one tenth of the flag height, and the ring is arched to the right of the big star.
The national flag of the people's Republic of China began to solicit the design of the national flag from July 14 to August 15, 1949. On August 20, 1949, the national flag and national emblem Selection Committee received 2992 (3012) national flag designs. On September 27, 1949, deputies to the first plenary session of the National Committee of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) passed a motion to use the five-star red flag as the national flag. On October 1, 1949, the first national flag was first raised by Mao Zedong in Tiananmen Square.
The red flag of the people's Republic of China symbolizes revolution. The five five pointed stars on the flag and their relationship symbolize the great unity of the revolutionary people under the leadership of the Communist Party. The five pointed stars are used in yellow to show light on the red ground. Each of the four small five pointed stars faces the center of the big star, indicating unity around a center.

The national flag of the people's Republic of China, as a symbol of the country, is a five-star red flag. Zeng Liansong is the designer of the national flag. Red and rectangular, its length and height are three to two. Five yellow five pointed stars are decorated on the top left of the flag. One star is larger, and its circumscribed circle diameter is three tenths of the flag height, which is on the left; the four stars are smaller, and their circumscribed circle diameter is one tenth of the flag height, and the ring is arched to the right of the big star.
The national flag of the people's Republic of China began to solicit the design of the national flag from July 14 to August 15, 1949. On August 20, 1949, the national flag and national emblem Selection Committee received 2992 (3012) national flag designs. On September 27, 1949, deputies to the first plenary session of the National Committee of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) passed a motion to use the five-star red flag as the national flag. On October 1, 1949, the first national flag was first raised by Mao Zedong in Tiananmen Square.
The red flag of the people's Republic of China symbolizes revolution. The five five pointed stars on the flag and their relationship symbolize the great unity of the revolutionary people under the leadership of the Communist Party. The five pointed stars are used in yellow to show light on the red ground. Each of the four small five pointed stars faces the center of the big star, indicating unity around a center.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 10:53, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

===B Establishment process===

===1. Solicit comments from the public===

On June 15, 1949, the Preparatory Committee for the National Committee of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) was formally established in Peiping, shortly after Liberation. The preparatory work undertaken by this committee included the important task of formulating the national flag of new China, and designated the sixth group of the Preparatory Committee to be responsible for it.
On 4 July 1949, the sixth group held its first meeting. The meeting decided to publish newspapers to solicit the patterns of the national flag and the national emblem, and to set up a selection committee for the national flag and the national emblem pattern and the national lyrics score. In addition to the group members participating in the selection, Xu Beihong, Liang Sicheng, Ai Qing and other experts were invited to participate.
From July 14 to August 15, 1949, people's daily, Jiefang Daily, Xinhua daily and other newspapers and periodicals published the notice of the preparatory meeting of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference asking for the design of the national flag. The news of asking for the design of the national flag quickly spread to the whole country and overseas. Many people in their spare time, spread out the paper and began the design work. They carefully designed and drew one pattern after another with their own characteristics, marked with detailed instructions, and sent them to Beijing. They regard the design and drawing of the national flag as a glorious and noble thing to pour their boundless love for new China.

On June 15, 1949, the Preparatory Committee for the National Committee of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) was formally established in Peiping(Beijing), shortly after Liberation. The preparatory work undertaken by this committee included the important task of formulating the national flag of new China, and designated the sixth group of the Preparatory Committee to be responsible for it.
On 4 July 1949, the sixth group held its first meeting. The meeting decided to publish newspapers to solicit the patterns of the national flag and the national emblem, and to set up a selection committee for the national flag and the national emblem pattern and the national lyrics score. In addition to the group members participating in the selection, Xu Beihong, Liang Sicheng, Ai Qing and other experts were invited to participate.
From July 14 to August 15, 1949, people's daily, Jiefang Daily, Xinhua daily and other newspapers and periodicals published the notice of the preparatory meeting of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference asking for the design of the national flag. The news of asking for the design of the national flag quickly spread to the whole country and overseas. Many people in their spare time, spread out the paper and began the design work. They carefully designed and drew one pattern after another with their own characteristics, marked with detailed instructions, and sent them to Beijing. They regard the design and drawing of the national flag as a glorious and noble thing to pour their boundless love for new China.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 10:53, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

===2. Collect drafts from all walks of life===

On August 20, 1949, the national flag and national emblem Selection Committee received 2992 pieces of national flag patterns. Guo Moruo, Chen Jiageng and other members of the preparatory committee also submitted their sample designs. These designs were displayed in the temporary reading room. The selection committee selected 38 draft plans from them and incorporated them into the reference materials for the design of the national flag and submitted them to the newly established Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference for discussion.

On August 20, 1949, the national flag and national emblem Selection Committee received 2992 pieces of national flag patterns. Guo Moruo, Chen Jiageng and other members of the preparatory committee also submitted their sample designs. These designs were displayed in the temporary reading room. The selection committee selected 38 draft plans from them and incorporated them into the reference materials for the design of the national flag and submitted them to the newly established Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference for further discussion.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 10:53, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

===3. Pass a resolution===

The design of the national flag of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) was approved in the 32nd session of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference. In the pattern of five-star red flag before this, there are sickles and axes in the big stars. Before the adoption of the resolution, the national flag and national emblem review group made partial modifications to the design pattern, and made a unified explanation on the significance of the national flag pattern.
On September 27, 1949, the resolution on the capital, chronology, national anthem and national flag of the people's Republic of China, adopted at the first plenary session of the CPPCC National Committee, stipulates in the fourth point that "it is unanimously adopted: the national flag of the people's Republic of China is a five-star red earth flag, which symbolizes the great unity of the revolutionary people of China." The resolution of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference on the capital, chronology, national anthem and national flag of the people's Republic of China and the measures for flag making adopted by the presidium of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference stipulate that the national flag of the people's Republic of China is a five-star red flag, which is rectangular, and symbolizes revolution.

The design of the national flag of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) was approved in the 32nd session of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference. In the pattern of five-star red flag before this, there are sickles and axes in the big stars. Before the adoption of the resolution, the national flag and national emblem review group made partial modifications to the design pattern, and made a unified explanation on the significance of the national flag pattern.
On September 27, 1949, the resolution on the capital, national anthem and national flag of the people's Republic of China, adopted at the first plenary session of the CPPCC National Committee, stipulates in the fourth point that "it is unanimously adopted: the national flag of the people's Republic of China is a five-star red earth flag, which symbolizes the great unity of the revolutionary people of China." The resolution of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference on the capital, chronology, national anthem and national flag of the people's Republic of China and the measures for flag making adopted by the presidium of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference stipulate that the national flag of the people's Republic of China is a five-star red flag, which is rectangular, and symbolizes revolution. --[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 10:53, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

Its length and height are three to two, and five yellow five pointed stars are on the top left of the flag, symbolizing the revolutionary unity under the leadership of the Communist Party of China The star symbolizes red with yellow, and the earth is bright. One star is larger, its circumscribed circle diameter is 3 / 10 of the flag height, which is on the left; the four stars are smaller, and their circumscribed circle diameter is 1 / 10 of the flag height, and they are circled on the right side of the big star, and each has an angle point facing the center of the big star, which expresses the aspiration of hundreds of millions of people to the great Communist Party of China, just like the northern star. The flagpole cover is white to distinguish it from the red flag.
On September 29, 1949, the people's Daily published the pattern of the new national flag and the explanation of its making method, which were provided to all walks of life for making and using.
On October 1, 1949, the first national flag of the people's Republic of China was first raised by Mao Zedong in Tiananmen Square.(Dear Wang Xuan,please add your indication.--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 08:31, 15 December 2020 (UTC))

===C Symbolism of the flag===
The red flag of the people's Republic of China symbolizes revolution. The five five pointed stars on the flag and their relationship symbolize the great unity of the revolutionary people under the leadership of the Communist Party. Yellow is used to show light on the red ground. Yellow is brighter and more beautiful than white. Each of the four small Pentagram stars has a point facing the center of the big star, which means that they are united around a center and are compact and beautiful in form.

=== Terms and expressions ===

五星红旗 five-star red flag

中国共产党 the Communist Party of China(CPC)

全国政治协商会议 the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference(CPPCC)

《人民日报》 People's Daily

《解放日报》 Jiefang Daily

《新华日报》 xinhua Daily

=== Questions ===

1. Who designed the national flag of the people's republic of China?

2. When did the national flag of the people's republic of China come into being?

3. What does the red color mean on the national flag of the people's republic of China?

4. Is there any profound meaning of the five stars on the national flag of the people's republic of China?

5. Is there any symbol meaning of the people's repuclic of China?

=== Answers ===

1. Zeng Liansong is the designer of the national flag.

2. On September 27, 1949

3. The red color of the people's Republic of China symbolizes revolution.

4. The five five pointed stars on the flag and their relationship symbolize the great unity of the revolutionary people under the leadership of the Communist Party.

5. The red flag of the people's Republic of China symbolizes revolution. Each of the four small Pentagram stars has a point facing the center of the big star, which means that they are united around a center and are compact and beautiful in form.

=== References ===

[1] Barnabas Cristóbal. Constitution of the People's Republic of China[J]. 2011.

[2] Surhone L M , Timpledon M T , Marseken S F , et al. National Emblem of the People's Republic of Chcina[J]. 2010.

[3] Surhone L M , Timpledon M T , Marseken S F , et al. National Emblem of the People's Republic of China[J]. 2010.

[4] 高军. 中华人民共和国国旗的符号学浅析[J]. 美术教育研究, 2012, 000(011):46-47.

[5] 王哉. 五星红旗是怎样设计出来的——曾联松设计中华人民共和国国旗始末[J]. 山东农机化, 2016, 000(005):49-50.

[6] 霞飞. 中华人民共和国国旗诞生始末[J]. 党史文苑(7期):4-11.

[7] 中央档案馆. 中华人民共和国国旗国徽国歌档案[M]. 中国文史出版社, 2014.

==China's Four New Inventions -Wu Qiong 吴琼 202070080644 MTI 英语口译==

Most people must have known about China's Four Inventions: gunpowder, paper-making, compass, and printing. Those represented how wise the Chinese was and how brilliant history China had. Today, China still holds the places and influence in technology and inventions. In May,2017, teenagers from 20 nations along the Belt and Road selected China's four new inventions: high speed railway, QR code payment, sharing bikes and online shopping. Though these new inventions are not first invented by China, but it is China that makes full use of them, and introduces them to the rest of the world. The four new inventions bring incredible changes and convenience into people's life. China, at the same time, makes contributions to the development of the human beings. World's future will be bright and prosper due to more technologies and inventions such as China's Four New Inventions.

===A. High-speed railway ===

High-speed railway is a railway system with advanced design and high-speed rails run on it. The world's first official high-speed rail system is the Tokaido Shinkansen line and it goes into public in 1964, connecting the three major metropolitan circles of Japan: Tokyo, Nagoya and Osaka. The high speed railway has promoted the rapid development of Japan. Its designed speed is 200km/h, which then becomes the initial speed standard of high-speed rail. Later, with the advancement of technology, the speed of trains became faster. Different countries have different definitions of high-speed railways in different eras. According to statistics, the length of high-speed railways in operation in China has reached to more than 6,800 kilometers. China has become the country with the most comprehensive high-speed railway system technology, the strongest integration capability, the longest operating mileage, the highest operating speed, and the largest scale of construction in the world.(东海道新干线のバイパス[J].中央新干线委员会 [[File:Tokaido Shinkansen line.JPEG|600px|thumb|right|Tokaido Shinkansen line]]

====Features====

1. High-speed railways are very smooth to keep safety and comfort. With all seamless steel tracks, and a speed of more than 300 kilometers per hour，they use ballastless tracks, that is, a monolithic track bed without stones to maintain smoothness.

2. The high-speed railway has few bends, as the bend is of long radius, and the turnouts are all moveable high-speed turnouts.

3. Use a large number of viaducts and tunnels to ensure ride comfort and shorten the distance.

4. The catenary of the high-speed railway suspends the wires on the top of the train and is also different from that of ordinary railways to keep stability and durability of the high-speed EMUs

5. The signal control system of high-speed railways is higher than that of ordinary railways, because of the frequent departure and high speed of rails, it should be of high safety. (科普中国,2020)

====Merits====

1. Large passenger capacity. Generally, high speed rails can accommodate 600 people. Compared to other public tools such as bus, boat or airplane, high speed rails have more seats.

2. Less time-consuming. In addition to the maximum operating speed, passengers are more concerned about travel time. High speed rails will not operate in late night, so passengers can get off the rails almost in daytime, thus to finish their business or other private matters which helps save a lot of time.

3. Good safety. Due to the automatic operation of high-speed rails in a fully enclosed environment and a series of complete safety guarantee systems, thus no other transportation means can be matched with it. Since the advent of high-speed railway 35 years ago, Japan, Germany, and France have already transported 5 billion passengers. Although there have been major traffic accidents on high-speed railways, the accident rate is much lower than that of civil aviation and is almost negligible. It is still the safest transportation system.

4. High punctuality. All high-speed railways adopt automatic control and can operate around the clock unless there is an earthquake.

5. Comfortable and convenient. High speed rails have spacious and comfortable seats, stable operation, shock absorption, sound insulation, and quiet environment.

6. Low energy consumption. High-speed trains use electric traction, do not consume precious petroleum and other liquid fuels, and use various forms of energy, which is not a wasteful transportation mean.(Kang Tianchi 2018)

'''Terms and Expressions'''

High speed railways高速铁路 the Tokaido Shinkansen line东海道新干线[[File:highspeedrail.JPEG|600px|thumb|right|High speed rail]]

the three major metropolitan circles of Japan: Tokyo, Nagoya and Osaka.日本三大都市圈: 东京、名古屋和大阪

integration capability整合能力 operating mileage运营里程.

seamless steel tracks无缝钢轨 ballastless track无砟轨道

a monolithic track bed整体式道床 moveable high-speed turnouts.可动心高速道岔

viaducts and tunnels高架桥梁和隧道 high-speed EMUs.高速动车组

shock absorption and sound insulation减震隔音 petroleum and other liquid fuels石油等液体燃料

'''Questions'''

1. Where does the first high speed railway come from?

2. What is the name of the first high speed railway?

3. What is the advantages of high speed railway?

4. What are the features of high speed railway?

5. Which transportation carries more passengers, high speed rails or trains?

6. From Changsha to Shanghai, which transportation means will you choose?

'''Answers'''

1. The first high speed railway come from Japan

2.The name of the first high speed railway is Tokaido Shinkansen line.

3.The advantages of high speed railways are fast, smooth, safe and comfort.

4. The features of high speed railway viaducts and tunnels and signal control system.

5. High-speed rails carries more passengers.

6. High-speed rails.

===B. QR code payment===

The QR code payment model is based on the concept of mobile payment, and the first batch of payments made by mobile devices occurred in Finland in 1997. Finnish local media reported that Finland Telecom has enabled the service of operating jukeboxes and beverage vending machines by dialing a pay phone number. This service allows you to buy Coca-Cola at Helsinki Airport. The QR code, also known as "two-dimensional code" was invented in 1994 by the Japanese company DW. and nowadays, we usually use Alipay or WeChat pay to finish the process of payment.

====Background====

The rise of QR code payment methods in China is not occasionally. It is mainly related to the rapid development of IT technology and the rapid advancement of e-commerce. The maturity of IT technology has promoted the birth of mobile terminals such as smart phones and tablet computers, which makes people's mobile life more colorful. At the same time, domestic e-commerce is also closely related to "mobile", especially the development of O2O. With a large number of mobile devices and a large amount of mobile consumption, payment costs have become particularly critical. Therefore, QR code payment solutions came into being. (China's Four New Inventions 2018)

====Characteristics====

At the end of 2010, QR codes and related technologies were widely circulated on the Internet, marking the beginning of the widespread popularity of QR codes in China. The popularity of any thing must have its reasons, and so is QR code payment. [[File:Alipay.JPEG|500px|thumb|right|Alipay]]

1. Mature technology
QR code payment already has mature technical means in developed areas abroad, which has laid the foundation for the development of domestic QR code technology, and it is believed that it will quickly become popular.
2. Easy to use
After the user installs the QR code recognition software, the transaction can be completed by simply swiping the place where the QR code is posted.
3. Convenient payment
With the QR code payment method, merchants do not have to bear high cost payments such as cash on delivery, and consumers can also make real-time payments anytime, anywhere.
4. Lower cost
Due to the maturity of technology and the popularization of mobile devices, the cost of QR code payment has become very low. (科普中国，2020）

'''Terms and Expressions'''

QR code (Quick Response code)快速反应码

Finland芬兰 Telecom电信

jukebox点唱机 beverage vending machine饮料自动售货机

Helsinki Airport 赫尔辛基机场

'''Questions'''

1. What advanced the birth of QR code?

2. When did the QR code become popular in China?

3. Why does QR code cost lower?

4. When was the QR code invented?

'''Answers'''

1. The maturity of IT technology advanced the birth of QR code.

2. At the end of 2010, QR code become popular in China.

3. Merchants do not have to bear high cost payments such as cash on delivery.

4. QR code invented in 1997.

===C. Shared bikes===

As early as 1965, the Municipal Government of Amsterdam in the Netherlands proposed the "White Plan". According to the plan, the government purchased 50 bicycles and painted them with white paint as a sign and scattered them around the city for people to use. This was the earliest in the world. The unmanned shared bicycle system is invented by the Netherlands. In 2007, France also had free cycling, and it was only later that China became popular and innovative models developed and promoted overseas.

====Function and Using Steps ====

By providing services on campuses, subway stations, bus stations, residential areas, commercial districts, public service areas, etc., bicycle-sharing (bicycle) companies complete the ”last mile“ in the transportation industry and drive residents' enthusiasm for using other public transportation. Produce synergy with other public transportation methods. Shared bicycles are a time-sharing lease model and a new type of green and environmentally friendly sharing economy. (Du Yuheng, Han Wei, Kou Jingli, China Statistics (2018)

1. Find a free shared bike, download the bike sharing app, pay a deposit, and enter your password to use the bike.

2. Use the app to find the nearest shared bike, click on the "Use Bike Now" button and enter a set of numbers on the bike to use the bike.

3.Download the bike sharing app, find the vacant bikes, click the "Use Bike Now" button, get a set of numbers, and enter a set of numbers on the bike to use the bike.

====Development====

China's bike-sharing market has gone through three stages of development. The first phase is from 2007 to 2010. The public bicycle model that has emerged from abroad is introduced into the country, and the government will lead the management in different cities, mostly with piled bicycles. 2010-2014 is the second stage. Companies specializing in the bicycle market began to appear, but public bicycles are still dominated by piled bicycles. The third phase is from 2014 to 2018. With the rapid development of the mobile Internet, Internet shared bicycles led by Mobike came into being, and more convenient dockless bicycles began to replace docked bicycles. (Du Yuheng, Han Wei, Kou Jingli,[China Statistics] (2018) [[File:shared bike.JPEG|500px|thumb|right|Shared bike]]

'''Terms and Expressions'''

Amsterdam阿姆斯特丹 the unmanned shared bicycle system 无人管理的共享单车系统

free cycling 单车自由行 residential areas 居民区

last mile ”最后一公里“ green and environmentally friendly economy 绿色和环境友好型经济

the first phase第一阶段 dockless bicycles无桩单车

'''Questions'''

1. Which country invented the shared bike?

2. What is the main purpose for the invention of shared bike?

3. How many phases at present have the shared bikes experienced?

4. How's the prospect of the shared bikes?

'''Answers'''

1. Netherlands invented the shared bike.

2.To complete the ”last mile“ in the transportation industry and drive residents' enthusiasm for using other public transportation

3. There are three phases at present have the shared bikes experienced

4. With the development of the four new inventions, the shared bikes will be more and more developed.

===D. Online shopping===

Online shopping belongs to the category of e-commerce. In 1979, the British Michael Aldrich invented the concept of online shopping. Aldrich used a technology called Videotex to connect an ordinary TV set to the computer of a local retailer through a telephone line. By the 1990s, after Amazon and eBay launched their websites in 1995, e-commerce became popular around the world.

====Definition====

Retrieve product information through the Internet, and send a shopping request through an electronic order form, and then fill in a personal checking account or credit card number. The manufacturer will ship the goods by mail order or deliver the goods to the door through a courier company. For online shopping in China, the general payment method is cash on delivery (direct bank transfer, online remittance) and cash on delivery for secured transactions. (科普中国） [[File:Online Shopping.JPEG|600px|thumb|right|Online Shopping]]

====Development====

As early as 1999, Chinese Internet prophets began to build B2C websites, dedicated to promoting online shopping in China. But this approach was generally questioned by the economics community at that time. (Will there be enough consumers shopping online? Can online shopping solve the problem of logistics and distribution? Can online shopping solve the problem of online payment?) However, in the future, these doubts are all It's not a problem. They have been solved by large shopping websites, courier companies other than postal services, and many third-party online payments that connect with major banks.

As early as 1999, Chinese Internet prophets began to build B2C websites, dedicated to promoting online shopping in China. But this approach was generally questioned by the economics community at that time. (Will there be enough consumers shopping online? Can online shopping solve the problem of logistics and distribution? Can online shopping solve the problem of online payment?) However, in the future, these doubts will all go away. They have been solved by large shopping websites, courier companies other than postal services, and many third-party online payments that connect with major banks.--[[User:Gudongfang|Gudongfang]] ([[User talk:Gudongfang|talk]]) 08:15, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Gu dongfang

With the development of the economy, online shopping has gradually reappeared. In 2005, Dangdang achieved annual sales of 440 million yuan, a figure that greatly exceeded the expectations of most investment institutions two or three years ago. This number proves the success of the Amazon (famous e-commerce website) model in China, as well as the over-pessimism of economists and the greatness of market forces.

With the popularity of the Internet, the advantages of online shopping have become more prominent, and it has increasingly become an important form of shopping. The 29th Statistical Report on Internet Development in China released by the China Internet Network Information Center (CNNIC) in January 2012 shows that as of the end of December 2011, the number of Internet users in China reached 513 million, with 55.8 million new Internet users throughout the year; The penetration rate increased by 4 percentage points from the end of last year, reaching 38.3%. The number of mobile Internet users in China reached 356 million, a year-on-year increase of 17.5%. Compared with previous years, the growth of China's overall Internet users has entered a platform period.（Han Yuanjia, 2017）

'''Terms and Expressions'''

retrieve product information检索商品信息 a courier company快递公司

direct bank transfer直接银行转账 online remittance在线汇款

secured transactions担保交易 cash on delivery货到付款 logistics and distribution 物流配

'''Questions'''

1. What are people concerning about before the online shopping came true?

2. How could people pay online?

3. How was the situation in the previous economic field?

'''Answers'''

1. Will there be enough consumers shopping online? Can online shopping solve the problem of logistics and distribution? Can online shopping solve the problem of online payment?

2. the general payment method is cash on delivery (direct bank transfer, online remittance) and cash on delivery for secured transactions.

3. The manufacturer will ship the goods by mail order or deliver the goods to the door through a courier company.

===References===

中国“新四大发明”(2018).时代英语.Times English.

Wu Fangyi 吴方意.(2019).浅谈中国古代四大发明与大一统性[An Introduction to the Four Great Inventions of Ancient China and Grand Uniformity].西部学刊, Western Journal (16):133-136.

Kang Tianchi 康天驰.(2018).中国“新四大发明”“走出去”研究[Research on China's "Four New Inventions" and "Going Global].知识文库,Knowledge Library (11):244.

Du Yuheng, Han Wei, Kou Jingli 杜禹珩,韩伟,寇京丽.(2018).中国新四大发明之共享单车[China's New Four Inventions of Bicycle Sharing].中国统计,China Statistics.(03):77.

Han Yuanjia 韩元佳.(2017). 看“新四大发明”如何讲述中国奇迹?[See how the "Four New Inventions" tell the story of China's miracle?].创新时代,The Age of Innovation. (12):28-29.

Wanying Xie,Zeshui Xu,Zhiliang Ren. An Analysis on the Influence of Chinese “New Four Inventions” Under the Incomplete Hybrid Probabilistic Linguistic Environment[J]. International Journal of Fuzzy Systems,2019,21(5).

Zhou Yixiang 周一翔.(2017).The “New Four Great Inventions” of China Impact on the World.校园英语,Campus English(52):255.

Deborah Strumsky,José Lobo. Identifying the sources of technological novelty in the process of invention[J]. Research Policy,2015,44(8).

东海道新干线のバイパス[J].中央新干线委员会

==Wu Yilu 吴一露 202070080610==
===Four Domestic Mobile Phones===

===A.Huawei===

Huawei is probably the name that needs no introduction among all the Chinese phone manufacturers. “It's the world's second largest smartphone company, and it's at the center of an international battle for technological dominance between Beijing and Washington.” (Sareena Dayaram, 2020)

Founded in 1987, Huawei focuses on providing information and communications technology (ICT) infrastructure and smart devices. With more than 194,000 employees, this company operates in more than 170 countries and regions, serving more than three billion people around the world. Huawei is a private company wholly owned by its employees. It means no government agency or outside organization holds shares in Huawei. (Huawei Device Co., Ltd, 2020)

Their vision and mission is to bring digital to every person, home and organization for a fully connected, intelligent world. (Huawei Device Co., Ltd, 2020) The benefits of digital technology shouldn't just be available to those who can afford it. Huawei's mission is to expand the benefits of technology to everyone, everywhere. To achieve this, they've developed a digital inclusion strategy that focuses on three areas: technology, applications, and skills. For example, three main world-changing technologies built by Huawei are 5G, Huawei cloud and Huawei AI.

"Staying customer-centric and creating value for customers" are the company's common values. (Huawei Device Co., Ltd, 2020) The company has a well-developed internal governance structure, under which all governance bodies have clear and focused authority and responsibility, but operate under checks and balances. This creates a closed cycle of authority and achieves rational and cyclical succession of authority, so as to drive the facilitation and implementation of the company's common values.

[[File:Corporate Governance Structure.jpg|650px|thumb|middle|Diagram of Huawei Corporate Governance. Click [https://www-file.huawei.com/-/media/corporate/images/about-huawei/2020/corporate-governance-structure-18en.png?la=en-us/File:Corporate Governance Structure.jpg] for original source.]]

Huawei is continuing to focus on research and innovation to seize the opportunities and address the challenges of the future intelligent world. There are many innovations and inventions of Huawei to drive the industry forward, including advanced wireless networks, optical networks, intelligent O&M, AI computing, smartphone camera, media CODEC standards, software, trustworthiness and so on. From this we can find that the main business of Huawei is communication stations，while that of Apple is consumer electronics. Today, Huawei have entered the 5G ear and embarked on 6G research. It is exploring new directions for 6G. To this end, they began research into the basic theories of 6G and initiated extensive open collaboration projects with other industry players and pushed the industry to build a consensus on 6G. (Huawei Device Co., Ltd, 2020)

Since the top executive (and daughter of the company's founder) Meng Wangzhou was arrested in Canada for an alleged violation of US sanctions with Iran, this telecommunication giant, which was unknown to most American, appeared frequently in newspapers, especially since the US Commerce Department banned American companies from doing business with Huawei without first obtaining a license. (Sareena Dayaram,2020)

For Huawei, that meant it could lose access to crucial technological parts including semiconductors, which are key components used in its base stations and phones. It also meant Huawei's handsets cannot use Google's Android operating system, which provides several popular apps including the Google Play store, Gmail, Google Maps and apps that rely on Google like Uber and eBay. (Sareena Dayaram,2020) The Mate 30 was Huawei's first major phone to launch without Google's proprietary apps. All people thought this would decrease Huawei’s sale. Of course, it does. But the company reported first-half earnings showing revenue grew more than 13% from a year ago to around $65 billion.

===Terms and Expression===

Huawei cloud 华为云 Intelligent Collaboration 协同管理技术

optical networks 光纤网络 Carrier Network 承载网络

intelligent O&M 智能委托运营 the Kunpeng 920 鲲鹏920

AI computing 人工智能计算 AppGallery 华为应用程序库

information and communications technology (ICT) 信息与通讯技术 Media CODEC standards 编解码标准

===Questions:===

1. When is Huawei founded?

2.How many countries and regions does Huawei operate?

3.Do government agency and outside organization hold shares if Huawei?

4.What is the vision and mission of Huawei? And what do they do to achieve this mission?

5.What are the three main world-changing technologies built by Huawei?

6.What are the innovations and inventions of Huawei?

7.What are the company’s common values?

8.What makes that the telecommunications giant frequently was mentioned across newspapers?

9.Which phone is the first major phone launched without Google’s proprietary apps？

10.What’s your opinion towards these two issues mention above? Will these hinder the development of Huawei?

===Answers:===

1. It is founded in 1987.

2. It operates in more than 170 countries and regions

3. No, no government agency or outside organization holds shares in Huawei.

4. Their vision and mission is to bring digital to every person, home and organization for a fully connected, intelligent world; their mission is to expand the benefits of technology to everyone, everywhere. To achieve this, they've developed a digital inclusion strategy that focuses on three areas: technology, applications, and skills.

5. 5G, Huawei cloud and Huawei AI.

6. Advanced wireless networks, optical networks, intelligent O&M, AI computing, smartphone camera, Media CODEC standards, software, trustworthiness and so on.

7. "Staying customer-centric and creating value for customers" are the company's common values.

8. ①Top executive (and daughter of the company's founder) Meng Wangzhou was arrested in Canada for an alleged violation of US sanctions with Iran.

②the US Commerce Department banned American companies from doing business with Huawei without first obtaining a license.

9. The Mate 30.

10. In my opinion, these are totally unfair to Huawei, as well as China’s companies and economy. The Meng Wanzhou case is a serious political incident orchestrated by the United States to suppress Chinese high-tech companies and Huawei. It is also a kind of protectionism, which is divorced from the trend of globalization. We cannot deny that those actions will hinder the development of Huawei, specially some necessary chips. Although Huawei made preparation in advance, the core products are guaranteed to be available for six months to two years. In addition, Huawei has self-developed a large number of chip designs. But the following three areas are difficult to replace in the short term: manufacturing, semiconductor equipment and EDA software. On the one side, these issues, obviously, will obstruct the development of Huawei, but on the other side, they also promote the process of autonomy of domestic chips.

===References===

Sareena Dayaram, Huawei, OnePlus and beyond: China's biggest smarthone brands you should know about, https://www.cnet.com/news/huawei-oneplus-china-biggest-smartphone-brands-you-should-know-about-lenovo-meizu-xiaomi-oppo-vivo/, 2020.

Huawei Device Co., Ltd, https://consumer.huawei.com/en/about-us/, 2020

===B. Xiaomi===

Xiaomi is one of China's earlier homegrown success companies. It is an internet company with smartphones and smart hardware connected by an IoT platform at its core. Founded in April 2010 and listed on the Main Board of the Hong Kong Stock Exchange on July 9, 2018, Xiaomi has matured into one of China's domestic champions. (Xiaomi, 2020)

With the vision of being friends with its users and being the “coolest company” in the hearts of its users, Xiaomi is committed to continuous innovation, with an unwavering focus on quality and efficiency. Xiaomi is currently the world's fourth-largest smartphone brand, and has established the world's largest consumer IoT platform, with more than 213.2 million smart devices (excluding smartphones and laptops) connected to its platform--- Xiaomi Vela.(Xiaomi, 2020)

[[File:Xiaomi-logo.jpg|100px|thumb|left|Xiaomi-logo. Click [https://https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Xiaomi_logo.svg/800px-Xiaomi_logo.svg.png/File:Xiaomi-logo.jpg] for original source.]]

Currently, Xiaomi products are present in more than 90 countries and regions around the world and have a leading foothold in many markets. The "MI" in its logo stands for “Mobile Internet”.(Xiaomi,2020) It also has other meanings, including "Mission Impossible", because Xiaomi faced many challenges that had seemed impossible to defy in its early days.

“Just for fans”--- that’s Xiaomi’s belief. Many of their employees were initially fans of Mi products, before they decided to join them. The company relentlessly builds amazing products with honest prices to let everyone in the world enjoy a better life through innovative technology. “This low-margin strategy has helped Xiaomi cultivate a loyal fan base, especially in price-sensitive countries in Asia like India, where its slick Android phones often sell out within hours of release.” (Sareena Dayaram,2020)

Besides selling phones, Xiaomi also generates its revenue from the sale of software and services. It also sells a portfolio of its own smart products including bedside lamps and air purifiers to help build its Mi brand internationally. But, Xiaomi also learns from many of its rivals to sell more expensive phones “This strategy seems to have paid off, with the company reporting nearly 14% revenue growth in the first quarter despite the business challenges of the coronavirus pandemic.” (Sareena Dayaram,2020) While Samsung and Apple have both warned of a challenging year ahead.

“The investment in the world’s fastest-growing mobile market, where over 300,000 people power up their first smartphone every day, has made Xiaomi India’s bestselling smartphone brand for three years running. In 2020 so far, it has sold 29 million phones, 2 million more than in China, to control a full quarter of India’s smartphone market.”(Emon Barrett & Grady Mcgregor, 2000) Another reason for its success is that when Xiaomi offered 4G services，while competitors like Samsung，Microsoft，and Indian brand Micromax were still stuck on 3G. But it does face one strong headwind: Indian consumers’ anti-China sentiment. A border skirmish between Indian and Chinese military forces in June ignited boycotts of Chinese goods. Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s nationalist government keeps stoking the backlash, which means Xiaomi’s trajectory on the subcontinent may depend on whether the roots it planted in India qualify the brand as Indian enough.

===Terms and Expression===

IoT（Internet of Things）物联网 robot vacuums 机器人吸尘器

Xiaomi 小米 powerbank 充电宝

VR glasses 虚拟现实眼镜 UAV(Unmanned Aerial Vehicle) 无人机

electric scooters 电动平衡车 WiFi rooters 无线路由器

===Questions:===

1.When is Xiaomi founded?

2.What is the core of this company？

3.What’s Xiaomi’s ranking in the world’s smartphone brands？And what are the top 4 smartphone brands？

4.What does the "MI" in its logo stand for？

5.What is Xiaomi’s belief？

6.What has helped Xiaomi cultivate a loyal fan base？

7.How does Xiaomi generate its revenue？

8.What problem does Xiaomi confront in India？and Why？

9.What’s your opinion about the future of Xiaomi in Indian market？

===Answers===

1. It is founded in April 2010.

2. The IoT platform.

3. Xiaomi is currently the world's fourth-largest smartphone brand. The top four smartphone brands are Apple, Huawei, Samsung and Xiaomi.

4. Xiaomi Vela.

5. It stands for “Mobile Internet” and "Mission Impossible".

6. “Just for fans”--- that’s Xiaomi’s belief.

7. The low-margin strategy.

8. Xiaomi generates most of its revenue from selling phones, but recurring revenue from the sale of software and services.

9. Indian consumers’ anti-China sentiment. Because a border skirmish between Indian and Chinese military forces in June ignited boycotts of Chinese goods, and then Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s nationalist government keeps stoking the backlash
10.What’s your opinion about the future of Xiaomi in Indian market？
Although we can find that Xiaomi made instant reaction to confront with this boycott by telling local media that Xiaomi was “as Indian as any other company here” , competitors like Samsung, took this chance and began flooding India with phones that could compete with Xiaomi’s features and affordability. So only if the relationship between China and India become better or Xiaomi figures a new way, otherwise, Xiaomi’s market in India will shrink gradually.

===References===

Emon Barrett & Grady Mcgregor,How Chinese phonemaker Xiaomi conquered India—and outperformed Apple, https://fortune.com/2020/12/03/xiaomi-china-phones-apple-mobile-iphone/, 2020.

Sareena Dayaram, Huawei, OnePlus and beyond: China's biggest smarthone brands you should know about, https://www.cnet.com/news/huawei-oneplus-china-biggest-smartphone-brands-you-should-know-about-lenovo-meizu-xiaomi-oppo-vivo/, 2020.

Xiaomi, About Us, https://www.mi.com/global/about/, 2020.

===C. VIVO & OPPO===

Have you ever heard about VIVO? If not, then how about its older and larger sibling OPPO. Although OPPO and VIVO aren't household brands in the West, both have vaulted up the global rankings to place within the top six smartphone manufacturers in a comparatively short period of time, due partially to the popularity of their affordable phones among young consumers. (Sareena Dayaram,2020) These two Chinese phone-makers, with similar marketing strategies like Xiaomi, use high-profile product placement and sponsorships to win over European shoppers. Besides, OPPO and VIVO smartphones are always in eye-catching glossy colors which looks good, but it’s plastic and light.So there is still much room for improvement for these two brands.

Are VIVO and OPPO same? If you didn’t know these two brands, you may say no. But yes, even though OPPO and VIVO stress that they're competitors, both companies were spun out of the same parent company. OPPO and VIVO share the same parent company mainly known as BBK Electronics Corporation (Headquarters at Dongguan, Guangdong – China). BBK Electronics Corporation is a Chinese multinational firm specializing in electronics such as television sets, MP3 players, digital cameras and cell phones too. “BBK Electronics is also considered as the world’s 2nd-largest phone manufacturer company, which manufactures some of the fastest growing smartphones brands in Asia.” (Anchit Sharma, 2019) They recently got popular in developing countries of Asia such as India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and also in developed countries like China itself.

At the 2020 Developer Conference, Color OS 11 launched by OPPO focuses on personalized creation, seamless experience, and sensory invigoration. While the Origin OS launched by VIVO carried out subversive innovations mainly in UI design. The OPPO Developer Conference focuses on the integration of people, equipment and scenes. (OPPO, 2020) VIVO’s mission is to make their consumers’ lives extraordinary through introducing innovative technology and being a trendsetter.(vivo Mobile Communication Co., Ltd. , 2020)

With the development of 5G, the interconnection of everything is the most significant trend. Both OPPO and VIVO have demonstrated cross-device synergy in the OS upgrade, and they also attach great importance to the construction of the IoT ecosystem. There are 6 research and development centers of VIVO working on leading technologies: Beijing, Nanjing, Hangzhou, Dongguan, Shenzhen and San Diego (USA), and 4 global manufacturing bases delivering premium quality products: Dongguan, Chongqing, India and Republic of Indonesia. (vivo Mobile Communication Co., Ltd. , 2020)

===Terms and Expression===

OS 操作系统（operating system） VOOC 闪充

BBK 步步高 Fingerprint unlocking 指纹解锁

accessories 配件 octa-core processor 八核心处理器

===Questions:===

1.What’s the relationship between OPPO and VIVO？

2.What are the characteristics of OPPO and VIVO smartphones？

3.Where is the headquarter of BBK Electronics Corporation？And what is it specializing in？

4.Where are the major markets of BBK Electronics Corporation？

5.Please give a example of products from each brands.

6.What does the OPPO Developer Conference focus on？

7.What’s the mission of VIVO？

8.How many research and development centers does VIVO have？And where are they？

9.How many global manufacturing bases does VIVO have？ And where are they？

--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 15:50, 4 December 2020 (UTC)

===Answers===

1. They're competitors, but they were also spun out of the same parent company.

2. Affordable and eye-catching glossy colors.

3. The headquarters locates at Dongguan, Guangdong, China. It specializing in electronics such as television sets, MP3 players, digital cameras and cell phones too.

4. Developing countries of Asia such as India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and also in developed countries like China itself.

5. OPPO: Color OS 11;VIVO: Origin OS.

6. It focuses on personalized creation, seamless experience, and sensory invigoration.

7. VIVO’s mission is to make their consumers’ lives extraordinary through introducing innovative technology and being a trendsetter.

8. 6 research and development centers. They are in Beijing, Nanjing, Hangzhou, Dongguan, Shenzhen and San Diego (USA).

9. 4 global manufacturing bases. They are in Dongguan, Chongqing, India and Republic of Indonesia.

===References===

Anchit Sharma, The Company behind OPPO, VIVO, OnePlus and Realme Smartphones is same?,https://www.techworm.net/2019/06/company-oppo-vivo-oneplus-realme.html,2019.

vivo Mobile Communication Co., Ltd. , https://www.vivo.com/in/about-vivo/culture, 2020.

OPPO, https://www.oppo.com/en/about/, 2020.

==Chinese Dialects Wu Zijia 吴子佳 202070080645 MTI 英语口译==

===A.Brief introduction of Chines dialects===

The words topolect and hibernation, all comes from Yangxiong (53-18), "Interpretation of Foreign Dialects: Light Xuan“in the Han dynasty. "Dialect" refers to different meanings in different groups, according to the Chinese , "dialect " is both a political concept and a linguistic one, and it is also known as "Vernacular ". "Accent", refers to the difference in the language standard of a certain region, such as relationship between relatives regardless of the language."Dialect",however, is a linguistic concept in Europe, subordinating under the concept of"language" at the beginning of the eighteenth century. Based on the relationship between the language (pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar),it is divided into family, group, branch and language.Considering the special national situation of China, The translation of "Chinese dialects" into English is "Varieties of Chinese".According to the European , dialect is a language that differs from the standarded language and is spoken in only one certain region.( Julie M. Groves 2008,1)

China enjoys a vast field and a long history. In the process of historical development, different divisions and unification inevitably occurred in the society, which led to the gradual emergence of diverse and complex dialects system in Chinese. There are many factors contributing to the evolution of dialect, including social, historical and geographical factors, as well as the language itself.
According to the dialects, Chinese is divided into two categories: the official dialects and the nine local dialects. Official dialects ,namely modern Chinese, are not independent dialects, because they are very similar in pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar to the common language. Other regional dialects differ greatly in pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar, thus forming their own dialect systems. The official dialects include northeast Mandarin, Beijing mandarin, Ji Lu mandarin, Jiao-Liao mandarin, Central Plains mandarin, Lan-Yin mandarin, Southwest Mandarin and Jianghuai mandarin. The nine local dialects include Wu dialect, Cantonese, Fujian dialect, Hunan dialect, Hakka, Gan dialect, Hui dialect, Jin dialect and Pinghua.(Li Rong 1989,241)

===B.Hunan dialect===

Xiangyu , also known as xiang dialect or Hunan dialect, belongs to the sino-tibetan language, and is the main language used by the hunan people who live in xiangjiang river basin and its branches. Xiangyu is divided into two categories: new Xiangyu and The old Xiangyu. The new Xiangyu is represented by Changsha dialect while the old one is represented by Shuangfeng dialect.The core area of ancient Chu language is located in the middle reaches of Yangtze River, and Chu language is the ancestor language of Xiang language. Modern Xiangyu speakers are mainly distributed in a considerable part of Hunan province in Mainland China, including Changsha, Zhuzhou, Xiangtan, Yueyang, Yiyang, Loudi, Hengyang, Shaoyang, Yongzhou and so on. In 2010, the number of Xiangyu-speaker was estimated to be about 45 million. The regional dialects of Hunan province include Hunan, Southwest Official, Gan, Hakka, and Xiangxiang, southern Hunan dialect, which have not yet been classified as belonging to the dialect. Xiangyu is the main dialect of Hunan Province. Hunan province is a region that has diverse dialects. (Peng Jianguo 2006,25)

The chu dialect ,namely Chu Yan (ancient Chu language), is popular in Chu in the pre-Qin period, and it is the most ancient origin of Xiang language. The specific appearance of ancient Chu language cannot be verified today, but it is the earliest language used by the Han people in Hunan and along the Xiangjiang river. The word "Chu Yan" first appeared in Zuo Zhuan, indicating that the Chu Yan had been formed at least in the late Spring and Autumn Period, and was a branch of Chinese language,and was different from the Central Plains Yayin XiaYan at that time.There are 20-35 initials of Xiangyu, 30 to 40 finals, 5-7tones,commonly with 6.(Peng Jianguo 2006,26)

===C. Contonese===

Yueyu ,or Cantonese, Guangdong dialect and Tang dialect, is commonly known as "baihua".It is a Chinese dialect in the Chinese-Tibetan Chinese language family. Cantonese is the mother tongue of the Guangfu nationality, an important carrier of the Guangfu culture of the Han nationality, and one of the basic symbolic cultural identities of the Guangfu nationality. Cantonese has a complete language system consisting of nine tones and six volumes of tones, retaining many characteristics of Middle Ancient Chinese . Besides Putonghua, it is the only Chinese language that has been studied independently by foreign universities. (Julie M. Groves 2008,2)

As for the origin of Cantonese, there are different opinions.Some says that it originated from the Northern Mid-plain dialect and others the Chu language from the State of Chu. Cantonese is one of the southern dialects that retains more middle Ancient Chinese elements than other dialects, among which the most prominent feature is that it relatively retains the universal middle Ancient Chinese "Ru Sheng", and its initials, finals and tones have a good correspondence with the ancient Chinese standard rhymes in"Qu Yun" and "Guang Yun".(Julie M. Groves 2008,25)

Mandarin is a dominant language in Guangdong province, and the most dominant dialect is Cantonese. Hakka dialect and Fujian dialect are the other two major Chinese dialects with great influence in the province. Hakka dialect is mainly concentrated in the northeast and north of Guangdong province, and hakka dialect is also distributed in parts of western Guangdong province. Hakka villages are scattered in most parts of the province, and the number of people using this dialect is about 20 million. (Julie M. Groves 2008,60)

Fujian dialect is mainly distributed in the coastal area of the southwest and southeast of Guangdong province ,including 6 municipalities:Chaozhou, Shantou, Jieyang, Shanwei, Zhanjiang, Maoming ,and it can be divided into to language-speaking areas: they are , Chaoshan and Leizhou .The former shares some similarities with the south Fujian dialect , while the later is close to Hainan dialect.In addition, there are 18.95 million people living in some islets in Zhongshan,Huizhou, Qingyuan, Shaoguan taking Fujian dialect as their official language.(Julie M. Groves 2008,60)

===Question===

1.How many local dialects in China?

2.What are they?

3.What is the origin of the Xiang dialect.
--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 08:23, 9 November 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia

===Answers===
1.9

2.Wu dialect, Cantonese, Fujian dialect, Hunan dialect, Hakka, Gan dialect, Hui dialect, Jin dialect and Pinghua

3.The Chu language

===References===

* Peng Jianguo 彭建国(2006)．《湘语音韵历史层次研究》.[ A Study on the Historical perspective of Xiang Phonology].”湖南大学出版社”[Hunan University Press]．25-26.

* Li Rong 李荣(1989).汉语方言的分区.[The division of Chinese dialects] (04)：241-259.

* Julie M. Groves (2008).Language or Dialect—or Topolect? A Comparison of the Attitudes of Hong Kongers and Mainland Chinese towards the Status of Cantonese .SINO-PLATONIC PAPERS.1-60.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 14:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia

==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲 202070080611 MTI 英语笔译==

===March of the Volunteers (National Anthem of the People's Republic of China)===

===A. Brief Introduction===

March of the Volunteers is a song composed by Tian Han and Nie Er. It is the theme song of the film Children of Troubled Times, known as the clarion call of the Liberation of the Chinese nation. Since its birth in 1935 which was the critical moment of national crisis, it has played a great role in inspiring the patriotic spirit of the Chinese people, and later became the National Anthem of the People’s Republic of China.

On May 9, 1935, the first version of the song was recorded in the recording studio of EMI Records. In 1951, in order to meet the need of playing the national anthem, the People's Record Factory recorded and published a rough record composed by a brass ensemble and an orchestral ensemble. In 1959, to celebrate the 10th anniversary of the founding of the People’s Republic of China, the China Record Factory recorded and published a full set of standard national anthem special records. In 1978, a special album for collective lyrics was released. In 1983, China Record Shanghai Company recorded and published a special record for the standard national anthem after the original word was restored.

On March 14, 2004, the Second Session of the Tenth National People’s Congress passed a constitutional amendment, officially stipulating that the national anthem of the People’s Republic of China shall be the March of Volunteers.

The National Anthem Law of the People's Republic of China was adopted at the 29th Session of the 12th National People's Congress Standing Committee on September 1st, 2017, and formally went into effect on October 1st.

===B. Creation Background===

March of the Volunteers is the theme song of the film Children of Troubled Times. In the autumn of 1934, Tian Han wrote a long poem for the film, the last verse of which was selected as the lyrics of the theme song March of the Volunteers. Shortly after the lyrics were written, Tian Han was arrested and imprisoned by the Kuomintang authorities. In February 1935, director Xu Xingzhi took over the shooting of Children of Troubled Times.

Soon after, comrades who went to prison to visit Tian Han and brought back the lyrics written by him in prison on the back of cigarette packing paper, that is, the original manuscript of March of the Volunteers. At that time, Nie Er was preparing to go to Japan to seek refuge. He learned that there was a theme song to write in the film children of the wind and cloud. He took the initiative to compose music for the song and promised to send back the song manuscript as soon as possible after he arrived in Japan.

Nie Er completed the first draft of the score soon after receiving the lyrics. On April 18, 1935, after Nie Er arrived in Tokyo, Japan, he completed the final draft of the score, and sent the final draft to Shanghai Dentsu Film Company at the end of April. Afterwards, in order to make the song tune and rhythm more powerful, Nie Er and Sun Shiyi discussed and made three changes to the lyrics, thus completing the song creation.

After the early shooting of the film of Children of Troubled Times was completed, the lyrics of Tian Han's theme song did not determine the name of the song, and Nie Er's lyric composition sent back from Japan only included the word "March". General Zhu Qinglan, as the investor of the film of Children of Troubled Times, added "Volunteers" after the words of "March", thus naming the song March of the Volunteers.

===C. Song Appreciation===

The March of the Volunteers is a very creative song; the composer Nie Er devotes himself to the creation of this song with great passion. First of all, he succeeds in handling the poetic lyrics of Tian Han’s prose in accordance with the laws of music in an extremely vivid, powerful and colloquial way. In terms of melody creation, he not only absorbs the excellent achievements of international revolutionary songs and the style characteristics of Western European march, but also makes it have strong national characteristics, so that the song could be grasped by the broad masses and play its fighting role.

The song begins as a prelude to a six-bar march. It has a sonorous rhythm, bright and majestic melody, among which the magical effect of triplet enhances the fighting atmosphere of the song. Although the prelude is short, it contains the basis for the emotional and melody development of the entire song. The song is interlocked and advanced layer by layer. This process runs through the whole song, and the end of the song is repeated many times, giving people a sense of unwavering and unstoppable.

According to the characteristics of the lyrics clause, Nie Er treated the song into a free body structure formed by six phrases of varying lengths. Although the melody and structure of each phrase are different, the cohesion between the phrases is close, the development is natural, and the singing is ups and downs, and is integrated.

March of the Volunteers, with its soaring, sonorous and powerful melody and inspiring lyrics, expresses the Chinese people's strong resentment and resistance to imperialist aggression, and embodies the heroic spirit of the great Chinese nation that is brave, strong, united as one to go through national disaster when they are facing the foreign aggression.

===D. Chinese and English Lyrics===

起来！不愿做奴隶的人们！

把我们的血肉，筑成我们新的长城！

中华民族到了最危险的时候，

每个人被迫着发出最后的吼声。

起来！起来！起来！

我们万众一心，

冒着敌人的炮火,

前进！

冒着敌人的炮火，

前进！

前进！前进、进！

Arise, you who refuse to be bond slaves!

Let’s stand up and fight for

Liberty and true democracy.

All our world is facing

The chains of the tyrants.

Everyone who works for freedom is now crying:

Arise! Arise! Arise!

With the torch of freedom,

March on!

With the torch of freedom,

March on!

March on! March on, and on!

===Terms and Expressions===

March of the Volunteers 义勇军进行曲

Children of Troubled Times 风云儿女

EMI 百代唱片

National People’s Congress 全国人民代表大会

National People's Congress Standing Committee 全国人大常委

===Questions===
‭
1. Who are the composers of March of the Volunteers?

2.Which movie's theme song does March of the Volunteers belong to?

3.When did the National Anthem Law go into effect?

4.When was the final draft completed?

5.How did the name of this song come from?

===Answers===
1.1.March of the Volunteers is a song composed by Tian Han and Nie Er.

2.It is the theme song of the film Children of Troubled Times.

3.The National Anthem Law of the People's Republic of China formally went into effect on October 1st, 2017.

4.On April 18, 1935, after Nie Er arrived in Tokyo, Japan, he completed the final draft.

5.After the early shooting of the film Children of Troubled Times was completed, the lyrics of Tian Han's theme song did not determine the name of the song, while Nie Er's lyric composition sent back from Japan only included the word "March". General Zhu Qinglan, as the investor of the film Children of Troubled Times, added "Volunteers" after the words of "March", thus naming the song March of the Volunteers.

===References===
姜龙飞. 《义勇军进行曲》在这里诞生[J]. 中国档案报, 2020,(003)

《义勇军进行曲》这样成为国歌[J]. 当代兵团，2020（19）

百度百科.义勇军进行曲

--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 11:26, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

==Xiao Ting 肖婷 202070080612 MIT 英语笔译==
====Zheng He's Voyages ====

From 1405 to 1433, the Chinese imperial eunuch Zheng He led seven expeditions to the coastal territories and islands in and around South China Sea,the Indian Ocean,and beyond for the Ming emperor which is an unprecedented feat in world history.(English Encyclopedia Treasure Voyages)

====Zheng He====
Zheng He was born Ma He to a Muslim family in the far southwest, in today's Yunnan province. It is said that his original surname is Ma,his full name as Ma Sanbao .At ten years old he was captured by soldiers sent there by the first Ming emperor intent on subduing the south.(Baidu Encyclopedia Zheng He)
He was sent to the capital to be trained in military ways. Growing up to be a burly, imposing man, over six feet tall with a chest contemporaries said measured over five feet around, he was also extremely talented and intelligent. He received both literary and military training, then made his way up the military ladder with ease, making important allies at court in the process. Besides Zheng He has a background of both Buddhism and lslam.Thus,he was assumed as the perfect choice to lead the emperor’s splendid armada.(Ye Lang 2008,116)[[File:Zheng He.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Zheng He]]

====Reasons for the voyages====
The Yongle Emperor sent Zheng He to the “Western oceans”, both to demonstrate the might of the Ming Empire and to realize the diplomatic ideal of peace and harmony among all nations. Zheng He's fleet manifested the prosperity ，the imperial power ，its advanced navigation technologies and exquisite ship-building techniques of China at that time , thus many small countries and bribes agreed to recognize China as their superior and its emperor as lord of “all under Heaven”.These countries and bribes regularly gave gifts of tribute in exchange for certain benefits ,like military posts, treaties and licence to trade.(Qian Zhiqian 2005,93)
During the voyages ,Zheng He's fleet did not act as a sea ruler, but appeared in peace all over the world, laden not only with goods exchanged with those countries, but also with the friendship of peoples.(Ye Lang 2008,120)
[[File:The Yongle Emperor.jpg|500px|thumb|right|The Yongle Emperor]]
====The seven expeditions====
These expeditions were astonishing as much for their distance as for their size: during the first one, Zheng He traveled all the way from China to Southeast Asia and then on to India, all the way to major trading sites on India's southwest coast.The first expedition of this mighty armada was in 11th July of 1405, composed of 317ships and perhaps as many as sixty huge Treasure Ships and nearly 28000 men with thousands of soldiers , sailors ,diplomatic specialists ,medical personnel, astronomers and scholars.The fleet stopped in Java and then arrived at Ceylon (today’s Sri Lanka ).Compared to the first one, the second voyage(1407-1409) was smaller with only 68ships sending foreign envoys back home.(Zhen Hesheng,Zhe Yijun 1983,38)

Zheng He led the third voyage (1409-1411) visiting many of the same countries as the first one did, like Champa and Java. When fighting broke out there between his forces and those of a small kingdom, Zheng put down the fighting, captured the king and brought him back to China where he was released by the emperor and then returned home duly impressed.(Baidu Encyclopedia Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans)

The fourth voyage (1413-15) extended the scope of the expeditions even further. This time in addition to visiting many of the same sites, Zheng He commandeered his 40 ships and over 28,000 men to Hormuz on the Persian Gulf. This trip has 48 ships with doctors , officials ,translators and more than 27000 troops .
The fifth voyage (1417-1419) was primarily a return trip for seventeen heads of state from South Asia. They had made their way to China after Zheng He's visits to their homelands in order to present their tribute at the Ming Court. (Baidu Encyclopedia Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans)

The sixth voyage began in 1421 and lasted for nearly two years.Then the expeditions were halted due to the death of the Yongle emperor.It sailed to many of the previously visited Southeast Asian and Indian courts and stops in the Persian Gulf, the Red Sea, and the coast of Africa, principally in order to return nineteen ambassadors to their homelands. Zheng He returned to China after less than a year, having sent his fleet onward to pursue several separate itineraries, with some ships going perhaps as far south as Sofala in present day Mozambique.(Baidu Encyclopedia Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans)

The seventh and final voyage (1431-33) was sent out by the Yongle emperor's successor, his grandson the Xuande emperor.This expedition had more than one hundred large ships and over 27,000 men, and it visited all the important ports in the South China Sea and Indian Ocean as well as Aden and Hormuz. One auxiliary voyage traveled up the Red Sea to Jidda, only a few hundred miles from the holy cities of Mecca and Medina. It was on the return trip in 1433 that Zheng He died and was buried at sea, although his official grave still stands in Nanjing, China. Nearly forgotten in China until recently, he was immortalized among Chinese communities abroad, particularly in Southeast Asia where to this day he is celebrated and revered as a god.(Zhen Hesheng,Zhe Yijun 1983,43)
[[File:Route.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Route]]

====Terms and Expressions====
The Yongle emperor 永乐皇帝（明成祖）

Java 爪哇

Ceylon 锡兰（今斯里兰卡）

Champe 占城（印度支那古国）

Hormuz 霍尔木兹

The Persian Gulf 波斯湾

Medina 麦地那市（沙特阿拉伯西部城市）

Mecca 麦加（穆斯林圣地）

==== Questions====
1.What was Zheng He like?

2. Why did the Yongel Emperor sent the armada to the “Western oceans”?

3.How many people did Zheng He bring at the first voyage ,and what did these people do?

4.Why did the expeditions stopped during the 1423-1430?

5.The last trip was sented by?

===Answers===
1.Growing up to be a burly, imposing man, over six feet tall with a chest contemporaries said measured over five feet around, he was also extremely talented and intelligent.

2.Both to demonstrate the might of the Ming Empire and to realize the diplomatic ideal of peace and harmony among all nations.

3.He brought nearly 28000 men with thousands of soldiers , sailors ,diplomatic specialists ,medical personnel, astronomers and scholars.

4.The expeditions were halted due to the death of the Yongle emperor.

5.By the Yongle emperor's successor, his grandson the Xuande emperor.
===References===
Ye Lang 叶朗. 中国文化读本[A book of Chinese Culture][M].北京,2008,115-123.

Qian Zhiqian 钱志乾. 试论郑和下西洋的主要目的[On the purpose of Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans] [J]. 江西社会科学,2005,(02):90-94.

Zhen Hesheng,Zhe Yijun郑鹤声 ,郑一钧. 郑和下西洋简论[A brief Introduction of Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans] [J]. 吉林大学社会科学学报,1983,(01):36-48.

[Baidu Encyclopedia]百度百科.郑和 [Zheng He]

[Baidu Encyclopedia]百度百科.郑和下西洋 [Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans]

[English Encyclopedia]英语百科.郑和下西洋[Treasure Voyages]
--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 12:42, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

==Literature, China's Four Great Classical Novels - Xie Fan 解帆 202070080637 英语口译==

===China's Four Great Classical Novels===

The Four Great Works of Chinese Classical Novels, abbreviated as the Four Great Works, are ''Water Margin'', ''Romance of The Three Kingdoms'', ''Journey to the West'', and ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' (in the order of their completion).The Four Great Classical Novels are some of the classics of Chinese literature and they are considered part of the cultural heritage of the world. The status of these four masterpieces in the history of Chinese literature is difficult to distinguish with their high level of literature and artistic achievements. They are time-honored and unique among Chinese literature works, so that the stories, scenes and characters in these masterpieces have deeply influenced the thoughts and values of the Chinese people. The meticulous portrayal and the profound thoughts contained in these four masterpieces have been praised by readers in history. They can be described as the four great monuments in the history of Chinese literature.(Chen Wenxin 2019,24)

====Water Margin====

''Water Margin'', written by Shi Naian, is a novel based on an ancient peasant uprising. It vividly depicts the whole process from the occurrence, development and failure of the peasant uprising, profoundly reveals the social roots of the uprising, enthusiastically eulogues the resistance struggle of the 'heroes' of the uprising and their social ideals, and specifically reveals the internal historical reasons for the failure of the uprising. (Sun Jiancheng 2008,167)

With the occurrence and development of peasant uprising as its main line, the book describes the whole process of development for grand peasant uprising troop. Individual awakening develops into the small-scale joint resistance with the experience of different heroes, showing an inexorable law of the feudal era, that is, peasants being forced to revolt by the officials, profoundly reflecting the Song dynasty's political condition and social contradictions. Standing on the side of the oppressed, the author praised the righteous acts of the leaders of the peasant uprising, who robbed the rich to the poor and exonerated and affirmed their revolutionary spirit of daring to rebel and struggle.(Liu Keqiang 2014,96)

====Romance of the Three Kingdoms====

''Romance of The Three Kingdoms'' is a novel written by Luo Guanzhong, a novelist in the late Yuan and early Ming Dynasty. It is the first chapter novel , the first novel of historical romance, and also the first long literary novel in the history of Chinese literature. At the end of yuan dynasty and the beginning of Ming Dynasty, social contradictions were acute, peasant uprisings broke out one after another, and dynasties were divided. After years of war, Zhu Yuanzhang destroyed all the departed dynasties, overthrew the Yuan Dynasty, and established the Ming Dynasty. During the period when people were displaced, Luo Guanzhong, as a writer of zaju and stories, lived at the bottom of the society, understood and got familiar with the sufferings of the people, expected social stability and people to live and work in peace and contentment, thought as an intellectual at the bottom, and hoped to end the tragic situation caused by the turbulence. Therefore, he wrote the historical novel ''Romance of The Three Kingdoms'' on the history of the last years of the Eastern Han Dynasty. (Wang Zhiwu 2004,12)

''Romance of The Three Kingdoms'' describes the history of nearly a hundred years from the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty to the beginning of the Western Jin Dynasty. It mainly describes wars and tells the story of the warring states of the eastern Han Dynasty and the political and military struggles among The Three Kingdoms, namely, Wei, Shu and Wu. Finally, Sima Yan unified The Three Kingdoms and established the Jin Dynasty. Besides, it reflects the transformation of various social struggle and contradictions in The Three Kingdoms period, summarizes the historical changes of this era, and shapes a group of powerful heroes of The Three Kingdoms period. (Zhang Zhihe 2000,32)

====Journey to the West====

''Journey to the West'' is the first romanticism chapter novel in China, and its author is WuChenen in the Ming Dynasty. The book mainly tells a story, after the birth and havoc in heaven, Su Wukong met Tang Monk, White Dragon Horse, Zhu Bajie and Sand monk, started their journey to the West, went through 81 hardships and dangers, demons and monsters, finally arrived in the West to see the Buddha. (Chen Dakang 2000,16)

The novel is based on the historical event of Tang Monk going to study scriptures, and through the author's artistic processing, it profoundly depicts the social reality of The Ming Dynasty. The uproar in heaven in the novel reflects the resistance of the Chinese people in the feudal society through the form of fairy tales. Of course, fantasy novels reflect reality with their own characteristics, different from the general direct reflection of real life literature. The rebelin heaven erected the banner of "Monkey King", and put forward the slogan, "emperor take turns, and next is my turn" , hundreds of troops escaped, the heaven started to collapse, so that the jade emperor had to ask for external help. The plot of the fiction and fantasy based on reality of peasant uprising and peasant war. If there had not been many large-scale peasant uprisings and peasant wars that violently impacted the feudal dynasties in history, the plot of "Havoc in Heaven" could not have been so bold and the image of Sun Wukong as a rebel could not have been so brilliant. (Chen Dakang 2000,17)

====Dream of the Red Chamber====

''Dream of the Red Chamber'' was written by Cao Xueqin, a well-known writer in the Qing Dynasty. With the rise and fall of Jia, Shi, Wang as its background, with the love marriage tragedy of Jia Baoyu, Lin Daiyu, and Xue Baochai as its main line, in the perspective of rich childe Jia Baoyu, the book shows the tragic beauty, and female beauty from different angles and the phase of the ancient Chinese society of epic works. (Hu Jingzhu 2019,33)

''Dream of the Red Chamber'' was born at the end of feudal China in the 18th century. At that time, the Qing Government was closed to the outside world and the whole country was immersed in the dream of the Kang-Qian Flourishing Age and the Middle Kingdom. On the surface, the period seemed stable and peaceful, but actually all kinds of social contradictions were intensifying and developing, and the whole dynasty had reached a turning point of prosperity and decline. (Liu Mengxi 1984,41)

===Terms and Expressions===

农民起义 peasant uprising

孙悟空 Monkey King

大闹天宫 Havoc in Heaven

康乾盛世 the Kang-Qian Flourishing Age

天朝上国 the Middle Kingdom

===Questions===

1. What is the influence and status of Chinese Four Great Classical Novels?

2. What dose ''Water Margin'' mainly show?

3. Is ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' the first romanticism chapter novel in China? Which book is the first chapter novel in China?

4. Why has the plot of "Havoc in Heaven" been so bold and the image of Sun Wukong as a rebel been so brilliant?

4. What do you know about ''Dream of the Red Chamber''?

===Answers===

1. The stories, scenes and characters in these masterpieces have deeply influenced the thoughts and values of the Chinese people. They can be described as four great monuments in the history of Chinese literature.

2. It vividly depicts the whole process from the occurrence, development and failure of the peasant uprising, profoundly reveals the social roots of the uprising, enthusiastically eulogues the resistance struggle of the 'heroes' of the uprising and their social ideals, and specifically reveals the internal historical reasons for the failure of the uprising.

3. No, ''Journey to the West'' is the first romanticism chapter novel in China while ''Romance of the Three Kingdoms'' is the first chapter novel in China.

4. Because there had been many large-scale peasant uprisings and peasant wars that violently impacted the feudal dynasties in history.

4. ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' was written by Cao Xueqin, a well-known writer in the Qing Dynasty. With the rise and fall of Jia, Shi, Wang as its background, with the love marriage tragedy of Jia Baoyu, Lin Daiyu, and Xue Baochai as its main line, in the perspective of rich childe Jia Baoyu, the book shows the tragic beauty, and female beauty from different angles and the phase of the ancient Chinese society of epic works.

===References===

*Chen Dakang陈大康.(2000).《西游记》主题说的百年变迁：兼论“主题”概念的理论意义.[The Change of Theme during Hundreds of Years in ''Journey to the West'' - Discussion on the Theoretical Significance of the Theme].华东师范大学学报Journal of East China Normal University

*Chen Wenxin陈文新.(2019).中国文化视野中的“四大名著”.["The Four Great Classical Novels" from the Perspective of Chinese Culture].文化软实力研究Studies On Cultural Soft Power

*Hu Jingzhu胡静姝.(2019).《梦幻与现实的较量——浅析 < 红楼梦 > 中梦的美学意蕴》.[The Contest between Dream and Reality - A Brief Analysis of the Aesthetic Implication of ''Dream of the Red Chamber''].《汉字文化》The Culture of Chinese Characters

*Liu Keqiang刘克强.(2014).《水浒传》翻译大辞典.[The Translated Dictionary of ''Water Margin''].北京：中央编译出版社Beijing:Central Compilation Translation Press

*Liu Mengxi刘梦溪.(1984).红学三十年论文选编．[Selected Papers of Studies of Dream of the Red Chamber in the Past Three Decades].天津: 百花文艺出版社Tianjin:Baihua Literature and Art Publishing House

*Sun Jiancheng 孙建成.(2008).《水浒传》英译的语言与文化.[The Language and Culture of English Translation of ''Water Margin''].上海：复旦大学出版社Shanghai:Fudan University Press

*Wang Zhiwu王志武.(2004).《三国演义》的人物、结构和主题.[The Characters, Structure and Theme of ''Romance of The Three Kingdoms''].西北农林科技大学学报Journal of Northwest A&F University

*Zhang Zhihe张志和.(2000).《三国演义》思想意蕴试论.[Discussion on the Ideological Implication of ''Romance of The Three Kingdoms''].天津外国语学院学报Journal of Tianjin Foreign Studies University

--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:55, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Four Folk Stories of Ancient China，Xu Jia 徐佳 202070080613 MTI英语笔译==

Cowherd and Weaving Girl, Meng Jiangnu Crying on the Great Wall, the Story of the White Snake and Butterfly Lovers are the four major folk love stories in ancient China. As the most charming oral traditions and national intangible cultural heritage in China, the earliest of them has been popular for more than 2000 years, having a profound impact on people’s lives.

1. Cowherd and Weaving Girl

2. Meng Jiangnu Crying on the Great Wall

3. The Story of the White Snake

4. Butterfly Lovers

====Cowherd and Weaving Girl====

It is said that the story took place in the Western Zhou Dynasty. Cowherd was an artless and honest young man living in the Xiniu village of Nanyang city. Since his parents died early, he lived a miserable life with an old ox. One day, Weaving Girl, the daughter of the God of Heaven, came down with other fairies from heaven and took a bathe in a river near Cowherd’s house. The old ox told the Cowherd to steal her clothes so that she was unable to return to the heaven and would stay here to be his wife.（Zhong Xiaoting 2020,92)

With the help of the old ox, Weaving Girl married Cowherd and soon they had a son and a daughter. They led a happy life with husband laboring in the field and wife weaving at home. But their marriage didn't last long. It was discovered by the Queen Mother and incurred her wrath. Ignoring tearful Cowherd and two crying children, she broke up the couple and brought Weaving Girl back. It was the old ox that helped him again. It told Cowherd that it would die tonight and he needed to make three pair of shoes with its skin, which could help him go to heaven and find his wife. Cowherd followed. Just as the cowherd was about to catch up with them, however, the Queen Mother took off her golden hairpin and separate them by a large river, which is now called the Milky Way. Hopelessly, the two lovers can only look at each other across the river.（Zhong Xiaoting 2020,92)

Fortunately, touched by their love，hundreds of thousands of magpies flied and formed a bridge over the river. Finally the Queen Mother showed a little mercy, allowing them to meet once a year on the magpie bridge. The day was the seventh day of the seventh lunar month, which later has become the Chinese Valentine’s Day.(Zhao Kuifu 1990,61)

====Meng Jiangnu Crying on the Great Wall====

During the reign of the first emperor of Qin Dynasty, Fan Xilang, a young man living in the surrounding area of Mengjiang mountain in Lizhou County, Hunan Province, had just finished the hard labor and returned to his hometown to get married. But unfortunately, on the night of their wedding, Fan Xilang was sent to the north to build the Great Wall. He toiled away with hunger, cold and fatigue, and soon met a miserable death at the end of his efforts. His body was buried under the Great Wall. （Yao Kangkang 2020,77)

Meng Jiangnu, Fan’s new wife, got the bad news and went through all kinds of hardships to reach the Great Wall. She cried bitterly there for three days and three nights, and finally cried down the Great Wall and found her husband's remains. On her way to take him home, she suffered a lot and finally died of hunger and thirst in Tongguan County, Shaanxi Province. Sympathetic with the couple’s miserable experience and deeply moved by Meng’s spirits, the local people buried their remains and set up ancestral temples to commemorate them.(Huang Ruiqi 2003)

====The Story of the White Snake====

Created in the Southern Song Dynasty and prevailed in the Qing Dynasty, the Story of the White Snake is a model of Chinese folk collective creation. In the book Stories to Warn Man compiled by Feng Menglong, The White Snake under the Leifeng Pagoda has been acknowledged as the first version of this story.

After thousands of years of practice in Emei Mountain, two snake named Bai Suzhen and Xiaoqing translated into two beautiful girls and came to visit Hangzhou. After encountering with a young man named Xu Xian in the rain, Bai Suzhen fell in love with him and soon later they get married. But a monk called Fahai saw through Bai’s disguise and thought that it was an intrigue of the white snake to marry a man. He persuaded Xu Xian to intoxicate his wife with realgar wine on the Dragon Boat Festival. After being drunk, Bai Suzhen couldn’t control herself and showed the shape of a snake, which scared Xu Xian to death. Regardless of her own safety, Bai Suzhen went through many difficulties and got the magical grass, which finally brought Xu Xian back to life.（Zhou Xia 2020）

But Fahai did not give up. He then lured Xu Xian to the Jinshan Temple to separate the couple. Bai Suzhen and Xiao Qing had no choice but to inundate the temple with flood. During the fierce battle, Bai was finally defeated and put into a small bowl under the Leifeng Pagoda.(Wang Yibing 1999)

====Butterfly Lovers====

During the Eastern Jin Dynasty, Zhu Yingtai, a beautiful and intelligent girl born in a rich family in Shangyu County, Zhejiang Province, wanted to go to Hangzhou to study for there was no good teacher at home. Her father, seeing her eagerness to learn and her ability to disguise herself as a man, finally agreed to her request. On the way to Hangzhou, Zhu Yingtai met Liang Shanbo, a young man who had the same destination with her. He was sincere, gentle and knowledgeable and they clicked immediately. During the school years, they often talked about poetry and articles, cared for each other, and slept in the same bed at night. Zhu had gradually fallen in love with Liang, who, though did not know she was a girl, also cherished her and saw her as his best friend.（Lin Liangliang 2020, 57)

Three years passed quickly. The moment when they had to part, Zhu constantly gave delicate indications to Liang that she was a girl and she loved him, but Liang failed to take her hint. Zhu had no choice but to lied to Liang that she had a little sister who was similar to her in appearance and learning and she wondered if Liang was willing to marry her. Liang Shanbo readily consented and promised that he would come to visit soon. A months later, Liang Shanbo went to Zhu's home and he was surprised to see Zhu Yingtai dressed up as a girl. Only then did he know the truth and figured all the things out. They then confessed their love to each other and pledged to marry without the permission of parents. （Lin Liangliang 2020, 58)

But unfortunately, Zhu’s parents didn’t think much of this poor young man. They wanted to marry their daughter to Ma Wencai, the son of the local governor. Zhu Yingtai was unwilling to marry him but her protest was in vain, for her family was in financial crisis and needed Ma’s support. Hopelessly, the two young lovers was forced to part in tears. Since then, Liang slid into a depression. His spirit and health were soon crushed, and he died a few months later. On the wedding day, Zhu asked for a detour to pass by Liang 's tomb so that she could say goodbye to him. Wearing a bright red wedding dress, she knelt in front of his grave and cried bitterly. At that moment, lighting flashed, thunder rolled and the sky went dark. Liang's tomb suddenly cracked open and Ying-tai immediately jumped into it before it closed. Then under the shocked eyes of the onlookers, a pair of beautiful butterflies flied out of the graves and dancing in the sunlight. It is believed that these two butterflies are Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai. They finally get rid of all the shackles and bounds and can stay together forever.(Jin Huiling 2007)

Having been adapted into many films and TV plays, these four stories are well-known in China and the rest of the world. As the crystallization of folk culture, they not only represent the rich imagination of ancient Chinese people, but also show their hatred for evil forces and their pursuit for a free and happy life, which is exactly the positive part of folk literature.

===Terms and Expressions===

Cowherd and Weaving Girl 牛郎织女

Meng Jiangnu Crying on the Great Wall 孟姜女哭长城

Butterfly Lovers 梁山伯与祝英台

the Queen Mother 王母娘娘

Stories to Warn Man 《警世通言》

The White Snake under the Leifeng Pagoda 《白娘子永镇雷峰塔》

===Questions===

1.What led to the death of Meng Jiangnu’s husband?

2.What did Xu Xian give Bai Suzhen to drink that made her reveal her snake form?

3.What did the Cowherd do to make Weaving Girl stay?

4.When did Liang Shanbo realize that Zhu Yingtai is actually a girl?

5.Why did Zhu Yingtai lie to Liang Shanbo that she has a little sister?

===Answers===

1.He was sent to build the Great Wall and died for hunger,cold and fatigue.

2.Realgar wine

3.He stole her clothes while she was taking a shower.

4.The first time Liang Shanbo went to Zhu's home,where he saw Zhu Yingtai dressed up as a girl.

5.The little sister she referred to is actually herself,and in this way she hinted at her love to Liang Shanbo.

===References===

Jin Huiling. Qin Yinan. (2007). 爱支撑的文化天堂——《罗密欧与朱丽叶》和《梁山伯与祝英台》[A Cultural Paradise Supported by Love - Romeo and Juliet and Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai] 社会科学论坛：学术研究卷Social Science Forum: Academic Research Volume(5):194-197.

Wang Yibing. (1999). 白蛇传故事的文化意蕴[The Cultural Implications of the Story of the White Snake].廊坊师专学报 Journal of Langfang Teachers College(4):12-18.

Huang Ruiqi. (2003). 孟姜女故事研究[A Study of the Story of Meng Jiang Nu] 北京：中国人民大学出版社. Beijing: People's University of China Press.

Zhao Kuifu. (1990). 论牛郎织女故事的产生与主题[On the Generation and Theme of the Story of the Cowherd and the Weaver]. 西北师大学报. Northwest Normal University Journal(4):56-63.

Zhong Xiaoting.(2020). 牛郎织女故事漫谈三则Three Rambling Stories of the Cowherd and the Weaving Maiden].美与时代. Beauty and the Times(10);92-94.

Yao Kangkang.(2020). 镇原送寒衣的风俗和孟姜女的传说[The Custom of Sending Cold Clothes to Zhen Yuan and the Legend of Meng Jiang Nu].甘肃政协.Journal of Gansu Political Consultative Committee:77-79.

Zhou Xia.(2020).《白蛇转》：白娘子的前世今生.[The White Snake: The Past Life of Bai Niang Zi].中国电影报.China Film News.

Lin Liangliang. (2020).梁祝传说中的原型及其内涵阐发.The Archetype and Its Connotation in the Legend of Liang Zhu. 名作欣赏. Masterpiece Appreciation(10):56-60.

--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 12:39, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia

==Architecture, Four Great Pavilions-Xu Jing 许静 202070080614 MTI英语笔译==
===Four Great Pavilions===
A pavilion, a building style with great Chinese characteristics, is not only a place for passers-by to rest their feet, but also an important landscape building with garden art. At the foot of the mountains, by the lakeside and deep in the forest, we can always see pavilions that are half-hidden, and half-exposed, subtly adding colour to the landscape scenery. (Qian Long 2009, 50)

Where there are pavilions, there are stories, and there are four famous pavilions in China - the Old Drunkard Pavilion in Chuzhou, the Tao Ran Pavilion in Beijing, the Ai Wan Pavilion in Changsha and the Hu Xin Pavilion in Hangzhou. All of them are famous for their poems and articles written by ancient writers and scholars. (Qian Long 2009, 50)

====The Old Drunkard Pavilion====

Zuiweng Ting, or the Old Drunkard Pavilion is located at the foot of the Langya Mountain in Chuzhou, Anhui Province. The Old Drunkard Pavilion was built in 1046 AD, the sixth year of the Northern Song Dynasty's reign of Emperor Renzong. This pavilion is the subject of a well-known work written by Ouyang Xiu, an essayist of the Song dynasty, called The Story of the Old Drunkard. (Liu Xuan 2012, 21)

It is said that Ouyang Xiu was demoted to Chuzhou to serve as the prefect. Feeling indignant at the time, he devoted his soul into nature. He often came with friends and guests to Langya Mountain for fun, or to Langya Temple to drink wine and express their emotion. In order to give Ouyang Xiu a rest and a drink, the Langya Monastery monk Zhisian built this pavilion halfway up the mountain. The pavilion was named 'the Old Drunkard Pavilion' by Ouyang Xiu, who called himself “ the Old Drunkard”. (Liu Xuan 2012, 21)

The pavilion has a compact layout with small, unique pavilions that are characteristic of the gardens of the south of the Yangtze River, and although the total area of the pavilion is less than 1,000 square metres, there are nine buildings——the Old Drunkard Pavilion, Bao Song Zhai, Feng Gong Ancestral Hall, Ancient Plum Blossom Pavilion, Shadow Fragrance Pavilion, Yi Zai Pavilion, Fear Pavilion, Ancient Plum Blossom Pavilion, and the View Terrace——of different styles, and are known as the “Nine Views of the Old Grunkard Pavilion”. (Liu Xuan 2012, 21)

Although the Old Drunkard pavilion has been plundered many times over the centuries, it still inviting to people. Today, the thousand-year old scenery here is even more spectacular and alluring. (Liu Xuan 2012, 21)

====Tao Ran Pavilion====

The Tao Ran Pavilion in Beijing was built in 1695, the 34th year of Emperor Kangxi's reign in the Qing dynasty, by Jiang Zao, who then served in the Ministry of Public Works. Jiang Zao named the pavilion after Bai Juyi's poem, "Waiting for the chrysanthemum to ripen, we get drunk in blitheness". This small pavilion is quite popular among ancient writers. (Qian Long 2009, 50)

The modern Taoran Pavilion is a new modern urban garden that integrates ancient architecture and modern gardening art, highlighting the Chinese national pavilion culture as its main content. In the garden, there are verdant trees, lush flowers and grasses, jagged buildings and pavilions. On the Mid-lake Island, there are Jinqiu dun, Swallow Head Hill, and Tao Ran pavilion into a tripod. On top of Jinqiu dun there is Jinqiu pavilion, the site of which was the site of the Flower Fairy Shrine. At the southern foot of the pavilion, there is Rose Hill, which is the site of the original incense mound, the parrot mound and the tomb of the golden flower. (Chang Yi 2007, 60)

In the quiet pine forest at the foot of the northern pavilion, there are the tombs of Gao Junyu and Shi Pingmei, which are famous. At the top of Swallow Head Hill, there is the Green View Pavilion, which is opposite the Jinqiu Pavilion, and at the southwest of the pavilion, there is the Chengguang Pavilion, which is the most suitable place to look at the lake and the mountains. (Qian Long 2009, 50)

====Ai Wan Pavilion====

The Ai Wan Pavilion is located in the Qingfeng Gorge at the foot of Mount Yuelu in Hunan Province, and is surrounded by mountains on three sides. The pavilion was built in 1792 by Luo Dian(罗典), Dean of the Yuelu Academy, and was originally called the Red Leaf Pavilion. It was later renamed by Bi Yuan(毕沅), Governor of Hunan and Guangzhou Province, based on a poem by Du Mu(杜牧), a poet of the Tang Dynasty, which reads, "The stone paths of the cold mountains are steep, and there are homes in the depths of the white clouds. Sitting on the Maple Forest in the evening, the frost leaves turn red in the February flowers" ("Mountain Journey"). (Qian Long 2009, 50)

After many major repairs in the reign of Tongzhi, Guangxu, Xuantong, and in Republic of China and after the founding of the People's Republic of China, it comes into its pattern today. The shape of the pavilion is eight columns with heavy eaves, glazed glass and blue tiles, the corner of the pavilion is flying, and it looks like flying from a distance. The inside is pillar in lacquer while the outside are four stone pillars made by granite. (Chang Yi 2007, 60)

Apart from painted caisson ceiling, there are gilt lettering "Ai Wan Pavilion" on a red background on the east and west sides of the pavilion, which was made by handwriting written by Mao Zedong, at the request of Li Da, the then president of Hunan University. The pavilion is surrounded by hills on three sides, and is open to the east, with a flat vertical and horizontal space of more than 33 metres, with purple and lush greenery and uninterrupted flowing springs. There is a pond in front of the pavilion, with rows of peach and willow trees. There are maple trees all around, with red leaves all over the mountains in late autumn. (Chang Yi 2007, 60)

====Hu Xin Pavilion====

Hu Xin Pavilion, or Mid-lake Pavilion is situated in the centre of the West Lake in Hangzhou, Zhejiang. Initially known as "Zhenlu Pavilion", and "Qingxi Pavilion", it was built in the 31st year of Jiajing in the Ming Dynasty (1552 AD) and was renamed “Hu Xin Pavilion” after the Ming Dynasty. (Qian Long 2009, 50)

The pavilion is built looking like a tower and is surrounded by water on all sides. When you look around, not only does the lake ripple, but also the mountains stand like a screen enveloping it. The west side of the pavilion is the south and north peaks of the West Lake, which is very spectacular. (Qian Long 2009, 50)

It is one of the 18 scenes of West Lake in Qing Dynasty. Yongzheng wrote in his Records of the West Lake: the pavilion is in the centre of the lake; in the past there was a temple and outside it were three towers, which both were destroyed in the reign of Ming Xiaozong. County said: outside the temple were three towers, while only the north tower conserved, upon which a pavilion was built, that is the Mid-lake Pavilion; the old base of the temple was rebuilt as De Sheng Hall, a place to release. According to this, the old Hu Xin Temple was the current Release Pond, and the present Hu Xin Pavilion was the base of the north tower among the other three. (Chang Yi 2007, 60)

The Qing emperor Qianlong once inscribed a plaque on the pavilion with the inscription "Quietly observe the world"(“静观万类”) and the couplet "Waves surge and the lake is far away, the mountains prompt the water is deep"(“波涌湖光远，山催水色深”). Besides, the inscription on the pavilion's pillars by Hu Laichao(胡来朝) is worth mentioning: “The four seasons are filled with music and songs, and the poor are still grieving over the moon; the six bridges are filled with flowers and willows, and there is no room for mulberry and hemp.” The meaning is even more profound to the visitor. (Qian Long 2009, 50)

===Terms and Expressions===

The Old Drunkard Pavilion 醉翁亭

Nine Views of the Old Drunkard Pavilion 醉翁九景

Tao Ran Pavilion 陶然亭

glazed glass and blue tiles 琉璃碧瓦

Ai Wan Pavilion 爱晚亭

Mountain Journey 《山行》

Hu Xin Pavilion/ Mid-lake Pavilion 湖心亭

County 《县志》

===Questions===

1. Which pavilion is named by the poem of Du Mu？

2. When Did “Hu Xin Pavilion” well established its name?

3. Which pavilion is located in Beijing?

4. Where can we enjoy maple trees in Autumn among the four pavilions?

5. What do you think is the Old Drunkard Pavilion famous for?

===Answers===
1. Ai Wan Pavilion.

2. After the Ming Dynasty.

3. Tao Ran Pavilion.

4. Ai Wan Pavilion.

5. It is said that Ouyang Xiu was demoted to Chuzhou to do the imperial guard and the Old Drunkard Pavilion was built for him and named after him.

===References===
*千龙.中国四大名亭[J].兵团建设,2009(14):50.

*刘璇.醉翁亭以中国“四大”名亭之一天下第一亭大文学家欧阳修《醉翁亭记》名声享誉中华[J].中国地名,2012(09):20-21.

*常翼.我国的四大名亭[J].新长征,2007(06):60.

*https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/slU9b2notV9xKekROxCZuw

*https://baike.so.com/doc/6569739-6783501.html

*https://baike.so.com/doc/5632595-5845219.html

--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 00:34, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Architecture, Three Great Towers in China, Yang chenting 杨晨婷 No.202070080615 MTI 英语笔译==

===Three Great Towers in China===

1. Yellow Crane Tower

2. Yueyang Tower

3.The Pavilion of Prince Teng

Three great towers in China are Yellow Crane Tower in Wuhan, Hubei Province; Yueyang Tower in Yueyang, Hunan Province; and the Pavilion of Prince Teng in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. As representatives of traditional Chinese architecture, they are the symbols of splendid culture for over five thousand years.

====Yellow Crane Tower====

The tower today we see in Wuhan is not the original building, and it has a very long and complicated history. Yellow Crane Tower, built in 223 during the Three Kingdoms period (220-280), was embodied with a perfect location. Because of this, the king of Wu, Sun Quan, held it as a watchtower for his troops. For hundreds of years, its military function has gradually been forgotten, which now mainly serves as a scenic spot, attracting millions of tourists at home and abroad. （Chen Xiansong 2018,08）

During the Tang Dynasty, many popular poets, like Cui Hao, Li Bai, and Bai Juyi wrote poems to praise Yellow Crane Tower. It can be said that due to their description and admiration of the tower, it became renowned and made people want to pay a visit. In the following centuries, unfortunately, it was destroyed and rebuilt several times. In the Ming and Qing dynasties alone, the tower was destroyed seven times and rebuilt seven times. In 1884, because of fire, it was completely destroyed and was not rebuilt until 1981. Now, it stands on the banks of the Yangtze River at the top of Snake Hill. (Zhang Chi 2002,02)

Different dynasties have greatly influenced the architectural features of it. However, the one we see today is a one rebuilt in Qing Dynasty. It is 51.4 meters (168 feet) tall, with five floors, which looks the same from any direction. The roof is covered by 100,000 yellow glazed tiles. With the tiles on the top, the design of each floor seems to resemble a yellow crane ready to fly. (English for tour guides 2017)[[File:Yellow Crane Tower.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Yellow Crane Tower]]

====Yueyang Tower====

Yueyang Tower is located at the western gate of Yueyang Ancient City, Hunan Province, overlooking Lake Dongting from its perch on the eastern shore of the lake. On the opposite side of Yueyang Tower flows the mighty Yangtze River. Therefore, it’s no doubt that its military function was important.

In 716, with the governance of Emperor Xuanzong of the Tang Dynasty, Yueyang Tower was reconstructed. Its beauty and its good place overlooking Lake Dongting made it receive a lot of literary praise. For example, in 1045, the governor of Ba Ling County, Teng Zijing, invited his friends, including one familiar with us—Fan Zhongyan, to write an essay in honor of the newly-reconstructed Yueyang Tower. (Gong Qijian 2012,13)

The current 20-meter-high pavilion with its four pillars made of rot-resistant nanmu trees, its three storeys with upturned eaves and its unique construction method stems from a major reconstruction in 1867, during the Qing Dynasty. There are two other pavilions, Sanzui Pavilion and Xianmei Pavilion, on either side of Yueyang Tower. And to the north of Yueyang Tower lies the tomb of Xiaoqiao, the wife of Zhou Yu, the famous military advisor in the Three Kingdoms Period. The splendid scenery of Yueyang Tower attracted the attention of many renowned poets of the Tang Dynasty, such as Li Bai, Du Fu, Bai Juyi and Li Shangyin, who wrote poems to paise it after paying a visit there. These works are preserved and cherished, and are on display in the Corridor of Poems and Calligraphy at Yueyang Tower. Thanks to those poets, they made Yueyang Tower keeps attracting people all the time. （Xiong Shengyuan 2015,06）

Yueyang Tower has long enjoyed the title of being the “First Tower under Heaven”, while Lake Dongting, near it, enjoys the reputation of being known as the “First Water under Heaven”. （Chinese scenery 2010）[[File:Yueyang Tower.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Yueyang Tower]]

====The Pavilion of Prince Teng====

Tengwang Pavilion, located in the northwest of Nanchang, Jiangxi Province, is an imperial building constructed more than 1,300 years ago. It was built in 659 by Li Yuanying, the son of the first emperor of Tang Dynasty and the brother of Li Shimin. Because of missing his hometown—Tengzhou, he built this pavilion. The pavilion was named “Tengwangge” after Yuanying, who was crowned “Prince of Teng” during the Zhenguan reign. Along with the Yellow Crane Tower in Wuhan, Hubei Province, and Yueyang Pavilion in Yueyang, Hunan Province, the pavilion of Prince Teng is famous as the “Three Great Pavilions” in China.（Xie Jianlin 2018,11）

What is rare to see in Chinese history is that the Pavilion of Prince Teng was destroyed and rebuilt 29 times, the same fate as Yellow Crane Tower. In January 2001, the Pavilion was named as one of the first batch of national 4A level tourist attractions and was approved as a national key scenic spot by the State Council of China in 2004. (Yin Minghui 2018,04)

For thousands of years, the Pavilion of Prince Teng, with its beautiful scenery and its abundant culture, has been an ideal place for writers and poets to create works. For thousands of years, many artists, poets and writers have paid a visit to this pavilion to get some inspiration for their works.

The Pavilion of Prince Teng has always been an auspicious building for Nanchang people. The cultural stories that have been passed down reflect people’s good wishes for good things, but also reveal the easy-going nature of the local people. Nanchang locals may not be aware of their attachment to the pavilion except when they are in a foreign land. It is at such times that they are able to feel their own cultural heritage and nostalgia for the pavilion. (Today China 2018)

[[File:The Pavilion of Prince Teng.jpg|500px|thumb|right|The Pavilion of Prince Teng]]

====Terms and Expressions====

Watchtower n. 瞭望塔

The Three King Periods 三国时期

Yangtze River 长江

Upturned eave 飞檐

4A level tourist attractions 4A级旅游景区

State Council of China 中国国务院

Nostalgia n. 怀旧

Storey n. 层

Glazed tile 琉璃瓦

====Questions====

1. What are the three great towers in China?

2. What's the function of the Yellow Crane Tower at the very beginning?

3. What's the cause of the Yellow Crane Tower’s completely destroying?

4. Where can tourists appreciate the beautiful scenery of Lake Dongting?

5. What does the Pavilion of Prince Teng mean to local people?

====Answers====

1. The three great towers are Yellow Crane Tower, Yueyang Tower, and the Pavilion of Prince Teng.

2. It served as a watchtower, i.e., military function.

3. It was because of the fire, which burned it down.

4. Tourists can appreciate the scenery from Yueyang Tower.

5. It has always been an auspicious building for Nanchang people and the story about it reflected people’s good wishes for good things.

====References====

Fang Wenhua 方华文. (2010). ''中国名山名水''[Chinese Scenery]. Anhui: Science and Technology Press 安徽科学技术出版社.

Qiu Huijun邱慧钧. (2002). 江南三大名楼[Three great towers in China]. ''风景名胜''Travel(01).

Wu Zhijun吴志军. (2008).江南三大名楼旅游形象测量与比较[The comparison of the image of three great towers]. ''江西财经大学学报''Journal of Jiangxi University of Finance & Economics (04).

Zhang Ju 张炬. (2017). ''导游英语''[Tourist Guide English]. Beijing: Beijing Institute of Technology北京理工大学.

Zheng Zhangmin 郑张敏. (2011). 关于中华古建筑专用名词翻译风格的思考.[A consideration on the translation of the name of Chinese ancient buildings] ''北京建筑工程学院学报''Journal of Beijing University of Civil Engineering and Architecture (04) 72-75.

--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:44, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting

==Tourism, Nanjing-An Ancient Capital of Six Dynasties Yang Hairong 杨海容 202070080616 英语笔译==

<center>杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616</center>

===Nanjing-An Ancient Capital of Six Dynasties===

===A. Geographical Location, Economy and Military Defence===

Nanjing was also called Jinling, Moling, Jianye and Jiankang in ancient times. In the first year of Huanglong in the Eastern Wu Dynasty (229 years), Emperor Wu, Sun Quan, established the capital here, and the rise of Nanjing since then made China's political center out of the pattern of the Yellow River cultural plate, leading the development of the Yangtze River Basin and the entire southern region of China. Since then, the Song, Qi, Liang, and Chen of the Eastern Jin and Southern Dynasties successively established their capitals here, so Nanjing is known as the "Ancient Capital of the Six Dynasties". Nanjing City in the Six Dynasties has an important position in the history of China's capital city development. (Lu Haiming，2002)

Nanjing was also called Jinling, Moling, Jianye and Jiankang in ancient times. In the first year of Huanglong in the Eastern Wu Dynasty (229 years), Emperor Wu, Sun Quan, established the capital here, and the rise of Nanjing since then made China's political center out of the pattern of the Yellow River cultural plate, leading the development of the Yangtze River Basin and the entire southern region of China. Since then, the Song, Qi, Liang, and Chen of the Eastern Jin and Southern Dynasties successively established their capitals here, so Nanjing is known as the "Ancient Capital of the Six Dynasties". Nanjing City in the Six Dynasties has an important position in the history of China's capital development. (Lu Haiming，2002)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 08:27, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

Feng Shui (风水) in Nanjing is good. According to Feng Shui theory, the base site of Yang House (city, village, housing, yin house refers to tomb) is best to choose a place where Yin and Yang are embraced, meaning that there is a main mountain behind the base site; There is a crescent-shaped pond or river in front, and there is a mountain on the opposite side of the pond or river, and there is a super mountain on the opposite side of the mountain. (Lu Haiming，2002)

Feng Shui (风水) in Nanjing stands out. According to Feng Shui, the base site of Yang House (city, village, housing, yin house refers to tomb) is best to choose a place where Yin and Yang(阴和阳) are embraced, meaning that there is a main mountain behind the base site; There is a crescent-shaped pond or river in front, and there is a mountain on the opposite side of the pond or river. Also, there is a super mountain on the opposite side of the mountain. (Lu Haiming，2002)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

The main mountain of Nanjing is Jilong Mountain and Fuzhou Mountain; there is like a green dragon on the left, a white tiger on the right, a Zhongshan Mountain on the left is a green dragon, and a stone mountain on the right is the white tiger. On the opposite side, there is Chaoshan Mountain named Niushou Mountain, and Xuanwu Lake behind Nanjing City (Sun Wu and Dong Jin dynasties called Beihu or Houhu Lake, and the name was changed by the Liu Song Dynasty). (Lu Haiming，2002)

The main mountain of Nanjing is Jilong Mountain and Fuzhou Mountain; there is "a green dragon" on the left and a white tiger on the right. A Zhongshan Mountain on the left is a green dragon, and a stone mountain on the right is the white tiger. On the opposite, there is the Chaoshan Mountain named Niushou Mountain, and Xuanwu Lake behind Nanjing City (Sun Wu and Dong Jin dynasties called Beihu or Houhu Lake, and the name was changed by the Liu Song Dynasty). (Lu Haiming，2002)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

During the Six Dynasties, Yangzhou was the economic center of the south, and the Sanwu area was the center of gravity. Sun Wu decided to make the capital of Nanjing in the early stage of material transportation. Later, a man-made canal was dug to open the waterway between Sanwu and Nanjing. As a result, Sanwu’s materials no longer need to detour through the Yangtze River, and Nanjing’s status as the capital of the country is consolidated. (Lu Haiming，2002)

During the Six Dynasties, Yangzhou was regarded as the economic center of the south, and the Sanwu area was the center of gravity. Sun Wu decided to make Nanjing in the early stage of material transportation. Later, a man-made canal was dug to open the waterway between Sanwu and Nanjing. As a result, Sanwu’s materials no longer need to detour through the Yangtze River, and Nanjing’s status as the capital is consolidated. (Lu Haiming，2002)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

The Six Dynasties coexisted with the northern regimes for a long time and had the protective effect of the Yangtze River. However, the Yangtze River was not the first line of defense but the last trench. The natural peripheral military defense line of the Six Dynasties was between the Yellow River and the Yangtze River, including the Yellow River, Qinhuai River and Yangtze River. In addition, there are some military important towns. (Lu Haiming，2002)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

====Terms and Expressions====

Feng Shui theory风水学

Yang House 阳宅

Yin House 阴宅

The main mountain主山

Xuanwu Lake玄武湖

man-made canal 人工运河

Six Dynasties 六朝

Qinhuai River秦淮河

the first line of defense第一防线

trench天堑

====Questions====

1.Why Feng Shui in Nanjing is good?

2.During the Six Dynasties, which city was the economic center of the south?

3.What contributions does the man-made canal built between Sanwu and Nanjing make?

4.What kind of role does the Yangtze River play in protection?

5. What were Nanjing’s natural peripheral military defense line of the Six Dynasties?

====Answers====

1.The main mountain of Nanjing is Jilong Mountain and Fuzhou Mountain; there is like a green dragon on the left, a white tiger on the right, a Zhongshan Mountain on the left is a green dragon, and a stone mountain on the right is the white tiger. On the opposite side, there is Chaoshan Mountain named Niushou Mountain, and Xuanwu Lake behind Nanjing City.

2.Yangzhou.

3.As a result, Sanwu’s materials no longer need to detour through the Yangtze River, and Nanjing’s status as the capital of the country is consolidated.

4.the Yangtze River was not the first line of defense but the last trench.

5.The natural peripheral military defense line of the Six Dynasties was between the Yellow River and the Yangtze River, including the Yellow River, Qinhuai River and Yangtze River.

===B. Nature and Humanities===

The so-called "beauty" refers to the natural environment and cultural landscape in Nanjing. "Jiangnan is a beautiful land and an emperor state", which is the poet's description of Nanjing. Nanjing is known as the metaphor of "the golden powder of the Six Dynasties is the best in the world", and there is also the tale of "Qinhuai and the blue waves reflect the beauty". There are not only beautiful natural scenery, but also many historical monuments; there are antique ancient buildings and a large number of modern facilities, so it has become a famous tourist attraction at home and abroad. There are as many as 154 places of historical interest listed as national, provincial and municipal cultural relics protection units. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)

The so-called "beauty" refers to the natural environment and cultural landscape in Nanjing. "Jiangnan is a beautiful land and an emperor state", which is a poet's description of Nanjing. Nanjing is known as the metaphor of "the golden powder of the Six Dynasties is the best in the world", and there is also the tale of "Qinhuai and the blue waves reflect the beauty". There is not only beautiful natural scenery, but also many historical monuments; there are antique ancient buildings and a large number of modern facilities, so it has become a famous tourist attraction at home and abroad. There are as many as 154 places of historical interest listed as national, provincial, and municipal cultural relics protection units. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

The natural and cultural landscape here not only reveals the beauty of the south of the Yangtze River, but also maintains the majesty of the North. In Nanjing, the masculine and feminine complement each other. The strong impact of the Yellow River and the Yangtze River basin makes Nanjing unparalleled and embodies the beauty of the blending of north and south. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)

The natural and cultural landscape there not only reveal the beauty of the south of the Yangtze River but also maintains the majesty of the North. In Nanjing, the masculine and feminine complement each other. The strong impact of the Yellow River and the Yangtze River basin makes Nanjing unparalleled and embodies the beauty of the blending of north and south. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

The main folklore activities in Nanjing include Lantern Festival Lantern Festival, Tomb-sweeping Outing, Dragon Boat Festival, Mid-Autumn Festival, Chongyang Festival, Laba Festival porridge, New Year welcoming God of Wealth, etc. The folk customs of Nanjing are sincere and have a long history. "Fancy but not slick" is the essence of Nanjing folk customs. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)

The main folklore activities in Nanjing include Lantern Festival, Tomb-sweeping Outing, Dragon Boat Festival, Mid-Autumn Festival, Chongyang Festival, Laba Festival porridge, New Year welcoming God of Wealth, etc. The folk customs of Nanjing have a long history. "Fancy but not slick" is the essence of Nanjing folk customs. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

Nanjing embraces colorful cultures, and is integrated into folk customs; folk customs have enriched cultures, and Nanjing's folk entertainment is full of rich cultural connotations. The traditional folk entertainments including dragon lantern dance, the Huatai Festival, social fire in Lishui area, Fangshan drum in Jiangning area, hand lion dance in Jiangpu area etc. These entertainments seem simple, but they are deeply loved by local people.Moreover, People live in Naning will have these traditional customs including climbing the Zijin Mountain, eating black rice, holding Jinling Lantern Festival and so on.(Zhu Yaoting, 2003)

Nanjing embraces abundant cultures, and is integrated into folk customs; folk customs have enriched cultures, and Nanjing's folk entertainment is full of rich cultural connotations. The traditional folk entertainments include dragon lantern dance, the Huatai Festival, social fire in Lishui area, Fangshan drum in Jiangning area, hand lion dance in Jiangpu area, etc. These entertainments seem simple, but they are deeply loved by local people.Moreover, People live in Naning will have these traditional customs including climbing the Zijin Mountain, eating black rice, holding Jinling Lantern Festival and so on.(Zhu Yaoting, 2003)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

====Terms and Expressions====

Lantern Festival Lantern Festival 元宵节

Tomb-sweeping Outing 清明节

Dragon Boat Festival 端午节

Mid-Autumn Festival 中秋节

Chongyang Festival 重阳节

Laba Festival porridge 腊八节

God of Wealth 财神

dragon lantern dance舞龙灯

Fangshan drum 方山大鼓

the Huatai Festival花台会

black rice 乌饭

historical interest名胜古迹

====Questions====

1.How poems describe Nanjing?

2.How many places of historical interest listed as national, provincial and municipal cultural relics protection units in Nanjing?

3.What are main folklore activities in Nanjing?

4.What is the essence of Nanjing folk customs?

5.People who live in Jiangning area of Nanjing like what kind of folk entertainment?

====Answer====

1.Nanjing is known as the metaphor of "the golden powder of the Six Dynasties is the best in the world", and there is also the tale of "Qinhuai and the blue waves reflect the beauty".

2.There are as many as 154 places of historical interest listed as national, provincial and municipal cultural relics protection units.

3.The main folklore activities in Nanjing include Lantern Festival Lantern Festival, Tomb-sweeping Outing, Dragon Boat Festival, Mid-Autumn Festival, Chongyang Festival, Laba Festival porridge, New Year welcoming God of Wealth, etc.

4."Fancy but not slick" is the essence of Nanjing folk customs.

5.Fangshan drum.

===C. The Lantern Festival in Nanjing===

The fifteenth day of the first lunar month is the night of the first full moon in the lunar calendar year. The Lantern Festival started as a sacrificial offering and gradually became a grand and enthusiastic entertainment festival. In ancient times, the Lantern Festival included one day. In Tang Dynasty it was 16th to 18th of the first month in the lunar calendar, which involved three days; In Song Dynasty, it was 14th to 18th which involved five days; In Ming Dynasty, as Zhu Yuanzhang became the emperor in Nanjing, the Lantern Festival was extended to ten days, that is, from 8th to 17th of the first month in the lunar calendar, and on 18th the lantern lights turned off. The food has also changed from eating bean porridge to tasting glutinous rice balls (汤圆). (Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)

[[File:The Confucius Temple.jpg|300px|thumb|right|The Confucius Temple]]

The fifteenth day of the first lunar month is the night of the first full moon in the lunar calendar year. The Lantern Festival starts as a sacrificial offering and gradually became a grand and enthusiastic entertainment festival. In ancient times, the Lantern Festival included one day. In Tang Dynasty it was 16th to 18th of the first month in the lunar calendar, which involved three days; In Song Dynasty, it was from 14th to 18th which involved five days; In Ming Dynasty, as Zhu Yuanzhang became the emperor in Nanjing, the Lantern Festival was extended to ten days, that is, from 8th to 17th of the first month in the lunar calendar, and on 18th the lantern lights turned off. The food has also changed from eating bean porridge to tasting glutinous rice balls (汤圆). (Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

During Ming and Qing Dynasties, there was a custom of playing dragon lanterns and hanging gauze lanterns. Playing Dragon Lantern is not only played by ordinary people, but also by the soldiers. The length of the lantern is not as long as other places can. The short one is more than ten feet, the long is more than a hundred knots, and it can be played by hundreds of people. Yarn lanterns have satin silk fabrics, and there are celebrities painting on them, the more painting by the masters, the higher the value. Merchants will also hold lantern riddles activities in front of the store, attracting many tourists, and those who guess the prize will be rewarded. (Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)

During Ming and Qing Dynasties, there was a custom of playing dragon lanterns and hanging gauze lanterns. Playing Dragon Lantern was not only played by ordinary people, but also by the soldiers. The length of the lantern was not as long as other places can. The short one is more than ten feet, the long one is more than a hundred knots, and it can be played by hundreds of people. Yarn lanterns have satin silk fabrics, and there are celebrities painting on them, the more painting by the masters, the higher the value. Merchants will also hold lantern riddles activities in front of the store, attracting many tourists, and those who guess the prize will be rewarded. (Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

There is a lantern shaped in horse pioneered by Nanjing people. The lantern is covered with candles inside. Using the principle of thermal expansion of the air, the lamp surface is driven to rotate. The lamp surface is painted with various postures of horses galloping like ten thousand horses. British scholar Needham called it an invention of ancient Chinese people. The dragon lanterns are majestic, the gauze lanterns are exquisite, colorful, and vigorous, attracting the long dwelling and entertaining guests out of the city, singing and laughing. In recent decades, the Lantern Festival at the Confucius Temple has become more and more prosperous, using new technology, new materials, sound and light control, and it is colorful, vivid and dazzling. The lantern festival will last for one month starting from the Spring Festival. During this period, it attracted as many as two or three million tourists from all over the world every day.(Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)

There is a lantern-shaped in horse pioneered by the Nanjing people. The lantern is covered with candles inside. Using the principle of thermal expansion of the air, the lamp surface is driven to rotate. The lamp surface is painted with various postures of horses galloping like ten thousand horses. British scholar Needham called it "an invention of ancient Chinese people". The dragon lanterns are majestic, the gauze lanterns are exquisite, colorful, and vigorous, attracting the long dwelling and entertaining guests out of the city, singing and laughing. In recent decades, the Lantern Festival at the Confucius Temple has become more and more prosperous, using new technology, new materials, sound and light control, and it is colorful, vivid and dazzling. The lantern festival will last for one month starting from the Spring Festival. During this period, it attracted as many as two or three million tourists from all over the world every day.(Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

====Terms and Expressions====

the first month in the lunar calendar正月

glutinous rice balls 汤圆

satin silk fabrics楮练纱帛

Yarn lanterns 纱灯

lantern riddles activities 猜灯谜

the Confucius Temple 夫子庙

====Questions====

1.Which day is the night of the first full moon in the lunar calendar year?

2.In Tang Dynasty, what time is the Lantern Festival?

3.In Ming Dynasty, as Zhu Yuanzhang became the emperor in Nanjing, how many days did the Lantern Festival extend to?

4.What kinds of people like playing Dragon Lantern?

5.What is the length of the lantern in Nanjing?

6.What are characteristics of a lantern-shaped in horse?

7.What did Needham call as an invention of ancient Chinese people in Nanjing?

====Answers====

1.The fifteenth day of the first lunar month.

2.In Tang Dynasty it was 16th to 18th of the first month in the lunar calendar, which involved three days.

3.In Ming Dynasty, as Zhu Yuanzhang became the emperor in Nanjing, the Lantern Festival was extended to ten days.

4.Playing Dragon Lantern is not only played by ordinary people, but also by the soldiers.

5.The length of the lantern is not as long as other places can. The short one is more than ten feet, the long is more than a hundred knots, and it can be played by hundreds of people.

6.There is a lantern-shaped in horse pioneered by Nanjing people. The lantern is covered with candles inside. Using the principle of thermal expansion of the air, the lamp surface is driven to rotate. The lamp surface is painted with various postures of horses galloping like ten thousand horses.

7.a lantern-shaped in horse.

===References===
[1]Lu Haiming 卢海鸣. (2002). ''六朝都城'' [Capital of Six Dynasties]. Nanjing: Nanjing Press 南京出版社.

[2]Yao Yifeng 姚亦锋. (2007).从南京城市地理格局研究古都风貌规划 [Research on the Planning of Ancient Capital from the Geographical Pattern of Nanjing].人文地理 Human Geography.(03)92-97.

[3]Zhu Yaoting 朱耀廷.(2003). 定都与迁都——中国七大古都比较研究之一 [Setting and Moving the Capital: One of the Comparative Studies of the Seven Ancient Capitals of China].北京联合大学学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Beijing Union University（Humanities and Social Sciences). (01) 69-76.

[4]Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture, (2015).http://jssdfz.jiangsu.gov.cn/

==Chinese Traditional Culture-Five Constant Virtues Yang Hui 阳慧英语口译 202070080646==

Owning over thousands of years of history, the Chinese have created a brilliant history and culture, and at the same time have formed their own moral code that has played an important role in social development and progress. This is what we call Traditional Virtues, which still have great significance today and whose value to the development of human civilization is now widely recognized. Benevolence , righteousness, propriety, wisdom and fidelity are the Five Constant Virtues which are the most important ones in traditional China. They all came from Confucianism and are widely acknowledged all over China. To be a moral person, the ancient Chinese cultivated and test themselves according to the Five Constant Virtues and carried them down to the modern life. The brief and concise expression of " benevolence, righteousness, propriety , wisdom and fidelity" is not only the conciseness of Chinese traditional culture, its summary and abstract form of moral category can be said to be the " brand " of Chinese traditional ethics and morality, its value in Chinese traditional culture can be compared to the market value of a commercial brand with a long history.(Xu Keqian 2005, 4）

===Benevolence (Ren)===
Benevolence is the first and most important virtue among the Five Constant Virtues. It manifests itself in the inner mind in love and compassion for people and in avoiding harm or envy toward anyone. In terms of behavior, benevolence demands that one be amiable, not argue angrily with others nor do evil deeds. To cultivate one‘s virtue of Benevolence one should use another Confucian version of the Golden Rule: What one does not wish for oneself, one ought not to do to anyone else; what one recognizes as desirable for oneself, one ought to be willing to grant to others. Virtue, in this Confucian view, is based upon harmony with other people, produced through this type of ethical practice by a growing identification of the interests of self and other. Zeng Zi once said: My three provinces are my body. Cheating? Make friends without any sincerity ?go over what I have Learned?(Zhu Xi, 2005,27). In short, as parents treat their children, the benevolent person spares no effort to help others; one even lays down one’s life to this end, with no thought of being repaid(Zhu Xi, 2005,27).

===Righteousness (Yi)===
Among his teachings, Confucius emphasized righteousness which is the ability to distinguish between right and wrong. Righteousness can be thought of as similar to what is often referred to as a “conscience or “justice”. Confucius believed that actions should be taken on the basis of whether the act is morally right or wrong as opposed to whether it will provide profit or utility to an individual or group. Above all righteousness is about preserving one’s integrity. The unjust but rich to me is as clouds(China Publishing House 2006, 56).

===Propriety (Li)===
Propriety means ceremony or correct behavior. The contents of propriety include loyalty, filial piety , fraternal duty, respect, etc. Originating in ancient sacrificial rites, propriety, in a general sense signifies behavioral norms which maintain hierarchy. Confucius urged people to restrain oneself with propriety ,be polite ,treat others with propriety, saying that people cannot act without propriety. In ancient society, besides the relation of monarch and subjects, there were also the relations of father and sons, husband and wife, the elder and the young, teacher and students, and others. These relations differ but all demand modest respect to others(China Publishing House 2006, 76).

===Wisdom (Zhi)===
Wisdom is the knowledge by which one judges right and wrong, good and evil. The saint define the personality of “the wise” as “a wise man free from confusions”. The real man of wisdom shall not only be able to distinguish truth from falsehood, but also be rational and sensible; he shall never get confused in front of profits or different paths. That is to say, the wisdom concerns not only one person's ability and aptitude, but also his moral cultivation. The Doctrine of the Mean once said that "knowledge, benevolence, courage, the world's greatest valued. Also wisdom, its basic connotation is smartness. Confucius also pointed out that the acquisition of "wisdom" lies in learning, which can be obtained from both books and life(Zi Si 2007,32 ).

===Fidelity (Xin)===
Fidelity is honesty. This means that, externally, one’s deeds match one’s words; and that internally one’s words and mind are in unison. Fidelity is a key to the perfection of human nature. Robert Schuller, an American scholar at the niyama world civilization forum, the hometown of confucius in qufu, china, said: " faith, that is, honesty, should be emphasized to the people around you, family members and the wider population. So honesty is a very important principle. Everyone should be honest with each other, and of course you need to be humble, which is also very important so that we can create a harmonious environment. Thus it is the basis without which other virtues lose their authenticity ; hence they are inseparable. Fidelity is natural in a child, but might be lost due to external influences(Robert Schuller 2016, 4).

Benevolence, righteousness, courtesy, wisdom and faith in the " Five Constant Virtues " are the fundamental requirements of the moral norms of the gentleman, the spiritual support of the individual to settle down to the era of the use of Confucianism, and the " Five Moral Goals " of the Confucian view of the gentleman can better implement the core values of socialism, so that the historical tradition and the present reality, an organic combination and a link between the past and the future. Zhang pointed out that Confucianism is not the culture of God, but the moral culture centered on people, how to be a man, be a moral, ideal and effective person ;To be honest and friendly, to be respectful: to say what you do not want. To do to others ;Be faithful and forgiving(Zhang Qizhi 2016, 53).

===Expressions and Terms===
Five Constant Virtues 五常

benevolence 仁

righteousness 义

propriety 礼

wisdom 智

fidelity 信

moral code 道德准则

filial piety 孝道

===Questions===
1.what does the Five Constant Virtues refer to ?

2.In terms of behavior. what does Benevolence demand ?

3.What do the contents of the Propriety include ?

4.What is the real man of the wisdom ?

5. Where does the Five Constant Virtues come from ?

===Answers===
1.Benevolence , righteousness, propriety, wisdom and fidelity.

2. Benevolence demands that one should be amiable, neither argue angrily with others nor do evil deeds.

3.It includes loyalty, filial piety , fraternal duty, respect, etc.

4.The real man of wisdom shall not only be able to distinguish truth from falsehood, but also be rational and sensible; he shall never get confused in front of profits or different .

5.They all came from Confucianism and are widely acknowledged all over China.

===Reference===

Wei LI 韦利. (1998). 论语[the Analects of Confucius].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社.

Robert Schuller. （2016）. 罗伯特舒乐.人类危机与文明对话-许嘉璐与罗伯特舒乐的高端对话[Human Crisis and Dialogue of Civilization--A High-level Dialogue between Xu Jialu and Robert Schuller]. Shanghai: Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House 上海古籍出版社.

Xu Keqian 徐克谦. (2005）.仁义礼智信与当代道德文明建设[Five Constant Virtues and the Construction of Contemporary Moral Civilization]. Learning Forum 学习论坛

Zhu Xi 朱熹. (2005). 四书集注[Notes on Four Book]. Jiang Su: Phoenix Publishing House 凤凰出版社.

Zi Si 子思. (2007). 中庸[The Doctrine of the Mean]. Harbin: Harbin Publishing House 哈尔滨出版社.

Zhang Qizhi 张岂之. (2016).中国文化的会通精神[The Communicative Spirit of Chinese Culture ]. Chang Chun : Chang Chun Press 长春出版社.
--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 03:45, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Cheongsam - Yang Yue 杨悦 - Student No.202070080617 英语笔译==
===Cheongsam===

Cheongsam, the traditional costume of Chinese women in China and around the world, is known as the quintessence of China and female national apparel. It is one of the most splendid phenomena and forms in China's long dress culture. (Mao Jing 2009, 1)

====Brief Introduction====

Cheongsam is a classic dress with the most traditional Chinese characteristics, the most national representatives and the best expression of the beauty of Oriental female. When people think of cheongsam, the first thing that comes to mind is its chic paintings and rich poetic sentiment, which show the virtuous, elegant and gentle temperament of Chinese women in the exquisite curves, and show the unique implicit beauty of Oriental women with flowing lines. After more than 300 years of evolution, it still enjoys high reputation such as "Oriental Wonders", "Chinese Dress", and "The Best of Clothing". This has witnessed that “the classic represents eternity”. (Tong Zhijun 2007, 17).

In 1984, cheongsam was designated by the State Council as a dress for female diplomats. On May 23, 2011, approved by the State Council, the handmade craftsmanship of cheongsam became one of the third batch of national intangible cultural heritage. In November 2014, the Chinese government chose cheongsam as the dress of the leaders’ wives of the participating countries at the 22nd APEC meeting in Beijing. (Mao Jing 2009, 1)

====The History of Cheongsam====

Cheongsam is a national costume originated from Manchu women in the mid-16th century. In the early days, the cheongsam worn by banner people was generally not over their feet. Only when Manchu women get married, do they wear cheongsam as a wedding dress. Because all the Manchu noble women wear high-heeled wooden clogs, their cheongsam is so long that it can cover their feet. (Mao Jing 2009, 2)

After the Emperor Shunzhi of the Qing Dynasty entered the Shanhai Pass and moved to Beijing, cheongsam gained its popularity in the Central Plains. After the Qing Dynasty unified China and also the national clothing, men wear long gowns and mandarins, and women wear cheongsam. Later, with the integration and unity of Manchu and Han life, cheongsam was gradually absorbed by Han women and continued to be innovated. (Mao Jing 2009, 2)

Following the 1911 Revolution, cheongsam quickly gained its popularity throughout the country. From the late 1920s to the early 1930s, influenced by the short gown that was popular in western women’ s clothing, the cheongsam also became shorter. The length of the cheongsam was just over the knee, the cuffs were narrowed, and the piping became narrower. In the mid-1930s, the cheongsam gradually grew longer and even shuffled to the floor. The slits on both sides were very high, and the waist was lined with a waistcoat. The waist became extremely narrow, and even fitted, showing the curve of the female . (Chen Juanjuan, Huang Nengyu 2006, 386-387).

In the 1940s, the cheongsam was shortened again, and the sleeves were even all canceled. It almost returned to the long vest era two hundred years ago. The only difference was that it was lighter and fitter and became streamlined. Beginning in the 1950s, in order to adapt to the needs of modern life, costume designers began to continuously improve Chinese cheongsam so that this national costume not only has oriental characteristics, but also conforms to the fashion trends of the world. And in this period, cheongsam, which is elegant and virtuous, has been internationally recognized. (Hongxia Liu 2009, 1)

In the past 20 years, the improved cheongsam we see has been greatly influenced by international fashion trends. For a time, various forms of the cheongsam such as low collar, sleeveless, tight waist, high slit, ultra short, topless, nude back, etc. have changed a lot. Sequins, embroidery, fur trim, fabric printing and other craft decorations shine brightly. The colors are gorgeous, jumping, thick, and soft, boldly breaking through the old pattern of cheongsam. (Wang Di 2014, 67)

The improved cheongsam not only retains the original features, but also incorporates the sense of innovation. Since then, the traditional Manchu dress has been injected into the blood of the times and given the vitality of youth. Cheongsam and fashion co-exist together, expressing a new feeling from a new perspective and a new concept. (Wang Di 2014, 67)

====The Significance of Cheongsam====

Through the baptism of history, the cheongsam has become the most representative symbol of the elegance of Oriental women. When it comes to Oriental female, people often think of a graceful woman wearing cheongsam. The silk commonly used in cheongsam makes the feminine figure more incisive and vivid. The oriental charm and elegance of the cheongsam is astounding. Nowadays, cheongsam has become a symbol of beauty beyond ordinary clothes in general sense, becoming an immortal classic. (Mao Jing 2009, 3)

Cheongsam has been leading the pace of tradition and fashion in the course of hundreds of years of evolution, inheriting Chinese civilization, showing the self-cultivation and virtues of the wearer, and becoming a model of traditional Chinese culture in modern times. We have reason to believe that cheongsam can connect the past and the future, life and art, and brings Chinese people’ s understanding and interpretation of beauty to the world. (Mao Jing 2009, 3)

In conclusion, after modern processing and improvement, the cheongsam has become an elegant dress that is loved by the public. Its cultural and artistic value of is worthy of being studied. China’s five thousand years of splendid history and culture retain its vitality of youth on the cheongsam, and the traditional costume culture is still shining on the modern stage. This provides the possibility for the study of the history of clothing development and adds infinite charm for the spread and promotion of Chinese culture. (Tong Zhijun 2007, 137)

Nowadays, cheongsam is a Chinese female dress with traditional charm and modern vitality. Its past is unpredictable, but its present keeps pace with the times. Whether in films, television works or in wedding photography, cheongsam shows fresh vitality. (Tong Zhijun 2007, 137)

===References===

*Tong Zhijun 佟志军. (2007). 旗袍与女性 [Cheongsam and Women]. 北京：服装设计师 Beijing: Fashion Designer (1) 137.
*Chen Juanjuan, Huang Nengfu 陈娟娟, 黄能馥. (2006). 中国服装史 [History of Chinese Clothing]. Beijing: China Tourism Press 北京：中国旅游出版社 386-387.
*Mao Jing 毛敬. (2009). 中国旗袍及其向世界的传播 [The Chinese Cheongsam and Its Spread to the World]. 淮北职业技术学院学报 Journal of Huaibei Vocational and Technical College 34.
*Wang Di 王迪. (2014). 中国旗袍的历史演变 [The Historical Evolution of Chinese Cheongsam]. 美术教育研究 Research on Art Education 67.
*Hongxia Liu. The Cheongsam—the Treasure of Chinese National Apparel. 2009, 1(1)

===Terms and Expressions===

*Cheongsam 旗袍
*the quintessence of China 国粹
*national intangible cultural heritage 非物质文化遗产
*Manchu 满族
*long gowns and mandarins 长袍马褂
*the improved cheongsam 改良旗袍
*sleeveless 无袖
*fur trim 毛皮饰边
*Sequins 亮片
*fabric printing 织物印花
*embroidery 刺绣
*topless 袒胸
*nude back 裸背
*low collar 低领
*high slit 高开叉

===Questions===

1.When did the cheongsam originate from?

2. When did the cheongsam become popular in central China?

3. When did the cheongsam become popular throughout the country?

4.What is the features of the cheongsam from the late 1920s to the early 1930s?

5. What is the features of the cheongsam in the 1940s?

6. In the past 20 years, influenced by international fashion trends, what changes have taken place in cheongsam?

===Answers===

1.Cheongsam is a national costume originated from Manchu women in the mid-16th century.

2.After the Emperor Shunzhi of the Qing Dynasty entered the Shanhai Pass and moved to Beijing, cheongsam became popular in the Central Plains.

3.Following the 1911 Revolution, cheongsam quickly gained its popularity throughout the country.

4.From the late 1920s to the early 1930s, influenced by the short gown that was popular in western women's clothing, the cheongsam also became shorter. The length of the cheongsam was just over the knee, the cuffs were narrowed, and the piping became narrower.

5.In the 1940s, the cheongsam was shortened again, and the sleeves were so short that they were all canceled. It almost returned to the long vest era two hundred years ago.

6. For a time, various forms such as low collar, sleeveless, tight waist, high slit, ultra short, topless, nude back, etc. have changed a lot. Sequins, embroidery, fur trim, fabric printing and other craft decorations shine brightly.
--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 07:56, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==The Folding Screen--Yang Ziling 杨子泠-- No.202070080647 英语口译==

====1.1 Introduction ====

Folding screens are a kind of flexible furniture and composed of several frames or panels linked together. They serve practical and decorative functions, being made from various materials and in many styles. Folding screens originated in ancient China. Written references date from around the 4th century BC, during the Han dynasty, but they were probably used earlier. (Milica Sterjova, 2017)（ pages are missing）

====1.2 History and Technology====

Screens date back to China during the Eastern Zhou period (711-256BCE). They were one-panel screens rather than folding screens then. The origin of folding screens, however, could be traced to the Han dynasty (206 BC - 200 CE). Depictions of them have been found in Han-era tombs, such as one in Zhucheng, Shandong Province. (Sarah,2007)（ pages are missing）

Chinese screens which were made originally as partitions painted with beautiful and serious works, were not designed to be moved around very often. (Emmaantiques, 2014)（ pages are missing）
They were initially made of wooden panels and decorated with fine art. Many themes are painted on the panels, such as mythology, scenes of palace life, and nature, making them more of a piece of furniture. It is often associated with intrigue and romance in Chinese literature, for example, a young lady in love could take a curious peek hidden from behind a folding screen. Examples of such romantic occasions can be seen in the classical novel Dream of the Red Camber of Cao Xueqin. The folding screen is also an important element in Tang literature. Li He, the Tang Poet, wrote the "Song of the Screen" (屏风曲), in which he described a folding screen of a newly-wed couple. The folding screen surrounded the bed of the young couple, and its twelve panels were adorned with butterflies alighted on China pink flowers (an allusion to lovers), and had silver hinges resembling glass coins. (Mazurkewich, Karen, 2006) There are heavy wooden structures with other decorations pulled through holes near the edges of the panels. The frame was prominent, and the image development was frequently vertical and confined to the individual panels, creating a pleasing pattern. (Dianne Lee van der Reyden)（ year and pages are missing）

They were made flexible when an ingenious system of strong paper hinges were integrated in the panel construction, which made folding patterns reversible. The panels were brought closer by the paper hinges, which reduce the need for frames separating panels and allow a horizontal orientation of the picture plane. This provides creative approaches to the various spatial relationships of the panels. (Dianne Lee van der Reyden)（ year and pages are missing）

====1.3 Uses====

Although originated in China, folding screens are now used in many interior designs around the world. People first used them also in some practical ways, such as preventing draft in homes, as shown by the two characters in their name: ping(屏 "screen; blocking") and feng (风 "breeze, wind"). People would also use them to bestow a sense of privacy; in old times, they would often be placed in rooms serving as dressing screens for ladies.

Folding screens can be put up as to divide a large space and change the configuration of the room. They could also be used as a false way set up at the entrance of a room to create a desirable atmosphere by hiding certain features like doors to a kitchen. Now that many folding screens are design with fine art, they serve the decorative purposes well in the interior features of a home.(No citation)

====1.4 Spread====

After becoming popular in China, folding screens spread to other parts of the world, including East Asia and later Europe. In the 7th century, they appeared in Japan for the first time during the reign of Emperor Tenmu, and they were presented to the Korean kingdom of Silla as a gift. By the 8th century, they had gained such popularity in Japan that Japanese artists began to make their own, very much influenced by Chinese design. Different sizes served different purposes: small 2-fold screens were often used for the tea ceremony and a larger 8-fold screen could be used as backdrops for dances. Japanese screens were lighter, often made of silk or even paper. Painted screens were a major component of traditional Japanese architecture, and their decoration reflected the leading schools and movements in Japanese art. They served many purposes, being used for tea ceremonies, as backgrounds for concerts or dances, and as enclosures for Buddhist rites. (David Leopold, 2008)（ pages are missing）

Folding screens from the Far East spread to Europe at the very beginning of the 17th century. Owing to their practical functions and the distinguished decoration, they drew a lot of attention. The famous designer Coco Chanel was totally enchanted by Coromandel screens. She was well-known for her collection of Chinese folding screens. She possessed 32 folding screens, 8 of which were preserved in her apartment in Paris. She once stated:   “I’ve loved Chinese screens since I was eighteen years old. I nearly fainted with joy when, entering a Chinese shop, I saw a Coromandel for the first time. Screens were the first thing I bought.“ (Coco Chanel, 2010)（ pages are missing）

By the early 18th century, European craftsmen had already begun making folding screens on their own. They made folding screens in less expensive painted versions instead using lacquer techniques. At that time, leather screens were fashionable, but their popularity didn't last long, only to be restored around 1860 during the reign of Napoleon III with the wave of Japonism that inspired a number of French artists.(No citation)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In the 20th century when new modern heating means were invented, the functions of the folding screen became mostly decorative.

====1.5 Expressions and Terms====

Dream of the Red Chamber 《红楼梦》

the Korean Kingdom of Silla 朝鲜新罗王国

Emperor Tenmu 天武天皇

====1.6 Questions====

1. When did folding screens first appear?

2. How are folding screens associated with romance in Chinese literature?

3. What functions do screens serve?

4. When did they spread to Europe?

5. How did European craftsmen make folding screens?

===1.7 Answers===

1. Screens date back to China during the Eastern Zhou period (711-256BCE).

2. For example, a young lady in love could take a curious peek hidden from behind a folding screen， as presented in the classical novel Dream of the Red Camber of Cao Xueqin.

3. Preventing draft in homes, bestowing a sense of privacy and serving as dressing screens for ladies.

4. Folding screens from the Far East spread to Europe at the very beginning of the 17th century.

5. They made folding screens in less expensive painted versions instead using lacquer techniques.

===1.8 References===

Handler, Sarah (2007). Austere luminosity of Chinese classical furniture. University of California Press. pp. 268–271, 275, 277.

Delay, Claude (1983). Chanel Solitaire. Gallimard. p. 12. Cited in: "COCO CHANEL'S APARTMENT THE COROMANDEL SCREENS". Chanel News. June 29, 2010.

Milica Sterjova, A Brief history of folding screens. (2017) https://www.wallswithstories.com/uncategorized/a-brief-history-of-folding-screens.html

Emmaantiques. Asian Furniture Online. (2014). https://asianfurnitureonline.wordpress.com/2014/11/19/history-of-asian-screens/

Dianne Lee van der Reyden, THE HISTORY, TECHNOLOGY, AND CARE OF FOLDING SCREENS: CASE STUDIES OF THE CONSERVATION TREATMENT OF WESTERN AND ORIENTAL SCREENS, https://www.si.edu/mci/downloads/RELACT/folding_screens.pdf

David Leopold, Unfolding the Screen. (2008). https://www.solowey.com/wp/page/9/

Mazurkewich, Karen; Ong, A. Chester (2006). Chinese Furniture: A Guide to Collecting Antiques. Tuttle Publishing. pp. 144–146

==Yi Zichu 义子楚英语笔译 202070080618==
==='''Panda'''===--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:26, 2 November 2020 (UTC)

===='''1.The origin of giant pandas'''=====
The ancestor of the giant panda is Ailuaractos lufengensis. The scientific name of the giant panda is actually "cat bear", which means "a bear like a cat". The main branch of it continued to evolve in central and southern China. One species of Ailuaractos lufengensis appeared in the early Pleistocene about 3 million years ago, and it was smaller than the current panda.(Sun Chengjian,2006,163)

The ancestor of the giant panda is Ailuaractos. The scientific name of the giant panda is actually "cat bear", which means "a bear like a cat". The main branch of it continued to evolve in central and southern China. One species of Ailuaractos appeared in the early Pleistocene about 3 million years ago, and it was smaller than the current panda. (Sun Chengjian,2006,163)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

In this process, giant pandas have adapted to life in subtropical bamboo forests, gradually increasing in size and relying on bamboo for their livelihoods. In the middle and late Pleistocene, about 500,000-700,000 years ago, was the heyday of giant pandas. The Qinling giant panda has been identified as a subspecies of the giant panda. Fossils show that the ancestors of giant pandas appeared in the early 2 to 3 million years ago. (Sun Chengjian,2006,163)

In the process, giant pandas have adapted to life in subtropical bamboo forests, gradually increasing in size and relying on bamboo for their livelihoods. In the middle and late Pleistocene, about 500,000-700,000 years ago, was the heyday of giant pandas. The Qinling giant panda has been identified as a subspecies of the giant panda. Biological fossils show that the ancestors of giant pandas appeared in the early 2 to 3 million years ago. (Sun Chengjian,2006,163) --[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The habitat of giant pandas once covered most of eastern and southern China, reaching Beijing in the north and southern Myanmar and northern Vietnam in the south. Giant panda fossils are usually found in temperate or subtropical forests at an altitude of 500 to 700 meters. Giant pandas have survived to now and maintain their original ancient characteristics. Therefore, they have a lot of scientific value and are known as "living fossils". China calls them "national treasures."(Sun Chengjian,2006,165)\

The habitat of giant pandas once covered most of east southern China, reaching Beijing in the north and southern Myanmar and northern Vietnam in the south. Giant panda fossils are usually found in temperate or subtropical forests at an altitude of 500 to 700 meters. Giant pandas have survived to now and maintain their original ancient characteristics. Therefore, they have a lot of scientific value and are known as "living fossils". China calls them "national treasures." (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===='''2.Appearance features of giant pandas'''====
Giant pandas are fat like bears, plump and rich, round heads and short tails, with a head length of 1200-1800mm and a tail length of 100-120mm. The weight is 80-120kg, and its maximum weight can reach 180kg. The raised pandas are a little heavier, and the males are generally slightly larger than the females. The hair color of its head and body is distinct from black and white. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)

Giant pandas are fat like bears, plump and rich, round heads and short tails, with a head length of 1200-1800mm and a tail length of 100-120mm. Its weight is 80-120kg, and its maximum can reach 180kg. The raised pandas are a little heavier, and the males are generally slightly larger than the females. The hair color of its head and body is distinct from black and white. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

However, its black is not pure black, and white is not pure white. It is black with brown through and white with yellow. The individuals in the Qinling Mountains are relatively large, with rough body hair and slightly brownish abdominal hair. The black and white appearance is conducive to hiding in dense forest trees and snow-covered ground without being easily spotted by natural enemies. Relatively sharp claws, well-developed and powerful front and rear limbs help the giant panda to climb up tall trees quickly. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)

However, it is not pure black, or pure white. It is black with brown through and white with yellow. The pandas in the Qinling Mountains are relatively large, with rough body hair and slightly brownish abdominal hair. The black and white appearance is conducive to hiding in dense forest trees and snow-covered ground without being easily spotted by natural enemies. Relatively sharp claws, well-developed and powerful front and rear limbs help the giant panda to climb up tall trees quickly. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The giant panda's skin is thick, which can be up to 10 mm at its thickest point. The skin thickness of different parts of the body is different. The back of the body is thicker than the ventral side, and the outside of the body is thicker than the inside of the body. The average thickness of the skin is about 5 mm, and it is white, elastic and tough. The vision of giant pandas is extremely underdeveloped. This is because giant pandas live in dense bamboo forests for a long time. The light is very dark and there are many obstacles, making their eyes very short and shallow. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)

The giant panda's skin is thick, which can be up to 10 mm at its thickest point. The skin thickness of different parts of the body is different. The back of the body is thicker than the ventral side, and the outside of the body is thicker than the inside of the body. The average thickness of the skin is about 5 mm, and it is white, elastic and tough. The vision of giant pandas is extremely underdeveloped. This is because giant pandas live in dense bamboo forests for a long time. The light is very dark and there are many obstacles, making their eyes very short (Sun Chengjian,2006,166)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

In addition, because its pupils are split like cats, they can still do activities when night comes.Giant pandas live in the high mountains and deep valleys of the upper reaches of the Yangtze River in China, which are the windward side of the southeast monsoon. The climate is warm and humid, and their humidity is often above 80%. The giant pandas prefer humid environment. The 6 long and narrow areas where giant pandas live, including Minshan, Qionglai, Liangshan, Daxiangling, Xiaoxiangling and Qinling Mountains, spans 45 counties (cities) in the 3 provinces of Sichuan, Shaanxi and Gansu.(Sun Chengjian,2006,165)

In addition, because its pupils are split like cats, they can still do activities when night comes. Giant pandas live in the high mountains and deep valleys of the upper reaches of the Yangtze River in China, which are the windward side of the southeast monsoon. There is warm and humid, and their humidity is often above 80%. The giant pandas prefer humid environment. The 6 long and narrow areas where giant pandas live, including Minshan, Qionglai, Liangshan, Daxiangling, Xiaoxiangling and Qinling Mountains, spans 45 counties (cities) in the 3 provinces of Sichuan, Shaanxi and Gansu. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The land area of their habitats is more than 20,000 square kilometers, and the population of there is about 1,600, of which more than 80% are distributed in Sichuan.(Sun Chengjian,2006,165)

The land area of their habitats is more than 20,000 square kilometers, and the population is about 1,600, of which more than 80% are distributed in Sichuan. (Sun Chengjian,2006,167)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===='''3.The diet features of giant pandas'''====
The recipes of giant pandas are very special, almost including all kinds of bamboo that can be found in high mountain areas. Giant pandas also occasionally eat meat (usually the carcasses of animals or sometimes of rhizomys). The unique dieting characteristics of the giant panda make it known as the "bamboo bear" by the locals. Giant pandas have gradually evolved to herbivore. As bamboo has a few nutrition that can only provide the basic nutrients needed for pandas’ survival, giant pandas eat up to 14 hours a day except for sleeping or some short-distance activities in the wild environment. A giant panda eats 12 to 38 kilograms of bamboo per day, which is close to 40% of its body weight. (Hu Jinzhi,1981,17)

The recipes of giant pandas are very special, almost including all kinds of bamboo that can be found in high mountain areas. Giant pandas also occasionally eat meat (usually the carcasses of animals or sometimes of rhizomys). The unique dieting characteristics of the giant panda make it known as "bamboo bear" by the locals. Giant pandas have gradually evolved to herbivore. As bamboo has a few nutrition that can only provide the basic nutrients needed for pandas’ survival, giant pandas eat up to 14 hours a day except for sleeping or some short-distance activities in the wild environment. A giant panda eats 12 to 38 kilograms of bamboo per day, which is close to 40% of its body weight. (Hu Jinzhi,1981,17)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

They like to eat the most nutritious and least cellulose-containing parts of bamboo, namely the tender stems, burgeons, and bamboo shoots. There are usually at least two types of bamboo in the giant panda habitat. When one kind of bamboo blooms and dies (bamboo periodically blooms and dies every 30 to 120 years), pandas can switch to other bamboos. However, the continued fragmentation of the habitat increases the possibility that there is only one kind of bamboo in the habitat. When this kind of bamboo becomes distinct, the giant pandas in this area will face the threat of starvation.(Hu Jinzhi,1981,20)

They like to eat the most nutritious and least cellulose-containing parts of bamboo, namely the tender stems, burgeons, and bamboo shoots. There are usually at least two types of bamboo in the giant panda habitat. When one kind of bamboo blooms and dies (bamboo periodically blooms and dies every 30 to 120 years), pandas can choose other bamboos. However, the continued fragmentation of the habitat increases the possibility that there is only one kind of bamboo. When this kind of bamboo becomes distinct, the giant pandas in this area will face the threat of starvation. (Hu Jinzhi,1981,20)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====='''Terms and expressions'''====
Ailuaractos lufengensis 始熊猫

Pleistocene 更新世

rhizomys 竹鼠

cellulose 纤维素

burgeons 嫩枝

===='''Questions'''====
1.What's the ancestor of giant pandas?

2.What are the features of giant pandas' skin?

3.Do giant pandas like hot environment?

4.What part of bamboo do giant panda eat?

===References===
[1]Yan Weiran,Tang Maolin,Chen Zeyuan,Chen Peng,Zhao Qijun,Que Pinjia,Wu Kongju,Hou Rong,Zhang Zhihe. Automatically predicting giant panda mating success based on acoustic features[J]. Global Ecology and Conservation,2020,24.

[2]丛丽,吴必虎.基于网络文本分析的野生动物旅游体验研究——以成都大熊猫繁育研究基地为例[J].北京大学学报(自然科学版),2014,50(06):1087-1094.

[3]雍严格,王宽武,汪铁军.佛坪大熊猫的移动习性[J].兽类学报,1994(01):9-14.

[4]胡锦矗.大熊猫的食性研究[J].南充师院学报(自然科学版),1981(03):17-22.

[5]孙承骞,张哲邻,金学林.秦岭大熊猫局域种群的划分及数量分布[J].陕西师范大学学报(自然科学版),2006(S1):163-167.

==You Yuting 游雨婷==
==Legalism - You Yuting 游雨婷 - Student No.202070080619 英语笔译==
====Legalism====--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 08:29, 18 November 2020 (UTC)

Legalism is a prominent school of thought in Chinese history that advocates the rule of law as its core and regards enriching the country and strengthening the army as its mission. The legalists are not pure theorists, but active actionists, whose thoughts also focus on the practical effects of law. It also puts forward the idea and concept of governing the country by law which still has far-reaching influence. A review based on the evolution of theories of legal relations showed that the study of the general theory of law in China is closely associated to the historical rate of progress of the practice of rule of law in China.(Lei Lei,Chris 2020,81).

Legalism is a school of thought in Chinese history that advocates the rule of law as its core and regards enriching the country and strengthening the army as its mission. The legalists are not just theorists, but active actionists, whose thoughts also focus on the practical effects of law. The legalists also puts forward the idea and concept of governing the country by law which still has far-reaching influence. A review based on the evolution of theories of legal relations showed that the study of the general theory of law in China is closely associated to the historical rate of progress of the practice of rule of law in China.(Lei Lei,Chris 2020,81).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====1.Representative figures====

Legalism developed relatively slowly, but took shape very early. The earliest could be traced back to the Xia and Shang rulers, and it became mature in the Warring-States Period. Through the unremitting efforts made by Guan Zhong, Zi Chan, Li Kui, Wu Qi, Shang Yang, and others, It gradually became a school of thought. At the end of the Warring-States Period, Han Fei summarized their theories, which was the greatest achievement of legalists. Shang Yang and Han Fei are two remarkable figures of this school, and they dedicated their life to promoting and practicing the ideas of legalism. (Wang Jian 2001,51).

Legalism developed relatively slowly, but took shape very early. The earliest could be traced back to the Xia and Shang rulers, and it became mature in the Warring-States Period. Through the unremitting efforts made by Guan Zhong, Zi Chan, Li Kui, Wu Qi, Shang Yang, and others, It gradually became a school of thought. At the end of the Warring-States Period, Han Fei summarized their theories, which was the greatest achievement of legalists in ancient Chinese history. Shang Yang and Han Fei are two remarkable figures of this school, and they dedicated their life to promoting and practicing the ideas of legalism. (Wang Jian 2001,51).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Shang Yang, formerly known as Wei Yang, also known as Gongsun Yang, was born in the State of Wei during the Warring States Period. He put forward three reform plans, namely "the way of emperor", "the way of king" and "the overbearing way". Shang Yang talked about the overbearing policy of reform and won the heart of Duke Xiao. Shang Yang entered the stage to display his ideal. The main contents of Shang Yang's reform are as follows: establishing a new merit-based military system; offering reward for ploughing and weaving to ensure sufficient grain and grass for the army of Qin. (Wang Jian 2001,51).

Shang Yang, formerly known as Wei Yang, also known as Gongsun Yang, was born in the State of Wei during the Warring States Period. He put forward three reform plans, namely "the way of emperor", "the way of king" and "the overbearing way". Shang Yang talked about the overbearing policy of reform and won the heart of Duke Xiao. Shang Yang got the chance to display his ideal and achieve his ambition. The main contents of Shang Yang's reform are as follows: establishing a new merit-based military system; offering reward for ploughing and weaving to ensure sufficient grain and grass for the army of Qin. (Wang Jian 2001,51).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

After Shang Yang's reform, The State of Qin quickly became a powerful state, which laid the foundation for later generations to unify the whole country and further enriched the thought of legalism. (Wang Jian 2001,51).

After Shang Yang's reform, The State of Qin quickly became a powerful state during Warring States Period, which laid the foundation for later generations to unify the whole country and further developed the thought of legalism. (Wang Jian 2001,51).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

As for Han Fei, Han Fei (280 B. C. -- 233 B. C.), from Han state of the Warring States period, was a master in the legalist school. Han Feizi is the originator of the Legalism, his philosophy together significantly influenced by the “legalist ancestors”（Tingchun Ngai 2019,7）. Han Fei's thought had a strong tendency of practical rationality, and he treated the practical effect as the criterion for judging everything.(Wang Jian 2001,52).

As for Han Fei, Han Fei (280 B. C. -- 233 B. C.), from Han state of the Warring States period, was an outstanding figure in the legalist school. Han Feizi is the originator of the Legalism, his philosophy together significantly influenced by the “legalist ancestors”（Tingchun Ngai 2019,7）. Han Fei's thought had a strong tendency of practical rationality, and he treated the practical effect as the criterion for judging things.(Wang Jian 2001,52). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Han Fei developed a systematic legalist thought by combining “Shi” of Shen Dao, the "Shu" of Shen Buhai, and the "Fa" of Shang Yang. Han Fei was nobleman in Han State, but his thoughts were not adopted by the king of Han State at that time. Although Han Fei failed to realize his ambition during his lifetime, he further developed his legalist thoughts and theories, which provided a powerful theoretical basis for the first emperor of Qin to unify the whole country.(Wang Jian 2001,52)

Han Fei developed a systematic legalist thought by combining “Shi” of Shen Dao, the "Shu" of Shen Buhai, and the "Fa" of Shang Yang. Han Fei was a nobleman in Han State, but his thoughts were not adopted by the king of Han State at that time. Although Han Fei failed to realize his ambition during his lifetime, he further developed his legalist thoughts and theories, which provided a useful theoretical basis for the first emperor of Qin to unify the whole country.(Wang Jian 2001,52)
--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)
====2.Values====

Legalism in pre-Qin period, which paid the most attention to law and its compulsory function among other school of thoughts. It discussed the origin, nature, function of law, and the relationship between law and social economy, the demand of The times, state power, population and human nature. And it turned out to be a great success. There are several beliefs that the legalist school hold and advocate .(Guo Yanting 2014,71).

Legalism in pre-Qin period, which attached great attention to law and its compulsory function among other school of thoughts. Representatives of this school discussed the origin, nature, function of law, and the relationship between law and social economy, the demand of The times, state power, population and human nature. And it turned out to be a great success. There are several beliefs that the legalist school hold and advocate .(Guo Yanting 2014,71).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

First, The legalists believe that people have the nature of "being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful" . Guan Zhong once said that a businessman who could travel thousands of miles day and night would not feel far because the attraction of the benefits. With this same idea in mind, Shang Yang came to the conclusion that "people can govern one's likes and dislikes in life." Legalist school, therefore, combined the humanity with the management of the country, introducing reward and punishment to drive its people to work and fight hard for their country.(Guo Yanting 2014,71).

First, The legalists believe that people have the nature of "being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful" . Guan Zhong once said that a businessman who could travel thousands of miles day and night would not feel far because of the benefits that lies ahead. With this same idea in mind, Shang Yang came to the conclusion that "people can govern one's likes and dislikes in life." Legalist school, therefore, combined the humanity with the management of the country, introducing reward and punishment to drive its people to work and fight hard for their country.(Guo Yanting 2014,71).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Second, the legalists opposed the conservative idea of restoring ancient ways and advocated vigorous reform. They believe that history moves forward and that all laws and institutions should be developed along with the development of history. Shang Yang clearly put forward the proposition of "Don’t follow the practices of the ancient and the present". Han Fei, on the other hand, took Shang Yang's idea a step further by proposing that "The way of running the country stays the same as the time changes; the country will be in chaos", and dismissing old-fashioned Confucian as a fool who waits for nothing.(Guo Yanting 2014,72).

Second, the legalists opposed the conservative idea of restoring ancient ways and advocated vigorous reform. They believe that history moves forward and that all laws and institutions should be developed along with the development of history. Shang Yang clearly put forward the proposition of "Don’t follow the practices of the ancient and the present". Han Fei, on the other hand, took Shang Yang's idea a step further by proposing that "The way of ruling the country stays the same as the time changes; the country will be in chaos", and treating old-fashioned Confucian as a fool who waits for nothing.(Guo Yanting 2014,72).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Third, The combination of Fa, Shi, Shu. Shang Yang, Shen Dao and Shen Buhai respectively advocated Fa, Shi, Shu with its own characteristics. When Han Fei, the master of legalist school, put forward the idea of combining the three closely. (Guo Yanting 2014,72).

Third, The combination of Fa, Shi, Shu. Shang Yang, Shen Dao and Shen Buhai respectively advocated Fa, Shi, Shu with its own characteristics. When Han Fei, the influential figure of legalist school, put forward the idea of combining the three closely. (Guo Yanting 2014,72).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

In Han Fei’s opinion, Fa refers to the improvement of the legal system, Shi refers to the power of the monarch, the sole military and political power, Shu refers to the control over the ministers, the control of political power, the implementation of laws and strategies and means. "Shi" is the basis for ruling the masses and gaining advantages, similar to "management authority" in modern management(Dai Shu 2002,8). The main purpose is to prevent insurrection and maintain the status of the monarch. The three ideas proposed by the legalism still exert great impact on the improvement of the modern law.(Guo Yanting 2014,72).

In Han Fei’s opinion, Fa refers to the improvement of the legal system, Shi refers to the power of the monarch, the sole military and political power, Shu refers to the control over the ministers, the control of political power, the implementation of laws and strategies and means. "Shi" lays the basis for ruling the masses and gaining advantages, similar to "management authority" in modern management(Dai Shu 2002,8). The main purpose is to avoid insurrection and maintain the power of the monarch. The three ideas proposed by the legalism still exert great impact on the improvement of the modern law.(Guo Yanting 2014,72).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====3.Works====

Legalism has produced many great works such as Guan Zi, Shang Jun Shu, Shenko, Shen Zi, and Han Fei Zi. Take Han Fei Zi as an example, Han Fei inherited and summarized the thoughts and practices of legalists in the Warring States Period and put forward the theory of absolute monarchy and centralization. In this book, Han Fei pointed out that the sovereign must be powerful to govern the country. Feudal officials with rich experiences should be selected to replace the hereditary slave owners and nobles, so that the power of the state could solely lie in the hands of the sovereign. (Dai Shu 2002,8).

Legalism has produced a lot of works such as Guan Zi, Shang Jun Shu, Shenko, Shen Zi, and Han Fei Zi. Take Han Fei Zi as an example, Han Fei inherited and summarized the thoughts and practices of legalists in the Warring States Period and put forward the theory of absolute monarchy and centralization. In this book, Han Fei pointed out that the sovereign must be powerful enough to govern the country. Feudal officials with rich experiences should be selected to replace the hereditary slave owners and nobles, so that the power of the state could solely lie in the hands of the sovereign. (Dai Shu 2002,8)--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

It is worth mentioning that in this book Han Fei Zi, it also recorded a large number of popular fable stories, such as "self-contradiction", "wait for windfalls", "safety in numbers", "sense comes with age" and so on. These fables contain deep philosophy, and inspire people through the perfect combination of ideas and artistry.(Dai Shu 2002,12).

It is worth mentioning that in this book Han Fei Zi, it also recorded a large number of popular fable stories, such as "self-contradiction", "wait for windfalls", "safety in numbers", "sense comes with age" and so on. These fables contain deep philosophy, and inspire people in every way through the perfect combination of ideas and artistry.(Dai Shu 2002,12).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====References====

*Lei Lei,Chris.The General Theory of Law and Its Development in China[J].Contemporary Social Sciences,2020(05):81-107.
*Tingchun Ngai.The Debates on Human Nature and Political Governance in Ancient China: Mencius, Xunzi and Han Feizi. Open Access Library Journal,2019, 6(4):1-14.
*Guo Yanting. 郭艳婷.(2014). 浅论法家思想及其现实意义.[On Legalist Thought and Its Practical Significance][J].湖北广播电视大学学报[Journal of Hubei Radio and Television University],34(02):71-72.
*Dai Shu. 戴黍.(2002). 以“势”为中心的制度设计——韩非治国思想的现代解读.[The System Design with "Shi" as the Center -- the Modern Interpretation of Han Fei's Thoughts on Governing A Country][J].华南师范大学学报[Journal of South China Normal University],(03):7-12.
*Wang Jian. 王健(2001). 法家事功思想初探——以《商君书》、《韩非子》为中心.[A Preliminary Study on the Thought of Legalist Achievement -- Centering on Shang Jun Shu and Han Feizi][J].史学月刊[The Historical Journal],(06):51-56.

====Terms and Expressions====

1.Legalism法家

2.the way of emperor帝道

3.the way of king王道

4.the overbearing way 霸道

5.being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful 好利恶害

6.self-contradiction自相矛盾

7.wait for windfalls守株待兔

8.safety in numbers滥竽充数

9.sense comes with age老马识途

====Questions====

1.When did legalism become mature?

2.Do you know the representative figures of legalism?

3.Can you make a list of values proposed by legalism?

4.what does "being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful" mean? Can you make some examples?

5.Does the members of legalism object the thoughts of Confucian school?

6.What are the classical works of legalism?

7.What are the popular fable stories contained in the book of Han Fei?

===Answers===

1.It became mature in the Warring-States Period.

2.Guan Zhong, Zi Chan, Li Kui, Wu Qi, Shang Yang.

3.First, The legalists believe that people have the nature of "being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful" . Second, the legalists opposed the conservative idea of restoring ancient ways and advocated vigorous reform.Third, The combination of Fa(law), Shi(power), Shu(art). Shang Yang, Shen Dao and Shen Buhai respectively advocated Fa, Shi, Shu with its own characteristics.

4.Guan Zhong once said that a businessman who could travel thousands of miles day and night would not feel far because the attraction of the benefits. Fishermen, who was not afraid of danger and sailed against the current, not caring about a hundred miles away, pursued the benefits of fishing.

5.Yes.

6.Guan Zi, Shang Jun Shu, Shenko, Shen Zi, and Han Fei Zi. Take Han Fei Zi.

7."self-contradiction", "wait for windfalls", "safety in numbers", "sense comes with age" .

History of Translation Studies 13

2020-12-21T09:20:38Z

Yang chenting: /* A Brief Introduction to the Translation Theories of Catford and Eugene Nida */

==A Brief Introduction to the Translation Theories of Catford and Eugene Nida==

<center>杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, Student No.202070080615 MTI 英语笔译 </center>

===Abstract===

This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In the book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposed that the mission of translation theory is to find the essence and the condition of equivalence components.

Eugene Nida proposed the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of the communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also convey the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.

===Key Words===

Catford; Eugene Nida; Translation theory; Dynamic equivalence

===摘要===

卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分视作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。

尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。由于奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。

===关键词===

卡特福特；尤金·奈达；翻译理论；动态对等

===Introduction===

Since the 1950s, several scholars in the West have begun to focus on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as one subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought forward relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, making great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives during that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)

The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.

===Introduction of Catford's theory===

Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book—''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become one of the most influential works for contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interprets some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in Western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”.(Bao Zhennan 1982,68)

====The Nature of Translation====

According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship among languages, and he sees translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity based on the knowledge of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing grammars and vocabularies.(Catford 1965,20)

====The Classification of Translation====

Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.

In terms of the degree of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)

In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter what grammatical structures or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)

In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however, is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)

====Translation Equivalence====

From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the keyword. Since the central problem of translation is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, while the central task of translation theory is to explain the essence and the condition of equivalent forms. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)

But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese is “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to its languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)

According to Catford, to achieve equivalence, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text, and the more occasions it shares, the higher the quality of the translation is. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and the original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)

====Translation Shifts====

The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondence of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the translated language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refers to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140)

Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra-system shifts. (Catford 1965)

====Limits of Translatability====

Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original text, with no available vocabulary or grammar that can replace the original text, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict or absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)

===Introduction of Eugene Nida's theory===

Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field. He has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the ''Bible'' in the first place. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)

====Dynamic Equivalence Theory====

Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that the target language receiver and the source language creator are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964)

Based on Chomsky’s ''Generative Grammar'', he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transfer, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and style can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. (Tang Baolian 2013)

In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence.

(1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary includes five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings, and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)

(2) Syntactic equivalence. Again, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, while Chinese is paratactic, the tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)

Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English but not in Chinese, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and the combination of definite clauses needed to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)

(3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)

Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved by translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)

(4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.

The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)

Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target reader to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.

This definition includes three basic terms. First, equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; second, natural. It refers to the target language; third, the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target text. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)

To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”, because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, which requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)

Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the style of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)

If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original language in time. In order to do this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find the “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)

====Reader's Response Theory====

Reader’s response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Reader’s response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)

Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires that we should use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words or loan words from the original language. Reader’s response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus placing more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)

According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depends on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore the reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007)

For example, if one wants to translate the ''Analects'' into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the ''Analects'' should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular, which bring joy to English readers, but if his works translated into Chinese mislead Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the receptors in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)

====Three Developing Periods of Nida's Theories====

The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicts language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of the ''Bible'' translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)

The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, plays an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, ''Toward a Science of Translating'', which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:

(1) Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.

(2) He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.

(3) The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.

(4) As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocated the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)

The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theory and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book ''From One Language to Another'', published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which was the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:

(1) It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.

(2) It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.

(3) Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.

(4) It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)

===Comparison Between Catford's Theory and Nida's Theory===

Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the West, they clarify their theories from different angles, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on ''A Linguistic Theories of Translation'' written by Catford and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form.

====Meaning====

Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of the ''Bible'' translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the ''Bible'', transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but he even considers the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)

Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also becomes the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning remains the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)

Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also a more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has its unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)

Each kind of language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which leads to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.

According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is a deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)

In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant.

====Equivalent====

“对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning, understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation field’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)

Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)

Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory doubts the static model of textual comparisons, arguing that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.

According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.

Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics that perfect equivalence does not exist.
This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the essence of languages. (Catford 1965)

====Form====

The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which have different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For the ''Bible'' translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed during translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)

As for the different opinion on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while remaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.
Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language itself. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)

Therefore, translation between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)

===Conclusion===

This paper mainly introduces the translation theories proposed by Catford and Nida and makes a comparison between the two.

Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ response in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method may not suitable.

Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and defining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration.

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* Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.(1999)．''新编奈达论翻译''［A new version of Nida's theory on translation]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.

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--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:42, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting

==On the Differences of Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607 英语语言文学==

<center>康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607</center>

===Abstract===

Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They respectively each proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories, and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.

===Key Words===

Functional equivalence; semantic translation; communicative translation; text type

===题目===

探讨奈达和纽马克翻译理论之区别

===摘要===

尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。其中奈达提出了功能对等理论，彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译、交际翻译、文本类型理论及后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。因两人处于同一时代，他们的翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。

===关键词===

功能对等；语义翻译；交际翻译；文本类型

===Introduction of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories===

Nida is a prolific translation theorist. The main academic activities of his life revolve around ''Bible'' translation. Nida worked for translation department of American Bible Society and organized the translation of ''Bible'', and drew some conclusions when translating ''Bible''. His first monograph was ''Bible Translating'' released in 1946. According to these experiences, he published ''Toward a Science of Translating'' in 1964, and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' in 1969, etc. His translation theory and the phrase-dynamic equivalence was first introduced in the former book with many examples about ''Bible'' in this book.

Peter Newmark and Eugene A. Nida were the same century and Newmark was two years younger than Nida. But Newmark's translation theory appeared 20 years later than Nida's. Since 1974, Newmark has begun to teach students translation theories in the university and tried to write passages about translation problems. It was said that Newmark's ideas were from his classes. His first work-''Approaches to Translation'' was published in 1981, which gained widespread praise immediately. Semantic translation and communicative translation were put forward in this book. Then he came up with the theory of text type and correlative approach to translation. (Wang Luo 2012, 101)

In China, many translators regarded their translation theories as the guidelines when translating and used their translation theories to evaluate and compare others' translations. There are a lot of theses on the Internet that use their theories. There are also a lot of theses about the comparative study of Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's translation theory in China. Until now, there have been people focusing on the similarities and differences of their theories. Plenty of differences are mentioned by scholars like Lin Kenan, Lao Long, Chen Lin, Wang Jing, Zhang Xu, Hu Dawei, Yin Kexiu, etc. (Lao Long 1990, 52)

As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark attached importance to literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. (Lao Long 1990, 52)

In addition, both Newmark and Nida supposed that every language could be translated into another language. The ability of translatability was confirmed. There are many other differences about their theories. Scholars have made a detailed study of their differences. A few scholars study one of their many differences, and their researches have looked more closely at their differences. Most scholars try to find out all the differences between them. In the process of studying, some scholars hold extreme attitudes toward their theories. For instance, some scholars perceive that Nida opposed formal equivalence. Some inaccurate conclusions were drawn that Nida only focused on free translation and Newmark totally used literal translation and did not care about free translation. Some scholars reckon that some ideas of Nida's theory are contrary to that of Newmark's theory. The reasons why some scholars summarize such false conclusions are that first, they do not begin an intensive study and have a rush for quick results; second, Nida's and Newmark's were at the stage of development at that time and some scholars saw some imperfect ideas and put them into researches but it was likely that Nida and Newmark revised and added some ideas in the following texts. This chapter will illustrate their differences from five aspects, which are their kernel theories, the definition and nature, research methods, translation texts, and translation evaluation criteria. There are two parts about translation texts, which are the content and form in translation, degree of emphasis on the texts. (Lao Long 1990, 52)

===Chapter 1 Nida's and Newmark's Kernel Theories===

Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail, and then introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory.

====1.1 Introduction of Nida's Kernel Translation Theory====

Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence,and in 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence "which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language". (Nida 1969, 24)

This theory now is called functional equivalence. Due to people's misunderstanding of dynamic equivalence, the expression-dynamic equivalence is superseded by functional equivalence in his ''From One Language to Another''. Both of them have little differences. The theory pays more attention to the functional equivalence of information instead of direct formal translation. It poses a requirement to the target language in translation close to the source language in meaning and style. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)

It is concluded that translation is not to rigidly follow the surface equivalence between two languages, but to combine the message, emotion and style of the original text to make the translation convey the same information as the original text to the greatest extent. There are four aspects of functional equivalence theory, which are lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. In addition, Nida proposed two kinds of equivalence in the 1990s which were added into his functional equivalence theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)

One is maximal equivalence, which means that the target readers can understand and appreciate the translation in the same way as the original readers. It's the ideal state pursued by translators. The other is minimal equivalence, which means that the target readers should be able to understand the translation and then can imagine how the readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text. The development of functional equivalence theory experienced three stages. The first stage was that he applied modern linguistic fruits into his theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)

The idea of deep structure and surface structure of transformational generative linguistics was shown in his theory. The second stage was that Nida thought his theory was based on information theory. A good translation should assure readers of the source text and readers of the translations that they can get the same understanding from the translation and the source text. The third stage was that Nida considered that social semiotics was the foundation of functional equivalence, translating meant translating the meaning, and semiotics was the most comprehensive system for analyzing meaning. Nida's theory is widely used in the comparative analysis of two translations, the appreciation of subtitle translations, and some reports about technology, etc. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16) '''(the division of these few paragraphs here is a little bit strange）'''--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====1.2 Introduction of Newmark's Kernel Translation Theory====

Taking different types of texts into account, he divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)

Not only are translators faithful to the content of source texts, but also the translations in style should be in line with the author's language style. The key points of informative function are extrinsic context, the reality of a topic, extra-linguistic factors, etc. The informative texts contain encyclopedic knowledge, whose form is standard, textbooks, newspapers, etc. The objects of vocative texts are readers, whose aim is that a writer attempt to lead readers to act, think as his intentions. Instruction books, publicity materials, applications are part of vocative texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)

What's more, Newmark also came up with semantic translation and communicative translation. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Translators even can revise the original mistakes with a view to realizing communicative goals. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Semantic translation pays attention to the intentions and meaning of the original writers. "Few texts are purely expressive, informative, or vocative: most include all three functions, with an emphasis on one of the three". (Newmark 1988, 56)

Concerning the situations of over-translation and under-translation, Newmark presented the correlative approach to translation in 1994. The more important the language of the original or the source language text, the more closely it should be translated. Newmark stated that the approach did not reject his two other translation methods. On the contrary, it brought the two together more closely on that basis. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)

===Chapter 2 The Definition and Nature of Translation===

What is translation? Basically every translator will be asked and has his or her own definitions. For Nida and Newmark, they each developed a theory system. And Nida and Newmark had different explanations about the definition of translation. Nida gave his definition that translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second, in terms of style. Nida also mentioned that "translating means communicating". (Nida 1969, 12)

And Newmark said that it is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text. (Newmark 1988, 45) It can be seen that the focus of Nida's definition is on the closest natural equivalence, meaning, and style and the emphasis of Newmark's definition is on meaning, and text. It seemed that Nida had a broader scope than Newmark from the perspective of the definition. But in fact their main ideas are different. Nida thought over translation from the view of communication and Newmark tended to give a thought to translation from the perspective of types of texts.

Apart from the definitions of translation, they argued over the nature of translation. People have some controversies about Nida's opinions about the nature of translation. There are two main views. One is that "Nida ever thought that translation was a kind of science, which later was modified by him and he reckoned that translation was a kind of science and translation was also a kind of art".(Shao Lu 2007, 62) The other is that "Nida never said translation was a kind of translation". (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61)

The first view is based on the titles of his book in 1964-''Toward a Science of Translating'' and the title of one of his passages in 1969-''Science of Translation''. Nida also stated that "translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art". (Nida 1969, 7) It is illogical to say that translation is a kind of science according to these phrases such as science of translation, and science of translating and the sentence-translating is far more than a science. The better understandings of Nida's sentences are that translation is scientific and artistic, and a good translation should be a work of art.

Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that "for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation". (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view, which nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.

===Chapter 3 Research Methods of Translation===

Nida and Newmark have different research methods while their methods all are relevant to linguistics. More precisely, Nida used Chomsky's transformational generative grammar. Nida mentioned three stages of translation and said that "the second system of translation consists of a more elaborate procedure comprising three stages: (r) analysis, in which the surface structure (i.e., the message as given in language A) is analyzed in terms of (a) the grammatical relationships and (b) the meanings of the words and combinations of words, (z) transfer, in which the analyzed material is transferred in the mind of the translator from language A to language B, and (3) restructuring, in which the transferred material is restructured in order to make the final message fully acceptable in the receptor language. This approach may be diagrammed as in Figure 6". (Nida 1969, 33)
[[File:111.jpg]]

This figure in ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' can prove his thinking pattern. And it is easily concluded that the concepts of surface structure and deep structure are involved in this picture. That certain features of this componential analysis require some explanation was written in his books. Nida divided a sentence into a combination of an object, a verb, the first goal, the second goal, and predicate phrase. The five elements were used to analyze a kind of sentence pattern. There are other types of elements used to analyze other sentence patterns. Componential analysis was adopted in his books. (Nida 1969, 33)

Newmark insisted that translation theory originated from comparative linguistics. In the context of linguistics, semantics was mainly involved. All semantic problems are related to translation theory. Newmark also paid special attention to semantic issues, and believed that meaning should be the first consideration of translation theorists. The meaning of the text is diverse. Newmark divided them into three main types: cognitive meaning, communicative meaning, and associative meaning. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)

In addition, Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which showed that the prevailing linguistics at that time had traction in him. The unit of translation and discourse analysis as a chapter and the application of case grammar to translation as another chapter were introduced in his ''A Textbook of Translation''. From Nida's and Newmark's books and passages, translators can see their thinking and some social influences from that century. They had some similarities in research methods of translation. But on a small scale, Nida mainly used surface structure and deep structure, componential analysis while Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which Chomsky's student-Fillmore proposed to object to his teacher's idea. Both of them were in the grip of linguistics but the types of linguistics which they used are different. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)

===Chapter 4 Translation of Texts===

The part will talk about some problems that translators need to think about in translation. First, they should take the content and form of source texts into consideration. Second, the types of the texts have influence on the selection of translation methods, which translators should note.

====4.1 The Content and Form in Translation====

When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation, and Nida and Newmark had their own answers respectively. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61)

The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark is opposite to Nida. Nida has said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61)

And he mentioned "the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend upon the linguistic and cultural distance between languages, which showed he did not ignore form of translation at all". (Nida 1969, 5) In contrast, Newmark did not jump to conclusions. The controversy of content and form is the argument of literal translation and free translation in essence. Nida ever said translating means translating meaning. But experiencing many years' inspection, he had some changes in his thoughts. '''（source missed）
'''
The formal equivalence should be preserved, and only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. (Lao Long 1990, 52)

In contrast with Nida, Newmark at the beginning said that "I am somewhat of a "literalist", because I am for truth and accuracy. I think words as well as sentences and texts have meaning, and that you only deviate from literal translation when there are good semantic pragmatic reasons for so doing, which is more often than not...". (Newmark 1988, 1) The sentence was appeared in the preface of his ''A Textbook of Translation'' in 1988. And there is a quotation mark in the word-literalist, which means he is not a real literalist. Only when with the method of literal translation the meaning is still ambiguous can translators use the method of free translation.

However, at that time, Nida's theory was very prevalent, and most people ignored the importance of literal translation. Initially Nida insisted that form can arbitrarily be changed. Later, Nida improved his theory, so at last Nida's attention was working round from free translation to the combination of literal translation and free translation. Finally Newmark and Nida had the same idea about literal translation and free translation. But in a larger extent, Nida was more inclined to underline meaning and style while Newmark viewed that the importance of literal translation should not be neglected. There is no good or bad between literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark have their own different preferences. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)

Sometimes literal translation is better and sometimes free translation is better. For instance, for the proverb-When in Rome, do as the Romans do, Newmark might accept this translation "在罗马，照罗马人那样做" and Nida might prefer "入乡随俗". Both of the translations are good and nowadays people appreciate the brief version - "入乡随俗". There is another proverb, which is that all roads lead to Rome. Newmark might like "条条大路通罗马" and Nida was fond of this version - "不只有一个解决办法". The former translation also has definite connotations. People are likely to accept "条条大路通罗马". Nowadays, most of the translation methods should be based on the combination of literal translation and free translation. '''(source missed)
'''
Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal, and there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)

In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions, and it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is properer than Nida's. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)

====4.2 Degree of Emphasis on the Texts====

When it comes to texts, Nida considered that his translation method is available to every text while Newmark gave a classification of types of texts. Different types of texts should use different translation methods. The part about introduction of Newmark's translation theory has introduced the three types of texts, their definitions and suitable translation methods. According to text typology, translators should highlight the linguistic style of the author and be faithful to the content of the original author's thoughts when translating expressive texts. For example, there is a sentence - "I do not cough for my own amusement", (Austen 2009,17) which is from ''Pride and prejudice''.

Wang Zuoliang translated it into "我又不是故意咳着玩儿". The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation attaches importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response.

The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. "According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc". (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators use communicative translation method to translate informative texts.

When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as "请不要吻我，我怕羞", translators should translate it into "keep off the grass", rather than translate it into "please don't kiss me, I am bashful", which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)

===Chapter 5 Translation Evaluation Criteria===

The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be called good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed. The readers who give responses should be a people. The readers from a people will give a holistic feedback. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)

Considering that different readers have different understanding, and different interests, Nida also divided the target readers into four categories, which are child readers, primary education readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. He believed that several different translations should be prepared for the same original text to meet the needs of different levels of readers. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)

As the previous part mentioned, Newmark's requirements about good translations varied according to the types of texts. For expressive texts, the good translation from his point of view is that the translation is faithful to the original author and the language style of the translation is in accordance with that of the source texts. For informative texts, an excellent translation depends on whether the translation completely conveys all the content of the original text to the readers, and the content is true and right. For vocative texts, it is easy for the readers to understand the content of the translation of the vocative text, which is a terrific translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)

===Conclusion===

Given that the purpose of the translating ''Bible'' is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations in the translation of other texts. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had great influence on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.

===References===

Chen Jing. 陈婧. (2004). 彼得·纽马克的文本类型翻译理论的分析与探讨. [Analysis and Discussion on the Translation Theory of Text Type by Peter Newmark]. ''常州工学院学报''[Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology] 68-70.

Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing. 崔建周,卢静. (2006) 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较. [Comparison of Translation Thoughts between Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark]. ''河南商业高等专科学校学报''[Journal of Henan Business College] 106-108.

Eugene A. Nida and C R.Taber. (1982). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.

Jane Austen. (2009) ''Pride and Prejudice''. New York: Dover Publications.

J D. Waard and E A. Nida. (1986) ''From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating''. Nashville, Tenessee: Thomas Nelson Inc.

Lao Long. 劳陇. (1990). "殊途同归"——试论严复、奈达和纽马克翻译理论的一致性. ["Treading Different Paths that Lead to the Same Destination"——A Discussion On the Consistency of Yan Fu's, Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories.]. ''外国语(上海外国语学院学报)''[Foreign Language (Journal of Shanghai Institute of Foreign Languages)] 52-54, 64.

Liang Ge, Xianlei, Ren Chaoying. 梁戈,先蕾,任朝迎. (2016). 奈达功能对等理论在中国的接受. [Acceptance of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory in China Modern Chinese]. ''现代语文(语言研究版)''[Modern Chinese(Language Studies Edition)] 15-19.

Peter Newmark. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Prentice Hall International Ltd.

Peter Newmark. (2001). ''Approaches To Translation''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

Shao Lu. 邵璐. (2007). 误译•无意•故意—评关于奈达理论的若干争议. [Misinterpretation Unintention Intention-A Review of Some Controversies on Nida’s Theory]. ''外语研究''[Foreign Languages Research] 62-65.

Wang Lu. 王璐. (2012). 从奈达功能对等理论的角度看隐喻翻译. [Metaphorical Translation from Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''常州大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Changzhou University (Social Sciences Edition)] 101-104.

Zhang Jingha. 张经浩. (2005). 谈谈对奈达的所知和理解. [A Discuss of the Knowledge and Understanding of Nida]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Languages and Their Teaching] 59-63.

='''Chinese Translation Theories'''=

==A breif introduction to Xu Yuanchong's translation theories==
<center> 杨逸 Yang Yi, Student No.202020080660 法语语言文学</center>

===Abstract===
Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translations in Chinese, English and French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He was honored as "the best one who translated poems from Chinese to English and French" and was presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.

===Key words===
Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauty Theory; Three-Transformation Theory; Three-Purpose Theory; Three-Resemblance Theory

===摘要===
许渊冲从事文学翻译工作超过六十年，已经在国内外出版中、英、法文著作一百二十多部。这其中中国古代诗词几乎占到了一半。他被誉为“诗译英法唯一人”，曾获“北极光”杰出文学翻译奖，是首位获此殊荣亚洲翻译家。他提出了自己的翻译理论体系：“美化之艺术，创优似竞赛”，其中包含四个部分：三美论，三化论，三之论和三似论。因此本论文主要将结合他的诗歌译本来浅析他的翻译理论。

===关键词===
许渊冲；三美论；三化论；三之论；三似论

===Introduction===
For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practices, he said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as "the best one who translated poems from Chinese to English and French" and was presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award.

But he is also a excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015:6)

===A brief Introduction of Xu Yuanchong===
Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions.

After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translated works in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature.

As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements, Xu Yuanchong's first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉）'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot of contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French.

For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literature Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme - from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc.

The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.

Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' translation career, Xu has has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) Just like Xu Jun said: "Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience." (Xu Jun, 2010:270).

As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: "Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry" (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including "Three-beauty Theory" (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), "Three-Transformation Theory" (generalization, equalization and particularization)，"Three-Purpose Theory" (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),"Three-Resemblance Theory" (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), "Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory" (resemblance in form, resemblance in meaning and resemblance in spirit), "Theory of Rivalry", etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)

As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: "Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry" (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including "Three-beauties Theory" (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), "Three-Transformations Theory" (generalization, equalization and particularization)，"Three-Purposes Theory" (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),"Three-Resemblances Theory" (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), "Theory of Rivalry", etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

Having such a rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respect. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.

Having such rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respects. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

===Three-beauty Theory===
The "Three-Beauty Theory", put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and an very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': "There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes."(Lu Xun, 1976)

The "Three-Beauties Theory", put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and a very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': "There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes."(Lu Xun, 1976)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and the translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)

In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

Firstly, "Beauty in sense" is the beauty of artistic conception and the a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that the translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could move readers' heart as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the sense should be given priority.

Firstly, "Beauty in sense" is the beauty of artistic conception and a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could touch readers' heart the same as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the sense should be given priority.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

"Beauty in sense" can be sometimes produced by using some famous sentences or words of target language similar to the original text's meaning with the help of the beauty in sound in form. For example, When translating “西风烈” and “残阳如雪” in Mount Louguan of Mao Zedong from Chinese to English, we can borrow the words of the famous English poems: "wild west wind" in ''Ode to the West Wind'' and "the sunken sun" in ''To a Skylark'', so as to convey the original sentences' "Beauty in sense" and make the translated text attain "Beauty in sense" at the same time.

Secondly, "Beauty in sound" ask translators to represent the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believed that, "beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound."(Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127) Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that "When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley..." (Xu Yuanchong.2006:122)

Secondly, "Beauty in sound" asks translators to retain the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believes that, "beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound." Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that "When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley..." (Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127; Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

Xu Yuanchong suggested: "Chinese poetry mainly consists of seven words and five words. When translating Chinese seven-character poems, translators could consider the Alexandrine, and when translating five-character poems, the Mock-heroic could be considered. And when translating poems from Chinese to English, translators can use the rhymes used by British and American poets who are similar to the original sound, to convey original poem's "Beauty in sound" by means of double sound, overlap and repetition.(Baidu library 2011: 6-8)

Lastly, "Beauty in form" requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if the translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)

Lastly, "Beauty in form" requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if a translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

For example, we can translate "多少事,从来急;天地转,光阴迫。" to "So many deeds, Bear no delay. Sun and earth turn, Time flies away.", these two sentence have the same words, the same line length and the same meaning.

===Three-Resemblance Theory===
"Three-Resemblance" is the basis of "Three Beauty". Because "Resemblance" is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but "Beauty" is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed "Three-Resemblance Theory" : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, "Three-Beauty" and "Three-Resemblance" should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey "Beauty in sense, sound and form"of the original poem, the degree of "Resemblance in sense, sound and form" in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)

"Three-Resemblances Theory" is the basis of "Three Beauty". Because "Resemblance" is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but "Beauty" is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed "Three-Resemblance Theory" : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, "Three-Beauty" and "Three-Resemblance" should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey "Beauty in sense, sound and form"of the original poem, the degree of "Resemblance in sense, sound and form" in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

"Resemblance in sense" means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. "Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. And "Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)

"Resemblance in sense" means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. "Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between a translated work and the original work. And "Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between a translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

Firstly,"Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text, without mistranslation, omission or over-translation."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) "Resemblance in sense" is the most important, followed by "Resemblance in form" and "Resemblance in sound". If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take "Resemblance in sense" and give up the other two. Also,"When the Resemblance in sense and Resemblance are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And Resemblance in sense just concerns the surface structure, but Beauty in sense touches the deep structure."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)

Firstly,"Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text without mistranslation, omission or over-translation."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) "Resemblance in sense" is the most important rule, followed by "Resemblance in form" and "Resemblance in sound". If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take "Resemblance in sense" and give up the other two. Also,"When the Resemblance in sense and Resemblance are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And Resemblance in sense just concerns the surface structure, but Beauty in sense touches the deep structure."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

Secondly,"Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems."If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it’s very difficult to achieve "Resemblance in form" because of differences languages. So "it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy." (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)

Secondly,"Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between a translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems."If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it’s very difficult to achieve "Resemblance in form" because of differences in languages. So "it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy." (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

Lastly,"Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style."There are generally two method to attain Resemblance in sound: one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem."(Baidu library 2020: 3)

Lastly,"Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style."There are generally two methods to attain Resemblance in sound: one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem."(Baidu library 2020: 3)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

But later, Xu Yuanchong has proposed a "Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory": "Resemblance in form", "Resemblance in meaning" and "Resemblance in spirit"."Three resemblances means that the translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauty, and it aims at the similarity between the two languages." (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)

But later, Xu Yuanchong proposed a "Neo-Three-Resemblances Theory": "Resemblance in form", "Resemblance in meaning" and "Resemblance in spirit"."Three resemblances means that a translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauties, and it aims at the similarity between two languages." (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

Xu employed the math equation to express the "Three Resemblance" as follows:

Xu employed the math equations to express the "Three Resemblances" as follows:--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

Resemblance in form: 1+1<2

Resemblance in meaning: 1+1=2

Resemblance in spirit: 1+1>2 (Xu Yuanchong, 2005:222)

Therefore,"Resemblance in spirit" is the highest level and the other two is the foundation of it. If the translated work respect only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attain "Resemblance in form". If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attain only "Resemblance in meaning". (Lv Xianlan, 2010:26)

Therefore,"Resemblance in spirit" is the highest level and the other two are the foundation of it. If the translated work respects only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attain "Resemblance in form". If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attains only "Resemblance in meaning". (Lu Xianlan, 2010:26)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

===Three-Transformation Theory===
"Three-Transformation Theory" is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his "Three-Beauty Theory" and "Three-Transformation Theory" provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: "The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time."(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own "Three-Transformation Theory" which includes "equalization, generalization and particularization".

"Three-Transformations Theory" is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his "Three-Beauties Theory" and "Three-Transformations Theory" provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: "The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time."(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own "Three-Transformations Theory" which includes "equalization, generalization and particularization". --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

Firstly, for equalization, Xu hold that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206)

Firstly, for equalization, Xu holds that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization required translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206)

Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization requires translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonance. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meaning should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206)

Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonances. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meanings should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

For example, proper nouns "秦汉"（qin and han dynasties) can be generalized to the common noun "ancient times". Common noun "关" (frontier juncture) can be particularized to a proper noun "the Great Wall". And, "人" (people) in the verse "万里长征人未还" (the long march people did not return) can be equalized to "guards" or "soldiers". (Baidu library 2011: 10)

Therefore,by using "Three-Transformation Theory", we should try to fully convey the original masterpiece, and make the reader not only understand the version but also en joy and delight in it.

Therefore,by using "Three-Transformation Theory", we should try to fully convey original masterpieces, and make readers not only understand the version but also enjoy the delight in it.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

===Three-Purpose Theory===
"Three-Purpose Theory" is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which "originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of the translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading."(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22)

"Three-Purposes Theory" is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which "originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading."(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

So to make the reader understand the text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delight in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review "Three-Beauty Theory", "Three-Resemblance Theory" and "Three-Transformation Theory" that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.

So to make a reader understand a text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delighted in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review "Three-Beauties Theory", "Three-Resemblances Theory" and "Three-Transformations Theory" that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

===Different comments on Xu Yuanchong’s translation theories===
Xu formed his own translation theories based on the predecessors' ideas and the his unceasing practices."Some regard his theories as the highest standards of translation and support it greatly, while others think his theories are impossible and doubt it."((Sun Tingting, 2015: 26) His theories aroused people's different reactions. His "Three-Beauty Theory" is the most famous one among all his translation theories in China, and we can see a lot of articles or theses use his "Three-Beauty Theory" to analyse the translated works on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). So What Chinese scholars discuss most is his "Three-Beauty Theory", followed by his "Three-Transformation Theory", "Three-Purpose Theory" and "Three-Resemblance Theory". And we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on his translation theories from two sides.

Xu formed his own translation theories based on the predecessors' ideas and the his unceasing practices."Some regard his theories as the highest standard of translation and support it greatly, while others think his theories are impossible and doubt it."His theories aroused people's different reactions. His "Three-Beauties Theory" is the most famous one among all his translation theories in China, and we can see a lot of articles or theses use his "Three-Beauties Theory" to analyse the translated works on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). So what Chinese scholars discuss most is his "Three-Beauties Theory", followed by his "Three-Transformations Theory", "Three-Purposes Theory" and "Three-Resemblances Theory". And we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on his translation theories from two sides.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 26)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

On the one side, many Chinese scholars gave a lot of compliments to his translations theories. For example, Liu Chongde, a famous expert on translation, said in his ''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation'': "Poems call for the beauty in form, sound and sense. A translator should not be satisfied with the mere reproduction of sense in the original, but strive for the reproduction of the original beauty .To achieve this, he ought to retain the original meaning and artistic conception, and then do his best to make his translation bear a certain form, rhyme and rime when necessary." (LiuChongde, 2003:129-130) Therefore Liu agrees with Xu's "Three-Beauty Theory" and his viewpoint to reproduce the beauty of the original poems.

On the one hand, many Chinese scholars gave a lot of compliments to his translations theories. For example, Liu Chongde, a famous expert on translation, said in his ''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation'': "Poems call for the beauty in form, sound and sense. A translator should not be satisfied with the mere reproduction of sense in the original, but strive for the reproduction of the original beauty .To achieve this, he ought to retain the original meaning and artistic conception, and then do his best to make his translation bear a certain form, rhyme and rime when necessary." Therefore Liu agrees with Xu's "Three-Beauties Theory" and his viewpoints to reproduce the beauty of the original poems. (LiuChongde, 2003:129-130)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

Also, Professor Guo Zhuzhang, thinks highly of Xu's "Three-Beauty Theory" in his ''On Famous Translators'':"Xu Yuanchong's renditions of poetry combined beauty in sense, sound and form into a whole. He applied perfectly his own Three-Beauty principle into his practice in poetry translation. His highly skilled translation techniques are worth learning and taking as a reference." (Guo Zhuzhang,1999:12) And Some other scholars including Qian Zhongshu，Yang Zhenning, Zheng Hailing, etc, all of them gave Xu Yuanchong highly praises, and regard his theories as the supreme goal of translation.(Sun Tingting, 20:37)

Also, Professor Guo Zhuzhang, thinks highly of Xu's "Three-Beauties Theory" in his ''On Famous Translators'':"Xu Yuanchong's renditions of poetry combined beauty in sense, sound and form into a whole. He applys perfectly his own Three-Beauties principle into his practice in poetry translation. His highly skilled translation techniques are worth learning and taking as a reference." And Some other scholars including Qian Zhongshu，Yang Zhenning, Zheng Hailing, etc, all of them gave Xu Yuanchong highly praises, and regard his theories as the supreme goal of translation.(Guo Zhuzhang,1999:12; Sun Tingting, 20:37)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

On the other side, there are still many scholars who disagree with Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. For example, Liu Yingkai attacked his theories greatly. Liu put raised two questions to doubt Xu's theories in his ''A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound'' : "Isn't verse to be regarded as verse if it is without rhyme?" and "Are there more advantages or disadvantages to translate verse in rhyme." (Liu Yingkai,1989:36) He believed that it is impossible to use rhyme without sacrificing sense for sound.

On the other hand, there are still many scholars who disagree with Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. For example, Liu Yingkai attacked his theories greatly. Liu raised two questions to doubt Xu's theories in his ''A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound'' : "Isn't verse to be regarded as verse if it is without rhyme?" and "Are there more advantages or disadvantages to translate verse in rhyme." He believes that it is impossible to use rhyme without sacrificing sense for sound.(Liu Yingkai,1989:36)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

Then, in Xu Jun's article ''The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of "le Rouge et le Noir"'' , he pointed out that: "Xu Yuanchong's translation has its own style. He believed that as long as the translated works can make people understand it well, enjoy it and delight in it, we don’t have any scruple about the original text."(Xu Jun 1996A :44) and "It exists often only a step from truth to falsehood."(Xu Jun 1996:47).

Then, in Xu Jun's article ''The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of "le Rouge et le Noir"'' , he points out that: "Xu Yuanchong's translation has its own style. He believes that as long as the translated works can make people understand it well, enjoy it and delight in it, we don’t have any scruple about the original text."(Xu Jun 1996A :44) and "It exists often only a step from truth to falsehood."(Xu Jun 1996:47).--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

In addition, Xu Jun also proposed that Xu Yuanchong's "transformation method" had no definite meaning and was not easy to master. It seems that "Three-Transformation Theory" can't be used by those who are novices of translation or who attach great importance to "micro-details" and couldn't get rid of the shackles of the original text. (Zhu Yishu,2019,27(04):71-75.) So Xu Jun doesn's think that it's very hard to apply to practice Xu Yuanchong's "Three Transformation Theory" which can't be generally used by all of the translators and this theory may distort the original text because of it's vagueness.

In addition, Xu Jun also proposed that Xu Yuanchong's "transformation method" had no definite meaning and was not easy to master. It seems that "Three-Transformation Theory" can't be used by those who are novices of translation or who attach great importance to "micro-details" and couldn't get rid of the shackles of the original text. So Xu Jun doesn's think that it's very hard to apply to practice Xu Yuanchong's "Three Transformations Theory" which can't be generally used by all of the translators and this theory may distort the original text because of it's vagueness.(Zhu Yishu,2019,27(04):71-75.) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

===Conclusion===
Xu Yuanchong has created and translated numerous masterpieces and has won a lot of honors and awards. Xu, based on his own translation practice and experience, has also put forward many outstanding theories. His "Three-Beauty theory" and "Three-Resemblance Theory" offer us translation methods and increase our ability of appreciating the translated works. Then his "Three-Transformation Theory" provides us with the way to achieve three beauties that he proposed. And his "Three-Purpose Theory" show us what translation pursues, and let us more understand the previous three theories. His translation theories are unique with rich and profound connotation, concerning all aspects of literary translation, and forming a systematic framework of theory to guide translating activity.

Xu Yuanchong has created and translated numerous masterpieces and has won a lot of honors and awards. Xu, based on his own translation practices and experiences, has also put forward many outstanding theories. His "Three-Beauties theory" and "Three-Resemblances Theory" offer us translation methods and increase our abilities of appreciating the translated works. Then his "Three-Transformations Theory" provides us with the way to achieve three beauties that he proposed. And his "Three-Purposes Theory" show us what translation pursues, and let us more understand the previous three theories. His translation theories are unique with rich and profound connotations, concerning all aspects of literary translation, and forming a systematic framework of theory to guide translating activity.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

He was praised by many Chinese expert scholars, but also has been refuted by some translators. But in any case, he has really made a great contributions to Chinese Translation Theory System. And besides what we have already presented in this paper, there are lot of other theories, like "Theory of rivalry", "Theory of advantage", "Theory of art", "Theory of recreation of beauty", etc. As he said, translation theory comes from practice, so his translation theories are always various and keep pace with the times.

He was not only praised by many Chinese scholars, but also has been refuted by some translators. But in any case, he has really made a great contribution to Chinese Translation Theory System. And besides what we have already presented in this paper, there are lots of other theories, like "Theory of rivalry", "Theory of advantage", "Theory of art", "Theory of recreation of beauty", etc. As he said, translation theory comes from practice, so his translation theories are always various and keep pace with the times.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

===References===
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Baidu library 百度文库(2020.9.3).许渊冲的十字文学翻译理论[Xu Yuanchong's cross literary translation theory]."Baidu library". https://wenku.baidu.com/view/03e50a8900020740be1e650e52ea551811a6c91e.html

Guo Zhuzhang 郭著章(1999)．翻译名家研究[On Famous Translators]. 武汉:湖北教育出版社[Wuhan: Hubei Education Press].

Lu Xun 鲁迅, (1976).汉文学史纲要[Compendium of The History of Han Literature] 凤凰出版社Phoenix Press.

Liu Yingkai 刘英凯,(1989).关于音美理论的再商榷[A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound]. 现代外语[Modern foreign language].

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Lv Xianlan 吕献兰,(2010). 浅谈许渊冲的“三美”“三似”“三化”与“三之”[On Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Beauty", "Three-Resemblance", "Three-Transformation" and "Three-Purpose"].河北大学外国语学院[Foreign Languages College of Hebei University].

Peng Shuyu彭姝钰, Li Chengjing李成静,(2020).“三似”与“三美”矛盾关系——评析李清照《如梦令》英译本[The Contradictory Relationship between "Three-Resemblance" and "Three-Beauty" -- An Analysis of Li Qingzhao's English version of "Ru Meng Ling"].海外英语[Overseas English].

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Sun Tingting孙婷婷,(2015). 从许渊冲“三美论”解读李清照词英译中的美感移植[The Aesthetic Transplantation of LiQingzhao's Song Lyrics Translation-from the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Three Beauty" Theory].贵州师范大学 Guizhou Normal University.

Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲,(1984).翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation].

Xu Jun许钧,(1996).“化”与“讹”——读许渊冲译《红与黑》有感[The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of "le Rouge et le Noir" ].外语与外语教学[Foreign languages and foreign Language teaching].

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Xu Yuanchong许渊冲,(2005).文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. 北京:北京大学出版社[Beijing: Peking University Press].

Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲, (2006). 翻译的艺术[The Art of Translation] 北京:五洲传播出版社 Beijing: Wuzhou Communication Press.

Xu Jun 许钧,等,(2010).文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录[Literary Translation Theory and Practice: A Dialogue on Translation].南京:译林出版社[Nanjing: Yilin Press].

Xu Yuanchong许渊冲, (2015).许渊冲英译毛泽东诗词[MAO Zedong's poems translated to English by Xu Yuanchong] 北京：中译出版社 Beijing: Chinese Translation Press.

Yao Ying 姚莹, Fu Mingduan付明端,(2019).许渊冲“三化论”在英文歌词文言文翻译的应用研究[A study on the application of Xu Yuanchong's "Three-Transformation Theory" in the Translation of English Lyrics and Classical Chinese].大众文艺[Popular Literature and Art].

Zhu Yishu 祝一舒,(2019).许渊冲翻译实践和理论的互动及追求[The interaction and pursuit of Xu Yuanchong's translation practices and theories].西安外国语大学学报[Journal of Xi'an International Studies University].

==Ji Xianlin’s view on translation 马淑雅 Ma Shuya==
===摘要===
季羡林先生是中国著名的文学翻译大家，学贯中西的东方学者。虽然季羡林并没有深入研究过翻译学理论知识，但是在其长期又丰富的翻译实践中逐渐形成很多具有重要意义的翻译观点。季先生严格遵守“信达雅”的翻译原则，主张直译，反对转译，这些始终贯穿于他的翻译生涯。就翻译思想而言，季羡林主张翻译是为促进中外文化交流而服务的。
===关键词===
季羡林；信达雅；直译；传译；文化交流
===Abstract===
As a translator, Ji Xianliin is highly reputed in the translation domain. He creates numerous of translation works of immortality, although without any systematic translation theories. The present study explores Ji Xianlin’s translation thoughts which includes the criteria of translation and the purpose of translation. “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.

As a translator, Ji Xianliin is highly reputed in the translation domain. He creates numerous immortal translation works, although without any systematic translation theories. The present study explores Ji Xianlin’s translation thoughts which includes the criteria of translation and the purpose of translation. “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying

===Key Words===
Ji Xianlin; translation thoughts; faithfulness; expressiveness; elegance; literal translation
===Introduction===
Mr. Ji Xianlin is a well-known linguist, oriental scholar and literary translator in China. He is fluent in twelve languages, including modern foreign languages such as English, German, French, Russian, Latin, and Arabic, as well as Sanskrit, Pali, Tocharian and many other ancient Eastern languages.

Mr. Ji Xianlin is a well-known linguist, oriental scholar and literary translator in China. He speaks fluently twelve languages, including modern foreign languages such as English, German, French, Russian, Latin, and Arabic, as well as Sanskrit, Pali, Tocharian and many other ancient Eastern languages.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying
--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

He is committed to cultural exchanges between China and India, and has made outstanding achievements in many academic research fields such as the history of Sino-Indian Buddhism, the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges, comparative literature, literary theory, Eastern culture, Dunhuang studies, and sugar history.

He is committed to cultural exchanges between China and India, and has made outstanding achievements in many academic research fields such as the history of Sino-Indian Buddhism, the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges, comparative literature, literary theory, Eastern culture, Dunhuang studies, and sugar history.(note the citation please)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying

As an outstanding literary translator, his main works include Indian poet Klidsa’s "Shakuntala" (1956) and “Vikraorvasiya”(1962) , Indian classical masterpiece "Panchtantra" (1959), the Indian epic “Ramayana” (1980-1984), and the “Anna Segher Short Story Collection” by the German female writer Anna Segher, etc.

As an outstanding literary translator, his translation works include Indian poet Klidsa’s "Shakuntala" (1956) and “Vikraorvasiya”(1962), Indian classical masterpiece "Panchtantra" (1959), the Indian epic “Ramayana” (1980-1984), and the “Anna Segher Short Story Collection” by the German female writer Anna Segher, etc.(note the citation please)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying

Especially as one of the two major epics in India "Ramayana", Mr. Ji Xianlin, who is over 60 years old, spent ten years on translating it. The original text of Ramayana is more than 20,000 slokas and more than 3 million words after being translated into Chinese. Its translation is of great significance in the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges.

Especially for one of the two major epics in India "Ramayana", Mr. Ji Xianlin, who is over 60 years old, spent ten years on translating it. The original text of Ramayana is more than 20,000 slokas. The target text that is translated by him is composed of more than 3 million characters. Its translation is of great significance in the history of Sino-Indian cultural communication. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying

Mr. Ji Xianlin has accumulated a lot of translation experience through long-term translation practice, summed up many translation viewpoints and thoughts, enriched traditional Chinese translation theory, and has important theoretical value and practical significance. And this paper is mainly introduced his translation theory, especially his agreement and development with Yan Fu’s translation criteria “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.

Mr. Ji Xianlin has accumulated a lot of translation experience through long-term translation practice, summed up many translation ideas and thoughts, enriched traditional Chinese translation theory, and has important theoretical value and practical significance. And this paper is mainly introduced his translation theory, especially his agreement and development with Yan Fu’s translation criteria “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying

===The Translation Goal: Culture Communication===
Mr. Ji Xianlin once wrote, “As long as the language is different, whether it is in one nation or ethnic group (China includes many ethnic groups.), or between many nations or ethnic groups, translation is necessary. Otherwise, thoughts cannot be communicated, and culture is difficult to communicate, it is also difficult for human society to move forward.” (Ji Xianlin 2007,8)

Mr. Ji Xianlin once wrote, “As long as the language is different, whether it is in one nation or ethnic group (China has many ethnic groups.), or between many nations or ethnic groups, translation is necessary. Otherwise, thoughts cannot be communicated, and culture is difficult to communicate, then it is also difficult for human society to move forward.” (Ji Xianlin, 2007,8)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying

Based on this, we can infer that Mr. Ji thinks that translation activities exist to meet the needs of ideological and cultural exchanges between nations and ethnic groups of different languages.

Based on this, we can infer that Mr. Ji thinks that translation activities'purpose is to meet the needs of ideological and cultural exchanges between nations and ethnic groups of different languages. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying

"Cultural exchange is one of the main driving forces to promote the progress of human society. We can even say that without cultural exchange, human beings would not have progressed, and there would be no such a prosperous society in the world today."(Ji Xianlin 2007,151)

"Cultural exchange is one of the main driving forces to improve human society. We can even say that without cultural exchange, human beings would not have progressed, and there would be no such a prosperous society in the world today."(Ji Xianlin 2007,151)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying

It is said that culture exchanges id of great importance to human society progress. Without the exchanges and collisions between different cultures, the entire human society will be difficult to advance, and the exchanges between different nations and countries will be restricted due to differences in languages. This requires translation activities to communicate and understand.

It is said that culture exchanges is of great importance to human society progress. Without the exchanges and collisions between different cultures, the entire human society will be difficult to develop, and the exchanges between different nations and countries will be restricted due to differences in languages. This requires translation activities to communicate and understand mutually.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying

All cultures in the world have stagnant times, but Chinese civilization has never stopped despite some twists and turns. A large part of the reason is the benefits brought by cultural exchanges.

All cultures in the world have stagnant times, but Chinese civilization has never stopped despite some twists and turns. the main reason is the benefits brought by cultural exchanges. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying

"If you compare it with a river, the long river of Chinese culture has times when water is full or not, but it has never been dried up. The reason is that there is new water inflowing for many times. There are two biggest ones, one is water from India, and the other is water from the West. And these two times culture inflow rely on translation. The reason why Chinese culture can keep energetic is translation. Translation is so useful!"(Ji Xianlin 2007,10)

"If you compare it with a river, the long river of Chinese culture has periods when water is full or not, but it has never been dried up. The reason is that there is new water infusing for many times. There are two biggest ones, one is water from India, and the other is water from the West. And these two times culture inflow rely on translation. The reason why Chinese culture can keep energetic is translation. Translation is so useful!"(Ji Xianlin 2007,10)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying

The reason why Chinese civilization did not die out like other ancient civilizations in the world is precisely because there is a steady flow of water inflowing, and each time is completed through translation.

The reason why Chinese civilization did not die out like other ancient civilizations in the world is precisely because there is a steady flow of water inflowing, and is completed through translation each time.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying

“The Water from India" mentioned by Mr. Ji mainly refers to the introduction of Buddhism from India to China. The spread of Buddhist scriptures in China has had a huge and far-reaching impact on Chinese language, culture, literature, art, and religion. And one very important step in this process is the translation of Buddhist scriptures and related classics.

“The Water from India" mentioned by Mr. Ji mainly refers to the introduction of Buddhism from India to China. The spread of Buddhist scriptures in China has had a huge and far-reaching impact on Chinese language, culture, literature, art, and religion. And one very important step in this process is the translation of Buddhist scriptures and related classics.(Add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying

"The Water from the West" refers to the Westernization Movement in the late Qing Dynasty and the subsequent May Fourth Movement. Many modern Western thoughts were introduced into China. During this period, Chinese translators translated a large number of books on literature, science, law, agriculture, engineering, medicine and other subjects.

"The Water from the West" refers to the Westernization Movement in the late Qing Dynasty and the subsequent May Fourth Movement. Many modern Western thoughts were introduced into China. During this period, Chinese translators translated a large number of books on literature, science, law, agriculture, engineering, medicine and other subjects.(Add Citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying

These translations played an incalculable role in promoting Chinese culture and education and enlightening the people. Mr. Ji attributed the 5,000 years of Chinese civilization to the historical role of translation.

These translations played an important role in promoting Chinese culture and education and enlightening the people. Mr. Ji attributed the 5,000 years of Chinese civilization to the historical role of translation.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying

Not only in China, translation activities have also promoted the progress of human society worldwide. "If the "Bible" written in ancient Hebrew and the "Gospel" written in Aramaic were not first translated into Greek and Latin, and later translated into the languages of the Middle Ages and modern times, the Judeo-Christian culture for two thousand years would not exist, and therefore European culture would not appear either. " (Ji Xianlin 2007,1)

At the same time, he pointed out that the "Bible" translation activities in the past 2000 years have helped lay the foundation for the languages of many countries."(Ji Xianlin 2007,1)

===Translation Criteria: Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance===
Mr. Ji Xianlin agrees with Yan Fu's translation criteria of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": I think that the sentence of Yan Youling (Yan Fu) that some people criticized, "the three difficulties in translation are faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", can still be kept. The reason is very clear and relevant. These three words are indispensable and also one more seems unnecessary. To achieve these three words can also be said to be a matter of translation.(Ji Xianlin 2007,22)

Mr. Ji Xianlin agrees with Yan Fu's translation criteria of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": I think that the sentence of Yan Youling (Yan Fu) that some people criticized, "the three difficulties in translation are faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", can still be kept. The reason is very clear and relevant. These three words are indispensable and also no one seems unnecessary. To achieve these three criteria can also be considered as a matter of translation.(Ji Xianlin 2007,22)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying

I personally think that among the three characters, the first "faithfulness" is the basis and the fundament. If this word cannot be done, there will be no translation at all. When I discuss translation issues and comment on translated works, the first thing I do is to see whether it is faithful or not, that is, whether he is faithful to the original text. If this is not, then it cannot be called translation. “Expressiveness” and ”elegance” is like the tree without roots.(Ji Xianlin 2007,21-22)

I personally think that among the three characters, the first "faithfulness" is the basis and the foundation. If this cannot be achieved, there will be no translation at all. When I discuss translation issues and comment on translated works, the first thing I do is to see whether it is faithful or not, that is, whether it is faithful to the original text. If this is not, then it cannot be called translation. Without “faithfullness”,“Expressiveness” and ”elegance” is like the tree without roots.(Ji Xianlin 2007,21-22)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying

====The First Criteria: Faithfulness====
It can be seen that Ji Lao believes that "faithfulness" is the most important principle in translation, and the first criteria for evaluating the quality of all translated works. Mr. Ji strictly abides by this criteria in translating “Ramayana”.

It can be seen that Mr.Ji believes that "faithfulness" is the most important principle in translation, and the first criteria for evaluating the quality of all translated works. Mr. Ji strictly abides by this criteria in translating “Ramayana”.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying

In some chapters there are lots of boring lines, which are mainly piles of the names of people, countries, flowers, trees and weapons. Though these lines are too eccentric and dull for readers to read, Mr. Ji spent the most effort on it to achieve the faithfulness to the origin text. There are some examples:

In some chapters there are lots of boring lines, which are mainly piles of the names of people, countries, flowers, trees and weapons. Though these lines are too eccentric and dull for readers to read, Mr. Ji spent the most effort on it to achieve the faithfulness to the origin text. There are some examples: (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying

罗摩这样说了以后，
大牟尼毗奢蜜多罗。
这纯洁、忠诚、聪慧的人，
就把神秘的兵器来解说：
萨哆也漫多和萨哆也吉哩底，
还有提湿吒和罗婆萨，
名交钵罗底诃罗多罗的，
钵朗牟迦和阿凡牟迦。
罗刹那、阿罗刹那、毗沙摩，
提吒那婆和苏那婆戈、
陀舍刹和舍多婆伽罗、
达舍湿哩沙和舍杜多罗。

This part is all about the names of weapons. In addition to trying his best to translate these names, Mr. Ji also made a lot of notes indicating that they are weapons and attached the original Sanskrit text to help readers distinguish.

This part is all about the names of weapons. In addition to trying his best to translate these names, Mr. Ji also added a lot of notes indicating that they are weapons and attached the original Sanskrit text to help readers understand.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying

====The Second Criteria: Expressiveness====

The second is the “expressiveness", which is in the process from the translation to the reader. In the first half period of the translation of Ramayana, Mr. Ji adopted the folk song style based on Mr. Lu Xun’s opinion on new poem: “First, there must be a tune and a similar rhyme, which is easy to remember and speak even sing it out.”

The second is the “expressiveness", which is in the process from the translation to the reader. In the first half period of the translation of Ramayana, Mr. Ji adopted the folk song style based on Mr. Lu Xun’s opinion on new poem: “First, there must be a tune and a similar rhyme, which is easy to remember and speak even sing it out.”(add citation) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 15:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying

So, Mr. Ji uses a poem style with almost the same number of words per line. Such as Chapter. 42 The Ganges Down to Earth in Childhood :

有成群的海豚和蛇，

还有来回游泳的鱼，

天空里好像布满了，

闪闪发光的这些东西。

天空里又像是布满了，

像天鹅一样飞翔的秋云，

颜色灰白，水气极重，

忽然间就会四散飞奔。

有的地方，水流得弯曲迅速，

有的地方，水流又被阻住，

有的地方，水流的弯曲摇荡，

有的地方，水又缓缓流出。

有的地方，水流同水流，

互相撞击，碰在一起，

一刹那间，流上天去，

但一转眼，又落下平地。

This translated poems are strict in form, graceful in tune and rigorous in rhyming. Especially for the use of parallel sentences, on the one hand it increases the momentum of the poem and retains the style of the original work. On the other hand, it makes the target readers catchy and impressed.

This translated poems are strict in form, graceful in tune and rigorous in rhyming. Especially for the use of parallel sentences, on the one hand it increases the momentum of the poem and retains the style of the original work. On the other hand, it makes the target readers catchy and impressed. (add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying

When translating to the second half of the sixth chapter, Mr. Ji switched to using seven-character quatrains and five-character quatrains:

山溪中水缓缓流，
流水清澈似天空；
山头像大蟒蛇信，
吐出清水似水晶。
好像喜马拉雅山，
此山辉煌多洞穴，
罗波看那宾阇耶，
就走向那摩陀河。
圣水朝着西海流，
此河水流石上头；
公牛、小鹿和狮子，
豹子、熊罴和大象，
来到河中激起浪。

山溪中水缓缓流，
流水清澈似天空；
山头像大蟒蛇信，
吐出清水似水晶。
好像喜马拉雅山，
此山辉煌多洞穴，
罗波看那宾阇耶，
就走向那摩陀河。
圣水朝着西海流，
此河水流石上头；
公牛、小鹿和狮子，
豹子、熊罴和大象，
来到河中激起浪。(加一下换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying

Once Mr. Ji wants to change its form, he changed it. This reminds us of Mr. Ji's other identity: a famous prose writer. The prose written by him is free and easy and the quotations of ancient prose and poems seem to be easy to come by without a trace. Writing skills are embodied in the translation of epic poems, which makes us feel that every ode in his translated poem is as if it were from Mr. Ji’s original. Mr. Ji's translation has reached the highest level of expressiveness. (Liu Ting, Luo Chunpeng 2017,95)

Once Mr. Ji wanted to change its form, and he changed it. This reminds us of Mr. Ji's other identity: a famous prose writer. The prose written by him is free and easy and the quotations of ancient prose and poems seem to be easy to come by without a trace. Writing skills are embodied in the translation of epic poems, which makes us feel that every ode in his translated poem is as if it were from Mr. Ji’s original creation. Mr. Ji's translation has reached the highest level of expressiveness. (Liu Ting, Luo Chunpeng 2017,95)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying

====The third Criteria: Elegance====

Finally, we will discuss the” elegance” in “faithfulness, expressive and elegance”. The first two words are generally agreed and accepted by later generations. Only the third word is quite controversial and everyone has their own opinions.

Finally, we will discuss the” elegance” in “faithfulness, expressive and elegance”. The first two words are generally agreed and accepted by later generations. Only the third word is quite controversial and everyone has their own opinions.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying

Some people think that” elegance” is not about beautification and not about translating an article that was originally not elegant, but an effort to convey the original author’s writing style and spiritual characteristics. Others believe that “elegance” is to use the most appropriate word in the article.

Some people think that” elegance” is not about beautification and not about translating an article that was originally not elegant, but an effort to convey the original author’s writing style and spiritual characteristics mostly. Others believe that “elegance” is to use the most appropriate word in the article.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying

In the pursuit of “elegance“, Mr. Ji not only strives to translate poems to poems, but also mainly embodies the conversion of rhyme:

罗摩说：“真是这样“，
他心里非常舒畅。
那些天上的光辉精灵，
有了形体，多福多幸，
对罗摩拱手说话，
声音甜蜜又动听:
“虎般的人！下命令，
我们将何去何从？”

罗摩说：“真是这样“，

他心里非常舒畅。

那些天上的光辉精灵，

有了形体，多福多幸，

对罗摩拱手说话，

声音甜蜜又动听:

“虎般的人！下命令，

我们将何去何从？”(加换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying

In this ode, the first two lines and the last six lines belong to different parts. To divided this, Mr. Ji change its rhyming word from “ang” to “ing”. That is, in the first two lines the rhyming words are the same “ang” and in the last six lines the rhyming words are the same “ing”. Through this, readers could easily understand the change of its meaning without separating the original ode.

In this ode, the first two lines and the last six lines belong to different parts. To divide this, Mr. Ji change its rhyming word from “ang” to “ing”. In this way, In the first two lines the rhyming words are the same “ang” and in the last six lines the rhyming words are the same “ing”. Through this, readers could easily understand the change of its meaning without separating the original ode.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying

There is one more example:

那一位弥提罗的国王，
把自己的住处弥提罗城进。
那一位阿逾陀的城主，
也带着高贵尊严的儿子们。
跟在所有的仙人们的后面，
带着随从和兵卒向前奔。
虎般的人在前面走着，
带着一群仙人和罗摩。
这里和那里，成群的鸟，
对他大声唱出了悲歌。
所有大地上的鹿群，
都向着男方拼命奔波。

那一位弥提罗的国王，

把自己的住处弥提罗城进。

那一位阿逾陀的城主，

也带着高贵尊严的儿子们。

跟在所有的仙人们的后面，

带着随从和兵卒向前奔。

虎般的人在前面走着，

带着一群仙人和罗摩。

这里和那里，成群的鸟，

对他大声唱出了悲歌。

所有大地上的鹿群，

都向着男方拼命奔波。(加换行)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying

In these three odes (Four lines is one ode.), the first two lines in the middle ode belongs to the previous ode from the meaning aspect. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word ”en” with the previous ode(“奔“ to “们”). And the last two lines in the middle ode belongs to the next ode. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word with the next ode. (“着” to ”歌” and “摩” to “波”）

In these three odes (Four lines is one ode.), the first two lines in the middle ode belong to the previous ode from the meaning aspect. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word ”en” as the previous ode(“奔“ to “们”). And the last two lines in the middle ode belong to the next ode. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word with the next ode. (“着” to ”歌” and “摩” to “波”）--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying

"Faithfulness" is the basis of "expressiveness" and "elegance". Without "faithfulness" there is no "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr. Ji also pointed out in the article "Translation" in cooperation with Mr. Xu Guozhang: "Faithfulness" is loyal to the original work. "Expressiveness" is for the reader and "elegance" is for literary language.

"Faithfulness" is the basis of "expressiveness" and "elegance". Without "faithfulness" there is no "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr. Ji also pointed out in the article "Translation" in cooperation with Mr. Xu Guozhang: "Faithfulness" is loyal to the original work. "Expressiveness" is for the reader and "elegance" is for literary language.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying

“Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance“ are only three characters, but they reflect the relationship between works, readers, and literary language. That is, a good translation work should be faithful to the original text, be able to be understood by the readers, and also the words should be elegant enough to convey the readers a sense of beauty.

“Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance“ are only three characters, but they reflect the relationship between works, readers, and literary language. actually, a good translation work should be faithful to the original text, be able to be understood by the readers, and also the words should be elegant enough to convey the readers a sense of beauty.(add citation)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying

Mr. Ji also classified the pros and cons of translations according to "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": translations can be roughly divided into three categories: the first grade, "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" are all up to standard. The second grade is to meet the requirement of "faithfulness" and "expressiveness", but without "elegance". The third grade is fail to achieve faithful, expressive and elegant. (Ji Xianlin 2007,23)

Mr. Ji has also classified the pros and cons of translations according to "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": translations can be roughly divided into three categories: the first grade, "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" are all up to standard. The second grade is to meet the requirement of "faithfulness" and "expressiveness", but without "elegance". The third grade was translations fail to be faithful, expressive and elegant. (Ji Xianlin 2007,23) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying

With the continuous accumulation of translation practice and the continuous deepening of thinking, Mr. Ji once stated in an interview in 2005: "I have not studied translation theory in depth. Based on my own experience, different categories of translation have different requirements. Some strict correspondence is required. Some do not need or are difficult to correspond to, in which reaching its meaning is enough. Therefore, it is difficult to have a unified standard for translation. Even if it is Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance", or new ones proposed by later generations, it cannot be regarded as a translation standard. They can only be the request for translation or a kind of expectation.”(Li Jingrui 2005)

With the continuous accumulation of translation practice and the continuous deep thinking, Mr. Ji once stated in an interview in 2005: "I have not studied translation theory in depth. Based on my own experience, different categories of translation have different requirements. Some strict correspondence is required. Some do not need or are difficult to correspond to, in which reaching its meaning is enough. Therefore, it is difficult to have a unified standard for translation. Even if it is Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance", or new ones proposed by later generations, it cannot be regarded as a translation standard. They can only be the request for translation or a kind of expectation.”(Li Jingrui 2005) --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 07:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying

In particular, literary translation involves different understandings of the author, work, background, etc. Therefore different comprehensions and different expressions should be allowed. Of course, these are required to be based on in-depth research, rather than the translator's arbitrary desires.（Li JingRui 2005）

Some people think that Mr. Ji's statement in his later years is a partial denial of his previous opinions, but it is actually a revision and improvement of previous translation ideas based on the diversity of the text.

===Advocation of Literal Translation===
Literal translation generally means that if the language conditions permit, both the original content and the original format are preserved in the translation as completely as possible. The principle of word-by-word should be followed. Mr. Ji agrees with Lu Xun, Guo Moruo, Mao Dun and others in advocating literal translation and believe that "literal translation is the overriding principle." (Ji Xianlin 2007,6)

When Mr. Ji was translating the Indian epic "Ramayana", faced with a huge workload of more than 20,000 slokas (means verses). He decided not to translate in the form of prose, but adhere to the principle of literal translation- translating poems into poems to be faithful to the original text style.

Although the poetry genre was determined, it took Mr. Ji a lot of hard work to choose the poetry style. "Popular vernacular poetry does not have a fixed genre or metric. Poets write poems as they like. I don't think all the forms are appropriate. … It is also difficult to translate completely with old poems. One is that it cannot be faithful, and the other is most people cannot understand. After thinking about it, I decided to translate it into a jingle-like folk song. The number of words in each line should not vary too much, and the rhyme should be generally catchy.” Ji Xianlin 1984,598）

From these words we can see that Mr. Ji is strict to the principle of literal translation. There is also an example to show this through the comparison of the translation between Mr. Ji and another translator named Shai Zena towards the same text from an American writer Logan Pearsall Smith’s Rose

It was one of miniature Italian cities with a high church, a pretentious piazza, a few narrow streets and little palaces, perched, all compact and complete, on the top of a mountain, within and enclosure of walls hardly larger than an English kitchen garden.

这城是意大利小城之一，有高耸的礼拜堂，有虚设的广场，有几条仄狭的街道和小宫殿，都丛踞在山的顶上，外面绕着一围墙，不比一个英国的菜园大。（Ji Xianlin）
那是个典型的意大利小城，一座耸立的教堂，一个虚华的市场，一些狭窄的街道，几座小小的宫殿，围墙围着，在山顶上密集而完整的分布着，这座小的城市并不比英国人的菜园子大多少。（Shao Zena）

Towards “It was one of…”, Mr. Ji translated into “这是…之一”，while Shao Zena translated into “那是个…”. Faced with “with…”, Mr. Ji translated into “有…”, while Shao Zena omitted “with” and directly described the things behind “with”. Through analyzing these two different translations, we can see clearly that Mr. Ji prefer literal translation than another translator.(Liu Jin, Hua Xianfa 2015,114)

But the literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji goes beyond the translation methodology in the general sense. As a linguist with profound knowledge of linguistics, he is not only concerned about how to be as close to the original text as possible in translation and how to convey the original text as faithfully as possible in translation, but also to further consider how to promote target language through translation, which is also an significant problem about the development and perfection of our mother tongue Chinese. (Xie Tianzhen 2006,)

He reviewed the history of the development of Chinese language and specifically pointed out the role of foreign words in the evolution of Chinese language:
"A large number of new words have been borrowed from the Western Regions in ancient time, especially from India ···Sanskrit, which is dense and abstract, but sometimes expressions that have been overdone too much so that the meaning is not clear also left traces in Chinese. For example, the famous litterateur of Song Dynasty Su Shi's articles were somewhat influenced by the translation of Buddhist scriptures." (Ji Xianlin 1989,578)

Mr. Ji also cited the influence of our numbers of translations of European, American and Japanese books in modern times on our country’s language, characters, fonts and expression techniques. He also quoted some words from Mr. Lu Xun to discuss the benefits of literal translation, “Gradually import a little European grammar. Come in."

At the same time, Mr. Ji is quite tolerant of Europeanized syntax in literal translation. One of the reasons is that he hopes to gradually import some Europeanized syntax into China through these translations that are close to the original text. This can gradually refine our rough grammar more rigorous step by step. This is of great benefit to the development of our country's language and literary style.

The literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji is not a rigid translation from word to word. He said that the result of this can only make the reader confused, puzzled and unable to understand anything. Therefore, he does not advocate such literal translation.

Mr. Ji's literal translation is to gradually introduce some more rigorous foreign grammar expressions within the scope of Chinese habits, so that our thousand-year-old Chinese could be richer, more vital, and more adaptable to our needs.（Xie Tianzhen 2006）

He believes that in the history of Chinese language, the translation of Buddhist scriptures over a thousand years ago and the translation of Western books over the past 100 years have already played such a role in our language. (Ji Xianlin 1989,581)

===Opposition to translation through a third language.===
It refers that due to the limited condition, the translation version is translated not through the original text but through a third language’s translated version. That is to say, between the source language and the target language there is a third language in the translation process. Opposing this kind of translation for literary works is also one of Mr. Ji 's important translation thoughts.

This kind of translation is a popular way from the early 20th century to the 1930s and 1940s, and it was the method of "more than nothing" in a specific historical period. Mr. Ji opposes it because the translation from one language to another is already separated from the original.

If the translated language is used as the original and translated again, the taste of the original will be greatly changed.

Mr. Ji once cited a sentence from " the Inner Chapter of Yanzi Chunqiu" as an example: "Oranges born in the south of the Huaihe River are oranges, while those born in the north of the Huaihe River are hazelnuts. Their leaves may be similar, but in fact they taste quite different. Why? The water and soil are different." After oranges moved to the north of the Huaihe River, the leaves can still be similar. As for article, especially a literary work, is translated into another language. Even the form can't be similar, not to mention its meaning. （Ji Xianlin 2007,11）

This passage clearly shows Mr. Ji’s translation thoughts against this kind of translation. Mr. Ji once said that science and philosophy works can be translated when necessary, but he still emphasized that literary works cannot. There are two main reasons for Mr. Ji's insistence.

====Translation through a third language tend to produce low-quality translations. ====
As we all know, translation, especially for literary works, although many excellent translators work very hard subjectively, the result of the translation, that is, the translation, will still have a certain difference from the original. This is what is called creative treason in translation studies.

In the 1920s and 1930s, there were a group of translators who published a large number of very popular works at that time, such as literature and art theory books of Plekhanov, Lunacharski and so on, which were supposedly translated from Russian. But at that time, the readers were puzzled and confused when they were reading these books.

Mr. Ji found out the reason at once: The reason is simple. Whether the translators translated them clearly or not, these books are all translated from Japanese rather than Russian. It can be seen that what Mr. Ji is opposed to is this kind of rough translation style.(Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)

Originally, translation already has a series of inevitable problems such as "distortion", "information loss", and "information distortion". Translators who cannot figure out the meaning of the original text translated other’s translated version again. The result is bound to be a huge gap with the meaning of the original. Readers will also be mystified by these translation when reading. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)

====Pursue an ideal state.====
Another reason why Mr. Ji opposes this kind of translation is that he pursues an ideal state in the field of foreign literature translation. As a foreign literal writer who has studied foreign literature and a translator with a rigorous translation style, Mr. Ji is well versed in the deformation characteristics of literary works in the translation process. He took the Dream of Red Mansions as an example:

"For example, we have all read the Dream of Red Mansions. I don’t think anyone will be amazed by the delicate and profound charm described in it. If we read the English translation version now, no matter how good its English level is, everyone would shake his or her head. Because this is just a retelling of the story in another language, but the meaning between the lines in the original text is completely lost. “ (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,14)

Translation, especially for literary works, is just like that. No matter how hard the translator tries to get close to the original work and strive to faithfully and completely show the original style, the translation process will inevitably produce some loss, addition or distortion of information.

This is true for the translation of the original text directly. For those who are translated through a third foreign language, especially those who are crudely crafted, we can imagine the deviation and distortion of the original text in their translation version.

Mr. Ji is disappointed at this phenomenon. So he appeals to that literary works should not be translated through a third language. He asked the translator to summon the courage to learn the language of the translated work honestly. He once said：

"If you don't even have this courage, you should walk away from translation and go where you should go. Don't overdo it here! We only need people with courage!" (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)

In fact, Mr. Ji himself did exactly this. In order to study ancient Indian literature, he not only learned Sanskrit, but also learned ancient Indian languages such as Pali and Tocharian, which are difficult to master and little known. He directly knew, understood, and studied ancient Indian literature through these languages, and directly introduced the translation of ancient Indian literature to Chinese readers from these languages. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)

===Conclusion===
Mr. Ji Xianlin is not a translation theorist, but he is a translation practitioner. He has devoted his life to the study of India and the translation of Sanskrit literature. And he has made great achievements in many cultural and academic fields. He summarized translation experience from his decades of translation practice, and gradually formed his own translation thought suitable for China, which has extremely important guiding significance for Chinese translation.

===Reference===
[1]季羡林：季羡林谈翻译[M].北京:当代中国出版社，2007.
[2]刘婷,罗春朋.季羡林的翻译原则与翻译思想[J].南通大学学报(社会科学版),2017,33(04):93-98.
[3]王秉钦.季羡林翻译思想“三论”[J].中国外语,2009,6(05):89-92.
[4]吴光亭.季羡林翻译思想初探[J].周口师范学院学报,2011,28(06):60-65.
[5]许先文.季羡林译学思想述评[J].学海,2010(02):213-216.
[6]肖志清,谢少华.季羡林的翻译观探究[J].重庆文理学院学报(社会科学版),2011,30(03):102-107.

==Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text- 雷方圆 Lei Fangyuan 202070080593 MTI 英语笔译==

雷方圆 202070080593

===Abstract===
In today's world, Multi-media technology and internationalized tourism require that tourism translation must keep pace with the times and use new models, new methods and new ways. Traditional tourism translation basically ignores this point, and multimodal translation just provides a new perspective for tourism translation.（Li Jian 2013,121）
From this perspective, tourism translation can no longer be limited to traditional interpretation and translation, but can use multimedia technology and the cooperation of multiple senses to improve and develop tourism translation. That multimodal theory can be applied to this model will develop into a trend, which in turn improves the quality of international tourism in that country. In addition, we need to understand the important impact of multimodal translation theory on translation innovation in the field of tourism in the future.（Li Jian 2013,121）

===Key Words===
multimodal theory; tourism translation; translation strategies.

===题目===
多模态翻译理论在旅游文本中的应用

===摘要===
当今世界，多媒体技术和国际化的旅游业要求旅游翻译必须要与时俱进，运用新模式，新手段和新方法。传统的旅游翻译从根本上忽视了这一点，而多模态翻译恰好就给旅游翻译提供了一个较新的视角。（Li Jian 2013,121）
由此视角展开，旅游翻译可以不再局限于传统的口笔译，而是可以借助多媒体技术和多种感官的配合来完善和发展旅游翻译，并可将多模态理论运用于旅游翻译这一模式发展成为一种趋势，进而提高本国的国际旅游质量。除此之外我们还需要了解多模态翻译理论对于未来旅游领域的翻译创新所具有的重要影响。（Li Jian 2013,121）

===关键词===
多模态理论；旅游翻译；翻译策略

===Introduction===
The rapid development of modern science and technology has provided a more convenient way for people to obtain, retrieve, analyze and process information, and has also accelerated the breakthrough of the linguistic cognitive barrier. The theory of multimodal discourse analysis emerged in the West in the 1990s. Prior to this, linguistic research was mainly based on text, while multimodality regarded all communication modalities as resources for meaning generation.（Liu Yan 2011,108）

It is believed that in daily life people often use one or more other symbols in addition to language. Resources participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of communication. In other words, the construction of meaning is achieved through the form of multimodal discourse. Whether it is text, sound, image, color, facial expression, limb movement, etc. each modality in multimodal discourse is a meaning-generating resource. We can discover and formulate the grammar of each mode, and draw the law of the meaning of the mode.（Liu Yan 2011,109)

With the rapid development of globalization and the internationalization of China’s tourism, tourism translation has become an important factor that directly affects the quality of overseas tourists' Chinese tours. Many problems in the practice of tourism translation reflect the current status of China’s inbound tourism industry. Due to the neglect of the tourism industry and related departments, China's tourism translation has always lacked scientificity and innovation. In addition, the extensiveness of tourism resources and the diversity of tourism translation audiences also increase the difficulty of tourism translation practice. （Liu Yan 2011,110)

In recent years, some domestic scholars have begun to pay attention to academic theory and industry practice research in the field of tourism translation, but mainly based on the perspective of pure linguistics or pure translation. From a narrow perspective, the target of tourism translation includes text translation of various tourist attractions and on-site oral translation of foreign-related tourism practitioners; From a broad perspective, tourism translation should include foreign-related translation materials and behaviors of all tourism industry sectors. It includes both text and oral translations, as well as other forms of translation such as images and movies.（Liu Yan 2011,111)

This article analyzes the characteristics of tourism translation from the perspective of multimodal discourse, discusses the strategies of multimodal tourism translation and some issues that need to be paid attention to during the translation process and looking forward to the development prospects of multimodal tourism translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 14:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

=== The Background of Multimodal Theory===

====The Definition of Multimodal Theory ====
With the continuous development of high-tech such as digital and internet, language and social communication no longer rely on traditional single text as a media carrier but tend to rely on more different types of modalities and media for multisensory communication. Only in this way can the construction and transmission of discourse meaning be more convenient and accurate. This is Multimodality. Zhang Delu believes that Multimodal discourse is the phenomenon that uses multiple senses such as hearing, sight, and touch to communicate.（Zhang Delu 2009,15）

Multimodal discourse is essentially a compound discourse which contains not only the traditional text symbol system but also includes previously unrecognized symbol systems such as images, sounds, colors, and actions. Multimodal discourse reflects the interactivity and unity of symbol resources in social communication. Systemic functional linguistics provides theoretical foundation for multimodal discourse analysis and research. Multimodal discourse can be studied at multiple levels from culture, context, discourse meaning, grammar, form, and media.（Zhang Delu 2009,16）

From a media perspective, various non-verbal media, especially modern technology media, provide a large number of new options for discourse communication. They can realize the meaning of discourse through different modalities and in multimodal utterances, different modal utterances are interconnected. Linguistics and translation studies have always complemented each other. Cutting into translation practice and research from the perspective of multimodality, we can obtain more new discoveries and gains, thereby enriching and improving the branch of translation studies, and also developing and expanding the linguistic theory of multimodal discourse analysis.（Zhang Delu 2009,17）--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:01, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==== Present Research Situation and Existing Problems at Home and Abroad====
In order to interpret and use other discourse phenomena outside the language in multimodal discourse, Kress and Van Leeuwen explored the "grammar" of certain symbolic modalities in comparison with the functional grammar of a language. They proposed modal analysis methods and theories such as visual grammar, color grammar and sound grammar. Among them, the visual grammatical framework constructed by them with "representative meaning", "interactive meaning" and "constitutive meaning" as the core content provides a theoretical basis for multimodal discourse analysis(Kress 1996, 78). Besides, Royce T investigated the complementarities and synergy of different symbols in multimodal discourse. (Royce 2002, 191)

O’Halloran used multiple modalities for theoretical analysis and practice who proposed the combination of language, visual images and other symbolic resources to build paper and digital media and daily life texts, things and events. It can be seen that some foreign scholars' research on multimodality is based on functional linguistics and visual grammar functions in social semiotics.Domestic research on multimodal discourse is still in its infancy. Some scholars have imported and introduced the theory of multimodal discourse analysis. Some scholars have used multimodal discourse theory to interpret and analyze symbols other than PPT texts and emblems. (O’Halloran 2008，231)

This shows that the development of multimodal theory and multimedia technology has begun to affect people's thinking and the reconstruction of meaning. More scholars are studying how to apply the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to teaching to improve class teaching effect. In addition to the use of visual grammar theory to study specific symbolic systems other than text, domestic scholars have mostly focused on multimodal applied research goals in foreign language teaching. It mainly includes the content of graphic representation, multimodal reading ability, multimedia technology application, and multimodal collaboration. (Borodo 2015,22）

But for tourism translation, which includes both on-site interpretation and written modalities, few scholars have studied it from a multimodal perspective.
Looking at recent research results, Chinese scholars have achieved gratifying results both in terms of theory and application of theory. Some scholars have improved the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis based on previous studies. At the application level, its scope has covered multiple types of multimodal discourse. These helpful attempts have played a significant role in improving the theory of multimodal discourse analysis and broadening the scope of its application. (Borodo 2015,23）

At the same time, we should also see that there are still a lot of deficiencies in our research in this area.First of all, multimodal translation has not yet received widespread attention and recognition in the academic community, mainly reflected in the small amount of literature, not professional enough, and its influence needs to be improved. Secondly, the current multimodal discourse analysis still focuses on the study of images or "text + images". The coordination and synergy between various modalities have not been clearly studied, and there are still many uncertain factors. (Borodo 2015,24）

However, the perspectives of these research areas are relatively single. Most of them adopt the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to discuss subtitle translation in film and television works from the four levels of culture, context, content and expression. It is similar that the analysis is fragmented and lacks depth and theoretical contributions.
Fourth, the subjectivity of text analysis is too strong. Differences in analysts' personal knowledge structure, cultural background or interpretation motivation, in addition, grammatical analysis in multimodal discourse analysis lacks strict grammatical basis, so when facing the same component, the situation that benevolent sees benevolence and wise sees wisdom. (Zhu Yongsheng 2007,82）

So the meaning of multimodality is not clear enough, and the specific manifestations are:
1. Multimodality has a tendency to be abused;
2. Many authors do not have working definitions of "modal" and "multimodal", leading to unclear concepts and lack of pertinence in discussions;
3. Some authors confuse the concepts of multimedia and multimodality.
Finally, at present, linguists, especially systems functional linguists, are mainly engaged in the study of multimodal discourse analysis. However, multimodal discourse analysis is interdisciplinary. From the perspective of linguistics alone, it is not enough. Only by integrating different disciplines can we fully interpret multimodal texts. These are the issues that need to be further explored in future research.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,83)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

=== Multimodal Translation Theory and Tourism Translation ===
The differences between Chinese and English are self-evident, and the cultural differences are reflected in history, aesthetics, religion, customs and habits in tourism English translation. The medium of tourism translation has both language modality and other modality such as image, performance and action. Therefore, it is a multimodal communication behavior. Compared with other types of translation, tourism translation is more direct, more prominent, more typical, and more comprehensive in terms of cross-temporal, cross-cultural, and cross-psychological communication.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,84）

==== Definition of Tourism Translation====

Tourism translation is a translation practice for tourism activities, tourism professions and industries, and belongs to professional translation. In a nutshell, tourism translation is a cross-lingual, cross-social, cross-temporal, cross-cultural, cross-psychological communication. It is more direct, prominent, typical and comprehensive in the characteristics of cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication. (Chen Gang 2004,59)

Tourism translation includes dynamic and static tourism information translation. Dynamic tourism interpretation mainly includes on-site interpretation, attraction translation, conference negotiation, tourism consulting, tourism shopping guide and other tourism interpreting activities. While static tourist translation mainly includes tourist guidebooks, guide maps, tourist signs, tourist product introductions, tourist contracts, hotel and catering information, tourist traffic instructions, tourist websites and tourist posters, etc. Tourism translation belongs to the field of applied translation, and its texts are practical, extensive and cross-cultural. It embodies multiple functions such as information transmission, marketing and call induction. And it is a compound text that integrates expression (from the original author), information (respect for the facts), and calling (inspires the reader). (Zeng Dan 2006,36)

The content of tourism translation is all-encompassing and the information contained covers all aspects of society and culture, from historical archeology to local customs, from sociopolitics to folk customs, everything is possible. Whether it is a broad translation or a narrow translation, it includes the conversion and information transfer of multiple symbol systems, so as to achieve the purpose of information transmission. Therefore, the translation activity itself contains the content of multimodal information transmission. We refer to the theories and results of multimodal discourse analysis to examine translation products and processes. As a new perspective of translation research, it has its inherent rationality and feasibility.(Zeng Dan 2006,37)

Tourism translation, as a cultural interpretation and industry practice, has a clear purpose of tourism communication. On the one hand, it has a tourist business purpose that is to obtain certain economic benefits by persuading overseas tourists to buy products from tourism companies. On the other hand, tourism translation also has the purpose of cultural transmission. It aims to attract overseas tourists' interests by explaining and promoting the tourist culture of the destination country, such as geographical and historical background and cultural characteristics, to the purpose of spreading local culture. (Zeng Dan 2006,38)

At present in China's tourism industry, in addition to the language level of tourism translation text materials and tourism interpretation services, there are also problems in the dimension of tourism translation, which manifested in tourism translators and institutions often only focus on the single modality and media in translation. Integration modes include text mode with print media, speech mode with sound media and so on. Traditional tourism translation subjectively ignores the multimodal and multi-media collaboration and complementary functions, objectively greatly weakens the comprehensive effect of tourism translation. In the long run, it will hinder China's strategic development goals of tourism internationalization.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:13, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

====The Necessity of Multimodal Tourism Translation====
Literary work is the most important carrier of culture. As mentioned in Chapter One, we will focus on the personal names in literary works, for literary works often embody much cultural information. Culture is the sum of a nation’s knowledge, experiences, beliefs, sense of values, division of classes, and the attitude toward time and space. Cultural information in literary works means the elements reflecting the culture of a nation or nations in literary works. It is rather simple at first sight; however, without being paid attention, a great deal of cultural information will escape the readers or the translators. (Xu Mianjun2017, 40)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:14, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

===Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text===
The differences between English and Chinese are reflected in every aspect. Therefore, the method of tourism translation also shows different characteristics. Only by mastering the correct translation method can we better attract the interest of foreign tourists, and only in this way can the main content of the original text be correctly presented to the readers. (Xu Mianjun 2017,41)

==== Performances of Multimodal Tourism Translation ====
Multimodal tourism translation can be analyzed and understood from both modal and media perspectives. From the modalities involved in tourism translation, the main mode of translation is text, and other auxiliary modes may include symbol modest. The main mode of tourism interpretation is speech. In tourism translation, whether it is the main mode or the auxiliary mode, they are both independent symbol systems that convey meaning to overseas tourists in a specific tourism context to complete the purpose of tourism cultural communication. However, these symbolic systems cooperate directly or indirectly to complete the communicative significance of tourism. (Xu Mianjun 2017, 42)）

From the media involved in tourism translation, it mainly manifests in two categories. One type of media is based on people, including all parts of the body.These human organs can be used as a modal technology carrier in tourism translation and communication, and jointly realize the meaning of the main modal. Sometimes, these media can also construct their own. The other is environmental media other than humans, which can be divided into static one and dynamic one. In the context of tourism translation, static media mainly includes text, pictures, clothing, religion, hairstyle, etc. They are traditional ordinary expression media in tourism translation which used to be ignored by translators. Dynamic media are mainly sound, screen, animation, music, etc. They have emerged with the development of science and technology and information technology, which are more prominent symbolic modal resources than language modalities.(Xu Mianjun 2017, 43)

====Strategies for Multimodal Translation====
The starting point of the translator's work is the original text, the ending point is the translated text, and the process is the conversion of language and text, but it does not mean that the object he has to consider and process is only language and text. They must not only convey the original language and text information in the translated works, but also excavate the multimodal information attached to the original language and text in the original works, and try their best to restore and reproduce them in the translated works. Therefore, when performing multimodal translation, translators must master and apply the correct translation methods to achieve more results with less effort.(Xu Mianjun2017,44)

=====Relying on Modern Multimedia Technology =====
With the continuous improvement of software and hardware facilities of various tourist attractions, the media means on which tourism translation depends must be continuously shifted from the previous text and pictures to modern media means such as animation, video, audio and stage. Multimodal tourism translation requires more non-verbal media and we need properly translate tourism culture and present it directly in front of overseas tourists, to facilitate their understanding of the culture of the destination country. In tourism translation and interpretation, translators can rely on a variety of modern media methods to guide and mobilize the various sensory systems of overseas tourists to achieve a good tourism translation effect. (Xu Mianjun2017,45)

For example, Sanya's travel trailer is 3 minutes and 20 seconds long. It presents Sanya's local customs in the form of narrative reproduction through images, text and video. The picture quality is clear and beautiful, the English pronunciation is authentic, the English subtitles are accurate, the background music is cheerful, and the color contrast is bright. It fully borrows modern technology to display the image of Sanya in front of the viewer. Many tourist attractions use modern technologies such as light, shadow, lights, etc. to help tourists understand the local culture in order to better play the role of attraction translation.（(Xu Mianjun2017,46）

When translating the of the Hubei Provincial Museum, in addition to using conventional texts, pictures and media, you can also rely on modern media such as live performances and stage lights. Through unconventional media such as choreography, performance, sound, and spatial layout, the culture is vividly displayed in front of overseas visitors. The senses of sight, hearing, and touch of overseas visitors are used to make the interpretation of Warring States Period Bell culture more intuitive and easier to understand. This kind of translation effect is unmatched by the translation of text and language modalities.（Zhang Delu 2009,18）

Zhangjiajie Scenic Spot utilizes the traditional tourist translation signage combined with the modern technology of QR code, which makes tourism translation more vivid and easy to understand.
[[File:Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text.jpg|300px|Sources: Tourists Signs| thumb|left|Zhang Jiajie|]]
Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 09:13, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

===== Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode =====
To carry out multimodal tourism translation, the choice of main mode must be adjusted at any time according to the specific content. Translating different tourism content and different overseas tourists should choose different main methods and auxiliary modes. For tourist translation of natural landscapes, it can be “to the point”, using the principle of image mode, supplemented by text or speech mode. The picture below uses a combination of oversized text and images to give viewers a very shocking visual conflict.
As shown in Figures, both from ZhangJiajie, a combination of subtitles, videos, and pictures is used. （SR Roberts 2006, 209)
[[File:Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text.jpg|300px|Sources: Tourists Signs| thumb|left|Zhang Jiajie|]]

All take the image mode as the main mode and subtitle translation as the auxiliary mode. The pictures adopt a perspective view of overlooking the mountains of ZhangJiajie from a high altitude. Tourists can see that it is different at a glance. This is also the biggest highlight of ZhangJiajie. This will help attract the attention of tourists and get closer to tourists, so that the translation effect is more prominent and intuitive.
[[File:Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text.jpg|300px|Sources: Tourists Signs| thumb|left|Zhang Jiajie|]]
For humanistic landscape tourism translation, reasonable multimodal symbols can be used to mine the cultural connotation behind it. Adopt the principle of text or speech mode, supplemented by images or other modes. (SR Roberts 2006, 210)）

[[File:Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text.jpg|300px|Sources: Tourists Signs| thumb|left|Zhang Jiajie|]]
The picture above is from Feitian Mountain in Chenzhou. The translation of the scenic spot combines certain background cultural knowledge with natural geographical factors. The translation uses a combination of text, pictures and cultural knowledge, coupled with the natural landscape, making the scenery and passengers into one, adding a good sense of travel experience.
In this way, the information transmission effect of cultural landscape tourism products from the aesthetic perspective is improved, and the tourism translation is transformed from a shallow translation of introduction sightseeing to a deep translation of cultural leisure.（SR Roberts 2006, 210--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:09, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

===== Improving Multimodal Internal Integration=====
Whether it’s written travel translation or spoke none, translators should improve the coordination and cooperation within various modalities, and strive to improve the effectiveness of tourism translation. The various models are independent and interconnected, and serve the general principle of "integration" together. Try to avoid and weaken the untranslatability of words or languages in tourism translation. For this reason, other symbol systems other than text can be appropriately used for replacement or supplementation, such as image, posture and other symbol modal resources. （SR Roberts 2006, 211）

On the one hand, it is necessary to do as much internal collaboration as possible during tourism translation. When selecting different modes, we must fully consider the compatibility and complementarity between the different modes to ensure the best modal matching. On the other hand, modal abuse should be avoided and eliminated to the greatest extent. If too many modalities are used at the same time in tourism translation, or if the modalities used are not suitable for the scene, it will make overseas tourists confused and interfere with the normal understanding of overseas tourists. （SR Roberts 2006,212)

Therefore, the modal choice in tourism translation should be based on the evaluation index that helps overseas tourists understand and be satisfied. In this way, we can ensure that tourism translation practice with multimodal perspective has good dynamics and systemicity.
It is hoped that by adjusting the integration and optimization of the tourism translation structure, the advantages within and between the modalities will complement each other, and the value and advantages of various modalities will be organically and effectively combined into one to maximize the goals and tasks of tourism translation. So, the tourism translation will be greatly developed.（SR Roberts 2006, 213)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

=====Multimodal Intersemiotic Translation=====
In multimodal discourse, different modalities interact to construct meaning together. González proposed that with the rapid development of science and technology and the translation of mainstream cultural products, multimodality is bound to become the focus of future translation. She divides translation into intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The former is subordinated to the system within the system, while the latter two are subordinate to the cross-system interpretation system. (Li Zhanzi 2003,1)

It can be seen from this that inter-symbol translation involves translation between two different media, such as the translation of a language medium into an image medium, so the image of "illustration" can be regarded as a translation form of text. Symbols contain three types of iconicity, indication and symbol, which correspond to the first attribute (essence), second attribute (fact) and third attribute (association) of the symbol. These symbol types can be interpreted as symbols, objects and interpretations. Intersemiotic translation is a process in which iconic symbols depend on the goal and interpretation.(Li Zhanzi 2003,2)

Multimodal intersemiotic translation is an important part of multimodal translation. It refers to the use of non-verbal symbol systems to interpret linguistic symbols in the context of multimodal discourse or use foreign language symbols to explain non-linguistic symbols for tourism. Such as transforming body language or tourism culture images into foreign languages. Tourism translation practitioners often translate typical tourist cultural symbols such as text, architecture, and literature into foreign languages for overseas tourists. This not only requires translators to have strong foreign language grammar and pragmatic skills, but also must have good foreign language spoken and communicative skills.(Li Zhanzi 2003,3)

Tourism translators must continuously improve their inter-symbol translation capabilities, and strive to perceive and understand the common symbol systems in tourism, such as text, pictures, poetry, literature, history, painting, sculpture, etc. And reasonably use symbol resources outside the text to perform intersemiotic translation and interpretation between all symbols. Especially they used to perform intersemiotic translation between foreign language modalities and various tourism cultural symbol resources. In this way, the tourism culture and resource information of the country can be better converted into words that overseas tourists can understand.(Li Zhanzi 2003,4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:24, 21 December 2020 (UTC)
--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:32, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

===Development prospects of Multimodal Tourism Translation===
With the rise of multimodal discourse studies, image, music, color, and other visual symbols of paralanguage gradually become the center of discourse analysis.
Whether it is the study of multimodal discourse translation or the re-examination of translation practice and translation teaching based on the theory of multimodal discourse analysis, multimodal translation research has greatly broadened the concept of translation. Translation is not just a language conversion, but a system of meanings constructed by multiple modalities. Therefore, multimodal translation research not only brings revolutionary changes to translation practice and translation research, but also brings new challenges to translators. (Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 89)

Firstly, strengthen the theoretical construction of multimodal translation research. At present, the definition, content, and methods of multimodal translation studies have not formed a unified understanding. No scholar has combed the overview of domestic multimodal translation studies and has not published a mature research monograph. Multimodal translation practice calls for mature multimodal theory guidance.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 90)

Secondly, strengthen empirical research on multimodal translation. Domestic research has mostly stayed at the stage of text analysis and theoretical speculation, and empirical research is lacking. The survey found that the public hopes that the translation industry will conduct multimodal translation research from the following aspects: quality, business-related issues, cognitive research, speech recognition, automatic translation, descriptive research, reverse translation, etc.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,91)

Thirdly, strengthen the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora. Shanghai Jiaotong University has opened a new path for scholars at home and abroad to carry out related research. However, the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora require the participation and support of more scholars.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,92)

Fourthly, strengthen Chinese and foreign comparative studies on multimodal translation studies. Chinese-foreign comparative research and the promotion of foreign related research results are conducive to understanding the frontiers of academic research, complementing each other, avoiding unnecessary repetitive research, and promoting the results of multimodal translation practice and research faster and better.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011, 93)

Fifthly, strengthen the cognitive process of multimodal discourse translation. Cognitive research on multimodal discourse translation can be combined with the latest achievements in the field of cognition. It can also compare the difference in time spent by translators when reading monomodal discourse and multimodal discourse. It can also compare reading time of reading with pure translation and pure translation. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 1)

Traditional tourism translation only focuses on the impact of communication on the communication, regardless of symbol information other than the language which is used. There is generally a lack of consideration of non-verbal factors such as images, music, mood, and expression, and ignores the important role of non-verbal modalities in the construction of meaning together with language. Thus have greater limitations in the process of meaning construction. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 2)

Tourism translation should use all symbolic means to ensure the acceptability and multi-sensory nature of translation to stimulate overseas tourists' interests in China's tourism resources and culture. Therefore, from the perspective of modalities, China's future tourism translation must develop in a direction that satisfies the sensory modalities of hearing, seeing, touching, and smelling of overseas tourists as much as possible, which places higher demands on practitioners of tourism translation. Especially for front-line practitioners in tourism translation, tourism intersemiotic translation ability is often more important than tourism Interlingua translation ability. In this context, non-linguistic knowledge can improve the practical effect of multimodal tourism translation than language knowledge. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 3)

From the perspective of the media, in addition to focusing on the use of traditional human organs, tourism translation will pay more attention to using modern high-tech media to mobilize and infect overseas tourists.This places higher requirements on tourism planning and business investment arrangements for tourism administrations and attractions. Therefore, in the future, tourism translation will introduce more multimodal tourism translation modules based on modern technologies such as screen, audio, and video on the basis of traditional text modal and spoken modalities, and gradually establish multimodal. A multi-media, multi-dimensional, multi-language, interactive, and prompt and propaganda integrated tourism translation system.( (Hu Zhuanglin 2007, 4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:15, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

===Conclusion===
It also makes the interpretation of discourse meaning more comprehensive and accurate in the context of tourism translation. Based on the theory of multimodal discourse, this thesis analyzes and discusses the characteristics, strategies and development prospects of multimodal tourism translation. Explains that the multimodality study of tourism translation has important industrial reality and academic theoretical significance and it should be a research direction in the field of future languages and tourism. It will greatly promote research innovation in the field of language translation and tourism.（Sun Zheng 2010, 54）

As a new discipline, multimodal discourse analysis has challenged the definition of traditional discourse and methods of discourse analysis, and put forward new requirements in the field of dialogue and research. The development of everything requires a process. In theory, multimodal discourse analysis still needs innovation and reference. The method still needs to be improved. Its improvement and development require the joint efforts of several generations. It is foreseeable that the research team of multimodal discourse analysis will continue to grow, and its application prospects will become wider and wider.（Sun Zheng 2010, 55)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:17, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

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Zhu Yongsheng朱永生. (2007). 多模态话语分析的理论基础和研究方法 [Theory and Methodology of Multimodal Discourse Analysis]. ''外语学刊''Journal of Research , (5)82-86.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 09:20, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Comparison of Chinese and Western Translation History 中西文化史比较张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen，Student No.202070080624 英语笔译==

==Abstract==

The development history of Chinese and Western translation has gone through a long development process. In the history of thousands of years, Chinese and Western translation will have certain laws and their own characteristics. Analyzing the similarities and differences of these laws and characteristics can better help us understand the history of translation development, and at the same time guide the development of current practice and theory. This article first introduces the development history of China and the West, then compares the similarities and differences, and finally summarizes the general rules.

==Keywords==

Chinese and Western translation theory, history similarity, difference

==摘要==

中西方翻译发展史都经历了漫长的发展过程，在几千年的发展历史中，中西方翻译都会有一定的规律和各自的特点。分析这些规律和特点的异同能更好的帮助我们了解翻译发展史，同时指导如今的实践和理论的发展。本文先介绍中西方的发展历史，然后从相似和差异两个方面进行对比，最后总结大致规律。

==关键词==

中西译论历史相似性差异性

==Introduction==
Translation, as an important activity aimed to reach cross-culture communication, has a long history. As the development of the human society and fast process of globalization, translation plays an increasingly important role in promoting the understanding and communication of people around the world. However, the history of translation, which is a part of great importance in the study of translation, often been underestimated when compared to the study of the translation theories and the translation techniques. In fact, it is just like a process of building a house, what we should do first is to construct a framework so as to grasp the main idea and the main trend of the development of translation and then we can pay more attention to the details like the development or improvement of one theory, one school of thought. And we also can spend time analysing the similarities and differences among various opinions of the translators. The study of translation is a huge system deserves not one person's efforts, here the author just makes her efforts and writes something understanding of herself.

==Western Translation History==
Western countries have a profound and time-honored history of translation. To some extent, the spread western culture(even the culture of the whole world) attributes to the work of translator. No matter it is in western countries or in China, translation begun thousands of years ago and it is nearly as old as the language itself.
The history of the western counties translation begun at the 3rd century. And it now has a history of around 2000 years. Throughout the whole process of translation, there have been six climaxes in the history of western translation, which can be divided into six stages: the initial stage, the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, the middle ages, the Renaissance, the second half of the 17th century to the first half of the 20th century, and the translation activities since the end of the Second World War. In addition to the Greek translation of the Old Testament, the western ancient translation mainly includes the Latin translation in ancient Rome. It started from the middle of the Republic in the third century B.C. to the end of Rome in the fifth century.（Tan Zaixi 2004, 34）

Medieval history generally began with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and ends at the Renaissance in the 15th century. As far as translation theory is concerned, there are three major marks: the early translator Manlius Boethius , the middle Toledo "Translation Institute" and the late national language translation.（Tan Zaixi 2004, 36-39）

The central figure in this period was Manlius Boethius, who not only made contributions to the introduction of Greek philosophy to translation, but also had his own views on translation theory. His views can be summed up as follows: (1) content and style are antagonistic to each other, either pay attention to style or preserve content.（2）Translation focuses on objective affairs and translators should give up subjective judgment. Overall, there are five major phases of the history of western translation, the first one begun at the decline of Greece, after which the Roman Empire grasped the change and thrived. At that time ,Greece had fantastic culture resources which are attracting.（Luohui 2017, 199)

The translations in the Middle Ages were the earliest translations of Arabic and Western works. Among them, Baghdad was the most active. The main works were scientific works by Aristotle, Plato and others, which earned it the title of the Arab Academy of Translation. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allowed many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposed some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages were becoming more and more urgent. National language translation was first related to the Bible, but the translation process was not smooth because there were many cultural differences.(Tan Zaixi 2004，33-35)

Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allowed many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposed some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages were becoming more and more urgent. National language translation was first related to the Bible, but the translation process was not smooth because there were many cultural differences. The problem of cultural differences, such as the translation of the Bible into Germanic, was a big crush on their morality and because of this, after the translation of the Bible, the grammatical structure of the languages of Western European countries had also become more similar. But large-scale national translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the rise of nationalism. At the same time, translation activities in various countries were moving forward, but the development of the United Kingdom was particularly slow, mainly because of the translators. The status of translation was low, and the selection of translation materials was also a problem. Despite this a group of well-known translators had also emerged: John Trevisa and William Caxton. During this period, another major type of translation was the translation of religious documents, the most famous of which were Osborn Boklam and Wickliffe. In general, the study of Western translation theory in this period of the Middle Ages did not form a system, and the real leap began in the Middle Ages.(Tan Zaixi 2004，37-40)

The Renaissance was not only the rapid development of new ideas, but also a major milestone in the history of translation. People’s demand for translations of ethnic languages was getting stronger and stronger. For example, Erasmus provided a new linguistic method for the translation of the Bible. The main points are as follows: 1. The original work must be respected. No translation can completely replace the original. 2. The translator must have a wealth of language knowledge. 3. Every translation has his own style. The style depends on the needs of the reader.Amiou of France translated Lives of Artist. The criteria in the translation process are: 1. The translator should thoroughly understand the original text. 2. The translation should be simple and natural. In the United Kingdom, especially during the Elizabethan period, translation activities flourished and the content was extensive. The Renaissance was an important turning point in the history of Western translation. At this time, the translation of ethnic languages was already very stable, and the translation practices and theories of various countries. The translation before the Renaissance mostly refers to the translation of Latin, and after that, the use of Latin is only a tributary.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 55-68)

After the Renaissance, from the second half of the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, the translation of Western countries continued to develop, and excellent translations still appeared. But in terms of its scale and influences, the translation in this period was far behind the Renaissance. What constituted the fifth climax of Western translation was the translation since the end of the Second World War in the middle of the twentieth century.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 86-88)

After the Second World War, the West entered a period of stability and peace, society developed on a large scale, the scope of translation was further expanded, and translations in new fields such as business and technology began to appear. The role of translation is not only the communication between cultures, but also extends to the exchanges of science and technology, trade, tourism, and biomedicine. Translation has gradually become a profession for some people, becoming organized and planned, and there are specialized translation agencies. Translation tools have also been further developed. Machine translation has strong vitality. It is the biggest challenge to traditional manual translation for thousands of years, and it is a revolution of far-reaching significance in the history of translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 176)

==Chinese Translation History==
There are almost two thousand years in China's translation history. Chinese translation has gone through these stages.
The Sui and Tang Dynasties ushered in the first climax of Chinese ancient translation. During this period, most of the translators engaged in translation activities were monks. They were mainly engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The eminent monk in the early Tang Dynasty, Xuanzang, was one of the famous translators of this period. Xuan Lei followed the original side of "faithful and easy to understand" in its translation practice, and tried to make the most of the advantages of literal and free translation. In the Northern Song Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures began to decrease; in the Yuan Dynasty, there were fewer translation activities.(Chen Fukang 2000, 5-18)

The second stage began in the late Qing Dynasty. During the early Qing Dynasty, the number of translators gradually increased. They are mainly engaged in translation activities aimed at translating Western science and technology, and their translation works have greatly promoted the development of science and technology in China. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, and the discussion of translation theory was ignored. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, while ignoring the discussion of translation theory. At the end of the Qing Dynasty, a large number of Western translations had a great influence on our country.(Chen Fukang 2000, 63)

These translation works have not only enriched our country’s literary forms, but also expanded our people's horizons, making them more aware of Western lifestyles, customs, etc; more importantly, Western ideology and concepts introduced through translation, especially the democratic ideology of western countries has greatly affected our country’s intellectuals and radicals, making them devote themselves to reforming the aging and decadent society at that time.(Yan Fu (1853-1921) was a famous translator of this period. He translated a large number of excellent European political and social science works, including "Heavenly Evolution". He put forward the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" in the preface of the translation. This standard has still had a great influence on translation practice and theoretical discussion in our country. During this period, the discussion of translation theory in the translation world was mainly based on the three-character standard of Mr. Yan Fu. But the core of the debate was the issue of literal translation and free translation.（Chen Fukang 2000, 66)

The third stage: The May Fourth Movement in 1919 marked a new historical period for my country's translation activities. Translations during this period were mainly related to Marxist-Leninist works and Western literary works, which greatly promoted the development of Chinese literature. The translation world mainly focuses on many issues of literary translation. For example, translatability and untranslatability, translation and literary creation, etc., carry out in-depth discussions. But the core is still the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Wang Xiaoqin 2009，85)

The fourth stage: The founding of New China pushed our country's translation industry into an unprecedented period of rapid development. The establishment of specialized translation agencies has made translation activities in various fields more scaled and organized. During this period, a large number of translations of Marxist-Leninist works and various scientific and technological works had a positive impact on my country's political and economic development. In addition, new breakthroughs have been made in the study of translation theory: literary translation principles have come out, such as Fu Lei’s theory of "similarities", Qian Zhongshu’s theory of "transcendence", and Liu Chongde’s translation standards of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and thoroughness". (https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845)

The fifth stage: Since the reform and opening up in 1978, China's political, economic and other fields have required a large number of qualified interpreters and translators. Therefore, most translation activities focus on business, science and technology. In the past two decades, translation has made a large number of Western modern linguistic theories, translation theories, and many other related subject theories used by Chinese scholars, and Chinese translation practice and translation theorists have also benefited from it. They try to interpret translation from different respects.(Wang Xiaoqin 2009，86)

==Similarities==
Whether in China or the West, the scale of development of translation theory is always not as large as translation practice, but the two complement each other and form an indivisible whole. Although in the early stages of Chinese and Western translation, and these principles and rules were not summarized at the beginning, there was no clear and specific theory to guide practice, translation practice was guided by certain principles at the beginning. For example, when An Shigao and others were engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures around the third century in China, due to their limited knowledge of Chinese, they could not translate the original purpose of the Buddha into Chinese, so they unknowingly followed the "no text decoration" translation rule. In the West, when the Romans defeated the Greeks, they believed that their words could be "slaughtered" at will, so they had the translation principle of "comparable to the original" and "surpassing the original". On the other hand, due to the sublimation of the theory, the translation practice also has a more direction. For example, since Cicero, Zhi Qian started the theory of “literal translation” and “free translation”. In later translation practice, these two This translation method became dominant.(Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)

The development model of translation theory is similar: from incidental discussions on translation issues, to conscious comments, to systematic conclusions.(Liang Dan2016, 103-104)
Similarity of translation methods: Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theories have distinguished between "literal translation", "free translation", "dead translation" and "live translation". It's just that they differ in their expressions. For example, Cicero, the pioneer of Western translation theory, proposed that translators should become "speakers" rather than "stiff interpreters" when translating ancient Greek speech works. Similarly, the pioneers of translation theory in our country also proposed expressions with similar meanings. These views are essentially the concepts of "literal translation" and "free translation". Including later, many western translators put forward some supplementary points to make theoretical concepts more boundary and more detailed. For example: "imitation/paraphrase" proposed by Dryden in the United Kingdom, "dynamic equivalence/functional equivalence" and "formal equivalence" proposed by Nida in the 20th century, "communicative translation" and "semantic translation" proposed by Newmark, etc.They all revolve around the contradiction between "literal translation" and "free translation".(Tan Zaixi 1999，25)

When discussing translation issues, translators like to use figurative metaphors. For example, China has: Virgin and Matchmaker (Mao Dun) "Shensi" (Fu Lei) and so on. In the West there are: "beautiful and unfaithful woman" (Menar Day), "translator is a slave" (Dreiden), "dancing on a rope wearing shackles" (Dreiden )and many more. These metaphors are very vivid and easy to understand. It shows from the side that Chinese and Western translators are similar or similar in thinking.(Tan Zaixi 1999, 27)

"Faithfulness" is a concept that has been discussed in Chinese and Western translation history for more than two thousand years. This is another common feature of them. In China, the earliest concept of "faithfulness" originated from Zhi Qian's "Faju Jingxue". Lao Tzu said "beauty without faith, faith without beauty". In the West, this view can be traced back to Hera's poetry. When he wrote his poems, he told people that it was impossible to translate word for word. The "faithfulness" mentioned by these two scholars is actually different from the standard we are talking about now. The "faithfulness" that people understand now is semantic faithfulness.(Gao Jinlin 2012, 68)

In addition, there are some similarities in the several climaxes of Chinese and Western translation:
The first climax was called the period of classical translation theory in China, and it also appeared in the beginning of translation in the West. This stage was centered around the translation of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures. Luther's first ''The People's Bible'' laid the foundation for modern German; ''the King James Bible'', which was also translated by 47 people in the early 17th century, promoted the development of modern English in Britain. So much so that the language was still unclear what Germanic language was like before the publication of the "Bible" translation. This shows that religious translation has a strong penetration of language and culture. Buddhist scripture translation has an even stronger influence on Chinese culture. It directly promoted the creation of Taoism and promoted the formation of "Neo-Confucianism" in the Song Dynasty. In terms of language, a large number of Buddhist words entered Chinese, even the word "translation" is from Buddhist scriptures. In literature, many metaphors and language are derived from Buddhism, such as reincarnation. Nowadays, Buddhism is still one of the main religions of Chinese people, and the good ideas it promotes have had a good influence on many believers. This shows that the translation of Buddhist scriptures has a profound impact on Chinese culture.(Li Xuan 2012, 131）

Urgent communication needs are always the inducement of translation climax. Translation essentially exists for communication among people in different languages. Therefore, whether it is actively learning translation or passively accepting translation, as long as the demand for communication at that time suddenly becomes urgent, it will trigger a climax of translation. And this kind of period not only exists in a period of peace and stability, but also has an urgent need for communication in a period of social turmoil and change. In the West, we can see the stimulation of social demand for translation activities. In the third century BC, when ancient Rome conquered Greece and was also shocked by the splendid civilization of Greece, it translated a large number of ancient Greek works with an attitude of "matching the original", in order to make its own cultural level worthy of military status. Another example is the many upsurges of Bible translation in Western history, and societies in different periods have different needs. During the Renaissance, people advocated the revival of ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and naturally there would be a wave of translation climax. After the Second World War, the desire of various countries to communicate with each other became stronger, which made the translation industry develop rapidly. In China, Xu Guangqi, a translator in the Ming Dynasty, wanted to learn advanced Western science and technology. He pioneered the learning of Western science and technology in the late Ming Dynasty and used it to "enrich the country and strengthen the army." As a result, this wind of learning did not open up too much, unable to awaken the full-name clan. Later, the Qing dynasty shut down the country and finally awakened all the people. The demand for people to learn science, culture, and systems from the West has never been so urgent. This formed the largest translation climax in Chinese history.（Li Xuan 2012, 131）

==Differences==
Because of the differences in culture, language types and thinking methods, the differences between the two in translation are self-evident. Compared with similarity, I think there are more differences with profound research value.
First, there are differences in the degree of attention paid to the practicality of translation theories. Chinese translation theory has always focused on practicality. Before any theory is proposed, people will first consider whether this idea or theory can guide translation practice. Because of this idea, Chinese translation theory studies pay more attention to research methods and translation skills. For example, Yan Fu put forward the Three-Character Principle of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", originally to describe translation difficulties, not as a translation standard. What he cares about is translation practice, not theory. For another example, Qian Zhongshu puts forward "sublimation". Such a theory does not have a complete system. In contrast, it is more like a method of guiding practice. In China, since ancient times, translators and translation theorists have been most concerned about how to use theory to guide practice. In the early stages of the development of Chinese translation, there was almost no systematic study of translation theories. In the early days, the explanations of translation theories were only a few words, only appearing in the introduction, or in the form of lecture notes, which were not popular to the outside world.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 13)

There is another example. Since China has never liked to talk about theory separately from reality, in the 1980s when the call for "establishing translation studies" was soaring, many people opposed the construction of translation theory, and they believed that translators should focus on practice. As for the theory, one or two simple and incisive ones are enough. The West is different. Although they also value practical application, they are more willing to develop translation theory into a logical, scientific, and systematic system. For example, Jerome and others clearly distinguish between literal translation and free translation, while Duoley and Tettler clearly put forward the principles and rules of translation. Especially in the Renaissance, Bruni, Vives, HumPhrey, Maneiit, Sebastino, Dubeli, etc. saw translation as a special study. They try to dig out the essence from the theoretical aspect through the facts. Therefore, from the beginning of the Renaissance to the 20th century, the West has conducted more research on translation theory than on actual operations. In the Renaissance, there was an in-depth explanation of the nature of translation and the concept of translation. In the 20th century, a large number of translation theoretical works appeared, such as Mounin's "Theoretical Issues of Translation" (1963), Nida's "Science in Translation" (1964), and Catfodr's "The Linguistic Theory of Translation" (1965). Compared with how to do it in practice, Western theorists seem to be more concerned about the study of various relationships in translation, which makes it difficult to understand and not easy to operate. This has also made it difficult for many Western theories to have a wide impact on the outside world.(Tan Zaixi 2000, 15)

The second difference in Western translation is the difference in thinking form. The difference between thinking mode. One focus on the comprehension and another pay more attentions to rational thinking.It is precisely because of the differences in thinking modes that lead to differences in the field of translation studies.
In Chinese thinking habits, "enlightenment" is emphasized, and things can only be understood but not spoken. Therefore, in China, especially before the 20th century, translators did not have a systematic elaboration when discussing translation issues; while in the West, such as Aristotle’s thinking emphasized human rational thinking. People can give an exact explanation for everything that can be sensed. This is why there are so many translation factions in the West. Then some results of this difference are that in China, the quality of translation is often directly attributed to the talent and ability of the translator, and there is no set of objective and specific standards to restrain the translator. When discussing translation issues in the West, they often pay attention to "subject" and "object". For example, in Cicero's "On the Best Speakers", anyone who wants to translate the essays of the eloquent master De Mossini must first imitate his proficiency in speaking style. At the same time, it should benefit readers. Among them, De Mossini's speech style is the "object", and the beneficiary students are the "recipients."(Tan Zaixi 2000, 16)

The third difference is the expression of translation theory between China and the West. China is more implicit, while the West is more explicit. Generally speaking, the Chinese translation theory is vague and implicit in the expression of translation theory or translation thought. The meaning of a theory or thought is often not in the definition of the theorist himself, but in the understanding and interpretation of it by others, as the so-called "everything is silent". After Yan Fu put forward the epoch-making theory of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" in "Tian Yan Lun", apart from elucidating this in the first half of the article, he never mentioned anything further for himself in other places. Explanation or follow-up supplement. What exactly does the word "faith" in the three-character principle of "faith, express, and elegance" mean? What do "da" and "ya" mean? What is the relationship between the three? For such issues, Yan Fu has almost nothing Give any rigorous and clear explanations. This is also because the expression of Chinese characters in China is inherently more concise. If such translation theories appear in the West, they will be considered lacking in logic and unclear definitions.(Yang Xiaoru 2013, 163)

The fourth difference is the conservative aspect of translation theory. Chinese translation theory will be more conservative, while the West generally focuses on seeking novelty. Because the traditional thinking of the Chinese makes them pay more attention to authority. From ancient times to the present, the views of the king or superior on the stage have been regarded as correct, at least not dare to question it easily. In the tradition of Western translation theory, authority is advocated rather than new and conservative. Ideological tendency has also existed since ancient times, and people have always been more superstitious about the authority of translation theory. For example, since Cicero, Horace and others put forward the idea of paraphrase and not literal translation, many translators have regarded this idea as an authority. However, every kind of dogmatic and conservative behavior will not Lasts a long time. Taitler's "On the Principles of Translation" published in the eighteenth century more systematically discussed the principles and rules of translation, and thus brought new breakthroughs to Western translation studies in a sense, but people were far from Taitler or the principles set forth by him are regarded as insurmountable authority. In terms of content, his "Three Principles of Translation" are exactly the same as Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance" for a whole century later. However, his status in Western translation theories is far less. Yan Fu's position in Chinese translation theory.(Tan Zaixi 2000，17)

==Conclusion==
Translation is an activity closely related to language, and both Chinese and Western translation history have their own characteristics. Chinese translation has experienced five climaxes and is now in the fifth. And Western translation also has several different stages. In these historical processes, the history of Chinese and Western translation has converged points and sometimes developed in different directions. Many excellent translators emerged during these periods, such as Zhi Qian and Yan Fu in China, Dryden and Nida in the West, and so on. Throughout the history of translation development in China and the West, we can see the similarities between them. For example, they all start with translation practice and then explore translation theories; the core of their translation methods is the same, all around "literal translation." and "free translation". At the same time, their mode of thinking makes the history of Chinese and Western translation present many different characteristics. For example, Western translation theories pay more attention to systems and rigorous definitions, while China pays more attention to practical translation methods. Comparing the history of translation between China and the west, we can see their respective characteristics, and at the same time we can understand our own strengths and weaknesses so as to better guide the future development of translation.

==Reference==

*陈大亮 Chen Daliang. 中西译论在理论类型上的差异[The Differences Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories in Theory Types][A]. 清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心、江西财经大学:清华大学翻译与跨学科研究中心Jiangxi University of Finance and Economics: Translation and Interdisciplinary Research Center of Tsinghua University, 2008

*陈福康 Chen Fukang. 《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[M][''Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory(Revised)'']. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000.

*高金岭 Gao Jinling. 中西翻译概念的差异对比研究[A Comparative Study on the Differences between Chinese and Western translation Concepts] [J]. 齐鲁师范学院学报Journal of Qilu Normal University, 2012.

*金效果 Jin Xiaoguo (2016.2.5)post"Sohu" https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845

*梁旦 Liang Dan. 中西翻译理论对比[A Comparison Between Chinese and Western translation Theories][J]. 海外英语 Overseas English, 2016.

*罗辉Luo Hui. 浅谈研究中西方翻译史对翻译研究的意义[On the Significance of Studying Chinese and Western Translation History to Translation Studies][J]. 散文百家 Hundreds of Prose, 2017.

*李旋 Li Xuan. 中西翻译高潮之对比[Comparison Between Chinese and Western Translation Climax][J]. 青年文学家 Youth Literator, 2012.

*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 《西方翻译简史（增订版）》[''A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated Edition)''][M]. 商务印书馆 Commercial Press, 2004.

*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相似性[Similarities Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories][J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 1999.

*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 中西译论的相异性[The Differences Between Chinese and Western Translation Theories][J].中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 2000.

*谭载喜 Tan Zaixi. 西方翻译史浅谈[A Brief Discussion About the History of Translation in China and the West][J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal, 1985.

*王小晴 Wang Xiaoqin. 中西译论对比研究[A Comparative Study on Translation Theory Between China and the West][J]. 语文学刊(外语教育与教学) Chinese Journal (Foreign Language Education and Teaching), 2009.

*杨晓茹 Yang Xiaoru. 中西译论比较研究[A Comparative Study on Translation Theory Between China and the West][J].海外英语 Overseas English，2013.

Chinese Languages and Cultures

2020-12-20T13:50:22Z

Yang chenting: /* Text A Daoism */

Quicklinks: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/uvu:Community_Portal#Frequently_asked_questions_FAQ FAQ] [https://bou.de/u/wiki/uvu:Community_Portal Manual]

Welcome to our course website '''Chinese Languages and Cultures'''. Whenever you visit this site, please see if there is anything in English not yet translated into Chinese and make a Chinese translation beneath (one paragraph English, one paragraph Chinese). Any correction or improvement of earlier translations is welcome!

欢迎访问我们'''中国语言文化课'''网页。…………--[[User:Root|Root]] ([[User talk:Root|talk]]) 07:43, 28 September 2020 (UTC)

=Organizational Things=
*Please register for the Course Wiki.
*Please prepare each session during the week before, so that you come prepared to class.
==Description of Homework==
===Regular students===
1. Please read and prepare all the texts for the next textbook unit.

2. Please find a Chinese sentence in the internet about each of the 3-4 topics we deal with in each session (see textbook content page or on this webpage here "schedule"). Copy these sentences on our homework webpage and write translations into English (for international students: find an English sentence and translate into Chinese). Do not forget to sign by typing - - ~ ~ ~ ~ (without spaces) at the end.

Then please help your fellow students to correct and improve their translations. Do not forget to sign by typing - - ~ ~ ~ ~ (without spaces) at the end.

3. Once in the semester, you give a presentation on a topic of the textbook. Please do not just repeat the content, but say something from the perspective of a translator: What problems do you encounter when translating the textbook text or when translating texts of this topic. One student can do a presentation, the other can do a handout. Both contributions are graded separately.

===Website Admin student===
Thank you for helping to watch the Wiki website! Please make sure that it looks nice (formatting, especially if a fellow students makes a mess by putting the wrong format etc., should not look to crowded, so make sub-websites for homework etc.).
===Online Survey students===
There will be several online surveys conducted throughout the semester. Please watch your WeChat Subgroup for the first tasks.

==Edits==
Every student is required to edit something every week. This can be:
* Translate a pragraph from English to Chinese.
* Correct an earlier translation.
* Prepare an article (please link to from this page) and/or a powerpoint (please upload here) on a topic you will present during the semester.

==Material==
Please download the course textbook from the WeChat Group.

=Schedule=
1st Session: Organizational things

2nd session: Unit 1 General Survey A. 1 Geography SAGARA SEYDOU; B. 2 Traditional Festivals: The Spring Festival, The Lantern Festival, The Dragon Boat Festival, The Mid-autumn Festival 汤伊然，杨子泠（The Dragon Boat Festival）; C. 3 Ancient Science and Technology 曾心媛陈涵

3rd session: Unit 2 Language and Calligraphy A. 4 Chinese characters and scripts 蒋凤仪顾东方, B. 5 Calligraphy 徐佳肖婷, C. 6 The Evolution of Calligraphy 肖双玲王轩

4th session: Unit 3 Traditional Crafts A. 7 Embroidery 瞿淼、娄灿灿, B. 8 Cloisonne, C. 9 Lacquerware Lô Minh Thảo- 卢明草, D. 10 Carving

5th session: Unit 4 Tea, Silk and Ceramics A. 11 Tea 祝美梅，周园曲, B. 12 Silk 吴琼张银柳, C. 13 Porcelain Zubareva Ekaterina, ANNA GROSHEVA, D. 14 Celadon 高明珠陈静静

Unit 5 Traditional Cuisine 15 Distinct Regional Cuisines 罗雨晴石海瑶, 16 The Art of Chinese Cooking 邹鑫雨曹润鑫 SAFFANA , HA THI THU HANG, C. 17 Two Famous Dishes 袁天翼张维虹, D. 18 Chopsticks 蒋淇玮胡瑾

Unit 6 Fine Arts A. 19 Painting 朱旭,莫玲 B. 20 Seal-cutting 赵茜张瑜， C. 21 Bada Shanren and Qi Baishi 吴子佳雷旷溪

Unit 7 Architecture and Gardens A. 22 Architecture 张毓婕，张佩闻, B. 23 Gardens 张宇星解帆, C. 24 The Summer Palace 刘艺谭媛媛

Unit 8 Literature A. 25 Classical Literature 游雨婷，许静, B. 26 Modern Literature 张玲杨海容, C. 27 Contemporary Literature 义子楚杨悦, D. 28 Selected Tang Poems 管钦清雷方 Ngo Thi Minh Huong (吴氏明红)

Unit 9 Peking Opera and Acrobatics A. 29 Peking Opera 甘奉玉丁代凤, B. 30 Mei Lanfang 曾良陈永相, C. 31 Acrobatics

Unit 10 Wushu and Qigong A. 32 Wushu 赵晓燕张慧, B. 33 Qigong Rajabov Anushervon, C. 34 Huo Yuanjia 周艺文欧阳玲

Unit 11 Traditional Medicine A. 35 Chinese Medicine B. 36 Diagnosis and Pharmacology, C. 37 Acupuncture and Moxibustion 吴一露司㚥, D. 38 The Development of Chinese Medicine 王美玲汤蓓

Unit 12 Major Religions A. 39 Buddhism 康浩宇刘欧 Phyo Su Kyi, B. 40 Daoism 桂一枝阳慧, C. 41 Islam 刘柳刘怡瑜, D. 42 Christianity 彭锐宏

Unit 13 Classical Philosophy A. 43 Confucius and Confucianism 罗维嘉李丽丽, B. 44 Daoism 余妮杨晨婷

Unit 14 China and the outside world A. 45 Zhang Qian and the Silk Road 李丽琴郭露, B. 46 Zheng He and the Maritime Silk Road 胡百辉何长崎, C. 47 The Eastward Spread of Western Learning, D. 48 The Westernization Movement

Unit 15 Selected Readings in Classical Philosophy A. 49 Tao Te Ching Gennadii Dashkin, B. 50 The Analects GUIROU BARTHELEMY, PINGKI TANCHANGYA, C. 51 The Sutra of Hui-neng, D. 52 The Importance of Living

New topics suggested by students: ...

==1st Session==
Introduction to the course. Organizational things. Working with the Wiki.
====Students' Homework of session 1 in preparation for session 2====
===Homework of Session 1 (Sep 21, 2020), due for Session 2 (Sep 28, 2020)===
1. Every student should find a sentence for each text of unit 2 (A. Geography, B. Traditional Festivals, C. Ancient Science) in English and translate it into Chinese. You can '''write it [[20200921_cult|here]]'''.

2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page.

==2nd Session: Unit 1==
===Text A Geography===

Classroom presentation [[Media:China_Geography_by_Seydou_Sagara_.ppt|Seydou Sagara's presentation on China-Geography ]]--[[User:Sagara Seydou 3|Sagara Seydou 3]] ([[User talk:Sagara Seydou 3|talk]]) 05:07, 6 October 2020 (UTC)

===Text B Traditional Festivals===

Classroom presentation [[Media:Dragon_Boat_Festiva_by_Yang Zilin and Tang Yiran_S.pptx|Yang Zilin and Tang Yiran's presentation on Dragon Boat Festival]]--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 15:13, 7 October 2020 (UTC)

Handout [[Media:The Dragon Boat Festival by Tang Yiran and Yang Ziling.docx|Dragon Boat Festival]] --[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 02:26, 5 October 2020 (UTC)

===Text C Traditional Science===
Classroom presentation [[Media:Paper-making_technology_by_Chen Han_S.pptx|Chen Han's presentation on Paper-making technology]] --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 05:40, 28 September 2020 (UTC)

Handout [[Media:Ancient_Science_and_Technology_.docx|Ancient Science and Technology]] --[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 06:48, 28 September 2020 (UTC)Zeng Xinyuan

==='''Homework from Session 2 (Sep 28, 2020), due for Session 3 (Oct 5, 2020)'''===
1. Every student should find a Chinese sentence in the internet for each text of the unit (a, b, c) and translate it into English. You can '''write it [[20200928_cult|here]]'''.

2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page.

==3rd Session: Unit 2==
===Text A Chinese Characters and Scripts===
Classroom presentation [[Media:Chinese Characters.ppt]] by Jiang Fengyi --[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 07:14, 6 October 2020 (UTC)

Handout [[Media:Chinese Characters.docx]]--[[User:Gudongfang|Gudongfang]] ([[User talk:Gudongfang|talk]]) 15:36, 6 October 2020 (UTC)Gu Dongfang

===Text B Calligraphy===

Classroom presentation [[Media:Chinese calligraphy.pptx|Chinese calligraphy]]--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 02:03, 5 October 2020 (UTC) Xu Jia

Handout [[Media:Chinese_calligraphy.docx|Chinese calligraphy]]--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 11:50, 10 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

===Text C Evolution of calligraphy===

Classroom presentation [[Media:The Evolution of Calligraphy.pptx|evolution of Calligraphy]]--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 02:14, 5 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

Handout [[Media:calligraphy by Xiao Shuangling and Wang Xuan.docx]] --[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 09:10, 15 October 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan

==='''Homework from Session 3 (Oct 7, 2020), due for Session 4 (Oct 12, 2020)'''===
1. Every student should find a Chinese sentence in the internet for each text of the unit (a, b, c, d) and translate it into English. You can '''write it [[20201007_cult|here]]'''.

2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page.

==4th Session: Unit 3 Traditional Crafts==
===Text A, total text no. 7, Embroidery===
Classroom presentation [[Media:Embroidery.pptx]] by Qu Miao --[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 04:33, 12 October 2020 (UTC)

Handout [[Media:Embroidery.docx]] by Lou Cancan --[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 04:24, 12 October 2020 (UTC)

Qu Miao 瞿淼、Lou Cancan 娄灿灿

===Text B, total text no. 8, Cloisonne===
Classroom presentation [[Media:...pptx]] by ...

===Text C, total text no. 9, Lacquerware===

Classroom presentation [[Media:China_Traditional_Craft_by_Lo_Minh_Thao_S.pptx|Lo Minh Thao's presentation on Chinese Traditional Crafts]]

===Text D, total text no. 10, Carving===
Classroom presentation [[Media:...pptx]] by ...

Handout [[Media:....docx]] by ...

==='''Homework from Session 4 (Oct 12, 2020), due for Session 5 (Oct 19, 2020)'''===
1. Every student should find a Chinese sentence in the internet for each text of the unit (a, b, c, d) and translate it into English. You can '''write it [[20201012_cult|here]]'''.

2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page.

==5th Session: Unit 4==
===Text A Tea===

Classroom presentation[[Media: Tea_Chinese_Culture_Zhu_Meimei_S.pptx|Zhu Meimei's presentation on Tea]]--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 05:50, 19 October 2020 (UTC)

Handout [[Media:Tea_Zhou_Yuanqu_S.docx|Zhou Yuanqu's handout on Tea]]----[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 02:08, 19 October 2020 (UTC)

===Text B Silk ===
吴琼张银柳

Classroom presentation by Zhang Yinliu[[Media:Silk.pptx]]--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 02:30, 19 October 2020 (UTC)
Handout by--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 01:44, 19 October 2020 (UTC) [[Media:Handout for Silk.docx]]

===Text C Porcelain ===
Zubareva Ekaterina, ANNA GROSHEVA

Classroom presentation by [[Media:Porcelain_-_Grosheva_and_Zubareva.pptx]] --[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 08:17, 18 October 2020 (UTC)

Handout [[Media:Porcelain_handout.docx]] by --[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 07:25, 18 October 2020 (UTC)

===Text C Celadon ===

Classroom presentation [[Media:Celadon.pptx]]by --[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 06:48, 18 October 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing

Handout by[[Media:Celadon.docx]]--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 09:01, 18 October 2020 (UTC)Gao Mingzhu

==='''Homework from Session 5 (Oct 19, 2020), due for Session 6 (Oct 26, 2020)'''===
1. Every student should find a Chinese sentence in the internet for each text of the unit (a, b, c, d) and translate it into English. You can '''write it [[20201019_cult|here]]'''.

2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page.

==6th Session: Unit 5: Traditional Cuisine==

===Text A Four Distinct Regional Cuisines ===

Presentation by Shi Haiyao[[Media:Four_Distinct_Regional_Cuisines_Shi_Haiyao_S.pptx|Shi Haiyao's presentation on Four Distinct Regional Cuisines]]--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 02:16, 26 October 2020 (UTC)

Handout by Luo Yuqing[[Media:Four Distinct Regional Cuisines.docx]]--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 07:43, 25 October 2020 (UTC)

===Text B The Art of Chinese Cooking ===

Presentation by 曹润鑫 [[Media:The art of Chinese cooking.pptx]]--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 15:00, 25 October 2020 (UTC)

Handout by 邹鑫雨 [[Media:The art of Chinese cooking.docx]]--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 15:01, 25 October 2020 (UTC)

Presentation by ALSIED SAFFANA [[Media:The Art of Chinese Cooking - SAFFANAALSIED and HATHITHUHANG_Final.pptx]] -- [[User:SAFFANA_ALSIED_2|SAFFANA_ALSIED_2]] ([[User talk:SAFFANA_ALSIED_2|talk]]) 15:25, 24 October 2020 (UTC)

Handout by HA THI THU HANG [[Media:The Art of Chinese Cooking Handout Final.docx]] -- [[User:HATHITHUHANG2|HATHITHUHANG2]] -- ([[User talk:HATHITHUHANG2|talk]]) 15:38, 24 October 2020 (UTC)

===Text C Two Famous Dishes ===
Classroom Presentation [[Media:Two_Famous_Dishes_Yuan_Tianyi_S.pptx|Yuan Tianyi's Presentation on Two Famous Dishes]]--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 02:17, 24 October 2020 (UTC)

Handout by Zhang Weihong [[Media:Two Famous Dishes.doc]] --[[User:Zhang Weihong|Zhang Weihong]] ([[User talk:Zhang Weihong|talk]]) 11:16, 25 October 2020 (UTC)ZhangWeihong

===Text D Chopsticks ===

Presentation by Jiang Qiwei[[Media:Chopsticks.pptx]]--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 04:33, 26 October 2020 (UTC)

Handout by Hu Jin[[Media:handout for chopsticks.docx]]--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 15:56, 23 October 2020 (UTC)

==='''Homework from Session 6 (Oct 26, 2020), due for Session 7 (Nov 2, 2020)'''===
1. Every student should find a Chinese sentence in the internet for each text of the unit (a, b, c, d) and translate it into English. You can '''write it [[20201026_cult|here]]'''.

2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page.

3. Please answer the quiz on https://bit.ly/Unit-6 or on http://shijiehanxue.mikecrm.com/BNFafJP

==7th Session: Unit 6==

===Text A Painting ===

Presentation by Zhu Xu [[Media:Painting by Zhu Xu.pptx]]--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 03:29, 1 November 2020 (UTC)

Handout [[Media:Chinese_Painting_Mo_Ling.docx|Mo Ling's Handout on Chinese Painting]]--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 04:17, 1 November 2020 (UTC)

===Text B Seal-cutting ===

Presentation by Zhao Xi [[Media:Seal-cutting by Zhao Xi.pptx]]--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 13:32, 29 October 2020 (UTC)

Handout by Zhang Yu [[Media:Seal-cutting by Zhang Yu and Zhao Xi.docx]]--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 13:14, 29 October 2020 (UTC)

===Text C Bada Shanren and Qi Baishi ===

Presentation by Wu Zijia [[Media:Presentation.Badashanren and QiBaishi.pptx]]--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 05:35, 30 October 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia

Handout by Lei Kuangxi [[Media:Handout.Badashanren and Qi Baishi.docx ]]--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 05:05, 30 October 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi

==='''Homework from Session 7 (Nov 02, 2020), due for Session 8 (Nov 09, 2020)'''===
1. Every student should find a Chinese sentence in the internet for each text of the unit (a, b, c) and translate it into English. You can '''write it [[20201102_cult|here]]'''.

2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page.

==8th Session: Unit 7==

===Text A Architecture ===

Presentation by Zhang Peiwen [[Media:Chinese Architecture.pptx]]--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 11:57, 8 November 2020 (UTC)

Handout by Zhang Yujie [[Media:Ancient Chinese Architecture.docx]]--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 03:18, 8 November 2020 (UTC)

===Text B Gardens ===

Presentation by Zhang Yuxing [[Media:Gardens.pptx]]--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 08:37, 8 November 2020 (UTC)

Handout by Xie Fan [[Media:Gardens on the Yangtze Delta.docx]] --[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 13:12, 8 November 2020 (UTC)

===Text C The Summer Palace ===

Presentation by Tan Yuanyuan [[Media:The Summer Palace.pptx]]--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 14:38, 8 November 2020 (UTC)

Handout by Liu Yi [[Media:The Summer Palace.docx]]--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 14:49, 7 November 2020 (UTC)

==='''Homework from Session 8 (Nov 09, 2020), due for Session 9 (Nov 16, 2020)'''===
1. Every student should find a Chinese sentence in the internet for each text of the unit (a, b, c, d) and translate it into English. You can '''write it [[20201109_cult|here]]'''.

2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page.

==9th Session: Unit 8==

===Text A Classical Literature ===

Presentation by [[Media:Classical Literature-Shi Jing as the Beginning.pptx]]--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 05:34, 16 November 2020 (UTC)

Handout by [[Media:Classical Literature-Shi Jing as the Beginning.docx]]--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 03:44, 16 November 2020 (UTC)

===Text B Modern Literature ===

Presentation by [[Media:Modern literature.pptx]]--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 02:39, 16 November 2020 (UTC)

Handout by [[Media:Modern Literature.docx]] --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:53, 15 November 2020 (UTC)

===Text C Contemporary Literature ===

Presentation by [[Media:Contemporary Literature.pptx]]--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 16:34, 14 November 2020 (UTC)

Handout by[[File:Handout-Contemporary Literature.docx]]--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 12:44, 14 November 2020 (UTC)

===Text D Selected Tang Poems ===

Presentation by [[Media:Selected_Tang_Poems_by_Lei_Fangyuan_S.pptx|Lei Fangyuan's presentation on Selected Tang Poems]]

Handout by [[Media:Selected_Tang_Poems_by_Guan_Qinqing_S.pdf|Guan Qinqing's handout on Selected Tang Poems]]

==='''Homework from Session 9 (Nov 16, 2020), due for Session 10 (Nov 23, 2020)'''===
1. Every student should find a Chinese sentence in the internet for each text of the unit (a, b, c, d) and translate it into English. You can '''write it [[20201116_cult|here]]'''.

2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page.

==10th Session: Unit 9==

===Text A Peking Opera ===

Presentation by [[Media:Beijing opera.pptx]]--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 07:14, 22 November 2020 (UTC)

Handout by [[Media:Beijing Opera Hanout.docx]]--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 15:53, 19 November 2020 (UTC)

Beijing or Peking?

From the English perspective, for some foreign names (city names, people‘s names etc.) there are English translations existing, e.g. for Roma it is „Rome“, for München it is Munich. Similarly, Beijing in English is Peking, Guangzhou Canton, Mao Zedong Mao Tse-tung etc. Also in Chinese, there are Chinese translations of foreign names, like Niuyue 纽约、Bali 巴黎 etc. Of course, in exceptional cases, e.g. if you want to say how Chinese people pronounce Peking („Beijing“) you may use the official Pinyin notation „Beijing“.

===Text B Mei Lanfang ===

Presentation by Zeng Liang[[Media:Mei Lanfang.pptx]]--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:21, 22 November 2020 (UTC)

Handout by Chen Yongxiang [[Media:Mei Lanfang handout.docx]]--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 12:16, 22 November 2020 (UTC)

===Text C Acrobatics ===

==='''Homework from Session 10 (Nov 23, 2020), due for Session 11 (Nov 30, 2020)'''===
1. Every student should find a Chinese sentence in the internet for each text of the unit (a, b, c) and translate it into English. You can '''write it [[20201123_cult|here]]'''.

2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page.

==11th Session: Unit 10==
Unit 10 Wushu and Qigong

===Text A Wushu ===

Presented by 张慧 [[Media:Chinese Martial Arts.pptx]]--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 07:58, 28 November 2020 (UTC)

Handout by 赵晓燕,[[Media:Chinese martial arts.docx]]--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 08:04, 28 November 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 08:38, 28 November 2020 (UTC)

===Text B Qigong ===

Presented by Rajabov Anushervon [[Media:Qigong_Ngo_Thi_Minh_Huong_and_Rajabov_Anushervon.pptx]]--[[User:RAJABOV ANUSHERVON 10|RAJABOV ANUSHERVON 10]] ([[User talk:RAJABOV ANUSHERVON 10|talk]]) 23:45, 29 November 2020 (UTC)

Handout by Ngo Thi Minh Huong [[Media:Qigong.docx]] --[[User:Ngo Thi Minh Huong|Ngo Thi Minh Huong 10]] ([[User talk:Ngo Thi Minh Huong|talk]])

===Text C Huo Yuanjia ===

Presented by 欧阳玲 [[Media:Huo Yuanjia.pptx]]--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 05:04, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Ouyang Ling

Handout by 周艺文 [[Media:Huo Yuanjia Handout.docx]]--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 11:13, 26 November 2020 (UTC)

==='''Homework from Session 11 (Nov 30, 2020), due for Session 12 (Dec 07, 2020)'''===
1. Every student should find a Chinese sentence in the internet for each text of the unit (a, b, c) and translate it into English. You can '''write it [[20201130_cult|here]]'''.

2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page.

==12th Session: Unit 11==

Unit 11 Traditional Medicine

===Text A Chinese Medicine ===

===Text B Diagnosis and Pharmacology ===

===Text C Acupuncture and Moxibustion ===

[[File: Acupuncuture and Moxibustion.pptx]]Presented by 吴一露 --[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 02:30, 7 December 2020 (UTC)

[[File: Acupuncuture and Moxibustion_handout.docx]]Handout by 司妤--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 02:35, 7 December 2020 (UTC)

===Text D The Development of Chinese Medicine===

Presented by 汤蓓[[Media:The Development of Chinese Medicine.pptx]]--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 03:10, 7 December 2020 (UTC)

Handout by 王美玲[[Media:The Development of Chinese Medicine.docx]]--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 03:06, 7 December 2020 (UTC)

==='''Homework from Session 12 (Dec 07, 2020), due for Session 13 (Dec 14, 2020)'''===
1. Every student should find a Chinese sentence in the internet for each text of the unit (a, b, c) and translate it into English. You can '''write it [[20201207_cult|here]]'''.

2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page.

==13th Session: Unit 12==

Unit 12 Major Religions

===Text A Buddhism ===

Presented by 康浩宇 [[Media:Buddhism.pptx]]

Handout by 刘欧 [[Media:Buddhism.docx]]

Presented by Phyo Su Kyi [[Media: Life of the Buddha.pptx]]

Handot by Phyo Su Kyi [[Media: Life of the Gotama Buddha.docx]]

===Text B Daoism ===

Presented by桂一枝[[Media:Daoism.pptx]]--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 12:09, 13 December 2020 (UTC)

Handout by 阳慧[[Media: Daoism.docx]]--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 01:58, 12 December 2020 (UTC)

===Text C Islam ===

Presented by 刘柳 [[Media:Islam.pptx]]--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 14:49, 13 December 2020 (UTC)

Handout by 刘怡瑜 [[Media:Islam Handout.docx]]--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 15:12, 13 December 2020 (UTC)

===Text D Christianity ===
Presented by 彭锐宏
[[Media:Christianity.pptx]]--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]]

Handout by 彭锐宏
[[Media:Christianity.docx]]--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]]

==='''Homework from Session 13 (Dec 14, 2020), due for Session 14 (Dec 21, 2020)'''===
1. Every student should find a Chinese sentence in the internet for each text of the unit (a, b) and translate it into English. You can '''write it [[20201214_cult|here]]'''.

2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page.

==14th Session: Unit 13==

Unit 13 Classical Philosophy

===Text A Confucius and Confucianism ===

Presented by [[Media:Confucianism.pptx]]--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 08:20, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Handout by 罗维嘉

===Text A Daoism ===

Presented by 余妮 [[Media:Daoism.pptx]]--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]]

Handout by 杨晨婷 [[Media:DAOISM.docx]]--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]]

==15th Session: Unit 14==
Unit 14 China and the outside world A. 45 Zhang Qian and the Silk Road 李丽琴郭露, B. 46 Zheng He and the Maritime Silk Road 胡百辉何长琦, C. 47 The Eastward Spread of Western Learning, D. 48 The Westernization Movement

==16th Session: Unit 15==
Unit 15 Selected Readings in Classical Philosophy A. 49 Tao Te Ching Gennadii Dashkin, B. 50 The Analects GUIROU BARTHELEMY, PINGKI TANCHANGYA, C. 51 The Sutra of Hui-neng, D. 52 The Importance of Living

===The Analects===

Presented by [[Media:The Analects.pptx]]

=='''Final Exam paper - deadline extended to Dec 21, 2020'''==
The deadline has been extended to '''Dec 21, 2020'''. Please find a paper you want to proof read, contact the author, proof read (by copying each paragraph and make corrections/suggestions in the copy) and sign until Dec 19. The author then finalizes (works in the suggestions) until the final deadline Dec 21!

1. Every student should write a new English text on a phenomenon in Chinese culture as a new chapter in the text book. Please also make a comparisons to similar or different cultural phenomenons in Europe and/or the USA.

2. Please proof read a fellow students' paper by copying each paragraph and make your corrections in the paragraph. In a final step, the original author of the paper has to decide, what of the corrections he/she will accept and work into the paper. The final version submitted on the deadline should not carry any of the fellow student's paragraphs and comments.

You can '''write it [[20201215_cultexam|here]]'''.

File:DAOISM-PPT.pptx

2020-12-20T13:49:39Z

Yang chenting: Yang chenting uploaded a new version of "File:DAOISM-PPT.pptx"

File:DAOISM-PPT.pptx

2020-12-20T13:47:18Z

Yang chenting:

Chinese Languages and Cultures

2020-12-20T13:46:18Z

Yang chenting: /* Text A Daoism */

Quicklinks: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/uvu:Community_Portal#Frequently_asked_questions_FAQ FAQ] [https://bou.de/u/wiki/uvu:Community_Portal Manual]

Welcome to our course website '''Chinese Languages and Cultures'''. Whenever you visit this site, please see if there is anything in English not yet translated into Chinese and make a Chinese translation beneath (one paragraph English, one paragraph Chinese). Any correction or improvement of earlier translations is welcome!

欢迎访问我们'''中国语言文化课'''网页。…………--[[User:Root|Root]] ([[User talk:Root|talk]]) 07:43, 28 September 2020 (UTC)

=Organizational Things=
*Please register for the Course Wiki.
*Please prepare each session during the week before, so that you come prepared to class.
==Description of Homework==
===Regular students===
1. Please read and prepare all the texts for the next textbook unit.

2. Please find a Chinese sentence in the internet about each of the 3-4 topics we deal with in each session (see textbook content page or on this webpage here "schedule"). Copy these sentences on our homework webpage and write translations into English (for international students: find an English sentence and translate into Chinese). Do not forget to sign by typing - - ~ ~ ~ ~ (without spaces) at the end.

Then please help your fellow students to correct and improve their translations. Do not forget to sign by typing - - ~ ~ ~ ~ (without spaces) at the end.

3. Once in the semester, you give a presentation on a topic of the textbook. Please do not just repeat the content, but say something from the perspective of a translator: What problems do you encounter when translating the textbook text or when translating texts of this topic. One student can do a presentation, the other can do a handout. Both contributions are graded separately.

===Website Admin student===
Thank you for helping to watch the Wiki website! Please make sure that it looks nice (formatting, especially if a fellow students makes a mess by putting the wrong format etc., should not look to crowded, so make sub-websites for homework etc.).
===Online Survey students===
There will be several online surveys conducted throughout the semester. Please watch your WeChat Subgroup for the first tasks.

==Edits==
Every student is required to edit something every week. This can be:
* Translate a pragraph from English to Chinese.
* Correct an earlier translation.
* Prepare an article (please link to from this page) and/or a powerpoint (please upload here) on a topic you will present during the semester.

==Material==
Please download the course textbook from the WeChat Group.

=Schedule=
1st Session: Organizational things

2nd session: Unit 1 General Survey A. 1 Geography SAGARA SEYDOU; B. 2 Traditional Festivals: The Spring Festival, The Lantern Festival, The Dragon Boat Festival, The Mid-autumn Festival 汤伊然，杨子泠（The Dragon Boat Festival）; C. 3 Ancient Science and Technology 曾心媛陈涵

3rd session: Unit 2 Language and Calligraphy A. 4 Chinese characters and scripts 蒋凤仪顾东方, B. 5 Calligraphy 徐佳肖婷, C. 6 The Evolution of Calligraphy 肖双玲王轩

4th session: Unit 3 Traditional Crafts A. 7 Embroidery 瞿淼、娄灿灿, B. 8 Cloisonne, C. 9 Lacquerware Lô Minh Thảo- 卢明草, D. 10 Carving

5th session: Unit 4 Tea, Silk and Ceramics A. 11 Tea 祝美梅，周园曲, B. 12 Silk 吴琼张银柳, C. 13 Porcelain Zubareva Ekaterina, ANNA GROSHEVA, D. 14 Celadon 高明珠陈静静

Unit 5 Traditional Cuisine 15 Distinct Regional Cuisines 罗雨晴石海瑶, 16 The Art of Chinese Cooking 邹鑫雨曹润鑫 SAFFANA , HA THI THU HANG, C. 17 Two Famous Dishes 袁天翼张维虹, D. 18 Chopsticks 蒋淇玮胡瑾

Unit 6 Fine Arts A. 19 Painting 朱旭,莫玲 B. 20 Seal-cutting 赵茜张瑜， C. 21 Bada Shanren and Qi Baishi 吴子佳雷旷溪

Unit 7 Architecture and Gardens A. 22 Architecture 张毓婕，张佩闻, B. 23 Gardens 张宇星解帆, C. 24 The Summer Palace 刘艺谭媛媛

Unit 8 Literature A. 25 Classical Literature 游雨婷，许静, B. 26 Modern Literature 张玲杨海容, C. 27 Contemporary Literature 义子楚杨悦, D. 28 Selected Tang Poems 管钦清雷方 Ngo Thi Minh Huong (吴氏明红)

Unit 9 Peking Opera and Acrobatics A. 29 Peking Opera 甘奉玉丁代凤, B. 30 Mei Lanfang 曾良陈永相, C. 31 Acrobatics

Unit 10 Wushu and Qigong A. 32 Wushu 赵晓燕张慧, B. 33 Qigong Rajabov Anushervon, C. 34 Huo Yuanjia 周艺文欧阳玲

Unit 11 Traditional Medicine A. 35 Chinese Medicine B. 36 Diagnosis and Pharmacology, C. 37 Acupuncture and Moxibustion 吴一露司㚥, D. 38 The Development of Chinese Medicine 王美玲汤蓓

Unit 12 Major Religions A. 39 Buddhism 康浩宇刘欧 Phyo Su Kyi, B. 40 Daoism 桂一枝阳慧, C. 41 Islam 刘柳刘怡瑜, D. 42 Christianity 彭锐宏

Unit 13 Classical Philosophy A. 43 Confucius and Confucianism 罗维嘉李丽丽, B. 44 Daoism 余妮杨晨婷

Unit 14 China and the outside world A. 45 Zhang Qian and the Silk Road 李丽琴郭露, B. 46 Zheng He and the Maritime Silk Road 胡百辉何长崎, C. 47 The Eastward Spread of Western Learning, D. 48 The Westernization Movement

Unit 15 Selected Readings in Classical Philosophy A. 49 Tao Te Ching Gennadii Dashkin, B. 50 The Analects GUIROU BARTHELEMY, PINGKI TANCHANGYA, C. 51 The Sutra of Hui-neng, D. 52 The Importance of Living

New topics suggested by students: ...

==1st Session==
Introduction to the course. Organizational things. Working with the Wiki.
====Students' Homework of session 1 in preparation for session 2====
===Homework of Session 1 (Sep 21, 2020), due for Session 2 (Sep 28, 2020)===
1. Every student should find a sentence for each text of unit 2 (A. Geography, B. Traditional Festivals, C. Ancient Science) in English and translate it into Chinese. You can '''write it [[20200921_cult|here]]'''.

2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page.

==2nd Session: Unit 1==
===Text A Geography===

Classroom presentation [[Media:China_Geography_by_Seydou_Sagara_.ppt|Seydou Sagara's presentation on China-Geography ]]--[[User:Sagara Seydou 3|Sagara Seydou 3]] ([[User talk:Sagara Seydou 3|talk]]) 05:07, 6 October 2020 (UTC)

===Text B Traditional Festivals===

Classroom presentation [[Media:Dragon_Boat_Festiva_by_Yang Zilin and Tang Yiran_S.pptx|Yang Zilin and Tang Yiran's presentation on Dragon Boat Festival]]--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 15:13, 7 October 2020 (UTC)

Handout [[Media:The Dragon Boat Festival by Tang Yiran and Yang Ziling.docx|Dragon Boat Festival]] --[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 02:26, 5 October 2020 (UTC)

===Text C Traditional Science===
Classroom presentation [[Media:Paper-making_technology_by_Chen Han_S.pptx|Chen Han's presentation on Paper-making technology]] --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 05:40, 28 September 2020 (UTC)

Handout [[Media:Ancient_Science_and_Technology_.docx|Ancient Science and Technology]] --[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 06:48, 28 September 2020 (UTC)Zeng Xinyuan

==='''Homework from Session 2 (Sep 28, 2020), due for Session 3 (Oct 5, 2020)'''===
1. Every student should find a Chinese sentence in the internet for each text of the unit (a, b, c) and translate it into English. You can '''write it [[20200928_cult|here]]'''.

2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page.

==3rd Session: Unit 2==
===Text A Chinese Characters and Scripts===
Classroom presentation [[Media:Chinese Characters.ppt]] by Jiang Fengyi --[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 07:14, 6 October 2020 (UTC)

Handout [[Media:Chinese Characters.docx]]--[[User:Gudongfang|Gudongfang]] ([[User talk:Gudongfang|talk]]) 15:36, 6 October 2020 (UTC)Gu Dongfang

===Text B Calligraphy===

Classroom presentation [[Media:Chinese calligraphy.pptx|Chinese calligraphy]]--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 02:03, 5 October 2020 (UTC) Xu Jia

Handout [[Media:Chinese_calligraphy.docx|Chinese calligraphy]]--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 11:50, 10 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

===Text C Evolution of calligraphy===

Classroom presentation [[Media:The Evolution of Calligraphy.pptx|evolution of Calligraphy]]--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 02:14, 5 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

Handout [[Media:calligraphy by Xiao Shuangling and Wang Xuan.docx]] --[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 09:10, 15 October 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan

==='''Homework from Session 3 (Oct 7, 2020), due for Session 4 (Oct 12, 2020)'''===
1. Every student should find a Chinese sentence in the internet for each text of the unit (a, b, c, d) and translate it into English. You can '''write it [[20201007_cult|here]]'''.

2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page.

==4th Session: Unit 3 Traditional Crafts==
===Text A, total text no. 7, Embroidery===
Classroom presentation [[Media:Embroidery.pptx]] by Qu Miao --[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 04:33, 12 October 2020 (UTC)

Handout [[Media:Embroidery.docx]] by Lou Cancan --[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 04:24, 12 October 2020 (UTC)

Qu Miao 瞿淼、Lou Cancan 娄灿灿

===Text B, total text no. 8, Cloisonne===
Classroom presentation [[Media:...pptx]] by ...

===Text C, total text no. 9, Lacquerware===

Classroom presentation [[Media:China_Traditional_Craft_by_Lo_Minh_Thao_S.pptx|Lo Minh Thao's presentation on Chinese Traditional Crafts]]

===Text D, total text no. 10, Carving===
Classroom presentation [[Media:...pptx]] by ...

Handout [[Media:....docx]] by ...

==='''Homework from Session 4 (Oct 12, 2020), due for Session 5 (Oct 19, 2020)'''===
1. Every student should find a Chinese sentence in the internet for each text of the unit (a, b, c, d) and translate it into English. You can '''write it [[20201012_cult|here]]'''.

2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page.

==5th Session: Unit 4==
===Text A Tea===

Classroom presentation[[Media: Tea_Chinese_Culture_Zhu_Meimei_S.pptx|Zhu Meimei's presentation on Tea]]--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 05:50, 19 October 2020 (UTC)

Handout [[Media:Tea_Zhou_Yuanqu_S.docx|Zhou Yuanqu's handout on Tea]]----[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 02:08, 19 October 2020 (UTC)

===Text B Silk ===
吴琼张银柳

Classroom presentation by Zhang Yinliu[[Media:Silk.pptx]]--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 02:30, 19 October 2020 (UTC)
Handout by--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 01:44, 19 October 2020 (UTC) [[Media:Handout for Silk.docx]]

===Text C Porcelain ===
Zubareva Ekaterina, ANNA GROSHEVA

Classroom presentation by [[Media:Porcelain_-_Grosheva_and_Zubareva.pptx]] --[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 08:17, 18 October 2020 (UTC)

Handout [[Media:Porcelain_handout.docx]] by --[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 07:25, 18 October 2020 (UTC)

===Text C Celadon ===

Classroom presentation [[Media:Celadon.pptx]]by --[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 06:48, 18 October 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing

Handout by[[Media:Celadon.docx]]--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 09:01, 18 October 2020 (UTC)Gao Mingzhu

==='''Homework from Session 5 (Oct 19, 2020), due for Session 6 (Oct 26, 2020)'''===
1. Every student should find a Chinese sentence in the internet for each text of the unit (a, b, c, d) and translate it into English. You can '''write it [[20201019_cult|here]]'''.

2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page.

==6th Session: Unit 5: Traditional Cuisine==

===Text A Four Distinct Regional Cuisines ===

Presentation by Shi Haiyao[[Media:Four_Distinct_Regional_Cuisines_Shi_Haiyao_S.pptx|Shi Haiyao's presentation on Four Distinct Regional Cuisines]]--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 02:16, 26 October 2020 (UTC)

Handout by Luo Yuqing[[Media:Four Distinct Regional Cuisines.docx]]--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 07:43, 25 October 2020 (UTC)

===Text B The Art of Chinese Cooking ===

Presentation by 曹润鑫 [[Media:The art of Chinese cooking.pptx]]--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 15:00, 25 October 2020 (UTC)

Handout by 邹鑫雨 [[Media:The art of Chinese cooking.docx]]--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 15:01, 25 October 2020 (UTC)

Presentation by ALSIED SAFFANA [[Media:The Art of Chinese Cooking - SAFFANAALSIED and HATHITHUHANG_Final.pptx]] -- [[User:SAFFANA_ALSIED_2|SAFFANA_ALSIED_2]] ([[User talk:SAFFANA_ALSIED_2|talk]]) 15:25, 24 October 2020 (UTC)

Handout by HA THI THU HANG [[Media:The Art of Chinese Cooking Handout Final.docx]] -- [[User:HATHITHUHANG2|HATHITHUHANG2]] -- ([[User talk:HATHITHUHANG2|talk]]) 15:38, 24 October 2020 (UTC)

===Text C Two Famous Dishes ===
Classroom Presentation [[Media:Two_Famous_Dishes_Yuan_Tianyi_S.pptx|Yuan Tianyi's Presentation on Two Famous Dishes]]--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 02:17, 24 October 2020 (UTC)

Handout by Zhang Weihong [[Media:Two Famous Dishes.doc]] --[[User:Zhang Weihong|Zhang Weihong]] ([[User talk:Zhang Weihong|talk]]) 11:16, 25 October 2020 (UTC)ZhangWeihong

===Text D Chopsticks ===

Presentation by Jiang Qiwei[[Media:Chopsticks.pptx]]--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 04:33, 26 October 2020 (UTC)

Handout by Hu Jin[[Media:handout for chopsticks.docx]]--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 15:56, 23 October 2020 (UTC)

==='''Homework from Session 6 (Oct 26, 2020), due for Session 7 (Nov 2, 2020)'''===
1. Every student should find a Chinese sentence in the internet for each text of the unit (a, b, c, d) and translate it into English. You can '''write it [[20201026_cult|here]]'''.

2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page.

3. Please answer the quiz on https://bit.ly/Unit-6 or on http://shijiehanxue.mikecrm.com/BNFafJP

==7th Session: Unit 6==

===Text A Painting ===

Presentation by Zhu Xu [[Media:Painting by Zhu Xu.pptx]]--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 03:29, 1 November 2020 (UTC)

Handout [[Media:Chinese_Painting_Mo_Ling.docx|Mo Ling's Handout on Chinese Painting]]--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 04:17, 1 November 2020 (UTC)

===Text B Seal-cutting ===

Presentation by Zhao Xi [[Media:Seal-cutting by Zhao Xi.pptx]]--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 13:32, 29 October 2020 (UTC)

Handout by Zhang Yu [[Media:Seal-cutting by Zhang Yu and Zhao Xi.docx]]--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 13:14, 29 October 2020 (UTC)

===Text C Bada Shanren and Qi Baishi ===

Presentation by Wu Zijia [[Media:Presentation.Badashanren and QiBaishi.pptx]]--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 05:35, 30 October 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia

Handout by Lei Kuangxi [[Media:Handout.Badashanren and Qi Baishi.docx ]]--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 05:05, 30 October 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi

==='''Homework from Session 7 (Nov 02, 2020), due for Session 8 (Nov 09, 2020)'''===
1. Every student should find a Chinese sentence in the internet for each text of the unit (a, b, c) and translate it into English. You can '''write it [[20201102_cult|here]]'''.

2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page.

==8th Session: Unit 7==

===Text A Architecture ===

Presentation by Zhang Peiwen [[Media:Chinese Architecture.pptx]]--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 11:57, 8 November 2020 (UTC)

Handout by Zhang Yujie [[Media:Ancient Chinese Architecture.docx]]--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 03:18, 8 November 2020 (UTC)

===Text B Gardens ===

Presentation by Zhang Yuxing [[Media:Gardens.pptx]]--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 08:37, 8 November 2020 (UTC)

Handout by Xie Fan [[Media:Gardens on the Yangtze Delta.docx]] --[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 13:12, 8 November 2020 (UTC)

===Text C The Summer Palace ===

Presentation by Tan Yuanyuan [[Media:The Summer Palace.pptx]]--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 14:38, 8 November 2020 (UTC)

Handout by Liu Yi [[Media:The Summer Palace.docx]]--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 14:49, 7 November 2020 (UTC)

==='''Homework from Session 8 (Nov 09, 2020), due for Session 9 (Nov 16, 2020)'''===
1. Every student should find a Chinese sentence in the internet for each text of the unit (a, b, c, d) and translate it into English. You can '''write it [[20201109_cult|here]]'''.

2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page.

==9th Session: Unit 8==

===Text A Classical Literature ===

Presentation by [[Media:Classical Literature-Shi Jing as the Beginning.pptx]]--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 05:34, 16 November 2020 (UTC)

Handout by [[Media:Classical Literature-Shi Jing as the Beginning.docx]]--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 03:44, 16 November 2020 (UTC)

===Text B Modern Literature ===

Presentation by [[Media:Modern literature.pptx]]--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 02:39, 16 November 2020 (UTC)

Handout by [[Media:Modern Literature.docx]] --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:53, 15 November 2020 (UTC)

===Text C Contemporary Literature ===

Presentation by [[Media:Contemporary Literature.pptx]]--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 16:34, 14 November 2020 (UTC)

Handout by[[File:Handout-Contemporary Literature.docx]]--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 12:44, 14 November 2020 (UTC)

===Text D Selected Tang Poems ===

Presentation by [[Media:Selected_Tang_Poems_by_Lei_Fangyuan_S.pptx|Lei Fangyuan's presentation on Selected Tang Poems]]

Handout by [[Media:Selected_Tang_Poems_by_Guan_Qinqing_S.pdf|Guan Qinqing's handout on Selected Tang Poems]]

==='''Homework from Session 9 (Nov 16, 2020), due for Session 10 (Nov 23, 2020)'''===
1. Every student should find a Chinese sentence in the internet for each text of the unit (a, b, c, d) and translate it into English. You can '''write it [[20201116_cult|here]]'''.

2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page.

==10th Session: Unit 9==

===Text A Peking Opera ===

Presentation by [[Media:Beijing opera.pptx]]--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 07:14, 22 November 2020 (UTC)

Handout by [[Media:Beijing Opera Hanout.docx]]--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 15:53, 19 November 2020 (UTC)

Beijing or Peking?

From the English perspective, for some foreign names (city names, people‘s names etc.) there are English translations existing, e.g. for Roma it is „Rome“, for München it is Munich. Similarly, Beijing in English is Peking, Guangzhou Canton, Mao Zedong Mao Tse-tung etc. Also in Chinese, there are Chinese translations of foreign names, like Niuyue 纽约、Bali 巴黎 etc. Of course, in exceptional cases, e.g. if you want to say how Chinese people pronounce Peking („Beijing“) you may use the official Pinyin notation „Beijing“.

===Text B Mei Lanfang ===

Presentation by Zeng Liang[[Media:Mei Lanfang.pptx]]--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:21, 22 November 2020 (UTC)

Handout by Chen Yongxiang [[Media:Mei Lanfang handout.docx]]--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 12:16, 22 November 2020 (UTC)

===Text C Acrobatics ===

==='''Homework from Session 10 (Nov 23, 2020), due for Session 11 (Nov 30, 2020)'''===
1. Every student should find a Chinese sentence in the internet for each text of the unit (a, b, c) and translate it into English. You can '''write it [[20201123_cult|here]]'''.

2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page.

==11th Session: Unit 10==
Unit 10 Wushu and Qigong

===Text A Wushu ===

Presented by 张慧 [[Media:Chinese Martial Arts.pptx]]--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 07:58, 28 November 2020 (UTC)

Handout by 赵晓燕,[[Media:Chinese martial arts.docx]]--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 08:04, 28 November 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 08:38, 28 November 2020 (UTC)

===Text B Qigong ===

Presented by Rajabov Anushervon [[Media:Qigong_Ngo_Thi_Minh_Huong_and_Rajabov_Anushervon.pptx]]--[[User:RAJABOV ANUSHERVON 10|RAJABOV ANUSHERVON 10]] ([[User talk:RAJABOV ANUSHERVON 10|talk]]) 23:45, 29 November 2020 (UTC)

Handout by Ngo Thi Minh Huong [[Media:Qigong.docx]] --[[User:Ngo Thi Minh Huong|Ngo Thi Minh Huong 10]] ([[User talk:Ngo Thi Minh Huong|talk]])

===Text C Huo Yuanjia ===

Presented by 欧阳玲 [[Media:Huo Yuanjia.pptx]]--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 05:04, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Ouyang Ling

Handout by 周艺文 [[Media:Huo Yuanjia Handout.docx]]--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 11:13, 26 November 2020 (UTC)

==='''Homework from Session 11 (Nov 30, 2020), due for Session 12 (Dec 07, 2020)'''===
1. Every student should find a Chinese sentence in the internet for each text of the unit (a, b, c) and translate it into English. You can '''write it [[20201130_cult|here]]'''.

2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page.

==12th Session: Unit 11==

Unit 11 Traditional Medicine

===Text A Chinese Medicine ===

===Text B Diagnosis and Pharmacology ===

===Text C Acupuncture and Moxibustion ===

[[File: Acupuncuture and Moxibustion.pptx]]Presented by 吴一露 --[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 02:30, 7 December 2020 (UTC)

[[File: Acupuncuture and Moxibustion_handout.docx]]Handout by 司妤--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 02:35, 7 December 2020 (UTC)

===Text D The Development of Chinese Medicine===

Presented by 汤蓓[[Media:The Development of Chinese Medicine.pptx]]--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 03:10, 7 December 2020 (UTC)

Handout by 王美玲[[Media:The Development of Chinese Medicine.docx]]--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 03:06, 7 December 2020 (UTC)

==='''Homework from Session 12 (Dec 07, 2020), due for Session 13 (Dec 14, 2020)'''===
1. Every student should find a Chinese sentence in the internet for each text of the unit (a, b, c) and translate it into English. You can '''write it [[20201207_cult|here]]'''.

2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page.

==13th Session: Unit 12==

Unit 12 Major Religions

===Text A Buddhism ===

Presented by 康浩宇 [[Media:Buddhism.pptx]]

Handout by 刘欧 [[Media:Buddhism.docx]]

Presented by Phyo Su Kyi [[Media: Life of the Buddha.pptx]]

Handot by Phyo Su Kyi [[Media: Life of the Gotama Buddha.docx]]

===Text B Daoism ===

Presented by桂一枝[[Media:Daoism.pptx]]--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 12:09, 13 December 2020 (UTC)

Handout by 阳慧[[Media: Daoism.docx]]--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 01:58, 12 December 2020 (UTC)

===Text C Islam ===

Presented by 刘柳 [[Media:Islam.pptx]]--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 14:49, 13 December 2020 (UTC)

Handout by 刘怡瑜 [[Media:Islam Handout.docx]]--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 15:12, 13 December 2020 (UTC)

===Text D Christianity ===
Presented by 彭锐宏
[[Media:Christianity.pptx]]--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]]

Handout by 彭锐宏
[[Media:Christianity.docx]]--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]]

==='''Homework from Session 13 (Dec 14, 2020), due for Session 14 (Dec 21, 2020)'''===
1. Every student should find a Chinese sentence in the internet for each text of the unit (a, b) and translate it into English. You can '''write it [[20201214_cult|here]]'''.

2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page.

==14th Session: Unit 13==

Unit 13 Classical Philosophy

===Text A Confucius and Confucianism ===

Presented by [[Media:Confucianism.pptx]]--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 08:20, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Handout by 罗维嘉

===Text A Daoism ===

Presented by 余妮 [[Media:DAOISM-PPT.pptx]]--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]]

Handout by 杨晨婷 [[Media:DAOISM.docx]]--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]]

==15th Session: Unit 14==
Unit 14 China and the outside world A. 45 Zhang Qian and the Silk Road 李丽琴郭露, B. 46 Zheng He and the Maritime Silk Road 胡百辉何长琦, C. 47 The Eastward Spread of Western Learning, D. 48 The Westernization Movement

==16th Session: Unit 15==
Unit 15 Selected Readings in Classical Philosophy A. 49 Tao Te Ching Gennadii Dashkin, B. 50 The Analects GUIROU BARTHELEMY, PINGKI TANCHANGYA, C. 51 The Sutra of Hui-neng, D. 52 The Importance of Living

===The Analects===

Presented by [[Media:The Analects.pptx]]

=='''Final Exam paper - deadline extended to Dec 21, 2020'''==
The deadline has been extended to '''Dec 21, 2020'''. Please find a paper you want to proof read, contact the author, proof read (by copying each paragraph and make corrections/suggestions in the copy) and sign until Dec 19. The author then finalizes (works in the suggestions) until the final deadline Dec 21!

1. Every student should write a new English text on a phenomenon in Chinese culture as a new chapter in the text book. Please also make a comparisons to similar or different cultural phenomenons in Europe and/or the USA.

2. Please proof read a fellow students' paper by copying each paragraph and make your corrections in the paragraph. In a final step, the original author of the paper has to decide, what of the corrections he/she will accept and work into the paper. The final version submitted on the deadline should not carry any of the fellow student's paragraphs and comments.

You can '''write it [[20201215_cultexam|here]]'''.

File:DAOISM ppt.pptx

2020-12-20T13:32:56Z

Yang chenting: Yang chenting uploaded a new version of "File:DAOISM ppt.pptx"

File:DAOISM ppt.pptx

2020-12-20T13:32:45Z

Yang chenting: Yang chenting uploaded a new version of "File:DAOISM ppt.pptx"

File:DAOISM ppt.pptx

2020-12-20T13:30:59Z

Yang chenting: Yang chenting uploaded a new version of "File:DAOISM ppt.pptx"

File:DAOISM ppt.pptx

2020-12-20T13:30:21Z

Yang chenting:

Chinese Languages and Cultures

2020-12-20T13:29:48Z

Yang chenting: /* Text A Daoism */

Quicklinks: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/uvu:Community_Portal#Frequently_asked_questions_FAQ FAQ] [https://bou.de/u/wiki/uvu:Community_Portal Manual]

Welcome to our course website '''Chinese Languages and Cultures'''. Whenever you visit this site, please see if there is anything in English not yet translated into Chinese and make a Chinese translation beneath (one paragraph English, one paragraph Chinese). Any correction or improvement of earlier translations is welcome!

欢迎访问我们'''中国语言文化课'''网页。…………--[[User:Root|Root]] ([[User talk:Root|talk]]) 07:43, 28 September 2020 (UTC)

=Organizational Things=
*Please register for the Course Wiki.
*Please prepare each session during the week before, so that you come prepared to class.
==Description of Homework==
===Regular students===
1. Please read and prepare all the texts for the next textbook unit.

2. Please find a Chinese sentence in the internet about each of the 3-4 topics we deal with in each session (see textbook content page or on this webpage here "schedule"). Copy these sentences on our homework webpage and write translations into English (for international students: find an English sentence and translate into Chinese). Do not forget to sign by typing - - ~ ~ ~ ~ (without spaces) at the end.

Then please help your fellow students to correct and improve their translations. Do not forget to sign by typing - - ~ ~ ~ ~ (without spaces) at the end.

3. Once in the semester, you give a presentation on a topic of the textbook. Please do not just repeat the content, but say something from the perspective of a translator: What problems do you encounter when translating the textbook text or when translating texts of this topic. One student can do a presentation, the other can do a handout. Both contributions are graded separately.

===Website Admin student===
Thank you for helping to watch the Wiki website! Please make sure that it looks nice (formatting, especially if a fellow students makes a mess by putting the wrong format etc., should not look to crowded, so make sub-websites for homework etc.).
===Online Survey students===
There will be several online surveys conducted throughout the semester. Please watch your WeChat Subgroup for the first tasks.

==Edits==
Every student is required to edit something every week. This can be:
* Translate a pragraph from English to Chinese.
* Correct an earlier translation.
* Prepare an article (please link to from this page) and/or a powerpoint (please upload here) on a topic you will present during the semester.

==Material==
Please download the course textbook from the WeChat Group.

=Schedule=
1st Session: Organizational things

2nd session: Unit 1 General Survey A. 1 Geography SAGARA SEYDOU; B. 2 Traditional Festivals: The Spring Festival, The Lantern Festival, The Dragon Boat Festival, The Mid-autumn Festival 汤伊然，杨子泠（The Dragon Boat Festival）; C. 3 Ancient Science and Technology 曾心媛陈涵

3rd session: Unit 2 Language and Calligraphy A. 4 Chinese characters and scripts 蒋凤仪顾东方, B. 5 Calligraphy 徐佳肖婷, C. 6 The Evolution of Calligraphy 肖双玲王轩

4th session: Unit 3 Traditional Crafts A. 7 Embroidery 瞿淼、娄灿灿, B. 8 Cloisonne, C. 9 Lacquerware Lô Minh Thảo- 卢明草, D. 10 Carving

5th session: Unit 4 Tea, Silk and Ceramics A. 11 Tea 祝美梅，周园曲, B. 12 Silk 吴琼张银柳, C. 13 Porcelain Zubareva Ekaterina, ANNA GROSHEVA, D. 14 Celadon 高明珠陈静静

Unit 5 Traditional Cuisine 15 Distinct Regional Cuisines 罗雨晴石海瑶, 16 The Art of Chinese Cooking 邹鑫雨曹润鑫 SAFFANA , HA THI THU HANG, C. 17 Two Famous Dishes 袁天翼张维虹, D. 18 Chopsticks 蒋淇玮胡瑾

Unit 6 Fine Arts A. 19 Painting 朱旭,莫玲 B. 20 Seal-cutting 赵茜张瑜， C. 21 Bada Shanren and Qi Baishi 吴子佳雷旷溪

Unit 7 Architecture and Gardens A. 22 Architecture 张毓婕，张佩闻, B. 23 Gardens 张宇星解帆, C. 24 The Summer Palace 刘艺谭媛媛

Unit 8 Literature A. 25 Classical Literature 游雨婷，许静, B. 26 Modern Literature 张玲杨海容, C. 27 Contemporary Literature 义子楚杨悦, D. 28 Selected Tang Poems 管钦清雷方 Ngo Thi Minh Huong (吴氏明红)

Unit 9 Peking Opera and Acrobatics A. 29 Peking Opera 甘奉玉丁代凤, B. 30 Mei Lanfang 曾良陈永相, C. 31 Acrobatics

Unit 10 Wushu and Qigong A. 32 Wushu 赵晓燕张慧, B. 33 Qigong Rajabov Anushervon, C. 34 Huo Yuanjia 周艺文欧阳玲

Unit 11 Traditional Medicine A. 35 Chinese Medicine B. 36 Diagnosis and Pharmacology, C. 37 Acupuncture and Moxibustion 吴一露司㚥, D. 38 The Development of Chinese Medicine 王美玲汤蓓

Unit 12 Major Religions A. 39 Buddhism 康浩宇刘欧 Phyo Su Kyi, B. 40 Daoism 桂一枝阳慧, C. 41 Islam 刘柳刘怡瑜, D. 42 Christianity 彭锐宏

Unit 13 Classical Philosophy A. 43 Confucius and Confucianism 罗维嘉李丽丽, B. 44 Daoism 余妮杨晨婷

Unit 14 China and the outside world A. 45 Zhang Qian and the Silk Road 李丽琴郭露, B. 46 Zheng He and the Maritime Silk Road 胡百辉何长崎, C. 47 The Eastward Spread of Western Learning, D. 48 The Westernization Movement

Unit 15 Selected Readings in Classical Philosophy A. 49 Tao Te Ching Gennadii Dashkin, B. 50 The Analects GUIROU BARTHELEMY, PINGKI TANCHANGYA, C. 51 The Sutra of Hui-neng, D. 52 The Importance of Living

New topics suggested by students: ...

==1st Session==
Introduction to the course. Organizational things. Working with the Wiki.
====Students' Homework of session 1 in preparation for session 2====
===Homework of Session 1 (Sep 21, 2020), due for Session 2 (Sep 28, 2020)===
1. Every student should find a sentence for each text of unit 2 (A. Geography, B. Traditional Festivals, C. Ancient Science) in English and translate it into Chinese. You can '''write it [[20200921_cult|here]]'''.

2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page.

==2nd Session: Unit 1==
===Text A Geography===

Classroom presentation [[Media:China_Geography_by_Seydou_Sagara_.ppt|Seydou Sagara's presentation on China-Geography ]]--[[User:Sagara Seydou 3|Sagara Seydou 3]] ([[User talk:Sagara Seydou 3|talk]]) 05:07, 6 October 2020 (UTC)

===Text B Traditional Festivals===

Classroom presentation [[Media:Dragon_Boat_Festiva_by_Yang Zilin and Tang Yiran_S.pptx|Yang Zilin and Tang Yiran's presentation on Dragon Boat Festival]]--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 15:13, 7 October 2020 (UTC)

Handout [[Media:The Dragon Boat Festival by Tang Yiran and Yang Ziling.docx|Dragon Boat Festival]] --[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 02:26, 5 October 2020 (UTC)

===Text C Traditional Science===
Classroom presentation [[Media:Paper-making_technology_by_Chen Han_S.pptx|Chen Han's presentation on Paper-making technology]] --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 05:40, 28 September 2020 (UTC)

Handout [[Media:Ancient_Science_and_Technology_.docx|Ancient Science and Technology]] --[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 06:48, 28 September 2020 (UTC)Zeng Xinyuan

==='''Homework from Session 2 (Sep 28, 2020), due for Session 3 (Oct 5, 2020)'''===
1. Every student should find a Chinese sentence in the internet for each text of the unit (a, b, c) and translate it into English. You can '''write it [[20200928_cult|here]]'''.

2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page.

==3rd Session: Unit 2==
===Text A Chinese Characters and Scripts===
Classroom presentation [[Media:Chinese Characters.ppt]] by Jiang Fengyi --[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 07:14, 6 October 2020 (UTC)

Handout [[Media:Chinese Characters.docx]]--[[User:Gudongfang|Gudongfang]] ([[User talk:Gudongfang|talk]]) 15:36, 6 October 2020 (UTC)Gu Dongfang

===Text B Calligraphy===

Classroom presentation [[Media:Chinese calligraphy.pptx|Chinese calligraphy]]--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 02:03, 5 October 2020 (UTC) Xu Jia

Handout [[Media:Chinese_calligraphy.docx|Chinese calligraphy]]--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 11:50, 10 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

===Text C Evolution of calligraphy===

Classroom presentation [[Media:The Evolution of Calligraphy.pptx|evolution of Calligraphy]]--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 02:14, 5 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

Handout [[Media:calligraphy by Xiao Shuangling and Wang Xuan.docx]] --[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 09:10, 15 October 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan

==='''Homework from Session 3 (Oct 7, 2020), due for Session 4 (Oct 12, 2020)'''===
1. Every student should find a Chinese sentence in the internet for each text of the unit (a, b, c, d) and translate it into English. You can '''write it [[20201007_cult|here]]'''.

2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page.

==4th Session: Unit 3 Traditional Crafts==
===Text A, total text no. 7, Embroidery===
Classroom presentation [[Media:Embroidery.pptx]] by Qu Miao --[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 04:33, 12 October 2020 (UTC)

Handout [[Media:Embroidery.docx]] by Lou Cancan --[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 04:24, 12 October 2020 (UTC)

Qu Miao 瞿淼、Lou Cancan 娄灿灿

===Text B, total text no. 8, Cloisonne===
Classroom presentation [[Media:...pptx]] by ...

===Text C, total text no. 9, Lacquerware===

Classroom presentation [[Media:China_Traditional_Craft_by_Lo_Minh_Thao_S.pptx|Lo Minh Thao's presentation on Chinese Traditional Crafts]]

===Text D, total text no. 10, Carving===
Classroom presentation [[Media:...pptx]] by ...

Handout [[Media:....docx]] by ...

==='''Homework from Session 4 (Oct 12, 2020), due for Session 5 (Oct 19, 2020)'''===
1. Every student should find a Chinese sentence in the internet for each text of the unit (a, b, c, d) and translate it into English. You can '''write it [[20201012_cult|here]]'''.

2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page.

==5th Session: Unit 4==
===Text A Tea===

Classroom presentation[[Media: Tea_Chinese_Culture_Zhu_Meimei_S.pptx|Zhu Meimei's presentation on Tea]]--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 05:50, 19 October 2020 (UTC)

Handout [[Media:Tea_Zhou_Yuanqu_S.docx|Zhou Yuanqu's handout on Tea]]----[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 02:08, 19 October 2020 (UTC)

===Text B Silk ===
吴琼张银柳

Classroom presentation by Zhang Yinliu[[Media:Silk.pptx]]--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 02:30, 19 October 2020 (UTC)
Handout by--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 01:44, 19 October 2020 (UTC) [[Media:Handout for Silk.docx]]

===Text C Porcelain ===
Zubareva Ekaterina, ANNA GROSHEVA

Classroom presentation by [[Media:Porcelain_-_Grosheva_and_Zubareva.pptx]] --[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 08:17, 18 October 2020 (UTC)

Handout [[Media:Porcelain_handout.docx]] by --[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 07:25, 18 October 2020 (UTC)

===Text C Celadon ===

Classroom presentation [[Media:Celadon.pptx]]by --[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 06:48, 18 October 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing

Handout by[[Media:Celadon.docx]]--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 09:01, 18 October 2020 (UTC)Gao Mingzhu

==='''Homework from Session 5 (Oct 19, 2020), due for Session 6 (Oct 26, 2020)'''===
1. Every student should find a Chinese sentence in the internet for each text of the unit (a, b, c, d) and translate it into English. You can '''write it [[20201019_cult|here]]'''.

2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page.

==6th Session: Unit 5: Traditional Cuisine==

===Text A Four Distinct Regional Cuisines ===

Presentation by Shi Haiyao[[Media:Four_Distinct_Regional_Cuisines_Shi_Haiyao_S.pptx|Shi Haiyao's presentation on Four Distinct Regional Cuisines]]--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 02:16, 26 October 2020 (UTC)

Handout by Luo Yuqing[[Media:Four Distinct Regional Cuisines.docx]]--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 07:43, 25 October 2020 (UTC)

===Text B The Art of Chinese Cooking ===

Presentation by 曹润鑫 [[Media:The art of Chinese cooking.pptx]]--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 15:00, 25 October 2020 (UTC)

Handout by 邹鑫雨 [[Media:The art of Chinese cooking.docx]]--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 15:01, 25 October 2020 (UTC)

Presentation by ALSIED SAFFANA [[Media:The Art of Chinese Cooking - SAFFANAALSIED and HATHITHUHANG_Final.pptx]] -- [[User:SAFFANA_ALSIED_2|SAFFANA_ALSIED_2]] ([[User talk:SAFFANA_ALSIED_2|talk]]) 15:25, 24 October 2020 (UTC)

Handout by HA THI THU HANG [[Media:The Art of Chinese Cooking Handout Final.docx]] -- [[User:HATHITHUHANG2|HATHITHUHANG2]] -- ([[User talk:HATHITHUHANG2|talk]]) 15:38, 24 October 2020 (UTC)

===Text C Two Famous Dishes ===
Classroom Presentation [[Media:Two_Famous_Dishes_Yuan_Tianyi_S.pptx|Yuan Tianyi's Presentation on Two Famous Dishes]]--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 02:17, 24 October 2020 (UTC)

Handout by Zhang Weihong [[Media:Two Famous Dishes.doc]] --[[User:Zhang Weihong|Zhang Weihong]] ([[User talk:Zhang Weihong|talk]]) 11:16, 25 October 2020 (UTC)ZhangWeihong

===Text D Chopsticks ===

Presentation by Jiang Qiwei[[Media:Chopsticks.pptx]]--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 04:33, 26 October 2020 (UTC)

Handout by Hu Jin[[Media:handout for chopsticks.docx]]--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 15:56, 23 October 2020 (UTC)

==='''Homework from Session 6 (Oct 26, 2020), due for Session 7 (Nov 2, 2020)'''===
1. Every student should find a Chinese sentence in the internet for each text of the unit (a, b, c, d) and translate it into English. You can '''write it [[20201026_cult|here]]'''.

2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page.

3. Please answer the quiz on https://bit.ly/Unit-6 or on http://shijiehanxue.mikecrm.com/BNFafJP

==7th Session: Unit 6==

===Text A Painting ===

Presentation by Zhu Xu [[Media:Painting by Zhu Xu.pptx]]--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 03:29, 1 November 2020 (UTC)

Handout [[Media:Chinese_Painting_Mo_Ling.docx|Mo Ling's Handout on Chinese Painting]]--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 04:17, 1 November 2020 (UTC)

===Text B Seal-cutting ===

Presentation by Zhao Xi [[Media:Seal-cutting by Zhao Xi.pptx]]--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 13:32, 29 October 2020 (UTC)

Handout by Zhang Yu [[Media:Seal-cutting by Zhang Yu and Zhao Xi.docx]]--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 13:14, 29 October 2020 (UTC)

===Text C Bada Shanren and Qi Baishi ===

Presentation by Wu Zijia [[Media:Presentation.Badashanren and QiBaishi.pptx]]--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 05:35, 30 October 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia

Handout by Lei Kuangxi [[Media:Handout.Badashanren and Qi Baishi.docx ]]--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 05:05, 30 October 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi

==='''Homework from Session 7 (Nov 02, 2020), due for Session 8 (Nov 09, 2020)'''===
1. Every student should find a Chinese sentence in the internet for each text of the unit (a, b, c) and translate it into English. You can '''write it [[20201102_cult|here]]'''.

2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page.

==8th Session: Unit 7==

===Text A Architecture ===

Presentation by Zhang Peiwen [[Media:Chinese Architecture.pptx]]--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 11:57, 8 November 2020 (UTC)

Handout by Zhang Yujie [[Media:Ancient Chinese Architecture.docx]]--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 03:18, 8 November 2020 (UTC)

===Text B Gardens ===

Presentation by Zhang Yuxing [[Media:Gardens.pptx]]--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 08:37, 8 November 2020 (UTC)

Handout by Xie Fan [[Media:Gardens on the Yangtze Delta.docx]] --[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 13:12, 8 November 2020 (UTC)

===Text C The Summer Palace ===

Presentation by Tan Yuanyuan [[Media:The Summer Palace.pptx]]--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 14:38, 8 November 2020 (UTC)

Handout by Liu Yi [[Media:The Summer Palace.docx]]--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 14:49, 7 November 2020 (UTC)

==='''Homework from Session 8 (Nov 09, 2020), due for Session 9 (Nov 16, 2020)'''===
1. Every student should find a Chinese sentence in the internet for each text of the unit (a, b, c, d) and translate it into English. You can '''write it [[20201109_cult|here]]'''.

2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page.

==9th Session: Unit 8==

===Text A Classical Literature ===

Presentation by [[Media:Classical Literature-Shi Jing as the Beginning.pptx]]--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 05:34, 16 November 2020 (UTC)

Handout by [[Media:Classical Literature-Shi Jing as the Beginning.docx]]--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 03:44, 16 November 2020 (UTC)

===Text B Modern Literature ===

Presentation by [[Media:Modern literature.pptx]]--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 02:39, 16 November 2020 (UTC)

Handout by [[Media:Modern Literature.docx]] --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:53, 15 November 2020 (UTC)

===Text C Contemporary Literature ===

Presentation by [[Media:Contemporary Literature.pptx]]--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 16:34, 14 November 2020 (UTC)

Handout by[[File:Handout-Contemporary Literature.docx]]--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 12:44, 14 November 2020 (UTC)

===Text D Selected Tang Poems ===

Presentation by [[Media:Selected_Tang_Poems_by_Lei_Fangyuan_S.pptx|Lei Fangyuan's presentation on Selected Tang Poems]]

Handout by [[Media:Selected_Tang_Poems_by_Guan_Qinqing_S.pdf|Guan Qinqing's handout on Selected Tang Poems]]

==='''Homework from Session 9 (Nov 16, 2020), due for Session 10 (Nov 23, 2020)'''===
1. Every student should find a Chinese sentence in the internet for each text of the unit (a, b, c, d) and translate it into English. You can '''write it [[20201116_cult|here]]'''.

2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page.

==10th Session: Unit 9==

===Text A Peking Opera ===

Presentation by [[Media:Beijing opera.pptx]]--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 07:14, 22 November 2020 (UTC)

Handout by [[Media:Beijing Opera Hanout.docx]]--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 15:53, 19 November 2020 (UTC)

Beijing or Peking?

From the English perspective, for some foreign names (city names, people‘s names etc.) there are English translations existing, e.g. for Roma it is „Rome“, for München it is Munich. Similarly, Beijing in English is Peking, Guangzhou Canton, Mao Zedong Mao Tse-tung etc. Also in Chinese, there are Chinese translations of foreign names, like Niuyue 纽约、Bali 巴黎 etc. Of course, in exceptional cases, e.g. if you want to say how Chinese people pronounce Peking („Beijing“) you may use the official Pinyin notation „Beijing“.

===Text B Mei Lanfang ===

Presentation by Zeng Liang[[Media:Mei Lanfang.pptx]]--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:21, 22 November 2020 (UTC)

Handout by Chen Yongxiang [[Media:Mei Lanfang handout.docx]]--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 12:16, 22 November 2020 (UTC)

===Text C Acrobatics ===

==='''Homework from Session 10 (Nov 23, 2020), due for Session 11 (Nov 30, 2020)'''===
1. Every student should find a Chinese sentence in the internet for each text of the unit (a, b, c) and translate it into English. You can '''write it [[20201123_cult|here]]'''.

2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page.

==11th Session: Unit 10==
Unit 10 Wushu and Qigong

===Text A Wushu ===

Presented by 张慧 [[Media:Chinese Martial Arts.pptx]]--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 07:58, 28 November 2020 (UTC)

Handout by 赵晓燕,[[Media:Chinese martial arts.docx]]--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 08:04, 28 November 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 08:38, 28 November 2020 (UTC)

===Text B Qigong ===

Presented by Rajabov Anushervon [[Media:Qigong_Ngo_Thi_Minh_Huong_and_Rajabov_Anushervon.pptx]]--[[User:RAJABOV ANUSHERVON 10|RAJABOV ANUSHERVON 10]] ([[User talk:RAJABOV ANUSHERVON 10|talk]]) 23:45, 29 November 2020 (UTC)

Handout by Ngo Thi Minh Huong [[Media:Qigong.docx]] --[[User:Ngo Thi Minh Huong|Ngo Thi Minh Huong 10]] ([[User talk:Ngo Thi Minh Huong|talk]])

===Text C Huo Yuanjia ===

Presented by 欧阳玲 [[Media:Huo Yuanjia.pptx]]--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 05:04, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Ouyang Ling

Handout by 周艺文 [[Media:Huo Yuanjia Handout.docx]]--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 11:13, 26 November 2020 (UTC)

==='''Homework from Session 11 (Nov 30, 2020), due for Session 12 (Dec 07, 2020)'''===
1. Every student should find a Chinese sentence in the internet for each text of the unit (a, b, c) and translate it into English. You can '''write it [[20201130_cult|here]]'''.

2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page.

==12th Session: Unit 11==

Unit 11 Traditional Medicine

===Text A Chinese Medicine ===

===Text B Diagnosis and Pharmacology ===

===Text C Acupuncture and Moxibustion ===

[[File: Acupuncuture and Moxibustion.pptx]]Presented by 吴一露 --[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 02:30, 7 December 2020 (UTC)

[[File: Acupuncuture and Moxibustion_handout.docx]]Handout by 司妤--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 02:35, 7 December 2020 (UTC)

===Text D The Development of Chinese Medicine===

Presented by 汤蓓[[Media:The Development of Chinese Medicine.pptx]]--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 03:10, 7 December 2020 (UTC)

Handout by 王美玲[[Media:The Development of Chinese Medicine.docx]]--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 03:06, 7 December 2020 (UTC)

==='''Homework from Session 12 (Dec 07, 2020), due for Session 13 (Dec 14, 2020)'''===
1. Every student should find a Chinese sentence in the internet for each text of the unit (a, b, c) and translate it into English. You can '''write it [[20201207_cult|here]]'''.

2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page.

==13th Session: Unit 12==

Unit 12 Major Religions

===Text A Buddhism ===

Presented by 康浩宇 [[Media:Buddhism.pptx]]

Handout by 刘欧 [[Media:Buddhism.docx]]

Presented by Phyo Su Kyi [[Media: Life of the Buddha.pptx]]

Handot by Phyo Su Kyi [[Media: Life of the Gotama Buddha.docx]]

===Text B Daoism ===

Presented by桂一枝[[Media:Daoism.pptx]]--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 12:09, 13 December 2020 (UTC)

Handout by 阳慧[[Media: Daoism.docx]]--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 01:58, 12 December 2020 (UTC)

===Text C Islam ===

Presented by 刘柳 [[Media:Islam.pptx]]--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 14:49, 13 December 2020 (UTC)

Handout by 刘怡瑜 [[Media:Islam Handout.docx]]--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 15:12, 13 December 2020 (UTC)

===Text D Christianity ===
Presented by 彭锐宏
[[Media:Christianity.pptx]]--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]]

Handout by 彭锐宏
[[Media:Christianity.docx]]--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]]

==='''Homework from Session 13 (Dec 14, 2020), due for Session 14 (Dec 21, 2020)'''===
1. Every student should find a Chinese sentence in the internet for each text of the unit (a, b) and translate it into English. You can '''write it [[20201214_cult|here]]'''.

2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page.

==14th Session: Unit 13==

Unit 13 Classical Philosophy

===Text A Confucius and Confucianism ===

Presented by [[Media:Confucianism.pptx]]--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 08:20, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Handout by 罗维嘉

===Text A Daoism ===

Presented by 余妮 [[Media:DAOISM ppt.pptx]]--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]]

Handout by 杨晨婷 [[Media:DAOISM.docx]]--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]]

==15th Session: Unit 14==
Unit 14 China and the outside world A. 45 Zhang Qian and the Silk Road 李丽琴郭露, B. 46 Zheng He and the Maritime Silk Road 胡百辉何长琦, C. 47 The Eastward Spread of Western Learning, D. 48 The Westernization Movement

==16th Session: Unit 15==
Unit 15 Selected Readings in Classical Philosophy A. 49 Tao Te Ching Gennadii Dashkin, B. 50 The Analects GUIROU BARTHELEMY, PINGKI TANCHANGYA, C. 51 The Sutra of Hui-neng, D. 52 The Importance of Living

===The Analects===

Presented by [[Media:The Analects.pptx]]

=='''Final Exam paper - deadline extended to Dec 21, 2020'''==
The deadline has been extended to '''Dec 21, 2020'''. Please find a paper you want to proof read, contact the author, proof read (by copying each paragraph and make corrections/suggestions in the copy) and sign until Dec 19. The author then finalizes (works in the suggestions) until the final deadline Dec 21!

1. Every student should write a new English text on a phenomenon in Chinese culture as a new chapter in the text book. Please also make a comparisons to similar or different cultural phenomenons in Europe and/or the USA.

2. Please proof read a fellow students' paper by copying each paragraph and make your corrections in the paragraph. In a final step, the original author of the paper has to decide, what of the corrections he/she will accept and work into the paper. The final version submitted on the deadline should not carry any of the fellow student's paragraphs and comments.

You can '''write it [[20201215_cultexam|here]]'''.

Chinese Languages and Cultures

2020-12-20T13:29:09Z

Yang chenting: /* Text A Daoism */

Quicklinks: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/uvu:Community_Portal#Frequently_asked_questions_FAQ FAQ] [https://bou.de/u/wiki/uvu:Community_Portal Manual]

Welcome to our course website '''Chinese Languages and Cultures'''. Whenever you visit this site, please see if there is anything in English not yet translated into Chinese and make a Chinese translation beneath (one paragraph English, one paragraph Chinese). Any correction or improvement of earlier translations is welcome!

欢迎访问我们'''中国语言文化课'''网页。…………--[[User:Root|Root]] ([[User talk:Root|talk]]) 07:43, 28 September 2020 (UTC)

=Organizational Things=
*Please register for the Course Wiki.
*Please prepare each session during the week before, so that you come prepared to class.
==Description of Homework==
===Regular students===
1. Please read and prepare all the texts for the next textbook unit.

2. Please find a Chinese sentence in the internet about each of the 3-4 topics we deal with in each session (see textbook content page or on this webpage here "schedule"). Copy these sentences on our homework webpage and write translations into English (for international students: find an English sentence and translate into Chinese). Do not forget to sign by typing - - ~ ~ ~ ~ (without spaces) at the end.

Then please help your fellow students to correct and improve their translations. Do not forget to sign by typing - - ~ ~ ~ ~ (without spaces) at the end.

3. Once in the semester, you give a presentation on a topic of the textbook. Please do not just repeat the content, but say something from the perspective of a translator: What problems do you encounter when translating the textbook text or when translating texts of this topic. One student can do a presentation, the other can do a handout. Both contributions are graded separately.

===Website Admin student===
Thank you for helping to watch the Wiki website! Please make sure that it looks nice (formatting, especially if a fellow students makes a mess by putting the wrong format etc., should not look to crowded, so make sub-websites for homework etc.).
===Online Survey students===
There will be several online surveys conducted throughout the semester. Please watch your WeChat Subgroup for the first tasks.

==Edits==
Every student is required to edit something every week. This can be:
* Translate a pragraph from English to Chinese.
* Correct an earlier translation.
* Prepare an article (please link to from this page) and/or a powerpoint (please upload here) on a topic you will present during the semester.

==Material==
Please download the course textbook from the WeChat Group.

=Schedule=
1st Session: Organizational things

2nd session: Unit 1 General Survey A. 1 Geography SAGARA SEYDOU; B. 2 Traditional Festivals: The Spring Festival, The Lantern Festival, The Dragon Boat Festival, The Mid-autumn Festival 汤伊然，杨子泠（The Dragon Boat Festival）; C. 3 Ancient Science and Technology 曾心媛陈涵

3rd session: Unit 2 Language and Calligraphy A. 4 Chinese characters and scripts 蒋凤仪顾东方, B. 5 Calligraphy 徐佳肖婷, C. 6 The Evolution of Calligraphy 肖双玲王轩

4th session: Unit 3 Traditional Crafts A. 7 Embroidery 瞿淼、娄灿灿, B. 8 Cloisonne, C. 9 Lacquerware Lô Minh Thảo- 卢明草, D. 10 Carving

5th session: Unit 4 Tea, Silk and Ceramics A. 11 Tea 祝美梅，周园曲, B. 12 Silk 吴琼张银柳, C. 13 Porcelain Zubareva Ekaterina, ANNA GROSHEVA, D. 14 Celadon 高明珠陈静静

Unit 5 Traditional Cuisine 15 Distinct Regional Cuisines 罗雨晴石海瑶, 16 The Art of Chinese Cooking 邹鑫雨曹润鑫 SAFFANA , HA THI THU HANG, C. 17 Two Famous Dishes 袁天翼张维虹, D. 18 Chopsticks 蒋淇玮胡瑾

Unit 6 Fine Arts A. 19 Painting 朱旭,莫玲 B. 20 Seal-cutting 赵茜张瑜， C. 21 Bada Shanren and Qi Baishi 吴子佳雷旷溪

Unit 7 Architecture and Gardens A. 22 Architecture 张毓婕，张佩闻, B. 23 Gardens 张宇星解帆, C. 24 The Summer Palace 刘艺谭媛媛

Unit 8 Literature A. 25 Classical Literature 游雨婷，许静, B. 26 Modern Literature 张玲杨海容, C. 27 Contemporary Literature 义子楚杨悦, D. 28 Selected Tang Poems 管钦清雷方 Ngo Thi Minh Huong (吴氏明红)

Unit 9 Peking Opera and Acrobatics A. 29 Peking Opera 甘奉玉丁代凤, B. 30 Mei Lanfang 曾良陈永相, C. 31 Acrobatics

Unit 10 Wushu and Qigong A. 32 Wushu 赵晓燕张慧, B. 33 Qigong Rajabov Anushervon, C. 34 Huo Yuanjia 周艺文欧阳玲

Unit 11 Traditional Medicine A. 35 Chinese Medicine B. 36 Diagnosis and Pharmacology, C. 37 Acupuncture and Moxibustion 吴一露司㚥, D. 38 The Development of Chinese Medicine 王美玲汤蓓

Unit 12 Major Religions A. 39 Buddhism 康浩宇刘欧 Phyo Su Kyi, B. 40 Daoism 桂一枝阳慧, C. 41 Islam 刘柳刘怡瑜, D. 42 Christianity 彭锐宏

Unit 13 Classical Philosophy A. 43 Confucius and Confucianism 罗维嘉李丽丽, B. 44 Daoism 余妮杨晨婷

Unit 14 China and the outside world A. 45 Zhang Qian and the Silk Road 李丽琴郭露, B. 46 Zheng He and the Maritime Silk Road 胡百辉何长崎, C. 47 The Eastward Spread of Western Learning, D. 48 The Westernization Movement

Unit 15 Selected Readings in Classical Philosophy A. 49 Tao Te Ching Gennadii Dashkin, B. 50 The Analects GUIROU BARTHELEMY, PINGKI TANCHANGYA, C. 51 The Sutra of Hui-neng, D. 52 The Importance of Living

New topics suggested by students: ...

==1st Session==
Introduction to the course. Organizational things. Working with the Wiki.
====Students' Homework of session 1 in preparation for session 2====
===Homework of Session 1 (Sep 21, 2020), due for Session 2 (Sep 28, 2020)===
1. Every student should find a sentence for each text of unit 2 (A. Geography, B. Traditional Festivals, C. Ancient Science) in English and translate it into Chinese. You can '''write it [[20200921_cult|here]]'''.

2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page.

==2nd Session: Unit 1==
===Text A Geography===

Classroom presentation [[Media:China_Geography_by_Seydou_Sagara_.ppt|Seydou Sagara's presentation on China-Geography ]]--[[User:Sagara Seydou 3|Sagara Seydou 3]] ([[User talk:Sagara Seydou 3|talk]]) 05:07, 6 October 2020 (UTC)

===Text B Traditional Festivals===

Classroom presentation [[Media:Dragon_Boat_Festiva_by_Yang Zilin and Tang Yiran_S.pptx|Yang Zilin and Tang Yiran's presentation on Dragon Boat Festival]]--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 15:13, 7 October 2020 (UTC)

Handout [[Media:The Dragon Boat Festival by Tang Yiran and Yang Ziling.docx|Dragon Boat Festival]] --[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 02:26, 5 October 2020 (UTC)

===Text C Traditional Science===
Classroom presentation [[Media:Paper-making_technology_by_Chen Han_S.pptx|Chen Han's presentation on Paper-making technology]] --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 05:40, 28 September 2020 (UTC)

Handout [[Media:Ancient_Science_and_Technology_.docx|Ancient Science and Technology]] --[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 06:48, 28 September 2020 (UTC)Zeng Xinyuan

==='''Homework from Session 2 (Sep 28, 2020), due for Session 3 (Oct 5, 2020)'''===
1. Every student should find a Chinese sentence in the internet for each text of the unit (a, b, c) and translate it into English. You can '''write it [[20200928_cult|here]]'''.

2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page.

==3rd Session: Unit 2==
===Text A Chinese Characters and Scripts===
Classroom presentation [[Media:Chinese Characters.ppt]] by Jiang Fengyi --[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 07:14, 6 October 2020 (UTC)

Handout [[Media:Chinese Characters.docx]]--[[User:Gudongfang|Gudongfang]] ([[User talk:Gudongfang|talk]]) 15:36, 6 October 2020 (UTC)Gu Dongfang

===Text B Calligraphy===

Classroom presentation [[Media:Chinese calligraphy.pptx|Chinese calligraphy]]--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 02:03, 5 October 2020 (UTC) Xu Jia

Handout [[Media:Chinese_calligraphy.docx|Chinese calligraphy]]--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 11:50, 10 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

===Text C Evolution of calligraphy===

Classroom presentation [[Media:The Evolution of Calligraphy.pptx|evolution of Calligraphy]]--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 02:14, 5 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

Handout [[Media:calligraphy by Xiao Shuangling and Wang Xuan.docx]] --[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 09:10, 15 October 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan

==='''Homework from Session 3 (Oct 7, 2020), due for Session 4 (Oct 12, 2020)'''===
1. Every student should find a Chinese sentence in the internet for each text of the unit (a, b, c, d) and translate it into English. You can '''write it [[20201007_cult|here]]'''.

2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page.

==4th Session: Unit 3 Traditional Crafts==
===Text A, total text no. 7, Embroidery===
Classroom presentation [[Media:Embroidery.pptx]] by Qu Miao --[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 04:33, 12 October 2020 (UTC)

Handout [[Media:Embroidery.docx]] by Lou Cancan --[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 04:24, 12 October 2020 (UTC)

Qu Miao 瞿淼、Lou Cancan 娄灿灿

===Text B, total text no. 8, Cloisonne===
Classroom presentation [[Media:...pptx]] by ...

===Text C, total text no. 9, Lacquerware===

Classroom presentation [[Media:China_Traditional_Craft_by_Lo_Minh_Thao_S.pptx|Lo Minh Thao's presentation on Chinese Traditional Crafts]]

===Text D, total text no. 10, Carving===
Classroom presentation [[Media:...pptx]] by ...

Handout [[Media:....docx]] by ...

==='''Homework from Session 4 (Oct 12, 2020), due for Session 5 (Oct 19, 2020)'''===
1. Every student should find a Chinese sentence in the internet for each text of the unit (a, b, c, d) and translate it into English. You can '''write it [[20201012_cult|here]]'''.

2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page.

==5th Session: Unit 4==
===Text A Tea===

Classroom presentation[[Media: Tea_Chinese_Culture_Zhu_Meimei_S.pptx|Zhu Meimei's presentation on Tea]]--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 05:50, 19 October 2020 (UTC)

Handout [[Media:Tea_Zhou_Yuanqu_S.docx|Zhou Yuanqu's handout on Tea]]----[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 02:08, 19 October 2020 (UTC)

===Text B Silk ===
吴琼张银柳

Classroom presentation by Zhang Yinliu[[Media:Silk.pptx]]--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 02:30, 19 October 2020 (UTC)
Handout by--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 01:44, 19 October 2020 (UTC) [[Media:Handout for Silk.docx]]

===Text C Porcelain ===
Zubareva Ekaterina, ANNA GROSHEVA

Classroom presentation by [[Media:Porcelain_-_Grosheva_and_Zubareva.pptx]] --[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 08:17, 18 October 2020 (UTC)

Handout [[Media:Porcelain_handout.docx]] by --[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 07:25, 18 October 2020 (UTC)

===Text C Celadon ===

Classroom presentation [[Media:Celadon.pptx]]by --[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 06:48, 18 October 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing

Handout by[[Media:Celadon.docx]]--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 09:01, 18 October 2020 (UTC)Gao Mingzhu

==='''Homework from Session 5 (Oct 19, 2020), due for Session 6 (Oct 26, 2020)'''===
1. Every student should find a Chinese sentence in the internet for each text of the unit (a, b, c, d) and translate it into English. You can '''write it [[20201019_cult|here]]'''.

2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page.

==6th Session: Unit 5: Traditional Cuisine==

===Text A Four Distinct Regional Cuisines ===

Presentation by Shi Haiyao[[Media:Four_Distinct_Regional_Cuisines_Shi_Haiyao_S.pptx|Shi Haiyao's presentation on Four Distinct Regional Cuisines]]--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 02:16, 26 October 2020 (UTC)

Handout by Luo Yuqing[[Media:Four Distinct Regional Cuisines.docx]]--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 07:43, 25 October 2020 (UTC)

===Text B The Art of Chinese Cooking ===

Presentation by 曹润鑫 [[Media:The art of Chinese cooking.pptx]]--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 15:00, 25 October 2020 (UTC)

Handout by 邹鑫雨 [[Media:The art of Chinese cooking.docx]]--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 15:01, 25 October 2020 (UTC)

Presentation by ALSIED SAFFANA [[Media:The Art of Chinese Cooking - SAFFANAALSIED and HATHITHUHANG_Final.pptx]] -- [[User:SAFFANA_ALSIED_2|SAFFANA_ALSIED_2]] ([[User talk:SAFFANA_ALSIED_2|talk]]) 15:25, 24 October 2020 (UTC)

Handout by HA THI THU HANG [[Media:The Art of Chinese Cooking Handout Final.docx]] -- [[User:HATHITHUHANG2|HATHITHUHANG2]] -- ([[User talk:HATHITHUHANG2|talk]]) 15:38, 24 October 2020 (UTC)

===Text C Two Famous Dishes ===
Classroom Presentation [[Media:Two_Famous_Dishes_Yuan_Tianyi_S.pptx|Yuan Tianyi's Presentation on Two Famous Dishes]]--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 02:17, 24 October 2020 (UTC)

Handout by Zhang Weihong [[Media:Two Famous Dishes.doc]] --[[User:Zhang Weihong|Zhang Weihong]] ([[User talk:Zhang Weihong|talk]]) 11:16, 25 October 2020 (UTC)ZhangWeihong

===Text D Chopsticks ===

Presentation by Jiang Qiwei[[Media:Chopsticks.pptx]]--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 04:33, 26 October 2020 (UTC)

Handout by Hu Jin[[Media:handout for chopsticks.docx]]--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 15:56, 23 October 2020 (UTC)

==='''Homework from Session 6 (Oct 26, 2020), due for Session 7 (Nov 2, 2020)'''===
1. Every student should find a Chinese sentence in the internet for each text of the unit (a, b, c, d) and translate it into English. You can '''write it [[20201026_cult|here]]'''.

2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page.

3. Please answer the quiz on https://bit.ly/Unit-6 or on http://shijiehanxue.mikecrm.com/BNFafJP

==7th Session: Unit 6==

===Text A Painting ===

Presentation by Zhu Xu [[Media:Painting by Zhu Xu.pptx]]--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 03:29, 1 November 2020 (UTC)

Handout [[Media:Chinese_Painting_Mo_Ling.docx|Mo Ling's Handout on Chinese Painting]]--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 04:17, 1 November 2020 (UTC)

===Text B Seal-cutting ===

Presentation by Zhao Xi [[Media:Seal-cutting by Zhao Xi.pptx]]--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 13:32, 29 October 2020 (UTC)

Handout by Zhang Yu [[Media:Seal-cutting by Zhang Yu and Zhao Xi.docx]]--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 13:14, 29 October 2020 (UTC)

===Text C Bada Shanren and Qi Baishi ===

Presentation by Wu Zijia [[Media:Presentation.Badashanren and QiBaishi.pptx]]--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 05:35, 30 October 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia

Handout by Lei Kuangxi [[Media:Handout.Badashanren and Qi Baishi.docx ]]--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 05:05, 30 October 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi

==='''Homework from Session 7 (Nov 02, 2020), due for Session 8 (Nov 09, 2020)'''===
1. Every student should find a Chinese sentence in the internet for each text of the unit (a, b, c) and translate it into English. You can '''write it [[20201102_cult|here]]'''.

2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page.

==8th Session: Unit 7==

===Text A Architecture ===

Presentation by Zhang Peiwen [[Media:Chinese Architecture.pptx]]--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 11:57, 8 November 2020 (UTC)

Handout by Zhang Yujie [[Media:Ancient Chinese Architecture.docx]]--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 03:18, 8 November 2020 (UTC)

===Text B Gardens ===

Presentation by Zhang Yuxing [[Media:Gardens.pptx]]--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 08:37, 8 November 2020 (UTC)

Handout by Xie Fan [[Media:Gardens on the Yangtze Delta.docx]] --[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 13:12, 8 November 2020 (UTC)

===Text C The Summer Palace ===

Presentation by Tan Yuanyuan [[Media:The Summer Palace.pptx]]--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 14:38, 8 November 2020 (UTC)

Handout by Liu Yi [[Media:The Summer Palace.docx]]--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 14:49, 7 November 2020 (UTC)

==='''Homework from Session 8 (Nov 09, 2020), due for Session 9 (Nov 16, 2020)'''===
1. Every student should find a Chinese sentence in the internet for each text of the unit (a, b, c, d) and translate it into English. You can '''write it [[20201109_cult|here]]'''.

2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page.

==9th Session: Unit 8==

===Text A Classical Literature ===

Presentation by [[Media:Classical Literature-Shi Jing as the Beginning.pptx]]--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 05:34, 16 November 2020 (UTC)

Handout by [[Media:Classical Literature-Shi Jing as the Beginning.docx]]--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 03:44, 16 November 2020 (UTC)

===Text B Modern Literature ===

Presentation by [[Media:Modern literature.pptx]]--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 02:39, 16 November 2020 (UTC)

Handout by [[Media:Modern Literature.docx]] --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:53, 15 November 2020 (UTC)

===Text C Contemporary Literature ===

Presentation by [[Media:Contemporary Literature.pptx]]--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 16:34, 14 November 2020 (UTC)

Handout by[[File:Handout-Contemporary Literature.docx]]--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 12:44, 14 November 2020 (UTC)

===Text D Selected Tang Poems ===

Presentation by [[Media:Selected_Tang_Poems_by_Lei_Fangyuan_S.pptx|Lei Fangyuan's presentation on Selected Tang Poems]]

Handout by [[Media:Selected_Tang_Poems_by_Guan_Qinqing_S.pdf|Guan Qinqing's handout on Selected Tang Poems]]

==='''Homework from Session 9 (Nov 16, 2020), due for Session 10 (Nov 23, 2020)'''===
1. Every student should find a Chinese sentence in the internet for each text of the unit (a, b, c, d) and translate it into English. You can '''write it [[20201116_cult|here]]'''.

2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page.

==10th Session: Unit 9==

===Text A Peking Opera ===

Presentation by [[Media:Beijing opera.pptx]]--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 07:14, 22 November 2020 (UTC)

Handout by [[Media:Beijing Opera Hanout.docx]]--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 15:53, 19 November 2020 (UTC)

Beijing or Peking?

From the English perspective, for some foreign names (city names, people‘s names etc.) there are English translations existing, e.g. for Roma it is „Rome“, for München it is Munich. Similarly, Beijing in English is Peking, Guangzhou Canton, Mao Zedong Mao Tse-tung etc. Also in Chinese, there are Chinese translations of foreign names, like Niuyue 纽约、Bali 巴黎 etc. Of course, in exceptional cases, e.g. if you want to say how Chinese people pronounce Peking („Beijing“) you may use the official Pinyin notation „Beijing“.

===Text B Mei Lanfang ===

Presentation by Zeng Liang[[Media:Mei Lanfang.pptx]]--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:21, 22 November 2020 (UTC)

Handout by Chen Yongxiang [[Media:Mei Lanfang handout.docx]]--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 12:16, 22 November 2020 (UTC)

===Text C Acrobatics ===

==='''Homework from Session 10 (Nov 23, 2020), due for Session 11 (Nov 30, 2020)'''===
1. Every student should find a Chinese sentence in the internet for each text of the unit (a, b, c) and translate it into English. You can '''write it [[20201123_cult|here]]'''.

2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page.

==11th Session: Unit 10==
Unit 10 Wushu and Qigong

===Text A Wushu ===

Presented by 张慧 [[Media:Chinese Martial Arts.pptx]]--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 07:58, 28 November 2020 (UTC)

Handout by 赵晓燕,[[Media:Chinese martial arts.docx]]--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 08:04, 28 November 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 08:38, 28 November 2020 (UTC)

===Text B Qigong ===

Presented by Rajabov Anushervon [[Media:Qigong_Ngo_Thi_Minh_Huong_and_Rajabov_Anushervon.pptx]]--[[User:RAJABOV ANUSHERVON 10|RAJABOV ANUSHERVON 10]] ([[User talk:RAJABOV ANUSHERVON 10|talk]]) 23:45, 29 November 2020 (UTC)

Handout by Ngo Thi Minh Huong [[Media:Qigong.docx]] --[[User:Ngo Thi Minh Huong|Ngo Thi Minh Huong 10]] ([[User talk:Ngo Thi Minh Huong|talk]])

===Text C Huo Yuanjia ===

Presented by 欧阳玲 [[Media:Huo Yuanjia.pptx]]--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 05:04, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Ouyang Ling

Handout by 周艺文 [[Media:Huo Yuanjia Handout.docx]]--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 11:13, 26 November 2020 (UTC)

==='''Homework from Session 11 (Nov 30, 2020), due for Session 12 (Dec 07, 2020)'''===
1. Every student should find a Chinese sentence in the internet for each text of the unit (a, b, c) and translate it into English. You can '''write it [[20201130_cult|here]]'''.

2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page.

==12th Session: Unit 11==

Unit 11 Traditional Medicine

===Text A Chinese Medicine ===

===Text B Diagnosis and Pharmacology ===

===Text C Acupuncture and Moxibustion ===

[[File: Acupuncuture and Moxibustion.pptx]]Presented by 吴一露 --[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 02:30, 7 December 2020 (UTC)

[[File: Acupuncuture and Moxibustion_handout.docx]]Handout by 司妤--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 02:35, 7 December 2020 (UTC)

===Text D The Development of Chinese Medicine===

Presented by 汤蓓[[Media:The Development of Chinese Medicine.pptx]]--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 03:10, 7 December 2020 (UTC)

Handout by 王美玲[[Media:The Development of Chinese Medicine.docx]]--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 03:06, 7 December 2020 (UTC)

==='''Homework from Session 12 (Dec 07, 2020), due for Session 13 (Dec 14, 2020)'''===
1. Every student should find a Chinese sentence in the internet for each text of the unit (a, b, c) and translate it into English. You can '''write it [[20201207_cult|here]]'''.

2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page.

==13th Session: Unit 12==

Unit 12 Major Religions

===Text A Buddhism ===

Presented by 康浩宇 [[Media:Buddhism.pptx]]

Handout by 刘欧 [[Media:Buddhism.docx]]

Presented by Phyo Su Kyi [[Media: Life of the Buddha.pptx]]

Handot by Phyo Su Kyi [[Media: Life of the Gotama Buddha.docx]]

===Text B Daoism ===

Presented by桂一枝[[Media:Daoism.pptx]]--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 12:09, 13 December 2020 (UTC)

Handout by 阳慧[[Media: Daoism.docx]]--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 01:58, 12 December 2020 (UTC)

===Text C Islam ===

Presented by 刘柳 [[Media:Islam.pptx]]--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 14:49, 13 December 2020 (UTC)

Handout by 刘怡瑜 [[Media:Islam Handout.docx]]--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 15:12, 13 December 2020 (UTC)

===Text D Christianity ===
Presented by 彭锐宏
[[Media:Christianity.pptx]]--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]]

Handout by 彭锐宏
[[Media:Christianity.docx]]--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]]

==='''Homework from Session 13 (Dec 14, 2020), due for Session 14 (Dec 21, 2020)'''===
1. Every student should find a Chinese sentence in the internet for each text of the unit (a, b) and translate it into English. You can '''write it [[20201214_cult|here]]'''.

2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page.

==14th Session: Unit 13==

Unit 13 Classical Philosophy

===Text A Confucius and Confucianism ===

Presented by [[Media:Confucianism.pptx]]--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 08:20, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Handout by 罗维嘉

===Text A Daoism ===

Presented by 余妮 [[Media:DAOISM.pptx]]--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]]

Handout by 杨晨婷 [[Media:DAOISM.docx]]--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]]

==15th Session: Unit 14==
Unit 14 China and the outside world A. 45 Zhang Qian and the Silk Road 李丽琴郭露, B. 46 Zheng He and the Maritime Silk Road 胡百辉何长琦, C. 47 The Eastward Spread of Western Learning, D. 48 The Westernization Movement

==16th Session: Unit 15==
Unit 15 Selected Readings in Classical Philosophy A. 49 Tao Te Ching Gennadii Dashkin, B. 50 The Analects GUIROU BARTHELEMY, PINGKI TANCHANGYA, C. 51 The Sutra of Hui-neng, D. 52 The Importance of Living

===The Analects===

Presented by [[Media:The Analects.pptx]]

=='''Final Exam paper - deadline extended to Dec 21, 2020'''==
The deadline has been extended to '''Dec 21, 2020'''. Please find a paper you want to proof read, contact the author, proof read (by copying each paragraph and make corrections/suggestions in the copy) and sign until Dec 19. The author then finalizes (works in the suggestions) until the final deadline Dec 21!

1. Every student should write a new English text on a phenomenon in Chinese culture as a new chapter in the text book. Please also make a comparisons to similar or different cultural phenomenons in Europe and/or the USA.

2. Please proof read a fellow students' paper by copying each paragraph and make your corrections in the paragraph. In a final step, the original author of the paper has to decide, what of the corrections he/she will accept and work into the paper. The final version submitted on the deadline should not carry any of the fellow student's paragraphs and comments.

You can '''write it [[20201215_cultexam|here]]'''.

Chinese Languages and Cultures

2020-12-20T13:27:31Z

Yang chenting: /* Text A Daoism */

Quicklinks: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/uvu:Community_Portal#Frequently_asked_questions_FAQ FAQ] [https://bou.de/u/wiki/uvu:Community_Portal Manual]

Welcome to our course website '''Chinese Languages and Cultures'''. Whenever you visit this site, please see if there is anything in English not yet translated into Chinese and make a Chinese translation beneath (one paragraph English, one paragraph Chinese). Any correction or improvement of earlier translations is welcome!

欢迎访问我们'''中国语言文化课'''网页。…………--[[User:Root|Root]] ([[User talk:Root|talk]]) 07:43, 28 September 2020 (UTC)

=Organizational Things=
*Please register for the Course Wiki.
*Please prepare each session during the week before, so that you come prepared to class.
==Description of Homework==
===Regular students===
1. Please read and prepare all the texts for the next textbook unit.

2. Please find a Chinese sentence in the internet about each of the 3-4 topics we deal with in each session (see textbook content page or on this webpage here "schedule"). Copy these sentences on our homework webpage and write translations into English (for international students: find an English sentence and translate into Chinese). Do not forget to sign by typing - - ~ ~ ~ ~ (without spaces) at the end.

Then please help your fellow students to correct and improve their translations. Do not forget to sign by typing - - ~ ~ ~ ~ (without spaces) at the end.

3. Once in the semester, you give a presentation on a topic of the textbook. Please do not just repeat the content, but say something from the perspective of a translator: What problems do you encounter when translating the textbook text or when translating texts of this topic. One student can do a presentation, the other can do a handout. Both contributions are graded separately.

===Website Admin student===
Thank you for helping to watch the Wiki website! Please make sure that it looks nice (formatting, especially if a fellow students makes a mess by putting the wrong format etc., should not look to crowded, so make sub-websites for homework etc.).
===Online Survey students===
There will be several online surveys conducted throughout the semester. Please watch your WeChat Subgroup for the first tasks.

==Edits==
Every student is required to edit something every week. This can be:
* Translate a pragraph from English to Chinese.
* Correct an earlier translation.
* Prepare an article (please link to from this page) and/or a powerpoint (please upload here) on a topic you will present during the semester.

==Material==
Please download the course textbook from the WeChat Group.

=Schedule=
1st Session: Organizational things

2nd session: Unit 1 General Survey A. 1 Geography SAGARA SEYDOU; B. 2 Traditional Festivals: The Spring Festival, The Lantern Festival, The Dragon Boat Festival, The Mid-autumn Festival 汤伊然，杨子泠（The Dragon Boat Festival）; C. 3 Ancient Science and Technology 曾心媛陈涵

3rd session: Unit 2 Language and Calligraphy A. 4 Chinese characters and scripts 蒋凤仪顾东方, B. 5 Calligraphy 徐佳肖婷, C. 6 The Evolution of Calligraphy 肖双玲王轩

4th session: Unit 3 Traditional Crafts A. 7 Embroidery 瞿淼、娄灿灿, B. 8 Cloisonne, C. 9 Lacquerware Lô Minh Thảo- 卢明草, D. 10 Carving

5th session: Unit 4 Tea, Silk and Ceramics A. 11 Tea 祝美梅，周园曲, B. 12 Silk 吴琼张银柳, C. 13 Porcelain Zubareva Ekaterina, ANNA GROSHEVA, D. 14 Celadon 高明珠陈静静

Unit 5 Traditional Cuisine 15 Distinct Regional Cuisines 罗雨晴石海瑶, 16 The Art of Chinese Cooking 邹鑫雨曹润鑫 SAFFANA , HA THI THU HANG, C. 17 Two Famous Dishes 袁天翼张维虹, D. 18 Chopsticks 蒋淇玮胡瑾

Unit 6 Fine Arts A. 19 Painting 朱旭,莫玲 B. 20 Seal-cutting 赵茜张瑜， C. 21 Bada Shanren and Qi Baishi 吴子佳雷旷溪

Unit 7 Architecture and Gardens A. 22 Architecture 张毓婕，张佩闻, B. 23 Gardens 张宇星解帆, C. 24 The Summer Palace 刘艺谭媛媛

Unit 8 Literature A. 25 Classical Literature 游雨婷，许静, B. 26 Modern Literature 张玲杨海容, C. 27 Contemporary Literature 义子楚杨悦, D. 28 Selected Tang Poems 管钦清雷方 Ngo Thi Minh Huong (吴氏明红)

Unit 9 Peking Opera and Acrobatics A. 29 Peking Opera 甘奉玉丁代凤, B. 30 Mei Lanfang 曾良陈永相, C. 31 Acrobatics

Unit 10 Wushu and Qigong A. 32 Wushu 赵晓燕张慧, B. 33 Qigong Rajabov Anushervon, C. 34 Huo Yuanjia 周艺文欧阳玲

Unit 11 Traditional Medicine A. 35 Chinese Medicine B. 36 Diagnosis and Pharmacology, C. 37 Acupuncture and Moxibustion 吴一露司㚥, D. 38 The Development of Chinese Medicine 王美玲汤蓓

Unit 12 Major Religions A. 39 Buddhism 康浩宇刘欧 Phyo Su Kyi, B. 40 Daoism 桂一枝阳慧, C. 41 Islam 刘柳刘怡瑜, D. 42 Christianity 彭锐宏

Unit 13 Classical Philosophy A. 43 Confucius and Confucianism 罗维嘉李丽丽, B. 44 Daoism 余妮杨晨婷

Unit 14 China and the outside world A. 45 Zhang Qian and the Silk Road 李丽琴郭露, B. 46 Zheng He and the Maritime Silk Road 胡百辉何长崎, C. 47 The Eastward Spread of Western Learning, D. 48 The Westernization Movement

Unit 15 Selected Readings in Classical Philosophy A. 49 Tao Te Ching Gennadii Dashkin, B. 50 The Analects GUIROU BARTHELEMY, PINGKI TANCHANGYA, C. 51 The Sutra of Hui-neng, D. 52 The Importance of Living

New topics suggested by students: ...

==1st Session==
Introduction to the course. Organizational things. Working with the Wiki.
====Students' Homework of session 1 in preparation for session 2====
===Homework of Session 1 (Sep 21, 2020), due for Session 2 (Sep 28, 2020)===
1. Every student should find a sentence for each text of unit 2 (A. Geography, B. Traditional Festivals, C. Ancient Science) in English and translate it into Chinese. You can '''write it [[20200921_cult|here]]'''.

2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page.

==2nd Session: Unit 1==
===Text A Geography===

Classroom presentation [[Media:China_Geography_by_Seydou_Sagara_.ppt|Seydou Sagara's presentation on China-Geography ]]--[[User:Sagara Seydou 3|Sagara Seydou 3]] ([[User talk:Sagara Seydou 3|talk]]) 05:07, 6 October 2020 (UTC)

===Text B Traditional Festivals===

Classroom presentation [[Media:Dragon_Boat_Festiva_by_Yang Zilin and Tang Yiran_S.pptx|Yang Zilin and Tang Yiran's presentation on Dragon Boat Festival]]--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 15:13, 7 October 2020 (UTC)

Handout [[Media:The Dragon Boat Festival by Tang Yiran and Yang Ziling.docx|Dragon Boat Festival]] --[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 02:26, 5 October 2020 (UTC)

===Text C Traditional Science===
Classroom presentation [[Media:Paper-making_technology_by_Chen Han_S.pptx|Chen Han's presentation on Paper-making technology]] --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 05:40, 28 September 2020 (UTC)

Handout [[Media:Ancient_Science_and_Technology_.docx|Ancient Science and Technology]] --[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 06:48, 28 September 2020 (UTC)Zeng Xinyuan

==='''Homework from Session 2 (Sep 28, 2020), due for Session 3 (Oct 5, 2020)'''===
1. Every student should find a Chinese sentence in the internet for each text of the unit (a, b, c) and translate it into English. You can '''write it [[20200928_cult|here]]'''.

2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page.

==3rd Session: Unit 2==
===Text A Chinese Characters and Scripts===
Classroom presentation [[Media:Chinese Characters.ppt]] by Jiang Fengyi --[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 07:14, 6 October 2020 (UTC)

Handout [[Media:Chinese Characters.docx]]--[[User:Gudongfang|Gudongfang]] ([[User talk:Gudongfang|talk]]) 15:36, 6 October 2020 (UTC)Gu Dongfang

===Text B Calligraphy===

Classroom presentation [[Media:Chinese calligraphy.pptx|Chinese calligraphy]]--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 02:03, 5 October 2020 (UTC) Xu Jia

Handout [[Media:Chinese_calligraphy.docx|Chinese calligraphy]]--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 11:50, 10 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

===Text C Evolution of calligraphy===

Classroom presentation [[Media:The Evolution of Calligraphy.pptx|evolution of Calligraphy]]--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 02:14, 5 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

Handout [[Media:calligraphy by Xiao Shuangling and Wang Xuan.docx]] --[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 09:10, 15 October 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan

==='''Homework from Session 3 (Oct 7, 2020), due for Session 4 (Oct 12, 2020)'''===
1. Every student should find a Chinese sentence in the internet for each text of the unit (a, b, c, d) and translate it into English. You can '''write it [[20201007_cult|here]]'''.

2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page.

==4th Session: Unit 3 Traditional Crafts==
===Text A, total text no. 7, Embroidery===
Classroom presentation [[Media:Embroidery.pptx]] by Qu Miao --[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 04:33, 12 October 2020 (UTC)

Handout [[Media:Embroidery.docx]] by Lou Cancan --[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 04:24, 12 October 2020 (UTC)

Qu Miao 瞿淼、Lou Cancan 娄灿灿

===Text B, total text no. 8, Cloisonne===
Classroom presentation [[Media:...pptx]] by ...

===Text C, total text no. 9, Lacquerware===

Classroom presentation [[Media:China_Traditional_Craft_by_Lo_Minh_Thao_S.pptx|Lo Minh Thao's presentation on Chinese Traditional Crafts]]

===Text D, total text no. 10, Carving===
Classroom presentation [[Media:...pptx]] by ...

Handout [[Media:....docx]] by ...

==='''Homework from Session 4 (Oct 12, 2020), due for Session 5 (Oct 19, 2020)'''===
1. Every student should find a Chinese sentence in the internet for each text of the unit (a, b, c, d) and translate it into English. You can '''write it [[20201012_cult|here]]'''.

2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page.

==5th Session: Unit 4==
===Text A Tea===

Classroom presentation[[Media: Tea_Chinese_Culture_Zhu_Meimei_S.pptx|Zhu Meimei's presentation on Tea]]--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 05:50, 19 October 2020 (UTC)

Handout [[Media:Tea_Zhou_Yuanqu_S.docx|Zhou Yuanqu's handout on Tea]]----[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 02:08, 19 October 2020 (UTC)

===Text B Silk ===
吴琼张银柳

Classroom presentation by Zhang Yinliu[[Media:Silk.pptx]]--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 02:30, 19 October 2020 (UTC)
Handout by--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 01:44, 19 October 2020 (UTC) [[Media:Handout for Silk.docx]]

===Text C Porcelain ===
Zubareva Ekaterina, ANNA GROSHEVA

Classroom presentation by [[Media:Porcelain_-_Grosheva_and_Zubareva.pptx]] --[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 08:17, 18 October 2020 (UTC)

Handout [[Media:Porcelain_handout.docx]] by --[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 07:25, 18 October 2020 (UTC)

===Text C Celadon ===

Classroom presentation [[Media:Celadon.pptx]]by --[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 06:48, 18 October 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing

Handout by[[Media:Celadon.docx]]--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 09:01, 18 October 2020 (UTC)Gao Mingzhu

==='''Homework from Session 5 (Oct 19, 2020), due for Session 6 (Oct 26, 2020)'''===
1. Every student should find a Chinese sentence in the internet for each text of the unit (a, b, c, d) and translate it into English. You can '''write it [[20201019_cult|here]]'''.

2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page.

==6th Session: Unit 5: Traditional Cuisine==

===Text A Four Distinct Regional Cuisines ===

Presentation by Shi Haiyao[[Media:Four_Distinct_Regional_Cuisines_Shi_Haiyao_S.pptx|Shi Haiyao's presentation on Four Distinct Regional Cuisines]]--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 02:16, 26 October 2020 (UTC)

Handout by Luo Yuqing[[Media:Four Distinct Regional Cuisines.docx]]--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 07:43, 25 October 2020 (UTC)

===Text B The Art of Chinese Cooking ===

Presentation by 曹润鑫 [[Media:The art of Chinese cooking.pptx]]--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 15:00, 25 October 2020 (UTC)

Handout by 邹鑫雨 [[Media:The art of Chinese cooking.docx]]--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 15:01, 25 October 2020 (UTC)

Presentation by ALSIED SAFFANA [[Media:The Art of Chinese Cooking - SAFFANAALSIED and HATHITHUHANG_Final.pptx]] -- [[User:SAFFANA_ALSIED_2|SAFFANA_ALSIED_2]] ([[User talk:SAFFANA_ALSIED_2|talk]]) 15:25, 24 October 2020 (UTC)

Handout by HA THI THU HANG [[Media:The Art of Chinese Cooking Handout Final.docx]] -- [[User:HATHITHUHANG2|HATHITHUHANG2]] -- ([[User talk:HATHITHUHANG2|talk]]) 15:38, 24 October 2020 (UTC)

===Text C Two Famous Dishes ===
Classroom Presentation [[Media:Two_Famous_Dishes_Yuan_Tianyi_S.pptx|Yuan Tianyi's Presentation on Two Famous Dishes]]--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 02:17, 24 October 2020 (UTC)

Handout by Zhang Weihong [[Media:Two Famous Dishes.doc]] --[[User:Zhang Weihong|Zhang Weihong]] ([[User talk:Zhang Weihong|talk]]) 11:16, 25 October 2020 (UTC)ZhangWeihong

===Text D Chopsticks ===

Presentation by Jiang Qiwei[[Media:Chopsticks.pptx]]--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 04:33, 26 October 2020 (UTC)

Handout by Hu Jin[[Media:handout for chopsticks.docx]]--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 15:56, 23 October 2020 (UTC)

==='''Homework from Session 6 (Oct 26, 2020), due for Session 7 (Nov 2, 2020)'''===
1. Every student should find a Chinese sentence in the internet for each text of the unit (a, b, c, d) and translate it into English. You can '''write it [[20201026_cult|here]]'''.

2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page.

3. Please answer the quiz on https://bit.ly/Unit-6 or on http://shijiehanxue.mikecrm.com/BNFafJP

==7th Session: Unit 6==

===Text A Painting ===

Presentation by Zhu Xu [[Media:Painting by Zhu Xu.pptx]]--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 03:29, 1 November 2020 (UTC)

Handout [[Media:Chinese_Painting_Mo_Ling.docx|Mo Ling's Handout on Chinese Painting]]--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 04:17, 1 November 2020 (UTC)

===Text B Seal-cutting ===

Presentation by Zhao Xi [[Media:Seal-cutting by Zhao Xi.pptx]]--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 13:32, 29 October 2020 (UTC)

Handout by Zhang Yu [[Media:Seal-cutting by Zhang Yu and Zhao Xi.docx]]--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 13:14, 29 October 2020 (UTC)

===Text C Bada Shanren and Qi Baishi ===

Presentation by Wu Zijia [[Media:Presentation.Badashanren and QiBaishi.pptx]]--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 05:35, 30 October 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia

Handout by Lei Kuangxi [[Media:Handout.Badashanren and Qi Baishi.docx ]]--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 05:05, 30 October 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi

==='''Homework from Session 7 (Nov 02, 2020), due for Session 8 (Nov 09, 2020)'''===
1. Every student should find a Chinese sentence in the internet for each text of the unit (a, b, c) and translate it into English. You can '''write it [[20201102_cult|here]]'''.

2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page.

==8th Session: Unit 7==

===Text A Architecture ===

Presentation by Zhang Peiwen [[Media:Chinese Architecture.pptx]]--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 11:57, 8 November 2020 (UTC)

Handout by Zhang Yujie [[Media:Ancient Chinese Architecture.docx]]--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 03:18, 8 November 2020 (UTC)

===Text B Gardens ===

Presentation by Zhang Yuxing [[Media:Gardens.pptx]]--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 08:37, 8 November 2020 (UTC)

Handout by Xie Fan [[Media:Gardens on the Yangtze Delta.docx]] --[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 13:12, 8 November 2020 (UTC)

===Text C The Summer Palace ===

Presentation by Tan Yuanyuan [[Media:The Summer Palace.pptx]]--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 14:38, 8 November 2020 (UTC)

Handout by Liu Yi [[Media:The Summer Palace.docx]]--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 14:49, 7 November 2020 (UTC)

==='''Homework from Session 8 (Nov 09, 2020), due for Session 9 (Nov 16, 2020)'''===
1. Every student should find a Chinese sentence in the internet for each text of the unit (a, b, c, d) and translate it into English. You can '''write it [[20201109_cult|here]]'''.

2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page.

==9th Session: Unit 8==

===Text A Classical Literature ===

Presentation by [[Media:Classical Literature-Shi Jing as the Beginning.pptx]]--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 05:34, 16 November 2020 (UTC)

Handout by [[Media:Classical Literature-Shi Jing as the Beginning.docx]]--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 03:44, 16 November 2020 (UTC)

===Text B Modern Literature ===

Presentation by [[Media:Modern literature.pptx]]--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 02:39, 16 November 2020 (UTC)

Handout by [[Media:Modern Literature.docx]] --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:53, 15 November 2020 (UTC)

===Text C Contemporary Literature ===

Presentation by [[Media:Contemporary Literature.pptx]]--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 16:34, 14 November 2020 (UTC)

Handout by[[File:Handout-Contemporary Literature.docx]]--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 12:44, 14 November 2020 (UTC)

===Text D Selected Tang Poems ===

Presentation by [[Media:Selected_Tang_Poems_by_Lei_Fangyuan_S.pptx|Lei Fangyuan's presentation on Selected Tang Poems]]

Handout by [[Media:Selected_Tang_Poems_by_Guan_Qinqing_S.pdf|Guan Qinqing's handout on Selected Tang Poems]]

==='''Homework from Session 9 (Nov 16, 2020), due for Session 10 (Nov 23, 2020)'''===
1. Every student should find a Chinese sentence in the internet for each text of the unit (a, b, c, d) and translate it into English. You can '''write it [[20201116_cult|here]]'''.

2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page.

==10th Session: Unit 9==

===Text A Peking Opera ===

Presentation by [[Media:Beijing opera.pptx]]--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 07:14, 22 November 2020 (UTC)

Handout by [[Media:Beijing Opera Hanout.docx]]--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 15:53, 19 November 2020 (UTC)

Beijing or Peking?

From the English perspective, for some foreign names (city names, people‘s names etc.) there are English translations existing, e.g. for Roma it is „Rome“, for München it is Munich. Similarly, Beijing in English is Peking, Guangzhou Canton, Mao Zedong Mao Tse-tung etc. Also in Chinese, there are Chinese translations of foreign names, like Niuyue 纽约、Bali 巴黎 etc. Of course, in exceptional cases, e.g. if you want to say how Chinese people pronounce Peking („Beijing“) you may use the official Pinyin notation „Beijing“.

===Text B Mei Lanfang ===

Presentation by Zeng Liang[[Media:Mei Lanfang.pptx]]--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:21, 22 November 2020 (UTC)

Handout by Chen Yongxiang [[Media:Mei Lanfang handout.docx]]--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 12:16, 22 November 2020 (UTC)

===Text C Acrobatics ===

==='''Homework from Session 10 (Nov 23, 2020), due for Session 11 (Nov 30, 2020)'''===
1. Every student should find a Chinese sentence in the internet for each text of the unit (a, b, c) and translate it into English. You can '''write it [[20201123_cult|here]]'''.

2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page.

==11th Session: Unit 10==
Unit 10 Wushu and Qigong

===Text A Wushu ===

Presented by 张慧 [[Media:Chinese Martial Arts.pptx]]--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 07:58, 28 November 2020 (UTC)

Handout by 赵晓燕,[[Media:Chinese martial arts.docx]]--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 08:04, 28 November 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 08:38, 28 November 2020 (UTC)

===Text B Qigong ===

Presented by Rajabov Anushervon [[Media:Qigong_Ngo_Thi_Minh_Huong_and_Rajabov_Anushervon.pptx]]--[[User:RAJABOV ANUSHERVON 10|RAJABOV ANUSHERVON 10]] ([[User talk:RAJABOV ANUSHERVON 10|talk]]) 23:45, 29 November 2020 (UTC)

Handout by Ngo Thi Minh Huong [[Media:Qigong.docx]] --[[User:Ngo Thi Minh Huong|Ngo Thi Minh Huong 10]] ([[User talk:Ngo Thi Minh Huong|talk]])

===Text C Huo Yuanjia ===

Presented by 欧阳玲 [[Media:Huo Yuanjia.pptx]]--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 05:04, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Ouyang Ling

Handout by 周艺文 [[Media:Huo Yuanjia Handout.docx]]--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 11:13, 26 November 2020 (UTC)

==='''Homework from Session 11 (Nov 30, 2020), due for Session 12 (Dec 07, 2020)'''===
1. Every student should find a Chinese sentence in the internet for each text of the unit (a, b, c) and translate it into English. You can '''write it [[20201130_cult|here]]'''.

2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page.

==12th Session: Unit 11==

Unit 11 Traditional Medicine

===Text A Chinese Medicine ===

===Text B Diagnosis and Pharmacology ===

===Text C Acupuncture and Moxibustion ===

[[File: Acupuncuture and Moxibustion.pptx]]Presented by 吴一露 --[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 02:30, 7 December 2020 (UTC)

[[File: Acupuncuture and Moxibustion_handout.docx]]Handout by 司妤--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 02:35, 7 December 2020 (UTC)

===Text D The Development of Chinese Medicine===

Presented by 汤蓓[[Media:The Development of Chinese Medicine.pptx]]--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 03:10, 7 December 2020 (UTC)

Handout by 王美玲[[Media:The Development of Chinese Medicine.docx]]--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 03:06, 7 December 2020 (UTC)

==='''Homework from Session 12 (Dec 07, 2020), due for Session 13 (Dec 14, 2020)'''===
1. Every student should find a Chinese sentence in the internet for each text of the unit (a, b, c) and translate it into English. You can '''write it [[20201207_cult|here]]'''.

2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page.

==13th Session: Unit 12==

Unit 12 Major Religions

===Text A Buddhism ===

Presented by 康浩宇 [[Media:Buddhism.pptx]]

Handout by 刘欧 [[Media:Buddhism.docx]]

Presented by Phyo Su Kyi [[Media: Life of the Buddha.pptx]]

Handot by Phyo Su Kyi [[Media: Life of the Gotama Buddha.docx]]

===Text B Daoism ===

Presented by桂一枝[[Media:Daoism.pptx]]--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 12:09, 13 December 2020 (UTC)

Handout by 阳慧[[Media: Daoism.docx]]--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 01:58, 12 December 2020 (UTC)

===Text C Islam ===

Presented by 刘柳 [[Media:Islam.pptx]]--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 14:49, 13 December 2020 (UTC)

Handout by 刘怡瑜 [[Media:Islam Handout.docx]]--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 15:12, 13 December 2020 (UTC)

===Text D Christianity ===
Presented by 彭锐宏
[[Media:Christianity.pptx]]--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]]

Handout by 彭锐宏
[[Media:Christianity.docx]]--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]]

==='''Homework from Session 13 (Dec 14, 2020), due for Session 14 (Dec 21, 2020)'''===
1. Every student should find a Chinese sentence in the internet for each text of the unit (a, b) and translate it into English. You can '''write it [[20201214_cult|here]]'''.

2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page.

==14th Session: Unit 13==

Unit 13 Classical Philosophy

===Text A Confucius and Confucianism ===

Presented by [[Media:Confucianism.pptx]]--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 08:20, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Handout by 罗维嘉

===Text A Daoism ===

Presented by 余妮 [[Media:DAOISM.pptx]]--[[User:Yu ni|Yu ni]]

Handout by 杨晨婷 [[Media:DAOISM.docx]]--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]]

==15th Session: Unit 14==
Unit 14 China and the outside world A. 45 Zhang Qian and the Silk Road 李丽琴郭露, B. 46 Zheng He and the Maritime Silk Road 胡百辉何长琦, C. 47 The Eastward Spread of Western Learning, D. 48 The Westernization Movement

==16th Session: Unit 15==
Unit 15 Selected Readings in Classical Philosophy A. 49 Tao Te Ching Gennadii Dashkin, B. 50 The Analects GUIROU BARTHELEMY, PINGKI TANCHANGYA, C. 51 The Sutra of Hui-neng, D. 52 The Importance of Living

===The Analects===

Presented by [[Media:The Analects.pptx]]

=='''Final Exam paper - deadline extended to Dec 21, 2020'''==
The deadline has been extended to '''Dec 21, 2020'''. Please find a paper you want to proof read, contact the author, proof read (by copying each paragraph and make corrections/suggestions in the copy) and sign until Dec 19. The author then finalizes (works in the suggestions) until the final deadline Dec 21!

1. Every student should write a new English text on a phenomenon in Chinese culture as a new chapter in the text book. Please also make a comparisons to similar or different cultural phenomenons in Europe and/or the USA.

2. Please proof read a fellow students' paper by copying each paragraph and make your corrections in the paragraph. In a final step, the original author of the paper has to decide, what of the corrections he/she will accept and work into the paper. The final version submitted on the deadline should not carry any of the fellow student's paragraphs and comments.

You can '''write it [[20201215_cultexam|here]]'''.

20201215 cultexam 3

2020-12-20T12:44:17Z

Yang chenting: /* Architecture, Three Great Towers in China, Yang chenting 杨晨婷 No.202070080615 英语笔译 */

*Link to return to [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Chinese_Languages_and_Cultures Course Homepage].
*Link to the other Final Exam paper pages: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_1 1 Alsied, Saffana - Jiang Qiwei]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_2 2 Kang Haoyu - Sagara Seydou]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_3 3 Shi Haiyao - You Yuting]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_4 4 Yu Ni - Zubareva, Ekaterina]. This page has become too large. Do not write on this page any more, but on one of the smaller pages.

'''Final Exam Paper. Please write now and improve until grading on 2020 12 15'''
*You can use the texts in the coursebook as an example (like Unit 1, Text A). You only need to write Text A (like "Longevity Noodles") or Text B ("Mooncakes"), not a whole Unit. But please try to find fellow students who topics fit under the same Unit title ("Festival Meals") and arrange it accordingly.
*In the topic, please write the category, then the topic - your name and student no.
*For the text, please indicate ALL SOURCES with bibliographical references. That means: At least for every paragraph, sometimes for single sentences, you have to indicate at the end, where you have found this information. E.g. (Liu Miqing 2010, 17). This means you have found it in the book or paper written by Ms Liu on page 17.
*Add a section at the end called "References". There you write the full version of the reference: Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学. Similarly, you do it for papers: Jin Wenlu`靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.
*Please also add a list "Terms and Expressions".
*Please add a "Questions" section.
*Please add a "Answers" section.

==Historical Figures, The Four Talented Women of Ancient China- Shi Haiyao 石海瑶 202070080605 英语笔译==
The Four Talented Women of Ancient China
(中国古代四大才女)

===Cai Wenji 蔡文姬===
Cai Wenji, also known as Cai Yan, was a female writer in the Eastern Han Dynasty. As daughter of the great writer Cai Yong, Cai Wenji had received good education since childhood and got high attainments in calligraphy, music and literature. Although her works are not so many, she is recognized as a talented woman in the late Eastern Han Dynasty.Her father, Cai Yong, was a master of calligraphy, and wenji passed it on from her father. Unfortunately, only one piece of calligraphy written by Wenji has been kept so far, and it only has 14 characters, which is a great loss in the history of Chinese calligraphy.

Cai Wenji, also known as Cai Yan, was a female writer in the Eastern Han Dynasty. As the daughter of the great writer Cai Yong, Cai Wenji had received good education since childhood and got high attainments in terms of calligraphy, music and literature. Although her works are not in plenty, she is recognized as a talented woman in the late Eastern Han Dynasty.Her father, Cai Yong, was a master of calligraphy, and wenji passed it on from her father. Unfortunately, only one piece of calligraphy written by Wenji has been kept so far, and it only has 14 characters, which is a great loss in the history of Chinese calligraphy.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 12:32, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

About Wenji’s gift in Guqin, Fan Ye described her in the in The History of the Later Han Dynasty as "knowledgeable, talented , and excellent in melody." The Three Character Classic directly mentioned: "Cai Wenji is adept in distinguishing the sound of different qin." It is said that Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song was written by her. This famous Chinese guqin song is one of the ten famous ancient Chinese songs. " ''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' " includes 18 chapters and 1,297 words in total, reflecting the theme of "Wenji returns to Han". Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song tells the story of Cai Wenji's sufferings in her whole life in a touching tone. It reflects the deep disaster brought by the war, and expresses the strong feeling of missing the motherland and the countryside and the unbearable family separation.

About Wenji’s gift in Guqin, Fan Ye described her in the in The History of the Later Han Dynasty as "knowledgeable, talented , and excellent in melody." The Three Character Classic directly mentioned: "Cai Wenji is adept in distinguishing the sound of different qin." It is said that Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song was written by her. This famous Chinese guqin song is one of the ten famous ancient Chinese songs. " ''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' " includes 18 chapters and 1,297 words in total, reflecting the theme of "Wenji returns to Han". Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song tells the story of Cai Wenji's sufferings in her whole life in a touching tone. It reflects the deep disaster brought by the war, and expresses the strong feeling of missing the motherland and the countryside and of the unbearable family separation. --[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 12:32, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

After Cai Wenji returned to the Han Dynasty, she wrote two ''Indignant Poems'', one of which was five-character verse and another was Sao Style. The poem of five-character verse, which focuses on "sadness and disharmony", is a narrative poem based on feelings and facts, it is the first autobiographical narrative poem in the history of Chinese poetry. ''Indignant Poems'' with Sao style emphasizes on expressing emotions, descriptions of diversified natural landscapes express Wenji's sadness of leaving her hometown.In these depiction of scenery and people, Wenji has enlarged the difference between them and her hometown, so as to describe her grief and anger.

Her life, immersed in the chaotic life, suffering all the trick of fate. She never gave in, even when the chaos caused by war crushed her dignity and pride. Her life force like a weed , and it is this tenacity that makes her become a miracle in troubled times.

Her life was immersed in the chaotic life, suffering all the trick of fate. She never gave in, even when the chaos caused by war crushed her dignity and pride. Her life force like a weed , and it is this tenacity that makes her become a miracle in troubled times.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 12:32, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Zhuo Wenjun 卓文君===
Zhuo Wenjun was born beautiful, gifted and clever as well as adept at poetry and lyrics. The talented but poor Sima Xiangru and Zhuo Wenjun fell in love at first sight. Wenjun broke through the secular concept, regardless of family's obstruction, leaving behind the life of luxury and pursuing love resolutely.

With the support of Zhuo Wenjun, Sima Xiangru was able to make his way to the top, but he shifted his love to another person and had the intention of taking a concubine.In ancient China,a husband can legally marry many wife.Instead of being submissive like a cowardly woman, or being hurt and losing her mind, she wrote poetry to warn her husband and redeem his love. Her Poem of ''Discontent and Letter of Farewell'' persuaded her husband to change his mind. After reading, her husband retrieved his original intention. Zhuo Wenjun's bold pursuit of love was a deviant act in feudal society(Lin Jing,2016:41).

With the support of Zhuo Wenjun, Sima Xiangru was able to make his way to the top, but he shifted his love to another person and had the intention of taking a concubine.In ancient China,a husband can legally marry many wife.Instead of being submissive like a cowardly woman, or being hurt and losing her mind, she wrote poetry to warn her husband and to redeem his love. Her Poem of ''Discontent and Letter of Farewell'' persuaded her husband to change his mind. After reading, her husband retrieved his original intention. Zhuo Wenjun's bold pursuit of love was a deviant act in feudal society(Lin Jing,2016:41).--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 12:32, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In addition, Zhuo Wenjun's experience set an example of free love for later generations. Her poem of Bai Tou Yin is called a classic of love poetry.

The following is the original poem:

白头吟

皑如山上雪, 皎如云间月。

闻君有两意, 故来相决绝。

今日斗酒会, 明旦沟水头;

躞蹀御沟上, 沟水东西流。

愿得一心人，白头不相离。

竹竿何袅袅，鱼尾何簁簁。

男儿重意气，何用钱刀为？

The translated version by Xu Yuanchong is as follows:

Bai Tou Yin

Our love like snow on mountains proud,

Was bright like the moonmid the cloud.

I’m told you’ll leave the old for new;

I come to say goodbye to you.

We drink a cup of wine today;

Tomorrow we’ll go each our way.

By royal moat we’ll walk and go,

Like waters which east or west flow.

Why should I fell so sad and drear,

And like a bride shed tear on tear?

If I’d wed one with single heart,

Even white-haired, we would not part.

Long,long may be your fishing lines,

You cannot catch fishtail while shines.

If your love were constant and true,

Why so much money to go through?(Xu Yuanchong,2012:17)

===Li Qingzhao 李清照===
Li Qingzhao, also known as Yi An Jushi, was a female lyricist in Song dynasty as well as representative of graceful and restrained song lyrics. She was considered "the first talented woman through the ages". Her father, Li Gefei collected numerous books, which laid her literary foundation when she was young. After marrying, she and her husband, Zhao Mingcheng, devoted to collecting and arranging calligraphy, painting, gold and stones. When the Jin soldiers entered the Central Plains, she fled to the south with loneliness. In the early part of his works, she mostly wrote about his leisurely life, but in the later part, she mostly lamented his life and became sentimental. Yi An Jushi Anthology and Yi An Lyrics have been idle, thus, later people compile her text into Shuyu Lyrics. Her lyrics emphasize the concordance, advocating elegance, opposed to the method of making words for poetry. Her poem, not many of which have survived, is partly sentimental, and partly generous, but different from the style of its lyrics.

As a female writer in the history of ancient Chinese literature, Li Qingzhao's patriotic thought embodied in his works has positive social significance. From the historical perspective, Li Qingzhao's patriotic thought represents the ancient Chinese women's pursuit of equality between men and women, concern for state affairs and love for the motherland, so that later generations can get to know the emotional world of ancient Chinese women. From a realistic perspective, Li Qingzhao's patriotic thoughts can make people feel the important role of women in national unity and social progress.

As a female writer in the history of ancient Chinese literature, Li Qingzhao's patriotic thought embodied in her works has positive social significance. From the historical perspective, Li Qingzhao's patriotic thought represents the ancient Chinese women's pursuit of equality between men and women, concern for state affairs and love for the motherland, so that later generations can get to know the emotional world of ancient Chinese women. From a realistic perspective, Li Qingzhao's patriotic thoughts can make people feel the important role of women in national unity and social progress.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 12:32, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Ban Zhao 班昭===
Ban Zhao is a brilliant woman of great learning and virtue,she is a historian, a writer and a politician.Ban Zhao's achievements are highlighted in her research in history, continuing to complete the compilation of the Book of Han after the death of his father, Ban Biao, and his brother, Ban Gu.''The Book of Han'' is a historical masterpiece,enjoying a high reputation of the first chronicle of China's dynastic history(Jin Lulu,2009:122).

Ban Zhao came from a Confucian family, and his father, Ban Biao, was a well-known scholar at that time. Influenced by his father, Ban Zhao was very knowledgeable and talented.At the age of fourteen, Ban Zhao married Cao Shishu. After her husband died in his early years, Ban Zhaog obeyed the rules of women, behaved in with etiquette, and had very good conduct. Compared with Zhuo Wenjun, Ban Zhao's view of love is full of bondage without personal freedom(Jin Lulu,2009:105).

In her later years, Ban Zhao was suffering from illness. When her daughters were just about to get married, Ban Zhao was worried that they would humiliate the clansman if they did not know women's etiquette, so she composed seven chapters of ''The Commandments for Women'' in her spare time, then it spread widely among the people.The concepts advocated by Ban Zhao in the book became the code of conduct for ancient Chinese women.This book confined women's thoughts and freedoms, but it also served as a guide for women's behavior at the time.

In her later years, Ban Zhao suffered from illness. When her daughters were just about to get married, Ban Zhao was worried that they would humiliate the clansman if they did not know women's etiquette. so she composed seven chapters of ''The Commandments for Women'' in her spare time,which,then, spread widely among the people.The concepts advocated by Ban Zhao in the book became the code of conduct for ancient Chinese women.This book confined women's thoughts and freedoms, but it also served as a guide for women's behavior at the time.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 12:32, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Terms and Expressions===
Cai Wenj 蔡文姬

Cai Yong 蔡邕

Fan Ye 范晔

''The History of the Later Han Dynasty'' 《后汉书》

''Three Character Classic'' 《三字经》

''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' 《胡笳十八拍》

''Indignant Poems'' 《悲愤诗》

''five-character verse'' 五言体

Sao style 骚体

autobiographical narrative poem 自传体长篇叙事诗

Li Qingzhao 李清照

''Yi An Jushi Anthology''《易安居士文集》

''Yi An Lyrics''《易安词》

''Shuyu Lyrics''《漱玉词》

Zhuo Wenjun 卓文君

''Poem of Discontent''《怨郎诗》

''Letter of Farewell''《诀别书》

''Bai Tou Yin'' 《白头吟》

''The Book of Han'' 《汉书》

''The Commandments for Women''《女诫》

===References===
[1]金璐璐.班昭及其著述研究[D].首都师范大学.2009

[2]林菁.最是人间留不住[M].北京：民主与建设出版社,2016

[3]宋师道.四大才女之李清照传[M].北京：中国华侨出版社,2011

[4]武昌盛.四大才女之蔡文姬传[M].北京：中国华侨出版社,2011

[5]许渊冲.许渊冲经典英译汉魏六朝诗[M].北京：海豚出版社,2017:17

[6]赵明哲.四大才女之卓文君传[M].北京：中国华侨出版社,2011

===Questions===
1. Who are the four talented women of ancient China?

2. Do you know any representative works written by Cai Wenji?

3. Who is Zhuo Wenjun's husband?

4. What did ZhuoWenjun do to save her marriage?

5. Who is considered "the first talented woman through the ages"?

6. Who is the writer of ''The Commandments for Women''?

7. What are the influences about ''The Commandments for Women''?

===Answers===
1. They are Cai Wenji, Zhuo Wenjun, Li Qingzhao and BanZhao.

2. ''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' and ''Indignant Poems'' .

3. Sima Xiangru.

4. She wrote ''Poem of Discontent'' and ''Letter of Farewell'' to save her marriage.

5. Li Qigzhao.

6. Ban Zhao.

7. This book confined women's thoughts and freedoms, but it also served as a guide for women's behavior at the time.

==Habits, Ways of Contacting - Si Yu 司妤 Student No.202070080606 MTI笔译==

Ancient and Contemporary Ways of Contacting--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 13:27, 22 November 2020 (UTC)

===Ancient and Contemporary Ways of Contacting===

====1.Pigeon post====
Pigeon post is a method of communication among ancient people, where letters are tied to the feet of pigeons and delivered to the person who wants to deliver them. In movies, we see people in western countries using crows to deliver letters, but in China, crows are seen as an inauspicious symbol, so people used to use pigeons to deliver letters. Pigeons can fly and fly faster, can recognize directions, have a good sense of the earth's magnetic field, and are particularly home-loving, so they are used to improve the speed of delivering mail.

In order to get the ideal pigeon, besides careful selection of good breed and scientific feeding management, the most important thing is training. All three complement each other and are indispensable. The basic principle of training is based on the biological characteristics and physiological features of pigeons and the principle of "conditioned reflex".

The fundamental purpose of training is to cultivate, exercise and improve the quality of pigeons, to bring into play their inherent biological characteristics and specialties, so that they have the basic elements and conditions to complete various communication and competition tasks. The basic content of training includes: basic training, flight training, competition training, adaptation training and application training. In principle, the training should start from young pigeons, from simple to complicated, from near to far, from day to night, from basic training to professional training, in short, from easy to difficult.(Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：Pigeon Post,飞鸽传书）

Historically, Genghis Khan used pigeon posts to keep in touch with distant parts of his empire, and even in ancient Greece, carrier pigeons were used to announce major events, such as the Olympic Games! In the 12th century, a fairly extensive network of homing pigeons was established between Syria and Baghdad. One of the last active carrier pigeon posts was in India, but the carrier pigeon was officially retired in 2002. During the war years, carrier pigeons also played a role that could not be ignored. They were able to cross enemy lines more easily than men on horseback. This earned them the name "war pigeon". People continued to use carrier pigeons to deliver letters even up to the time of World War II.
(scienceabc 19 Oct2019)

====2.Paper Letters====

The letter is a kind of application document that transmits information and exchanges thoughts and feelings to a specific object. “Letter" in the ancient text with the meaning of audio, news, in addition, "Letter" also has a trustworthy meaning of the words transmitted by the trustee, whether it is a message sent to a person, or through the letter carrier by letter to the specific object of language and writing to convey information and exchange of ideas and feelings of the letter, there must be three elements: one is the ability to express their thoughts and feelings; two is to have the appropriate writing tools; three is someone to deliver.

Written letters to relatives and friends, not only can convey their thoughts and feelings, but also can give the recipient of the letter a feeling of intimacy; technology continues to progress, and the emergence of the telephone, telegraph, postal tape, video tape, e-mail and other means of exchange of information, it can be expected e-mail will be used by more and more people, which has actually been proven.

With the development of society, the relationship between people and society is also being reconstructed. In addition to the traditional use of correspondence, i.e., official letters and private letters, a new development is the use of personal letters to government agencies, enterprises and institutions, famous scholars, and other individuals for personal needs, and the use of this type of correspondence is gradually increasing and noteworthy. We call them personal correspondence.(Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：Written Letters,手写信件）

====3.E-mails====

E-mail is a way of communication that provides information exchange by electronic means and is the most widely used service of the Internet. Through the network's e-mail system, users can contact network users in any corner of the world at a very low price (no matter where they send it, they only have to pay for the network fee) and in a very fast way (it can be sent to any specified destination in the world within a few seconds).

E-mail can be in many forms such as text, images, sound, etc. At the same time, users can get a large number of free news and feature emails and easily achieve information search. The existence of e-mail greatly facilitates communication and exchange between people and promotes the development of society.

However, there are many drawbacks in using e-mail. For example, there is a risk of information being stolen and there is a lot of spam on the network. To address these two problems, the following solutions are available. Firstly, from the perspective of network security of the website itself, using hardware firewall devices is definitely the best solution. Second, a full-time network administrator should be assigned to regularly maintain the website. Thirdly, when applying for mailbox, choose a more protective username, such as a combination of English and numbers, which can be less harassed by spam. Fourth, avoid disclosing your email address. Fifth, use good mail management and screening function. outlook express, foxmail and qqmail all have good mail management function, users can screen mails by setting rules of mail domain, mail subject, source, length and so on.

The format of an e-mail address consists of three parts. The first part "USER" represents the account number of user mailbox, which must be unique for the same mail receiving server; the second part "@" is the separator; the third part is the domain name of mail receiving server of user mailbox, to mark its location.

According to Internet Week, the world's first email was a short message sent by computer scientist Professor Leonard K. to his colleagues (in October 1969, I believe), which consisted of only two letters: "LO". Professor Leonard K. explained, "Back then I was trying to communicate with a computer at the University of California and another computer at the Stanford Research Center near San Francisco. What we were doing was logging in from one computer to the other. The way to log in at that time was to type L-O-G. So we typed L and asked, 'Do you get L?' The other side replied, 'Yes.' Before we received a confirmation that the other party had received G, the system went down. So the first online message was 'LO', which means 'Hello!'"

The first e-mail from China on September 20, 1987 was sent by Werner Zorn, the "Father of the German Internet," and Wang Yunfeng at the Institute of Applied Computer Technology in Beijing to the University of Karlsruhe in Germany, in English.
Original text: Across the Great Wall we can reach every corner in the world.

It means “跨越长城，走向世界。” This is the first email sent from China to the Global Science Network through the network connection between Beijing and the University of Karlsruhe in Germany.(Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：E-mail 电子邮件）

===References===
1.Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：Pigeon Post,飞鸽传书 https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E9%A3%9E%E9%B8%BD%E4%BC%A0%E4%B9%A6/7009129?fr=aladdin

2.Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：Written Letters,手写信件 https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E4%B9%A6%E4%BF%A1/1095625?fr=aladdin

3.Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：E-mail 电子邮件 https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E7%94%B5%E5%AD%90%E9%82%AE%E4%BB%B6/111106?fr=aladdin

4.scienceabc.How Did the Pigeon Post Work?. https://www.scienceabc.com/19 Oct2019.

===Terms and Expressions===

条件反射conditioned reflex

成吉思汗 Genghis Khan

信鸽驿站pigeon post station

战鸽war pigeon

分隔符separator

服务器域名domain name

互联网周刊Internet Week

===Questions===

1.What part of pigeon is the letter tied to when you want to send a letter?

2.What animals do the western countries use to send letters in spite of pigeons?

3.Why pigeons can be used to send letters?

4.What are the three elements in writing and sending letters?

5.When did the world's first emails appear?

6.How to translate China’s first e-mail “Across the Great Wall we can reach every corner in the world.”

===Answers===

1.Letters are tied to the feet of pigeons.

2.Ravens.

3.Pigeons can fly and fly faster, can recognize directions, have a good sense of the earth's magnetic field,
and are particularly home-loving, so they are used to improve the speed of delivering mail.

4.One is the ability to express their thoughts and feelings; two is to have the appropriate writing tools; three is someone to deliver.

5.October 1969

6.跨越长城，连接世界

==Landscape, Five Famous Mountains - Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛 202070080642 MTI==

Wuyue (五岳) is the general name of the five famous mountains in Chinese Han culture and is the product of the combination of ancient folk mountain god reverence, the concept of the Five Elements and imperial excursions and meditation in ancient times.
The “Five Sacred Mountains” (or Wuyue – 五岳), also referred to as the Five Great Mountains, began with Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty (157 BC – 87 BC). “Yue” in Wuyue means high mountains. During the Wei, Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties, Buddhism and Taoism began to build temples and carry out religious activities on the Five Sacred Mountains.
Emperors of ancient China would perform excursions to the mountain peaks and offer non-human sacrifices on a regular basis. This tradition became a ritual of the state according to Confucianism and was one of the must-do activities upon becoming emperor. This tradition continued right up until the fall of the last dynasty in 1911.
While the Five Great mountains are not denoted as sacred mountains of either Buddhism or Taoism, they do have a strong Taoist presence and many Buddhist temples.
The Five Great Mountains remain places of pilgrimage to this day with many young people having the goal of climbing all five and retracing the footsteps of the ancient emperors during Imperial China. The mountains are popular tourist attractions and are well developed featuring good tourist and transport services and several are national AAAAA rated scenic sites.(Anastasiia Ilina,2017)

===Mount Tai (泰山) – Wuyue East Great Mountain===
Province: Shandong | Height: 1,533 metres (5,030 ft)
Mount Tai, or Taishan, is a mountain of historical and cultural significance located north of the city of Tai’an, in Shandong province, China. Mount Tai has been a place of worship for at least 3,000 years and is a National AAAAA level tourist attraction.
Mount Tai has been worshipped since the time of Shang culture, roughly 3,000 years ago. Emperors of China would come to this mountain to meditate and offer sacrifices, similar to writers and artists who for centuries have visited Mount Tai for inspiration. Given its long-running history of worship, the mountain has been preserved with little alteration. It is also considered one of the most climbed mountains in China. The hike is not an easy one and may take most of the day to reach the top.(Rodney,2019)

Province: Shandong | Height: 1,533 metres (5,030 ft)
Mount Tai, or Taishan, is a mountain of historical and cultural significance located north of the city of Tai’an, in Shandong province, China. Mount Tai has been a place of worship for at least 3,000 years and is a National AAAAA level tourist attraction.
Mount Tai has been worshipped since the time of Shang culture, roughly 3,000 years ago. Emperors of China would come to this mountain to meditate and offer sacrifices, similar to writers and artists who for centuries have visited Mount Tai for inspiration. Given its long-running history of worship, the mountain has been preserved with little alteration. It is also considered one of the most climbed mountains in China. The hike is not an easy one and may take most of the day to reach the top.(Rodney,2019)[Dear Tan Yuanyuan,please add your indication.]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 08:15, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia

===Mount Heng (Hunan) (衡山) – Wuye South Great Mountain===
Province: Hunan | Height: 1,300 metres (4,265 ft)
Hengshan, is a mountain in southcentral China’s Hunan Province known as the southern mountain of the Five Great Mountains of China. Heng Shan is a mountain range 150 kilometres (93 mi) long with 72 peaks. The Huiyan Peak is the south end of the peaks, Yuelu Mountain in Changsha City is the north end, and the Zhurong Peak is the highest at 1,300 metres (4,300 ft) above sea level. At the foot of the mountain stands the largest temple in southern China, the Grand Temple of Mount Heng (Nanyue Damiao), which is the largest group of ancient buildings in Hunan Province.
Mount Heng in the south has a total of 72 peaks all of which are covered in trees, some of which are centuries-old. It is a beautiful spot to hike in the summer to admire the blooming greenery. Among the mountain peaks, a number of Buddhist temples are scattered. Of note is the Grand Temple of Mount Heng located at the foot of the mountain. The temple has survived many dynasties, with the earliest records of its existence dating back to the 8th century AD. Although the temple was severely damaged during the Cultural Revolution, it retains its religious significance to many believers.(Anastasiia Ilina,2017)

===Mount Hua (华山) – Wuyue West Great Mountain===
Province: Shaanxi | Height: 2,160 metres (7,087 ft)
Mount Hua, or Huashan, is located near the city of Huayin in Shaanxi province, about 120 kilometres (75 mi) east of Xi’an. It is the western mountain of the Five Great Mountains of China, and has a long history of religious significance. It is a National AAAAA level scenic spot featuring skywalk, temples, stone formations, caves, waterfall etc.Mount Hua is a popular destination for those staying in the ancient capital of Xi’an. The mountain complex consists of five major peaks, all of which are accessible for hiking. Nevertheless, a number of narrow paths and rugged steps make it a challenging climb, and at the south peak, the narrow plank walk running along the side of the mountain will challenge anybody’s relationship with heights. While walking along two narrow planks (attached with a harness to the edge of the mountain), you can move along the mountain. The trick is that it’s not a one-way path, and your balance will be tested when handling traffic coming from the other direction.(Rodney,2019)

===Mount Heng (Shanxi) (恒山) – Wuyue North Great Mountain===
Province: Shanxi | Height: 2,017 metres (6,617 ft)
Mount Heng, or Hengshan, is located in north-central China’s Shanxi Province, known as the northern mountain of the Five Great Mountains of China. Heng Shan in Shanxi Province is sometimes known as the Northern Heng Shan, and the one in Hunan Province as Southern Heng Shan. Both mountains have the same pronunciation in Chinese, and the Southern Heng Shan is also one of the Five Sacred Mountains.
Similar to many other revered mountains in China, Mount Heng holds meaning for the followers of the Taoist faith. The mountain may not be as popular as the other four, given its northern location, but that can be seen as advantage for a hiker seeking peace and isolation. Located at the foot of the mountain is the Hanging Monastery (Xuankong Si) running along the side of the mountain. The wooden structure is supported by dozens of wooden pillars, and despite its feeble appearance welcomes many visitors every year.(Rodney,2019)

===Mount Song (嵩山) – Wuyue Center Great Mountain===
Province: Henan | Height: 1,500 metres (4,921 ft)
Mount Song, or Songshan, is a mountain in central China’s Henan Province, along the southern bank of the Yellow River, that is known as the central mountain of the Five Great Mountains of China. It is a National AAAAA level tourist attraction and world heritage listed site. It is noted for its rich cultural heritage as the birthplace of Zen, the Taoist holy land, and the origin of kung fu.
One of China’s central mountains, Mount Song is located on the bank of the Yellow River, close to the ancient capital of Luoyang. Mount Song is best known as the location of the Shaolin Temple, the birthplace of Chan Buddhism, and thus retains religious significance to followers of both Buddhism and Taoism. The Shaolin Temple attracts curious visitors who want to observe the practitioners of martial arts demonstrating superb strength and coordination. The area around the mountain peaks has a number of other Taoist and Buddhist monasteries.(Anastasiia Ilina,2017)

===References===
Anastasiia Ilina. The Five Great Mountains of China. https://theculturetrip.com/asia/china/articles/the-five-great-mountains-of-china/.2017

Rodney. The Five Great Mountains of China (Wuyue 五岳). https://welcometochina.com.au/.2019

===Terms and Expressions===

Taoism 道教

cultural revolution 文化大革命

plank 厚木板

Hanging Monastery 悬空寺

Zen 禅宗

Shaolin Temple 少林寺

Wei, Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties 魏晋南北朝

practitioners of martial arts 习武之人

monastery 寺庙

===Questions===

1. What does “Wuyue（五岳）” mean？

2. Do you know any famous Chinese lyrics related to Mount Tai?

3. What is the largest temple in southern China?

4. What are the features of Mount Hua?

5. What is the structure of the Hanging Monastery?

6. What is the famous site in Mount Song?

===Answers===

1.Wuyue (五岳) is the general name of the five famous mountains in Chinese Han culture and is the product of the combination of ancient folk mountain god reverence, the concept of the Five Elements and imperial excursions and meditation in ancient times.

2.会当凌绝顶，一览众山小。——杜甫

四月上泰山，石屏御道开。——李白

泰山不要欺毫末，颜子无心羡老彭。——白居易

3. Grand Temple of Mount Heng (Nanyue Damiao).

4. It features skywalk, temples, stone formations, caves, waterfall etc.

5. It has a feeble appearance with wooden structure supported by dozens of wooden pillars.

6. The Shaolin Temple, the birthplace of Chan Buddhism.
--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 14:36, 9 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ancient Chinese Education - Tang Bei 汤蓓 Student No. 202070080607 英语笔译==

===Ancient Chinese Education===

====History====
China’s ancient education was one of the most splendid components of ancient Chinese culture. Chinese education had a long history dating from the Xia, Shang and Zhou Dynasties 3000/4000 years ago.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Chinese Ancient Education) In the Shang Dynasty (16th-11th century BC), formal schools emerged with the names like “Xiao” (school), “Xue”(study) and “Daxue”(higher school). Teachers then were all government officials and students were all children of the nobility, so that was the earliest “Guan Xue”(Government School/Education). Education became more popular by the Spring Autumn/Warring States period. Confucius became the earliest founder for “Private Education”. This type of private school education is often known as “Si Xue” (private institution).(Zhu Hanming, 2010,342)

From Han till Qing Dynasty, the formation of government institution had been well-established. All the teaching materials and educational training were geared towards the preparation for Imperial examination. After receiving a title in the Imperial examination, one might receive a post in the state bureaucracy. At the same time, private schools were also developing. Most of the famous philosophers and scientists were originated from private schools. Apart from schooling, “Family education” began to play an important role. Many of the famous historical figures grew up under the education and strict ‘teaching’ by their parents or other senior family members, and they studied hard in order to become successful. For instance, it was well documented that Mencius’s mother had moved three times with her son before she eventually found a proper neighborhood for the son’s education. After the Han dynasty, because of the increased status of Confucianism and its influence, the teaching of “poetry and rites” became the basic content for family education. Loyalty, Filial Piety, Benevolence and Righteousness were core values taught in family education.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Chinese Ancient Education)

In ancient Chinese education, there was another form of education system known as “Xue Shu Jiao Yu”. This belongs to neither an institute education nor a family education. These are generally “primary school for the folks”. Sometimes, they were called “Meng Guan”(primary education hall), “Si Shu ” (private school), “Zu Xue” (extended family school) , etc. Most students will first learn how to read characters, then they will learn The Three Character Classic ”, The Hundred Family Surnames, The Thousand Character Classic. Then they will learn the “Four Books”. In addition, they will also learn Chinese calligraphy and character pairing. In this type of school, the rules and regulations are especially strict. There are other methods such as Shuyuan and Guozijian, etc. They all formed a unique way of knowledge teaching and became important system for the development on “study of knowledge”, “teaching method”, etc. All of these formed the basis for today's Chinese education.(Zhu Hanming, 2010, 345)
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 13:20, 29 November 2020 (UTC)

====Confucian Educational Theory====

The historical importance of education in Chinese culture is derived from the teachings of Confucius. The connection between Confucius and the official Chinese educational system thus became permanently linked right into the present time. Confucius broke the rule of “Xue Zai Guan Fu”
(learning at the government hall. He encouraged “learning for all hierarchical levels and for all ages”, and opened the door of education to the commoners. He established his own school and started to spread his teaching, thoughts and views. He became the earliest founder for “Private Education”.

In ancient Chinese education, whether they were government or private school, they all placed a great emphasis on humanities and cultural education, which focused on the teaching of morality and the development of wisdom. It covered philosophy, language, literature and other cultural subjects. The curriculum at the Great Academy was based on the Confucian Five Classics.(Chinasage:Imperial Examination）

Confucius taught his students morality, proper speech, government, and the refined arts. While he also emphasized the “Six Arts” — ritual, music, archery , chariot- riding , calligraphy , and computation — it is clear that he regarded morality as the most important subject.(Biography: Confucius) Confucius had been regarded as the pioneer founder of family education. According to The Analects of Confucius, Confucius wanted his son to learn both poetry and rites. He said, “if one does not learn poetry, one will not be able to talk properly”, “if one does not learn rites, one will never be well footed in the society.” Other than placing a strong emphasis on morality education, Chinese education also emphasized greatly on learning/teaching method and principles. Below are some common Confucian educational philosophies:
Revise the old in order to deduce new things.
Learning and Thinking are equally important.
Learn in a systematic and progressive way, from a beginner’s level to the advanced.
Inspiration and Guidance.
Teach according to students’ ability; use appropriate materials for teaching.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Confucius)

Confucius’s goal was to create gentlemen who carry themselves with grace, speak correctly, and demonstrate integrity in all things. The long The Master said in The Analects that:
“Is it not delightful to acquire knowledge and put it into practice from time to time？“Learning without thought is labor lost; thought without learning is perilous.” (Kong qiu, 2016)
Confucius’s main educational thoughts were to teach students according to their aptitude, to treat students equally and to inspire thinking. His pedagogical methods were striking. He posed questions, cited passages from the classics, or used apt analogies, and waited for his students to arrive at the right answers.

The status of education remained high in Confucian heritage cultures in East Asia. Beyond that, translations of Confucian texts influenced European thinkers of the period as well, particularly among the philosophical groups of the Enlightenment who were interested by the integration of the system of morality of Confucius into Western civilization. The French philosopher Voltaire was also influenced by Confucius, seeing the concept of Confucian rationalism as an alternative to Christian dogma. He praised Confucian ethics and politics, portraying China as a model for Europe.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Confucius)
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 13:20, 29 November 2020 (UTC)

====Chinese Imperial Examination====

The Chinese Imperial Examination was an examination system in Imperial China designed to select talented people for future positions in civil service. This system had a huge influence on both society and culture in Imperial China. It was established in 605 during the Sui Dynasty and lasted more than 1,300 years until the last examination in 1904 when the last Chinese feudal kingdom—the Qing Dynasty—was coming to an end. Somehow the modern examination system for selecting civil service staff also indirectly evolved from the imperial one. It was part of the process by which candidates who passed the exams could receive a title called jinshi, or some other degree, which in turn would generally be followed by appointments to government offices.（Newworldencyclopedia: Imperial Examination）

The first three of Jinshi were ranked Zhuangyuan, Bangyan and Tanhua respectively. The examinations consisted of a battery of tests administered at the district, provincial, and imperial levels. Only three-hundred candidates could pass the imperial examinations, which would be supervised by the Emperor himself. Candidate scholars often took the examinations several times before earning a degree. Each exam taker spent three days and two nights writing “eight-legged essays” — literary compositions with eight distinct sections — in a tiny room with a makeshift bed, a desk, and a bench. There were no interruptions in those three days, nor were candidates’ allowed any communication. Since the pressure to succeed was intense, cheating and corruption were rampant. In order to obtain objectivity in evaluation, candidates were identified by number rather than name, and examination answers were recopied by a third person before being evaluated to prevent the candidate’s handwriting from being recognized. In the ancient society, class consciousness was strong and many people from lower classes would have had little chance to reach high office, not to mention having any position in the official court.（Jin zheng, 1990）

However, once the imperial examination system was introduced, any male adult in China, regardless of his wealth or social status, could become a high-ranking government official by passing the imperial examination and thus realize their self-development. In this sense, passing the imperial examination was also called “carps jumping across the dragon’s gate” . The dragon had always been regarded as the symbol of mighty power and especially that of the rights exercised by the emperor, consequently the success of examination candidates was proudly called “jumping across the dragon’s gate.”(Baidu Encyclopedia: carps jumping across the dragon’s gate)

In late imperial China, the examination system and associated methods of recruitment to the central bureaucracy were major mechanisms by which the central government captured and held the loyalty of local-level elites. The examination system also served to maintain cultural unity and consensus on basic values. The uniformity of the content of the examinations meant that the local elites and ambitious would-be members of those elites across China were taught with the same values. Despite the significant effect of promoting Confucian culture and education, it also influenced education systems in many other countries like Korea, Japan, and Vietnam, and similarities can be found in the personnel selection methods employed in France, America and Britain. Today’s education system is surely its successor.（Newworldencyclopedia: The Imperial Examination）
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 13:20, 29 November 2020 (UTC)

===References===
1.1.Zhu Hanmin 朱汉民.(2010)''中国传统文化导论''[Introduction to Chinese traditional culture]. Hunan:Hunan University Press 湖南大学出版社.

2.Jing Zheng金铮.(1990)''科举制度与中国文化''[Imperial examination system and Chinese culture]. Shanghai:Shanghai People's Publishing Press 上海人民出版社.

3.Kong Qiu& Chen Dian孔丘&陈典.(2016)''论语''[The Analects of Confucius]. Jiangxi：Jiangxi People's Publishing Press 江西人民出版社.

4.Wanghui王惠.(2016)''中国社会与文化翻译教程''[A Coursebook on China’s Society and Culture Translation]. Beijing：Tsinghua University Press 清华大学出版社.

5.Baidu Encyclopedia''百度百科''：Chinese Ancient Education,中国古代教育

6.Baidu Encyclopedia''百度百科''： Confucius,孔子

7.Baidu Encyclopedia''百度百科''： The Imperial Examination,科举制度

8.https://www.biography.com/scholar/confucius

9.https://www.chinasage.info/examinations.htm

10.https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Imperial_Examinations_(Keju)
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 11:59, 13 December 2020 (UTC)

===Terms and Expressions===
Spring Autumn/Warring States period 春秋战国时期

Loyalty 忠

Filial Piety 孝

Benevolence 仁

Righteousness 义

poetry and rites 诗礼

Xue Shu Jiao Yu 学塾教育

Meng Guan 蒙馆

Zu Xue 族学

archery 射

chariot- riding 御

calligraphy 书

computation 数

state bureaucracy 政府机构

The Three Character Classic 《三字经》

The Hundred Family Surnames 《百家姓》

The Thousand Character Classic 《千字文》

Four Books 四书

Shuyuan 书院

Guozijian 国子监

Confucian Five Classics 五经

Six Arts 六艺

Jinshi 进士

Zhuangyuan 状元

Bangyan 榜眼

Tanhua 探花--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 14:31, 7 December 2020 (UTC)

===Questions===
1.What’s Confucius educational goal?

2.What are Confucius main educational thoughts?

3.What became permanently linked right into present time?

4.Before private educationa began, only who could be taught in government schools?

What are the forms of the Chinese Imperial Examination?

6.How did examiners evaluate the examination?

7.What are the functions of the the Chinese Imperial Examination?

8.What kind of far-reaching influence does the Chinese Imperial Examination have?--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 14:31, 7 December 2020 (UTC)

===Answers===
1.Confucius’s goal was to creat gentlemen who carry themselves with grace, speak correctly, and demonstrate integrity in all things.

2.Confucius’s main educational thoughts were to teach students according to their aptitude, to treat students equally and to inspire thinking.

3.The connection between Confucius and the official Chinese educational system.

4.Noblemen’s children

5.The examinations consisted of a battery of tests administered at the district, provincial, and imperial levels. Only three-hundred candidates could pass the imperial examinations, which would be supervised by the Emperor himself. Candidate scholars often took the examinations several times before earning a degree.

6.In order to obtain objectivity in evaluation, candidates were identified by number rather than name, and examination answers were recopied by a third person before being evaluated to prevent the candidate’s handwriting from being recognized.

7.In late imperial China, the examination system and associated methods of recruitment to the central bureaucracy were major mechanisms by which the central government captured and held the loyalty of local-level elites.The examination system also served to maintain cultural unity and consensus on basic values.

8.Despite the significant effect of promoting Confucian culture and education, it also influenced education systems in many other countries like Korea, Japan, and Vietnam, and similarities can be found in the personnel selection methods employed in France, America and Britain. Today’s education system is surely its successor.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 14:31, 7 December 2020 (UTC)

==Cuisine, Chinese Dining Etiquette - Tang Yiran 汤伊然 202070080643 英语口译==

===Chinese Dining Etiquette===

China is a country with a long history of rituals and etiquette, and eating is a highly important feature of China’s culture, so naturally, dining etiquette has developed to a high degree. Dining etiquette is said to have its beginnings in the Zhou Dynasty (1045-256 BC). Through thousands of years of evolution, it has developed into a set of generally accepted dining rituals and practices. (Edward L.Davis 2005, 306)
[[File:Chinese Dining Etiquette.jpg|160px|thumb|right|A Dinging Table]]

====Attendance====

As a guest at a meal, one should be careful about his or her appearance and determine whether to bring small gifts or good wine, according to the degree of relationship with the master of the banquet. It is important to attend and be punctual. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)

On arrival, one should first introduce himself or herself, or let the master of the banquet do the introduction if unknown to others, and then take a seat following the master of the banquet’s arrangement. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)

====Seating Arrangements for a Chinese Banquet====

[[File:Seating Arrangement.jpg|200px|thumb|right|seating arrangement (A Diagram of Seating Arrangement for a Chinese Banquet)]]

Dining etiquette in ancient times was enacted according to four-tier social strata (Edward L.Davis 2005, 306) :

1. the imperial court

2. local authorities

3. trade associations and

4. farmers and workers

In modern dining, seating arrangements have been simplified to:

1. master of the banquet

2. honored guest(s)

3. other guests.

The seat of honor, reserved for the master of the banquet or the guest with the highest status, is the one in the center facing east or facing the entrance. Those of higher position sit closer to the master of the banquet. The guests of the lowest position sit furthest from the seat of honor. When a family holds a banquet, the seat of honor is for the guest with the highest status and the head of the house takes the least prominent seat. (Ruru Zhou, 2018)

If the guest of honor or most senior member is not seated, other people are not allowed to be seated. If he hasn’t eaten, others should not begin to eat. When making toasts, the first toast is made from the seat of honor and continuing down the order of prominence. (Ruru Zhou, 2018)

'''A. Round Table'''

If round tables are used, the seat facing the entrance is the seat of honor. The seats on the left-hand side of the seat of honor are second, fourth, sixth, etc in importance, while those on the right rank at third, fifth, seventh, and so on. In the end, they will join together. (Ruru Zhou, 2018)

'''B. Square Table'''

In ancient times there was a piece of furniture known as an Eight Immortals table, a big square table with benches for two people on each side. If there was a seat facing the entrance, then the right-hand seat when facing the entrance was for the guest of honor. If there was no seat facing the entrance door (presumably if the meal was outside or there were two or more doors of equal importance), then the right-hand seat when facing east was the seat of honor. The seats on the left-hand side of the seat of honor were, in order of importance, second, fourth, sixth, and eighth and those on the right were third, fifth, and seventh. (Ruru Zhou, 2018)

'''C. In Grand Banquet'''

In a grand banquet of many tables, the table of honor is the one furthest from the entrance (or facing east in the event of no clear main entrance). The tables on the left-hand side of the tables of honor are, in order of importance, second, fourth, sixth, and so on, and those on the right are third, fifth, and seventh. Guests are seated according to their status and degree of relationship to the host of the banquet. (Ruru Zhou 2018)

====Chinese Table Manners====

Most table manners in China are similar to in the West. Don't be deceived by what you might see in a local restaurant on the streets. Chinese manners are more than slurping food down as quickly as possible, and shouting loudly! When eating a meal in China, people are expected to behave in a civilized manner (according to Chinese customs), pay attention to table manners, and practice good dining habits. In order to avoid offense, diners should pay attention to the following points (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020):

'''A. Considering Others'''

1) Let older people eat first, or you can start to eat if you hear an elder say "let's eat". You should not steal a march on the elders. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)

2) When helping yourself to the dishes, you should take food first from the plates in front of you rather than those in the middle of the table or in front of others. It's bad manners to use your chopsticks to burrow through the food and "dig for treasure" and keep your eyes glued to the plates. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)

3) Even if you find your favorite dish, you should not gobble it up as quickly as possible or put the plate in front of yourself and proceed to eat like a horse. You should consider others at the table. If there is not much left on a plate and you want to finish it, you should consult others. If they say they don’t want anymore, then you can eat proceed. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)

4) Concentrate on the meal and your companions. Watching television, using your phone, or carrying on some other activity while having a meal is considered a bad habit. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)

4) You should try to refill your bowl with rice yourself and take the initiative to fill the bowls of elders with rice and food from the dishes. If elders fill your bowl or add food to your bowl, you should express your thanks. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)

'''B. "Thank you" Gesture'''

Tea usually is served as soon as you have a seat in a restaurant. A waiter/waitress serves you tea while you read the menu and decide what to order. The teapot is left with you on the table after everyone around the table's cup is filled with tea. Guests then serve themselves. When someone pours tea into your cup, you can tap the table with your first two fingers two or three times, showing thanks to the pourer for the service and for being enough tea. The pourer will stop pouring when seeing the gesture. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)

'''C. Elegance'''

1) You should pick up your bowl with your thumb on the mouth of the bowl, first finger, middle finger the third finger supporting the bottom of the bowl, and palm empty. If you don't pick up your bowl, bend over the table, and eat facing your bowl, it will be regarded as bad table manners. Moreover, it will have the consequence of compressing the stomach and restricting digestion. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)

2) It is not good to pick up too much food at a time. You should behave elegantly. When taking food, don’t nudge or push against your neighbor. Don’t let the food splash or let soup or sauce drip onto the table. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)

3) When eating, you should close your mouth to chew food well before you swallow it, which is not only a requirement of etiquette but also better for digestion. You should by no means open your mouth wide, fill it with large pieces of food, and eat up greedily. Don’t put too much food into your mouth at once to avoid leaving a gluttonous impression. Neither should you stretch your neck, open your mouth wide, and extend your tongue to catch food you are lifting to your mouth. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)

4) When removing bones or other inedible parts of the meal from your mouth, use chopsticks or a hand to take them and put them on a side plate (or the table) in front of you, instead of spitting them directly onto the table or the ground. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)

5) If there is food around your mouth, use a tissue or a napkin to wipe it, instead of licking it with your tongue. When chewing food, don't make noises. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)

6) It is best not to talk with others with your mouth full. Be temperate in laughing lest you spew your food or the food goes down your windpipe and causes choking. If you need to talk, you should speak a little and quietly. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)

7) If you want to cough or sneeze, use your hand or a handkerchief to cover your mouth and turn away. If you find something unpleasant in your mouth when chewing or phlegm in the throat, you should leave the dinner table to spit it out. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)

====Rules and Conventions Relating to Chopsticks====

1) Do not stick chopsticks vertically into your food when not using them, especially not into rice, as this will make Chinese people think of funerals. At funerals, joss sticks (sticks of incense) are stuck into a pot by the rice that is put onto the ancestor altar. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)

2) Do not wave your chopsticks around in the air too much or play with them. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)

3) Do not stab or skewer food with your chopsticks. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)

4) Pick food up by exerting sufficient inward pressure on the chopsticks to grasp the food securely and move it smoothly to your mouth or bowl. It is considered a bad manner to drop food, so ensure it is gripped securely before carrying it. Holding one’s bowl close to the dish when serving oneself or close to the mouth when eating helps. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)

5) To separate a piece of food into two pieces, exert controlled pressure on the chopsticks while moving them apart from each other. This needs much practice. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)

6) Some consider it unhygienic to use the chopsticks that have been near (or in) one’s mouth to pick food from the central dishes. Serving spoons or chopsticks can be provided, and in this case, you will need to remember to alternate between using the serving chopsticks to move food to your bowl and your personal chopsticks for transferring the food to your mouth. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)

7) Knives are traditionally seen as violent in China, and breakers of the harmony, so are not provided at the table. Some restaurants in China have forks available and all of them will have spoons. If you are not good at using chopsticks, ask the restaurant staff to provide you with a fork or spoon. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)

[[File: Taboos of Using Chopsticks in China.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Taboos of Using Chopsticks (Examples of Using Chopsticks in a Bad Manner in China)]]

===References===
1. Edward L. Davis. ''Encyclopedia of Contemporary Chinese Culture'' [M]. Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2005.

2. Guo Shangxing, Sheng Xingqing, ''A History of Chinese Culture'', Kaifeng: Henan Uni. Press, 1993.

3. Morton, W. Scott, & Lewis, C. M., ''China: its History and Culture'', New York: MacGraw Hill, Inc., 2005.

4. Sun Xiaoyu, ''A Chinese History Reader'', Singapore: Cengage Learning Asia Pte Ld., 2010.

5. Gavin Van Hinsbergh. How to Eat in China—Chinese Dining Etiquette. https://www.chinahighlights.com/travelguide/chinese-food/dining-etiquette.htm, 2020.

6. Ruru Zhou. Seating Arrangements for a Chinese Banquet. https://www.chinahighlights.com/travelguide/chinese-food/seating-arrangement.htm, 2018.

7. Liao Huayin廖华英主编.(2008). 《中国文化概况》 [An Glimpse of Chinese Culture] Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社. 160-180.

===Terms and Expressions===

seat of honor 上座/尊位

Eight Immortals table 八仙桌

burrow through the food 乱翻食物

“dig for pleasure” 挖宝藏

side plate 小菜碟

napkin 餐巾纸

handkerchief 手帕

phlegm 痰

windpipe 气管

joss sticks （中国祭祀用的）香

ancestor altar 祖先祭坛

skewer 刺穿/串肉扦子

serving chopsticks 公筷

===Questions===

1. What do you know about the history of Chinese dining etiquette?

2. What does the “Seat of Honor” mean? Are there any commons of “Seat of Honor” in different dining situation?

3. How should we deal with our favorite food in a meal？

4. What is the way to show gratitude to the tear pourer?

5. How should we pick up the bowl when eating?

6. What manners of using chopsticks are considered bad in China?

===Answers===

1. Dining etiquette is said to have its beginnings in the Zhou Dynasty (1045-256 BC).

2. The seat of honor is reserved for the master of the banquet or the guest with the highest status. It is commonly the one in the center facing east or facing the entrance.

3. When finding your favorite dish, you should not gobble it up as quickly as possible or put the plate in front of yourself and proceed to eat like a horse. Instead, you should consider others at the table. If there is not much left on a plate and you want to finish it, you should consult others. If they say they don’t want anymore, then you can eat proceed.

4. We can tap the table with our first two fingers two or three times, showing thanks to the pourer for the service and for being enough tea. The pourer will stop pouring when seeing the gesture.

5. You should pick up your bowl with your thumb on the mouth of the bowl, first finger, middle finger the third finger supporting the bottom of the bowl and palm empty.

6. Rummaging through the food in a dish with chopsticks and searching for choice pieces, sticking chopsticks vertically into a bowl of rice, or pointing at people with them are all considered bad table manners.

==Wang Meiling 王美玲 202070080608==

===Three Giant Home Appliance Enterprises In China===

===A.Midea===

Midea is a technology group of consumer electronics, HVAC, robotics and automation systems, and smart supply chain (logistics).Founded in Shunde, China in 1968, Midea officially entered the household appliance industry in 1980. In 1981, Midea registered its brand. The group employs a total of 130000 people, whose headquarter is locate in Shunde, Guangdong Province. Midea Group has about 200 subsidiaries, more than 60 overseas branches and 10 strategic business units worldwide, and is the main shareholder of KUKA group (about 95%) in Germany . Midea now has more than ten brands such as Midea and Little Swan. and has 15 and 6 production bases separately home and abroad.( Midea Co., Ltd, 2020)

Midea's diversified development strategy can reflect its wide range of business : consumer electrical appliances mainly including kitchen appliances, refrigerators, washing machines and all kinds of small household appliances; HVAC business focusing on heating and ventilation systems such as household air conditioning and central air conditioning; robot and industrial automation system business with German KUKA group and Midea robot company as the core.Up to July 2020, Midea ranked 22nd in the list of China's Top 100 Most Valuable Brands in 2020.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Midea)

To some extent, enterprises seems like a person. Generally speaking, the style and personality of an enterprise are greatly affected by the values and behavior styles of enterprise leaders. Enterprise style and characters can determine the fate and future itself.（Liu Buchen，2016:3）

Midea focus on sound operation. If Haier and Gree went to two "extremes", Midea would choose the "middle road", which is neither extreme left nor right. It will not suddenly break the original management framework and organizational structure,which, otherwise, would place the enterprise in high risk. Midea Group’s New Vision, mission,values and business principles are not only rooted in the achievements of historical accumulation, but also the strategic blueprint for the future. The New Vision,“the perfection of science and technology lead to the perfection of life”, continues the Midea’s emphasis on science and technology and human-oriented spirit; The new mission,“connecting people and things, enlightening the world of Midea” reflects its strategic thinking on the development trend of technology, industrial chain and global layout, and makes the linkage between people and things in different scenes more advanced, thus stimulating the leapfrog development of people’s lives and production; Through the value“dare to know the future”, Midea could continue carrying forward its spirits of future orientation and embracing changes.

Midea focuses on sound operation.--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 12:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In the light of the wide range of its business, we can see that Midea is actively promoting diversified development（Liu Buchen，2016:2-3）: in the area of air-conditioning, Midea，since 1998，has made a series of acquisitions and mergers, expanding its air-conditioning capacity and entering the field of air-conditioning compressors. Moreover, it has produced the core components of air conditioning, increased research and development and cooperation in air conditioning, then begun to produce the core components of air conditioning compressor, increased research and development in the core components; as for small household appliances, since 2001, Midea has mastered the core components of microwave oven and become one of the three largest production bases in the world. Subsequently, the Group has reorganized the small appliance business under direct control and developed professionally on the basis of diversification.

Diversification has the advantage of spreading risk, that is the theory of “don’t put all your eggs in one basket” , and its disadvantage lies in the difficulty for firms to concentrate and, relatively speaking, to establish absolute competitive advantage in one or more specific areas.

Midea's business strategy can be described as "two-pronged approach". On the one hand, Midea relies on its own enterprise strength to continuously optimize the performance of its core products and has made earnest efforts to improve the quality of its core products.

On the other hand, through a series of acquisitions and mergers on home appliance brand，Midea has furthered its market penetration, and enhanced the market share, expanded the user group, leading to its accomplishment of “Extension Expansion” strategy. In fact, the strategy is not limited to mergers and acquisitions, but also includes the continuous paces into new industrial fields. Midea is building its own "Second Runway", that is “New Product Incubation Platform”, which is not limited to the field of home appliances. As long as meeting Midea's standards for "innovative products", any products can enter the incubation platform.

In 2020, affected by the COVID-19, the rising leverage ratio of the residential sector, the rising food prices, as well as the continuing low marriage and birth rates, the pace of further expansion of the household appliance market has been hindered. As one of the three giants in China's home appliance market, Midea is naturally deeply aware of the weakness of the home appliance market, which is reflected specifically in the decline of market demand for color TV sets, air conditioners, kitchen appliances and household appliances.

Midea will unswervingly increase R&D investment, maintain high-quality development direction, and adhere to inclusive growth and sustained and effective growth. Midea has further expanded its online market scale which has continuously diverted offline market scale. It has been developing an integrated sales channel with both online and offline, which has been promoted orderly on Suning, Gome, Jingdong, Tmall and other platforms. Facing the domestic market, Midea has been consolidated its basic system and established a unified business language and rules.

In 2020, the global trade friction continues to escalate, tariff barriers increases Midea’s risk of overseas market expansion, and the exchange rate between countries continues fluctuating. All of these factors mentioned above has increased Midea’s risk to engage in product export and to exchange loss.

Facing the overseas market, Midea will adhere to the consumer-oriented and product-leading strategy, give full play to its network advantages in global R&D and user research, grasp the differentiated needs of foreign consumer groups, improve the construction of multi-brand operation system, leading to further open-up of the foreign market and the improvement of market share.

===B.Haier===

Haier, formerly known as Haier Qingdao, is a leading global provider of solutions for a better life. Founded in 1980 and headquartered in Qingdao, Shandong Province, it was listed on the Shanghai Stock Exchange (600690) and the Frankfurt Stock Exchange (690D) in 1993 and 2018, respectively. Relentlessly centered on user experience and geared to the beat of the times, Haier has developed from an insolvent collective small factory on the verge of closure into an ecological enterprise leading the Internet of Things era. It has been the world's only IoT ecological brand for two consecutive years in the BrandZ 100 most valuable global brands. In the Internet of Things era, Haier is leading the world in terms of its ecological brand and single-unit model. Moreover, it boasts the world's largest market share in white goods R&D, production and sales, as well as in the integrated channel business of large appliances.( Haier Co., Ltd, 2020)

Haier adopts Diversification Product strategy, but it differs from Midea's in that the former has broader fields. Its business scope mainly includes the R&D, production and sales of and smart home scene solutions and smart home appliances such as refrigerators, washing machines, air conditioners, water heaters, kitchen appliances, small home appliances. It also engages in IT industry such as digital technology, intelligent technology, software technology, enterprise management services and consulting, information technology services, etc. Through a rich combination of products, brands and solutions, Haier creates a whole scene of intelligent life experience to meet users' pursuit of the good life.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Haier)

Corporate culture is the soul and gene of an enterprise. Haier's corporate culture is one of change, always following the times and continuous innovation and development, which can be summed up in four words: self-righteousness. It means everyone is constantly challenging themselves, overcoming themselves, reinventing themselves, and changing themselves according to external changes. So it can be said that Haier's corporate style is "paradigm change".

Haier has its own core values: the concept of right and wrong of "always take the user as yes, take oneself as no" is Haier's motivation to create users; the concept of development of "everyone is the creator, chain group becomes self-driven" is Haier's way of looking at sustainable development; the concept of "win-win" is the guarantee for Haier's sustainable operation. Haier's corporate spirit is "ecological integrity, win-win evolution". In the process of continuous entrepreneurship and innovation, the Haier Group always adheres to the development main line of "human value first".
Haier has formed a perfect innovation culture which is dynamic and constantly optimized. Zhang Ruimin once said, "There exist no successful enterprises, only enterprises geared to the times."

From 1992, Haier has begun to expand from one product to a variety of products, and comprehensively implemented a diversification strategy. Through mergers, acquisitions, joint ventures, and cooperation, Haier has rapidly entered the field of white goods such as freezes, air conditioners, and washing machines from a single product refrigerator.

In 1997, with the production of digital color TVs as a symbol, Haier entered the field of black home appliances from the field of white goods; in 1998, Haier ventured into the computer industry, which was known abroad as the field of beige home appliances. In 1998, Haier ventured into the computer industry, which is known abroad as the beige home appliance industry. In the process of expansion, Haier has engaged in capital operation in the way of eating "shock fish" and insisted on revitalizing tangible assets with intangible assets, which ensured the success rate of capital operation and the low-cost expansion. In this way, the goal of making Haier bigger and stronger in the shortest period of time was achieved. Haier still takes home appliance industry as its main industry, with sales accounting for about 40-70% of Haier's total sales.

Haier has adopted a parallel strategy：on the one hand: Haier will set self-innovation as the core of corporate culture, the implementation of strategic innovation to establish the corporate brand, focus on making refrigerators upgrade, adhere to the Internet of Things smart home ecological brand strategic direction; on the other hand, Haier is undergoing a large-scale enterprise change, and we can hardly continue to classify Haier as "home appliance enterprises". "After the change in the business model, Haier's many micro and small companies can decide their own development prospects, and the Haier Group does not limit or intervene in the their fields to entry. So the path of extensive expansion Haier takes is very broad.(Huang Xu,2017:2)

During the epidemic, Haier's 3Q report achieved high quality growth, which is closely related to the future layout of Haier since more than 10 years. Haier has been exploring the transformation from "selling products" to "selling scenes" to adapt to the consumption trend of experiential scenes. When realizing differentiated competition, Haier brings user experience and industry development into a new dimension. With a forward-looking strategic layout and strong landing capabilities, Haier has formed industry differentiation advantages in smart package, experience cloud and mass customization, and promoted the company's transition to a smart home ecological brand. Haier is currently the leader in the domestic Internet market, but will face challenges from crossover competitors such as Xiaomi and Huawei, and needs to focus the company's resources to win the battle.

Among the home appliance enterprises, Haier is the first to go abroad, and is also the enterprise with the highest market share in overseas markets. In 2016, Haier also acquired the American General Electric Company at a sky-high price of $5.58 billion, which is the largest overseas merger and acquisition in China's home appliance industry, making Haier leap from a Qingdao local enterprise to a multinational white goods leader, and also marking the acceleration of Haier's internationalization process again. At the same time, Haier has been ranked first in the global home appliance market share for many years, with over 10% of the global home appliance market share.According to Euromonitor, Haier has kept its leading position in the Asia-Pacific and North American markets (the two markets together account for 63.5% of global retail sales). Taking the advantage of the concerted efforts of Candy, Haier merged recently, Haier is expected to achieve its market share among the top five in the European market and to become a true leader in the home appliance industry worldwide.

===C.Gree===

Gree, founded in 1991, is an international home appliance company integrating R&D, production, sales and service, with three brands: Gree, TOSOT and Jinghong, headquartered in Zhuhai, Guangdong Province. Dong Mingzhu Gree's chairman, president and legal representative. In 1996, Gree was listed on the Shenzhen Stock Exchange. Gree has more than 90,000 employees, among whom there are 15,000 R&D personnel and 30,000 technical workers. It has 15 production bases and 15 research institutes at home and abroad. Gree has been on the Fortune Magazine's list of "China's Top 100 Listed Companies" for 9 consecutive years. The "Gree" brand of air conditioners is a "world famous brand" in China's air conditioning industry, with business in more than 100 countries and regions around the world.( Gree Co., Ltd, 2020)

Gree, founded in 1991, is an international home appliance company integrating R&D, production, sales and service, with three brands: Gree, TOSOT and Jinghong, headquartered in Zhuhai, Guangdong Province. Dong Mingzhu is Gree's chairman, president and legal representative. In 1996, Gree was listed on the Shenzhen Stock Exchange. Gree has more than 90,000 employees, among whom there are 15,000 R&D personnel and 30,000 technical workers. It has 15 production bases and 15 research institutes at home and abroad. Gree has been on the Fortune Magazine's list of "China's Top 100 Listed Companies" for 9 consecutive years. The "Gree" brand of air conditioners is a "world famous brand" in China's air conditioning industry, with business in more than 100 countries and regions around the world.( Gree Co., Ltd, 2020)--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 13:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Its business mainly includes: sales, installation and maintenance of central air conditioning, refrigeration, air conditioning equipment, clean air conditioning, heating equipment, ventilation equipment; kitchen utensils, stainless steel products, daily-use hardware; household refrigeration appliances, household air conditioners and related parts; machinery and equipment, and wholesale of electronic products. Unlike Haier and Midea, Gree adopts a specialized product strategy and has been focusing on the research and development of various types of air conditioners. As a large appliance manufacturer focusing on air conditioning products, Gree has established itself as the leader in the domestic air conditioning market, and its brand culture is deeply rooted in the people's hearts, and is well known in the domestic air conditioning market with slogans such as "Fine air conditioning that Gree creates" and "Buy good-quality, choose Gree". Since 2005, Gree has been the global leader in the production and sales of air conditioners for 7 consecutive years.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Gree)

In implementing the strategy of creating a famous brand, Gree prioritizes the construction of corporate culture and strive for corporate culture as a unified goal: the corporate spirit of "Loyalty, Friendliness, Diligence and Progress" fully reflects Gree’s requirements to its employees; the business philosophy of "making the best air conditioners for consumers" accurately and clearly shows Gree’s commitment to the society and consumers, as well as its determination to stick to the road of specialization and its confidence in the pursuit of excellence in product quality; the service concept of "Every little thing you do is a big thing for Gree!" demonstrates that Gree puts service throughout the entire production and operation activities of the enterprise, emphasizing pre-sales, in-sales and after-sales services; the management concept of "Innovation has no limitations" enables Gree to achieve high efficiency and low cost in the production process.

Gree has delivered outstanding performance in air conditioning largely due to the fact that Gree has been focusing on air conditioning for the past few decades without any distractions. Gree have several large production bases around the world, and its research scope includes twenty major categories, more than 400 series, which can meet the various needs of consumers. Gree have so far owned thousands of technical patents of air conditioners, and decades of quality improvement work have made Gree air conditioners achieve a qualitative leap in quality, from "Made in China" to "Created in China".

On the one hand, Gree belongs to the typical intensive growth model, where the driving force for development basically comes from within the enterprise and rarely relies on external forces, such as M&A. Gree takes the path of training talents independently, and has 12 research institutes and more than 30,000 technical developers. Gree sets various series of air conditioners its main business，whose entire production chain of production, processing, sales and marketing channels are operated internally.

On the other hand, compared to Haier and Midea, Gree's outward expansion has been smaller. One of Gree's large-scale mergers and acquisitions of significance was the industrial industry integration that began in early 2004 and was completed in the same year. Gree successfully acquired the Group's shares of Lingda Compressor, Gree Small Appliances, Gree Electric and other companies, contributing to forming an industrial advantage, improving its core competitiveness and seizing the industry high ground.(Duan Qiang,2013:49)Interestingly, Gree announced its intention to enter the new energy vehicle industry by acquiring Zhuhai Yinlong New Energy, which was a huge breakthrough in Gree's long-held intensive growth model in these years.

In 2020, as air conditioners enter the era of saturation, Gree faces difficulty before market opportunities and challenges. In recent years, Gree is obviously increasing the diversification of the layout, in order to disperse the risk that the air conditioning industry may continue to slump in the next few years, Dong Mingzhu hopes to find new growth points through diversification of the layout, which is the reason why Gree cell phones, Gree (Yinlong) new energy vehicle projects have been showed in the market. If new growth points were not cultivated in time, the possibility of continued stagnation of Gree Appliances in the coming years couldn’t be ruled out.

Gree's business is expected to be a high-end intelligent manufacturing equipment in Gree's diversified business. Gree, which has diversified genes and the courage to experiment with various businesses, opened a medical equipment company during the epidemic, and product masks and air purifiers that can kill COVID-19. The enthusiasm for diversified business exploration is closely related to Dong's energetic and aggressive style. But the deeper reason lies in that Gree needs more opportunities to grab the market in areas other than white home appliances, especially air conditioners.

Gree’s air conditioners have gained international recognition for their technology, quality and price advantages,which have been exported to more than 100 countries and regions around the world. Gree's trademark has been applied for international registration in 77 countries around the world, laying a brand foundation for the internationalization of Gree's products. At the same time, Gree is extending its production lines to foreign countries to enhance the confidence of foreign dealers and consumers in Gree and improve its international image.

===Terms and Expressions===

HVAC 暖通空调 Shunde （广东）顺德

Smart supply chain 智能供应链 Intensive Growth 内生式增长

leverage ratio 杠杆率 Second Runway 第二跑道

air conditioning compressor 空调压缩机 Tmall 天猫

Qingdao （山东）青岛 Shock Fish 休克鱼

3Q report 三季报 IoT 物联网

Experience cloud 体验云 Ren Dan He Yi 人单合一

chain group 链群 Euromonitor 欧睿信息咨询公司

Candy （意大利）卡迪集团

TOSOT 大松电器公司 Jinghong 晶弘电器公司

Gree Electric 格力电工 Shenzhen Stock Exchange 深圳证券交易所

Created in China 中国创造 General Electric Company 格力电工

Zhuhai Yinlong New Energy 珠海银隆新能源有限公司 COVID-19 新型冠状病毒

Lingda Compressor 凌达压缩机

HVAC 暖通空调

Shunde （广东）顺德

Smart supply chain 智能供应链

Intensive Growth 内生式增长

leverage ratio 杠杆率

Second Runway 第二跑道

air conditioning compressor 空调压缩机

Tmall 天猫

Qingdao （山东）青岛

Shock Fish 休克鱼

3Q report 三季报

IoT 物联网

Experience cloud 体验云

Ren Dan He Yi 人单合一

chain group 链群

Euromonitor 欧睿信息咨询公司

Candy （意大利）卡迪集团

TOSOT 大松电器公司

Jinghong 晶弘电器公司

Gree Electric 格力电工

Shenzhen Stock Exchange 深圳证券交易所

Created in China 中国创造

General Electric Company 格力电工

Zhuhai Yinlong New Energy 珠海银隆新能源有限公司

COVID-19 新型冠状病毒

Lingda Compressor 凌达压缩机--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 13:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Questions===

1.Why does Midea implement diversified development strategy?

2.what development strategy does Midea adopt?

3.How does Midea differ from Haier and Gree in terms of its style?

4.How will Midea deal with the weakness of home appliance market?

5.What kind of home appliances does Haier focus on the most?

6.What is the difference between Haier and Midea's diversified product strategy?

7.What is Haier's "Ren Dan He Yi" model?

8. The pros and cons of Haier's extensive expansion strategy.

9. Why did Haier transform to a smart home eco-brand?

10. Why has Gree expanded its diversified layout in recent years?

11. Do you think whether Gree should acquire Zhuhai Yinlong New Energy ?

12.What is the impact of Dong Mingzhu's style of work on Gree's development?

===Answers===

1.Diversification has the advantage of spreading risk, that is the theory of “don’t put all your eggs in one basket".

2.Diversified product layout and Intensive growth model and Exclusive expansion model.

3.Midea will unswervingly increase R&D investment on such emerging home appliances, maintain high-quality development direction, and adhere to inclusive growth and sustained and effective growth.

4.Midea focus more on moderate operation.

5.White home appliances.

6.Haier’s diversified product strategy is more wide-ranging.

7.It is a business mode which refers to every employee should face users directly, create user value, and realize their own value sharing when creating value for users.

8.Pros:to expand its business scope and spreading business risk.

Cons:to have difficulty concentrating itself and, relatively speaking, to establish absolute competitive advantage in one or more specific areas.

9. To win the favor of consumers who are in the pursuit of high-quality life and become more and more dissatisfied with household appliances which can only passively follow instructions and complete tasks.

10.(1)To disperse the risk that the air conditioning industry may continue to slump in the next few years.

(2) to find new growth points through diversification of the layout.

(3)to avoid the possibility of continued stagnation of Gree in the coming years.

11.No,because air conditioning and automobile are totally different. Gree's air conditioning technology is not helpful for new energy vehicles. Gree's familiar products and sales processes are also different from those of the automobile industry. Therefore, it is rather risky to enter the automotive field.

12.Dong Mingzhu's energetic and aggressive style will put forward Gree’s diversified business exploration which will create more opportunities and possibilities and also high risks.

===References===

1.Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Gree,格力

2.Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Haier,海尔

3.Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Midea,美的

4.Duan Qiang段强.(2013)格力电器营销战略研究[Research on Marketing Strategy of Gree Electric Appliance]. Huazhong University of Science and Technology 华中科技大学.

5.Huang Xu黄旭.(2017)海尔产品的品牌效应和营销策略[Brand Effect and Marketing Strategy of Haier Products].Industry and Technology Forum 产业与科技论坛.

6.Liu Buchen刘步尘.(2016)中国家电三巨头,谁与争锋[Who is the Top among Three Home Appliance Enterprises in China].Chinese and Foreign Management 中外管理.

7.Haier Co., Ltd,https://www.haier.com/

8.Gree Co., Ltd,https://www.gree.com/

9.Midea Co., Ltd,https://www.midea.com/cn/

[1] Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Gree,格力

[2] Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Haier,海尔

[3] Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Midea,美的

[4] Duan Qiang段强.(2013)格力电器营销战略研究[Research on Marketing Strategy of Gree Electric Appliance]. Huazhong University of Science and Technology 华中科技大学.

[5] Huang Xu黄旭.(2017)海尔产品的品牌效应和营销策略[Brand Effect and Marketing Strategy of Haier Products].Industry and Technology Forum 产业与科技论坛.

[6] Liu Buchen刘步尘.(2016)中国家电三巨头,谁与争锋[Who is the Top among Three Home Appliance Enterprises in China].Chinese and Foreign Management 中外管理.

[7] Haier Co., Ltd,https://www.haier.com/

[8] Gree Co., Ltd,https://www.gree.com/

[9] Midea Co., Ltd,https://www.midea.com/cn/--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 13:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wang Xuan 王轩==
===National Flag of the People’s Republic of China===
===A A brief introduction of National Flag of the People's Republic of China===
The national flag of the people's Republic of China is a five-star red flag, the symbol of the country. Zeng Liansong is the designer of the national flag. Red and rectangular, its length and height are three to two. Five yellow five pointed stars are decorated on the top left of the flag. One star is larger, and its circumscribed circle diameter is three tenths of the flag height, which is on the left; the four stars are smaller, and their circumscribed circle diameter is one tenth of the flag height, and the ring is arched to the right of the big star.
The national flag of the people's Republic of China began to solicit the design of the national flag from July 14 to August 15, 1949. On August 20, 1949, the national flag and national emblem Selection Committee received 2992 (3012) national flag designs. On September 27, 1949, deputies to the first plenary session of the National Committee of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) passed a motion to use the five-star red flag as the national flag. On October 1, 1949, the first national flag was first raised by Mao Zedong in Tiananmen Square.
The red flag of the people's Republic of China symbolizes revolution. The five five pointed stars on the flag and their relationship symbolize the great unity of the revolutionary people under the leadership of the Communist Party. The five pointed stars are used in yellow to show light on the red ground. Each of the four small five pointed stars faces the center of the big star, indicating unity around a center.

The national flag of the people's Republic of China, as a symbol of the country, is a five-star red flag. Zeng Liansong is the designer of the national flag. Red and rectangular, its length and height are three to two. Five yellow five pointed stars are decorated on the top left of the flag. One star is larger, and its circumscribed circle diameter is three tenths of the flag height, which is on the left; the four stars are smaller, and their circumscribed circle diameter is one tenth of the flag height, and the ring is arched to the right of the big star.
The national flag of the people's Republic of China began to solicit the design of the national flag from July 14 to August 15, 1949. On August 20, 1949, the national flag and national emblem Selection Committee received 2992 (3012) national flag designs. On September 27, 1949, deputies to the first plenary session of the National Committee of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) passed a motion to use the five-star red flag as the national flag. On October 1, 1949, the first national flag was first raised by Mao Zedong in Tiananmen Square.
The red flag of the people's Republic of China symbolizes revolution. The five five pointed stars on the flag and their relationship symbolize the great unity of the revolutionary people under the leadership of the Communist Party. The five pointed stars are used in yellow to show light on the red ground. Each of the four small five pointed stars faces the center of the big star, indicating unity around a center.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 10:53, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

===B Establishment process===

===1. Solicit comments from the public===

On June 15, 1949, the Preparatory Committee for the National Committee of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) was formally established in Peiping, shortly after Liberation. The preparatory work undertaken by this committee included the important task of formulating the national flag of new China, and designated the sixth group of the Preparatory Committee to be responsible for it.
On 4 July 1949, the sixth group held its first meeting. The meeting decided to publish newspapers to solicit the patterns of the national flag and the national emblem, and to set up a selection committee for the national flag and the national emblem pattern and the national lyrics score. In addition to the group members participating in the selection, Xu Beihong, Liang Sicheng, Ai Qing and other experts were invited to participate.
From July 14 to August 15, 1949, people's daily, Jiefang Daily, Xinhua daily and other newspapers and periodicals published the notice of the preparatory meeting of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference asking for the design of the national flag. The news of asking for the design of the national flag quickly spread to the whole country and overseas. Many people in their spare time, spread out the paper and began the design work. They carefully designed and drew one pattern after another with their own characteristics, marked with detailed instructions, and sent them to Beijing. They regard the design and drawing of the national flag as a glorious and noble thing to pour their boundless love for new China.

On June 15, 1949, the Preparatory Committee for the National Committee of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) was formally established in Peiping(Beijing), shortly after Liberation. The preparatory work undertaken by this committee included the important task of formulating the national flag of new China, and designated the sixth group of the Preparatory Committee to be responsible for it.
On 4 July 1949, the sixth group held its first meeting. The meeting decided to publish newspapers to solicit the patterns of the national flag and the national emblem, and to set up a selection committee for the national flag and the national emblem pattern and the national lyrics score. In addition to the group members participating in the selection, Xu Beihong, Liang Sicheng, Ai Qing and other experts were invited to participate.
From July 14 to August 15, 1949, people's daily, Jiefang Daily, Xinhua daily and other newspapers and periodicals published the notice of the preparatory meeting of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference asking for the design of the national flag. The news of asking for the design of the national flag quickly spread to the whole country and overseas. Many people in their spare time, spread out the paper and began the design work. They carefully designed and drew one pattern after another with their own characteristics, marked with detailed instructions, and sent them to Beijing. They regard the design and drawing of the national flag as a glorious and noble thing to pour their boundless love for new China.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 10:53, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

===2. Collect drafts from all walks of life===

On August 20, 1949, the national flag and national emblem Selection Committee received 2992 pieces of national flag patterns. Guo Moruo, Chen Jiageng and other members of the preparatory committee also submitted their sample designs. These designs were displayed in the temporary reading room. The selection committee selected 38 draft plans from them and incorporated them into the reference materials for the design of the national flag and submitted them to the newly established Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference for discussion.

On August 20, 1949, the national flag and national emblem Selection Committee received 2992 pieces of national flag patterns. Guo Moruo, Chen Jiageng and other members of the preparatory committee also submitted their sample designs. These designs were displayed in the temporary reading room. The selection committee selected 38 draft plans from them and incorporated them into the reference materials for the design of the national flag and submitted them to the newly established Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference for further discussion.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 10:53, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

===3. Pass a resolution===

The design of the national flag of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) was approved in the 32nd session of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference. In the pattern of five-star red flag before this, there are sickles and axes in the big stars. Before the adoption of the resolution, the national flag and national emblem review group made partial modifications to the design pattern, and made a unified explanation on the significance of the national flag pattern.
On September 27, 1949, the resolution on the capital, chronology, national anthem and national flag of the people's Republic of China, adopted at the first plenary session of the CPPCC National Committee, stipulates in the fourth point that "it is unanimously adopted: the national flag of the people's Republic of China is a five-star red earth flag, which symbolizes the great unity of the revolutionary people of China." The resolution of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference on the capital, chronology, national anthem and national flag of the people's Republic of China and the measures for flag making adopted by the presidium of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference stipulate that the national flag of the people's Republic of China is a five-star red flag, which is rectangular, and symbolizes revolution.

The design of the national flag of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) was approved in the 32nd session of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference. In the pattern of five-star red flag before this, there are sickles and axes in the big stars. Before the adoption of the resolution, the national flag and national emblem review group made partial modifications to the design pattern, and made a unified explanation on the significance of the national flag pattern.
On September 27, 1949, the resolution on the capital, national anthem and national flag of the people's Republic of China, adopted at the first plenary session of the CPPCC National Committee, stipulates in the fourth point that "it is unanimously adopted: the national flag of the people's Republic of China is a five-star red earth flag, which symbolizes the great unity of the revolutionary people of China." The resolution of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference on the capital, chronology, national anthem and national flag of the people's Republic of China and the measures for flag making adopted by the presidium of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference stipulate that the national flag of the people's Republic of China is a five-star red flag, which is rectangular, and symbolizes revolution. --[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 10:53, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

Its length and height are three to two, and five yellow five pointed stars are on the top left of the flag, symbolizing the revolutionary unity under the leadership of the Communist Party of China The star symbolizes red with yellow, and the earth is bright. One star is larger, its circumscribed circle diameter is 3 / 10 of the flag height, which is on the left; the four stars are smaller, and their circumscribed circle diameter is 1 / 10 of the flag height, and they are circled on the right side of the big star, and each has an angle point facing the center of the big star, which expresses the aspiration of hundreds of millions of people to the great Communist Party of China, just like the northern star. The flagpole cover is white to distinguish it from the red flag.
On September 29, 1949, the people's Daily published the pattern of the new national flag and the explanation of its making method, which were provided to all walks of life for making and using.
On October 1, 1949, the first national flag of the people's Republic of China was first raised by Mao Zedong in Tiananmen Square.(Dear Wang Xuan,please add your indication.--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 08:31, 15 December 2020 (UTC))

===C Symbolism of the flag===
The red flag of the people's Republic of China symbolizes revolution. The five five pointed stars on the flag and their relationship symbolize the great unity of the revolutionary people under the leadership of the Communist Party. Yellow is used to show light on the red ground. Yellow is brighter and more beautiful than white. Each of the four small Pentagram stars has a point facing the center of the big star, which means that they are united around a center and are compact and beautiful in form.

=== Terms and expressions ===

五星红旗 five-star red flag

中国共产党 the Communist Party of China(CPC)

全国政治协商会议 the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference(CPPCC)

《人民日报》 People's Daily

《解放日报》 Jiefang Daily

《新华日报》 xinhua Daily

=== Questions ===

1. Who designed the national flag of the people's republic of China?

2. When did the national flag of the people's republic of China come into being?

3. What does the red color mean on the national flag of the people's republic of China?

4. Is there any profound meaning of the five stars on the national flag of the people's republic of China?

5. Is there any symbol meaning of the people's repuclic of China?

=== Answers ===

1. Zeng Liansong is the designer of the national flag.

2. On September 27, 1949

3. The red color of the people's Republic of China symbolizes revolution.

4. The five five pointed stars on the flag and their relationship symbolize the great unity of the revolutionary people under the leadership of the Communist Party.

5. The red flag of the people's Republic of China symbolizes revolution. Each of the four small Pentagram stars has a point facing the center of the big star, which means that they are united around a center and are compact and beautiful in form.

=== References ===

[1] Barnabas Cristóbal. Constitution of the People's Republic of China[J]. 2011.

[2] Surhone L M , Timpledon M T , Marseken S F , et al. National Emblem of the People's Republic of Chcina[J]. 2010.

[3] Surhone L M , Timpledon M T , Marseken S F , et al. National Emblem of the People's Republic of China[J]. 2010.

[4] 高军. 中华人民共和国国旗的符号学浅析[J]. 美术教育研究, 2012, 000(011):46-47.

[5] 王哉. 五星红旗是怎样设计出来的——曾联松设计中华人民共和国国旗始末[J]. 山东农机化, 2016, 000(005):49-50.

[6] 霞飞. 中华人民共和国国旗诞生始末[J]. 党史文苑(7期):4-11.

[7] 中央档案馆. 中华人民共和国国旗国徽国歌档案[M]. 中国文史出版社, 2014.

==China's Four New Inventions -Wu Qiong 吴琼 202070080644 MTI 英语口译==

Most people must have known about China's Four Inventions: gunpowder, paper-making, compass, and printing. Those represented how wise the Chinese was and how brilliant history China had. Today, China still holds the places and influence in technology and inventions. In May,2017, teenagers from 20 nations along the Belt and Road selected China's four new inventions: high speed railway, QR code payment, sharing bikes and online shopping. Though these new inventions are not first invented by China, but it is China that makes full use of them, and introduces them to the rest of the world. The four new inventions bring incredible changes and convenience into people's life. China, at the same time, makes contributions to the development of the human beings. World's future will be bright and prosper due to more technologies and inventions such as China's Four New Inventions.

===A. High-speed railway ===

High-speed railway is a railway system with advanced design and high-speed rails run on it. The world's first official high-speed rail system is the Tokaido Shinkansen line and it goes into public in 1964, connecting the three major metropolitan circles of Japan: Tokyo, Nagoya and Osaka. The high speed railway has promoted the rapid development of Japan. Its designed speed is 200km/h, which then becomes the initial speed standard of high-speed rail. Later, with the advancement of technology, the speed of trains became faster. Different countries have different definitions of high-speed railways in different eras. According to statistics, the length of high-speed railways in operation in China has reached to more than 6,800 kilometers. China has become the country with the most comprehensive high-speed railway system technology, the strongest integration capability, the longest operating mileage, the highest operating speed, and the largest scale of construction in the world.(东海道新干线のバイパス[J].中央新干线委员会 [[File:Tokaido Shinkansen line.JPEG|600px|thumb|right|Tokaido Shinkansen line]]

====Features====

1. High-speed railways are very smooth to keep safety and comfort. High-speed railways are all seamless steel tracks, and high-speed railways with a speed of more than 300 kilometers per hour use ballastless tracks, that is, a monolithic track bed without stones to maintain smoothness.

1. High-speed railways are very smooth to keep safety and comfort. With all seamless steel tracks, and a speed of more than 300 kilometers per hour，they use ballastless tracks, that is, a monolithic track bed without stones to maintain smoothness.--[[User:Gudongfang|Gudongfang]] ([[User talk:Gudongfang|talk]]) 08:15, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Gu dongfang
2. The high-speed railway has few bends, as the bend is of long radius, and the turnouts are all moveable high-speed turnouts.
3. Use a large number of viaducts and tunnels to ensure ride comfort and shorten the distance.
4. The catenary of the high-speed railway, that is, the suspension of the wires on the top of the train, is also different from that of ordinary railways to keep stability and durability of the high-speed EMUs.

4. The catenary of the high-speed railway suspends the wires on the top of the train and is also different from that of ordinary railways to keep stability and durability of the high-speed EMUs--[[User:Gudongfang|Gudongfang]] ([[User talk:Gudongfang|talk]]) 08:15, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Gu dongfang
5. The signal control system of high-speed railways is higher than that of ordinary railways, because of the frequent departure and high speed of rails, it should be of high safety. (科普中国,2020)

====Merits====

1. Large passenger capacity. Generally, high speed rails can accommodate 600 people. Compared to other public tools such as bus, boat or airplane, high speed rails have more seats.
2. Less time-consuming. In addition to the maximum operating speed, passengers are more concerned about travel time. High speed rails will not operate in late night, so passengers can get off the rails almost in daytime, thus to finish their business or other private matters which helps save a lot of time.
3. Good safety. Due to the automatic operation of high-speed rails in a fully enclosed environment and a series of complete safety guarantee systems, thus no other transportation means can be matched with it. Since the advent of high-speed railway 35 years ago, Japan, Germany, and France have already transported 5 billion passengers. Although there have been major traffic accidents on high-speed railways, the accident rate is much lower than that of civil aviation and is almost negligible. It is still the safest transportation system.
4. High punctuality. All high-speed railways adopt automatic control and can operate around the clock unless there is an earthquake.
5. Comfortable and convenient. High speed rails have spacious and comfortable seats, stable operation, shock absorption, sound insulation, and quiet environment.
6. Low energy consumption. High-speed trains use electric traction, do not consume precious petroleum and other liquid fuels, and use various forms of energy, which is not a wasteful transportation mean.(Kang Tianchi, (2018)

'''Terms and Expressions'''

High speed railways高速铁路 the Tokaido Shinkansen line东海道新干线[[File:highspeedrail.JPEG|600px|thumb|right|High speed rail]]

the three major metropolitan circles of Japan: Tokyo, Nagoya and Osaka.日本三大都市圈: 东京、名古屋和大阪

integration capability整合能力 operating mileage运营里程.

seamless steel tracks无缝钢轨 ballastless track无砟轨道

a monolithic track bed整体式道床 moveable high-speed turnouts.可动心高速道岔

viaducts and tunnels高架桥梁和隧道 high-speed EMUs.高速动车组

shock absorption and sound insulation减震隔音 petroleum and other liquid fuels石油等液体燃料

'''Questions'''

1. Where does the first high speed railway come from?

2. What is the name of the first high speed railway?

3. What is the advantages of high speed railway?

4. What are the features of high speed railway?

5. Which transportation carries more passengers, high speed rails or trains?

6. From Changsha to Shanghai, which transportation means will you choose?

'''Answers'''

1. The first high speed railway come from Japan

2.The name of the first high speed railway is Tokaido Shinkansen line.

3.The advantages of high speed railways are fast, smooth, safe and comfort.

4. The features of high speed railway viaducts and tunnels and signal control system.

5. High-speed rails carries more passengers.

6. High-speed rails.

===B. QR code payment===

The QR code payment model is based on the concept of mobile payment, and the first batch of payments made by mobile devices occurred in Finland in 1997. Finnish local media reported that Finland Telecom has enabled the service of operating jukeboxes and beverage vending machines by dialing a pay phone number. This service allows you to buy Coca-Cola at Helsinki Airport. The QR code, also known as "two-dimensional code" was invented in 1994 by the Japanese company DW. and nowadays, we usually use Alipay or WeChat pay to finish the process of payment.

====Background====

The rise of QR code payment methods in China is not occasionally. It is mainly related to the rapid development of IT technology and the rapid advancement of e-commerce. The maturity of IT technology has promoted the birth of mobile terminals such as smart phones and tablet computers, which makes people's mobile life more colorful. At the same time, domestic e-commerce is also closely related to "mobile", especially the development of O2O. With a large number of mobile devices and a large amount of mobile consumption, payment costs have become particularly critical. Therefore, QR code payment solutions came into being. (China's Four New Inventions,2018)

====Characteristics====

At the end of 2010, QR codes and related technologies were widely circulated on the Internet, marking the beginning of the widespread popularity of QR codes in China. The popularity of any thing must have its reasons, and so is QR code payment. [[File:Alipay.JPEG|500px|thumb|right|Alipay]]

1. Mature technology
QR code payment already has mature technical means in developed areas abroad, which has laid the foundation for the development of domestic QR code technology, and it is believed that it will quickly become popular.
2. Easy to use
After the user installs the QR code recognition software, the transaction can be completed by simply swiping the place where the QR code is posted.
3. Convenient payment
With the QR code payment method, merchants do not have to bear high cost payments such as cash on delivery, and consumers can also make real-time payments anytime, anywhere.
4. Lower cost
Due to the maturity of technology and the popularization of mobile devices, the cost of QR code payment has become very low. (科普中国，2020）

'''Terms and Expressions'''

QR code (Quick Response code)快速反应码

Finland芬兰 Telecom电信

jukebox点唱机 beverage vending machine饮料自动售货机

Helsinki Airport 赫尔辛基机场

'''Questions'''

1. What advanced the birth of QR code?

2. When did the QR code become popular in China?

3. Why does QR code cost lower?

4. When was the QR code invented?

'''Answers'''

1. The maturity of IT technology advanced the birth of QR code.

2. At the end of 2010, QR code become popular in China.

3. Merchants do not have to bear high cost payments such as cash on delivery.

4. QR code invented in 1997.

===C. Shared bikes===

As early as 1965, the Municipal Government of Amsterdam in the Netherlands proposed the "White Plan". According to the plan, the government purchased 50 bicycles and painted them with white paint as a sign and scattered them around the city for people to use. This was the earliest in the world. The unmanned shared bicycle system is invented by the Netherlands. In 2007, France also had free cycling, and it was only later that China became popular and innovative models developed and promoted overseas.

====Function and Using Steps ====

By providing services on campuses, subway stations, bus stations, residential areas, commercial districts, public service areas, etc., bicycle-sharing (bicycle) companies complete the ”last mile“ in the transportation industry and drive residents' enthusiasm for using other public transportation. Produce synergy with other public transportation methods. Shared bicycles are a time-sharing lease model and a new type of green and environmentally friendly sharing economy. (Du Yuheng, Han Wei, Kou Jingli, China Statistics (2018)

1. Find a free shared bike, download the bike sharing app, pay a deposit, and enter your password to use the bike.

2. Use the app to find the nearest shared bike, click on the "Use Bike Now" button and enter a set of numbers on the bike to use the bike.

3.Download the bike sharing app, find the vacant bikes, click the "Use Bike Now" button, get a set of numbers, and enter a set of numbers on the bike to use the bike.

====Development====

China's bike-sharing market has gone through three stages of development. The first phase is from 2007 to 2010. The public bicycle model that has emerged from abroad is introduced into the country, and the government will lead the management in different cities, mostly with piled bicycles. 2010-2014 is the second stage. Companies specializing in the bicycle market began to appear, but public bicycles are still dominated by piled bicycles. The third phase is from 2014 to 2018. With the rapid development of the mobile Internet, Internet shared bicycles led by Mobike came into being, and more convenient dockless bicycles began to replace docked bicycles. (Du Yuheng, Han Wei, Kou Jingli,[China Statistics] (2018) [[File:shared bike.JPEG|500px|thumb|right|Shared bike]]

'''Terms and Expressions'''

Amsterdam阿姆斯特丹 the unmanned shared bicycle system 无人管理的共享单车系统

free cycling 单车自由行 residential areas 居民区

last mile ”最后一公里“ green and environmentally friendly economy 绿色和环境友好型经济

the first phase第一阶段 dockless bicycles无桩单车

'''Questions'''

1. Which country invented the shared bike?

2. What is the main purpose for the invention of shared bike?

3. How many phases at present have the shared bikes experienced?

4. How's the prospect of the shared bikes?

'''Answers'''

1. Netherlands invented the shared bike.

2.To complete the ”last mile“ in the transportation industry and drive residents' enthusiasm for using other public transportation

3. There are three phases at present have the shared bikes experienced

4. With the development of the four new inventions, the shared bikes will be more and more developed.

===D. Online shopping===

Online shopping belongs to the category of e-commerce. In 1979, the British Michael Aldrich invented the concept of online shopping. Aldrich used a technology called Videotex to connect an ordinary TV set to the computer of a local retailer through a telephone line. By the 1990s, after Amazon and eBay launched their websites in 1995, e-commerce became popular around the world.

====Definition====

Retrieve product information through the Internet, and send a shopping request through an electronic order form, and then fill in a personal checking account or credit card number. The manufacturer will ship the goods by mail order or deliver the goods to the door through a courier company. For online shopping in China, the general payment method is cash on delivery (direct bank transfer, online remittance) and cash on delivery for secured transactions. (科普中国） [[File:Online Shopping.JPEG|600px|thumb|right|Online Shopping]]

====Development====

As early as 1999, Chinese Internet prophets began to build B2C websites, dedicated to promoting online shopping in China. But this approach was generally questioned by the economics community at that time. (Will there be enough consumers shopping online? Can online shopping solve the problem of logistics and distribution? Can online shopping solve the problem of online payment?) However, in the future, these doubts are all It's not a problem. They have been solved by large shopping websites, courier companies other than postal services, and many third-party online payments that connect with major banks.

As early as 1999, Chinese Internet prophets began to build B2C websites, dedicated to promoting online shopping in China. But this approach was generally questioned by the economics community at that time. (Will there be enough consumers shopping online? Can online shopping solve the problem of logistics and distribution? Can online shopping solve the problem of online payment?) However, in the future, these doubts will all go away. They have been solved by large shopping websites, courier companies other than postal services, and many third-party online payments that connect with major banks.--[[User:Gudongfang|Gudongfang]] ([[User talk:Gudongfang|talk]]) 08:15, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Gu dongfang

With the development of the economy, online shopping has gradually reappeared. In 2005, Dangdang achieved annual sales of 440 million yuan, a figure that greatly exceeded the expectations of most investment institutions two or three years ago. This number proves the success of the Amazon (famous e-commerce website) model in China, as well as the over-pessimism of economists and the greatness of market forces.

With the popularity of the Internet, the advantages of online shopping have become more prominent, and it has increasingly become an important form of shopping. The 29th Statistical Report on Internet Development in China released by the China Internet Network Information Center (CNNIC) in January 2012 shows that as of the end of December 2011, the number of Internet users in China reached 513 million, with 55.8 million new Internet users throughout the year; The penetration rate increased by 4 percentage points from the end of last year, reaching 38.3%. The number of mobile Internet users in China reached 356 million, a year-on-year increase of 17.5%. Compared with previous years, the growth of China's overall Internet users has entered a platform period.（Han Yuanjia, 2017）

'''Terms and Expressions'''

retrieve product information检索商品信息 a courier company快递公司

direct bank transfer直接银行转账 online remittance在线汇款

secured transactions担保交易 cash on delivery货到付款 logistics and distribution 物流配

'''Questions'''

1. What are people concerning about before the online shopping came true?

2. How could people pay online?

3. How was the situation in the previous economic field?

'''Answers'''

1. Will there be enough consumers shopping online? Can online shopping solve the problem of logistics and distribution? Can online shopping solve the problem of online payment?

2. the general payment method is cash on delivery (direct bank transfer, online remittance) and cash on delivery for secured transactions.

3. The manufacturer will ship the goods by mail order or deliver the goods to the door through a courier company.

===References===

中国“新四大发明”(2018).时代英语.Times English.

Wu Fangyi 吴方意.(2019).浅谈中国古代四大发明与大一统性[An Introduction to the Four Great Inventions of Ancient China and Grand Uniformity].西部学刊, Western Journal (16):133-136.

Kang Tianchi 康天驰.(2018).中国“新四大发明”“走出去”研究[Research on China's "Four New Inventions" and "Going Global].知识文库,Knowledge Library (11):244.

Du Yuheng, Han Wei, Kou Jingli 杜禹珩,韩伟,寇京丽.(2018).中国新四大发明之共享单车[China's New Four Inventions of Bicycle Sharing].中国统计,China Statistics.(03):77.

Han Yuanjia 韩元佳.(2017). 看“新四大发明”如何讲述中国奇迹?[See how the "Four New Inventions" tell the story of China's miracle?].创新时代,The Age of Innovation. (12):28-29.

Wanying Xie,Zeshui Xu,Zhiliang Ren. An Analysis on the Influence of Chinese “New Four Inventions” Under the Incomplete Hybrid Probabilistic Linguistic Environment[J]. International Journal of Fuzzy Systems,2019,21(5).

Zhou Yixiang 周一翔.(2017).The “New Four Great Inventions” of China Impact on the World.校园英语,Campus English(52):255.

Deborah Strumsky,José Lobo. Identifying the sources of technological novelty in the process of invention[J]. Research Policy,2015,44(8).

东海道新干线のバイパス[J].中央新干线委员会

==Wu Yilu 吴一露 202070080610==
===Four Domestic Mobile Phones===

===A.Huawei===

Huawei is probably the name that needs no introduction among all the Chinese phone manufacturers. “It's the world's second largest smartphone company, and it's at the center of an international battle for technological dominance between Beijing and Washington.” (Sareena Dayaram, 2020)

Founded in 1987, Huawei focuses on providing information and communications technology (ICT) infrastructure and smart devices. With more than 194,000 employees, this company operates in more than 170 countries and regions, serving more than three billion people around the world. Huawei is a private company wholly owned by its employees. It means no government agency or outside organization holds shares in Huawei. (Huawei Device Co., Ltd, 2020)

Their vision and mission is to bring digital to every person, home and organization for a fully connected, intelligent world. (Huawei Device Co., Ltd, 2020) The benefits of digital technology shouldn't just be available to those who can afford it. Huawei's mission is to expand the benefits of technology to everyone, everywhere. To achieve this, they've developed a digital inclusion strategy that focuses on three areas: technology, applications, and skills. For example, three main world-changing technologies built by Huawei are 5G, Huawei cloud and Huawei AI.

"Staying customer-centric and creating value for customers" are the company's common values. (Huawei Device Co., Ltd, 2020) The company has a well-developed internal governance structure, under which all governance bodies have clear and focused authority and responsibility, but operate under checks and balances. This creates a closed cycle of authority and achieves rational and cyclical succession of authority, so as to drive the facilitation and implementation of the company's common values.

[[File:Corporate Governance Structure.jpg|650px|thumb|middle|Diagram of Huawei Corporate Governance. Click [https://www-file.huawei.com/-/media/corporate/images/about-huawei/2020/corporate-governance-structure-18en.png?la=en-us/File:Corporate Governance Structure.jpg] for original source.]]

Huawei is continuing to focus on research and innovation to seize the opportunities and address the challenges of the future intelligent world. There are many innovations and inventions of Huawei to drive the industry forward, including advanced wireless networks, optical networks, intelligent O&M, AI computing, smartphone camera, media CODEC standards, software, trustworthiness and so on. From this we can find that the main business of Huawei is communication stations，while that of Apple is consumer electronics. Today, Huawei have entered the 5G ear and embarked on 6G research. It is exploring new directions for 6G. To this end, they began research into the basic theories of 6G and initiated extensive open collaboration projects with other industry players and pushed the industry to build a consensus on 6G. (Huawei Device Co., Ltd, 2020)

Since the top executive (and daughter of the company's founder) Meng Wangzhou was arrested in Canada for an alleged violation of US sanctions with Iran, this telecommunication giant, which was unknown to most American, appeared frequently in newspapers, especially since the US Commerce Department banned American companies from doing business with Huawei without first obtaining a license. (Sareena Dayaram,2020)

For Huawei, that meant it could lose access to crucial technological parts including semiconductors, which are key components used in its base stations and phones. It also meant Huawei's handsets cannot use Google's Android operating system, which provides several popular apps including the Google Play store, Gmail, Google Maps and apps that rely on Google like Uber and eBay. (Sareena Dayaram,2020) The Mate 30 was Huawei's first major phone to launch without Google's proprietary apps. All people thought this would decrease Huawei’s sale. Of course, it does. But the company reported first-half earnings showing revenue grew more than 13% from a year ago to around $65 billion.

===Terms and Expression===

Huawei cloud 华为云 Intelligent Collaboration 协同管理技术

optical networks 光纤网络 Carrier Network 承载网络

intelligent O&M 智能委托运营 the Kunpeng 920 鲲鹏920

AI computing 人工智能计算 AppGallery 华为应用程序库

information and communications technology (ICT) 信息与通讯技术 Media CODEC standards 编解码标准

===Questions:===

1. When is Huawei founded?

2.How many countries and regions does Huawei operate?

3.Do government agency and outside organization hold shares if Huawei?

4.What is the vision and mission of Huawei? And what do they do to achieve this mission?

5.What are the three main world-changing technologies built by Huawei?

6.What are the innovations and inventions of Huawei?

7.What are the company’s common values?

8.What makes that the telecommunications giant frequently was mentioned across newspapers?

9.Which phone is the first major phone launched without Google’s proprietary apps？

10.What’s your opinion towards these two issues mention above? Will these hinder the development of Huawei?

===Answers:===

1. It is founded in 1987.

2. It operates in more than 170 countries and regions

3. No, no government agency or outside organization holds shares in Huawei.

4. Their vision and mission is to bring digital to every person, home and organization for a fully connected, intelligent world; their mission is to expand the benefits of technology to everyone, everywhere. To achieve this, they've developed a digital inclusion strategy that focuses on three areas: technology, applications, and skills.

5. 5G, Huawei cloud and Huawei AI.

6. Advanced wireless networks, optical networks, intelligent O&M, AI computing, smartphone camera, Media CODEC standards, software, trustworthiness and so on.

7. "Staying customer-centric and creating value for customers" are the company's common values.

8. ①Top executive (and daughter of the company's founder) Meng Wangzhou was arrested in Canada for an alleged violation of US sanctions with Iran.

②the US Commerce Department banned American companies from doing business with Huawei without first obtaining a license.

9. The Mate 30.

10. In my opinion, these are totally unfair to Huawei, as well as China’s companies and economy. The Meng Wanzhou case is a serious political incident orchestrated by the United States to suppress Chinese high-tech companies and Huawei. It is also a kind of protectionism, which is divorced from the trend of globalization. We cannot deny that those actions will hinder the development of Huawei, specially some necessary chips. Although Huawei made preparation in advance, the core products are guaranteed to be available for six months to two years. In addition, Huawei has self-developed a large number of chip designs. But the following three areas are difficult to replace in the short term: manufacturing, semiconductor equipment and EDA software. On the one side, these issues, obviously, will obstruct the development of Huawei, but on the other side, they also promote the process of autonomy of domestic chips.

===References===

Sareena Dayaram, Huawei, OnePlus and beyond: China's biggest smarthone brands you should know about, https://www.cnet.com/news/huawei-oneplus-china-biggest-smartphone-brands-you-should-know-about-lenovo-meizu-xiaomi-oppo-vivo/, 2020.

Huawei Device Co., Ltd, https://consumer.huawei.com/en/about-us/, 2020

===B. Xiaomi===

Xiaomi is one of China's earlier homegrown success companies. It is an internet company with smartphones and smart hardware connected by an IoT platform at its core. Founded in April 2010 and listed on the Main Board of the Hong Kong Stock Exchange on July 9, 2018, Xiaomi has matured into one of China's domestic champions. (Xiaomi, 2020)

With the vision of being friends with its users and being the “coolest company” in the hearts of its users, Xiaomi is committed to continuous innovation, with an unwavering focus on quality and efficiency. Xiaomi is currently the world's fourth-largest smartphone brand, and has established the world's largest consumer IoT platform, with more than 213.2 million smart devices (excluding smartphones and laptops) connected to its platform--- Xiaomi Vela.(Xiaomi, 2020)

[[File:Xiaomi-logo.jpg|100px|thumb|left|Xiaomi-logo. Click [https://https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Xiaomi_logo.svg/800px-Xiaomi_logo.svg.png/File:Xiaomi-logo.jpg] for original source.]]

Currently, Xiaomi products are present in more than 90 countries and regions around the world and have a leading foothold in many markets. The "MI" in its logo stands for “Mobile Internet”.(Xiaomi,2020) It also has other meanings, including "Mission Impossible", because Xiaomi faced many challenges that had seemed impossible to defy in its early days.

“Just for fans”--- that’s Xiaomi’s belief. Many of their employees were initially fans of Mi products, before they decided to join them. The company relentlessly builds amazing products with honest prices to let everyone in the world enjoy a better life through innovative technology. “This low-margin strategy has helped Xiaomi cultivate a loyal fan base, especially in price-sensitive countries in Asia like India, where its slick Android phones often sell out within hours of release.” (Sareena Dayaram,2020)

Besides selling phones, Xiaomi also generates its revenue from the sale of software and services. It also sells a portfolio of its own smart products including bedside lamps and air purifiers to help build its Mi brand internationally. But, Xiaomi also learns from many of its rivals to sell more expensive phones “This strategy seems to have paid off, with the company reporting nearly 14% revenue growth in the first quarter despite the business challenges of the coronavirus pandemic.” (Sareena Dayaram,2020) While Samsung and Apple have both warned of a challenging year ahead.

“The investment in the world’s fastest-growing mobile market, where over 300,000 people power up their first smartphone every day, has made Xiaomi India’s bestselling smartphone brand for three years running. In 2020 so far, it has sold 29 million phones, 2 million more than in China, to control a full quarter of India’s smartphone market.”(Emon Barrett & Grady Mcgregor, 2000) Another reason for its success is that when Xiaomi offered 4G services，while competitors like Samsung，Microsoft，and Indian brand Micromax were still stuck on 3G. But it does face one strong headwind: Indian consumers’ anti-China sentiment. A border skirmish between Indian and Chinese military forces in June ignited boycotts of Chinese goods. Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s nationalist government keeps stoking the backlash, which means Xiaomi’s trajectory on the subcontinent may depend on whether the roots it planted in India qualify the brand as Indian enough.

===Terms and Expression===

IoT（Internet of Things）物联网 robot vacuums 机器人吸尘器

Xiaomi 小米 powerbank 充电宝

VR glasses 虚拟现实眼镜 UAV(Unmanned Aerial Vehicle) 无人机

electric scooters 电动平衡车 WiFi rooters 无线路由器

===Questions:===

1.When is Xiaomi founded?

2.What is the core of this company？

3.What’s Xiaomi’s ranking in the world’s smartphone brands？And what are the top 4 smartphone brands？

4.What does the "MI" in its logo stand for？

5.What is Xiaomi’s belief？

6.What has helped Xiaomi cultivate a loyal fan base？

7.How does Xiaomi generate its revenue？

8.What problem does Xiaomi confront in India？and Why？

9.What’s your opinion about the future of Xiaomi in Indian market？

===Answers===

1. It is founded in April 2010.

2. The IoT platform.

3. Xiaomi is currently the world's fourth-largest smartphone brand. The top four smartphone brands are Apple, Huawei, Samsung and Xiaomi.

4. Xiaomi Vela.

5. It stands for “Mobile Internet” and "Mission Impossible".

6. “Just for fans”--- that’s Xiaomi’s belief.

7. The low-margin strategy.

8. Xiaomi generates most of its revenue from selling phones, but recurring revenue from the sale of software and services.

9. Indian consumers’ anti-China sentiment. Because a border skirmish between Indian and Chinese military forces in June ignited boycotts of Chinese goods, and then Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s nationalist government keeps stoking the backlash
10.What’s your opinion about the future of Xiaomi in Indian market？
Although we can find that Xiaomi made instant reaction to confront with this boycott by telling local media that Xiaomi was “as Indian as any other company here” , competitors like Samsung, took this chance and began flooding India with phones that could compete with Xiaomi’s features and affordability. So only if the relationship between China and India become better or Xiaomi figures a new way, otherwise, Xiaomi’s market in India will shrink gradually.

===References===

Emon Barrett & Grady Mcgregor,How Chinese phonemaker Xiaomi conquered India—and outperformed Apple, https://fortune.com/2020/12/03/xiaomi-china-phones-apple-mobile-iphone/, 2020.

Sareena Dayaram, Huawei, OnePlus and beyond: China's biggest smarthone brands you should know about, https://www.cnet.com/news/huawei-oneplus-china-biggest-smartphone-brands-you-should-know-about-lenovo-meizu-xiaomi-oppo-vivo/, 2020.

Xiaomi, About Us, https://www.mi.com/global/about/, 2020.

===C. VIVO & OPPO===

Have you ever heard about VIVO? If not, then how about its older and larger sibling OPPO. Although OPPO and VIVO aren't household brands in the West, both have vaulted up the global rankings to place within the top six smartphone manufacturers in a comparatively short period of time, due partially to the popularity of their affordable phones among young consumers. (Sareena Dayaram,2020) These two Chinese phone-makers, with similar marketing strategies like Xiaomi, use high-profile product placement and sponsorships to win over European shoppers. Besides, OPPO and VIVO smartphones are always in eye-catching glossy colors which looks good, but it’s plastic and light.So there is still much room for improvement for these two brands.

Are VIVO and OPPO same? If you didn’t know these two brands, you may say no. But yes, even though OPPO and VIVO stress that they're competitors, both companies were spun out of the same parent company. OPPO and VIVO share the same parent company mainly known as BBK Electronics Corporation (Headquarters at Dongguan, Guangdong – China). BBK Electronics Corporation is a Chinese multinational firm specializing in electronics such as television sets, MP3 players, digital cameras and cell phones too. “BBK Electronics is also considered as the world’s 2nd-largest phone manufacturer company, which manufactures some of the fastest growing smartphones brands in Asia.” (Anchit Sharma, 2019) They recently got popular in developing countries of Asia such as India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and also in developed countries like China itself.

At the 2020 Developer Conference, Color OS 11 launched by OPPO focuses on personalized creation, seamless experience, and sensory invigoration. While the Origin OS launched by VIVO carried out subversive innovations mainly in UI design. The OPPO Developer Conference focuses on the integration of people, equipment and scenes. (OPPO, 2020) VIVO’s mission is to make their consumers’ lives extraordinary through introducing innovative technology and being a trendsetter.(vivo Mobile Communication Co., Ltd. , 2020)

With the development of 5G, the interconnection of everything is the most significant trend. Both OPPO and VIVO have demonstrated cross-device synergy in the OS upgrade, and they also attach great importance to the construction of the IoT ecosystem. There are 6 research and development centers of VIVO working on leading technologies: Beijing, Nanjing, Hangzhou, Dongguan, Shenzhen and San Diego (USA), and 4 global manufacturing bases delivering premium quality products: Dongguan, Chongqing, India and Republic of Indonesia. (vivo Mobile Communication Co., Ltd. , 2020)

===Terms and Expression===

OS 操作系统（operating system） VOOC 闪充

BBK 步步高 Fingerprint unlocking 指纹解锁

accessories 配件 octa-core processor 八核心处理器

===Questions:===

1.What’s the relationship between OPPO and VIVO？

2.What are the characteristics of OPPO and VIVO smartphones？

3.Where is the headquarter of BBK Electronics Corporation？And what is it specializing in？

4.Where are the major markets of BBK Electronics Corporation？

5.Please give a example of products from each brands.

6.What does the OPPO Developer Conference focus on？

7.What’s the mission of VIVO？

8.How many research and development centers does VIVO have？And where are they？

9.How many global manufacturing bases does VIVO have？ And where are they？

--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 15:50, 4 December 2020 (UTC)

===Answers===

1. They're competitors, but they were also spun out of the same parent company.

2. Affordable and eye-catching glossy colors.

3. The headquarters locates at Dongguan, Guangdong, China. It specializing in electronics such as television sets, MP3 players, digital cameras and cell phones too.

4. Developing countries of Asia such as India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and also in developed countries like China itself.

5. OPPO: Color OS 11;VIVO: Origin OS.

6. It focuses on personalized creation, seamless experience, and sensory invigoration.

7. VIVO’s mission is to make their consumers’ lives extraordinary through introducing innovative technology and being a trendsetter.

8. 6 research and development centers. They are in Beijing, Nanjing, Hangzhou, Dongguan, Shenzhen and San Diego (USA).

9. 4 global manufacturing bases. They are in Dongguan, Chongqing, India and Republic of Indonesia.

===References===

Anchit Sharma, The Company behind OPPO, VIVO, OnePlus and Realme Smartphones is same?,https://www.techworm.net/2019/06/company-oppo-vivo-oneplus-realme.html,2019.

vivo Mobile Communication Co., Ltd. , https://www.vivo.com/in/about-vivo/culture, 2020.

OPPO, https://www.oppo.com/en/about/, 2020.

==Chinese Dialects Wu Zijia 吴子佳 202070080645 MTI英语口译==

===A.Brief introduction of Chines dialects===

The words topolect and hibernation, all comes from Yangxiong (53-18), "Interpretation of Foreign Dialects: Light Xuan“in the Han dynasty. "Dialect" refers to different meanings in different groups, according to the Chinese , "dialect " is both a political concept and a linguistic one, and it is also known as "Vernacular ". "Accent", refers to the difference in the language standard of a certain region, such as relationship between relatives regardless of the language."Dialect",however, is a linguistic concept in Europe, subordinating under the concept of"language" at the beginning of the eighteenth century. Based on the relationship between the language (pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar),it is divided into family, group, branch and language.Considering the special national situation of China, The translation of "Chinese dialects" into English is "Varieties of Chinese".According to the European , dialect is a language that differs from the standarded language and is spoken in only one certain region.( Julie M. Groves 2008,1)

China enjoys a vast field and a long history. In the process of historical development, different divisions and unification inevitably occurred in the society, which led to the gradual emergence of diverse and complex dialects system in Chinese. There are many factors contributing to the evolution of dialect, including social, historical and geographical factors, as well as the language itself.
According to the dialects, Chinese is divided into two categories: the official dialects and the nine local dialects. Official dialects ,namely modern Chinese, are not independent dialects, because they are very similar in pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar to the common language. Other regional dialects differ greatly in pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar, thus forming their own dialect systems. The official dialects include northeast Mandarin, Beijing mandarin, Ji Lu mandarin, Jiao-Liao mandarin, Central Plains mandarin, Lan-Yin mandarin, Southwest Mandarin and Jianghuai mandarin. The nine local dialects include Wu dialect, Cantonese, Fujian dialect, Hunan dialect, Hakka, Gan dialect, Hui dialect, Jin dialect and Pinghua.(Li Rong 1989,241)

===B.Hunan dialect===

Xiangyu , also known as xiang dialect or Hunan dialect, belongs to the sino-tibetan language, and is the main language used by the hunan people who live in xiangjiang river basin and its branches. Xiangyu is divided into two categories: new Xiangyu and The old Xiangyu. The new Xiangyu is represented by Changsha dialect while the old one is represented by Shuangfeng dialect.The core area of ancient Chu language is located in the middle reaches of Yangtze River, and Chu language is the ancestor language of Xiang language. Modern Xiangyu speakers are mainly distributed in a considerable part of Hunan province in Mainland China, including Changsha, Zhuzhou, Xiangtan, Yueyang, Yiyang, Loudi, Hengyang, Shaoyang, Yongzhou and so on. In 2010, the number of Xiangyu-speaker was estimated to be about 45 million. The regional dialects of Hunan province include Hunan, Southwest Official, Gan, Hakka, and Xiangxiang, southern Hunan dialect, which have not yet been classified as belonging to the dialect. Xiangyu is the main dialect of Hunan Province. Hunan province is a region that has diverse dialects. (Peng Jianguo 2006,25)

The chu dialect ,namely Chu Yan (ancient Chu language), is popular in Chu in the pre-Qin period, and it is the most ancient origin of Xiang language. The specific appearance of ancient Chu language cannot be verified today, but it is the earliest language used by the Han people in Hunan and along the Xiangjiang river. The word "Chu Yan" first appeared in Zuo Zhuan, indicating that the Chu Yan had been formed at least in the late Spring and Autumn Period, and was a branch of Chinese language,and was different from the Central Plains Yayin XiaYan at that time.There are 20-35 initials of Xiangyu, 30 to 40 finals, 5-7tones,commonly with 6.(Peng Jianguo 2006,26)

===C. Contonese===

Yueyu ,or Cantonese, Guangdong dialect and Tang dialect, is commonly known as "baihua".It is a Chinese dialect in the Chinese-Tibetan Chinese language family. Cantonese is the mother tongue of the Guangfu nationality, an important carrier of the Guangfu culture of the Han nationality, and one of the basic symbolic cultural identities of the Guangfu nationality. Cantonese has a complete language system consisting of nine tones and six volumes of tones, retaining many characteristics of Middle Ancient Chinese . Besides Putonghua, it is the only Chinese language that has been studied independently by foreign universities. (Julie M. Groves 2008,2)

As for the origin of Cantonese, there are different opinions.Some says that it originated from the Northern Mid-plain dialect and others the Chu language from the State of Chu. Cantonese is one of the southern dialects that retains more middle Ancient Chinese elements than other dialects, among which the most prominent feature is that it relatively retains the universal middle Ancient Chinese "Ru Sheng", and its initials, finals and tones have a good correspondence with the ancient Chinese standard rhymes in"Qu Yun" and "Guang Yun".(Julie M. Groves 2008,25)

Mandarin is a dominant language in Guangdong province, and the most dominant dialect is Cantonese. Hakka dialect and Fujian dialect are the other two major Chinese dialects with great influence in the province. Hakka dialect is mainly concentrated in the northeast and north of Guangdong province, and hakka dialect is also distributed in parts of western Guangdong province. Hakka villages are scattered in most parts of the province, and the number of people using this dialect is about 20 million. (Julie M. Groves 2008,60)

Fujian dialect is mainly distributed in the coastal area of the southwest and southeast of Guangdong province ,including 6 municipalities:Chaozhou, Shantou, Jieyang, Shanwei, Zhanjiang, Maoming ,and it can be divided into to language-speaking areas: they are , Chaoshan and Leizhou .The former shares some similarities with the south Fujian dialect , while the later is close to Hainan dialect.In addition, there are 18.95 million people living in some islets in Zhongshan,Huizhou, Qingyuan, Shaoguan taking Fujian dialect as their official language.(Julie M. Groves 2008,60)

===Question===

1.How many local dialects in China?

2.What are they?

3.What is the origin of the Xiang dialect.
--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 08:23, 9 November 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia

===Answers===
1.9

2.Wu dialect, Cantonese, Fujian dialect, Hunan dialect, Hakka, Gan dialect, Hui dialect, Jin dialect and Pinghua

3.The Chu language

===References===

* Peng Jianguo 彭建国(2006)．《湘语音韵历史层次研究》.[ A Study on the Historical perspective of Xiang Phonology].”湖南大学出版社”[Hunan University Press]．25-26.

* Li Rong 李荣(1989).汉语方言的分区.[The division of Chinese dialects] (04)：241-259.

* Julie M. Groves (2008).Language or Dialect—or Topolect? A Comparison of the Attitudes of Hong Kongers and Mainland Chinese towards the Status of Cantonese .SINO-PLATONIC PAPERS.1-60.

==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲 202070080611 MTI 英语笔译==

===March of the Volunteers (National Anthem of the People's Republic of China)===

===A. Brief Introduction===

March of the Volunteers is a song composed by Tian Han and Nie Er. It is the theme song of the film Children of Troubled Times, known as the clarion call of the Liberation of the Chinese nation. Since its birth in 1935 which was the critical moment of national crisis, it has played a great role in inspiring the patriotic spirit of the Chinese people, and later became the National Anthem of the People’s Republic of China.

On May 9, 1935, the first version of the song was recorded in the recording studio of EMI Records. In 1951, in order to meet the need of playing the national anthem, the People's Record Factory recorded and published a rough record composed by a brass ensemble and an orchestral ensemble. In 1959, to celebrate the 10th anniversary of the founding of the People’s Republic of China, the China Record Factory recorded and published a full set of standard national anthem special records. In 1978, a special album for collective lyrics was released. In 1983, China Record Shanghai Company recorded and published a special record for the standard national anthem after the original word was restored.

On March 14, 2004, the Second Session of the Tenth National People’s Congress passed a constitutional amendment, officially stipulating that the national anthem of the People’s Republic of China shall be the March of Volunteers.

The National Anthem Law of the People's Republic of China was adopted at the 29th Session of the 12th National People's Congress Standing Committee on September 1st, 2017, and formally went into effect on October 1st.

===B. Creation Background===

March of the Volunteers is the theme song of the film Children of Troubled Times. In the autumn of 1934, Tian Han wrote a long poem for the film, the last verse of which was selected as the lyrics of the theme song March of the Volunteers. Shortly after the lyrics were written, Tian Han was arrested and imprisoned by the Kuomintang authorities. In February 1935, director Xu Xingzhi took over the shooting of Children of Troubled Times.

Soon after, comrades who went to prison to visit Tian Han and brought back the lyrics written by him in prison on the back of cigarette packing paper, that is, the original manuscript of March of the Volunteers. At that time, Nie Er was preparing to go to Japan to seek refuge. He learned that there was a theme song to write in the film children of the wind and cloud. He took the initiative to compose music for the song and promised to send back the song manuscript as soon as possible after he arrived in Japan.

Nie Er completed the first draft of the score soon after receiving the lyrics. On April 18, 1935, after Nie Er arrived in Tokyo, Japan, he completed the final draft of the score, and sent the final draft to Shanghai Dentsu Film Company at the end of April. Afterwards, in order to make the song tune and rhythm more powerful, Nie Er and Sun Shiyi discussed and made three changes to the lyrics, thus completing the song creation.

After the early shooting of the film of Children of Troubled Times was completed, the lyrics of Tian Han's theme song did not determine the name of the song, and Nie Er's lyric composition sent back from Japan only included the word "March". General Zhu Qinglan, as the investor of the film of Children of Troubled Times, added "Volunteers" after the words of "March", thus naming the song March of the Volunteers.

===C. Song Appreciation===

The March of the Volunteers is a very creative song; the composer Nie Er devotes himself to the creation of this song with great passion. First of all, he succeeds in handling the poetic lyrics of Tian Han’s prose in accordance with the laws of music in an extremely vivid, powerful and colloquial way. In terms of melody creation, he not only absorbs the excellent achievements of international revolutionary songs and the style characteristics of Western European march, but also makes it have strong national characteristics, so that the song could be grasped by the broad masses and play its fighting role.

The song begins as a prelude to a six-bar march. It has a sonorous rhythm, bright and majestic melody, among which the magical effect of triplet enhances the fighting atmosphere of the song. Although the prelude is short, it contains the basis for the emotional and melody development of the entire song. The song is interlocked and advanced layer by layer. This process runs through the whole song, and the end of the song is repeated many times, giving people a sense of unwavering and unstoppable.

According to the characteristics of the lyrics clause, Nie Er treated the song into a free body structure formed by six phrases of varying lengths. Although the melody and structure of each phrase are different, the cohesion between the phrases is close, the development is natural, and the singing is ups and downs, and is integrated.

March of the Volunteers, with its soaring, sonorous and powerful melody and inspiring lyrics, expresses the Chinese people's strong resentment and resistance to imperialist aggression, and embodies the heroic spirit of the great Chinese nation that is brave, strong, united as one to go through national disaster when they are facing the foreign aggression.

===D. Chinese and English Lyrics===

起来！不愿做奴隶的人们！

把我们的血肉，筑成我们新的长城！

中华民族到了最危险的时候，

每个人被迫着发出最后的吼声。

起来！起来！起来！

我们万众一心，

冒着敌人的炮火,

前进！

冒着敌人的炮火，

前进！

前进！前进、进！

Arise, you who refuse to be bond slaves!

Let’s stand up and fight for

Liberty and true democracy.

All our world is facing

The chains of the tyrants.

Everyone who works for freedom is now crying:

Arise! Arise! Arise!

With the torch of freedom,

March on!

With the torch of freedom,

March on!

March on! March on, and on!

===Terms and Expressions===

March of the Volunteers 义勇军进行曲

Children of Troubled Times 风云儿女

EMI 百代唱片

National People’s Congress 全国人民代表大会

National People's Congress Standing Committee 全国人大常委

===Questions===
‭
1. Who are the composers of March of the Volunteers?

2.Which movie's theme song does March of the Volunteers belong to?

3.When did the National Anthem Law go into effect?

4.When was the final draft completed?

5.How did the name of this song come from?

===Answers===
1.1.March of the Volunteers is a song composed by Tian Han and Nie Er.

2.It is the theme song of the film Children of Troubled Times.

3.The National Anthem Law of the People's Republic of China formally went into effect on October 1st, 2017.

4.On April 18, 1935, after Nie Er arrived in Tokyo, Japan, he completed the final draft.

5.After the early shooting of the film Children of Troubled Times was completed, the lyrics of Tian Han's theme song did not determine the name of the song, while Nie Er's lyric composition sent back from Japan only included the word "March". General Zhu Qinglan, as the investor of the film Children of Troubled Times, added "Volunteers" after the words of "March", thus naming the song March of the Volunteers.

===References===
姜龙飞. 《义勇军进行曲》在这里诞生[J]. 中国档案报, 2020,(003)

《义勇军进行曲》这样成为国歌[J]. 当代兵团，2020（19）

百度百科.义勇军进行曲

--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 11:26, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

==Xiao Ting 肖婷 202070080612 MIT 英语笔译==
====Zheng He's Voyages ====

From 1405 to 1433, the Chinese imperial eunuch Zheng He led seven expeditions to the coastal territories and islands in and around South China Sea,the Indian Ocean,and beyond for the Ming emperor which is an unprecedented feat in world history.(English Encyclopedia Treasure Voyages)

====Zheng He====
Zheng He was born Ma He to a Muslim family in the far southwest, in today's Yunnan province. It is said that his original surname is Ma,his full name as Ma Sanbao .At ten years old he was captured by soldiers sent there by the first Ming emperor intent on subduing the south.(Baidu Encyclopedia Zheng He)
He was sent to the capital to be trained in military ways. Growing up to be a burly, imposing man, over six feet tall with a chest contemporaries said measured over five feet around, he was also extremely talented and intelligent. He received both literary and military training, then made his way up the military ladder with ease, making important allies at court in the process. Besides Zheng He has a background of both Buddhism and lslam.Thus,he was assumed as the perfect choice to lead the emperor’s splendid armada.(Ye Lang 2008,116)[[File:Zheng He.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Zheng He]]

====Reasons for the voyages====
The Yongle Emperor sent Zheng He to the “Western oceans”, both to demonstrate the might of the Ming Empire and to realize the diplomatic ideal of peace and harmony among all nations. Zheng He's fleet manifested the prosperity ，the imperial power ，its advanced navigation technologies and exquisite ship-building techniques of China at that time , thus many small countries and bribes agreed to recognize China as their superior and its emperor as lord of “all under Heaven”.These countries and bribes regularly gave gifts of tribute in exchange for certain benefits ,like military posts, treaties and licence to trade.(Qian Zhiqian 2005,93)
During the voyages ,Zheng He's fleet did not act as a sea ruler, but appeared in peace all over the world, laden not only with goods exchanged with those countries, but also with the friendship of peoples.(Ye Lang 2008,120)
[[File:The Yongle Emperor.jpg|500px|thumb|right|The Yongle Emperor]]
====The seven expeditions====
These expeditions were astonishing as much for their distance as for their size: during the first one, Zheng He traveled all the way from China to Southeast Asia and then on to India, all the way to major trading sites on India's southwest coast.The first expedition of this mighty armada was in 11th July of 1405, composed of 317ships and perhaps as many as sixty huge Treasure Ships and nearly 28000 men with thousands of soldiers , sailors ,diplomatic specialists ,medical personnel, astronomers and scholars.The fleet stopped in Java and then arrived at Ceylon (today’s Sri Lanka ).Compared to the first one, the second voyage(1407-1409) was smaller with only 68ships sending foreign envoys back home.(Zhen Hesheng,Zhe Yijun 1983,38)

Zheng He led the third voyage (1409-1411) visiting many of the same countries as the first one did, like Champa and Java. When fighting broke out there between his forces and those of a small kingdom, Zheng put down the fighting, captured the king and brought him back to China where he was released by the emperor and then returned home duly impressed.(Baidu Encyclopedia Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans)

The fourth voyage (1413-15) extended the scope of the expeditions even further. This time in addition to visiting many of the same sites, Zheng He commandeered his 40 ships and over 28,000 men to Hormuz on the Persian Gulf. This trip has 48 ships with doctors , officials ,translators and more than 27000 troops .
The fifth voyage (1417-1419) was primarily a return trip for seventeen heads of state from South Asia. They had made their way to China after Zheng He's visits to their homelands in order to present their tribute at the Ming Court. (Baidu Encyclopedia Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans)

The sixth voyage began in 1421 and lasted for nearly two years.Then the expeditions were halted due to the death of the Yongle emperor.It sailed to many of the previously visited Southeast Asian and Indian courts and stops in the Persian Gulf, the Red Sea, and the coast of Africa, principally in order to return nineteen ambassadors to their homelands. Zheng He returned to China after less than a year, having sent his fleet onward to pursue several separate itineraries, with some ships going perhaps as far south as Sofala in present day Mozambique.(Baidu Encyclopedia Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans)

The seventh and final voyage (1431-33) was sent out by the Yongle emperor's successor, his grandson the Xuande emperor.This expedition had more than one hundred large ships and over 27,000 men, and it visited all the important ports in the South China Sea and Indian Ocean as well as Aden and Hormuz. One auxiliary voyage traveled up the Red Sea to Jidda, only a few hundred miles from the holy cities of Mecca and Medina. It was on the return trip in 1433 that Zheng He died and was buried at sea, although his official grave still stands in Nanjing, China. Nearly forgotten in China until recently, he was immortalized among Chinese communities abroad, particularly in Southeast Asia where to this day he is celebrated and revered as a god.(Zhen Hesheng,Zhe Yijun 1983,43)
[[File:Route.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Route]]

====Terms and Expressions====
The Yongle emperor 永乐皇帝（明成祖）

Java 爪哇

Ceylon 锡兰（今斯里兰卡）

Champe 占城（印度支那古国）

Hormuz 霍尔木兹

The Persian Gulf 波斯湾

Medina 麦地那市（沙特阿拉伯西部城市）

Mecca 麦加（穆斯林圣地）

==== Questions====
1.What was Zheng He like?

2. Why did the Yongel Emperor sent the armada to the “Western oceans”?

3.How many people did Zheng He bring at the first voyage ,and what did these people do?

4.Why did the expeditions stopped during the 1423-1430?

5.The last trip was sented by?

===Answers===
1.Growing up to be a burly, imposing man, over six feet tall with a chest contemporaries said measured over five feet around, he was also extremely talented and intelligent.

2.Both to demonstrate the might of the Ming Empire and to realize the diplomatic ideal of peace and harmony among all nations.

3.He brought nearly 28000 men with thousands of soldiers , sailors ,diplomatic specialists ,medical personnel, astronomers and scholars.

4.The expeditions were halted due to the death of the Yongle emperor.

5.By the Yongle emperor's successor, his grandson the Xuande emperor.
===References===
Ye Lang 叶朗. 中国文化读本[A book of Chinese Culture][M].北京,2008,115-123.

Qian Zhiqian 钱志乾. 试论郑和下西洋的主要目的[On the purpose of Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans] [J]. 江西社会科学,2005,(02):90-94.

Zhen Hesheng,Zhe Yijun郑鹤声 ,郑一钧. 郑和下西洋简论[A brief Introduction of Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans] [J]. 吉林大学社会科学学报,1983,(01):36-48.

[Baidu Encyclopedia]百度百科.郑和 [Zheng He]

[Baidu Encyclopedia]百度百科.郑和下西洋 [Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans]

[English Encyclopedia]英语百科.郑和下西洋[Treasure Voyages]
--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 12:42, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

==Literature, China's Four Great Classical Novels - Xie Fan 解帆 202070080637 英语口译==

===China's Four Great Classical Novels===

The Four Great Works of Chinese Classical Novels, abbreviated as the Four Great Works, are ''Water Margin'', ''Romance of The Three Kingdoms'', ''Journey to the West'', and ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' (in the order of their completion).The Four Great Classical Novels are some of the classics of Chinese literature and they are considered part of the cultural heritage of the world. The status of these four masterpieces in the history of Chinese literature is difficult to distinguish with their high level of literature and artistic achievements. They are time-honored and unique among Chinese literature works, so that the stories, scenes and characters in these masterpieces have deeply influenced the thoughts and values of the Chinese people. The meticulous portrayal and the profound thoughts contained in these four masterpieces have been praised by readers in history. They can be described as (the)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 08:41, 18 December 2020 (UTC)four great monuments in the history of Chinese literature.(Chen Wenxin 2019,24)

====Water Margin====

''Water Margin'', written by Shi Naian, is a novel based on an ancient peasant uprising. It vividly depicts(portrays)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 08:41, 18 December 2020 (UTC) the whole process from the occurrence, development and failure of the peasant uprising, profoundly reveals the social roots of the uprising, enthusiastically eulogues the resistance struggle of the 'heroes' of the uprising and their social ideals, and specifically reveals the internal historical reasons for the failure of the uprising. (Sun Jiancheng 2008,167)

With the occurrence and development of peasant uprising as its main line, the book describes the whole process of development for grand peasant uprising troop. Individual awakening develops into the small-scale joint resistance with the experience of different heroes, showing an inexorable law of the feudal era, that is, peasants being forced to revolt by the officials, profoundly reflecting the Song dynasty's political condition and social contradictions. Standing on the side of the oppressed, the author praised the righteous acts of the leaders of the peasant uprising, who robbed the rich to give (delete to give)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 08:41, 18 December 2020 (UTC)to the poor and exonerated and affirmed their revolutionary spirit of daring to rebel and struggle.(Liu Keqiang 2014,96)

====Romance of the Three Kingdoms====

''Romance of The Three Kingdoms'' is a novel written by Luo Guanzhong, a novelist in the late Yuan and early Ming Dynasty. It is the first chapter novel , the first novel of historical romance, and also the first long literary novel in the history of Chinese literature. At the end of yuan dynasty and the beginning of Ming Dynasty, social contradictions were acute, peasant uprisings broke out one after another, and dynasties(lands)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 08:41, 18 December 2020 (UTC) were divided. After years of war, Zhu Yuanzhang destroyed all the departed dynasties, overthrew the Yuan Dynasty, and established the Ming Dynasty. During the period when people were displaced, Luo Guanzhong, as a writer of zaju and stories, lived at the bottom of the society, understood and got familiar with the sufferings of the people, expected social stability and people to live and work in peace and contentment, thought as an intellectual at the bottom, and hoped to end the tragic situation caused by the turbulence. Therefore, he wrote the historical novel ''Romance of The Three Kingdoms'' on the history of the last years of the Eastern Han Dynasty. (Wang Zhiwu 2004,12)

''Romance of The Three Kingdoms'' describes the history of nearly a hundred years from the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty to the beginning of the Western Jin Dynasty. It mainly describes wars and tells (delete tells)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 08:41, 18 December 2020 (UTC)the story of the warring states of the eastern Han Dynasty and the political and military struggles among The Three Kingdoms, namely, Wei, Shu and Wu. Finally, Sima Yan unified The Three Kingdoms and established the Jin Dynasty. Besides, it reflects the transformation of various social struggle and contradictions in The Three Kingdoms period, summarizes the historical changes of this era, and shapes a group of powerful heroes of The Three Kingdoms period. (Zhang Zhihe 2000,32)

====Journey to the West====

''Journey to the West'' is the first romanticism chapter novel in China, and its author is WuChenen in the Ming Dynasty. The book mainly tells a story, after the birth and havoc in heaven, (.)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 08:41, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Su Wukong met Tang Monk, White Dragon Horse, Zhu Bajie and Sand monk, started their journey to the West, went through 81 hardships and dangers, demons and monsters, finally arrived in the West to see the Buddha. (Chen Dakang 2000,16)

The novel is based on the historical event of Tang Monk going to study scriptures, and through the author's artistic processing, it profoundly depicts the social reality of The Ming Dynasty. The uproar in heaven in the novel reflects the resistance of the Chinese people in the feudal society through the form of fairy tales. Of course, fantasy novels reflect reality with their own characteristics, different from the general direct reflection of real life literature. The rebelin heaven erected the banner of "Monkey King", and put forward the slogan, "emperor take turns, and next is my turn" , hundreds of troops escaped, the heaven started to collapse, so that the jade emperor had to ask for external help. The plot of the fiction and fantasy based on reality of(delete reality of)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 08:41, 18 December 2020 (UTC) peasant uprising and peasant war. If there had not been many large-scale peasant uprisings and peasant wars that violently impacted the feudal dynasties in history, the plot of "Havoc in Heaven" could not have been so bold and the image of Sun Wukong as a rebel could not have been so brilliant. (Chen Dakang 2000,17)

====Dream of the Red Chamber====

''Dream of the Red Chamber'' was written by Cao Xueqin, a well-known writer in the Qing Dynasty. With the rise and fall of Jia, Shi, Wang as its background, with the love marriage (delete marriage)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 08:41, 18 December 2020 (UTC)tragedy of Jia Baoyu, Lin Daiyu, and Xue Baochai as its main line, in the perspective of rich childe Jia Baoyu, the book shows the tragic beauty, and female beauty from different angles and the phase of the ancient Chinese society of epic works. (Hu Jingzhu 2019,33)

''Dream of the Red Chamber'' was born (written)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 08:41, 18 December 2020 (UTC)at the end of feudal China in the 18th century. At that time, the Qing Government was closed to the outside world and the whole country was immersed in the dream of the Kang-Qian Flourishing Age and the Middle Kingdom. On the surface, the period seemed stable and peaceful, but actually all kinds of social contradictions were intensifying and developing, and the whole dynasty had reached a turning point of prosperity and decline. (Liu Mengxi 1984,41)

===Terms and Expressions===

农民起义 peasant uprising

孙悟空 Monkey King

大闹天宫 Havoc in Heaven

康乾盛世 the Kang-Qian Flourishing Age

天朝上国 the Middle Kingdom

===Questions===

1. What is the influence and status of Chinese Four Great Classical Novels?

2. What dose ''Water Margin'' mainly show?

3. Is ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' the first romanticism chapter novel in China? Which book is the first chapter novel in China?

4. Why has the plot of "Havoc in Heaven" been so bold and the image of Sun Wukong as a rebel been so brilliant?

4. What do you know about ''Dream of the Red Chamber''?

===Answers===

1. The stories, scenes and characters in these masterpieces have deeply influenced the thoughts and values of the Chinese people. They can be described as four great monuments in the history of Chinese literature.

2. It vividly depicts the whole process from the occurrence, development and failure of the peasant uprising, profoundly reveals the social roots of the uprising, enthusiastically eulogues the resistance struggle of the 'heroes' of the uprising and their social ideals, and specifically reveals the internal historical reasons for the failure of the uprising.

3. No, ''Journey to the West'' is the first romanticism chapter novel in China while ''Romance of the Three Kingdoms'' is the first chapter novel in China.

4. Because there had been many large-scale peasant uprisings and peasant wars that violently impacted the feudal dynasties in history.

4. ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' was written by Cao Xueqin, a well-known writer in the Qing Dynasty. With the rise and fall of Jia, Shi, Wang as its background, with the love marriage tragedy of Jia Baoyu, Lin Daiyu, and Xue Baochai as its main line, in the perspective of rich childe Jia Baoyu, the book shows the tragic beauty, and female beauty from different angles and the phase of the ancient Chinese society of epic works.

===References===

*Chen Dakang陈大康.(2000).《西游记》主题说的百年变迁：兼论“主题”概念的理论意义.[The Change of Theme during Hundreds of Years in ''Journey to the West'' - Discussion on the Theoretical Significance of the Theme].华东师范大学学报Journal of East China Normal University

*Chen Wenxin陈文新.(2019).中国文化视野中的“四大名著”.["The Four Great Classical Novels" from the Perspective of Chinese Culture].文化软实力研究Studies On Cultural Soft Power

*Hu Jingzhu胡静姝.(2019).《梦幻与现实的较量——浅析 < 红楼梦 > 中梦的美学意蕴》.[The Contest between Dream and Reality - A Brief Analysis of the Aesthetic Implication of ''Dream of the Red Chamber''].《汉字文化》The Culture of Chinese Characters

*Liu Keqiang刘克强.(2014).《水浒传》翻译大辞典.[The Translated Dictionary of ''Water Margin''].北京：中央编译出版社Beijing:Central Compilation Translation Press

*Liu Mengxi刘梦溪.(1984).红学三十年论文选编．[Selected Papers of Studies of Dream of the Red Chamber in the Past Three Decades].天津: 百花文艺出版社Tianjin:Baihua Literature and Art Publishing House

*Sun Jiancheng 孙建成.(2008).《水浒传》英译的语言与文化.[The Language and Culture of English Translation of ''Water Margin''].上海：复旦大学出版社Shanghai:Fudan University Press

*Wang Zhiwu王志武.(2004).《三国演义》的人物、结构和主题.[The Characters, Structure and Theme of ''Romance of The Three Kingdoms''].西北农林科技大学学报Journal of Northwest A&F University

*Zhang Zhihe张志和.(2000).《三国演义》思想意蕴试论.[Discussion on the Ideological Implication of ''Romance of The Three Kingdoms''].天津外国语学院学报Journal of Tianjin Foreign Studies University

==Four Folk Stories of Ancient China，Xu Jia 徐佳 202070080613 MTI英语笔译==

Cowherd and Weaving Girl, Meng Jiangnu Crying on the Great Wall, the Story of the White Snake and Butterfly Lovers are the four major folk love stories in ancient China. As the most charming oral traditions and national intangible cultural heritage in China, the earliest of them has been popular for more than 2000 years, having a profound impact on people’s lives.

1. Cowherd and Weaving Girl

2. Meng Jiangnu Crying on the Great Wall

3. The Story of the White Snake

4. Butterfly Lovers

====Cowherd and Weaving Girl====

It is said that the story took place in the Western Zhou Dynasty. Cowherd was an artless and honest young man living in the Xiniu village of Nanyang city. Since his parents died early, he lived a miserable life with an old ox. One day, Weaving Girl, the daughter of the God of Heaven, came down with other fairies from heaven and took a bathe in a river near Cowherd’s house. The old ox told the Cowherd to steal her clothes so that she was unable to return to the heaven and would stay here to be his wife.（Zhong Xiaoting 2020,92)

With the help of the old ox, Weaving Girl married Cowherd and soon they had a son and a daughter. They led a happy life with husband laboring in the field and wife weaving at home. But their marriage didn't last long. It was discovered by the Queen Mother and incurred her wrath. Ignoring tearful Cowherd and two crying children, she broke up the couple and brought Weaving Girl back. It was the old ox that helped him again. It told Cowherd that it would die tonight and he needed to make three pair of shoes with its skin, which could help him go to heaven and find his wife. Cowherd followed. Just as the cowherd was about to catch up with them, however, the Queen Mother took off her golden hairpin and separate them by a large river, which is now called the Milky Way. Hopelessly, the two lovers can only look at each other across the river.（Zhong Xiaoting 2020,92)

Fortunately, touched by their love，hundreds of thousands of magpies flied and formed a bridge over the river. Finally the Queen Mother showed a little mercy, allowing them to meet once a year on the magpie bridge. The day was the seventh day of the seventh lunar month, which later has become the Chinese Valentine’s Day.(Zhao Kuifu 1990,61)

====Meng Jiangnu Crying on the Great Wall====

During the reign of the first emperor of Qin Dynasty, Fan Xilang, a young man living in the surrounding area of Mengjiang mountain in Lizhou County, Hunan Province, had just finished the hard labor and returned to his hometown to get married. But unfortunately, on the night of their wedding, Fan Xilang was sent to the north to build the Great Wall. He toiled away with hunger, cold and fatigue, and soon met a miserable death at the end of his efforts. His body was buried under the Great Wall. （Yao Kangkang 2020,77)

Meng Jiangnu, Fan’s new wife, got the bad news and went through all kinds of hardships to reach the Great Wall. She cried bitterly there for three days and three nights, and finally cried down the Great Wall and found her husband's remains. On her way to take him home, she suffered a lot and finally died of hunger and thirst in Tongguan County, Shaanxi Province. Sympathetic with the couple’s miserable experience and deeply moved by Meng’s spirits, the local people buried their remains and set up ancestral temples to commemorate them.(Huang Ruiqi 2003)

====The Story of the White Snake====

Created in the Southern Song Dynasty and prevailed in the Qing Dynasty, the Story of the White Snake is a model of Chinese folk collective creation. In the book Stories to Warn Man compiled by Feng Menglong, The White Snake under the Leifeng Pagoda has been acknowledged as the first version of this story.

After thousands of years of practice in Emei Mountain, two snake named Bai Suzhen and Xiaoqing translated into two beautiful girls and came to visit Hangzhou. After encountering with a young man named Xu Xian in the rain, Bai Suzhen fell in love with him and soon later they get married. But a monk called Fahai saw through Bai’s disguise and thought that it was an intrigue of the white snake to marry a man. He persuaded Xu Xian to intoxicate his wife with realgar wine on the Dragon Boat Festival. After being drunk, Bai Suzhen couldn’t control herself and showed the shape of a snake, which scared Xu Xian to death. Regardless of her own safety, Bai Suzhen went through many difficulties and got the magical grass, which finally brought Xu Xian back to life.（Zhou Xia 2020）

But Fahai did not give up. He then lured Xu Xian to the Jinshan Temple to separate the couple. Bai Suzhen and Xiao Qing had no choice but to inundate the temple with flood. During the fierce battle, Bai was finally defeated and put into a small bowl under the Leifeng Pagoda.(Wang Yibing 1999)

====Butterfly Lovers====

During the Eastern Jin Dynasty, Zhu Yingtai, a beautiful and intelligent girl born in a rich family in Shangyu County, Zhejiang Province, wanted to go to Hangzhou to study for there was no good teacher at home. Her father, seeing her eagerness to learn and her ability to disguise herself as a man, finally agreed to her request. On the way to Hangzhou, Zhu Yingtai met Liang Shanbo, a young man who had the same destination with her. He was sincere, gentle and knowledgeable and they clicked immediately. During the school years, they often talked about poetry and articles, cared for each other, and slept in the same bed at night. Zhu had gradually fallen in love with Liang, who, though did not know she was a girl, also cherished her and saw her as his best friend.（Lin Liangliang 2020, 57)

Three years passed quickly. The moment when they had to part, Zhu constantly gave delicate indications to Liang that she was a girl and she loved him, but Liang failed to take her hint. Zhu had no choice but to lied to Liang that she had a little sister who was similar to her in appearance and learning and she wondered if Liang was willing to marry her. Liang Shanbo readily consented and promised that he would come to visit soon. A months later, Liang Shanbo went to Zhu's home and he was surprised to see Zhu Yingtai dressed up as a girl. Only then did he know the truth and figured all the things out. They then confessed their love to each other and pledged to marry without the permission of parents. （Lin Liangliang 2020, 58)

But unfortunately, Zhu’s parents didn’t think much of this poor young man. They wanted to marry their daughter to Ma Wencai, the son of the local governor. Zhu Yingtai was unwilling to marry him but her protest was in vain, for her family was in financial crisis and needed Ma’s support. Hopelessly, the two young lovers was forced to part in tears. Since then, Liang slid into a depression. His spirit and health were soon crushed, and he died a few months later. On the wedding day, Zhu asked for a detour to pass by Liang 's tomb so that she could say goodbye to him. Wearing a bright red wedding dress, she knelt in front of his grave and cried bitterly. At that moment, lighting flashed, thunder rolled and the sky went dark. Liang's tomb suddenly cracked open and Ying-tai immediately jumped into it before it closed. Then under the shocked eyes of the onlookers, a pair of beautiful butterflies flied out of the graves and dancing in the sunlight. It is believed that these two butterflies are Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai. They finally get rid of all the shackles and bounds and can stay together forever.(Jin Huiling 2007)

Having been adapted into many films and TV plays, these four stories are well-known in China and the rest of the world. As the crystallization of folk culture, they not only represent the rich imagination of ancient Chinese people, but also show their hatred for evil forces and their pursuit for a free and happy life, which is exactly the positive part of folk literature.

===Terms and Expressions===

Cowherd and Weaving Girl 牛郎织女

Meng Jiangnu Crying on the Great Wall 孟姜女哭长城

Butterfly Lovers 梁山伯与祝英台

the Queen Mother 王母娘娘

Stories to Warn Man 《警世通言》

The White Snake under the Leifeng Pagoda 《白娘子永镇雷峰塔》

===Questions===

1.What led to the death of Meng Jiangnu’s husband?

2.What did Xu Xian give Bai Suzhen to drink that made her reveal her snake form?

3.What did the Cowherd do to make Weaving Girl stay?

4.When did Liang Shanbo realize that Zhu Yingtai is actually a girl?

5.Why did Zhu Yingtai lie to Liang Shanbo that she has a little sister?

===Answers===

1.He was sent to build the Great Wall and died for hunger,cold and fatigue.

2.Realgar wine

3.He stole her clothes while she was taking a shower.

4.The first time Liang Shanbo went to Zhu's home,where he saw Zhu Yingtai dressed up as a girl.

5.The little sister she referred to is actually herself,and in this way she hinted at her love to Liang Shanbo.

===References===

Jin Huiling. Qin Yinan. (2007). 爱支撑的文化天堂——《罗密欧与朱丽叶》和《梁山伯与祝英台》[A Cultural Paradise Supported by Love - Romeo and Juliet and Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai] 社会科学论坛：学术研究卷Social Science Forum: Academic Research Volume(5):194-197.

Wang Yibing. (1999). 白蛇传故事的文化意蕴[The Cultural Implications of the Story of the White Snake].廊坊师专学报 Journal of Langfang Teachers College(4):12-18.

Huang Ruiqi. (2003). 孟姜女故事研究[A Study of the Story of Meng Jiang Nu] 北京：中国人民大学出版社. Beijing: People's University of China Press.

Zhao Kuifu. (1990). 论牛郎织女故事的产生与主题[On the Generation and Theme of the Story of the Cowherd and the Weaver]. 西北师大学报. Northwest Normal University Journal(4):56-63.

Zhong Xiaoting.(2020). 牛郎织女故事漫谈三则Three Rambling Stories of the Cowherd and the Weaving Maiden].美与时代. Beauty and the Times(10);92-94.

Yao Kangkang.(2020). 镇原送寒衣的风俗和孟姜女的传说[The Custom of Sending Cold Clothes to Zhen Yuan and the Legend of Meng Jiang Nu].甘肃政协.Journal of Gansu Political Consultative Committee:77-79.

Zhou Xia.(2020).《白蛇转》：白娘子的前世今生.[The White Snake: The Past Life of Bai Niang Zi].中国电影报.China Film News.

Lin Liangliang. (2020).梁祝传说中的原型及其内涵阐发.The Archetype and Its Connotation in the Legend of Liang Zhu. 名作欣赏. Masterpiece Appreciation(10):56-60.

--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 12:39, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia

==Architecture, Four Great Pavilions-Xu Jing 许静 202070080614 英语笔译==
===Four Great Pavilions===
A pavilion, a building style with great Chinese characteristics, is not only a place for passers-by to rest their feet, but also an important landscape building with garden art. At the foot of the mountains, by the lakeside and deep in the forest, we can always see pavilions that are half hidden and half exposed, subtly adding colour to the landscape scenery.

A pavilion, a building style with great Chinese characteristics, is not only a place for passers-by to rest their feet, but also an important landscape building with garden art. At the foot of the mountains, by the lakeside and deep in the forest, we can always see pavilions that are half-hidden and half-exposed, subtly adding colour to the landscape scenery.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 03:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Where there are pavilions, there are stories, and there are four famous pavilions in China - the Drunken Weng Pavilion in Chuzhou, the Tao Ran Pavilion in Beijing, the Ai Evening Pavilion in Changsha and the Hu Xin Pavilion in Hangzhou, all of which are famous for their poems and articles written by ancient writers and scholars.

Where there are pavilions, there are stories, and there are four famous pavilions in China - the Old Drunken Weng Pavilion in Chuzhou, the Tao Ran Pavilion in Beijing, the Ai Evening Pavilion in Changsha and the Hu Xin Pavilion in Hangzhou. All of them are famous for their poems and articles written by ancient writers and scholars.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 03:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====The Old Drunkard Pavilion====

Zuiweng Ting, or the Old Drunkard Pavilion is located at the foot of the Langya Mountain in Chuzhou, Anhui Province. This pavilion is the subject of a legendary work written by Ouyang Xiu, an essayist of the Song dynasty, called The Story of the Old Drunkard. The Old Drunkard Pavilion was built in 1046 AD, the sixth year of the Northern Song Dynasty's reign of Emperor Renzong.

Zuiweng Ting, or the Old Drunkard Pavilion is located at the foot of the Langya Mountain in Chuzhou, Anhui Province. The Old Drunkard Pavilion was built in 1046 AD, the sixth year of the Northern Song Dynasty's reign of Emperor Renzong.This pavilion is the subject of a well-known work written by Ouyang Xiu, an essayist of the Song dynasty, called The Story of the Old Drunkard.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 03:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

It is said that Ouyang Xiu was demoted to Chuzhou to do the imperial guard. Feeling indignant at the time, he devoted his soul into nature. He often came with friends and guests to Langya Mountain for fun, or to Langya Temple to drink wine and express their emotion. In order to give Ouyang Xiu a rest and a drink, the Langya Monastery monk Zhisian built this pavilion halfway up the mountain. The pavilion was named 'the Old Drunkard Pavilion' by Ouyang Xiu, who called himself “ the Old Drunkard”.

It is said that Ouyang Xiu was demoted to Chuzhou to serve as the perfect. Feeling indignant at the time, he devoted his soul into nature. He often came with friends and guests to Langya Mountain for fun, or to Langya Temple to drink wine and express their emotion. In order to give Ouyang Xiu a rest and a drink, the Langya Monastery monk Zhisian built this pavilion halfway up the mountain. The pavilion was named 'the Old Drunkard Pavilion' by Ouyang Xiu, who called himself “ the Old Drunkard”.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 03:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The pavilion has a compact layout with small, unique pavilions that are characteristic of the gardens of the south of the Yangtze River, and although the total area of the pavilion is less than 1,000 square metres, there are nine different buildings and scenes that are different from each other. The Old Drunkard Pavilion, Bao Song Zhai, Feng Gong Ancestral Hall, Ancient Plum Blossom Pavilion, Shadow Fragrance Pavilion, Yi Zai Pavilion, Fear Pavilion, Ancient Plum Blossom Pavilion, and the View Terrace have different styles, and are known as the “Nine Views of the Old Grunkard Pavilion”.

he pavilion has a compact layout with small, unique pavilions that are characteristic of the gardens of the south of the Yangtze River, and although the total area of the pavilion is less than 1,000 square metres, there are nine buildings----The Old Drunkard Pavilion, Bao Song Zhai, Feng Gong Ancestral Hall, Ancient Plum Blossom Pavilion, Shadow Fragrance Pavilion, Yi Zai Pavilion, Fear Pavilion, Ancient Plum Blossom Pavilion, and the View Terrace----of different styles, and are known as the “Nine Views of the Old Grunkard Pavilion”.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 03:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Although the Old Drunkard pavilion has been robbed many times over the centuries, it is not forgotten. Today, the thousand-year old scenery here is even more spectacular and alluring.

Although the Old Drunkard pavilion has been plundered many times over the centuries, it still inviting to people. Today, the thousand-year old scenery here is even more spectacular and alluring.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 03:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====Tao Ran Pavilion====

The Tao Ran Pavilion in Beijing was built in 1695, the 34th year of Emperor Kangxi's reign in the Qing dynasty, by Jiang Zao, who was then the Minister of Public Works. Jiang Zao named the pavilion after Bai Juyi's poem, "Waiting for the chrysanthemum to ripen, we get drunk in blitheness". This small pavilion is quite popular among writers and scholars.

The Tao Ran Pavilion in Beijing was built in 1695, the 34th year of Emperor Kangxi's reign in the Qing dynasty, by Jiang Zao, who then served in the Minister of Public Works. Jiang Zao named the pavilion after Bai Juyi's poem, "Waiting for the chrysanthemum to ripen, we get drunk in blitheness". This small pavilion is quite popular among ancient writers.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 03:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The modern Taoran Pavilion is a new modern urban garden that integrates ancient architecture and modern gardening art, highlighting the Chinese national pavilion culture as its main content. In the garden, there are verdant trees, lush flowers and grasses, jagged buildings and pavilions. On the island of the lake, there are Jinqiu dun, Swallow Head Hill, and Tao Ran pavilion into a tripod. On top of Jinqiu dun there is Jinqiu pavilion, the site of which was the site of the Flower Fairy Shrine. At the southern foot of the pavilion, there is Rose Hill, which is the site of the original incense mound, the parrot mound and the tomb of the golden flower.

The modern Taoran Pavilion is a new modern urban garden that integrates ancient architecture and modern gardening art, highlighting the Chinese national pavilion culture as its main content. In the garden, there are verdant trees, lush flowers and grasses, jagged buildings and pavilions. On the Mid-lake island, there are Jinqiu dun, Swallow Head Hill, and Tao Ran pavilion into a tripod. On top of Jinqiu dun there is Jinqiu pavilion, the site of which was the site of the Flower Fairy Shrine. At the southern foot of the pavilion, there is Rose Hill, which is the site of the original incense mound, the parrot mound and the tomb of the golden flower. --[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 03:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In the quiet pine forest at the foot of the northern pavilion, there are the tombs of Gao Junyu and Shi Pingmei, which are famous. At the top of Swallow Head Hill, there is the Green View Pavilion, which is opposite to the Jinqiu Pavilion, and at the southwest of the pavilion, there is the Chengguang Pavilion, which is the most suitable place to look at the lake and the mountains.

In the quiet pine forest at the foot of the northern pavilion, there are the tombs of Gao Junyu and Shi Pingmei, which are famous. At the top of Swallow Head Hill, there is the Green View Pavilion, which is opposite the Jinqiu Pavilion, and at the southwest of the pavilion, there is the Chengguang Pavilion, which is the most suitable place to look at the lake and the mountains.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 03:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====Ai Wan Pavilion====

The Ai Wan Pavilion is located in the Qingfeng Gorge at the foot of Mount Yuelu in Hunan Province, and is surrounded by mountains on three sides. The pavilion was built in 1792 for Luo Dian, Dean of the Yuelu Academy, and was originally called the Red Leaf Pavilion. It was later renamed by Bi Yuan, Governor of Huguang Province, based on a poem by Du Mu, a poet of the Tang Dynasty, which reads, "The stone paths of the cold mountains are steep, and there are homes in the depths of the white clouds. Sitting on the Maple Forest in the evening, the frost leaves turn red in the February flowers" ("Mountain Journey").

The Ai Wan Pavilion is located in the Qingfeng Gorge at the foot of Mount Yuelu in Hunan Province, and is surrounded by mountains on three sides. The pavilion was built in 1792 for Luo Dian（罗典）, Dean of the Yuelu Academy, and was originally called the Red Leaf Pavilion. It was later renamed by Bi Yuan（毕沅）, Governor of Hunan and Guangzhou Province, based on a poem by Du Mu（杜牧）, a poet of the Tang Dynasty, which reads, "The stone paths of the cold mountains are steep, and there are homes in the depths of the white clouds. Sitting on the Maple Forest in the evening, the frost leaves turn red in the February flowers" ("Mountain Journey"). --[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 03:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

After many major repairs in the reign of Tongzhi, Guangxu, Xuantong, and in Republic of China and after the founding of the People's Republic of China, it gradually formed the pattern today. The shape of the pavilion is eight columns with heavy eaves, glazed glass and blue tiles, the corner of the pavilion is flying, and it looks like flying from a distance. The inside is pillar in lacquer while the outside are four stone pillars made by granite.

After many major repairs in the reign of Tongzhi, Guangxu, Xuantong, and in Republic of China and after the founding of the People's Republic of China, it comes into its pattern today. The shape of the pavilion is eight columns with heavy eaves, glazed glass and blue tiles, the corner of the pavilion is flying, and it looks like flying from a distance. The inside is pillar in lacquer while the outside are four stone pillars made by granite.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 03:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The painted algae wells in the pavilion and the red-bottomed gilt "Ai Wan Pavilion" on the east and west sides of the pavilion hang from the lattice, which was made by handwriting written by Mao Zedong at the request of Li Da, the then president of Hunan University. The pavilion is surrounded by hills on three sides, and is open to the east, with a flat vertical and horizontal space of more than 33 metres, with purple and lush greenery and uninterrupted flowing springs. There is a pond in front of the pavilion, with rows of peach and willow trees. There are maple trees all around, with red leaves all over the mountains in late autumn.

Apart from painted caisson ceiling, there are gilt lettering "Ai Wan Pavilion" on a red background on the east and west sides of the pavilion, which was made by handwriting written by Mao Zedong, at the request of Li Da, the then president of Hunan University. The pavilion is surrounded by hills on three sides, and is open to the east, with a flat vertical and horizontal space of more than 33 metres, with purple and lush greenery and uninterrupted flowing springs. There is a pond in front of the pavilion, with rows of peach and willow trees. There are maple trees all around, with red leaves all over the mountains in late autumn.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 03:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====Hu Xin Pavilion====

Hu Xin Pavilion, or Mid-lake Pavilion is situated in the centre of the West Lake in Hangzhou, Zhejiang. Initially known as "Zhenlu Pavilion", also "Qingxi Pavilion", it was built in the 31st year of Jiajing in the Ming Dynasty (1552 AD) and was renamed “Hu Xin Pavilion” after the Ming Dynasty.

Hu Xin Pavilion, or Mid-lake Pavilion is situated in the centre of the West Lake in Hangzhou, Zhejiang. Initially known as "Zhenlu Pavilion", and "Qingxi Pavilion", it was built in the 31st year of Jiajing in the Ming Dynasty (1552 AD) and was renamed “Hu Xin Pavilion” after the Ming Dynasty. --[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 03:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The pavilion is built in the form of a tower and is surrounded by water on all sides. When you look around, not only does the lake ripple, but also the mountains stand like a screen enveloping it. The west side of the pavilion is the south and north peaks of the West Lake, which is very spectacular.

The pavilion is built looking like a tower and is surrounded by water on all sides. When you look around, not only does the lake ripple, but also the mountains stand like a screen enveloping it. The west side of the pavilion is the south and north peaks of the West Lake, which is very spectacular.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 03:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

It is one of the 18 scenes of West Lake in Qing Dynasty. Yongzheng wrote in his Records of the West Lake: pavilion in the centre of the whole lake, the old lakeside temple, outside the temple three pagodas, Ming Xiaozong, the temple and the tower are destroyed. County said: outside three pagodas, which tower, south tower and waste, is the north tower infrastructure pavilion, the name of the pavilion, and rebuilt in the old base of the temple German Sheng Hall, in order to release. According to this, the old Hu Xin Temple was the current pond for the release of life, and the present Hu Xin Pavilion was the base of the north tower among the other three.

It is one of the 18 scenes of West Lake in Qing Dynasty. Yongzheng wrote in his Records of the West Lake: the pavilion is in the centre of the lake; in the past there was a temple and outside it were three towers, which both were destroyed in the reign of Ming Xiaozong. County said: outside the temple were three towers, while only the north tower conserved, upon which a pavilion was built, that is the Mid-lake Pavilion; the old base of the temple was rebuilt as De Sheng Hall, a place to release. According to this, the old Hu Xin Temple was the current Release Pond, and the present Hu Xin Pavilion was the base of the north tower among the other three. --[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 03:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The Qing emperor Qianlong once inscribed a plaque on the pavilion with the inscription "Quietly observe all kinds of things" and the couplet "Waves surge and the lake is far away, the mountains prompt the water is deep". The inscription on the pavilion's pillars by Hu Laichao is worth mentioning: "The four seasons are filled with music and songs, and the poor are still grieving over the moon; the six bridges are filled with flowers and willows, and there is no room for mulberry and hemp. The meaning is even more profound to the visitor.

The Qing emperor Qianlong once inscribed a plaque on the pavilion with the inscription "Quietly observe the world"（“静观万类”） and the couplet "Waves surge and the lake is far away, the mountains prompt the water is deep"（“波涌湖光远，山催水色深”）. Besides the inscription on the pavilion's pillars by Hu Laichao（胡来朝） is worth mentioning: "The four seasons are filled with music and songs, and the poor are still grieving over the moon; the six bridges are filled with flowers and willows, and there is no room for mulberry and hemp." The meaning is even more profound to the visitor.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 03:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Terms and Expressions===

The Old Drunkard Pavilion 醉翁亭

Nine Views of the Old Drunkard Pavilion 醉翁九景

Tao Ran Pavilion 陶然亭

glazed glass and blue tiles 琉璃碧瓦

Ai Wan Pavilion 爱晚亭

Mountain Journey 《山行》

Hu Xin Pavilion/ Mid-lake Pavilion 湖心亭

County 《县志》

===Questions===

1. Which pavilion is named by the poem of Du Mu？

2. When Did “Hu Xin Pavilion” well established its name?

3. Which pavilion is located in Beijing?

4. Where can we enjoy maple trees in Autumn among the four pavilions?

5. What do you think is the Old Drunkard Pavilion famous for?

===Answers===
1. Ai Wan Pavilion.

2. After the Ming Dynasty.

3. Tao Ran Pavilion.

4. Ai Wan Pavilion.

5. It is said that Ouyang Xiu was demoted to Chuzhou to do the imperial guard and the Old Drunkard Pavilion was built for him and named after him.

===References===
*千龙.中国四大名亭[J].兵团建设,2009(14):50.

*刘璇.醉翁亭以中国“四大”名亭之一天下第一亭大文学家欧阳修《醉翁亭记》名声享誉中华[J].中国地名,2012(09):20-21.

*常翼.我国的四大名亭[J].新长征,2007(06):60.

*https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/slU9b2notV9xKekROxCZuw

*https://baike.so.com/doc/6569739-6783501.html

*https://baike.so.com/doc/5632595-5845219.html

==Architecture, Three Great Towers in China, Yang chenting 杨晨婷 No.202070080615 英语笔译==

===Three Great Towers in China===

1. Yellow Crane Tower

2. Yueyang Tower

3.The Pavilion of Prince Teng

Three great towers in China are Yellow Crane Tower in Wuhan, Hubei Province; Yueyang Tower in Yueyang, Hunan Province; and the Pavilion of Prince Teng in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. As representatives of traditional Chinese architecture, they are the symbols of splendid culture for over five thousand years.

====Yellow Crane Tower====

The tower today we see in Wuhan is not the original building, and it has a very long and complicated history. Yellow Crane Tower, built in 223 during the Three Kingdoms period (220-280), was embodied with a perfect location. Because of this, the king of Wu, Sun Quan, held it as a watchtower for his troops. For hundreds of years, its military function has gradually been forgotten, which now mainly serves as a scenic spot, attracting millions of tourists at home and abroad. （Chen Xiansong 2018,08）

During the Tang Dynasty, many popular poets, like Cui Hao, Li Bai, and Bai Juyi wrote poems to praise Yellow Crane Tower. It can be said that due to their description and admiration of the tower, it became renowned and made people want to pay a visit. In the following centuries, unfortunately, it was destroyed and rebuilt several times. In the Ming and Qing dynasties alone, the tower was destroyed seven times and rebuilt seven times. In 1884, because of fire, it was completely destroyed and was not rebuilt until 1981. Now, it stands on the banks of the Yangtze River at the top of Snake Hill. (Zhang Chi 2002,02)

Different dynasties have greatly influenced the architectural features of it. However, the one we see today is a one rebuilt in Qing Dynasty. It is 51.4 meters (168 feet) tall, with five floors, which looks the same from any direction. The roof is covered by 100,000 yellow glazed tiles. With the tiles on the top, the design of each floor seems to resemble a yellow crane ready to fly. (English for tour guides 2017)[[File:Yellow Crane Tower.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Yellow Crane Tower]]

====Yueyang Tower====

Yueyang Tower is located at the western gate of Yueyang Ancient City, Hunan Province, overlooking Lake Dongting from its perch on the eastern shore of the lake. On the opposite side of Yueyang Tower flows the mighty Yangtze River. Therefore, it’s no doubt that its military function was important.

In 716, with the governance of Emperor Xuanzong of the Tang Dynasty, Yueyang Tower was reconstructed. Its beauty and its good place overlooking Lake Dongting made it receive a lot of literary praise. For example, in 1045, the governor of Ba Ling County, Teng Zijing, invited his friends, including one familiar with us—Fan Zhongyan, to write an essay in honor of the newly-reconstructed Yueyang Tower. (Gong Qijian 2012,13)

The current 20-meter-high pavilion with its four pillars made of rot-resistant nanmu trees, its three storeys with upturned eaves and its unique construction method stems from a major reconstruction in 1867, during the Qing Dynasty. There are two other pavilions, Sanzui Pavilion and Xianmei Pavilion, on either side of Yueyang Tower. And to the north of Yueyang Tower lies the tomb of Xiaoqiao, the wife of Zhou Yu, the famous military advisor in the Three Kingdoms Period. The splendid scenery of Yueyang Tower attracted the attention of many renowned poets of the Tang Dynasty, such as Li Bai, Du Fu, Bai Juyi and Li Shangyin, who wrote poems to paise it after paying a visit there. These works are preserved and cherished, and are on display in the Corridor of Poems and Calligraphy at Yueyang Tower. Thanks to those poets, they made Yueyang Tower keeps attracting people all the time. （Xiong Shengyuan 2015,06）

Yueyang Tower has long enjoyed the title of being the “First Tower under Heaven”, while Lake Dongting, near it, enjoys the reputation of being known as the “First Water under Heaven”. （Chinese scenery 2010）[[File:Yueyang Tower.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Yueyang Tower]]

====The Pavilion of Prince Teng====

Tengwang Pavilion, located in the northwest of Nanchang, Jiangxi Province, is an imperial building constructed more than 1,300 years ago. It was built in 659 by Li Yuanying, the son of the first emperor of Tang Dynasty and the brother of Li Shimin. Because of missing his hometown—Tengzhou, he built this pavilion. The pavilion was named “Tengwangge” after Yuanying, who was crowned “Prince of Teng” during the Zhenguan reign. Along with the Yellow Crane Tower in Wuhan, Hubei Province, and Yueyang Pavilion in Yueyang, Hunan Province, the pavilion of Prince Teng is famous as the “Three Great Pavilions” in China.（Xie Jianlin 2018,11）

What is rare to see in Chinese history is that the Pavilion of Prince Teng was destroyed and rebuilt 29 times, the same fate as Yellow Crane Tower. In January 2001, the Pavilion was named as one of the first batch of national 4A level tourist attractions and was approved as a national key scenic spot by the State Council of China in 2004. (Yin Minghui 2018,04)

For thousands of years, the Pavilion of Prince Teng, with its beautiful scenery and its abundant culture, has been an ideal place for writers and poets to create works. For thousands of years, many artists, poets and writers have paid a visit to this pavilion to get some inspiration for their works.

The Pavilion of Prince Teng has always been an auspicious building for Nanchang people. The cultural stories that have been passed down reflect people’s good wishes for good things, but also reveal the easy-going nature of the local people. Nanchang locals may not be aware of their attachment to the pavilion except when they are in a foreign land. It is at such times that they are able to feel their own cultural heritage and nostalgia for the pavilion. (Today China 2018)

[[File:The Pavilion of Prince Teng.jpg|500px|thumb|right|The Pavilion of Prince Teng]]

====Terms and Expressions====

Watchtower n. 瞭望塔

The Three King Periods 三国时期

Yangtze River 长江

Upturned eave 飞檐

4A level tourist attractions 4A级旅游景区

State Council of China 中国国务院

Nostalgia n. 怀旧

Storey n. 层

Glazed tile 琉璃瓦

====Questions====

1. What are the three great towers in China?

2. What's the function of the Yellow Crane Tower at the very beginning?

3. What's the cause of the Yellow Crane Tower’s completely destroying?

4. Where can tourists appreciate the beautiful scenery of Lake Dongting?

5. What does the Pavilion of Prince Teng mean to local people?

====Answers====

1. The three great towers are Yellow Crane Tower, Yueyang Tower, and the Pavilion of Prince Teng.

2. It served as a watchtower, i.e., military function.

3. It was because of the fire, which burned it down.

4. Tourists can appreciate the scenery from Yueyang Tower.

5. It has always been an auspicious building for Nanchang people and the story about it reflected people’s good wishes for good things.

====References====

Fang Wenhua 方华文. (2010). ''中国名山名水''[Chinese Scenery]. Anhui: Science and Technology Press 安徽科学技术出版社.

Qiu Huijun邱慧钧. (2002). 江南三大名楼[Three great towers in China]. ''风景名胜''Travel(01).

Wu Zhijun吴志军. (2008).江南三大名楼旅游形象测量与比较[The comparison of the image of three great towers]. ''江西财经大学学报''Journal of Jiangxi University of Finance & Economics (04).

Zhang Ju 张炬. (2017). ''导游英语''[Tourist Guide English]. Beijing: Beijing Institute of Technology北京理工大学.

Zheng Zhangmin 郑张敏. (2011). 关于中华古建筑专用名词翻译风格的思考.[A consideration on the translation of the name of Chinese ancient buildings] ''北京建筑工程学院学报''Journal of Beijing University of Civil Engineering and Architecture (04) 72-75.

--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:44, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting

==Tourism, Nanjing-An Ancient Capital of Six Dynasties Yang Hairong 杨海容 202070080616 英语笔译==

<center>杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616</center>

===Nanjing-An Ancient Capital of Six Dynasties===

===A. Geographical Location, Economy and Military Defence===

Nanjing was also called Jinling, Moling, Jianye and Jiankang in ancient times. In the first year of Huanglong in the Eastern Wu Dynasty (229 years), Emperor Wu, Sun Quan, established the capital here, and the rise of Nanjing since then made China's political center out of the pattern of the Yellow River cultural plate, leading the development of the Yangtze River Basin and the entire southern region of China. Since then, the Song, Qi, Liang, and Chen of the Eastern Jin and Southern Dynasties successively established their capitals here, so Nanjing is known as the "Ancient Capital of the Six Dynasties". Nanjing City in the Six Dynasties has an important position in the history of China's capital city development. (Lu Haiming，2002)

Nanjing was also called Jinling, Moling, Jianye and Jiankang in ancient times. In the first year of Huanglong in the Eastern Wu Dynasty (229 years), Emperor Wu, Sun Quan, established the capital here, and the rise of Nanjing since then made China's political center out of the pattern of the Yellow River cultural plate, leading the development of the Yangtze River Basin and the entire southern region of China. Since then, the Song, Qi, Liang, and Chen of the Eastern Jin and Southern Dynasties successively established their capitals here, so Nanjing is known as the "Ancient Capital of the Six Dynasties". Nanjing City in the Six Dynasties has an important position in the history of China's capital development. (Lu Haiming，2002)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 08:27, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

Feng Shui (风水) in Nanjing is good. According to Feng Shui theory, the base site of Yang House (city, village, housing, yin house refers to tomb) is best to choose a place where Yin and Yang are embraced, meaning that there is a main mountain behind the base site; There is a crescent-shaped pond or river in front, and there is a mountain on the opposite side of the pond or river, and there is a super mountain on the opposite side of the mountain. (Lu Haiming，2002)

Feng Shui (风水) in Nanjing stands out. According to Feng Shui, the base site of Yang House (city, village, housing, yin house refers to tomb) is best to choose a place where Yin and Yang(阴和阳) are embraced, meaning that there is a main mountain behind the base site; There is a crescent-shaped pond or river in front, and there is a mountain on the opposite side of the pond or river. Also, there is a super mountain on the opposite side of the mountain. (Lu Haiming，2002)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

The main mountain of Nanjing is Jilong Mountain and Fuzhou Mountain; there is like a green dragon on the left, a white tiger on the right, a Zhongshan Mountain on the left is a green dragon, and a stone mountain on the right is the white tiger. On the opposite side, there is Chaoshan Mountain named Niushou Mountain, and Xuanwu Lake behind Nanjing City (Sun Wu and Dong Jin dynasties called Beihu or Houhu Lake, and the name was changed by the Liu Song Dynasty). (Lu Haiming，2002)

The main mountain of Nanjing is Jilong Mountain and Fuzhou Mountain; there is "a green dragon" on the left and a white tiger on the right. A Zhongshan Mountain on the left is a green dragon, and a stone mountain on the right is the white tiger. On the opposite, there is the Chaoshan Mountain named Niushou Mountain, and Xuanwu Lake behind Nanjing City (Sun Wu and Dong Jin dynasties called Beihu or Houhu Lake, and the name was changed by the Liu Song Dynasty). (Lu Haiming，2002)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

During the Six Dynasties, Yangzhou was the economic center of the south, and the Sanwu area was the center of gravity. Sun Wu decided to make the capital of Nanjing in the early stage of material transportation. Later, a man-made canal was dug to open the waterway between Sanwu and Nanjing. As a result, Sanwu’s materials no longer need to detour through the Yangtze River, and Nanjing’s status as the capital of the country is consolidated. (Lu Haiming，2002)

During the Six Dynasties, Yangzhou was regarded as the economic center of the south, and the Sanwu area was the center of gravity. Sun Wu decided to make Nanjing in the early stage of material transportation. Later, a man-made canal was dug to open the waterway between Sanwu and Nanjing. As a result, Sanwu’s materials no longer need to detour through the Yangtze River, and Nanjing’s status as the capital is consolidated. (Lu Haiming，2002)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

The Six Dynasties coexisted with the northern regimes for a long time and had the protective effect of the Yangtze River. However, the Yangtze River was not the first line of defense but the last trench. The natural peripheral military defense line of the Six Dynasties was between the Yellow River and the Yangtze River, including the Yellow River, Qinhuai River and Yangtze River. In addition, there are some military important towns. (Lu Haiming，2002)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

====Terms and Expressions====

Feng Shui theory风水学

Yang House 阳宅

Yin House 阴宅

The main mountain主山

Xuanwu Lake玄武湖

man-made canal 人工运河

Six Dynasties 六朝

Qinhuai River秦淮河

the first line of defense第一防线

trench天堑

====Questions====

1.Why Feng Shui in Nanjing is good?

2.During the Six Dynasties, which city was the economic center of the south?

3.What contributions does the man-made canal built between Sanwu and Nanjing make?

4.What kind of role does the Yangtze River play in protection?

5. What were Nanjing’s natural peripheral military defense line of the Six Dynasties?

====Answers====

1.The main mountain of Nanjing is Jilong Mountain and Fuzhou Mountain; there is like a green dragon on the left, a white tiger on the right, a Zhongshan Mountain on the left is a green dragon, and a stone mountain on the right is the white tiger. On the opposite side, there is Chaoshan Mountain named Niushou Mountain, and Xuanwu Lake behind Nanjing City.

2.Yangzhou.

3.As a result, Sanwu’s materials no longer need to detour through the Yangtze River, and Nanjing’s status as the capital of the country is consolidated.

4.the Yangtze River was not the first line of defense but the last trench.

5.The natural peripheral military defense line of the Six Dynasties was between the Yellow River and the Yangtze River, including the Yellow River, Qinhuai River and Yangtze River.

===B. Nature and Humanities===

The so-called "beauty" refers to the natural environment and cultural landscape in Nanjing. "Jiangnan is a beautiful land and an emperor state", which is the poet's description of Nanjing. Nanjing is known as the metaphor of "the golden powder of the Six Dynasties is the best in the world", and there is also the tale of "Qinhuai and the blue waves reflect the beauty". There are not only beautiful natural scenery, but also many historical monuments; there are antique ancient buildings and a large number of modern facilities, so it has become a famous tourist attraction at home and abroad. There are as many as 154 places of historical interest listed as national, provincial and municipal cultural relics protection units. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)

The so-called "beauty" refers to the natural environment and cultural landscape in Nanjing. "Jiangnan is a beautiful land and an emperor state", which is a poet's description of Nanjing. Nanjing is known as the metaphor of "the golden powder of the Six Dynasties is the best in the world", and there is also the tale of "Qinhuai and the blue waves reflect the beauty". There is not only beautiful natural scenery, but also many historical monuments; there are antique ancient buildings and a large number of modern facilities, so it has become a famous tourist attraction at home and abroad. There are as many as 154 places of historical interest listed as national, provincial, and municipal cultural relics protection units. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

The natural and cultural landscape here not only reveals the beauty of the south of the Yangtze River, but also maintains the majesty of the North. In Nanjing, the masculine and feminine complement each other. The strong impact of the Yellow River and the Yangtze River basin makes Nanjing unparalleled and embodies the beauty of the blending of north and south. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)

The natural and cultural landscape there not only reveal the beauty of the south of the Yangtze River but also maintains the majesty of the North. In Nanjing, the masculine and feminine complement each other. The strong impact of the Yellow River and the Yangtze River basin makes Nanjing unparalleled and embodies the beauty of the blending of north and south. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

The main folklore activities in Nanjing include Lantern Festival Lantern Festival, Tomb-sweeping Outing, Dragon Boat Festival, Mid-Autumn Festival, Chongyang Festival, Laba Festival porridge, New Year welcoming God of Wealth, etc. The folk customs of Nanjing are sincere and have a long history. "Fancy but not slick" is the essence of Nanjing folk customs. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)

The main folklore activities in Nanjing include Lantern Festival, Tomb-sweeping Outing, Dragon Boat Festival, Mid-Autumn Festival, Chongyang Festival, Laba Festival porridge, New Year welcoming God of Wealth, etc. The folk customs of Nanjing have a long history. "Fancy but not slick" is the essence of Nanjing folk customs. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

Nanjing embraces colorful cultures, and is integrated into folk customs; folk customs have enriched cultures, and Nanjing's folk entertainment is full of rich cultural connotations. The traditional folk entertainments including dragon lantern dance, the Huatai Festival, social fire in Lishui area, Fangshan drum in Jiangning area, hand lion dance in Jiangpu area etc. These entertainments seem simple, but they are deeply loved by local people.Moreover, People live in Naning will have these traditional customs including climbing the Zijin Mountain, eating black rice, holding Jinling Lantern Festival and so on.(Zhu Yaoting, 2003)

Nanjing embraces abundant cultures, and is integrated into folk customs; folk customs have enriched cultures, and Nanjing's folk entertainment is full of rich cultural connotations. The traditional folk entertainments include dragon lantern dance, the Huatai Festival, social fire in Lishui area, Fangshan drum in Jiangning area, hand lion dance in Jiangpu area, etc. These entertainments seem simple, but they are deeply loved by local people.Moreover, People live in Naning will have these traditional customs including climbing the Zijin Mountain, eating black rice, holding Jinling Lantern Festival and so on.(Zhu Yaoting, 2003)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

====Terms and Expressions====

Lantern Festival Lantern Festival 元宵节

Tomb-sweeping Outing 清明节

Dragon Boat Festival 端午节

Mid-Autumn Festival 中秋节

Chongyang Festival 重阳节

Laba Festival porridge 腊八节

God of Wealth 财神

dragon lantern dance舞龙灯

Fangshan drum 方山大鼓

the Huatai Festival花台会

black rice 乌饭

historical interest名胜古迹

====Questions====

1.How poems describe Nanjing?

2.How many places of historical interest listed as national, provincial and municipal cultural relics protection units in Nanjing?

3.What are main folklore activities in Nanjing?

4.What is the essence of Nanjing folk customs?

5.People who live in Jiangning area of Nanjing like what kind of folk entertainment?

====Answer====

1.Nanjing is known as the metaphor of "the golden powder of the Six Dynasties is the best in the world", and there is also the tale of "Qinhuai and the blue waves reflect the beauty".

2.There are as many as 154 places of historical interest listed as national, provincial and municipal cultural relics protection units.

3.The main folklore activities in Nanjing include Lantern Festival Lantern Festival, Tomb-sweeping Outing, Dragon Boat Festival, Mid-Autumn Festival, Chongyang Festival, Laba Festival porridge, New Year welcoming God of Wealth, etc.

4."Fancy but not slick" is the essence of Nanjing folk customs.

5.Fangshan drum.

===C. The Lantern Festival in Nanjing===

The fifteenth day of the first lunar month is the night of the first full moon in the lunar calendar year. The Lantern Festival started as a sacrificial offering and gradually became a grand and enthusiastic entertainment festival. In ancient times, the Lantern Festival included one day. In Tang Dynasty it was 16th to 18th of the first month in the lunar calendar, which involved three days; In Song Dynasty, it was 14th to 18th which involved five days; In Ming Dynasty, as Zhu Yuanzhang became the emperor in Nanjing, the Lantern Festival was extended to ten days, that is, from 8th to 17th of the first month in the lunar calendar, and on 18th the lantern lights turned off. The food has also changed from eating bean porridge to tasting glutinous rice balls (汤圆). (Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)

[[File:The Confucius Temple.jpg|300px|thumb|right|The Confucius Temple]]

The fifteenth day of the first lunar month is the night of the first full moon in the lunar calendar year. The Lantern Festival starts as a sacrificial offering and gradually became a grand and enthusiastic entertainment festival. In ancient times, the Lantern Festival included one day. In Tang Dynasty it was 16th to 18th of the first month in the lunar calendar, which involved three days; In Song Dynasty, it was from 14th to 18th which involved five days; In Ming Dynasty, as Zhu Yuanzhang became the emperor in Nanjing, the Lantern Festival was extended to ten days, that is, from 8th to 17th of the first month in the lunar calendar, and on 18th the lantern lights turned off. The food has also changed from eating bean porridge to tasting glutinous rice balls (汤圆). (Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

During Ming and Qing Dynasties, there was a custom of playing dragon lanterns and hanging gauze lanterns. Playing Dragon Lantern is not only played by ordinary people, but also by the soldiers. The length of the lantern is not as long as other places can. The short one is more than ten feet, the long is more than a hundred knots, and it can be played by hundreds of people. Yarn lanterns have satin silk fabrics, and there are celebrities painting on them, the more painting by the masters, the higher the value. Merchants will also hold lantern riddles activities in front of the store, attracting many tourists, and those who guess the prize will be rewarded. (Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)

During Ming and Qing Dynasties, there was a custom of playing dragon lanterns and hanging gauze lanterns. Playing Dragon Lantern was not only played by ordinary people, but also by the soldiers. The length of the lantern was not as long as other places can. The short one is more than ten feet, the long one is more than a hundred knots, and it can be played by hundreds of people. Yarn lanterns have satin silk fabrics, and there are celebrities painting on them, the more painting by the masters, the higher the value. Merchants will also hold lantern riddles activities in front of the store, attracting many tourists, and those who guess the prize will be rewarded. (Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

There is a lantern shaped in horse pioneered by Nanjing people. The lantern is covered with candles inside. Using the principle of thermal expansion of the air, the lamp surface is driven to rotate. The lamp surface is painted with various postures of horses galloping like ten thousand horses. British scholar Needham called it an invention of ancient Chinese people. The dragon lanterns are majestic, the gauze lanterns are exquisite, colorful, and vigorous, attracting the long dwelling and entertaining guests out of the city, singing and laughing. In recent decades, the Lantern Festival at the Confucius Temple has become more and more prosperous, using new technology, new materials, sound and light control, and it is colorful, vivid and dazzling. The lantern festival will last for one month starting from the Spring Festival. During this period, it attracted as many as two or three million tourists from all over the world every day.(Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)

There is a lantern-shaped in horse pioneered by the Nanjing people. The lantern is covered with candles inside. Using the principle of thermal expansion of the air, the lamp surface is driven to rotate. The lamp surface is painted with various postures of horses galloping like ten thousand horses. British scholar Needham called it "an invention of ancient Chinese people". The dragon lanterns are majestic, the gauze lanterns are exquisite, colorful, and vigorous, attracting the long dwelling and entertaining guests out of the city, singing and laughing. In recent decades, the Lantern Festival at the Confucius Temple has become more and more prosperous, using new technology, new materials, sound and light control, and it is colorful, vivid and dazzling. The lantern festival will last for one month starting from the Spring Festival. During this period, it attracted as many as two or three million tourists from all over the world every day.(Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

====Terms and Expressions====

the first month in the lunar calendar正月

glutinous rice balls 汤圆

satin silk fabrics楮练纱帛

Yarn lanterns 纱灯

lantern riddles activities 猜灯谜

the Confucius Temple 夫子庙

====Questions====

1.Which day is the night of the first full moon in the lunar calendar year?

2.In Tang Dynasty, what time is the Lantern Festival?

3.In Ming Dynasty, as Zhu Yuanzhang became the emperor in Nanjing, how many days did the Lantern Festival extend to?

4.What kinds of people like playing Dragon Lantern?

5.What is the length of the lantern in Nanjing?

6.What are characteristics of a lantern-shaped in horse?

7.What did Needham call as an invention of ancient Chinese people in Nanjing?

====Answers====

1.The fifteenth day of the first lunar month.

2.In Tang Dynasty it was 16th to 18th of the first month in the lunar calendar, which involved three days.

3.In Ming Dynasty, as Zhu Yuanzhang became the emperor in Nanjing, the Lantern Festival was extended to ten days.

4.Playing Dragon Lantern is not only played by ordinary people, but also by the soldiers.

5.The length of the lantern is not as long as other places can. The short one is more than ten feet, the long is more than a hundred knots, and it can be played by hundreds of people.

6.There is a lantern-shaped in horse pioneered by Nanjing people. The lantern is covered with candles inside. Using the principle of thermal expansion of the air, the lamp surface is driven to rotate. The lamp surface is painted with various postures of horses galloping like ten thousand horses.

7.a lantern-shaped in horse.

===References===
[1]Lu Haiming 卢海鸣. (2002). ''六朝都城'' [Capital of Six Dynasties]. Nanjing: Nanjing Press 南京出版社.

[2]Yao Yifeng 姚亦锋. (2007).从南京城市地理格局研究古都风貌规划 [Research on the Planning of Ancient Capital from the Geographical Pattern of Nanjing].人文地理 Human Geography.(03)92-97.

[3]Zhu Yaoting 朱耀廷.(2003). 定都与迁都——中国七大古都比较研究之一 [Setting and Moving the Capital: One of the Comparative Studies of the Seven Ancient Capitals of China].北京联合大学学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Beijing Union University（Humanities and Social Sciences). (01) 69-76.

[4]Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture, (2015).http://jssdfz.jiangsu.gov.cn/

==Chinese Traditional Culture-Five Constant Virtues Yang Hui 阳慧英语口译 202070080646==

Owning over thousands of years of history, the Chinese have created a brilliant history and culture, and at the same time have formed their own moral code that has played an important role in social development and progress. This is what we call Traditional Virtues, which still have great significance today and whose value to the development of human civilization is now widely recognized. Benevolence , righteousness, propriety, wisdom and fidelity are the Five Constant Virtues which are the most important ones in traditional China. They all came from Confucianism and are widely acknowledged all over China. To be a moral person, the ancient Chinese cultivated and test themselves according to the Five Constant Virtues and carried them down to the modern life. The brief and concise expression of " benevolence, righteousness, propriety , wisdom and fidelity" is not only the conciseness of Chinese traditional culture, its summary and abstract form of moral category can be said to be the " brand " of Chinese traditional ethics and morality, its value in Chinese traditional culture can be compared to the market value of a commercial brand with a long history.(Xu Keqian 2005, 4）

Owning over thousands of years of history, the Chinese have created a brilliant history and culture, and at the same time have formed their own moral code that has played an important role in social development and progress. This is what we call Traditional Virtues, which still have great significance today and its values to the development of human civilization are nowadays widely recognized. Benevolence , righteousness, propriety, wisdom and fidelity are the Five Constant Virtues which are the most important ones in traditional China. They all came from Confucianism and are widely acknowledged all over China. To be a moral person, the ancient Chinese cultivated and tested themselves according to the Five Constant Virtues and carried them down to the modern life. The brief and concise expression of " benevolence, righteousness, propriety , wisdom and fidelity" are not only the conciseness of Chinese traditional culture, its summary and abstract form of moral category can be said to be the " brand " of Chinese traditional ethics and morality, its value in Chinese traditional culture can be compared to the market value of a commercial brand with a long history(Xu Keqian 2005, 4）.--[[User:GUIROU BARTHELEMY|GUIROU BARTHELEMY]] ([[User talk:GUIROU BARTHELEMY|talk]]) 13:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Benevolence (Ren)===
Benevolence is the first and most important virtue among the Five Constant Virtues. It manifests itself in the inner mind in love and compassion for people and in avoiding harm or envy toward anyone. In terms of behavior, benevolence demands that one be amiable, not argue angrily with others nor do evil deeds. To cultivate one‘s virtue of Benevolence one should use another Confucian version of the Golden Rule: What one does not wish for oneself, one ought not to do to anyone else; what one recognizes as desirable for oneself, one ought to be willing to grant to others. Virtue, in this Confucian view, is based upon harmony with other people, produced through this type of ethical practice by a growing identification of the interests of self and other. Zeng Zi once said: My three provinces are my body. Cheating? Make friends without any sincerity ?go over what I have Learned?(Zhu Xi, 2005,27). In short, as parents treat their children, the benevolent person spares no effort to help others; one even lays down one’s life to this end, with no thought of being repaid(Zhu Xi, 2005,27).

Benevolence is the first and most important virtue among the Five Constant Virtues. It manifests itself in the inner mind in love and compassion for people and avoiding harm or envy toward anyone. In terms of behavior, benevolence demands that one should be amiable, neither argue angrily with others nor do evil deeds. To cultivate one‘s virtue of Benevolence one should use another Confucian version of the Golden Rule: "What one does not wish for oneself, one ought not to do to anyone else; what one recognizes as desirable for oneself, one ought to be willing to grant to others". Virtue, in Confucian point of view, is based upon harmony with other people, produced through this type of ethical practice by a growing identification of the interests of oneself and others. Zeng Zi once said: "My three provinces are my body. Cheating? Make friends without any sincerity ?Go over what I have Learned?"(Zhu Xi, 2005,27). In short, as parents treat their children, the benevolent person spares no effort to help others; one even lays down one’s life to this end, with no thought of being repaid(Zhu Xi, 2005,27).--[[User:GUIROU BARTHELEMY|GUIROU BARTHELEMY]] ([[User talk:GUIROU BARTHELEMY|talk]]) 14:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Righteousness (Yi)===
Among his teachings, Confucius emphasized righteousness which is the ability to distinguish between right and wrong. Righteousness can be thought of as similar to what is often referred to as a “conscience or “justice”. Confucius believed that actions should be taken on the basis of whether the act is morally right or wrong as opposed to whether it will provide profit or utility to an individual or group. Above all righteousness is about preserving one’s integrity.The unjust but rich to me is as clouds(China Publishing House 2006, 56).[[File:ren.jpg]]

Among his teachings, Confucius emphasized righteousness which is the ability to distinguish between right and wrong. Righteousness can be thought as similar to what is often referred to as a “conscience or “justice”. Confucius believed that actions should be taken on the basis of whether the act is morally right or wrong as opposed to whether it will provide profit or utility to an individual or group. Above all, righteousness is about preserving one’s integrity. '''The unjust but rich to me is as clouds''' (What do you mean? A citation?) (China Publishing House 2006, 56).--[[User:GUIROU BARTHELEMY|GUIROU BARTHELEMY]] ([[User talk:GUIROU BARTHELEMY|talk]]) 14:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Propriety (Li)===
Propriety means ceremony or correct behavior. The contents of propriety include loyalty, filial piety , fraternal duty, respect, etc. Originating in ancient sacrificial rites, propriety, in a general sense signifies behavioral norms which maintain hierarchy. Confucius urged people to restrain oneself with propriety ,be polite ,treat others with propriety, saying that people cannot act without propriety. In ancient society, besides the relation of monarch and subjects, there were also the relations of father and sons, husband and wife, the elder and the young, teacher and students, and others. These relations differ but all demand modest respect to others(China Publishing House 2006, 76).

Propriety means ceremony or correct behavior. The contents of propriety include loyalty, filial piety , fraternal duty, respect, etc. Originate from ancient sacrificial rites, propriety, in a general sense, '''signifies behavioral norms which maintain hierarchy'''(What do you want to say?). Confucius urged to people to restrain oneself with propriety ,be polite ,treat others with propriety, saying that people cannot act without propriety. In ancient society, besides the relation of monarch and subjects, there were also the relations of father and sons, husband and wife, the elder and the younger, teacher and students, and so on. These relations differ but all demand modest respect to others(China Publishing House 2006, 76).--[[User:GUIROU BARTHELEMY|GUIROU BARTHELEMY]] ([[User talk:GUIROU BARTHELEMY|talk]]) 14:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Wisdom (Zhi)===
Wisdom is the knowledge by which one judges right and wrong, good and evil. The saint define the personality of “the wise” as “a wise man free from confusions”. The real man of wisdom shall not only be able to distinguish truth from falsehood, but also be rational and sensible; he shall never get confused in front of profits or different paths. That is to say, the wisdom concerns not only one person's ability and aptitude, but also his moral cultivation. The Doctrine of the Mean once said that "knowledge, benevolence, courage, the world's greatest valued. Also wisdom, its basic connotation is smartness. Confucius also pointed out that the acquisition of "wisdom" lies in learning, which can be obtained from both books and life(Zi Si 2007,32 ).

Wisdom is the knowledge by which one judges the right and the wrong, the good and the evil. The saint defines the personality of “the wise” as “a wise man free from confusions”. The real man of wisdom shall not only be able to distinguish truth from falsehood, but also be rational and sensible; he shall never get confused in front of profits or different paths. That is to say, the wisdom concerns not only one person's ability and aptitude, but also his moral cultivation. The Doctrine of the Mean once said that "knowledge, benevolence, courage, the world's greatest valued. Also wisdom, its basic connotation is smartness. Confucius also pointed out that the acquisition of "wisdom" lies in learning, which can be obtained from both books and life (Zi Si 2007,32).--[[User:GUIROU BARTHELEMY|GUIROU BARTHELEMY]] ([[User talk:GUIROU BARTHELEMY|talk]]) 14:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Fidelity (Xin)===
Fidelity is honesty. This means that, externally, one’s deeds match one’s words; and that internally one’s words and mind are in unison. Fidelity is a key to the perfection of human nature. Robert Schuller, an American scholar at the niyama world civilization forum, the hometown of confucius in qufu, china, said: " faith, that is, honesty, should be emphasized to the people around you, family members and the wider population. So honesty is a very important principle. Everyone should be honest with each other, and of course you need to be humble, which is also very important so that we can create a harmonious environment. Thus it is the basis without which other virtues lose their authenticity ; hence they are inseparable. Fidelity is natural in a child, but might be lost due to external influences(Robert Schuller 2016, 4).

Benevolence, righteousness, courtesy, wisdom and faith in the " Five Constant Virtues " are the fundamental requirements of the moral norms of the gentleman, the spiritual support of the individual to settle down to the era of the use of Confucianism, and the " Five Moral Goals " of the Confucian view of the gentleman can better implement the core values of socialism, so that the historical tradition and the present reality, an organic combination and a link between the past and the future. Zhang pointed out that Confucianism is not the culture of God, but the moral culture centered on people, how to be a man, be a moral, ideal and effective person ;To be honest and friendly, to be respectful: to say what you do not want. To do to others ;Be faithful and forgiving(Zhang Qizhi 2016, 53).

Fidelity is honesty. This means that, externally, one’s deeds match one’s words; and that internally one’s words and mind are in unison. Fidelity is a key to the perfection of human nature. Robert Schuller, an American scholar at the niyama world civilization forum, the hometown of Confucius in Qufu, China, said: " faith, that is, honesty, should be emphasized to the people around you, family members and the wider population. So honesty is a very important principle. Everyone should be honest with each other, and of course you need to be humble, which is also very important so that we can create a harmonious environment. Thus it is the basis without which other virtues lose their authenticity ; hence they are inseparable. Fidelity is natural in a child, but might be lost due to external influences. '''(I don't see where the citation end and put it in italic)''' (Robert Schuller 2016, 4).

Benevolence, righteousness, courtesy, wisdom and faith in the " Five Constant Virtues " are the fundamental requirements of the moral norms of the gentleman, the spiritual support of the individual to settle down to the era of the use of Confucianism, and the " Five Moral Goals " of the Confucian view of the gentleman can better implement the core values of socialism, so that the historical tradition and the present reality, an organic combination and a link between the past and the future. Zhang pointed out that Confucianism is not the culture of God, but the moral culture centered on people, how to be a man, be a moral, ideal and effective person ;To be honest and friendly, to be respectful: to say what you do not want. To do to others ;Be faithful and forgiving (Zhang Qizhi 2016, 53).--[[User:GUIROU BARTHELEMY|GUIROU BARTHELEMY]] ([[User talk:GUIROU BARTHELEMY|talk]]) 15:06, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Expressions and Terms===
Five Constant Virtues 五常

benevolence 仁

righteousness 义

propriety 礼

wisdom 智

fidelity 信

moral code 道德准则

filial piety 孝道

===Questions===
1.what does the Five Constant Virtues refer to ?

2.In terms of behavior. what does Benevolence demand ?

3.What do the contents of the Propriety include ?

4.What is the real man of the wisdom ?

5. Where does the Five Constant Virtues come from ?

===Answers===
1.Benevolence , righteousness, propriety, wisdom and fidelity.

2. Benevolence demands that one should be amiable, neither argue angrily with others nor do evil deeds.

3.It includes loyalty, filial piety , fraternal duty, respect, etc.

4.The real man of wisdom shall not only be able to distinguish truth from falsehood, but also be rational and sensible; he shall never get confused in front of profits or different .

5.They all came from Confucianism and are widely acknowledged all over China.--[[User:GUIROU BARTHELEMY|GUIROU BARTHELEMY]] ([[User talk:GUIROU BARTHELEMY|talk]]) 15:09, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Reference===

Wei LI 韦利. (1998). 论语[the Analects of Confucius].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社.

Robert Schuller. （2016）. 罗伯特舒乐.人类危机与文明对话-许嘉璐与罗伯特舒乐的高端对话[Human Crisis and Dialogue of Civilization--A High-level Dialogue between Xu Jialu and Robert Schuller]. Shanghai: Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House 上海古籍出版社.

Xu Keqian 徐克谦. (2005）.仁义礼智信与当代道德文明建设[Five Constant Virtues and the Construction of Contemporary Moral Civilization]. Learning Forum 学习论坛

Zhu Xi 朱熹. (2005). 四书集注[Notes on Four Book]. Jiang Su: Phoenix Publishing House 凤凰出版社.

Zi Si 子思. (2007). 中庸[The Doctrine of the Mean]. Harbin: Harbin Publishing House 哈尔滨出版社.

Zhang Qizhi 张岂之. (2016).中国文化的会通精神[The Communicative Spirit of Chinese Culture ]. Chang Chun : Chang Chun Press 长春出版社.

==Cheongsam - Yang Yue 杨悦 - Student No.202070080617 英语笔译==
===Cheongsam===

Cheongsam, the traditional costume of Chinese women in China and the world, is known as the quintessence of China and female national apparel. It is one of the most splendid phenomena and forms in China's long dress culture. (Mao Jing 2009, 1)

Cheongsam, the traditional costume of Chinese women in China and around the world, is known as the quintessence of China and female national apparel. It is one of the most splendid phenomena and forms in China's long dress culture. (Mao Jing 2009, 1)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 06:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====Brief Introduction====

Cheongsam is a classic dress with the most traditional Chinese characteristics, the most national representatives and the best expression of the beauty of Oriental female. When people think of cheongsam, the first thing that comes to mind is its chic paintings and rich poetic sentiment, which show the virtuous, elegant and gentle temperament of Chinese women in the exquisite curves, and show the unique implicit beauty of Oriental women with flowing lines. After more than 300 years of evolution, it still enjoys many reputations such as "Oriental Wonders", "Chinese Dress", and "The Best of Clothing". This has witnessed “the classic represents eternity”. (Tong Zhijun 2007, 17).

Cheongsam is a classic dress with the most traditional Chinese characteristics, the most national representatives and the best expression of the beauty of Oriental female. When people think of cheongsam, the first thing that comes to mind is its chic paintings and rich poetic sentiment, which show the virtuous, elegant and gentle temperament of Chinese women in the exquisite curves, and show the unique implicit beauty of Oriental women with flowing lines. After more than 300 years of evolution, it still enjoys high reputation such as "Oriental Wonders", "Chinese Dress", and "The Best of Clothing". This has witnessed that “the classic represents eternity”. (Tong Zhijun 2007, 17).--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 06:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In 1984, cheongsam was designated by the State Council as a dress for female diplomats. On May 23, 2011, the handmade craftsmanship of cheongsam became one of the third batch of national intangible cultural heritage approved by the State Council. In November 2014, at the 22nd APEC meeting in Beijing, the Chinese government chose cheongsam as the dress of the leaders’ wives of the participating countries. (Mao Jing 2009, 1)

In 1984, cheongsam was designated by the State Council as a dress for female diplomats. On May 23, 2011, approved by the State Council, the handmade craftsmanship of cheongsam became one of the third batch of national intangible cultural heritage. In November 2014, the Chinese government chose cheongsam as the dress of the leaders’ wives of the participating countries at the 22nd APEC meeting in Beijing. (Mao Jing 2009, 1)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 06:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====The History of Cheongsam====
Cheongsam is a national costume originated from Manchu women in the mid-16th century. In the early days, the cheongsam worn by banner people was generally not over their feet. Only when Manchu women get married, do they wear cheongsam as a wedding dress. Because all the Manchu noble women wear high-heeled wooden clogs, their cheongsam is over their feet to cover their feet. (Mao Jing 2009, 2)

Cheongsam is a national costume originated from Manchu women in the mid-16th century. In the early days, the cheongsam worn by banner people was generally not over their feet. Only when Manchu women get married, do they wear cheongsam as a wedding dress. Because all the Manchu noble women wear high-heeled wooden clogs, their cheongsam is so long that it can cover their feet. (Mao Jing 2009, 2)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 06:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

After the Emperor Shunzhi of the Qing Dynasty entered the Shanhai Pass and moved to Beijing, cheongsam became popular in the Central Plains. After the Qing Dynasty unified China and also the national clothing, men wear long gowns and mandarins, and women wear cheongsam. Later, with the integration and unity of Manchu and Han life, cheongsam was gradually absorbed by Han women and continued to be innovated. (Mao Jing 2009, 2)

After the Emperor Shunzhi of the Qing Dynasty entered the Shanhai Pass and moved to Beijing, cheongsam gained its popularity in the Central Plains. After the Qing Dynasty unified China and also the national clothing, men wear long gowns and mandarins, and women wear cheongsam. Later, with the integration and unity of Manchu and Han life, cheongsam was gradually absorbed by Han women and continued to be innovated. (Mao Jing 2009, 2)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 06:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Following the 1911 Revolution, cheongsam quickly gained its popularity throughout the country. From the late 1920s to the early 1930s, influenced by the short gown that was popular in western women's clothing, the cheongsam also became shorter. The length of the cheongsam was just over the knee, the cuffs were narrowed, and the piping became narrower. In the mid-1930s, the cheongsam gradually grew longer and even shuffled to the floor. The slits on both sides were very high, and the waist was lined with a waistcoat. The waist became extremely narrow, and even fitted, showing a feminine curve. (Chen Juanjuan, Huang Nengyu 2006, 386-387).

Following the 1911 Revolution, cheongsam quickly gained its popularity throughout the country. From the late 1920s to the early 1930s, influenced by the short gown that was popular in western women’ s clothing, the cheongsam also became shorter. The length of the cheongsam was just over the knee, the cuffs were narrowed, and the piping became narrower. In the mid-1930s, the cheongsam gradually grew longer and even shuffled to the floor. The slits on both sides were very high, and the waist was lined with a waistcoat. The waist became extremely narrow, and even fitted, showing the curve of the female . (Chen Juanjuan, Huang Nengyu 2006, 386-387).--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 06:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In the 1940s, the cheongsam was shortened again, and the sleeves were so short that they were all canceled. It almost returned to the long vest era two hundred years ago. The only difference was that it was lighter and fitter and became streamlined. Beginning in the 1950s, in order to adapt to the needs of modern life, costume designers began to continuously improve Chinese cheongsam so that this national costume not only has oriental characteristics, but also conforms to the fashion trends of the world. And in this period, cheongsam, which is elegant and virtuous, has been internationally recognized. (Hongxia Liu 2009, 1)

In the 1940s, the cheongsam was shortened again, and the sleeves were even all canceled. It almost returned to the long vest era two hundred years ago. The only difference was that it was lighter and fitter and became streamlined. Beginning in the 1950s, in order to adapt to the needs of modern life, costume designers began to continuously improve Chinese cheongsam so that this national costume not only has oriental characteristics, but also conforms to the fashion trends of the world. And in this period, cheongsam, which is elegant and virtuous, has been internationally recognized. (Hongxia Liu 2009, 1)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 06:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In the past 20 years, the improved cheongsam we see has been greatly influenced by international fashion trends. For a time, various forms such as low collar, sleeveless, tight waist, high slit, ultra short, topless, nude back, etc. have changed a lot. Sequins, embroidery, fur trim, fabric printing and other craft decorations shine brightly. The colors are gorgeous, jumping, thick, and soft, boldly breaking through the old pattern of cheongsam. (Wang Di 2014, 67)

In the past 20 years, the improved cheongsam we see has been greatly influenced by international fashion trends. For a time, various forms of the cheongsam such as low collar, sleeveless, tight waist, high slit, ultra short, topless, nude back, etc. have changed a lot. Sequins, embroidery, fur trim, fabric printing and other craft decorations shine brightly. The colors are gorgeous, jumping, thick, and soft, boldly breaking through the old pattern of cheongsam. (Wang Di 2014, 67)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 06:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The improved cheongsam not only retains the original characteristics, but also incorporates the sense of innovation. Since then, the traditional Manchu dress has been injected into the blood of the times and given the vitality of youth. Cheongsam and fashion co-exist together, expressing a new feeling from a new perspective and a new concept. (Wang Di 2014, 67)

The improved cheongsam not only retains the original features, but also incorporates the sense of innovation. Since then, the traditional Manchu dress has been injected into the blood of the times and given the vitality of youth. Cheongsam and fashion co-exist together, expressing a new feeling from a new perspective and a new concept. (Wang Di 2014, 67)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 06:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====The Significance of Cheongsam====

Through the baptism of history, the cheongsam has become the most representative symbol of the elegance of Oriental women. When it comes to Oriental female, people often think of a graceful woman wearing cheongsam. The silk commonly used in cheongsam makes the feminine figure of women more incisive and vivid. The oriental charm and elegance of the cheongsam is astounding. Nowadays, cheongsam has become a symbol of beauty beyond ordinary clothes in the general sense, becoming an immortal classic. (Mao Jing 2009, 3)

Through the baptism of history, the cheongsam has become the most representative symbol of the elegance of Oriental women. When it comes to Oriental female, people often think of a graceful woman wearing cheongsam. The silk commonly used in cheongsam makes the feminine figure more incisive and vivid. The oriental charm and elegance of the cheongsam is astounding. Nowadays, cheongsam has become a symbol of beauty beyond ordinary clothes in general sense, becoming an immortal classic. (Mao Jing 2009, 3)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 06:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Cheongsam has been leading the footsteps of tradition and fashion in the course of hundreds of years of evolution, inheriting Chinese civilization, showing the self-cultivation and virtues of the wearer, and becoming a model of traditional Chinese culture in modern times. We have reason to believe that cheongsam can connect the past and the future, life and art, and brings Chinese people’ s understanding and interpretation of beauty to the world. (Mao Jing 2009, 3)

Cheongsam has been leading the pace of tradition and fashion in the course of hundreds of years of evolution, inheriting Chinese civilization, showing the self-cultivation and virtues of the wearer, and becoming a model of traditional Chinese culture in modern times. We have reason to believe that cheongsam can connect the past and the future, life and art, and brings Chinese people’ s understanding and interpretation of beauty to the world. (Mao Jing 2009, 3)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 06:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In conclusion, cheongsam is a Chinese female dress with traditional charm and modern vitality. Its past is unpredictable, and its present keeps pace with the times. Whether in film and television works or in wedding photography, cheongsam, as a symbol of traditional Chinese culture, shows fresh vitality. (Tong Zhijun 2007, 137)

In conclusion, after modern processing and improvement, the cheongsam has become an elegant dress that is loved by the public. Its cultural and artistic value of is worthy of being studied. China’s five thousand years of splendid history and culture retain its vitality of youth on the cheongsam, and the traditional costume culture is still shining on the modern stage. This provides the possibility for the study of the history of clothing development and adds infinite charm for the spread and promotion of Chinese culture. (Tong Zhijun 2007, 137)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 06:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Nowadays, after modern processing and improvement, the cheongsam is no longer so far away, and has become an elegant dress that is loved by the public. Its cultural and artistic value of is worthy of being studied. China’s five thousand years of splendid history and culture retain the vitality of youth on the cheongsam, and the traditional costume culture is still shining on the modern stage. This provides the possibility for the study of the history of clothing development and adds infinite charm for the spread and promotion of Chinese culture. (Tong Zhijun 2007, 137)

Nowadays, cheongsam is a Chinese female dress with traditional charm and modern vitality. Its past is unpredictable, but its present keeps pace with the times. Whether in films, television works or in wedding photography, cheongsam shows fresh vitality. (Tong Zhijun 2007, 137)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 06:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===References===

*Tong Zhijun 佟志军. (2007). 旗袍与女性 [Cheongsam and Women]. 北京：服装设计师 Beijing: Fashion Designer (1) 137.
*Chen Juanjuan, Huang Nengfu 陈娟娟, 黄能馥. (2006). 中国服装史 [History of Chinese Clothing]. Beijing: China Tourism Press 北京：中国旅游出版社 386-387.
*Mao Jing 毛敬. (2009). 中国旗袍及其向世界的传播 [The Chinese Cheongsam and Its Spread to the World]. 淮北职业技术学院学报 Journal of Huaibei Vocational and Technical College 34.
*Wang Di 王迪. (2014). 中国旗袍的历史演变 [The Historical Evolution of Chinese Cheongsam]. 美术教育研究 Research on Art Education 67.
*Hongxia Liu. The Cheongsam—the Treasure of Chinese National Apparel. 2009, 1(1)

===Terms and Expressions===

*Cheongsam 旗袍
*the quintessence of China 国粹
*national intangible cultural heritage 非物质文化遗产
*Manchu 满族
*long gowns and mandarins 长袍马褂
*the improved cheongsam 改良旗袍
*sleeveless 无袖
*fur trim 毛皮饰边
*Sequins 亮片
*fabric printing 织物印花
*embroidery 刺绣
*topless 袒胸
*nude back 裸背
*low collar 低领
*high slit 高开叉

===Questions===

1.When did the cheongsam originate from?

2. When did the cheongsam become popular in central China?

3. When did the cheongsam become popular throughout the country?

4.What is the features of the cheongsam from the late 1920s to the early 1930s?

5. What is the features of the cheongsam in the 1940s?

6. In the past 20 years, influenced by international fashion trends, what changes have taken place in cheongsam?

===Answers===

1.Cheongsam is a national costume originated from Manchu women in the mid-16th century.

2.After the Emperor Shunzhi of the Qing Dynasty entered the Shanhai Pass and moved to Beijing, cheongsam became popular in the Central Plains.

3.Following the 1911 Revolution, cheongsam quickly gained its popularity throughout the country.

4.From the late 1920s to the early 1930s, influenced by the short gown that was popular in western women's clothing, the cheongsam also became shorter. The length of the cheongsam was just over the knee, the cuffs were narrowed, and the piping became narrower.

5.In the 1940s, the cheongsam was shortened again, and the sleeves were so short that they were all canceled. It almost returned to the long vest era two hundred years ago.

6. For a time, various forms such as low collar, sleeveless, tight waist, high slit, ultra short, topless, nude back, etc. have changed a lot. Sequins, embroidery, fur trim, fabric printing and other craft decorations shine brightly.

==The Folding Screen--Yang Ziling 杨子泠-- No.202070080647 英语口译==

====1.1 Introduction ====

Folding screens are a kind of flexible furniture and composed of several frames or panels linked together. They serve practical and decorative functions, being made from various materials and in many styles. Folding screens originated in ancient China. Written references date from around the 4th century BC, during the Han dynasty, but they were probably used earlier. (Milica Sterjova, 2017)（ pages are missing）

====1.2 History and Technology====

Screens date back to China during the Eastern Zhou period (711-256BCE). They were one-panel screens rather than folding screens then. The origin of folding screens, however, could be traced to the Han dynasty (206 BC - 200 CE). Depictions of them have been found in Han-era tombs, such as one in Zhucheng, Shandong Province. (Sarah,2007)（ pages are missing）

Chinese screens which were made originally as partitions painted with beautiful and serious works, were not designed to be moved around very often. (Emmaantiques, 2014)（ pages are missing）
They were initially made of wooden panels and decorated with fine art. Many themes are painted on the panels, such as mythology, scenes of palace life, and nature, making them more of a piece of furniture. It is often associated with intrigue and romance in Chinese literature, for example, a young lady in love could take a curious peek hidden from behind a folding screen. Examples of such romantic occasions can be seen in the classical novel Dream of the Red Camber of Cao Xueqin. The folding screen is also an important element in Tang literature. Li He, the Tang Poet, wrote the "Song of the Screen" (屏风曲), in which he described a folding screen of a newly-wed couple. The folding screen surrounded the bed of the young couple, and its twelve panels were adorned with butterflies alighted on China pink flowers (an allusion to lovers), and had silver hinges resembling glass coins. (Mazurkewich, Karen, 2006) There are heavy wooden structures with other decorations pulled through holes near the edges of the panels. The frame was prominent, and the image development was frequently vertical and confined to the individual panels, creating a pleasing pattern. (Dianne Lee van der Reyden)（ year and pages are missing）

They were made flexible when an ingenious system of strong paper hinges were integrated in the panel construction, which made folding patterns reversible. The panels were brought closer by the paper hinges, which reduce the need for frames separating panels and allow a horizontal orientation of the picture plane. This provides creative approaches to the various spatial relationships of the panels. (Dianne Lee van der Reyden)（ year and pages are missing）

====1.3 Uses====

Although originated in China, folding screens are now used in many interior designs around the world. People first used them also in some practical ways, such as preventing draft in homes, as shown by the two characters in their name: ping(屏 "screen; blocking") and feng (风 "breeze, wind"). People would also use them to bestow a sense of privacy; in old times, they would often be placed in rooms serving as dressing screens for ladies.

Folding screens can be put up as to divide a large space and change the configuration of the room. They could also be used as a false way set up at the entrance of a room to create a desirable atmosphere by hiding certain features like doors to a kitchen. Now that many folding screens are design with fine art, they serve the decorative purposes well in the interior features of a home.(No citation)

====1.4 Spread====

After becoming popular in China, folding screens spread to other parts of the world, including East Asia and later Europe. In the 7th century, they appeared in Japan for the first time during the reign of Emperor Tenmu, and they were presented to the Korean kingdom of Silla as a gift. By the 8th century, they had gained such popularity in Japan that Japanese artists began to make their own, very much influenced by Chinese design. Different sizes served different purposes: small 2-fold screens were often used for the tea ceremony and a larger 8-fold screen could be used as backdrops for dances. Japanese screens were lighter, often made of silk or even paper. Painted screens were a major component of traditional Japanese architecture, and their decoration reflected the leading schools and movements in Japanese art. They served many purposes, being used for tea ceremonies, as backgrounds for concerts or dances, and as enclosures for Buddhist rites. (David Leopold, 2008)（ pages are missing）

Folding screens from the Far East spread to Europe at the very beginning of the 17th century. Owing to their practical functions and the distinguished decoration, they drew a lot of attention. The famous designer Coco Chanel was totally enchanted by Coromandel screens. She was well-known for her collection of Chinese folding screens. She possessed 32 folding screens, 8 of which were preserved in her apartment in Paris. She once stated:   “I’ve loved Chinese screens since I was eighteen years old. I nearly fainted with joy when, entering a Chinese shop, I saw a Coromandel for the first time. Screens were the first thing I bought.“ (Coco Chanel, 2010)（ pages are missing）

By the early 18th century, European craftsmen had already begun making folding screens on their own. They made folding screens in less expensive painted versions instead using lacquer techniques. At that time, leather screens were fashionable, but their popularity didn't last long, only to be restored around 1860 during the reign of Napoleon III with the wave of Japonism that inspired a number of French artists.(No citation)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In the 20th century when new modern heating means were invented, the functions of the folding screen became mostly decorative.

====1.5 Expressions and Terms====

Dream of the Red Chamber 《红楼梦》

the Korean Kingdom of Silla 朝鲜新罗王国

Emperor Tenmu 天武天皇

====1.6 Questions====

1. When did folding screens first appear?

2. How are folding screens associated with romance in Chinese literature?

3. What functions do screens serve?

4. When did they spread to Europe?

5. How did European craftsmen make folding screens?

===1.7 Answers===

1. Screens date back to China during the Eastern Zhou period (711-256BCE).

2. For example, a young lady in love could take a curious peek hidden from behind a folding screen， as presented in the classical novel Dream of the Red Camber of Cao Xueqin.

3. Preventing draft in homes, bestowing a sense of privacy and serving as dressing screens for ladies.

4. Folding screens from the Far East spread to Europe at the very beginning of the 17th century.

5. They made folding screens in less expensive painted versions instead using lacquer techniques.

===1.8 References===

Handler, Sarah (2007). Austere luminosity of Chinese classical furniture. University of California Press. pp. 268–271, 275, 277.

Delay, Claude (1983). Chanel Solitaire. Gallimard. p. 12. Cited in: "COCO CHANEL'S APARTMENT THE COROMANDEL SCREENS". Chanel News. June 29, 2010.

Milica Sterjova, A Brief history of folding screens. (2017) https://www.wallswithstories.com/uncategorized/a-brief-history-of-folding-screens.html

Emmaantiques. Asian Furniture Online. (2014). https://asianfurnitureonline.wordpress.com/2014/11/19/history-of-asian-screens/

Dianne Lee van der Reyden, THE HISTORY, TECHNOLOGY, AND CARE OF FOLDING SCREENS: CASE STUDIES OF THE CONSERVATION TREATMENT OF WESTERN AND ORIENTAL SCREENS, https://www.si.edu/mci/downloads/RELACT/folding_screens.pdf

David Leopold, Unfolding the Screen. (2008). https://www.solowey.com/wp/page/9/

Mazurkewich, Karen; Ong, A. Chester (2006). Chinese Furniture: A Guide to Collecting Antiques. Tuttle Publishing. pp. 144–146

==Yi Zichu 义子楚英语笔译 202070080618==
==='''Panda'''===--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:26, 2 November 2020 (UTC)

===='''1.The origin of giant pandas'''=====
The ancestor of the giant panda is Ailuaractos lufengensis. The scientific name of the giant panda is actually "cat bear", which means "a bear like a cat". The main branch of it continued to evolve in central and southern China. One species of Ailuaractos lufengensis appeared in the early Pleistocene about 3 million years ago, and it was smaller than the current panda.(Sun Chengjian,2006,163)

The ancestor of the giant panda is Ailuaractos. The scientific name of the giant panda is actually "cat bear", which means "a bear like a cat". The main branch of it continued to evolve in central and southern China. One species of Ailuaractos appeared in the early Pleistocene about 3 million years ago, and it was smaller than the current panda. (Sun Chengjian,2006,163)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

In this process, giant pandas have adapted to life in subtropical bamboo forests, gradually increasing in size and relying on bamboo for their livelihoods. In the middle and late Pleistocene, about 500,000-700,000 years ago, was the heyday of giant pandas. The Qinling giant panda has been identified as a subspecies of the giant panda. Fossils show that the ancestors of giant pandas appeared in the early 2 to 3 million years ago. (Sun Chengjian,2006,163)

In the process, giant pandas have adapted to life in subtropical bamboo forests, gradually increasing in size and relying on bamboo for their livelihoods. In the middle and late Pleistocene, about 500,000-700,000 years ago, was the heyday of giant pandas. The Qinling giant panda has been identified as a subspecies of the giant panda. Biological fossils show that the ancestors of giant pandas appeared in the early 2 to 3 million years ago. (Sun Chengjian,2006,163) --[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The habitat of giant pandas once covered most of eastern and southern China, reaching Beijing in the north and southern Myanmar and northern Vietnam in the south. Giant panda fossils are usually found in temperate or subtropical forests at an altitude of 500 to 700 meters. Giant pandas have survived to now and maintain their original ancient characteristics. Therefore, they have a lot of scientific value and are known as "living fossils". China calls them "national treasures."(Sun Chengjian,2006,165)\

The habitat of giant pandas once covered most of east southern China, reaching Beijing in the north and southern Myanmar and northern Vietnam in the south. Giant panda fossils are usually found in temperate or subtropical forests at an altitude of 500 to 700 meters. Giant pandas have survived to now and maintain their original ancient characteristics. Therefore, they have a lot of scientific value and are known as "living fossils". China calls them "national treasures." (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===='''2.Appearance features of giant pandas'''====
Giant pandas are fat like bears, plump and rich, round heads and short tails, with a head length of 1200-1800mm and a tail length of 100-120mm. The weight is 80-120kg, and its maximum weight can reach 180kg. The raised pandas are a little heavier, and the males are generally slightly larger than the females. The hair color of its head and body is distinct from black and white. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)

Giant pandas are fat like bears, plump and rich, round heads and short tails, with a head length of 1200-1800mm and a tail length of 100-120mm. Its weight is 80-120kg, and its maximum can reach 180kg. The raised pandas are a little heavier, and the males are generally slightly larger than the females. The hair color of its head and body is distinct from black and white. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

However, its black is not pure black, and white is not pure white. It is black with brown through and white with yellow. The individuals in the Qinling Mountains are relatively large, with rough body hair and slightly brownish abdominal hair. The black and white appearance is conducive to hiding in dense forest trees and snow-covered ground without being easily spotted by natural enemies. Relatively sharp claws, well-developed and powerful front and rear limbs help the giant panda to climb up tall trees quickly. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)

However, it is not pure black, or pure white. It is black with brown through and white with yellow. The pandas in the Qinling Mountains are relatively large, with rough body hair and slightly brownish abdominal hair. The black and white appearance is conducive to hiding in dense forest trees and snow-covered ground without being easily spotted by natural enemies. Relatively sharp claws, well-developed and powerful front and rear limbs help the giant panda to climb up tall trees quickly. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The giant panda's skin is thick, which can be up to 10 mm at its thickest point. The skin thickness of different parts of the body is different. The back of the body is thicker than the ventral side, and the outside of the body is thicker than the inside of the body. The average thickness of the skin is about 5 mm, and it is white, elastic and tough. The vision of giant pandas is extremely underdeveloped. This is because giant pandas live in dense bamboo forests for a long time. The light is very dark and there are many obstacles, making their eyes very short and shallow. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)

The giant panda's skin is thick, which can be up to 10 mm at its thickest point. The skin thickness of different parts of the body is different. The back of the body is thicker than the ventral side, and the outside of the body is thicker than the inside of the body. The average thickness of the skin is about 5 mm, and it is white, elastic and tough. The vision of giant pandas is extremely underdeveloped. This is because giant pandas live in dense bamboo forests for a long time. The light is very dark and there are many obstacles, making their eyes very short (Sun Chengjian,2006,166)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

In addition, because its pupils are split like cats, they can still do activities when night comes.Giant pandas live in the high mountains and deep valleys of the upper reaches of the Yangtze River in China, which are the windward side of the southeast monsoon. The climate is warm and humid, and their humidity is often above 80%. The giant pandas prefer humid environment. The 6 long and narrow areas where giant pandas live, including Minshan, Qionglai, Liangshan, Daxiangling, Xiaoxiangling and Qinling Mountains, spans 45 counties (cities) in the 3 provinces of Sichuan, Shaanxi and Gansu.(Sun Chengjian,2006,165)

In addition, because its pupils are split like cats, they can still do activities when night comes. Giant pandas live in the high mountains and deep valleys of the upper reaches of the Yangtze River in China, which are the windward side of the southeast monsoon. There is warm and humid, and their humidity is often above 80%. The giant pandas prefer humid environment. The 6 long and narrow areas where giant pandas live, including Minshan, Qionglai, Liangshan, Daxiangling, Xiaoxiangling and Qinling Mountains, spans 45 counties (cities) in the 3 provinces of Sichuan, Shaanxi and Gansu. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The land area of their habitats is more than 20,000 square kilometers, and the population of there is about 1,600, of which more than 80% are distributed in Sichuan.(Sun Chengjian,2006,165)

The land area of their habitats is more than 20,000 square kilometers, and the population is about 1,600, of which more than 80% are distributed in Sichuan. (Sun Chengjian,2006,167)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===='''3.The diet features of giant pandas'''====
The recipes of giant pandas are very special, almost including all kinds of bamboo that can be found in high mountain areas. Giant pandas also occasionally eat meat (usually the carcasses of animals or sometimes of rhizomys). The unique dieting characteristics of the giant panda make it known as the "bamboo bear" by the locals. Giant pandas have gradually evolved to herbivore. As bamboo has a few nutrition that can only provide the basic nutrients needed for pandas’ survival, giant pandas eat up to 14 hours a day except for sleeping or some short-distance activities in the wild environment. A giant panda eats 12 to 38 kilograms of bamboo per day, which is close to 40% of its body weight. (Hu Jinzhi,1981,17)

The recipes of giant pandas are very special, almost including all kinds of bamboo that can be found in high mountain areas. Giant pandas also occasionally eat meat (usually the carcasses of animals or sometimes of rhizomys). The unique dieting characteristics of the giant panda make it known as "bamboo bear" by the locals. Giant pandas have gradually evolved to herbivore. As bamboo has a few nutrition that can only provide the basic nutrients needed for pandas’ survival, giant pandas eat up to 14 hours a day except for sleeping or some short-distance activities in the wild environment. A giant panda eats 12 to 38 kilograms of bamboo per day, which is close to 40% of its body weight. (Hu Jinzhi,1981,17)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

They like to eat the most nutritious and least cellulose-containing parts of bamboo, namely the tender stems, burgeons, and bamboo shoots. There are usually at least two types of bamboo in the giant panda habitat. When one kind of bamboo blooms and dies (bamboo periodically blooms and dies every 30 to 120 years), pandas can switch to other bamboos. However, the continued fragmentation of the habitat increases the possibility that there is only one kind of bamboo in the habitat. When this kind of bamboo becomes distinct, the giant pandas in this area will face the threat of starvation.(Hu Jinzhi,1981,20)

They like to eat the most nutritious and least cellulose-containing parts of bamboo, namely the tender stems, burgeons, and bamboo shoots. There are usually at least two types of bamboo in the giant panda habitat. When one kind of bamboo blooms and dies (bamboo periodically blooms and dies every 30 to 120 years), pandas can choose other bamboos. However, the continued fragmentation of the habitat increases the possibility that there is only one kind of bamboo. When this kind of bamboo becomes distinct, the giant pandas in this area will face the threat of starvation. (Hu Jinzhi,1981,20)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====='''Terms and expressions'''====
Ailuaractos lufengensis 始熊猫

Pleistocene 更新世

rhizomys 竹鼠

cellulose 纤维素

burgeons 嫩枝

===='''Questions'''====
1.What's the ancestor of giant pandas?

2.What are the features of giant pandas' skin?

3.Do giant pandas like hot environment?

4.What part of bamboo do giant panda eat?

===References===
[1]Yan Weiran,Tang Maolin,Chen Zeyuan,Chen Peng,Zhao Qijun,Que Pinjia,Wu Kongju,Hou Rong,Zhang Zhihe. Automatically predicting giant panda mating success based on acoustic features[J]. Global Ecology and Conservation,2020,24.

[2]丛丽,吴必虎.基于网络文本分析的野生动物旅游体验研究——以成都大熊猫繁育研究基地为例[J].北京大学学报(自然科学版),2014,50(06):1087-1094.

[3]雍严格,王宽武,汪铁军.佛坪大熊猫的移动习性[J].兽类学报,1994(01):9-14.

[4]胡锦矗.大熊猫的食性研究[J].南充师院学报(自然科学版),1981(03):17-22.

[5]孙承骞,张哲邻,金学林.秦岭大熊猫局域种群的划分及数量分布[J].陕西师范大学学报(自然科学版),2006(S1):163-167.

==You Yuting 游雨婷==
==Legalism - You Yuting 游雨婷 - Student No.202070080619 英语笔译==
====Legalism====--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 08:29, 18 November 2020 (UTC)

Legalism is a prominent school of thought in Chinese history that advocates the rule of law as its core and regards enriching the country and strengthening the army as its mission. The legalists are not pure theorists, but active actionists, whose thoughts also focus on the practical effects of law. It also puts forward the idea and concept of governing the country by law which still has far-reaching influence. A review based on the evolution of theories of legal relations showed that the study of the general theory of law in China is closely associated to the historical rate of progress of the practice of rule of law in China.(Lei Lei,Chris 2020,81).

Legalism is a school of thought in Chinese history that advocates the rule of law as its core and regards enriching the country and strengthening the army as its mission. The legalists are not just theorists, but active actionists, whose thoughts also focus on the practical effects of law. The legalists also puts forward the idea and concept of governing the country by law which still has far-reaching influence. A review based on the evolution of theories of legal relations showed that the study of the general theory of law in China is closely associated to the historical rate of progress of the practice of rule of law in China.(Lei Lei,Chris 2020,81).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====1.Representative figures====

Legalism developed relatively slowly, but took shape very early. The earliest could be traced back to the Xia and Shang rulers, and it became mature in the Warring-States Period. Through the unremitting efforts made by Guan Zhong, Zi Chan, Li Kui, Wu Qi, Shang Yang, and others, It gradually became a school of thought. At the end of the Warring-States Period, Han Fei summarized their theories, which was the greatest achievement of legalists. Shang Yang and Han Fei are two remarkable figures of this school, and they dedicated their life to promoting and practicing the ideas of legalism. (Wang Jian 2001,51).

Legalism developed relatively slowly, but took shape very early. The earliest could be traced back to the Xia and Shang rulers, and it became mature in the Warring-States Period. Through the unremitting efforts made by Guan Zhong, Zi Chan, Li Kui, Wu Qi, Shang Yang, and others, It gradually became a school of thought. At the end of the Warring-States Period, Han Fei summarized their theories, which was the greatest achievement of legalists in ancient Chinese history. Shang Yang and Han Fei are two remarkable figures of this school, and they dedicated their life to promoting and practicing the ideas of legalism. (Wang Jian 2001,51).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Shang Yang, formerly known as Wei Yang, also known as Gongsun Yang, was born in the State of Wei during the Warring States Period. He put forward three reform plans, namely "the way of emperor", "the way of king" and "the overbearing way". Shang Yang talked about the overbearing policy of reform and won the heart of Duke Xiao. Shang Yang entered the stage to display his ideal. The main contents of Shang Yang's reform are as follows: establishing a new merit-based military system; offering reward for ploughing and weaving to ensure sufficient grain and grass for the army of Qin. (Wang Jian 2001,51).

Shang Yang, formerly known as Wei Yang, also known as Gongsun Yang, was born in the State of Wei during the Warring States Period. He put forward three reform plans, namely "the way of emperor", "the way of king" and "the overbearing way". Shang Yang talked about the overbearing policy of reform and won the heart of Duke Xiao. Shang Yang got the chance to display his ideal and achieve his ambition. The main contents of Shang Yang's reform are as follows: establishing a new merit-based military system; offering reward for ploughing and weaving to ensure sufficient grain and grass for the army of Qin. (Wang Jian 2001,51).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

After Shang Yang's reform, The State of Qin quickly became a powerful state, which laid the foundation for later generations to unify the whole country and further enriched the thought of legalism. (Wang Jian 2001,51).

After Shang Yang's reform, The State of Qin quickly became a powerful state during Warring States Period, which laid the foundation for later generations to unify the whole country and further developed the thought of legalism. (Wang Jian 2001,51).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

As for Han Fei, Han Fei (280 B. C. -- 233 B. C.), from Han state of the Warring States period, was a master in the legalist school. Han Feizi is the originator of the Legalism, his philosophy together significantly influenced by the “legalist ancestors”（Tingchun Ngai 2019,7）. Han Fei's thought had a strong tendency of practical rationality, and he treated the practical effect as the criterion for judging everything.(Wang Jian 2001,52).

As for Han Fei, Han Fei (280 B. C. -- 233 B. C.), from Han state of the Warring States period, was an outstanding figure in the legalist school. Han Feizi is the originator of the Legalism, his philosophy together significantly influenced by the “legalist ancestors”（Tingchun Ngai 2019,7）. Han Fei's thought had a strong tendency of practical rationality, and he treated the practical effect as the criterion for judging things.(Wang Jian 2001,52). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Han Fei developed a systematic legalist thought by combining “Shi” of Shen Dao, the "Shu" of Shen Buhai, and the "Fa" of Shang Yang. Han Fei was nobleman in Han State, but his thoughts were not adopted by the king of Han State at that time. Although Han Fei failed to realize his ambition during his lifetime, he further developed his legalist thoughts and theories, which provided a powerful theoretical basis for the first emperor of Qin to unify the whole country.(Wang Jian 2001,52)

Han Fei developed a systematic legalist thought by combining “Shi” of Shen Dao, the "Shu" of Shen Buhai, and the "Fa" of Shang Yang. Han Fei was a nobleman in Han State, but his thoughts were not adopted by the king of Han State at that time. Although Han Fei failed to realize his ambition during his lifetime, he further developed his legalist thoughts and theories, which provided a useful theoretical basis for the first emperor of Qin to unify the whole country.(Wang Jian 2001,52)
--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)
====2.Values====

Legalism in pre-Qin period, which paid the most attention to law and its compulsory function among other school of thoughts. It discussed the origin, nature, function of law, and the relationship between law and social economy, the demand of The times, state power, population and human nature. And it turned out to be a great success. There are several beliefs that the legalist school hold and advocate .(Guo Yanting 2014,71).

Legalism in pre-Qin period, which attached great attention to law and its compulsory function among other school of thoughts. Representatives of this school discussed the origin, nature, function of law, and the relationship between law and social economy, the demand of The times, state power, population and human nature. And it turned out to be a great success. There are several beliefs that the legalist school hold and advocate .(Guo Yanting 2014,71).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

First, The legalists believe that people have the nature of "being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful" . Guan Zhong once said that a businessman who could travel thousands of miles day and night would not feel far because the attraction of the benefits. With this same idea in mind, Shang Yang came to the conclusion that "people can govern one's likes and dislikes in life." Legalist school, therefore, combined the humanity with the management of the country, introducing reward and punishment to drive its people to work and fight hard for their country.(Guo Yanting 2014,71).

First, The legalists believe that people have the nature of "being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful" . Guan Zhong once said that a businessman who could travel thousands of miles day and night would not feel far because of the benefits that lies ahead. With this same idea in mind, Shang Yang came to the conclusion that "people can govern one's likes and dislikes in life." Legalist school, therefore, combined the humanity with the management of the country, introducing reward and punishment to drive its people to work and fight hard for their country.(Guo Yanting 2014,71).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Second, the legalists opposed the conservative idea of restoring ancient ways and advocated vigorous reform. They believe that history moves forward and that all laws and institutions should be developed along with the development of history. Shang Yang clearly put forward the proposition of "Don’t follow the practices of the ancient and the present". Han Fei, on the other hand, took Shang Yang's idea a step further by proposing that "The way of running the country stays the same as the time changes; the country will be in chaos", and dismissing old-fashioned Confucian as a fool who waits for nothing.(Guo Yanting 2014,72).

Second, the legalists opposed the conservative idea of restoring ancient ways and advocated vigorous reform. They believe that history moves forward and that all laws and institutions should be developed along with the development of history. Shang Yang clearly put forward the proposition of "Don’t follow the practices of the ancient and the present". Han Fei, on the other hand, took Shang Yang's idea a step further by proposing that "The way of ruling the country stays the same as the time changes; the country will be in chaos", and treating old-fashioned Confucian as a fool who waits for nothing.(Guo Yanting 2014,72).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Third, The combination of Fa, Shi, Shu. Shang Yang, Shen Dao and Shen Buhai respectively advocated Fa, Shi, Shu with its own characteristics. When Han Fei, the master of legalist school, put forward the idea of combining the three closely. (Guo Yanting 2014,72).

Third, The combination of Fa, Shi, Shu. Shang Yang, Shen Dao and Shen Buhai respectively advocated Fa, Shi, Shu with its own characteristics. When Han Fei, the influential figure of legalist school, put forward the idea of combining the three closely. (Guo Yanting 2014,72).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

In Han Fei’s opinion, Fa refers to the improvement of the legal system, Shi refers to the power of the monarch, the sole military and political power, Shu refers to the control over the ministers, the control of political power, the implementation of laws and strategies and means. "Shi" is the basis for ruling the masses and gaining advantages, similar to "management authority" in modern management(Dai Shu 2002,8). The main purpose is to prevent insurrection and maintain the status of the monarch. The three ideas proposed by the legalism still exert great impact on the improvement of the modern law.(Guo Yanting 2014,72).

In Han Fei’s opinion, Fa refers to the improvement of the legal system, Shi refers to the power of the monarch, the sole military and political power, Shu refers to the control over the ministers, the control of political power, the implementation of laws and strategies and means. "Shi" lays the basis for ruling the masses and gaining advantages, similar to "management authority" in modern management(Dai Shu 2002,8). The main purpose is to avoid insurrection and maintain the power of the monarch. The three ideas proposed by the legalism still exert great impact on the improvement of the modern law.(Guo Yanting 2014,72).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====3.Works====

Legalism has produced many great works such as Guan Zi, Shang Jun Shu, Shenko, Shen Zi, and Han Fei Zi. Take Han Fei Zi as an example, Han Fei inherited and summarized the thoughts and practices of legalists in the Warring States Period and put forward the theory of absolute monarchy and centralization. In this book, Han Fei pointed out that the sovereign must be powerful to govern the country. Feudal officials with rich experiences should be selected to replace the hereditary slave owners and nobles, so that the power of the state could solely lie in the hands of the sovereign. (Dai Shu 2002,8).

Legalism has produced a lot of works such as Guan Zi, Shang Jun Shu, Shenko, Shen Zi, and Han Fei Zi. Take Han Fei Zi as an example, Han Fei inherited and summarized the thoughts and practices of legalists in the Warring States Period and put forward the theory of absolute monarchy and centralization. In this book, Han Fei pointed out that the sovereign must be powerful enough to govern the country. Feudal officials with rich experiences should be selected to replace the hereditary slave owners and nobles, so that the power of the state could solely lie in the hands of the sovereign. (Dai Shu 2002,8)--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

It is worth mentioning that in this book Han Fei Zi, it also recorded a large number of popular fable stories, such as "self-contradiction", "wait for windfalls", "safety in numbers", "sense comes with age" and so on. These fables contain deep philosophy, and inspire people through the perfect combination of ideas and artistry.(Dai Shu 2002,12).

It is worth mentioning that in this book Han Fei Zi, it also recorded a large number of popular fable stories, such as "self-contradiction", "wait for windfalls", "safety in numbers", "sense comes with age" and so on. These fables contain deep philosophy, and inspire people in every way through the perfect combination of ideas and artistry.(Dai Shu 2002,12).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====References====

*Lei Lei,Chris.The General Theory of Law and Its Development in China[J].Contemporary Social Sciences,2020(05):81-107.
*Tingchun Ngai.The Debates on Human Nature and Political Governance in Ancient China: Mencius, Xunzi and Han Feizi. Open Access Library Journal,2019, 6(4):1-14.
*Guo Yanting. 郭艳婷.(2014). 浅论法家思想及其现实意义.[On Legalist Thought and Its Practical Significance][J].湖北广播电视大学学报[Journal of Hubei Radio and Television University],34(02):71-72.
*Dai Shu. 戴黍.(2002). 以“势”为中心的制度设计——韩非治国思想的现代解读.[The System Design with "Shi" as the Center -- the Modern Interpretation of Han Fei's Thoughts on Governing A Country][J].华南师范大学学报[Journal of South China Normal University],(03):7-12.
*Wang Jian. 王健(2001). 法家事功思想初探——以《商君书》、《韩非子》为中心.[A Preliminary Study on the Thought of Legalist Achievement -- Centering on Shang Jun Shu and Han Feizi][J].史学月刊[The Historical Journal],(06):51-56.

====Terms and Expressions====

1.Legalism法家

2.the way of emperor帝道

3.the way of king王道

4.the overbearing way 霸道

5.being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful 好利恶害

6.self-contradiction自相矛盾

7.wait for windfalls守株待兔

8.safety in numbers滥竽充数

9.sense comes with age老马识途

====Questions====

1.When did legalism become mature?

2.Do you know the representative figures of legalism?

3.Can you make a list of values proposed by legalism?

4.what does "being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful" mean? Can you make some examples?

5.Does the members of legalism object the thoughts of Confucian school?

6.What are the classical works of legalism?

7.What are the popular fable stories contained in the book of Han Fei?

===Answers===

1.It became mature in the Warring-States Period.

2.Guan Zhong, Zi Chan, Li Kui, Wu Qi, Shang Yang.

3.First, The legalists believe that people have the nature of "being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful" . Second, the legalists opposed the conservative idea of restoring ancient ways and advocated vigorous reform.Third, The combination of Fa(law), Shi(power), Shu(art). Shang Yang, Shen Dao and Shen Buhai respectively advocated Fa, Shi, Shu with its own characteristics.

4.Guan Zhong once said that a businessman who could travel thousands of miles day and night would not feel far because the attraction of the benefits. Fishermen, who was not afraid of danger and sailed against the current, not caring about a hundred miles away, pursued the benefits of fishing.

5.Yes.

6.Guan Zi, Shang Jun Shu, Shenko, Shen Zi, and Han Fei Zi. Take Han Fei Zi.

7."self-contradiction", "wait for windfalls", "safety in numbers", "sense comes with age" .

History of Translation Studies 3

2020-12-20T12:42:50Z

Yang chenting: /* A Brief Introduction to the Translation Theories of Catford and Eugene Nida */

这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第三部分(Part 3)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。

学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。

*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]
*Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].

=Skopos and Functional Equivalence=
==A Comparative Study between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory and My thoughts on the Two Theories==

==Abstract==
This paper first makes a brief introduction of the two very important translation theories, which are Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory, put forward by Eugene Nida and Hans Vermeer respectively. Then the paper analyzes the similarities and differences between the two theories from many different perspectives. Through the analysis of the two theories, the author finally puts forwards its own thoughts on the two translation theories.

==Key words==
Functional Equivalence Theory; Skopos theory; Eugene Nida; Hans Vermeer

==摘要==
本文首先对翻译研究中两种极为重要的翻译理论，即尤金·奈达提出的功能对等翻译理论和汉斯·弗米尔进行了简要介绍，之后从多个不同的方面对这两种理论的相似点和不同之处进行分析。最后，在对两种理论进行分析后，作者提出自己对这两种理论的看法和认识。

==关键词==
功能对等理论；翻译目的论；尤金·奈达；汉斯·弗米尔

==(1)Introduction==

===1.1. Functional Equivalence Theory===

In 1964, Eugene Nida, the famous American linguist and ''Bible'' Translator, first put forward the notion of “dynamic equivalence” in his book ''Toward a Science of Translating''. According to Nida, “dynamic equivalence” refers to “ the closest natural equivalence to the source language message(Tan Zaixi, 1984: 10)”. In saying this, Nida means to appeal translators to put emphasis on expressing to the target readers both the messages conveyed in the source language and the forms and styles of the original text. Later, he realizes the name “dynamic equivalence” may confuse some translation learners and they may think he only focuses on translating the content and meaning of the source text and ignores its form and style, he then changes the name of “dynamic equivalence” into “functional equivalence”. Nida thinks that the response made by the target language receptor to the target text should generally be equivalent to the response made by the source language receptor to the source text, so when the translator cannot retain both the form and the content of the original text, he or she should give priority to the content of the original text and change the form of the source text. And in response to questions like how and to what degree the translator can change the form of the original text, Nida then points out that in translation, there are four aspects in dynamic equivalence, namely, lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence respectively. If a translator can convey the language form, the content and the style of the source text in natural target language, and make the target readers give the same response to the target text as the source language made to the original text, then his translation can be said to have achieved the maximal equivalence. On the other hand, if a translation only transmit the content of the original text generally, then the translation can be said to have achieved the minimal equivalence.

===1.2. Skopos Theory===

Skopos theory was first put forward by Hans Vermeer in his book ''Framework for a General Translation Theory'' in 1978. According to Skopos theory, translation means to “'''produce a text at target setting for a target purpose and target addressee in target circumstances'''”(Liu Junping, 2009: 377). Based on this definition, Vermeer Hans concludes the three rules of Skopos theory, which are skopos rule, coherence rule and loyalty rule.

Firstly, skopos rule, or purpose principle, is the primary principle to be followed in translation. It holds that the purpose to be achieved of the target text determines the whole process of translation, including the choice of the translator in translation skills and strategies, and that all translation activities are determined by its purpose. Generally speaking, the skopos rule has under its umbrella three types of purposes: the first one is the basic purpose of the translator; the second is the communicative purpose of the translation; and the third is the purpose of specific translation strategies or means. But at most of times, “purpose” refers to the communicative purpose of the translation.

Secondly, coherence rule, also called intra-textual coherence, means that the translation must be understandable and readable to the receptors, and meaningful in the communicative environment of the target culture and the target text.

Thirdly, fidelity rule, which means that there should be inter-textual coherence between the source text and the target text. Inter-textual coherence is similar to what is usually called “信” or “be faithful to the original text”. In the traditional translation theory, “faithfulness” is always regarded as the basic translation standard to obey, but in Skopos theory, to what degree the form and style of the target text should be faithful to the original text totally depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator’s understanding of the source text.

Under Vermeer’ s Skopos theory, the skopos rule is the most important rule among the three rules, the coherence rule the second important, and the fidelity rule the least important. This indicates that in Skopos theory, the end justifies the means(Liu Junping, 2009: 377-378)

==II.Similarities and Differences==

===2.1. The Similarities between the Two Theories===

'''2.1.1. Both Attach Great Importance to the Target Receptor’s Status'''

Functional Equivalence Theory is a receptor-oriented theory. As revealed by Nida’s definition of translation, that “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes that the primary aim of translation is such that the target text should bring the target receptors the similar or same response as the response made by receptors in the source language. Besides, to bring to the readers a similar or same response, Nida even put forward that, if it is necessary, different target texts should be made according to the needs of different receptors. All of the two points reflects that in Functional Equivalence Theory, the target receptor’s status is very important.

While the Skopos theory, too, put the reader’s needs on a high status. Of the three rules in Skopos theory, the most important one is skopos rule, which includes three purposes, the basic purpose of the translator, the communicative purpose of the translation, and the purpose of specific translation strategies or means. However, to take all the three purposes into consideration, a translator must first know what and who the target text serves, so he or she can immediately know the purpose of the translation task and do a corresponding and qualified translation. This, on the other hand, also means that in Skopos theory, the target reader’s needs indirectly determine the purpose of the translation, so it is also given priority to by the translator.

'''2.1.2. Both Emphasize the Communicative Function of Translation'''

Under the Functional Equivalence Theory, the translation should achieve a functional equivalence, bringing the target readers the roughly same experience and making them give the responses as the receptors in the source language culture. In doing this, the translator is in fact trying to achieve the communicative function of the original text by shortening the distance of the source text receptors and the target text receptors, which, on the other hand, means that the process of translation is a communicative process between the original language culture and the culture of the target language.

In Skopos theory, of the three purposes under the skopos rule, the communicative purpose is regarded as the most important purpose of a target text. Skopos theory holds that translation is a communicative activity with a purpose, and the process of translation is determined by the intended function or purpose of the target text.

'''2.2 The Differences between the Two Theories'''

'''2.2.1. Different Status of the Source Language and the Target Language'''

From the perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory, a good translation achieving the goal of translation not only needs to provide another message similar to the original message conveyed in the source text, but also needs to clearly reflect the meaning and intention of the original text, bringing to the target readers similar or even same effects and making them give a same response. From this point, one can easily see that Functional Equivalence Theory is centered on the original text, which, to some degree, reflects that Functional Equivalence still put the source language on a high status. The status of the target language is secondary to the source language as the choice of the words, sentence structures of the target text still heavily depend on the source text.

Skopos theory, on the other hand, gets rid of the point of view of the traditional text-centered translation theory, and focuses on the function and purpose of the target text. From the perspective of Skopos theory, a successful translation is not one that places the original text in a sacred and unattainable position. Vermeer further put forward the view of “subverting the source language” in Skopos theory. He stated that “the linguistic and stylistic features of the original text are no longer the only criteria to measure the translation”. All of these reflect that the source text enjoys a relatively low status in Skopos theory compared with its status in Functional Equivalence Theory. Besides, from the three rules of Skopos theory, one can easily know that, the most important one is the skopos rule, then the coherence of the target text, namely the intra-textual coherence and finally the fidelity of the target text to the source text, namely the inter-textual coherence. Therefore, we can see that the status of the source language actually lower than the target language in Skopos theory, which is different from the case in Functional Equivalence Theory.

'''2.2.2. Different Translation Principles'''

Nida believes that equivalence is the goal of translation. His translation standard is that the target text should be faithful to the original text in terms of content and style while also being expressive in the eyes of the target readers. As put forward by Nida that, “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, the translation standard of Functional Equivalence Theory include “equivalence”, which is the equivalence of meaning and style, namely be faithful to the meaning and style of the source text. Besides, in front of “equivalence”, there is also a word “natural”, which means the target text should be fluent and be in conformity with the habits of the target culture, namely “expressiveness” in traditional translation theory.

In Skopos theory, however, “faithfulness” is no longer regarded as the primary translation criteria. As Skopos theory judges the success of a translation by its intended purpose, which reflects the requirements of the target readers. However, as the requirements of the readers are different, Skopos theory advocates the diversification of translation standards. Only when the communicative purpose of the translation requires the translation to have the same communicative function as the original text, equivalence becomes the standard of the translation process. Otherwise, the translation may be very different from the original text in its style and form.

'''2.2.3. Different Translation Skills and Translation Strategies Used in the Translation Process'''

In Functional Equivalence Theory, as determined by its definition for translation, the translation skills and strategies used in the translation process are all for one common goal, which is to bring the target readers the roughly same or same response. In order to achieve the aim, some translation skills are frequently used under the Functional Equivalence Theory, including literal translation, liberal translation, domestication and borrowing translation. And among all these translation skills, domestication and borrowing translation are two translation strategies most favorably advocated by Functional Equivalence Theory. Here, I will list the translation of a phrase to briefly explain the reason why the two translation skills are often used in translation process. We all know that to grow like mushrooms is an English phrase which means to rapidly grow or increase in number. It vividly describes the scene that after the incessant rain in London, the explosive growth of the mushrooms. While in China, there is also a similar phrase “雨后春笋”, to describe the scene that after a spring rain, the bamboo shoots sprout overnight in the forest. Therefore, when doing a E-C translation, the translator often uses domestication and translate “to grow like mushrooms” into “雨后春笋”, so as to enable the Chinese readers give a same response as English readers did.

However, Skopos theory is different. In Skopos theory, the end justifies the means, which means all the translation skills and strategies are determined by the purpose and use of the target text as well as the reader it serves. Therefore, it usually adopts different translation strategies to meet different translation purposes. Translators can freely choose the translation skills he wants to use, whether it is literal translation or liberal translation, domestication or foreignization, transliteration or borrowing translation, even simplifying translation and reduction translation, in consideration of the author's writing intention, the theme of the original text, the translator’s purpose and the needs of the readers.

Here, I want to firstly compare the difference between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory in dealing with content with cultural characteristics. As I wrote before, the Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes the same response between the original readers and the target readers and the presence of a natural text to the target readers, so it prefers to use the existed words, phrases, and cultural images in the target language to replace the expressions in the original text, which explains why domestication and borrowing translation are often use under the theory -- that is because by using the two ways, functional equivalence can be achieved. However, in Skopos theory, the translator enjoys a higher degree of freedom. He can select translation skills flexibly according to the skopos of the text. For example, when it comes to cultural translation, the translator should carefully consider the cultural differences between the two languages and have full understanding of the purpose and usage of the original text. If the purpose of a translated text is to diffuse the language characteristics of the original author, the author’s writing intention, or the language characteristics of the source language culture, then the translator can adopt the strategy of foreignization or the strategy of literal translation with some annotations in the target text to help the target readers better understand a foreign concept. For example, in order to maintain the cultural characteristics of Chinese, the Chinese proverb “谋事在人，成事在天” should be translated as “man proposals, heaven disposes." instead of “man proposals, God disposes”. This is because the translator wants foreign people to know our beliefs -- we Chinese believe in Heaven rather than God. At the same time, sometimes, to meet the needs of some special readers, simplifying translation and reduction translation are also used in the translation process. For example, there are some publishers in China which publish the simplified version of those foreign classics to meet the the children’s needs in reading.

'''2.2.4. Different Status of the Translator'''

In what Nida thinks of, the translator is only a cultural envoy, transmitting the idea of a culture to people in another culture. Nida believes that as the second source of information, the translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. Therefore, the translator must understand what the original author thinks. The translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. In addition, the translator should not introduce any personal ideas into the translation of the original text, no matter whether the original point of view is consistent with his own. “The translator should not intervene in, edit or rewrite the original text even if it has shortcomings and errors, nor should he improve the original text even if he has the ability”(Tan Zaixi, 1984). Of course, we can critically accept Nida’s words. When there are obvious mistakes in the original text (such as the original text not conforming to the facts), we should correct them in the translation.

Skopos theory improves the position of translator. The translator is the receptor of the original text and transmits the information of the original text to the reader. Skopos theory allows the translator to determine the faithfulness of the translation to the source text and determine the proportion of the faithfulness of the target text to the original text. It adopts the translation strategies such as “modification, abridgement and reduction”, and denies that there is only one “correct or best” translation of the source language. Therefore, the translator has more freedom in the process of translation, and can transfer the original text according to the needs, expectations and knowledge background of the readers, so as to achieve the purpose of a translation task.

'''2.2.5. Different translation processes'''

In order to achieve functional equivalence, Nida proposed the famous back translation theory by referring to the concepts of core sentence, non-core sentence and transformation. In Functional Equivalence Theory, translation is a complicated process, which includes four stages: analysis, transfer, reconstruction and test (Tan Zaixi, 1984, 144). Specifically speaking, as far as Nida is concerned, when doing a translation task, the translator needs to transform the original text from the surface structure to the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure on the basis of grammatical and semantic analysis, and then translate the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally from the deep structure of the target text to the surface structure of the target text. After the translation is done, the translator needs to re-examine and test the translation.(Peng Changjiang, 2017: 09)
Skopos theory, however, unlike the Functional Equivalence Theory, it does not put forward specific translation procedures. The Skopos theory does not give detailed guidelines for the translation of words, phrases, paragraphs and texts, but it do gives some guidance to the translator from the macro perspective, giving the translator more autonomy to do translation and enabling them freely translate a text.

'''III.My Thoughts on the Two Theories'''

'''3.1. My thought on Functional Equivalence Theory'''

'''3.1.1. Strengths and Contributions of Functional Equivalence Theory'''

Firstly, the Functional Equivalence Theory brings modern linguistics, communication studies, information theory, semiotics and aesthetics into the field of translation. From the macro perspective, it breaks through the limitations of the traditional thoughts on translation and provides a new perspective for translation research. It studies translation in a more detailed way from multiple perspectives, applies new thoughts, concepts and methods to translation studies, and provides many new methods for translation research. Besides, it also lays a solid foundation for modern translation studies.

Secondly, it must be emphasized that, Functional Equivalence Theory has given many constructive suggestions to translators. From a micro perspective, Functional Equivalence Theory has solved the long-standing dispute between literal translation and liberal translation. It requires the translator use the target language to reproduce the meaning of the source language as fully as possible in different language structures, thus both breaking the restrictions of traditional word-for-word translation and limiting the free and random play of the translator. To some extent, Functional Equivalence Theory has greatly promoted the translation of some types of literary works, such as the translation of prose, help avoiding the creation of many pseudo--translation and translationese cases. At the same time, it eases the argument of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of language and culture, and seeks the balance point of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of multiple disciplines.

Thirdly, Functional Equivalence Theory provides with the target readers a chance to know other country’s culture in their own language. Traditionally, translation is to transform the original language that are different from ours into the familiar language that we use. It can let the people who have not learned a foreign language also understand and appreciate the message under some phrases written in a foreign language. For example, if one has no common sense in English, he will regard “a piece of cake” as “一块蛋糕”. This example reflects the culture gap between the people of two countries. Good translation is one that overcomes these culture gaps and turn them into what the target readers is familiar with. So, it is better for the translator use the Functional Equivalence Theory to translate “a piece of cake” with the well-known Chinese proverb “小菜一碟” .

'''3.1.2. Deficiency of Functional Equivalence Theory'''

Although Functional Equivalence Theory has made many contributions to the translation studies, it is not without its deficiencies. Here I list three disadvantages of it.

First, Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory is concluded from the translation of the ''Bible''. It is, in fact, cannot be a guideline for all kinds of translation. For example, some texts, including some articles with profound historic significance and cultural characteristics, some scientific articles, some lyrical articles, movie subtitles, government reports, actually need different translation standards. Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate fields, but it is not universal or omnipotent rule. Though, in fact, there is nothing omnipotent and flawless in the world. Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate area. If it is used in the right place, it can help the translator present a more brilliant translation.
Second, the Functional Equivalence Theory requires the target text to be written in a “common language”, which should be understood by the less educated readers and accepted by the readers with high literacy, but this turns out to be very difficult to achieve in practice. It can be said that the requirements of this theory are way too demanding. Although this is a goal worth pursuing, it is nearly impossible to achieve, as even in the same country, different knowledge levels, different regional cultures and even different life experiences will lead to different understanding abilities.

In addition, Nida also ignores an important thing, that is, culture is very complex. The generation, evolution and creation of each nation and its culture are different from each other. Some cultural images in foreign works may be something the other country’s readers have never seen and cannot understand. In translation process, it is certainly ideal if the translator can find a corresponding cultural object in the target culture. But at most of times, it is in fact very difficult for the translator to find such a substitute. This makes the so called “functional equivalence” very difficult to achieve, and even show its loopholes -- which is also a difficulty in translation process -- it is usually difficult for translators to translate and explain certain words with special cultural meanings. In fact, the differences between different cultures are absolute and inevitable, while the similarities are rare and precious. For example, in order to avoid the danger and inauspicious emotions of the word “red” in western culture, some British translators translate the original title of the book 《红楼梦》 into “''The Story of the Stone''”. This kind of translation, however, fails to transmit the message of a rich, luxurious, dreamy life hidden in the original book name, let alone bring the western readers the same response.

'''3.1.3. My Point of View towards Functional Equivalence Theory'''

The great influence of Functional Equivalence Theory on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not a universal theory. The advantages and disadvantages of the theory of functional equivalence should be treated in a dialectical way. Functional Equivalence Theory is the product of a particular historical period, and it may have some inconsistencies with contemporary translation theories. Therefore, we should take a comprehensive view of Nida’s translation theory. On the whole, Nida’s translation thought can be regarded as a bright gem in the treasure house of western translation studies.

'''3.2. My thoughts on Skopos Theory'''

'''3.2.1. Strengths and Contributions of Skopos Theory'''

Skopos theory has many advantages. First of all, as a major breakthrough in the study of contemporary western translation theory, Skopos theory breaks the limitations of Functional Equivalence Theory at the linguistic level and puts forward a translation standard dominated by skopos principle. Skopos theory provides the translator with another perspective in translation practice, which is more conducive to the choice of translation strategies.

Secondly, Skopos theory focuses on the requirements of the translation client, points out the influence of the client on the translation process, and breaks the limitation of traditional translation theory, which only takes the original author, the translator and the target reader into consideration. From this perspective, Skopos theory can be called a real breakthrough in the history of translation studies.

Thirdly, Skopos theory emphasizes the initiative and participation of the translator, and holds that the original text mainly plays the role of providing information. Therefore, it shifts the focus of translation from faithful reproducing the source text to the creation of the translation. It overthrows the central position of the original text and establishes the central position of the target text and the translator, which gives all translation learners and researchers a new insight towards translation studies.

Finally, Skopos theory further studies the development of translation from the perspective of culture. From the perspective of Skopos theory, translation is a kind of cultural comparison and a kind of cross-cultural communication in a certain cultural context, which benefits the target readers a lot.

'''3.2.2. Deficiency of Skopos Theory'''

However, all thing is not perfect, Skopos theory is no exception, of course.

Firstly, Skopos theory allows the translator to rewrite the original text to a certain extent, but it does not indicate the extent to which the translator can rewrite the original text. It gives the translator too much freedom, which may let the translator easily translate the source text out of its context. Besides, the original meaning and usage of the source text may be distorted if the translator unscrupulously use every means in order to achieve the so-called “purpose of translation”. Accordingly, the translator will fall into the whirlpool of random translation, which may violate the intention of the original text.

Secondly, the Skopos theory overemphasizes the purpose of translation, the purpose of the translator and the purpose of the target language, so that the translator may easily change or omit many stylistic features of the original text in the target text. This makes it not suitable for some styles of text, such as poems. Because if a translator translates a poem into a prose or a descriptive passages out of the purpose of the translation client, he or she may be better said to rewrite or recreate something than translate. After all, translation is based on the original text, otherwise it cannot be called translation.

Last but not least, there are tens of thousands of readers. To meet the needs of different people, a translation must adopt multiple standards. When there are contradictions among various standards, the translator will be at a loss and the multiple standards will be equal to no standards. For example, if a translator receives the mission of the translation client that he should translate a song faithfully but also retain the beauty of the original text for both the children and adults to appreciate it, then the translator may feel hard to do the translation task with the three contradictory translation requirements.

'''3.2.3. My Point of View towards Skopos Theory'''

There are more or less deficiencies in every translation theory, and Skopos theory is no exception. To some extent, the shortcomings of Skopos theory mentioned above are also a major feature of it. It is this distinctive theoretical feature that can make it stand out in many translation theories and attract the attention of many scholars and translation enthusiasts. The author believes that the contribution of Skopos theory to the development of translation theory and its guiding significance in translation practice is far greater than its shortcomings and deficiencies. People should treat it with a more objective and rational attitude and let it play its due role in the field of translation. Generally speaking, the Skopos theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is regarded as a major theoretical breakthrough in the study of western translation theory, and it also plays an important role in guiding the successful translation practice.

'''IV.Conclusion'''

Through the above comparison, we find that both Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory have their own advantages and disadvantages, and their differences are greater than their similarities. Functional equivalence pays attention to the equivalence between the form and content of the translation and the original text as well as the reader’s response. Skopos theory can solve some problems that can not be solved by Functional Equivalence Theory and widen the research perspective of translation theory, which is to some extent the inheritance and development of Functional Equivalence Theory. The scope of application of the two is different, but both of them have their own unique excellencies.

Reference books: 《奈达论翻译》by谭载喜&《西方翻译理论通史》by刘军平

Bibliography：

[1] Eugene A. Nida. ''Toward a Science of Translating'' [M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.

[2] Eugene A. Nida, Charles Taber. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' [M]. Leiden: the Netherlands, E. J. Brill, 1969.

[3] Hans Vermeer. ''Framework for a General Translation Theory'' [M] ,1978.

[4]谭载喜.奈达论翻译 [M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司,1984.

[5]刘军平.西方翻译理论通史 [M].武汉：武汉大学出版社,2009.9.

[6]百度百科：功能对等理论

[7]百度百科：翻译目的论

[8]百度百科：目的论的优点与不足

[9]百度百科：功能对等理论的贡献与局限性

[10]彭长江.英汉--汉英翻译教程[M].长沙：湖南师范大学出版社，2017.8.

[11]百度百科：功能对等理论与目的论的比较

=='''Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory'''==

'''摘要'''

近几十年来，翻译理论层出不穷，翻译理论也带有多元化倾向。奈达从语言学的角度出发，根据翻译的本质，提出了功能对等理论，在这一理论中，他指出“翻译是用最恰当、自然和对等的语言从语义到文体再现源语的信息”。功能主义目的论的代表人物弗米尔认为翻译是一项有目的的活动，并且以实现译文的预期功能和效果为首要原则。
这两种理论都是具有较大影响力的西方翻译理论。它们在不同的时期由不同流派提出，本文着重分析两大理论在理论基础、翻译标准、文化观等层面上的差异性，并分析其相似性。通过对这两种理论的共性和差异进行比较，旨在加深我们对这两种貌似神离的翻译理论的认识与了解，让我们在不同的领域中能恰当地使用这两种翻译理论,更好地发挥各自的指导作用。

'''关键词'''

功能对等；目的论；差异性；相似性

'''Abstract'''

In recent decades, translation theories have emerged in an endless stream, and translation theories have a tendency to diversify. From the perspective of linguistics, Eugene Nida puts forward the theory of functional equivalence according to the nature of translation. In this theory, he points out that "Translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style". While one of the representatives of functionalist skopos theory, Hans J. Vermeer, considers that translation is a purposeful activity, taking the realization of the target text’s intended function as its first principle.
These two theories have great influence in western translation theories. They are proposed by different schools in different periods. This paper will focus on the differences between these two theories in terms of theoretical basis, translation standards, and cultural direction, and then analyze their similarities. By comparing the differences and similarities between the two theories, it will deepen our understanding of these two translation theories so that we can properly use them in different fields, thus better playing their respective guiding roles.

'''Key words'''
Functional Equivalence; Skopos Theory; comparison

'''Introduction'''

'''Research background'''

Contemporary western translation theories are flourishing, providing a new perspective for translation studies. In the 1960s, Eugene A. Nida proposed a translation theory based on reader response, namely "functional equivalence theory". With the development of the times, people have further understanding of the complex phenomenon of translation. The theory of equivalence sets the translation within the scope of the language level. However, the essence of translation is not only the conversion of pure language, but also the communication between different cultures based on language form. In the 1970s, translation studies oriented to the target language culture appeared in the West, breaking the traditional translation theory of textual centralism, which made the translator pay more attention to the translation and the target language receivers, the social and communicative functions of the translation. The German functionalist translation theory got rid of the shackles of the equivalence theory that prevailed at that time, broadened the field of translation theory research.

'''Significance of the study'''

By comparing the differences and similarities of these two translation theory, it can deepen our understanding of them. Therefore, when we do translation, we can choose the most appropriate translation theory to guide us to translate according to the specific situation. So it is very necessary to make a comparison between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.

'''Layout of this chapter'''

This thesis will be divided into three chapters. In the first chapter, a brief introduction of functional equivalence will be presented, such as the definition of functional equivalence, and its four criteria: conveying information; conveying the spirit and style of the original work; fluent language; and similar reader response. The second chapter involves three parts, that is, the development of skopos theory; the definition of skopos theory and the three rules of skopos theory. The final chapter falls into two part: the differences and similarities between these two theories.

'''1. A brief introduction of Functional equivalence theory'''

'''1.1 The definition of functional equivalence theory'''

Functional equivalence theory is the core of the famous American translator Eugene Nida’s translation theory. It attaches great importance to the response of the target language receivers, that is, the target language receiver and the source language receiver produce the same viewing response. He holds that translation should not only ensure the correctness of information exchange and achieve information equivalence in lexical sense, but also take into account the cultural background and behavioral patterns of the target language receiver and achieve information equivalence in style, semantics and other aspects in the process of translation, that is, to achieve functional equivalence of language. In the process of translation, we should not only consider the formal factors such as vocabulary and grammar, but also pay attention to the linguistic factors such as context, culture and social background, which are very important to translation. Nida’s definition of translation indicates that translation is not only equivalence in lexical sense, but also equivalence in semantics, text and style. The information conveyed by translation includes both surface lexical information and deep cultural information. This kind of “dynamic equivalence” includes four aspects: 1. lexical equivalence；2. syntactic equivalence；3. textual equivalence；4. stylistic equivalence. Among these four aspects, Nida believes that “meaning is the most important and form is the second”(张春柏，1998：50).

'''1.2 The criteria of functional equivalence theory'''

Nida’s functional equivalence translation theory has four criteria (Nida, 2001:117):

'''1.2.1 Conveying information'''

The “information” includes all kinds of information conveyed by the original language: semantics, style, literary image, scene and psychological effect. In the theory of functional equivalence, the criterion of “conveying information” means that the target language information conveyed by the translator to the target language receiver should be basically the same as the original text information conveyed by the original author to the target language receiver.

Example: “presidential historian...”

“总统的史学家......”

It is not clear that the message conveyed by “presidential historian” to Chinese readers is not the same as that conveyed by “presidential historian” to English readers. However, according to Nida’s functional equivalence theory, the translator translates it into “研究总统的历史学家” by adding words, so that Chinese readers can correctly understand the true meaning of “presidential historian” in the original text.

'''1.2.2 Conveying the spirit and style of the original work'''

From Nida’s point of view, translation is to reproduce the original text in the most natural way in the target language, first of all, meaning, then spiritual style, so that the receivers of the translated text can produce basically the same psychological response as the receivers of the original text.

Example:“来吧，朋友!”

It is a column broadcast by CCTV. If translated into “come on, friends!”, it seems to be close to the original in form, as a column is not solemn enough. And “solemnity” is the style of “来吧，朋友！”in the original Chinese text, which should be reproduced in the translation. Therefore, “A time to make friends” is quite different from the original Chinese in form, but it accurately conveys the spiritual style of the original to the target readers.

'''1.2.3 Fluent language: fully in line with the norms and conventions of the target language'''

This criterion means that, on the premise of conveying the information and spiritual style of the original text, the process of translation should not be constrained by the linguistic form and structure of the original text, and should grasp the connotation and spirit of the original text.

Example：“车来了！”

“Here comes the car / truck / bus / minibus / lorry / taxi!”
In Chinese, the category word “car” is used to replace any form of vehicle. But this method is not found in English. On the contrary, English is accustomed to using specific vocabulary. Therefore, when translating similar Chinese into English, it is necessary to make clear the means of transportation and to translate the specific means of transportation according to the habits of English expression. If you cross the street, remind your peers to say “车来了！”You should translate it into “Be careful!” according to English expression habits, so that English readers can really understand the meaning of the original text.

'''1.2.4 Similar reader responses'''

The first two standards focus on the transmission of linguistic information, content and style, while the latter two focus on the acceptability of the translation to the audience：The relationship between the target reader and the target text should be basically the same as that between the original reader and the target text, so as to achieve the spiritual fit between the translator and the original author, thus enabling the target reader to get the same feelings as the original reader.
Example: “as white as snow.”

It can sometimes be translated into “very white” because people in the translated culture may not know what snow is. We can also translate “to grow like mushroom” into “如雨后春笋般地成长起来”, because “mushroom” means exactly the same in English as“春笋”in Chinese.

'''Ⅱ. A brief introduction of Skopos theory'''

Skopos theory is the core concept of German functionalist theory, which is put forward by Hans. J. Vermeer. Skopos theory holds that the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies that are to be employed. Vermeer thinks that translators should follow three basic rules in the process of their translation, which are respectively skopos theory, coherence theory and fidelity theory.

'''2.1 The development of Skopos theory'''

Before the 1970s, the focus of translation studies was equivalence. In fact, this kind of equivalence was hard to achieve because the differences between cultures are hard to eliminate. In order to solve this problem, translation theorists put forward new theories, using functional and communicative methods to study translation. In this context, functionalist skopos theory continues to develop, and boldly shakes off the bondage of equivalence, taking the skopos as the general principle. So translation is examined in the framework of behavioral theory and intercultural communication, which opens a new path for the world translation theories, including the Chinese translation (Li Changshuan, 2009:11). The development of skopos theory has experienced the following four stages:

The first stage: Katharina Reiss firstly introduced the concept of equivalence into translation criticism, proposing the prototype of functionalist theory. On the one hand, Reiss still insisted on the equivalence theory with the original text as the center, and pointed out that the ideal translation should be equivalent to the original text from the conceptual content, language form and communicative function. She believed that the ideal translation should be comprehensive communicative translation. On the other hand, Reiss also realized that some equivalence is impossible. For example, the translation and the original text have different functions. In this case, Reiss believes that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the translation rather than the equivalence principle (Zhang Jinglan, 2004:1). Reiss's research laid the foundation for skopos theory.

The second stage: Reiss’s student Hans J. Vermeer proposed skopos theory, taking the skopos of the translation as the paramount principle during the process of translation. Vermeer believed that translation is a kind of human behavior, and any kind of human behavior is purposeful, so the purpose of translation should be determined before the translation begins. Vermeer thinks that translation should be based on the original text, and translation is a purposeful behavior that must be completed by negotiation. In addition, translation must follow three basic rules, of which the skopos rule is the most important. After these three rules are put forward, the criteria for judging the good or bad translation are no longer “equivalence”, but whether the translation fully achieves the expected goal of translation or not.

The third stage: Based on communication theory and action theory, Holz-Manttari proposed translational action. Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer (Jeremy Munday, 2001:77). Translation is a communicative process involving a series of roles and players Manttari regards text as a pure tool for achieving communicative function, and believes that its inherent value is completely subordinate to its purpose. The translator only needs to be responsible for the purpose environment, and the target text can be completely independent of the original text, thus further developing the functionalist translation theory.

The fourth stage: Christane Nord comprehensively summarized and perfected the functionalist theory. Nord proposed the principle of "function plus loyalty", which systematically elucidates the internal and external factors that need to be considered in text analysis of translation, and how to formulate a translation strategy that is consistent with the purpose of translation based on the original text.

'''2.2 The definition of skopos'''

Skopos theory was originally put forward by the German scholar Han J. Vermeer in 1978. “Skopos is a Greek word for 'aim' or 'purpose' and was introduced into translation theory by Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and of the action of translating”(Munday, 2001: 78). Translation actions have many purposes, but Vermeer divides them into three categories: translator’s basic purpose, such as make a living; the target text’s communicative purpose, like enlightening the readers; and the purpose realized by selecting some special translation strategies or steps, for example, translating one language word by word aims to show the structure feature of this language. Generally speaking, the skopos theory refers to the communicative purpose of the source text.

'''2.3 Three basic rules of skopos theory'''

In this part, a detailed analysis of these rules will be presented with examples.

'''2.3.1 The skopos rule'''

In the three rules of Skopos theory, Skopos theory is the prime principle to be followed in any translation. Vermeer explains this rule as follows:

''Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.''(Vermeer, 1988:20)

Therefore, skopos theory believes that any translation action is determined by the purpose of the translation. That is to say, “The ends justify the means” (Reiss &Vermeer, 1984:101) the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies.

Example: I wear nothing but a few drops of Channel No.5

无限芬芳的超脱，点滴即可创造。

If using the literal translation, this sentence can be translated as “我什么都不穿，除了滴几滴香奈儿五号”. However, this kind of translation extremely lacks of beauty and there is no more elegance. Considering that the ultimate goal of advertisement is to induce consumers to buy the products and services it promotes. This advertisement adopts free translation and combines with Chinese traditional culture, which makes it like a ancient poem with quaint charm. It not only expresses the meaning of the advertisement, but also injects the characteristics of art, thus letting Channel No.s full of magic. It satisfies some people's pursuit high quality of life, and also makes consumers deeply impressed. So it can be called a successful translation.

'''2.3.2 The coherence rule'''

Coherence rule is also called intratextual coherence rule. It holds that the translated text must be coherent, readable and acceptable. In other words, the TT receivers can understand the TT according to their cultural and intellectual background. Any text is a provider of information and functions, but the information and functions are not always obvious from a linguistic point of view. The translator selects aspects and components that serve the purpose according to the skopos rule, and then translates the source text through language processing to make the translated text become a new information provider. In the language processing process, translators must be concerned that translation is readable and understandable in the translated language. Only the translation is meaningful in the communicative context of the TL receivers can the culture and information of the source text be effectively transmitted to the target language readers.

Example: Enchanting medieval house with five acres of delightful gardens.

这里是迷人的中世纪住宅，外有五英亩的美丽花园。

This is a part of the travel propaganda. In order to ensure that translation is smooth and coherent, the original prepositional phrase is changed into a complete sentence with a subject-predicate structure, which doesn’t make the relationship among sentences appear loose.

'''2.3.3 The fidelity rule'''

Fidelity rule is also called inter-textual coherence and states that there must be coherence between the ST and the TT. It is similar to the “faithfulness” of Yan Fu’s theory. Fidelity rule maintains the status of the original text and constrains translation actions of different translation purpose. However, the concept of Fidelity rule is relative. The form and degree of faithfulness is determined by the purpose of translation and the translators’ understanding of the original text.

Example: Free entry into farm, Dogs on lead.

OPEN DAILY: 1 March--30 November 10:00 am--5:00 pm

农场免费进入，宠物狗请带好狗绳。

开放时间：3月1日--11月30日上午10点--下午五点

The time, place and various precautions in the travel text are very important, because the error of this kind of information will bring unnecessary trouble to the tourists. Therefore, the translation, according to the fidelity rule, faithfully and effectively conveys the original information to the reader for the purpose of facilitating the tourists.

There exists a hierarchical order of these rules. The skopos rule is the most important one and other two rules are subordinate to it. At the same time, the fidelity rule is also subordinate to the coherence rule.

'''Ⅲ. Comparative study on Nida's functional equivalence theory and functionalist skopos theory'''

This chapter will mainly discuss the differences and similarities between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.

'''3.1 The differences'''

'''3.1.1 Different theoretical basis'''

The early equivalence theory was directly influenced by American structuralist linguistics and human linguistics. Later, Nida combined translation studies with the syntactic structure analysis method, semantic component analysis method and Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar that were popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, took structural analysis of language expressions and translation procedures, and injected fresh blood into translation studies (Chen Gang, 2011: 145). Using communication theory and cross-cultural content as the starting point, Nida revised Chomsky's deep transfermation grammar, paid attention to the psychology of information receivers, and stimulated the potential of information receivers as .much as possible.

German skopos theory is an emerging school in the late 1970s. It criticizes that the translation theory based on linguistic school pays much attention to form, and is developed on the basis of communication theory, information theory, behavior theory, discourse linguistics, and text theory. Based on the behavior theory, Skopos theory proposes the concept of translation action, which extends translation to a new field. That is to say, translation is a kind of purposeful and conscious intercultural communication action of human. As the name suggests, Skopos theory regards translation activities as a kind of "action", and any action has its goals or skopos. One of the representatives of the skopos theory, Hans J. Vermeer, summarizes the essence of skopos theory in a concise language: the ends justify the means, that is, the purpose of translation determines the translation process.

'''3.1.2 Different translation principles and standards'''

Nida's functional equivalence refers to “the closest natural equivalence to the source language information”. “Natural” here means that the translation must conform to the language and culture of the target language, in line with the context and the requirements of the target receivers. "Equivalence" here, he clearly stated that it is not "equivalence" in mathematics, but "approximation", that is, the approximation of functional equivalence from varying degrees. From the above Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory, the translator must conform to four criteria in order to achieve "close and natural equivalence": (1) conveying meaning; (2) conveying the spirit and style of the original work; (3) fluent; (4) similar reader responses. In order to achieve these four standards, there will be contradictions between content and form from time to time. It is either the content giving way to form, or the form giving way to content. The two form a unified whole.

Skopos theory advocates that translation should follow three rules: the skopos rule, the coherence rule and the fidelity rule, of which the skopos rule is the highest principle. The main purpose is to make the translation achieve the expected function of the target language receivers in the target language environment. In addition to the highest principle, the translation must follow the coherence rule and the fidelity rule. The former requires the translation to be "coherent within the text," that is, the translation needs to meet the communication context and cultural background of the target language so that the target reader can understand. The latter requires the translation to be coherent between the ST and the TT. That is, the translation should try to imitate the original text, whether it is formal imitation or content imitation is permissible, which depends on the purpose of the translation. The latter two rules are subordinate to the highest rule-- the skopos rule.

But this also makes the translation theorists produce questions. Is the translator free to do anything for the purpose? Then Nord put forward the theory of “function plus loyalty”. Nord believes that "there is no translation without the original text", and free rewriting does not belong to translation; "Translators should be responsible for both the original text and the translation environment, and be responsible for both the sender of the original information and the recipient of the translation." This responsibility of the translator is "loyalty"(Zhang Meifang, 2005:60-65). The principle of "function plus loyalty" avoids the skopos theory to go to extremes, and complements skopos theory, highlighting the responsibility of translators, and limiting the translator's freedom. Because the skopos theory believes that the success of the translation is judged by whether the expected purpose of the source text is realized or not, and the expectation also reflects the requirements of the target language reader. Since the target language readers reflect differently, so the translation standard of the skopos theory is also diversified.

'''3.1.3 Different cultural directions'''

Nida tried to overcome the cultural difference and eliminate the cultural atmosphere in the source text. His theory is mainly oriented to the original text. That is, the source language culture, emphasizing the consistency of cultural environment between the source language and the target language. At the same time, Nida is a support of language commonality. His theory reflects the translation thought of structuralist linguistics, that is, the "mirror reflection" of the objective world and the universality of language expression. The translators’ full imitation and the independence of express the value of their culture, especially the cultural consistency of the target language culture and the source language culture.

Vermeer regards translation as a purposeful action, firstly in its outcome, that is, the target text. The target text is oriented towards the target culture, and the target culture determines the suitability of the target text. Therefore, Skopos theory believes that Translation is an irreversible transmission of information to the source language culture or language in the target culture. There is no intermediate position, it is intercultural communication action, and it is communicative and cultural. In addition, Skopos theory is oriented to the context of macro-postmodern culture, especially the habits, traditions and norms of the target language culture (Fan Derui, 2019:67).

'''3.2 The Similarities'''

'''3.2.1 Both are a combination of translation and language function'''

The skopos theory represented by Hans J. Vermeer and Christane Nord, and the functional equivalence theory of Nida are put forward by different schools in different periods, but there are still many internal connections and intercommunity. There is no doubt that both have their rationality of existence and show progress in their translation activities of their respective periods. Whether it is "skopos theory" or "functional equivalence theory", both their ultimate goals are to achieve smooth communication between different languages and reduce misunderstandings and conflicts arising from information exchange. In particular, both combine translation with language functions, focusing on the role of language functions in translation. Skopos theorists believe that translation is a purposeful communicative activity, and the translation process is determined by the expected function or purpose of the translation. This purpose is to a great extent influenced by the target receivers and the context and cultural background of the target receivers. Therefore, the translator should decide the choice of the original text information, the use of the translation strategy and the expression of the translation according to the requirements of the clients, combined with the purpose of the translation and the specific situation of the target receivers

Nida also put forward the translation principle of functional equivalence from the perspective of language function, and also combines translation with language functions. He pointed out that due to the differences in language and culture, it is impossible for translation to obtain the formal equivalence between the source text and the target text, but only functional equivalence. Although the expressions of various languages are different, they have the same expressive power and have the same or similar language functions, that is, expressive, cognitive, interpersonal, informative, imperative, empathetic, sympathetic, empathy and aesthetic function. If the translation of these aspects is basically the same, then the functional equivalence of translation is achieved. According to this, he put forward that "the preservation of the original content must change the form, the degree of change, and must depend on different languages in the distance between language and cultural." In order to produce efficacy, the adjustment of the translation from form to content is the specific application of functional ideas. However, Nida did not develop further in the direction of functionalism, but still focused on the concept of equivalence. Therefore, his theory is fundamentally different from the views of the German functional translation school.

'''3.2.2 Both emphasize the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.'''

Vermeer believes that the recipients of the translation, that is, the readers, as an important part of the translation requirements, is one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of translation; the target language receivers is the recipient or listener of the translated text with the knowledge, expectation and communication needs of his own specific culture world. Translation is the text in the environment of the target language produced for the purpose of the target language and the reader of the target language in the context of the target language. In addition, the coherence rule of skopos theory emphasizes that the translation must meet the criteria of "coherence within the text" that is, only the text is fully understood by the recipient can they make sense. It can be seen that the skopos theory emphasizes the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.

Nida's functional equivalence theory is also readers-oriented. Nida believes that the research object of translation is the reader; the recipient is not a passive target of language communication, but an active participant in communicative activities. The reader's response is the only criterion for judging the quality of the translation. Therefore, the translation must be fluent and understandable. In order to achieve the intelligibility of the translation, it is even possible to delete parts that the reader cannot understand, such as metaphors.

'''Conclusion'''

By comparatively analyzing Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory and the German functionalist skopos theory, skopos theory critically inherited the rational factors of Nida's functional equivalence theory, and abandoned its irrational part. Skopos theory gets rid of the shackles of equivalence theory, breaking the traditional perspective of single translation studies, turning attention to the study of other relevant factors in translation activities other than language. Skopos theory broke through the framework of equivalence translation theory, and proposed a theoretical system of diversification of translation standards led by the skopos rule. The diversification of translation standards makes the function closer to reality. This is clearly more scientific, more operative and more versatile than Nida's theory that takes functional equivalence as the sole criterion. Moreover, compared with the traditional language translation theory that emphasizes the internal study of translation, Skopos theory denies that translation is a simple language conversion, and pays more attention to the external of translation. Compared with Nida, Skopos theory are more concerned with the humanity and sociality of translation activities. In addition, the Skopos theory shifts the focus of translation from the reproduction of the original text to the more challenging creation of target text, which enhances the active participation of the translator as the main body of the translation, overturning the center status of the original text, and establishing the central status of the target text and the translator. The functionalist skopos theory puts translation in a dynamic cultural context, emphasizing the translator's active intervention. Therefore, it solves some problems that the functional equivalence theory fails to solve, broadens the research perspective of traditional translation theory, is a major breakthrough and important supplement to the functional equivalence theory, and erects a distinctive flag in modern translation theory.

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=='''On the Comparison between "Sublimation" an "Functional Equivalence" Theories'''==

'''Abstract''': Qian Zhongshu and Eugene Nida are outstanding and renowned translators in the history of Chinese and Western translation respectively. It is believed that Mr.Qian’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” theories have a broad and profound impact on Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will recognize the theoretical value of these two theories from the dialectical point of view by comparing the similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”. It aims to better apply translation theory to translation practice, and advocate us to view Chinese and Western translation theories from a historical and contradictory perspective, and thus making Translation Studies become more systematic and scientific.

'''Key words''': sublimation; functional equivalence; Qian Zhongshu; Eugene Nida

'''Introduction''':
As a famous master of literature, translation and academy, Qian Zhongshu is considered as “the Kunlun Mountain of culture” by many scholars on account of his remarkable achievements and a wide range of knowledge. His literary masterpieces include “Pipe-awl Chapters” , “Discourses on Art”, “Seven Patches”, “Selected Essays of Qian Zhongshu”, “Fortress Besieged” and so on. What’s more, he proposed “Sublimation” theory in translation field, which does great contribution to traditional Chinese translation theory and make Translation Studies more systematic. As Chinese scholar Chen Fukang said: “He (Qian) has made a great many outstanding achievements in some important fields like literature and academic research. Although the discussion on translation is only a carved railing in his academic palace, it can have a huge impact in the field of translation studies.” (Chen Fukang 2000: 417).

Eugene Nida is a famous American contemporary linguist and translation theorist. He has been devoted to the translation of the Bible and has summarized a set of translation theories from his own translation practice. The core point of his translation theory is “Functional Equivalence” (initially called “Dynamic Equivalence”). From his point of view, “Functional Equivalence” is to refer to the type of equivalent reflected in a TT which seeks to adapt the function of the original to suit the specific context in and for which it was produced” (Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004: 64). It requires that the translation should focus on the meaning and spirit of the original text, instead of being constrained by formal correspondence. According to this theory, he deems that the translation must have four criteria: (1) conveying meaning; (2) expressing spirit; (3) natural and smooth wording; (4) similar receptor response. In his book “From one language to another”, he replaced “Dynamic Equivalence” with “Functional Equivalence” and put forward two levels of meaning, say, referential meaning and associative meaning.

'''1.The theoretical origin of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''

'''1.1 The theoretical origin of “Sublimation”'''

The idea of Qian Zhongshu’s translation theory of “Sublimation” comes from his book “Lin Shu's Translation” written in 1963 and “The Pipe-awl Chapters” published by Zhonghua Book Company in 1979. He proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. Then he pointed out: “The highest ideal of literary translation is ‘sublimation’. When you translate the literary works from one language to another, you can not only avoid the trace of stiffness and awkward expressions resulting from the different habits of language use, but also completely preserve the flavor of the original. Then we can say, that's the realization of ‘Sublimation’ ” (Qian Zhongshu, 2002: 77). According to his explanation, it can be easily seen that the core of his translation theory is “Sublimation”. What’s more, we can extract 3 levels of “Hua” (Sublimation) from his theory, the first is to transform the source text to target text, and then use the domesticating method to make the source language be naturally and smoothly expressed in target language without any transparent feeling of translation caused by the differences of culture and language. Finally, it is the ultimate goal of “Sublimation” that is to say, “the transmigration of souls”, replacing the external shell and retaining the inner spirit and style without the slightest deviation. In other words, a translation should cleave to the original with such fidelity that it would not read like a translation, for a literature work in its own language will never read as though it were through a process of translation (Kao, 1975: 8-9).

'''1.2 The theoretical origin of “Functional Equivalence”'''
Nida first proposed the concept of dynamic equivalence in the 1964 book “Toward s Science of Translating”. He believed that there were two kinds of equivalence in translation, namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Specifically, formal equivalence is the “quality of a translation in which the features of the form of the source text have been mechanically reproduced in the receptor language”. On the contrary, dynamic equivalence is the quality which characterizes a translation in which “the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors” (Nida & Taber, 1982: 200-201). Nida’s translation theory has its origin from his own translation practice of the Bible, in which he emphasized the communicative function of translation from the perspective of semantics and information theory. What's more, he regarded translation as interlingual translation, and he stressed the importance of paying attention to the receptors' response, in order to pursue the standard that target readers could have the same response as the original readers. In his book “From one language to another”, he changed the term “Dynamic Equivalence” to “Functional Equivalence” and he emphasized that we should try to achieve formal equivalence on the basis of the accordant information conveyed from the source text to the target language. In addition, he divided the translation process into three steps, say, “analysis, transfer, restructuring and check”. Through these four steps, the original information can be accurately conveyed, the response of the target receptors is also concerned, and the purpose of communication will be well achieved.

'''2.Similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''

'''2.1 Similarities between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''

(1) The same concern for the translation processes: As we mentioned above, Mr. Qian Zhongshu proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. To put them specifically, “enticement” refers to the role that plays in cultural exchanges by means of translation. In this sense, translation can be regarded as a guide that will lead target readers to understand the original language and culture and to better understand foreign excellent works. This process is of great significance because If the readers have little interest in the source language culture and foreign literature; then the translation works will lose its value. So we can say that translation is not only a conversion of two languages, but also a collision between different cultures and thoughts. The so-called term “Misinformation” refers to the distortion and wrong expression of the translation. Since “Misinformation” is the inevitable shortcoming of translation, no matter how excellent a translator is and no matter how smooth his translations are, he can not avoid making mistakes of one sort or another in one way or another, but he can exhaust every means to reduce misinformation to its minimum (Yu Chengfa,2003: 43). This is due to the gap between different languages, the gap between the translator's understanding, the style of writing and the form of original content, and even the gap between the translator's comprehension and his ability of expression. The final step is called “Hua Jing”; here “Hua” means “Sublimation”,which is the highest ideal of literary translation and also the ultimate goal of translation processes. A translator should try to figure out what the original writer means and ponder over what he imagines so so to immerge oneself with the writer(Luo Xinzhang, 1984: 511). Qian Zhongshu's explanation of the process of translation is the essential condition for the realization of “Sublimation” (Hua). Therefore, when doing translation practice, the translator has to make each step be well prepared, which requires a high standard of the translator's ability and quality.

Similarly, based on the theory of “functional equivalence”, Nida proposed a “four-step model” of the translation process from the perspective of linguistics, namely, “Analysis, Transfer, Restructuring and Check”. Nida and Taber claim that all languages have between six and a dozen basic kernel structures and “agree far more on the level of kernels than on the level of more elaborate structures” such as word order. First of all, “Analysis” denotes that we have to analyze the surface structure of the source text and then to master the grammatical meaning of the sentence, in other words, the referential meaning and connotative meaning of the source text. In order to convey the original information correctly, the translator must analyze the text from surface structure to the deep structure. Then, “Transfer”, it means that the translator renders the analyzed source text to the target text. This step contains the conversion of two different language symbols and language forms, and it is also an exchange of different thinking modes. Next, “Restructuring” is the re-processing and re-creation of the original text, in which the translator will translate the original text into the target one that conforms to the expression of the target language, getting rid of the constraints of the surface structure of the original text, thus further excavating the meaning of the deep structure. Restructuring is thus defined as forward translation, or in other words the process which is the reverse of back-transformation (Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004: 145). Last but not least, "Check" refers to the process of comparing the text of the original language with the target language so as to avoid semantic errors in the translation works, and pursue the maximum equivalence between the content of the target text and the content of the original text. Nida and Taber’s own description of the process (1969: 63–9) emphasizes the ‘scientific and practical’ advantages of this method compared to any attempt to draw up a fully comprehensive list of equivalences between specific pairs of SL and TL systems (Jeremy Munday, 2016: 63).

(2)The same concern for the response of the target readers: Since ancient times, the domestic and foreign translators have different opinions on the criteria of excellent translation. Yan Fu proposed his famous three-character guideline, namely, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” in his translation work “Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays”. Similarly, western translator Alexander Fraser Tytler put forward the “Three principles of translation”. To put it simply, that the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; that the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; that the translation should have all the ease of the original composition. From the analysis of Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s description of translation criteria, we can see the fact that the study of the principles and standards of translation is precisely the translator’s emphasis on the target readers, and also reflects the translator’s sense of responsibility for the target culture. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory stressed that translators should guide our readers to read foreign literary works or let our readers be attracted by the foreign culture and introduce foreign writers to them. “Sublimation” is not only a standard for translation, but also a reflection of translators’ care for the target readers. Mr. Qian said: “The translation should be faithful to the original work, so that it does not read like a translation work, because the original work will never be read like a translation in the situation of source culture.” A good translation can stimulate the reader's curiosity about the original work and also give the reader the enjoyment of beauty. What’s more, Mr. Qian also commented the three principles proposed by Yan Fu:

“Faithfulness in translation should include expressiveness and elegance. Expressiveness gives full scope to faithfulness, and elegance is not just to adore expressiveness. To convey the original in the same style---that is faithfulness. ...Many have come to understand that a translation is not supposed to beautify or polish to attain elegance. Yet few have realized that a translation has to give up the words for the spirit. A translation can be intelligible without being faithful to the original, yet can be faithful to the original without being intelligible to the reader.”(Qian Zhongshu, 1986: 1101)

In the meanwhile, Nida deemed that the accuracy of the translation depends on the extent to which the ordinary readers correctly understand the original text, that is, whether the target reader can obtain similar or identical feelings when reading the translation works. The purpose of “functional equivalence” is to satisfy the communication needs of the readers. In order to achieve this goal, we have to change the form of the original text if it is necessary and consider the reader's acceptance of the translation work. Nida's “Functional Equivalence” requires not only the faithfulness to the original text, but also the accountability to the target readers and the original readers. Nida describes various “scientific approaches to meaning” related to work that had been carried out by theorists in semantics and pragmatics. Central to Nida's work is the move away from the old idea that a word has a fixed meaning and towards a functional definition of meaning in which a word acquires meaning through its context and can produce varying responses according to culture.

From what we has discussed above, we can see that both Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” and Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” must take the reader’s reaction into consideration. Therefore, as a standard for translation, these theories avoid mechanical textual equivalence and bilingual conversion, which promotes the development of translation practice.

(3)The Domesticating tendency of the two theories: As we mentioned in the very beginning, Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation”(化) theory has three meanings, namely “Transfer”(转化), “Domesticating”(归化) and “Sublimation”(化境). It can be seen easily that “Domesticating” is a bridge connecting the transformation of source text and the realization of Sublimation in target language. In the book “Seven Patches”, he wrote: “whether the target version is ‘European-oriented’ or ‘Chinese-oriented’, the translation is always based on the language system from the original country to the language system of the target country(2002: 78). Although he did not explicitly state whether the translation should be “domestication-oriented” or “foreignization-oriented”, he compared the translation to the “reincarnation” of the original and regarded that the translation was an “out form” of the original. In addition, he appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, and comments that he would rather read Lin Shu’s translation than read Haggard’s original text. In this way, Mr. Qian Zhongshu seems to prefer the text of “Chinese-oriented” style, which demonstrates the tendency of “Domestication”. In the theory of “Functional Equivalence”, Nida advocates the use of the expression habits of the target language to transform the original text. He believes that language is the means of communication, and communication is the ultimate goal and an important role of translation, so he pays more attention to the receptors' response to the target text. In order to allow the target readers to accept the translation, it is necessary to make the translation correspond to the cultural traditions and language habits of the target language. At the same time, the translator has to make the translation natural and smooth under the premise of ensuring loyalty. Nida's “Domesticating” translation tendency can be seen from the above view. Please look at the following example:

S: “white as snow”

T: “白如木棉花” or “白如鹭毛” or “白如蘑菇”

From the point of view of traditional translation standards, the above example runs counter to the original information. However, for those who have never seen snow will never know what snow is alike, and therefore he can't understand what "white as snow" means. Through the strategy of “Domestication”, the target readers can have a similar response to the original readers, so as to better achieve the purpose of communication.

'''2.2 Differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''

(1) Different theoretical basis: Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory is based on Yan Fu’s criteria of translation “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, which is the development of Chinese traditional translation theory. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory has pushed the study of translation to the extreme of art from the category of aesthetics. Eventually, the “Sublimation” theory was included in the course of the development of Chinese translation thought, say, “Case - Seeking faithfulness - Spiritual likeness - the Sublimation”. These four concepts, are independent, but also interconnected. They developed gradually to constitute a whole translation system and this whole system works as an important part of our traditional translation theory (Luo Xinzhang, 2009: 20).

Nida’s “functional equivalence” was established on the basis of his Bible translation practice. Under the guidance of Chomsky’s transform-generating grammar, Nida’s functional equivalence requires that the translator analyze the given text from the surface structure to the deep structure; then transform it from the deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally adjust the target language structure to obtain the surface structure of the translated version. From a series of steps, we can see that the hierarchical and theoretical property of translation studies, so Nida put forward his opinion that translation could be considered as a science. Qian Zhongshu thought that the translated works could surpass the original works and sometimes even should be much better than the original; while Nida did not choose the advantageous version between the original and the target text- his more emphasis goes to the equivalence between the two languages and the response of the target receptors thus more priorities were given to the communicative function.

(2)Different scopes of their application: “Huajing” (Sublimation) was proposed by Mr. Qian Zhongshu for literary translation standards; hence it may be more appropriate for the translation of literary genre. He considered that translator should “break through” the barriers of cultural differences and make the translation “surpass” the original work. However, it seems unreasonable for the translations of applied styles which relates to politics, economics, law, trade, etc. In addition, some scholars believe that Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation” has over-emphasized the mystery of art and has become a vague standard that could be hard to reach (Gao Huali, 2009: 154). The “highest ideal” of the literary translation he described will inevitably produce the problems of “Misinformation”, which would limit the scope of application of “Sublimation”. Despite the fact that scholars and experts of one generation after another have made their fruitful efforts to shed light on “Sublimation” from various aspects, it remains theoretical unexplainable and practical unattainable, like “an attic, in the air” to many people in the translation circle (Yu Chengfa, 2003: 8)

On the contrary, Nida’s translation of Bible carries religious culture with integrity and solemnity. He preached to people from all walks of life in order to spread the will of God; therefore, his translation must not only meet the needs of the aristocracy, but also the needs of ordinary people who lack knowledge of religious culture. The target readers of the “functional equivalence” theory is the masses from all walks of life in the society, and its range of application is more practical. Nida’s equivalence of translation is derived from the translation practice of the Bible. As we know, western languages have a lot in common in culture and words of expression, so Nida’s “equivalence” is relatively easy to achieve between two European languages. In English-Chinese translation, it may be more difficult to achieve complete “equivalence”, because Chinese and English belong to different language systems, and their cultures are rather divergent. Nida strictly divides the translation steps into four, which can be used as a practical translation method to guide the translation of some scientific and technical articles, announcements, and application articles. For literary genres, such as the translation of poetry and prose, the translator's creativity may be more important. It is difficult to convey the literary nature of the original text by mechanical methods and steps.

'''3.A Critical Understanding of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''

'''3.1 Is “Sublimation” faithful ?'''

According to traditional translation theory, the translator is always regarded as the "servant" of both the original and the translated text. He must be faithful to the original author while concerning the target readers. Xu Jun (2003: 321) wrote in his book “On Translation”: “Three points are often emphasized in traditional translation theory: first of all, translators should not incorporate their own subjective thoughts in translation; then they should not express their individuality in translation; in the end, translators should render the text on the basis of original message, and loyally follow the thoughts of the original writer. From the analysis of Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory, it is clear to see that he is more inclined to the translation strategy of “Domestication”, which emphasizes that the target version can surpass the source text. He, himself appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, because of their common advocacy and similar historical background. From the point of view of historical materialism, “social existence determines social consciousness, and social consciousness has an adverse effect on social existence.” For example, Lin Shu was living in a closed country and at that time , Qing Dynasty was extremely arrogant or even ignorant. His style and characteristics of the translation were naturally influenced by this national sentiment. Therefore, his translation had tendency to “Domestication” or even an unfaithful translation. Qian Zhongshu lived in a period of prosperity in literature and art since the establishment of People's Republic of China and at that time Chairman Mao proposed the policy of “All flowers blossoming and hundreds of schools contending (百花齐放，百家争鸣). So our Chinese people were overflowing high spirit and proud emotion; some translators’ translation works are more inclined to take the advantages of “Domestication” and make the translation work more excellent than the original one. Such a translation strategy will be somewhat “disloyal” to the original text, and will not “sincerely imitate” the original text as Lu Xun advocates from his “Foreignization” method. It is difficult to concretely implement “Sublimation” theory, because it has become an “unattainable” goal. Whether the translation should be “Chinese-oriented” or “European-oriented”; be “faithful” or “creative”, and whether the translator should be “visible” or “invisible” in translation are all difficult standards to measure since these factors are inevitably affected by the subjective and historical objectivity of the translator. Is “Sublimation” really a faithful translation to the original text? Perhaps just as Mr. Qian himself said: “The translator’s ability to use his native language is more flexible and smooth than the original author’s ‘source language’ and that is what always happens in the history of translation.” We can consider that such “disloyal” is “faithful” in a certain sense.

'''3.2 Problems of Nida’s “Functional Equivalence”'''

The questions of meaning, equivalence and translatability became a constant theme of translation studies in the 1960s and were tackled by a new ‘scientific’ approach followed by one of the most important figures in translation studies, the American Eugene Nida. Eugene Nida’s theory of translation developed from his own practical work from the 1940s onwards when he was translating and organizing the translation of the Bible, training often inexperienced translators who worked in the field.
As for Nida's “functional equivalence” theory, praise and opposition to his theory are always existing in the translation circle. Some people think that the theory is a representative of the science of translation science and has a good guiding role in translation practice. However, there are also some scholars who disagree with this theory and for example Peter Newmark is one of its critics. He believed that Nida’s equivalence theory takes the reader too seriously, but sometimes sacrifices the actually original thoughts of the writer. It is also doubtful whether “functional equivalence” can be applied to the original texts of various subjects. If the translator partially pursue “functional equivalence”, which will makes it difficult for the target readers to fully understand the original cultural information and it is not conducive to the mutual communication between different countries and cultures. For the above example: if we render “White as snow” as “白如鹭毛”, target readers may understand the meaning of the original author, but they still have no idea of what the word “snow” actually means. This has become a situation where we cannot get two things at the same time, or in Chinese “鱼和熊掌不可兼得”. However, If the original text is literally translated as “white as snow”, then the translator continues to explain what substance a “snow” is and what characteristics it may have and why we say its color is as white as egret’s feathers. In this way, not only can the readers of the translation work have the same response as the readers of the original, but also it is conducive for them to learn to understand new things and new concepts, which will gradually promote the communication of different cultures and the mutual interests of different countries.

'''4.Conclusion'''

Mr. Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” respectively represent huge progress in Chinese and Western translation studies, and they played an important role for the reference of translation studies and practice. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration. Furthermore, we must learn their theories with a critical view, so as to strive for innovation and establishment of a new era for translation studies.

'''References'''

[1]Chen Fukang. A History of Chinese Translation Theories in China [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.2000.

[2]Gao Huali. A Short History of Translation And Interpretation in China And Other Countries [M].Hangzhou：Zhejiang University Press.2009.

[3]Kao, Gorge. (trans.) Lin CH'in-nan Revisited [A]. By Qian Zhongshu. Renditions [J], autumn, 1975: 8-21

[4]Luo Xinzhang.On Translation [M].Beijing：The Commercial Press.1984.

[5]Mark, Shuttleworth, Moira Cowie. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 2004.

[6]Munday, Jeremy. Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications. Routledge, 2013.

[7]Nida, Eugene A. & Charles R.Taber (1969/1982) The Theory and Practice of Translation, Leiden: E. J. Brill.

[8]Qian Zhongshu.Pipe-awl Chapters [M].Beijing：Zhonghua Book Company.1986.

[9]Qian Zhongshu.Seven Patches [M].Beijing：SDX Joint Publishing Company.2002.

[10]Xu Jun.On Translation[M].Wuhan：Hubei Education Press.2003.

[11]Yu Chengfa. Interpreting Sublimation [D].Central China Normal University,2003.

=Theory and Practise=
=='''Translators' Views on Translation Influence Their Translation Behavior'''==

'''Abstract:''' A translator plays an essential role in the translation process. Translators’ views on translation is their understanding of translation, embodied in their translation strategies and value orientations, which are different from each other due to their social and cultural context and also their personal experience and philosophy. The translators’ view on translation, as a part of the translators’ ideology, exert a great influence on their translation behavior. For translators, translation is never a individual activity, but a responsibility to the author, the SL culture, the reader, the TL culture and eventually themselves.

'''Key words:''' translator’s view; translation behavior; translation principles; responsibility

'''译者翻译观对其翻译行为的影响'''

'''摘要：'''译者在翻译中处于核心位置。译者的翻译观指译者本身对于翻译的理解，其中包含了译者的翻译策略和价值取向。不同的译者受其社会与文化及个人经历和意识形态的影响，会有不同的翻译观。翻译观作为译者意识形态的一种，对翻译行为有着很大的影响。对于译者来说，翻译从来不是个人行为，而是一种对原作者、原作、读者及译入语文化的责任。

'''关键词：'''译者；翻译观；翻译行为；翻译原则；责任

A translator plays an essential role in the translation process. Translators’ views on translation is their understanding of translation, embodied in their translation strategies and value orientations, which are different from each other due to their social and cultural context and also their personal experience and philosophy. And “translation behavior”, in a broad sense, includes the translators’ linguistic translation behavior and the social transcend-translation behavior. In a narrow sense, it only means the translators’ translation as a “pure” translator (Zhou 18). The “translator behavior” in this thesis is a broad one, that is, translators’ translation behavior can be influenced by their social and cultural context, their motivations for translation, their views on translation and the linguistic translatability of the SL and their translation competence (Xu Jun 199-254). Specifically, the translation behavior we will discuss is “what to translate (what works they translated)” and “how to translate (their translation principles)”. According to A. Lefevere, ideology and poetics together dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems (39). The translators’ view on translation, as a part of the translators’ ideology, exert a great influence on their translation behavior.

So how is translation behavior associated with translator’s views?

From the very beginning the research of translation was limited in a certain extent, and then there were some scholars starting to study on the relationship between translation and other systems, including Even-Zohar, Bassett, Lefevere and Venuti.

'''I.Some Previous Studies'''

A.Even-Zohar’s Polysystem

According to ''Introducing Translation Studies'':

“Polysysten theory was developed in the 1970s by the Israeli scholar Itamar Even-Zohar borrowing ideas from the Russian Formalists of the 1920s and the Czech structuralists of the 1930s and 1940s . . . For the Formalists, a literary work was not studied in isolation but as part of a literary system . . . Literature is thus part of the social, cultural, literary and historical framework . . .” (Munday 165).

In 1978, Even-Zohar in his “The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem”, first gives a new term, the polysystem (Even-Zohar 22), emphasizing the translated literature operates as a system in itself:

(1)in the way the TL culture selects works for translation;

(2)in the way translation norms, behavior and policies are influenced by other co-systems (Even-Zohar 22).

Thus, translation is not isolated, but associated with other systems, for instance, the TL culture. And the ST that chosen by a culture correspond to the organized system rather than arbitrary decisions made by individuals. Also translation works occupies different position in different cultures and has something to do with the position of the national literature.

B.Bassett and Lefevere

Later, “Bassett and Lefevere go beyond language and focus on the interaction between translation and culture, on the way in which culture impacts and constrains translation and on ‘the larger issues of context, history and convention (11)’ ” (Munday 192).

C.Lefevere: Rewriting and Manipulation

Furthermore, “Lefevere focuses particularly on the examination of ‘very concrete factors’ that systemically govern the reception, acceptance or rejection of literary texts; that is, ‘issues such as power, ideology, institution and manipulation (2)’ . The people involved in such power positions are the ones Lefevere sees as ‘rewriting’ literature and governing its consumption by the general public. The motivation for such rewriting can be ideological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant ideology) or poetological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant/preferred poetics)” (Munday 194). And translation is the most obviously recognizable type of rewriting (Lefevere 9).

Translator’s view on translation, for example, reflecting the translators’ ideology, can conform to or rebel against the social dominant ideology.
For Lefevere, the literary system in which translation functions is controlled by two main factors, which are: (1) professionals within the literary system, who partly determine the dominant poetics; and (2) patronage outside the literary system, which partly determines the ideology.
The “professionals within the literary system” include translators themselves, who decide on the poetics and at times influence the ideology of the translated text (Munday 194).

Thus, the role of translator is essential and the translator’s ideology have an great influence on the translation text and the text reader.
“For Lefevere, the most important consideration is the ideological one. In this case, it refers to the translator’s ideology or the ideology imposed upon the translator by patronage. The poetological consideration refers to the dominant poetics in the TL culture. Together, ideology and poetics dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems” (Munday 197).

D.Venuti

Then Venuti insists that the scope of translation studies needs to be broadened to take account of the value-driven nature of the sociocultural framework.

“Norms may be in the first instance linguistic or literary, but they will also include a diverse range of domestic values, beliefs, and social representations which carry ideological force in serving the interests of specific groups. And they are always housed in the social institutions where translations are produced and enlisted in cultural and political agendas” (29).

Munday suggests, the groups and social institutions to which Venuti refers would include the various players in the publishing industry as a whole . . . Each of these players has a particular position and role within the dominant cultural and political agendas of their time and place. The translators themselves are part of that culture, which they can either accept or rebel against (217).

Therefore, being part of the culture, translators are influenced by the social and patronage ideology, and the poetics. Nevertheless, translators more or less enjoys some autonomy. For example, translators’ views on translation, i.e. the understanding of translation, can be conformed to or rebellious against the culture. And then their views on translation, influence their specific translation behavior such as the works they choose to translate and their translation principles. Next are three examples for us to discuss how the translators’ views on translation immediately influence their translation behaviors.

To narrow the differences of the social ideology down, three translators in modern period of China (after 1949) will be discussed in this thesis. However, because they are born in different climate and stage of the society, no doubt that they have distinctive world outlook from each other, resulting in their distinctive views on translation. But focus will still be on the influence exerted by their views on their translation behavior.

II.Three Examples in Modern Period of China

A.Xu Yuanchong (1921-): Translation is translators’ responsibility.

For Xu Yuanchong, Chinese translators have a responsibility to translate the foreign masterpieces into Chinese and Chinese excellent works of literature into foreign languages, in order to introduce the advanced ideas to China and also bring the foreigners the splendid culture of China, during which the world will be more culturally rich and diversely civilized.

In this case, Xu Yuanchong further puts forward that the histories and evolution of the two cultures are very different from each other, with distinct advantages and disadvantages If they can learn the strong points from each other to offset their weakness, they can both be improved. In this respect, translation can be considered as a rivalry between two different cultures. The translation can even surpass the original work. If we make full use of the advantages of one culture to perfect another , the culture of all the humanity will be developed. This is the ultimate goal of the translator (“Surpass” 47). Based on this view, Xu Yuanchong proposed the Rivalry Theory and the Theory of Advantage.

Therefore, in order to exchange the advantages between cultures, the foreign works Xu Yuanchong had translated are some western masterpieces includes: ''Madame Bovary'', ''Le Rouge et le Noir'', ''Jean Christophe'', etc. And also some Chinese classical works especially the classical Chinese poetry: ''150 Tang Poems'', ''100 Tang and Song Poems'', ''300 Poems Chinois Classiques'', ''Selected Poems of Mao Zedong'', ''The Romance of Western Bower'', ''Earth-shaking Songs'' (the selected poems written by Chinese modern revolutionists), etc. By translating the essence of one culture and ideology into another languages, he demonstrates our advantages and at the same time offers Chinese people the opportunities to enjoy the classics of another culture.

Xu Yuanchong’s view on translation also influences his translation principles. Take the first sentence of ''Jean Christophe'' as an example:

Le grondement du fleuve monte derrére la maison. (Jean Christophe)

From behind the house rises the murmuring of the river. (English)

江声浩荡，自屋后上升。(Fu Lei)

江流滚滚，声震屋后。(Xu Yuanchong)

The french word “grondement” means “roaring” or “murmuring” in English. The English translation seems to be coherent in the paragraph and the following content. However, as to the whole work, Xu Yuanchong considers that “浩荡” in Fu Lei’s translation is more powerful and symbolic of the spectacular river cutting through Europe, and some readers even take Fu Lei’s translation as “the classical opening sentence” of the work, which proves it a translation that surpasses the original one.

And then Xu Yuanchong also translated this sentence (as above), replacing “浩荡” with “滚滚” for its more similar sound to “grondement”. And “声震屋后” is also a symbol of the impact of the great achievement of the musician in the work (Yang et.al 35-38). Here appears another translation principle of Xu Yuanchong: “literary translation is art (''Art 20'')” and “beauty in three aspects”, namely, “beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form”, having developed Lu Xun as well as Lin Yutang’s theory of beauty. This is the reason why Xu Yuanchong emphasizes the similar sound of “滚滚” to “grondement”. Another example is still a sentence in ''Jean Christophe'':

Il marchait sur le monde. (''Jean Christophe'')

他踏着全世界直立着。（鲁迅）

他顶天立地的在世界上走着。（傅雷）

(qtd. “Re-creation” 222)

Which translation corresponds to the original best? Lu Xun’s translation is similar in from while Fu Lei’s is in style. In this case, Xu Yuanchong considers there is one solution, that is to change the question as “Which translation is more beautiful and delightful for readers?” He also quotes “Qu’ importe celui qui crée? Il’y a de réel que ce qu’on crée” said by Romain Rolland to indicate that the translator ought to make the translation more of art to give readers an enjoyment of beauty rather than to captiously keep the author’s style. So he is in favor of Fu Lei’s translation.

The last example goes to the translation of the last sentence of ''Uprising Songs'' (《起义歌》) written by Sun Zhongshan, collected in ''Earth-shaking Songs'':

顶天立地奇男子，要把乾坤扭转过来。(''Uprising Songs'')

Heroes of indomitable spirit, arise!

Let us transform the old world and reverse the tide! (previous translation)

Heroes who would move heaven and earth, arise! (Xu Yuanchong)

Xu Yuanchong suggests that in the previous translation, translating “顶天立地” only into “indomitable spirit” is in want of the image of “天” and “地”. Also, as it were, the readers cannot enjoy the beauty of the SL, which is thus a failure in the rivalry of two cultures. So he translated the sentence as above, keeping the impression of “天地” to have the readers appreciate the beauty of the original work, in other words, to win the rivalry between the ST and TT (“Re-creation” 221-222).

For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized. The translation not only should be faithful to the original, but also be powerful and infectious to readers, even giving an much more profound impression than the original work.

B.Liu Zhongde (1914-): Translation is a way to make foreign masterpieces to serve China.

In order to make the western masterpieces more popular in China, Liu Zhongde decided to devote himself to a career in translation. By translating the western works into Chinese, as far as he concerns, the advanced thoughts can serve Chinese intellectuals and further improve the whole country. He was the first person who introduced Jane Austin’s ''Emma'' to China. But he were not satisfied with his first translation of ''Emma'' and at last in 1990s he re-translated it and corrected the errors he had made, which reflected his spirit of improving himself constantly and his rigorous scholarship (Ten 178 ).

Thus, most works Liu Zhongde translated were the western classics such as ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'', ''Confessions of an English Opium-Eater'', ''Emma'', ''Darwin'', etc. He seldom translated Chinese works into English.

In order to convey to the Chinese readers the exact ideas and original style and content of the ST, Liu Zhongde puts much emphasis on the “closeness” of the translation. He says the translator should always remember what he is working at is a literacy work written by somebody else and try his utmost to turn his translation into a work of art which is in conformity with the thought, feeling and style of the original. Thus, the translation will be as moving and vivid as the original work and the reader may be aesthetically entertained as well (''Ten'' 122-123).

Therefore he developed from Yan Fu’s three principles－“信达雅 (faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance)” into “信达切 (faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness)” as a set of principles for translation reference: “The style of your translation must correspond, or at least, be close, to that of the original you are working at . . . the ideological content, linguistic expression and stylistic characteristics of a literary work constitute a unified entity, and the translator should reproduce the three elements as a whole” (''Ten'' 122).

Being different from Xuyuanchong, Liu Zhongde holds that “literary translation has a double nature. That’s to say, on the one hand, it is a science with its own laws and methods and on the other, it is an art” (''Ten'' 2).

So how exactly does Liu Zhongde’s views on translation influence his translation principles? There are two examples as follows.

Here is a translation of “回乡偶书” by Liu Zhongde:

回乡偶书
少小离家老大回，乡音无改鬓毛衰。
儿童相见不相识，笑问客从何处来。
(the original poem)

Homecoming
I left home quite young, and I come back very old.
My accent remains the same, but my hair turns gray.
Kids don’t know me when one another we behold.
“Where do you come from?” with a smile to me they say.
(Liu Zhongde’s translation)

This translation adapts so well the style and features of TT to the ST that it seems to be an original work written by Liu Zhongde himself. We can appreciate the same meaning and emotion the original work expresses. The TT keeps the the same number of lines just as the ST: each of the sentence has 12 syllables. The rhyme pattern of ST is also kept: the first line rhymes with the third, and the second with the forth. The TT is exactly an expression of sound, form and sense of the ST (Jiang 196-197).

The next two examples are from Liu Zhongde’s re-translation of ''Emma'':

(1)The truth is, Harriet, that my playing is Just good enough to be praised, but Jane Fairfax’s is much beyond it.

事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却是神乎其技了。(Previous translation)

事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却大大超过我的弹奏。(Liu Zhongde)

“神乎其技” in the previous translation does not correspond to the plain style of “much beyond it” in ST. It is true that a Chinese four-character-word can embody a complex meaning, but the style it can be applied to is supposed to be formal and academic. In this sentence, the style of “神乎其技” is not appropriate at all, while a simpler word should be used. Thus Liu Zhongde replaced “神乎其技” with “大大超过我的弹奏”.

(2)“Just as they always do-very vulgar.”

还不是像他们平常那样——俗不可耐。(Previous translation)

还不是像他们平常那样——很庸俗。(Liu Zhongde)

(Jiang 278-279)

The four-character-word “俗不可耐” in the previous translation does not conform to the plain or colloquial style of ST, either, just like “神乎其技” mentioned above. Liu Zhongde changed it into “庸俗” to be in line with the original style.

For Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected by him and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original.

C.Li Jihong (1980-): Translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings.

As to Li Jihong, translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings. In an article called “The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace with the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay” against the view of another translator, Shi Kangqiang, he says that the pay of translation in the new period is different from that of the old times, mainly because of the translation tools which belonging to the production tools, have already been developed today into computers, digital data, Internet, etc. As a result, the translation speed is supposed to be improved. Therefore, a professional translator nowadays can definitely earn a decent life by translating 1000 words each hour, 8 hours a day. And for every 1000 words they can earn 60 ''yuan''.

The article aims to oppose to Shi Kangqiang’s opinion that the appalling pay translators receive influence the quality of the translation, but it also reveals Li Lihong’s view on translation from his borrowing lots of economic theories and activities, numbers, calculation of the pay to support his opinion, his favors to the publishers’ increasing reward on the sales of the translation work and his announcement that he have translated ''The Kite Runner'' (written by Khaled Hosseini), 195190 words, for only 10 days, 15 hours a day.

In this article he also says: “Any responsible translators will not translate for the personal income,” but he adds next, “ In fact, the support for his translation is the letters from readers, in addition to the high income.” Although the total contradiction in his saying is confusing, it still can be inferred that money is an important motivation for his translation, if not the most important one.

The works Li Jihong translated are foreign classics such as ''Le Petit Prince'', ''The Old Man and the Sea'', ''Animal Farm'', ''The Great Gatsby'', ''Walden'', ''The Moon and Sixpence'', ''Pride and Prejudice'' and ''The Sound and Fury''. However, all those works and the values of them have already been well received in China, with several translations in market.

To begin with the work that he have translated “for only 10 days, 15 hours a day” as he says, ''The Kite Runner'' written by Khaled Hosseini:

(1)We left the old man on the steps of that building. I meant to take him up on his offer, come back and see if he’d unearthed any more stories about my mother. But I never saw him again (Hosseini 251).

我们离开了坐在那座房子台阶上的老人。我原想带他到他的办公室去，看看他能否想起更多关于我妈妈的事情。但我再也没有见到他 (Li 243)。

In this text, “take somebody. up on something” means “to accept an offer, an invitation that somebody has made 接受（提议或邀请）” in ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary'' (438). Also according to the whole context, the old man, a beggar, had been a colleague of “my” mother who I had never met. He told me a story about “my” mother and promised me more details about her: “ The old man smiled. ‘I’ll try to remember and that’s a promise. Come back and find me ’ (Hosseini 250).” It can be inferred that the old man offered the narrator a chance to know more about his mother. Thus, the “offer” means “邀请” instead of “办公室 (office)”. What’s more, It seems like the word “offer” is misread as “office” by the translator. Perhaps the translator is too busy translating as fast as possible to check his translation carefully.

(2)“Your job today is to pass gas. You do that and we can start feeding you liquids. No fart, no food.” He laughed again (Hosseini 297).

“你今天的工作是排便。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不见粪便，不给食物。”他又哈哈大笑 (Li 287)。

The speaker was a staff in hospital, and he was asking the patient who had just come to himself from a surgery “to pass gas”. The relevant meaning of “gas” in ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary'' is “[物理]气体、瓦斯” (726), of “pass” is “通过” (1338). And “fart” as a noun means “放屁 (emit wind from the anus)” (632). In conclusion, “排便” does not correspond to the original meaning of the ST. So the translation can be righted as “你今天的工作是排气。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不放屁，不给食物。” This is also a very small and simple mistake. The translator should be more cautious about translating.
This summer holiday I have read another book translated by Li Jihong: The Moon and Sixpence written by William Somerset Maugham, and also find some odd translation and neglect. Here are two examples:

(1)“Do you think it’s likely that a man will do any good when he starts at your age? Most men begin painting at eighteen.”

“I can learn quicker than I could when I was eighteen (Mauguam 48).”

你认为一个人从你这个年纪开始学画能学得好吗？大多数人从十八岁就开始画了。”

“如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些 (Li 54)。”

The second sentence, a very simple one, means that even if “I” am old now, I can learn even quicker than I could when I was at eighteen. In Chinese it can be translated as, for instance, “我能比我十八岁的时候学得还快.” But Li’s translation “如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些” means “I can learn quicker if I were eighteen,” which has a totally different meaning from the ST.

(2)...for they felt themselves freemen of a country whose frontiers include them all, the great country of Cockaigne (Mauguam 169).

因为他们觉得大家都是自由民，同属于想象中的天堂之国 (Li 203)。

According to Encyclopedia Britannica, “Cockaigne, also spelled Cockayne, imaginary land of extreme luxury and ease where physical comforts and pleasures are always immediately at hand. References to Cockaigne are especially prominent in medieval European lore. These accounts describe rivers of wine, houses built of cake and barley sugar, streets paved with pastry, and shops that gratuitously give goods to everyone. Roast geese wander about inviting people to eat them, and buttered larks fall from the skies like manna.” Being ignorant of the rich meaning of this word, Li Jihong translated it to “天堂之国” without any explanation. In fact, in this book, Li Jihong adds 206 explanatory notes for the words like “Shakespeare (莎士比亚)”, “Balzac (巴尔扎克)” and “Footnote (生丁)”, however, “Cockaigne” is not included.

Li Jihong’s translation is popular for his elaborate introduction of the work and explanatory notes, which as he says, can help readers to understand the work easier. And some famous people also recommend his translations for his translation is more understandable than others. However, as far as I am concerned, being understandable is not the essence of a translation.

From Xu Yuanchong and Liu Zhongde we know there are various translation principles, for instance the former’s “beauty in three aspects: sense, sound and form” and the latter’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness”, nevertheless, the “faithfulness” to the original is emphasized.

III.Conclusion

This is how the views of translation influence the translators’ behavior, specifically the translation work choosing and their translation principles demonstrated by the translation examples of the three translators.

For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized; while for Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original. In fact, for both of them translation should be a responsibility that should be treated serious by translators, while as for Li Jihong, translation is just a production activity, a tool to make money or to gain the population, fame and the sense of superiority. Therefore, the economic effect and the speed is highlighted, the minor mistakes were made, and the translator’s personality was manifested so much that it even overshadowed the style and meaning of the original work.

For those responsible translators, their translations, imprinted all their individual ideology, experience and reflection, almost like an original work, are supposed to be a special thing. As Thomas C. Foster puts at the end of his How to Read Literature Like a Professor, “My favorite was the apology to the poem itself: ‘Well, little book, you’re not that much but you’re the best I could make you. Now you’ll just have to make your way in the world as best you can. Fare thee well.’” (129), a lot of care and attachment will be taken to the work you made, whatever it is, a poem, a fiction or a translation work. Only if you devote yourself to the translation with painstaking effort, can the translation be respected and appreciated by your readers.

Fu Lei had ever said, “translation should be based on the knowledge of art: without a sensitive soul, earnest sympathy, appropriate appreciation, relative social experience or sufficient common sense (i.e. broad knowledge), a translator neither will understand the original work thoroughly nor grasp the essence of it” (qtd. Xu Jun 253). Because that translators’ views on translation have a great influence on his translation, he should first be earnest to “translation”, and then be diligent, especially when the translation work is carrying the weight of the original work. For translators, translation is never a individual activity, but a responsibility to the author, the SL culture, the reader, the TL culture and eventually themselves.

'''Work Cited'''

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蒋坚松 (Jiang Jiansong) 彭利元 (Peng Liyuan), ed. 《刘重德翻译思想及其他》(''Liu Zhongde’s Tanslation Theories and Others''). 长沙(Changsha): 湖南师范大学出版社 (Hunan Normal University Press), 2003. Print.

李继宏 (Li Jihong), 《文学翻译也需与时俱进：谈谈翻译速度和稿酬问题》 (“The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace With the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay”). 豆瓣网 (douban). 13 Jan. 2013 <https://site.douban.com/179084/widget/articles/10191245/article/23864139/?dt_dapp=1>

刘重德 (Liu Zhongde), ed.《文学翻译十讲》(''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation''). 北京(Beijing): 中国对外翻译出版社 (China Duiwai Translation Press), 2000. Print.

毛姆·威廉. (Maugham, William). 《月亮和六便士》 (''The Moon an Sixpence'').李继宏译 (Trans. Li Jihong). 天津 (Tianjin): 天津人民出版社 (Tianjin Renmin Press), 2018. Print.

许钧. (Xu Jun).《翻译论》(''Translation Theory''). 武汉 (Wuhan)：湖北教育出版社 (Hubei Education Press), 2003. Print.

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---. ed.《再创作与翻译风格》(“Re-creation and Translation Style”). 《文学与翻译》 (''Literature and Translation''). 北京 (Beijing)：北京大学出版社 (Beijing University Press), 2016. 221-229. Print.

---.《翻译的艺术》(''The Art of Translation''). 北京 (Beijing): 五洲传播出版社 (Wuzhou Chuanbo Press), 2006. Print.

杨绛(Yang Jiang), 李文俊 (Li Wenjun, et al.) 等. 《一本书和一个世界》(''A Book and A World''). 北京 (Beijing): 昆仑出版社 (Kun Lun Press), 2005: 35-38. Print.
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=Contemporary Translation Studies=
=='''An Analysis of the Book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'''''==

'''摘要：'''爱德温·根茨勒的《当代翻译理论》和杰米里·芒迪的《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》被视为翻译史上不可多得的巨作。本文通过对两本巨著的介绍之后，节选了其中有名的翻译理论即尤金·奈达的形式对等理论和功能对等理论以及亚历山大弗雷泽·泰特勒和严复的翻译原则进行比较，来阐述了翻译的基本准则。通过对比尤金·奈达的形式对等和功能对等理论，找出其优缺点并结合适当的例子，有利于读者把握奈达的翻译思想来更好地指导其翻译实践。同时，通过分析亚历山大弗雷泽·泰特勒的翻译原则的优缺点再将其与严复的翻译理论做比较，有利于读者理解中西方翻译的差异，来更好地理解在跨文化的语境中如何做好翻译。

'''关键词：'''爱德温·根茨勒、《当代翻译理论》、杰米里·芒迪、《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》、尤金·奈达、形式对等、功能对等、亚历山大·弗雷泽·泰特勒、严复、翻译原则

'''Abstract:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler’s ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and Jeremy Munday’s ''Introducing Translation studies: Theories and Applications'' are both regarded as the masterpieces in the discipline of translation. After giving a brief introduction of these two great works, this paper tends to select the famous translation theories from the book namely Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and functional equivalence and the translation principles of Alexander Fraser Tytler and Yan Fu to define the basic principles of translation. After analyzing the Nida’s theories of formal equivalence and functional equivalence, it is better for the readers to understand the Nida’s translation ideas to better guide him in the translation practice by combining the concrete examples to illustrate its advantages and disadvantages. In the meantime, by analyzing the advantages and disadvantages of Tytler’s translation principles and the comparison between the translation principles of Tytler and Yan Fu, it’s better for the readers to understand the influence of difference in the eastern and western cultures on translation. In such a way, it’s better for the translators to do the translation practice in the cross-cultural situation.

'''Key words:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler; ''Contemporary Translation Theories''; Jeremy Munday; ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''; Eugene Nida; Formal Equivalence; Functional Equivalence; Alexander Fraser Tytler; Yan Fu; Translation Principles

'''Introduction:'''

In this essay, it presents the author’s understanding of the two books: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''. After a brief introduction of these two books, this paper tends to concentrate on the discussion of four important translation theories. This paper will be divided into three parts. Firstly, after a brief introduction of the great book: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', and then it will focus on the analyzing of the Eugne Nida’s two famous translation theories namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. By giving out its definition, it’s easier to find the advantage and disadvantage of these two concepts. Then, this paper will go on introducing briefly the Chomsky’s translation studies. And then it will find some commonness and distinction in Nida’s and Chomsky’s opinions in translation. Secondly, it will give a short introduction of the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' and it will fix its attention on the translation principles of Tytler and then make a comparison of Yan Fu’s translation principle “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. By deeper analyzing these two similar translation theories, we can find some commonness and difference in these two translation theories by taking the culture and thinking modes into consideration. At last, this paper intend to give a brief comparison between these two great books by taking the consideration of writing style and content arrangement. All in all, this paper intends to give the readers a better understanding of these two great books and provoke their reflection about these two books.

'''I Analysis of the book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'''''

Recently, it is a great pleasure to read a very famous book called ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' whose author is called Edwin Gentzler. The second edition of this book has received great success. The publication of this book is significant to the global translation study academia. “Since the mid-19th century, translation theory has maderapid progress, Edwin Gentzler finds out what is useful and rejects what is useless on the translation of today's theories in this book”(Li 2014:111). He also makes a Detailed description in detail several major schools of translation:The North American Translation Workshop, the “Science” of Translation, Early Translation Studies, the Polysystem Translation and Deconstruction. In this book, it presents what is happening in different parts within the discipline. “Gentzler uses his provoke thinking viewpoint to trace the development of literary translation studies from the American translation workshop program, through the polysystems research to deconstruction and postcolonial translation theory and beyond”(Xu and Wang 2000:42). This book not only provides us with a deep way of theorizing the translation but also is effectively a translation practice . At the end of this book, he also points out the future of translation and sends his positive attitude about the translation’s future. The author turns a whole number of the complex theoretical material into accessible language, so that everyone who doesn’t read any books about translation can read this book freely. Apart from that, each chapter in this book is separated so you can read each chapter alone without relying on your understanding of the other chapters. By this way, it is more convenient for us to find the topic of translation that we are interested in to read and find valuable informationfor us. Gentzler’s book provides us with a precise analysis about what the translation school achieved so far and gives his insight into the future of translation.

“This book stands as a continuing translation textbook with some of the most important theories in the field such as “the same aesthetic experience, dynamic equivalence, corresponding literary function, or the deconstruction theory of Derrida”(Li 2014:112). Despite distinct focus, each theory is completed by a conceptual framework that thinks original existence and an understanding of it in the target society. At present, “all translation theories have kept rigid distinction between original texts and their translations text”(Xu and Wang 2000:43).

In the chapter 2, this book introduces the American translation workshop. In this chapter, it mainly introduces the A. Richard’s new criticism and translation, Ezra Pound’s theory of luminous details, Frederic Will’s the paradox of translation and Lawrence Venuti’s rethinking translation. In it workshop, “it emphasizes that translation is a marginal activity, not considered as a proper field of study”(Gentzler 2001:5). However, as time goes by, the process of growth and acceptance of translation boost when many translation courses and workshops were being offered at many universities. There appears many works about this translation workshop but it does not have many books about the translation theories. “In this workshop, the personal opinions may offer some help, but it still lacks the consistent theory to support translation”(Gentzler 2001:44). Therefore, it needs urgently a classified theory for the translation and it yields the coming of the “science” of translation. In this book, it mainly introduces Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and Noam Chomsky’s syntactic structure and generative-transformation grammar. Here, it will illustrate my understanding of these two concepts about formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Edwin Gentzler illustrated the concept of dynamic equivalence in his book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', ''Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. The relationship between the target language receptor and the target text should generally be equivalent to that between the source language receptor and the source text''(2001:48).

In the dynamic equivalence, Nida focus on the correspondence of the feeling between the target language and the receptor and the source language and the learner. By his understanding, these two feeling should be the similar. More specifically, “dynamic equivalence considers more about the relationship between the reader and the information, which means that the target reader's response to the target text should be the same as that of the source reader's response to the source text”(Liu 2012:242). “Any foreignness and translationese should be avoided in the target text”(Ju 2000:203). Now, it will
list the advantages of dynamic equivalence.

“On the one hand, the dynamic equivalence is “somewhat like the free translationwhich emphasizes the translation should achieve the same effect instead of being limitedin the content and form” (Li 2014:112). “It concentrates on the correct way of translating the content of the original text”(Shakernia 2013:2). On the other hand, “it focuses on readers' reaction and analyzes the translation process from the viewpoint of target readers”(Nida 1995:225). In this way, translation is not a single activity, but more social elements are added to make the translation concrete and specific. Moreover, in the dynamic equivalence, due to its classified translation principle it is more suitable to the translation of technology and science essays. The dynamic equivalence provides us a
detailed rule of translation during our process of translation so when we translate, we can find the reasonable principles to rely on. These essays should be more formal and official.

However, although the dynamic equivalence has gained a lot of praises it still deserves some limitations. Firstly, “it is just a language conversion and ignores the cultural information taken by the language, resulting in cultural domestication”(Liu 2012: 245). In fact, cultural differences are objective and can not be inevitable, and no one can avoid them. If you have to maintain a dynamic equivalent translation, it will definitely have a negative impact on cultural communication. For example, “‘dongfeng’ is a positive image in Chinese culture while in western society it thinks the west wind is goodmorality”( Shakerni 2013:2) Therefore, it is strange that Shelley's singing of the west wind is translated into "ode to the east wind", because it will hinder the Chinese readers' understanding of the western world. What's more, to judge whether the target readers have similar effects is uncertain and unpractical because they are different in gender, age,educational background and life experience, etc. Strictly speaking, the reader's response is a variable that cannot be regarded as equivalent to the standard effect. Finally, dynamicequivalence information in the text does well, just like the Bible, but it is difficult to realize literary translation, text language is different from general language. Dynamic equivalence, as a concept, puts an .an overly narrow focus on the response of the active hearers, perhaps sometimes at the expense of other factors which are also crucial to adequate translation, such as the accuracy of the message, the uniqueness of the original historical setting.

Next, it will list the definition of formal equivalence. “Formal equivalence is simple and source-oriented. It is like a word for word literal translation”(Shakernia 2013:2). Formal equivalence concentrates on the message itself, in both form and content. “One is concerned that the message in the receptor language should match asclosely as possible the different elements in the source language”(Shakernia 2013:3).The use of formal equivalents might at times have serious implications in the target text since the translation will not be easily understood by the target readership. For example, “in the translation of the sentence of greet others with a holy kiss, these two different equivalence can have distinctly different translation”(Shakernia 2013:3). In the formal equivalence translation, we need to translate it into the translation of saying hello to others with a holly kiss. But it seems strange to others because what’s the meaning of holy kiss. Then, we need to add one explanation of holy kiss which is in the ''old testament'' the holly kiss is usually treated as a usual way to greet others. However, in the dynamic equivalence, we need not to take the correspondence of the structure into consideration. We only need to pay attention to the reaction of receptorsof language. We can translate it into the translation of shaking hands with others enthusiastically. From the above example, it’s clear to find the focus of these two equivalences is very different therefore the translation can be different.

Here, it will try to figure out the advantages and disadvantages of formal equivalence. One of the most distinguished advantage of the formal equivalence is that in this translation, “the formal equivalence is keenly oriented towards the source language structure, which exerts strong language influence in determining accuracy and Correctness”(Nida 1995:223). Because the formal equivalence emphasizes the completetranscript of the original text’s content and form so it will have the consistent structure of the original text.Another advantage of formal equivalence is that it put much focus on the accuracy.Because in such translation theory, the target language will try to find a equivalent in the source language. For example, in the sentence of “Please fetch me a glass of water” when translating it into Chinese, we will try to find each word equivalent in Chinese. We will try to find each word such as “please”“fetch”“me” and so on. Then we can find the equivalent in Chinese which can be transliterated into Chinese as “Qing gei wo yi bei shui”. Apart from that, let’s move on to the disadvantages of formal equivalence. One of the obvious disadvantage of the formal equivalence is that sometimes it will neglect the intent of the original text. Because the formal equivalence isreferred as to the literal translation and in such way it may overlook the author’s intent. For example, we often hear Chinese people say:“Ni chi le ma?” In fact, it’s a way to greetpeople in Chinese custom while we cannot translate it into English as “Have you eat your dinner or lunch?”. Instead we should translate it into English as “Hello!”or “Hi!”

Among these two theories, Nida puts the dynamic equivalence in the first place. It has been viewed as his core contribution to the modern translation filed. “Nida pays attention to readers' response and advocates replacing the expression of foreign culture in the original text with the expression habit of the receiving language, namely, domestication”(Nida 1995:224). By far, “Nida has achieved a lot in translation study. He simplifies Chomsky’s theory and adopts only the later two part of the model in order to validate his science”(Gentzler 2001:52). “He is aware of the nature of a practice-oriented approach, attempts to scientifically validate his methodology and apply it to translation as a whole” (Panou 2013: 1) . In this chapter, it also talks about Noam Chomsky’s contribution to the linguistic and translation. In Chomsky’s opinion, the linguistic is a study of science and we can apply many linguistic principles to translation, therefore, the translation can also be said a study of science. Among the Noam Chomsky’s contribution is his transformational-generative grammar. “It is a theory that talks about why people can talk and how people can learn new sentences. It is a theory about language ability. Chomsky holds his opinion that basics and transformation form grammar” (Zhou 2019:5). The basics form deep structure and deep structure transforms to surface structure. Word’s meaning belongs to deep structure . Besides, “he thinks thatlanguage is a unique human natural constitution. Language ability should be more focused on not rather language behavior”(Zhou 2019:6). “The TG Grammar tries to reveal the unity of particular grammars and universal grammars, to explore the universal rules with the hope of revealing the human cognitive system and the essential nature of human being”(Zhu 2018:241).

Both Chomsky and Nida believe that deep, coherent and unified entity exists behind whatever manifestation language takes. However, there exists some difference
between their opinions. “Chomsky would not jump to conclusions based on correlations between just two languages, nor assume that a grammar to a particular to one language would work systematically for another” (Li 2011:395). While Nida holds the belief that deep structure and transformatio-nal rules which is divorced from all the problems of translation are similar across languages. All in all, these two great persons all make a big contribution to translation and their theories are still widely used today.

'''II Analysis of ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'''''

As for the second book: ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , it is a very populary book which has undergone through the fourth edition. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' remains the definitive guide to the theories and concepts that make up the field of translation studies. This fourth edition has been fully revised and continues to provide a balanced and detailed guide to the theoretical landscape. “Each theory is applied to a wide range of languages, including Bengali, Chinese, English, French, German, Italian, Punjabi, Portuguese and Spanish”(Liu and Deng 2010:54). It starts with the definition of translation and then presents us the translation theory before the twentieth century to the modern translation theory. It focus on many important translation theories such as systematic translation theory, polysystem theory translation, functional theories of translation, and so on. There are three reasons why I like this book very much. Firstly, this book is full of content which is arranged carefully and skillfully for the readers to read. It contain an introductory table clearly presenting key terms and ideas, the main text, describing in detail the models and issues under discussion, an illustrative case study, which applies and evaluates the main model of the chapter, suggestions for further reading, a brief evaluative summary of the chapter and a series of discussion and research points to stimulate further thought and research. I am extremely fond of the case study in this book which is also a unique feature of this book. In the case study, it will list a related case about the translation issue in this chapter for readers to think and then this book provide us with a discussion of case studies for us to reflect our thinking. I think it’s a good way for us to relate the knowledge of book into reality which it’s more helpful and useful for us to remember the knowledge in the book. And by applying our knowledge to the real problem in reality, it’s more helpful for us truly understand the essence of translation studies.

Secondly, there are a large number of charts are cited, and the names of the charts are listed on a special page after the table of contents at the front of the book for easy reference. In this way, it is easier for readers to absorb much information contained in the charts. In the meantime, it is clear for the readers to relate the knowledge with the information in the charts. It is also a good way to sort out the large number of information in an ordered way for the readers to have a quick way to absorb the information.

Thirdly, the book includes an appendix to the web sites relevant to translation studies before the final notes and index. These include two web sites that publish information about conferences, recent publications and research, six web sites for international translation journals and four web sites for translation organizations that often contain useful links. In this way, it becomes much easier for the readers to search the information on the websites for further reading and studying.

Now, let’s move on to talk about the content of this book. In the second chapter, this book lists the debate about the word-for-word and sense-for-sense translation which is debate that dominated much of translation theory. “Faithful translation” is an attempt to reach a compromise between the two. Many great translators object to word-for-word translation and they advocate the sense-for-sense translation”(Munday 2013:18). For example, Cicero oppose the word-for-word translation strongly by saying “that I did not hold it necessary to render word for word, but I preserved the general style and force of the language”(Munday 2013:19). “The issues of free and literal translation were for over a thousand years with the translation of the Bible and other religious and philosophical texts”(Munday 2013:22). As for the translation of Bible, there must mention the Martin Luther whose major influence is made by his translation of the ''New Testament'' and later the ''Old Testament''. Martin Luther advocates the revolutionary nature of translation. “At that time, the Bible was only available in Europe in a Latin translation. This meant that the majority of the people had no access to the Bible in their native languages”(Stolt 2014:373). He is concerned with the German readers. “Here, he supports the idea of using of “pure, clear German and the building of new languages in translation. Therefore, he used a non-literal translation in his translation of Bible”(Stolt 2014:373). Also, his use of a regional yet socially broad dialect went a long way to reinforcing that form of the German language as standard. “His aim is to keep communication with readers and listeners, but the audience for his new translation of the scriptures was composed not of scholars but plain speakers of vernacular German”(Stolt 2014:374). And thanks to Martin Luther’s efforts of translating Bible, the Germany people now could read Bible freely. Later, the book talks about the translation principle of Dryden, Dolet and Tytler. Here it will put emphasize on the Tytler’s translation principles. As for Dolet has five translation principles while Tytler proposes his three translation rules. “They are the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work. Secondly, the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original. Thirdly, the translation should have all the ease of the original composition.” (Munday 2013:26) Here, we can see that Tytler pursues the balance between the source language and target language. The translator must have the capacity of employing the exact manner and skill in translating his target language. For example, “there are two sentences which express the same meaning but they are different in their writing style”(Xi 2009:41). One is on Monday morning, the park is usually crowded with too many people. The other is on Monday morning, the park attracts many people. It’s obvious that the first sentence is in a negative mood while the second sentence is in a positive mood. These two sentences all convey the same meaning but they differs each other in the mood and style. To be a good translator, you need to be skillful in bringing the same style of the source language to the target language.

The advantages of his translation principle are as follows. First of all, “he abandons the traditional translation idea of dichotomies and he tries not to use these controversial term such as literal translation, free translation to give his translation rules a better and clear way to present”(Bie and Huang 2007:164). Here, in his translation principles, we cannot see the mentioning of the literal translation and free translation which can cause misunderstanding in the translation studies. Secondly, “he clarifies and extends people’s understanding of the metaphor that translators are painters. In his opinion, he advocates that the job of a translator is distinct different from the painter” (Bie and Huang 2007: 166). Although the translator does not use the same color as the original, he must give his "picture" the same power and effect. The translator cannot copy the original style, but must use his own style to translate the perfect script. The more he studies a imitation, the less his copy will reflect the ease and spirit of the original.

Now, let’s move on to talk about the disadvantages of his translation principles. Tytler’s translation thoughts are mainly on the base of his exact experience and subjective observation. “Some people even say that the book just looks like a textbook addressing the translation arts. In the meantime, from his translation theories, we can know that he imitates other translator’s theory, especially Dryden”(Firdaus 2012:285). For example, his first principle “That the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work, which is almost same as the Campbell’s accurately reproduce the original meaning”(Firdaus 2012:286). Tytler, “points out that the three principles are in a necessary order. The order arrangement is appropriate, natural and is arranged according to their importance to the translation which cannot change casually”(Firdaus 2012:287). In this way, we can concluded that his idea that if in a case of need to sacrifice a certain principle, the translator should notice the importance of order of translation principle. The translator cannot try to get a beautiful and fluent translation at the expense of the faithful translation of the script. Tytler’s translation has exerted great influence on the later translation studies and left a big influence on the later translators such as our Chinese great translator-Yan Fu. Here, it will list the Yan Fu’s translation theories and then we can have a brief comparison between Yan Fu’s translation principles and Tytler’s translation principles. “Yan Fu is our Chinese great scholar and translator, most famous for introducing western ideas, including Darwin’s natural selection to China in the late 19th century”(Wang 2008:70). Just as Shi Chunrang and Zhao Wei proposed their opinions in their essay ''Thoughts on Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler's Three Principles—a Case Study of Comparative Translation'' that Yan Fu proposed three difficulties in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethnic''.

“Faithfulness” means the full and complete conveying or transmission of the original content or thought. It emphasizes the right way of expressing content of the original source. “Expressiveness” demands that the version must be clear and follow without any grammatical mistakes or confused logic and sense. The translation should convey freely the content of the original source. “Elegance” means that the target translation should be similar to the source text in style(2005:96).

It means that the mood of the target translation should be almost same as the source language. By analyzing carefully, it’s clear to find there are many things in common between these two translation theories.

Firstly, “the first principle and second principle of Tytler are the same as the saying that translation should be faithful to the source language’s content and mood which is similar to the first principle of Yan Fu that emphasizes on the full and complete conveying of the original content”(Shi and Zhao 2005:97). Secondly, these two translation theories all focus on stressing the conveying the thought and content of the source language. And the translation should be available for people to read. “These two theories all emphasize on the conveying the complete transcript of the source text”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98).

It’s clear to see many differences between these two translation theories. Firstly, “they are different in thinking mode. Yan Fu does not make a clear and detailed explanation of his translation theory. Instead it relies on others’ explanation of his translation theory”(Xi 2009:41). Just as a saying, “Everything is clear without saying a word”. To better understand Yan Fu’s translation theory, we need to have the associated “relation and reflection about the great thought of our great ancestors. As we all know, “traditional Chinese mode of thinking is perceptual which tends to make the theory obscure and received. However, westerners attach great importance to rational thinking which makes the theory more concrete”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). The thinking mode of western is putting emphasize on the rational thinking and it emphasizes one’s rational understanding of the objects and people. Also, “it concentrates on the formal explanation of the objects and people”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). Therefore, the Tytler’s three translation principles all give respect to the object to the original text. And it repeatedly emphasizes on the importance of the original text and treat the original text as it start point. Apart from that, it also gives the literal explanation in a detailed way. In this way, after analyzing the different thinking between the western and eastern, we can say that Yan Fu do not give a literal explanation of his translation principle. Thus, we can say that his translation principle understands tacitly.

Secondly,“they are distinctly different in the importance. Since the three principles of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are presented, the importance of them has not been clearly classified”(Shi and Zhao 2005:99). One of the most important features of Yan Fu’s translation standard is its ambiguous semantic meaning. But in fact, “Yan Fu put emphasizes on the free translation and he proposed the principle of expressiveness to support the principle of faithfulness”(Xi 2009:41). “Since during the process of translation, except adhering to the expressiveness of the original text, the principle of faithfulness is the most difficult task to finish as to the conveying the original text’s mode and style”(Xi 2009:42). Therefore, we can draw a conclusion that principle of expressiveness is vital in his three principles and then is the expressiveness and the last is elegance. We should stick to the general principle of “original meaning”, only then can we have a reasonable logic to give an order on the importance of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “While Tytler thinks the order of his three principles is suitable, natural and could not be changed”(Wang 2008:71). Tytler proposes that we can make the conveying the faithful translation of the content at the expense to pursue the beautiful and fluent translation of the original text. “If we must give up one of principles he proposes, he advises that we can give up the least important principle namely the third principle”(Wang 2008:71). In other words, it is the first sacrifice of the original “style and effectiveness”. What's more, the style and mood of the original painting must be conveyed in order to convey a faithful picture of the sense.

Thirdly, “these two translation theories are different in the aspect of value orientation. The reason of this difference is due to the difference in the academic tradition of the emphasizing on the practice and theory level of the east and west”(Wang 2008:73). As is known to all, traditional Chinese translation paid more attention to practice rather than theory. The idea of translation should guide translation practice and should be of reference value. Yan Fu's “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was originally used to describe the difficulty of translation, not as a translation standard. He summed it up from his own practice and was concerned with practice rather than theory. However, western translator put practice and theory at the same level. Tytler's three principles are three levels of difficulties in detail, from the content loyal to distinct style. The reflected logical form is clear and obvious, which is significantly different from the implicit three translation principles of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “Western translation theories focus on detailed analysis, rational abstraction and theoretical deduction, and pay attention to logical organization, hierarchy and clarity of content in language expression”(Wang 2008:73). Influenced by traditional philosophy, western translation theories have a strong sense of subject and object throughout the whole process. Taking “expressiveness” as an example, Yan Fu's “expressiveness” and Tytler's third principle “translation should have all the ease of the original composition” have roughly the same meaning, but it’s obvious that they are different in thinking mode. “The Chinese adopt a thought pattern of intuition and understanding while the Englishmen follow a thought pattern of logic and reason, which makes a profound impact on each language”(Chen 2012:126). To this extent, the difference between understanding and rational thinking, as well as the degree of respect for the original text can be best reflected. At last, “these two translation theories are distinct in their motivation. Yan Fu’s criterion is purposeful which aims to attract the elite’s attention”(Wang 2008:73). The literature works that Yan Fu translated from the western world are mainly the great and famous work in the period of western capitalism. “He fully understand this mode of thinking is difficult for the Chinese intellectuals at that time so in this way, he need to make the translation principles easier for the Chinese intellectuals to absorb”(Chen 2012:127). In this regard, he chose this way of spreading his translation ideas which makes his translation principles purposeful. While Tylter just wants to make the whole translation system more systematic and cover content, form and text these three aspects. “His aim in his translation principle is simply trying to make his translation principle known by people and suggest a reasonable translation principle for translators to follow”(Xi 2009:42).

'''III Comparison between the book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'''''

'''1.From the aspect of arrangement of the content'''

Both of these two books all take the line of main translation workshops as its main chapter and then list its contribution to illustrate the content. “In the ''contemporary translation studies'', the author compare the translation group’s advantages and weakness and then give out his own understanding of the study of the translation group” (Li :2014 111).” In the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , the author lists the introduction of each translation workshop’s contribution and achievement to translation” (Liu and Deng 2010:54). While these two books’ difference in arrangement is that in the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' adds a case study to extend the readers’ inflection about the translation study listed in the book. Apart from that, this book also adds the discussion of case study, summary, further reading and discussion and research points into the book which are lack in the ''Contemporary Translation Studies''. These added parts to the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' helps extend the readers’ personal study and help the readers relate the theoretical knowledge with the translation practices.

'''2.From the content of the material'''

Both of the books all list the major contribution of each translation workshop but they differ in their focus and approach. In the ''contemporary Translation Theories'', the author will “analyze the advantage and weakness of the each translation workshop and then study the interrelationship between these translation workshops and at last describe the importance of each translation theory to the world and then pose its questions to the presupposition of each translation theory”(Li 2014:111). While in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'', the author firstly gives a brief introduction of the chapter content and then illustrates the introduction of each translation workshop in a detailed way. To make the book in a more precise way, the author also lists the summary, case study, discussion of study, further reading and discussion and research points in his book to make the readers to have a more comprehensive way of the book.

Apart from that, these two books all take a method of incorporating the theories and practices into the whole. In these two books, each book all include the material of theories and practices as its contents. For some important parts, the authors all give out their questions in the book. For example, in the ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', the author poses his question about Pound’s translation idea“ Was he talking about intuition, guessing the author’s original intention, or something else?(Gentzler 2001:20) After this question, the author gives out his opinions about Pound’s translation idea emphasizing the translator should both inside a tradition and outside any institutionalized logic. While this point of asking question in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' is more obvious. At the end of each chapter, the author will give several questions in his part of discussion and research points. Some of these questions can find the answers in the textbook while some will require the readers to do some additional researches.

'''Conclusion:'''

All in all, after this paper’s careful introduction of these two books and detailed analyzing of the translation theories, it hopes to help the readers to have better understanding of these two books. After the deep analysis of the two theories of Nida’s translation theories and the comparison between Tytler’s three translation principles and Yan Fu’s translation rules, it’s better for the readers to understand the basic rule of translation. And also after analyzing the two big translation theories, it’s clear to draw a conclusion that to be able to be a good translator, the translator should not only be skillful in adapting to two kinds of different language and also he needs to have the solid translation practice experiences. He needs to have the complete transcript of the original text by conveying the content of the original text, but also he should imitate the style and mood of the original text.

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Wang Chenjie. “A Systematic Comparison between Yan Fu's Theory of Faithfulness, Fluency, and Expressiveness and Tytler's Three General Rules of Translation.” Journal of Ningbo Institute of Education 1 (2008):70-73. CNKI. Web. 10 Nov. 2019

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='''The Emergence of Translation and Interpretation'''=

==On The Influences of Eugene Nida’s Translation Theory on Chinese Translation Development 蒋凤仪 Jiang Fengyi 202070080636 英语口译==
<center>蒋凤仪 Jiang Fengyi 202070080636</center>

===Abstract===

Dr. Eugene Nida is an outstanding western translation theorist, and as one of the representatives of linguistic translation theory, his translation theory involves various aspects of translation, including the definition, principles and process of translation, exerting profound influences on western countries and Asian countries, especially China. Since the 1980s, Nida’s translation theory entered China, and has received profound attention and research from a wide range of Chinese translation scholars. This paper, taking Chinese Translators Journal as the object, aims to analyze the influence of his translation theory on the Chinese translation field by investigating the number and content of papers related to Nida from the 1980s to the present.

===Keywords===

Nida; Translation theory; Influence; Chinese translation studies

===摘要===

尤金·奈达博士是一位西方杰出的翻译理论家，作为语言学翻译理论派的代表人物之一，其翻译理论涉及翻译的各个方面，包括翻译的定义、原则和过程等，对西方国家及亚洲国家，尤其是中国影响深远。自20世纪80年代奈达翻译思想进入中国，得到了中国翻译学者的广泛关注和研究，本文以权威杂志《中国翻译》为调查目标，对其从20世纪80年代至今的奈达相关论文的数量和内容进行解读，并分析其翻译理论对于中国翻译研究的发展所带来的影响。

===关键词===

奈达；翻译理论；影响；中国翻译研究

===Introduction===

Eugene Nida (1914-2011) is one of the most famous translation theorists of our time. Based on biblical translation research, he has created his own unique translation theory and published many well-known books such as The Scientific Exploration of Translation, Translation Theory and Practice, Language, Culture and Translating, etc. In his research, he has proposed far-reaching translation theories like “dynamic equivalence” and “reader’s response theory”, which have been popular and influential in the world till now.

Unlike western translators, Chinese translators have devoted themselves to translation practices but neglected to compile systematic and comprehensive theories. “Although there are dedicated translators who have produced many excellent translation works, the influential theories and researches lag behind.” (Tu & Xiao 2000: 3) After the proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance”, Yan Fu’s translation theory has dominated Chinese translation theories for more than one hundred years, which deprived the diversity of translation studies in China.

In the 1980s, Nida’s theory was introduced to China and has soon been widely studied and discussed by Chinese scholars. Among them Tan Zaixi and Lao Long are the representatives, compiling translated version of Nida’s works and introduced his translation theory to China. The name Nida is deeply engraved on the history of Chinese translation, and Chinese scholar Chen Hongwei even defined it as “Nida Phenomenon

Founded in 1980, Chinese Translators Journal, is an academic journal supported by China Foreign Languages Publishing Administration. Under the charge of the Translators Association of China, it not only serves as the conference journal of the association, but also the window for translation workers to exchange their views on translation and share the fruits of their translation studies.

As a national-level core academic journal, it represents the authority in the Chinese translation field. Through publishing papers on this journal, Chinese scholars share the latest and hottest issues around translation, and the journal sets up columns such as Translation Research, Translation Theory and Strategy for scholars to discuss and study translation theories at home and abroad, which make it an excellent object to have a glimpse at the trend and development of Chinese translation studies.

This chapter takes the Chinese Translators Journal as the object of investigation, going through all the Nida-related papers published in the journal from 1980 to the present, and divides them into four stages according to time. By analyzing the number and content of the papers in each stage, it aims to figure out the acceptance and application of Nida’s theory by Chinese scholars and have a clear picture of the influence of Nida’s translation theory on the development of Chinese translation studies.

===1. Nida and his Translation Theory===

The name Eugene Nida is well known in the history of world translation and even in the world linguistic circles. During his life, he has conducted research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, communication tools, etc. He worked on the translation of The Bible, published piles of papers, and wrote numerous books to share his views on translation, left the world with precious translation theory treasure.

Nida was born in November 1914 in Oklahoma, United States, and moved to California with his parents when he was five years old. He was raised as a Christian and aspired to be a missionary. After graduating summa cum laude in Latin, German, and French, Nida went on to the University of Michigan, where he earned a master’s degree in 1939 and a doctorate in linguistics in 1943, under the supervision of a distinguished professor. In the same year, he worked for the American Bible Society, and after 1946 he became executive secretary of The Bible Translation Department. It was Nida’s serving this base for a long time that made his translation ideas deeply marked with his own uniqueness and established his own banner in the western translation theory. (Tan 1999: Preface)

According to Tan Zaixi's book, Nida’s translation theory has mainly gone through three different stages: (1) the stage of descriptive language, (2) the stage of communication theory, and (3) the stage of social symbols. (Tan 1999: Preface XV).

Devoted himself to the translation of The Bible, he has summarized his experience and theories in some major works like The Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating (1959), Toward a Science of Translating (1964), and The Theory and Practice of Translation(1969), which are all of great significance for the world translation study. His major translation theory could be summarized as followed:

1) Nida believed that “translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is an art”. (Nida & Taber 1969: Preface) By science, Nida meant to treat the problems of translating with a scientific orientation to linguistic structures, semantics analysis, and information theory. As there were different types of studies at that time, he tempted to provide an essentially descriptive approach to the translation process, and “the fundamental thrust is linguistics, as it must be in any descriptive analysis of the relationship between the corresponding message in different languages.”(Nida 1964: 8) This point of view has a significant influence on the western world though in his later years Nida has transformed this idea.

2) Nida considered the study of translation as a study of communication by applying the theory of communication and information. Like communication, there are source, message and receptor in translation, and if the receptor could not understand the message, the communication is not accessible, so if the readers could not understand the meaning of the translated text, the translation could not be regarded as a success. (Nida 1964: chapter 6)

One should consider the amount of the message and the decoder channel to make sure that the message could be transferred by the decoder channel. A really successful translation, judged in terms of the response of the audience for which it is designed, must provide a challenge as well as information. In the process of translating, the translator should make a full analysis of the source language text from various aspects, such as the author, the message, the receptor and so on. (Nida 1964: chapter 6)

3) One of the well-known theories created by Nida is the “dynamic equivalence”, which was renamed “functional equivalence” later on. He claimed that there were fundamentally two types of equivalence: one of which may be called formal and another which is primarily dynamic. “One way of defining a dynamic translation is to describe it as the closest naturally equivalent to the source language message. (Nida 1964: 163)”

Under this theory, a translator should not only seek to produce something relatively equivalent in the source language but also produce in the ultimate readers a response similar to that of the original language. A good translation should meet the following requirements: (1) making sense, (2) conveying the spirit and manner of the original, (3) having a natural and easy form of expression, and (4) producing a similar response. (Nida 1964: 164)

4) Nida has also put forwards a four-step procedure in the translation process: analysis, transfer, restructuring, and testing. The most complicated and fundamental part is analysis, especially the analysis of meaning. He focused on the study of grammatical meaning, which concerned the relationship with the words and the kernel sentence, referential meaning, and connotative meaning. He also mentioned that the translators need not to follow this order strictly, as some procedures could happen at the same time. (Nida 1964)

In addition to these theories, Nida also focuses on semantic analysis and rhetorical research in his later time. Although Nida’s theory has created a new perspective on language and culture and have been widely influenced in the world, it does not mean that his theories are perfect, as Tan Zaixi points out that “his theories focus too much on solving the problem of communicativeness and intelligibility of translations, thus limiting their scope of application.”（Tan 1999: Preface XXIV）

Besides, Nida once proposed in his book that translation is a science, but later he changed this claim, and Nida’s early view of translation is very different from his later view of translation, he even questioned whether translation needs to be guided by translation theory in his reply to Zhang Jinghao’s letter. (Zhang 2000: 5)

Throughout his life, Nida has a tremendous contribution to The Bible translation, yielding fruitful achievements in translation theory, and has opened up new perspectives for the field of translation such as linguistics, social semiotics, etc. Even though his translation theory is not perfect, and with its own limitations, but it remains a shining jewel in the western translation theory.

===2. The Studies of Nida’s theory in China===

As soon as the introduction of Nida’s theory began in the 1980s, his new perspectives and valuable guidance for translating practice quickly captured the eyes of the Chinese scholars and has hit the Chinese translation field on a large scale, which could be reflected from the translation studies of Chinese scholars. Compared with other materials, journals have a shorter issuance cycle so as to be more time-sensitive and could quickly respond to the latest developments in the academic world.

As the authoritative magazine in the field of Chinese translation, Chinese Translators Journal records the research dynamics of Chinese translators and scholars, and profoundly demonstrates the understanding, research, and application of Nida’s translation theory by Chinese scholars. By examining the number and content of relevant papers on Chinese Translators Journal from the 1980s to the present, this chapter aims to analyze the papers around Nida and his theory in 10-year periods to figure out the overall picture of the studies of Nida in China.

====2.1 The First Stage: Beginning Stage====

The first 10-year was from 1980 to 1989: The number of papers focusing on Nida and his theory during this time was 13. During this time, the contents of most papers focus on introductions of Nida and his theory. In 1982, Professor Tan Xizai published his paper Translation is a science—Review on Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating, which introduced Nida’s book----Toward a Science of Translating and some of his major theories like basic principles on translation, the function of translation, and the analysis of meaning, marked as the beginning of the studies of Nida’s translation in China. (Tan 1982: 4-11)

Some scholars joined him to have more introductions on Nida and his theories. Lao Long introduced the book On Translation written by Nida and Chinese translator Jin Di, which is a practice combing Nida’s theories with the Chinese translation practice (Lao 1987: 56-57), and Shi Heping From one Language to Another (Shi 1987:42-44). Moreover, scholars also attempted to apply Nida’s theory to solve other translation problems of free translation and literal translation, such as Lao Long. He believed that the equivalence of form and function raised by Nida is the key point to the free translation and literal translation, and the translators must cover the two aspects: form and function to achieve the closest natural equivalent (Lao 1989: 3-6).

Among all those papers, there were also voices of criticism but the number of those were still few. Although Mr. Lao was among the first to introduce Nida’s theory, he published a paper to share his views after reading what Tan Xizai translated and edited from Nida’s Toward a Science of Translating. He spoke highly of Tan’s work, meanwhile, he reminded the translators in China that some of the western theories might not be applicable in China (Lao 1987: 56-57), such as the idea of kernel sentence. Qian Linsheng also indicated in his paper that it might not be appropriate to set the reader’s response as the standard of the translation (Qian 1988: 42-44)

====2.2 The Second Stage: Surging Stage====

The second 10-year went from 1990 to 1999. The number of papers during that period was 22. This period could be regarded as a booming stage of the introduction of Nida’s theory in China, not only owing to the mounting numbers but also the diversity of the research and studies.

1) The scholars continued to have a further introduction of Nida’s theory, and at the same time, they compared Nida’s theory with other scholars in a large amount. As Nida has always devoted himself to the compiling of his works, the scholars in China have also spared no effort to follow his theories. Sun Yu has made a full introduction of the book Language, Culture and Translating, and considered the views in this book were of great reference meaning to Chinese translators (Sun 1994: 47-49).

Moreover, more scholars tried to make comparisons between Nida and other western translators. Liao Qiyi studied the concept of Equivalence in translation equivalence between Nida’ “closest natural” and “dynamic equivalent” and Catford’s “textual equivalence”, and had analyses in his paper, demonstrating that the translation equivalence is a key concept in the translation (Liao 1994: 35-37). Lin Kenan had an overall comparison between Nida and Newmark to find out the similarities and differences of their theories, aiming to give some references for the Chinese scholars (Lin 1992:2-5).

2) There were still a group of scholars, including Lin Kenan (Lin 1996:7-10+17), Xi Zhaoyan (Xi 1996: 3-6), and Heng Xiaojun & Wang Chengzhi (Heng & Wang 1995: 18-20), tried to employ Nida’s theory to solve the translation difficulties, and the concept of “translation equivalence” was the major issue, for almost all those scholars chose it as their theoretical support. Two of the representatives was Heng Xiaojun and Wang Chengzhi, who, in their paper, took Nida’s dynamic equivalence into compiling a bilingual dictionary but found out it might not work.

3) With studies went further, more and more scholars recognized that even though Nida’s theory had provided ingenious perspectives for translation, it still had its own shortcomings. Scholars like Huang Bangjie (Huang 1996: 40-42+46) and Wang Shoureng directly pointed out their critics towards the incompetence of the application of Nida’s theory in Chinese-English translation. Yang Xiaorong reflected in her paper that did the translators in China really understand Nida and should the translation field make some adjustments towards the study of his theories (Wang 1992: 45-48).

====2.3 The third Stage: Transitioning Stage====

The third period was from 2000 to 2009. The number of papers during that period was 20. During this transition time, though the number of papers remained high, the introductive papers of Nida at this period slumped, instead the scholars applied his theory to discuss the hotspot issues in China during that time, such as the possibility of setting the discipline of “ translatology” for translation studies. Unlike the previous focus, Nida’s theory only, more and more scholars made comparisons between Nida at other major theorists during this period, among which the key concept has transferred from equivalence to function. In addition, scholars continued to retrospect upon the application of Nida’s theory in China.

1) Li Tianxin mentioned the transformation of Nida’s thoughts in the possibility of whether translation could be a science to support her idea that translation could never be considered as a science (Li 2000: 8-10). Lv Jun regarded Nida’s theory as structuralism and made a review of Nida’s theory, together with other major translation theories, to list the difficulties and major tasks that Chinese scholars faced when building a discipline of translatology (Lv 2001: 8-11.).

2) As Halliday’s functional grammar theory and other western theories came to China, more and more scholars compared those theories with Nida’s “functional equivalence” to have a better understanding of these translation theories, Among who Zhang Meifang & Qian Hong was the representatives. She listed Nida’s functional equivalence, Holmes’s function-oriented studies, Halliday’s functional grammar theory, and functionalism from German to make analyses between those theories and figure out the meaning of function in each of these theories (Zhang & Qian 2007: 10-16+93.).

3) As more and more western theories came to China and have been applied by the translators, a group of translators reflected upon the progress but also pointed out the problems, however, at that time, Nida and his theories were never a single subject but were included in all the western theories. Lin Kenan, based on four M.A. degree theses, revealed the prevailing problems when scholars and M.A. students applicating the overseas translation theories, one of which was Nida’s dynamic equivalence and gave some measure to improve the situation (Lin 2003: 46). Zhang Jinghao, taking Nida’s theories as an example, illustrated that most the Chinese scholars have not really understood the essence of those western theories because of some reason like most of the scholars only read the translated version and accepted those theories without questioning (Zhang 2006: 59-61).

====2.4 The Fourth Stage: Falling Stage====

The fourth period was from 2010 to 2019. The number of papers during that period is 8. The numbers clearly showed that Nida was not the main focus of the translation studies in China this time. Papers at that time still covered Nida’s major theories like equivalence like Cai Lijian (Cai 2015: 81-87) and Liu Runze & Wei Xiangqing & Zhao Wenjing (Li & Wei & Zhao 2015: 18-24+127), but the more scholars stretched to some theories that have been neglected in the early periods. Li Shaoyan quoted Nida’s social dialects to explain why interpreters should keep the culture in mind when working (Li 2011: 41-44), and both Wang Aiqin (Wang 2012: 98-102) and Wang Zhaoyuan (Wang 2012: 113-116) applied Nida’s translation procedures to form their own mode of translation procedures.

Besides translation studies, as this master of translation passed away in 2011, there was a piece of an obituary together with article written by Ye Zinan (Ye 2011: 86-87) to memorize him, which showed the great grief from the Chinese scholars for the loss of Nida and also the significance Nida was for the translation studies in China. The last Nida-related paper on Chinese Translator’s journal remained in 2015. Although Chinese Translator’s journal could not represent the whole scope of translation study in China, it exactly showed that the research on Nida is no longer mainstream for Chinese translators.

====Summary====

According to the above number and content of journals, in general, Nida’s theory in China has gone through the process of translation and introduction of works, study and comparison, and retrospection and criticism. Since the 1980s when Tan Zaixi first published Nida's theory in China Translation, it has led to a Nida fever, and translators not only introduced Nida’s theory to China in a large scale but also try to apply Nida’s theory to solve Chinese translation problems, such as the debate between free translation and literal translation.

As the study went further, more and more criticism was formed upon the shortcomings of his theory, and then a group of scholars made retrospections on the study of Nida in China at the same time argued that Chinese scholars should have a dialectical view towards Nida’s theory, to learn its merits and abandon those incompatible. The study of Nida reached its climax in 1990-1999, for the entry of other Western translation theories distracted Chinese scholars from their research, which was also the reason why a large group of scholars compared Nida’ theory with other translators’ in order to have a deeper understanding of their theories and provide a better reference for Chinese translation.

Entering the 21 Century, the passion for Nida’s theory has been cool down, only a few theories are still being discussed. Among all Nida’s theoretical system, the concepts of dynamic equivalence, function, and translation procedure have been discussed and studied the most and have the greatest influence on Chinese translation scholars.

===3. The Influences of Nida’s Theory in China===

As a major figure in the translation field, Nida is regarded as one of the most influential theorists in the translation field. His translation theory was the first and most systematically western theory that was introduced and studied in China, which could be indicated from the number and content of the papers on Chinese Translators Journal from the 1980s till the present.

====3.1 The Studies of Translation in China before the Introduction of Nida’s Theory====

The large-scale translation activities in China originated in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The first person who formed a theory in China was the Buddhist master Dao An (312-385), who was enlightened by the process of his translating of Buddhist scriptures and proposed the theory of “Five Losses and Three Difficulties”, which was the beginning of Chinese translation theory. In his theory, he raised the question of “Wen” (text) and “Zhi” (form), which is essentially the comparison of free translation and literal translation. The “Five Losses” covered aspects like the source language, syntax and style of the original text, and later translation scholars also followed his path to have more researches on separate perspectives but never formed a standard for the evaluation of the translation. (Liu 1994(04): 4-5)

It was not until Yan Fu put forward the translation standard of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” that established a translation standard for Chinese translators. After Yan Fu put forward his concept, there were a large number of supporters. However, there were also many criticisms. Moreover, some translators gave new meanings to this theory and form their own theory, such as Liu Zhongde’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness”, and many others tried to put aside Yan Fu’s theory and created their own new translation theory, such as Lin Yutang’s “Faithfulness, Fluency, and Beauty” (1933).

However, it is not difficult to recognize that these theories were still under the framework of Yan Fu’s theory. While the dispute between free translation and literal translation continued among the scholars, they still failed to provide practical criteria for judging translation in China. It was right at the time when Nida’s translation theory was spread into China (Liu 1994: 6-8).

====3.2 The Influences on Chinese Translation Studies After the Introduction of Nida’s Theory====

Based on the stagnant situation of the Chinese translation theory at that time, Nida brought a new light to the field of Chinese translation, leading the trend of studying western translation theories in China, and triggering Chinese scholars to critical mind towards western translation theories.

=====3.2.1 It brought new perspectives for translation theory in China.=====

In contrast with the booming studies in translation studies in the West in the 1960s to 1970s, the development of translation studies in China almost paused in the 1950s because of some social unrest, which has been stagnating for at least 20 years. What’s more, translators have stayed in the dispute between free translation and literal translation without producing a systematic and thorough interpretation. Since Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was proposed, it has dominated Chinese translation theory for a long time. The reason why Yan Fu’s theory has been passed down for so many years is that there is no more scientific and acceptable theory to take his place for the time being. (Tu & Xiao: 2000:9)

Hence, there was an urgent demand for a breakthrough in translation studies. His theory on translation and the theoretical understanding of translation have brought Chinese translators brand perspectives, such as functional equivalence and readers’ response, which have never been fully covered by Chinese scholars, and opened a window for Chinese scholars to study the language from the language itself instead of only translation such as linguistics and social symbols.

In addition, Nida’s theory set specific standards for the evaluation of the translation. By studying, learning, and applying Nida’s theory, Chinese scholars have also produced their own corresponding theoretical structures, enriching the theories of Chinese scholars themselves. based on Nida’s theory, Wang Zhaoyuan had made his own translation procedures, which contains six steps: prepare, translate, examine the content, examine the style, examine the form and proofread (Wang 2012: 113-116).

=====3.2.2 It led the trend of studying western translation theories.=====

Since the shortcomings and problems of the traditional translation theories in China appeared, the translators in China were also desperate to draw on some helpful theoretical elements from the achievements of the west in this field. Among them, Nida’s theory was a critical one. Since the introduction of Nida’s theory into China, various scholars have conducted extensive discussions and studies. With Nida as a precedent, more and more Chinese scholars recognized the advancement of western theories and introduced other foreign translation theories.

Chen Hongwei scanned the papers of Chinese Translation from 1980 to 2000 in all aspects and divided them into four stages. In addition to the introduction of Nida's theory, the theories of five translators were introduced in the first stage (1980-1984), the writings and ideas of 20 foreign translators were introduced in the second stage (1985-1989), the third stage introduced the theories of 13 The theories of translators were introduced in the first stage (1980-1984), the writings and ideas of 20 foreign translators were introduced in the second stage (1985-1989), 13 translators were introduced in the third stage, and the paths and achievements of 17 translators were introduced in the fourth stage.

While introducing the theories of other translators, a large number of scholars have compared them with Nida’s translation theories, and a large number of Western theories have entered China, enlivening the academic atmosphere of translation theories and enriching the theoretical foundation of the Chinese translation study.

=====3.2.3 It liberated the minds of Chinese scholars to have a critical mind towards the western translation theories.=====

After the introduction of Nida’s theory, various translation scholars were attracted to his theory and carried out extensive studies, and almost all of them agreed with his unique perspectives. However, Chinese scholars gradually realize the shortcomings of Nida’s theory, and since his theory was based on biblical translation, which bore religious and dissemination elements, and was different from the area of research among Chinese translation scholars, so some of his theory was not applicable to Chinese translation.

The reflection on Nida’s theory has also prompted more Chinese scholars to reflect on the introduction and application of other western theories, realizing that Chinese and Western theoretical systems are different and that they need to adopt a critical attitude, taking the essence and the dross. In his paper, Zhang Jinghao proposed that it is necessary to look at foreign translation theories calmly and objectively, and at the same time to return to the proper path of translation research in China, that is, to study Chinese traditions and experiences mainly, supplemented by foreign theories, which is the proper path that translation theory research in China should return to (Zhang 2006: 61).

Moreover, it has encouraged Chinese scholars to question the authority. In the later studies, it is obvious to recognize that even though scholars compare Nida’s theory with other theories and introduce more western translation theories, scholars no longer resemble the one-sided attitude they had before, but all try to explore foreign theories from multiple perspectives of a critical point of view, like positive and negative sides and promote the translation study in China to a more stable and mature path.

===Conclusion===
From the analysis of Chinese Translators Journal, it can be seen that Nida’s theory has entered China through three stages: translation and introduction of works, study, and comparison, and retrospection and criticism, and the number of Nida-related has experienced three processes: surging, transition and falling. In terms of time, the discussion was most enthusiastic from the 1980s to the beginning of the 21st century, and the important translation concepts under study included: functional equivalence, readers’ response, and the procedure of translation, which had a significant influence on Chinese translation scholars.

Throughout the history of translation in China, Chinese translators emphasize practice but not the guiding theory, and even though a small number of translators have summarized certain theoretical experiences, they have not been able to form a complete set of influential theories. Nida’s theory was novel in perspective, excelling in guiding the translation of The Bible, and since the publication of The Theory and Practice of Translation, his theoretical achievements have enjoyed a worldwide reputation in translation, which could provide new vitalism for Chinese translation study. This is why Nida’s theory has triggered such a strong impact after entering China, which can also be seen from the number of relevant papers in the Chinese Translators Journal.

However, in the later stage, Chinese scholars gradually discovered the incompatibility between Nida’s theory and the actual situation of Chinese translation and began to substantially criticize Nida’s theory.

At the same time, some scholars proposed to look at Nida's theory calmly and objectively and finally the scholars realized that it is necessary to adopt an objective attitude towards foreign translation theories, focusing on Chinese translation experiences and practices, and some scholars extracted the merits from Nida’s theories and created their own theoretical systems, which is a new and mature path for the Chinese translation study.

Nida’s theory of translation has opened up a new perspective for Chinese translation and propelled Chinese translation to step on a new and correct path. Although Chinese translation scholars have taken some detours in the middle of the process, they have gradually discovered the path that Chinese translation itself should take in the midst of groping, which is the greatest contribution Nida’s theory has to Chinese translation studies.

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==Translation of Chinese Neologisms from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Translation Theory-解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译==
<center>解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译</center>

===Abstract===

With the continuous enhancement of China's overall national strength and international influence, Chinese is playing an increasingly important role in communications and exchanges among countries all over the world. An increasing number of Chinese neologisms are used to express and describe the status quo. These neologisms invigorate Chinese culture, however, meanwhile, they make it harder for the world to understand Chinese.

==A Study on the History of Interpretation and the Prospect of Interpretation in China 雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi 202070080639 英语口译==

<center>雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi 202070080639</center>

===Abstract===
This paper mainly outlines the development history of interpretation, briefly compares the development history of interpretation in China and the West and their respective development characteristics, and compares the interpretation research in the West with the late start of interpretation research in China, and the development history of interpretation research in China in the past 40 years of reform and opening up, mainly through four stages: the "budding period" from the late 1970s to the late 1980s, the "initial development period" in the 1990s, the "emerging period" in the first decade of the 21st century, and the "diversified development period" in the second decade of the 21st century.Finally reviewed the current state of development and future prospects of interpretation research in China.

===Key Words===
Interpretation, historical development, interpretation studies, development trends

===摘要===
本文主要概述了口译的发展历史，简要对比中西方口译发展历程和各自的发展特点，对比西方的口译研究，中国对口译的研究起步较晚，在改革开放40年来中国口译研究的发展历程，主要经历四个阶段：20世纪70年代末到80年代末的“萌芽期”、20世纪90年代的“初步发展期”、21世纪头十年的“新兴期”、21世纪第二个十年进行中的“多元发展期”，最后就目前中国口译研究的发展现状和未来展望进行评析。

===关键词===
口译，历史发展，口译研究，发展趋势

===1.Introduction===

The expression of the meaning of one language through another language is called translation. There are two main forms of translation, namely, interpretation and translation. Interpretation can be between two different national languages, or between a standard language and a dialect or between a dialect and another dialect.

Interpreting has a long history and is one of the oldest professions of human beings. In primitive societies, primitive tribal groups ruled separately.with the development of history, this self-enclosed form of society hindered the economic and cultural progress of human beings, so the tribes had the desire and need to cross the frontiers and develop outward into the countryside for trade and cultural exchange. The language barrier became the biggest obstacle to this cross-ethnic communication. Interpretation as a language intermediary can make people realize the desire of economic and cultural communication with the outside world. Thus,bilingual or multilingual interpretation is born.Human interpretation activities have also recorded the political, economic, military, cultural, scientific and technological, health and educational interactions between people of all races in the world over the centuries. All the major events in human history have been marked by interpretation. In the history of human development, interpretation activities have become the lubricant that drives the wheels of human society to roll. With the development of the times, people's communication has become deeper and deeper, and the concept of "global village" has gradually come to the fore, so the status of interpretation has become extremely important. The establishment of the United Nations, especially the Geneva International Conference Interpreters Association, has brought its status to an unprecedented level. At the same time, interpretation has also entered the universities as a discipline, and its development has become increasingly rapid and perfect.As a country that attaches importance to international friendship and multilateral trade, China has been paying more attention to interpretation and cultivating interpretation talents, and the research on interpretation in China has been increasing year by year, and China will continue to pay attention to the development and progress of interpretation in the future, and the overall development will show a good and steady rise.

Interpreting has a long history and is one of the oldest professions of human beings. In primitive societies, primitive tribal groups ruled separately.with the development of history, this self-enclosed form of society hindered the economic and cultural progress of human beings, so the tribes had the desire and need to cross the frontiers and develop outward into the countryside for trade and cultural exchange. The language barrier became the biggest obstacle to this cross-ethnic communication. Interpretation as a language intermediary can make people realize the desire of economic and cultural communication with the outside world. Thus,bilingual or multilingual interpretation is born.Human interpretation activities have also recorded the political, economic, military, cultural, scientific and technological, health and educational interactions between people of all races in the world over the centuries. All the major events in human history have been marked by interpretation. In the history of human development, interpretation activities have become the lubricant that drives the wheels of human society to roll. With the development of the times, people's communication has become deeper and deeper, and the concept of "global village" has gradually come to the fore, so the status of interpretation has become extremely important. The establishment of the United Nations, especially the Geneva International Conference Interpreters Association, has brought its status to an unprecedented level. At the same time, interpretation has also entered the universities as a discipline, and its development has become increasingly rapid and perfect.As a country that attaches importance to international friendship and multilateral trade, China has been paying more attention to interpretation and cultivating interpretation talents, and the research on interpretation in China has been increasing year by year, and China will continue to pay attention to the development and progress of interpretation in the future, and the overall development will show a good and steady rise.[Dear Lei,this paragraph is too long,and please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 01:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia

===2.The overall development and overview of the Interpretation===

Language interpreting is known to date back to Ancient Egypt during the 3rd millennium B.C. The first records of interpreting were in the form of Egyptian low-relief sculptures in a prince’s tomb that made reference to an interpreter supervisor.In ancient China as early as the Spring and Autumn period there was the work of translation, at that time was called "tongue man", while we in the "Book of Rites - King's system" “五方之民，言语不通，嗜欲不同，达其志，通其欲。东方曰寄，南方曰象，西方曰狄鞮，北方曰译。”And "The Rites of Zhou - Autumn Officials - Preface Official" (Jia Gongyan, a great scribe and linguist of Tang Dynasty)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book.

Oral communication preceded the emergence of writing, so the work of interpretation also preceded that of translation, so the history of interpretation as a social phenomenon or social activity can be traced back to a long time ago. However, interpretation as an internationally recognized profession began at the end of World War I at the Paris Peace Conference. Although there have been interpreters in Western countries for hundreds of years, most of them are temporary part-time interpreters. It was at the beginning of the 20th century that interpreting was recognized as a formal profession internationally. In 1919, after the end of World War I, the organizers of the Paris Peace Conference recruited a large number of full-time interpreters who worked as official interpreters for the Paris Peace Conference as 'successive interpreters. '(or "consecutive translators," as they were called). "The founders of the Paris Peace Conference ended the agency.

Oral communication preceded the emergence of writing, so the work of interpretation also preceded that of translation, so the history of interpretation as a social phenomenon or social activity can be traced back to a long time ago. However, interpretation as an internationally recognized profession began at the end of World War I at the Paris Peace Conference. Although there have been interpreters in Western countries for hundreds of years, most of them are part-time interpreters. It was at the beginning of the 20th century that interpreting was recognized as a formal profession internationally. In 1919, after the end of World War I, the organizers of the Paris Peace Conference recruited a large number of full-time interpreters who worked as official interpreters for the Paris Peace Conference as 'successive interpreters. '(or "consecutive translators," as they were called). "The founders of the Paris Peace Conference ended the agency.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia

From then on, the professional nature of interpreting was recognized, and the training of basic methods and skills of interpreting began to be emphasized. After the end of the Second World War, the Nuremberg War Criminals Trial adopted the method of near-simultaneous interpretation of the original and translated languages. The emergence of new forms of interpretation, marked by "simultaneous interpretation", made people look at the uniqueness of the profession of senior interpreters. With the creation of the United Nations and the emergence of various global and regional organizations, international interactions have become more frequent, and a vivid modern drama has been performed on the multilateral and bilateral stages of the world, in which interpreters have played a unique role.

From then on, the professional nature of interpreting was recognized, and the training of basic methods and skills of interpreting began to be emphasized. After the end of the World War Two, the Nuremberg War Criminals Trial adopted the method of near-simultaneous interpretation of the original and translated languages. The emergence of new forms of interpretation, marked by "simultaneous interpretation", made people look at the uniqueness of the profession of senior interpreters. With the creation of the United Nations and the emergence of various global and regional organizations, international interactions have become more frequent, and a vivid modern drama has been performed on the multilateral and bilateral stages of the world, in which interpreters have played a unique role.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia

The status of professional international conference interpreters is getting higher and higher, the United Nations has established a special translation agency, and the study of its principles and methods by the International Association of Senior Interpreters has also entered higher education institutions. For over half a century, senior interpreters have been sought after by international agencies, governments, and various cross-cultural institutions and organizations. Professional interpreters have become a highly respected and noble profession, especially senior international conference interpreters, who are both intelligent linguists and knowledgeable international diplomats.

The status of professional international conference interpreters is getting higher and higher, the United Nations has established a special translation agency, and the study of its principles and methods by the International Association of Senior Interpreters has also entered higher education institutions. For over half a century, senior interpreters have been looked for by international agencies, governments, and various cross-cultural institutions and organizations. Professional interpreters have become a highly respected and noble profession, especially senior international conference interpreters, who are both intelligent linguists and knowledgeable international diplomats. --[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia

However, the history of formal interpreting that we now see commonly used in various international conferences and negotiations is not very long. The first large-scale use of conference interpretation in history was at the end of World War I. The Paris Peace Conference held in 1919 was the first large-scale official use of consecutive interpretation in history.The first large-scale use of simultaneous interpretation in history was at the end of World War II.Before that, consecutive interpretation was commonly used at international conferences because the working languages were mostly limited to French and English, and the science and technology required for simultaneous interpretation equipment had not yet been developed. It was not until 1947, when the trial of Nazi war criminals was held in Nuremberg, Germany, where four languages were used simultaneously: German, English, French and Russian, that the use of simultaneous interpretation began to be experimented with in order to improve the efficiency of the court. Initially, the method used was that after a speech, different interpreters simultaneously translated the speech into the other three languages and transmitted it through headphones to the ears of different listeners. Of course, this was still in fact consecutive interpretation.

However, the history of formal interpreting that we now see commonly used in various international conferences and negotiations is not very long. The first large-scale use of conference interpretation in history was at the end of World War I. The Paris Peace Conference held in 1919 was the first large-scale official use of consecutive interpretation in history.The first large-scale use of simultaneous interpretation in history was at the end of World War II.Before that, consecutive interpretation was commonly used at international conferences because the working languages were mostly limited to French and English, and the science and technology required for simultaneous interpretation equipment had not yet been developed. It was not until 1947, when the trial of Nazi war criminals was held in Nuremberg, Germany, where four languages were used simultaneously: German, English, French and Russian, that the use of simultaneous interpretation began to be experimented with in order to improve the efficiency of the court. Initially, the method used was that after a speech, different interpreters simultaneously translated the speech into the other three languages and transmitted it through headphones to the ears of different listeners. Of course, this was still in fact consecutive interpretation.[too long]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia

Later, further experiments were conducted with simultaneous interpretation of speeches, which greatly improved the efficiency and thus began to be used on a large scale, which led to the first real simultaneous interpretation in history.Now,with the development of science and technology, there were more equipment helping the work of interpreting.It is the golden age of the interpreting profession.

====2.1 The development of the Interpretation in west====

Interpreting is ancient. Maybe as ancient as languages or mankind. Interestingly enough there are references to interpreters in many different historical sources.
Cicero in ancient Rome spoke highly of his interpreter and the services the interpreter did for him. In the Ottoman empire interpreters were called dragoman and their role was not just interpreting but also acting as guides, go-betweens and door-openers to the Ottoman empire. The Ottoman empire also had sworn court interpreters, as can be seen from old court records from the Ottoman empire. Update December 6, 2010: Another interesting post on dragomans and the history of interpreting by Unprofessional Translations
There were also sworn court interpreters in Spain in the 16th Century. And interpreters were also used by the conquistadors to communicate with the indigenous people in the Americas. Although the training those interpreters received were perhaps not to be envied. Natives were brought back to Spain where they worked as slaves and learnt the language. If they were judged good enough they were brought back to their origins to act as interpreters.

Cicero in ancient Rome spoke highly of his interpreter and the services the interpreter did for him. In the Ottoman empire interpreters were called dragoman and their roles were not just interpreting but also acting as guides, go-betweens and door-openers to the Ottoman empire. The Ottoman empire also had sworn court interpreters, as can be seen from old court records from the Ottoman empire. Update December 6, 2010: Another interesting post on dragomans and the history of interpreting by Unprofessional Translations
There were also sworn court interpreters in Spain in the 16th Century. And interpreters were also used by the conquistadors to communicate with the indigenous people in the Americas. Although the training those interpreters received were perhaps not to be envied. Natives were brought back to Spain where they worked as slaves and learnt the language. If they were judged good enough they were brought back to their origins to act as interpreters.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia

Interpreters continued to be employed throughout the middle Ages. Monks of many different nationalities interpret in monasteries; preachers of foreign lands interpret in councils, as well as some individuals interpreting on business expeditions, military incursions and diplomatic meetings.During the Age of Discovery,the use of new and different languages had greatly changed the way we see interpretation today. Christopher Columbus in his first voyage noted that his Arabic and Hebrew-speaking interpreters we not very helpful in communicating with the Indians. After this voyage he decided to capture some Native Americans and teach them Spanish so they could help him as interpreters on his next expedition.

Interpreters continued to be employed throughout the middle Ages. Monks of many different nationalities interpreted in monasteries; preachers of foreign lands ,councils, and on business expeditions, military incursions as well as diplomatic meetings.During the Age of Discovery,the use of new and different languages had greatly changed the way we see interpretation today. Christopher Columbus in his first voyage noted that his Arabic and Hebrew-speaking interpreters we not very helpful in communicating with the Indians. After this voyage he decided to capture some Native Americans and teach them Spanish so they could help him as interpreters on his next expedition.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia

But interpreting hit the headlines with the Nüremberg Trials. Although interpreting was used at the international organizations before the Second World War, this was the first time that large scale simultaneous interpreting was used. Technology now allowed interpreters to listen to the original in head phones and interpret into a microphone that broadcast the interpreting to listeners. Hardly any of the interpreters who interpreted at the Nüremberg Trials had any interpreting training. But most of the interpreters there then went on to a career in interpreting. These interpreters were the founding fathers and mothers of the profession. They were active in the professionalization of interpreters, they helped training new interpreters and they lay the foundations of AIIC, the international association for conference interpreters.

ut interpreting hit the headlines with the Nüremberg Trials. Although interpreting was used at the international organizations before the Second World War, this was the first time that large scale simultaneous interpreting was used. Technology now allows interpreters to listen to the original in head phones and interpret into a microphone that broadcast the interpreting to listeners. Hardly any of the interpreters who interpreted at the Nüremberg Trials had any interpreting training. But most of the interpreters there then went on to a career in interpreting. These interpreters were the founding fathers and mothers of the profession. They were active in the professionalization of interpreters, they helped training new interpreters and they lay the foundations of AIIC, the international association for conference interpreters.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia

Community interpreters are a different case. Community interpreting has not started its professionalization until the past 10 or 15 years. Community interpreters were typically friends and and family of the person needing community interpreting. However, thanks to researchers and very active community interpreters, and in particular thanks to the Critical link conference, community interpreting is slowly gaining professional standards in the same way as its big sister conference interpreting.
（https://interpretings.net/2010/09/13/history-of-interpreting/）
（https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.）

Community interpreters are a different case. Community interpreting has not started its professionalization until the past 10 or 15 years. Community interpreters were typically because of friends and and family of the person needing community interpreting. However, thanks to researchers and very active community interpreters, and in particular thanks to the critical link conference, community interpreting is slowly gaining professional standards in the same way as its big sister conference interpreting.
（https://interpretings.net/2010/09/13/history-of-interpreting/）
（https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.）--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia

====2.1.1The four development stages of western interpretation research====

The Pre-research Period

From the 1950s to the early 1960s, mainly focused on interpreters talking about their personal experiences, observing and reflecting on interpreting behavior and the working environment of interpreters, and exploring issues such as the language and knowledge requirements of interpreters, the difficulties encountered by interpreters in their work, the relationship with clients or fatigue, etc. The issues discussed include the language and knowledge requirements of translators, the difficulties they encounter in their work, their relationship with clients or their fatigue, etc. The research at this stage was not very theoretical, but the two manuals published during this period, Rozen (1956) and Herbert (1952)1, are classics, among which the basic principles and methods of consecutive interpreting notes described in Rozen's book are still widely accepted today.

From the 1950s to the early 1960s, mainly focused on interpreters talking about their personal experiences, observing and reflecting on interpreting behaviors and the working environment of interpreters, and exploring issues such as the language and knowledge requirements of interpreters, the difficulties encountered by interpreters in their work, the relationship with clients or fatigue, etc. The issues discussed include the language and knowledge requirements of translators, the difficulties they encounter in their work, their relationship with clients or their fatigue, etc. The research at this stage was not very theoretical, but the two manuals published during this period, Rozen (1956) and Herbert (1952)1, are classics, among which the basic principles and methods of consecutive interpreting notes described in Rozen's book are still widely accepted today.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia

The Experimental Psychology Period

From the 1960s to the early 1970s, mainly some psychologists and psycho-linguists used the theoretical framework of psychology and psycholinguistics to study the cognitive problems of interpreting, put forward some hypotheses about the process of interpreting, and analyzed source language, noise speaking speed, the impact of variables such as EVS (Ear-Voice Span, i.e. the time difference between the two streams of the source language and the translated language) on interpretation and the countermeasures often adopted by interpreters, etc.. However, some authors are skeptical about whether this phase of research can really help people better understand the interpreting process.

From the early 1970s to the mid-1980s, was dominated by theoretical research conducted by interpreting practitioners (most of them were part-time interpreting teachers). The most representative theory was the théorie du sens (interpretation theory) created by the École Supérieure des Interprètes de Paris (ESIT), which emphasized that interpretation was centered on meaning rather than on the translation of words and language structures. The théorie du sens theory was once the dominant theory in the interpretation community and still has a positive influence in interpretation training today. However, research at this stage was relatively isolated, there was a lack of communication between schools of thought, and the significance of empirical research was almost completely ignored.

The early 1970s to the mid-1980s was dominated by theoretical research conducted by interpreting practitioners (most of them were part-time interpreting teachers). The most representative theory was the théorie du sens (interpretation theory) created by the École Supérieure des Interprètes de Paris (ESIT), which emphasized that interpretation was centered on meaning rather than on the translation of words and language structures. The théorie du sens theory was once the dominant theory in the interpretation community and still has a positive influence in interpretation training today. However, research at this stage was relatively isolated, there was a lack of communication between schools of thought, and the significance of empirical research was almost completely ignored.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia

The Renewal Period

It began in the latter half of the 1980s, marked a turning point with an important conference on interpretation held at the University of Trieste in Italy in 1986, from which interpretation research entered a new historical period. In the third stage, the dominant views and theories were openly questioned and challenged, and the interpreting community ended its isolation for many years, and extensive and in-depth exchanges among various schools of thought began.
西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72

It began in the latter half of the 1980s, marked a turning point with an important conference on interpretation held at the University of Trieste in Italy in 1986, from which interpretation research entered a new historical period. In the third stage, the dominant views and theories were openly questioned and challenged, and the interpreting community ended its isolation for many years, and extensive and in-depth exchanges among various schools of thought began.(Xiao Xiaoyan 2002,71-72)
西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72[It should be put in your reference]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia

====2.2 The development of the Interpretation in china====

Interpretation as a specialized profession has a history of more than 2,000 years in China. In ancient times,as early as the Spring and Autumn period,people who were engaged in the profession of interpretation were called "tongue man" or “Yi”. (“译”、“寄”、“象”、“狄银”、“通事”或“通译”) In the Book of Rites(《礼记·王制》), it is written that“五方之民言语不通，嗜欲不同。达其志，通其欲，东方日寄，南方曰象，西方日狄革是，北方曰译。”The "Kueixing miscellaneous knowledge after the collection - translator" (《癸幸杂识后集·译者》)made this explanation: "translation, Chen also; Chen said that the internal and external words are established this transmitter of the language to pass its will, now the north is said to be through the matter."(“译，陈也；陈说内外之言皆立此传语之人以通其志，今北方谓之通事。”) The Later Han Dynasty - The Chronicle of Emperor He mentions the demand for translators at that time: "Duguo Xi refers to, then pass translators 40,000." (“都护西指，则通译四万。”)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book.

Interpretation as a specialized profession has a history of more than 2,000 years in China. In ancient times,as early as the Spring and Autumn period,people who were engaged in the profession of interpretation were called "tongue man" or “Yi”. (“译”、“寄”、“象”、“狄银”、“通事”或“通译”) In the Book of Rites(《礼记·王制》), it is written that“五方之民言语不通，嗜欲不同。达其志，通其欲，东方日寄，南方曰象，西方日狄革是，北方曰译。”The "Kueixing miscellaneous knowledge after the collection - translator" (《癸幸杂识后集·译者》)made this explanation: "translation, Chen also; Chen said that the internal and external words are established this transmitter of the language to pass its will, now the north is said to be through the matter."(“译，陈也；陈说内外之言皆立此传语之人以通其志，今北方谓之通事。”) The Later Han Dynasty - The Chronicle of Emperor He mentions the demand for translators at that time: "Duguo Xi refers to, then pass translators 40,000." (“都护西指，则通译四万。”)“译即易，谓换易言语使相解也。”The existence of interpretation in ancient times can also be seen in the book.[Please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia

Interpretation as a discipline began to be studied by some experts and scholars, and it started relatively late. The study of interpretation in the West basically started after World War II, while in China, it was not until the early 1980s that some articles analyzing the characteristics and techniques of interpretation were published, and its development was relatively slow. Only after 1996 did it start to develop rapidly and achieve some scientific achievements.

Since the founding of New China, China has become more and more active in the international arena. In the early 1970s, China returned to the United Nations and since then its international status has been rising rapidly. After entering the 1980s, marked by reform and opening up, China's economy began to take off and the door to the outside world opened wider and wider. In the 1990s, when the economies of many countries and regions in the East and West were in recession, China's economic train continued to run at high speed with its strong vitality along the track to the ranks of the world's economically developed countries. A China that has chosen a socialist market economy with great success and has become the preferred target of many overseas investors and tourists. A fully open China, which is following the path of a strong nation at a steady pace, has more and more contact points and a larger contact area for foreign exchanges. The demand for all kinds of interpreters is increasing day by day, and the contradiction between the supply and demand of senior interpreters is becoming more and more prominent.

Since the founding of the People's Republic of China, China has become more and more active in the international arena. In the early 1970s, China returned to the United Nations and since then its international status has been rising rapidly. After entering the 1980s, marked by reform and opening up, China's economy began to take off and the door to the outside world opened wider and wider. In the 1990s, when the economies of many countries and regions in the East and West were in recession, China's economic train continued to run at high speed with its strong vitality along the track to the ranks of the world's economically developed countries. A China that has chosen a socialist market economy with great success and has become the preferred target of many overseas investors and tourists. A fully open China, which is following the path of a strong nation at a steady pace, has more and more contact points and a larger contact area for foreign exchanges. The demand for all kinds of interpreters is increasing day by day, and the contradiction between the supply and demand of senior interpreters is becoming more and more prominent. --[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia

The "Shanghai English Interpreting Qualification Examination" has come into being, and English undergraduate majors in all colleges and universities across China have been offering practical courses on interpreting, and "Research and Practice of Interpreting" as a course combining theory and practice has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree classes by more and more colleges and universities. As a course combining theory and practice, "Interpretation Research and Practice" has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree courses by more and more universities. Some universities have also held national seminars on interpretation. This is the need of the times, the need of the country and the need of the market. At the same time, the study of interpretation has also enriched the theories of linguistics and applied linguistics (such as psycholinguistic studies, discourse studies, bilingual studies and translation studies).

The "Shanghai English Interpreting Qualification Examination" has come into being, and English undergraduate majors in all colleges and universities across China have started offering practical courses on interpreting, and "Research and Practice of Interpreting" as a course combining theory and practice has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree classes by more and more colleges and universities. As a course combining theory and practice, "Interpretation Research and Practice" has been included in the syllabus of English master's degree courses by more and more universities. Some universities have also held national seminars on interpretation. This is the need of the times, the need of the country and the need of the market. At the same time, the study of interpretation has also enriched the theories of linguistics and applied linguistics (such as psycholinguistic studies, discourse studies, bilingual studies and translation studies).--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia

====2.2.1The four development stages of Chinese interpretation research====

The "budding period" from the late 1970s to the late 1980s

During this period, there were only 27 papers on interpretation published in core foreign language journals,and the research on interpretation in China was still in the nascent stage, and the topics discussed in the papers were mostly at the level of experience introduction, and many papers only raised some phenomena and problems without in-depth discussion from the theoretical level.The landmark event of this period is the opening of the "United Nations Interpreter and Translator Training Course" in Beijing Foreign Language Institute in 1979, which has trained nearly 100 interpreters by the early 1990s.

During this period, there were only 27 papers on interpretation published in core foreign language journals,and the research on interpretation in China was still in the nascent stage, and the topics discussed in the papers were mostly at the level of experience introduction, and many papers only raised some phenomena and problems without in-depth discussion from the theoretical level.The landmark event of this period is the opening of the "United Nations Interpreter and Translator Training Course" in Beijing Foreign Language Institute in 1979, which has trained nearly 100 interpreters by the early 1990s.[please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia

The "Initial Development Period" in the 1990s

Between 1990 and 1999, 112 papers on interpretation were published in core foreign language journals, and the research on interpretation in China entered the "initial development period". Most of the papers in this period were mainly focused on the summary of interpretation skills and the discussion of the prescriptive teaching methods, and in general, the interpretation research in this period lacked theoretical guidance. Although a few scholars (e.g. Bao Gang and Liu Heping) began to pay attention to the combination of interpretation teaching concepts and interpretation theories, the theoretical perspectives are still relatively homogeneous and mainly focus on interpretation theories.

During this period, professional interpretation teaching started to be initiated in institutions. In the 1990s, Beijing Foreign Studies University started to establish a senior translation school, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies established a translation department in the College of English, and with the support of the British Council, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies and Xiamen University both offered professional interpretation courses, and Beijing Language and Culture College also offered professional interpretation courses in the French major.The first and second National Symposium on Interpretation Theory and Teaching held in 1996 and 1998 were the main academic events of interpretation in this period, marking the beginning of the development of interpretation research in China with the awareness of research fields.

During this period, professional interpretation teaching started to be initiated in institutions. In the 1990s, Beijing Foreign Studies University started to establish a senior translation school, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies established a translation department in the College of English, and with the support of the British Council, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies and Xiamen University both offered professional interpretation courses, and Beijing Language and Culture College also offered professional interpretation courses in the French major.The first and second National Symposium on Interpretation Theory and Teaching held in 1996 and 1998 were the main academic events of interpretation in this period, marking the beginning of the development of interpretation research in China with the awareness of research fields.[please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia

The "Emerging Period" in the first decade of the 21st century

With the formal establishment of interpretation majors in some universities and the development of interpretation practice in the direction of professionalization and specialization, interpretation research in China entered the emerging period. 251 papers on interpretation were published in core foreign language journals from 2000 to 2009.
In this period, not only the number of interpretation papers has increased significantly, which is equivalent to twice of the previous period, but also the quality of research has improved significantly, and interpreting researchers have started to break away from the traditional research perspective, pay attention to the research results of other disciplines (Liu Heping 2001a), and are not satisfied with putting forward some prescriptive principles and methods of interpreting and interpreting teaching, but begin to try to explore the inner laws of interpreting and the principles and methods of teaching In this period, Shanghai Foreign Language Institute (SFLI) has been working on the concept behind the teaching of interpretation.

During this period, Shanghai Foreign Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, etc. established senior translation schools one after another, and the training of doctoral students in interpretation studies also started in Beijing Foreign Studies University, Shanghai Foreign Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, etc.

The "National Conference on Interpretation" was held every two years and became an important academic event to unite the strengths of interpretation research, and the 5th National Conference and International Conference on Interpretation held in 2004 was themed "Interpretation Professionalization: International Experience and Development in China".With the theme of "Professionalization of Interpretation: International Experience and Development in China", the conference focused on the problems and challenges faced by Chinese interpreters on the road to professionalization, such as the standardization and professionalization of the profession and the marketization of interpretation, and discussed the training and certification of interpreters, interpretation theory and interdisciplinary research, as well as interpretation teaching and evaluation (Yuanyuan Mu and Jun Pan 2005), and began to publish the Proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference. The conference also started to publish the proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference.

The "National Conference on Interpretation" was held every two years and became an important academic event to unite the strengths of interpretation research, and the 5th National Conference and International Conference on Interpretation held in 2004 was themed "Interpretation Professionalization: International Experience and Development in China".With the theme of "Professionalization of Interpretation: International Experience and Development in China", the conference focused on the problems and challenges faced by Chinese interpreters on the road to professionalization, such as the standardization and professionalization of the profession and the marketization of interpretation, and discussed the training and certification of interpreters, interpretation theory and interdisciplinary research, as well as interpretation teaching and evaluation (Yuanyuan Mu and Jun Pan 2005), and began to publish the Proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference. The conference also started to publish the proceedings of the National Conference on Interpretation after the conference.[please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia

The "Period of Diversified Development" in the Second Decade of the 21st Century

From 2010 to 2017, there were more than 300 papers on interpretation in core journals. In this period, not only the number of published papers continues to increase, but also the quality of research has been significantly improved, the research themes are diversified, and the research methods are also more diversified.
The vigorous development of interpretation research in China during this period is inseparable from two driving forces: first, the establishment of undergraduate translation majors and master's degrees in translation (MTI) in mainland China; second, the strengthening of exchanges between the Chinese interpretation research community and the international interpretation research community.

From 2010 to 2017, there were more than 300 papers on interpretation in core journals. In this period, not only the number of published papers continued to increase, but also the quality of research has been significantly improved, the research themes were diversified, and the research methods are also more diversified.
The vigorous development of interpretation research in China during this period is inseparable from two driving forces: first, the establishment of undergraduate translation majors and master's degrees in translation (MTI) in mainland China; second, the strengthening of exchanges between the Chinese interpretation research community and the international interpretation research community.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia

During the 7th National Conference and International Symposium on Interpretation, the interaction between the conference organizers and representatives of the international interpretation research community led to the publication of the authoritative international journal Interpreting: International Journal of Research and Practice in Interpreting in 2009. In 2011, the book was published in John Benjamins Publishing's famous "Benjamins Translation Library" under the title of "Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China". The book was published in 2011 as a stand-alone book entitled Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China in John Benjamins' famous Benjamins Translation Library series, which became "an international showcase of the interface of Chinese interpreting research" (Wang Binhua and Zheng Xun 2011).

During the 7th National Conference and International Symposium on Interpretation, the interaction between the conference organizers and representatives of the international interpretation research community led to the publication of the authoritative international journal Interpreting: International Journal of Research and Practice in Interpreting in 2009. In 2011, the book was published in John Benjamins Publishing's famous "Benjamins Translation Library" under the title of "Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China". The book was published in 2011 as a stand-alone book entitled Chinese Interpreting and Interpreting China in John Benjamins' famous Benjamins Translation Library series, which then became "an international showcase of the interface of Chinese interpreting research" (Wang Binhua and Zheng Xun 2011).--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia

And,some young Chinese scholars have completed their doctoral dissertations in the field of interpretation research and become the new force of Chinese interpretation research; some Chinese interpretation researchers have started to go to international academic circles, either publishing papers in international important translation journals or applying for teaching positions in international famous universities, forming interaction with international interpretation research circles.

And,some young Chinese scholars have completed their doctoral dissertations in the field of interpretation research and become the new force of Chinese interpretation researches; some Chinese interpretation researchers have started to attend international academic circles, either publishing papers in international important translation journals or applying for teaching positions in international famous universities, forming interaction with international interpretation research circles.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia

===3.Current situation and the prospect of the interpretation in China===

At present, the interpretation work is subdivided into five major categories:conference interpreting,court interpreting,business interpreting,accompaniment interpreting and document translation. From the perspective of language, there is a need for Spanish, Korean, Japanese, French, German and other small language talents.

Nowadays, with the expanding foreign economic and cultural exchanges, a translation market of ten billion RMB has been created in China. Especially in the past two years, a large number of translation companies have been emerging all over the country, and the translation service market in China is expanding rapidly. At present, there are more than 6,000 professional translation registration companies of various kinds, and there are tens of thousands of companies registered in the name of consulting companies, printing agencies, etc., which actually undertake translation business. In Shanghai alone, there are more than 200 translation registration companies.

Nowadays, with the expanding foreign economic and cultural exchanges, a translation market of ten billion RMB has been created in China. Especially in the past two years, a large number of translation companies emerged all over the country, and the translation service market in China is expanding rapidly. At present, there are more than 6,000 professional translation registration companies of various kinds, and there are tens of thousands of companies registered in the name of consulting companies, printing agencies, etc., which actually undertake translation business. In Shanghai alone, there are more than 200 translation registration companies.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia

However, the shortage of translation service teams is still a major problem plaguing the translation industry. The existing translation professionals employed in China are about 60,000, and the number of translation practitioners is conservatively estimated to be 600,000, while the relevant sample survey shows that the number may reach 1 million. Even so, the existing translation team is still unable to meet the huge market demand.[Please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia

Guo Xiaoyong, executive deputy director of the China Foreign Language Bureau and first executive vice president of the China Translation Association, said that the biggest challenge facing Chinese translation work is undoubtedly the shortage of qualified translators, and "it is not a shortage in the general sense, but an extreme shortage, especially the serious shortage of high-quality and professional translators who can undertake the ever-expanding tasks of foreign cultural exchanges.[Please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia

Guo Xiaoyong, executive deputy director of the China Foreign Language Bureau and first executive vice president of the China Translation Association, said that the biggest challenge facing Chinese translation work is undoubtedly the shortage of qualified translators, and "it is not a shortage in the general sense, but an extreme shortage, especially the serious shortage of high-quality and professional translators who can undertake the ever-expanding tasks of foreign cultural exchanges.[Please add your indication]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia

The current translation work also faces problems and challenges, including the lack of scientific understanding and due attention to the importance of translation work and its laws, as well as the unclear positioning of the industry, which affects the sustainable development of the industry, and the lack of access system, which causes a number of poorly qualified translation enterprises and practitioners to enter the translation market.

The current translation work also faces many problems and challenges, including the lack of scientific understanding and due attention to the importance of translation work and its laws, as well as the unclear positioning of the industry, which affects the sustainable development of the industry, and the lack of access system, which causes a number of poorly qualified translation enterprises and practitioners to enter the translation market.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia

according to the statistics of the Ministry of Human Resources and Social Security, by the end of 2010, there were less than 30,000 professional translators (i.e. those who have obtained professional and technical titles of translation) in state-owned enterprises and institutions; the number of people who have passed the national translation professional qualification (level) examination is more than 27,000; the undergraduate and master's degree education in translation which started not long ago It is estimated that only a few thousand translation graduates have been trained so far, and it is difficult for such a limited professional team to meet the needs of increasingly extensive international exchanges.

Over the past 30 years, with the joint efforts of the Chinese translation industry and people inside and outside the industry, the face of China's translation industry has undergone great changes. Among them, as of November this year, 57 colleges and universities in China have been approved to offer professional degree courses in translation and 159 colleges and universities have been approved to offer professional degree courses in translation. Translation education has developed from being an auxiliary means of foreign language teaching in the past to becoming an independent discipline specialty for training professional translation talents and translation research talents, and has made a major breakthrough in the status of higher education, and the translation discipline system has become more and more perfect; the language service industry with The language service industry with translation as its core has developed into a new industry, with an average annual growth rate of 18.4% between 2003 and 2011; it is expected to grow at an average annual rate of 15% during the 12th Five-Year Plan period, which will be higher than the average speed of China's economic development.[Too long]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia

With the increasing international status of China, the density of international conferences is also greater, and the number of professional English interpreters capable of handling larger international conferences in China is only about 10,000. so we should cultivated more interpreting talents and attach great importance to the cultivation of high-quality and specialized translation talents in shortage,establish an industry-university-research combination model linking industry associations, colleges and universities and employers, further improve the translation professional education system, further improve the evaluation and certification system for translation talents and promote it in the whole society to form a consensus in the industry.
http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm

With the increasing international status of China, the density of international conferences is also greater, and the number of professional English interpreters capable of handling larger international conferences in China is only about 10,000. so we should cultivated more interpreting talents and attach great importance to the cultivation of high-quality and specialized translation talents in shortage,establish an industry-university-research combination model linking industry associations, colleges and universities and employers, further improve the translation professional education system, further improve the evaluation and certification system for translation talents and promote it in the whole society to form a consensus in the industry.
http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm[It should be put into your references]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia

===4.Conclusion===

Interpretation has gone through a long process of development from low to high level, from imperfect to increasingly perfect, and it continues to develop steadily along a long development trajectory of more than two thousand years, and its characteristics will be increasingly enriched and intermingled.

Today, the wheel of history has brought us into a new century. It is the century of comprehensive revitalization of our country, the century of recasting glory, the century of extensive exchanges and common prosperity between Chinese culture and cultures of all ethnic groups in the world, and it is also the golden age of the interpreting profession. Over the years, China has carried out all-round and multi-level exchanges with other countries in the world, allowing us to better understand the world and the world to better understand us. As an indispensable intermediary force in Sino-foreign exchanges, foreign interpreters are shouldering the heavy responsibility of history. Today, more than ever, China needs a large number of qualified full-time or part-time interpreters to build and strengthen the bridge of foreign communication.

===Bibliography===

*【1】中国口译史[M]. 青岛出版社 , 黎难秋主编, 2002
*【2】口译的发展史及特点[A].赵永红，赵华玲，姚脚女，黄丽娜，万莉莉,2007
*【3】西方口译研究：历史与现状[A] 肖晓燕，2002，71-72
*【4】https://www.access2interpreters.com/history-language-interpretation/#:~:text=Language%20interpreting%20is%20known%20to%20date%20back%20to,tomb%20that%20made%20reference%20to%20an%20interpreter%20supervisor.
*【5】http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2012-12/06/c_113936710.htm
*【6】中国口译研究：历史和现状分析[A]，陈蓓，2009

==The Three Translation Climaxes in the History of Chinese Translation in Relation to the Social and Cultural Development of China 郑华君 Zheng Huajun 202020080669 亚非语言文学（朝鲜韩国文学方向）==
===Abstract===
The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Eastern Han Dynasty, formed the first important period in the history of translation in China. In the following thousand years, the history of Chinese translation has gone through some important historical periods, and the theory and practice of translation have constantly interacted with each other. When we open the history of translation, we can see that the translation climaxes in different periods of Chinese history have produced a large number of translators, and both the theory and practice of translation have made great achievements. The several translation climaxes in Chinese history have had an important impact on Chinese literature, culture and society, including the development of Chinese translation itself.

The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Eastern Han Dynasty, formed the first important period in the history of translation in China. In the following thousands of years, the history of Chinese translation has gone through some important historical periods, and the theory and practice of translation have constantly interacted with each other. When we open the history of translation, we can see that a large number of translators appeared during the translation climaxes in different periods of Chinese history, and both the theory and practice of translation have made great achievements. The several translation climaxes in Chinese history have had an important impact on Chinese literature, culture and society, including the development of Chinese translation itself.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 09:18, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Key words===
History of Chinese；Translation Translation；Climax Socio-Cultural Development in China

History of Chinese；Translation Climax； Socio-Cultural Development in China--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 11:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===题目===
中国翻译史上的三次翻译高潮与中国社会文化发展的关系

===摘要===
起始于东汉时期的佛经翻译形成了我国翻译历史上第一个重要时期。在此后的一千多年的时间里, 中国翻译史上又经历了一些重要的历史时期, 翻译理论与实践不断互动。打开翻译史册, 可以看到中国不同时期的翻译高潮都产生了一大批翻译家, 翻译理论和实践都取得了很大成就。中国历史上的几次翻译高潮对中国的文学、文化、社会包括中国翻译事业自身发展产生了重要影响。

===关键词===
中国翻译史翻译高潮中国社会文化发展

===I.Introduction===
Scholars who study translation have different views on the division of historical periods of translation climaxes.
Some think that the translation business in China has experienced five great climaxes so far, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement, the translation of East and West literature from the early period of the Founding of the People's Republic to the Cultural Revolution, and the period when translation has blossomed in various fields from the 1970s to the present.

Scholars who study translation have different views on the division of historical periods of translation climaxes.
Some think that the translation circles in China has experienced five great climaxes so far, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement, the translation of Eastern and Western literature from the early period of the Founding of the People's Republic to the Cultural Revolution, and the period when translation has blossomed in various fields from the 1970s to the present. --[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

According to some people, "the fourth translation climax in Chinese history is now flourishing on the land of China, and it is a spectacular scenario. There were three translation climaxes in Chinese history: the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, and the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement. But this translation climax is incomparable to the three previous ones in terms of scale, scope, quality and contribution to the development of Chinese society." (Ma Zuyi 1998:46).

And "André Lefevere, in his article "Thinking about Chinese and Western Translation", mentions that 'there were three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures in the 2nd-7th centuries AD, the spread of Western Christian culture in the 16th century, and the import of modern Western thought from the 19th century onwards. '" (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2) :66-71)

And "André Lefevere, in his article ''Thinking about Chinese and Western Translation'', mentions that 'there were three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation, namely, the translation of Buddhist scriptures from 2nd to 7th centuries AD, the spread of Western Christian culture in the 16th century, and the introduction of modern Western thoughts from the 19th century onwards. '" (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2) :66-71)--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

We believe that the second viewpoint is similar to the third viewpoint to some extent, therefore, this paper will analyze the relationship between the three translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation and the development of Chinese society and culture by examining the first three translation climaxes that have been completed.

This is because such a division is conducive to analyzing the interactions between translation and society and culture. The four translation climaxes have made translation no longer a "pigtail" or a "matchmaker", and have freed translation from the superficial understanding that it is only a tool of communication. Next, we will focus on the impact of these climaxes on the development and change of society and culture, and the role of each climax on the society and culture of a specific period.

===II.Introduction of the three translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation===

====1.The First Translation Climax-The Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Tang and Song Dynasties====
====1.The First Translation Climax-The Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties====--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The first high point of translation in China was the translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Han Dynasty, flourished in the Tang Dynasty, declined in the Song Dynasty, and came to an end in the Yuan Dynasty, and its influence on Chinese culture and thought was enormous. Generally speaking, the emergence of any phenomenon in human history has its specific political, economic and cultural background, which provides the soil for the germination and growth of such phenomenon, and translation of Buddhist scriptures is no exception.

During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the main body of translators were monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on. All of them have their own representative translation theories, and their efforts are inseparable from the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation.

During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the translators were mainly some monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on. All of them have their own representative translation theories, and the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation are inseparable from their efforts --[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also brought great influence to Chinese culture, such as: influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning; enriching the world of imagination; strengthening storytelling; changing the form of literature; and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; in turn, the development of translation business also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.

At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also had a great influence on Chinese culture, such as influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning, enriching the world of imagination, strengthening storytelling, changing the form of literature, and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; or vice versa, the development of translation cause also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.The Second Climax of Translation-Technical Translation in the Late Ming and Early Qing Dynasties====
The second climax of translation went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to technological progress and social development. With the development of seafaring, the exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not only limited to commodities, but also culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.

The second climax of translation went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to technological progress and social development. With the development of maritime navigation, the exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not limited to commodities, but also included culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.
--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as the medium for the exchange of Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendars, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc. into China. During this period, many of the most famous translators emerged: Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbao, the Germans Tang Ruowang, and the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo.

In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as the medium for the exchange of Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendar, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc. into China. During this period, many of the most famous translators emerged, such as Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbao, the Germans Tang Ruowang, and the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize the deficiencies of Chinese culture and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China, and to be inspired in their thinking.

The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize Chinese cultural deficiencies and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China itself, and to be inspired in their thinking.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====3.The Third Climax of Translation: Translation of Western Studies from the Opium War to the Post-May Fourth Period====
China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the face of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and tried to introduce Western learning through various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress. During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, including traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented.

China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the aspect of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and intended to learn from Western countries by various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress.During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, including traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists included Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xubai, Chen Xi Ying, Lin Yutang, and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China.

A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists included Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xubai, Chen XiYing, Lin Yutang and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China. --[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on Chinese was also great. Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on using ancient style to translate Western studies; some translators, such as Qu Qubai, insisted on "absolute vernacular"; others, such as Lu Xun, "disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'absolute vernacular'. Other translators, such as Lu Xun, "disagreed with the idea that the so-called 'absolute vernacular' should be advocated for the absolute exclusion of literary and written languages from translation.

On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on Chinese was also great. Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on using ancient style to translate Western studies; some translators, such as Qu Qubai, insisted on "absolute vernacular"; others, such as Lu Xun, "disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'absolute vernacular'. --[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In short, this culmination of translation has freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expressive power of the language, making it very different from before in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors, while at the same time, its grammatical functions have also been enhanced.

In short, this culmination of translation has freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expression of the language, making it very different from before in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors,at the same time, its grammatical functions have also been enhanced.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 13:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===The constraints and influence of socio-cultural factors on the three translation climaxes===
"Translation is never produced in a vacuum" (Lefevere 1998:3). Therefore, translation studies need to "objectively examine the dynamics of translation in a particular historical and cultural context, analyze and study the constraints of social, historical and cultural factors on translation strategies and methods, and the impact of translations on the receiving culture". (Liao Qiyi 2002 (2):106-109) Translation usually reflects the position of the subject culture to the foreign culture, and the translation strategy is usually the result of the interaction between the subject culture and the foreign culture, so the choice of translation strategy is never accidental.

"Translation is never produced in a vacuum" (Lefevere 1998:3). Therefore, translation studies need to "objectively examine the dynamic of translation in a particular historical and cultural context, analyze and study the constraints of social, historical and cultural factors on translation strategies and methods, and the impact of translations on the receiving culture". (Liao Qiyi 2002 (2):106-109) Translation usually reflects the position of the subject culture to the foreign culture, and the translation strategy is usually the result of the interaction between the subject culture and the foreign culture, so the choice of translation strategy is never accidental.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

====1.The first translation climax====
The first translation climax spanned the Han and Tang dynasties. There was no lack of translators from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang Dynasty, but Xuanzang, a landmark translator in the history of translation, was born in the Tang Dynasty. Long-term political stability and unprecedented socio-economic development created a strong national power and a relaxed cultural atmosphere at that time. All kinds of ideas, cultures and art forms blossomed and competed with each other.

The first translation climax spanned the Han and Tang Dynasties. There was no lack of translators from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang Dynasty, for example, Xuanzang, a landmark translator in the history of translation, was born in the Tang Dynasty. Long-term political stability and unprecedented socio-economic development built up its national power and created a harmonious cultural atmosphere at that time. All kinds of ideas, cultural and artistic forms blossomed and competed with each other.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

The country as a whole showed a healthy and positive cultural mentality: it was tolerant and unrestrained, and dared to introduce foreign cultures, which led to an unprecedented peak of economic and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries. A healthy national cultural mentality undoubtedly provided a wonderful platform for Xuanzang to achieve immortal results in the history of Chinese translation. Before that, many translators had already established translation standards and translation theories worthy of reference, such as "On the Five Failures" and "Three Failures" by Dao An of the Jin Dynasty, and "The Eight Preparations" by Yan Bo of the Sui Dynasty, The translation method is already quite thorough.

The country as a whole showed a healthy and positive cultural mentality, because it was tolerant and unrestrained, and dared to introduce foreign cultures, which led to an unprecedented peak of economic and cultural exchanges between China and other countries. A healthy national cultural mentality undoubtedly provided a wonderful platform for Xuanzang to achieve immortal works in the history of Chinese translation. Before that, many translators had already established translation standards and translation theories worthy of reference, such as "On the Five Failures" and "Three Failures" by Dao An of the Western Jin Dynasty, and "The Eight Preparations" by Yan Bo of the Sui Dynasty, The translation method is already quite thorough.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

As a patriarch of his generation, Xuanzang, who was well versed in Sanskrit and Chinese, studied Buddhist texts deeply, and was well versed in Buddhist teachings, changed the old practice of relying on foreigners for translations and became the founder of new translations by taking charge of his own translations and punishing the mistakes of previous generations. It is no coincidence that his translations have maintained the level of "faithfulness, elegance, and elegance" from the beginning to the end, i.e., they are both "true" and "popular", and no one has been able to surpass them so far.

As a patriarch of his generation, Xuanzang, who was well versed in Sanskrit and Chinese, deeply studied Buddhist texts, and was well excelled in Buddhist doctrine, changed the old practice of relying on foreigners for translations and became the founder of new translations by taking charge of his own translations and punishing the mistakes of previous generations. It is no coincidence that his translations have met the demand of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" from the beginning to the end, i.e., they are both "true" and "popular", and no one has been able to surpass them so far.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

The rigorous attitude of Xuanzang in translating the scriptures, the large number of volumes, and the fluency of his translations have surpassed those of the masters before and after him. His translation is prudent and precise in language, so it has reached the "state of perfection". He does not advocate the style of translation of Hatamurashi, which is "not strict to get the original text, but in taking the meaning", and opposes the style of direct translation. His translation strives to match the text and meaning of the original work, while the text follows the words, and he does not stick to one case of direct translation or translation.

The rigorous attitude of Xuanzang in translating the scriptures, the large number of volumes, and the fluency of his translations have surpassed those of the masters before and after him. His translation is prudent and precise in language, so it has reached the "perfection". He does not advocate the style of translation of Hatamurashi, which is "not strict to get the original text, but directly taking the meaning", and opposes the style of direct translation. His translation strives to match the words and meaning of the original text, while the text follows the words, and he does not stick to one case of direct translation.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

His aim was not to exoticize the Chinese language, but to create an original style of translation that was "strict and serious", without compromising the original meaning and making it easy for the reader to understand. He always understood the original text thoroughly first, and then expressed it clearly in appropriate Chinese, and often added a concluding phrase after a section to make the translation exegetical and enriching; sometimes he used another translation name instead of specialized terms to make it easy for readers to understand. His theory of "five non-translations" of sound and meaning became the model for later translations of scriptures.

His aim was not to exoticize the Chinese language, but to create an original style of translation that was "strict and serious", without compromising the original meaning, to make it easy for the reader to understand. Firstly, he understood the original text thoroughly, and then expressed it clearly in appropriate Chinese, and often added a concluding phrase after a section to make the translation exegetical and enriching; sometimes he used another translation name instead of specialized terms to make it easy for readers to understand. His theory of "five non-translations" of sound and meaning became the model for later translations of scriptures.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

Liang Qichao, in "Translating Literature and Buddhist Texts," argued: 'If Xuanzang is a translator, then the translation is straightforward, full and harmonious, and the ultimate track of the Way. According to the research of Indian scholar Pak Lok Tin and Chinese scholar Zhang Jianmu, Xuan Zang successfully used such translation techniques as complementary method, omission method, transposition method, division method, transliteration method and pronoun reduction method in his translation of the scriptures.

Liang Qichao, in "Translation of Literature and Buddhist Texts," argued 'If Xuanzang is a translator, then the translation is straightforward, full and harmonious, and the ultimate track of the Way. According to the research of Indian scholar Pak Lok Tin and Chinese scholar Zhang Jianmu, Xuan Zang successfully used translation techniques, such as complementary method, omission method, transposition method, division method, transliteration method and pronouns reduction method in his translation of the scriptures.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

After an in-depth study of the Sanskrit and Chinese Buddhist scriptures, Ji considers Xuanzang's translation 'faithful to the original text and not awkward to read, it has reached the pinnacle of excellence'. Although the main culture of Xuanzang's time 'occupied the central position of culture', it 'absorbed heterogeneous cultures' (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2): 66-71).

After an in-depth study of the Sanskrit and Chinese Buddhist scriptures, Liang considers Xuanzang's translation 'faithful to the original text and not awkward to read, it has reached the pinnacle of excellence'. Although the main culture of Xuanzang's time 'occupied the central position of culture', it 'absorbed heterogeneous cultures' (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2): 66-71).--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

It has enriched itself, and has been promoted and developed. "Liang Qichao found that, in terms of vocabulary alone, there are about 35,000 words in Chinese that come from translations of Buddhist scriptures, such as 'cause and effect', 'world', 'perfection ', 'enlightenment', 'true meaning', etc. In terms of syntax, the judgment sentence 'is', the question sentence 'what is ', the dictum 'not also', and the passive sentence‘为……所’and so on.The Chinese language has been introduced one after another, and has become familiar to people." (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71)

It has enriched itself, and has been promoted and developed. "Liang Qichao found that, in terms of vocabulary alone, there are about 35,000 words in Chinese that come from translations of Buddhist scriptures, such as 'cause and effect', 'world', 'perfection ', 'enlightenment', 'true meaning', etc. In terms of syntax, the judgment-sentence 'is', the interrogative sentence 'what is ', the dictum 'not also', and the passive sentence 'be done' and so on.The Chinese language has been introduced one after another, and has become familiar to people." (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71)--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.The second translation climax====
The second translation climax occurred in the middle and late Ming Dynasty. During this period, the culture was closed, and only a few translations were published, such as the Northern Song Dynasty, where Emperor Taizong built a translation institute in the Taiping Xingguo Temple in Kaifeng and issued an edict to translate the scriptures; in the Yuan Dynasty, several people, such as Bahesipa and Guanshangba, were ordered to translate the scriptures.

The second translation climax occurred in the middle and late Ming Dynasty. During this period, the feudal rulers adopted a policy of seclusion, which hampered China's progress and its exchanges with the outside world., and only a few translations were published, such as the Northern Song Dynasty, where Emperor Taizong built a translation institute in the Taiping Xingguo Temple in Kaifeng and issued an edict to translate the scriptures. In the Yuan Dynasty, several people, such as Bahesipa and Guanshangba, were ordered to translate the scriptures.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

In the Ming Dynasty, the government's control over society was the tightest it had ever been; the eunuchs were poisoned, adding to the misery; the scholars were trapped in the eight examinations and lacked independent thought; and the reopened Great Wall prevented nomadic encroachment and cut off free communication.By the time of the Great Geographic Discoveries and the European Reformation in the sixteenth century, the old religions were no longer established in the West and had to go to the East to find new horizons with the colonial expansion.

In the Ming Dynasty, the government's control over society was the tightest it had ever been; the eunuchs were poisoned, adding to the misery; the scholars were trapped in the eight examinations and lacked independent thought; and the reopened Great Wall prevented nomadic encroachment and cut off free communication.By the time of the Great Geographic Discoveries and the European Reformation in the sixteenth century, the old religions did no longer exist in the West and had to go to the East to find new horizons with the colonial expansion.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

The famous missionary Matteo Ricci created a new way of missionary work, which also led to the climax of translation. He studied Chinese, studied the Confucian classics, changed to wear Confucian clothing, and integrated into the Chinese culture as much as possible; he also interpreted Catholic doctrine with Confucianism, and allowed his followers to worship Heaven, ancestors, and Confucius.

The famous missionary Matteo Ricci created a new way of missionary work, which also led to the climax of translation. He studied Chinese, studied the Confucian classics, put on wear Confucian costume, and integrated himself into the Chinese culture as much as possible; he also interpreted Catholic doctrine with Confucianism, and allowed his followers to worship Heaven, ancestors, and Confucius.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

In the "General Catalogue of the Calendar" submitted by Xu Guangqi in the spring of 1631, he not only put forward the opinion that the translation of the Western calendar must be prioritized and progressed step by step, but also put forward his own translation ideas: "In my humble opinion, if we want to surpass, we must understand; before we understand, we must first translate." That is to say, only through translation can we "understand" (learn and master), and only through "understanding" can we "surpass" (surpass and win).

In the "General Catalogue of the Calendar" submitted by Xu Guangqi in the spring of 1631, he put forward not only the opinion that the translation of the Western calendar must be prioritized and progressed step by step, but also his own translation ideas: "In my humble opinion, if we want to surpass, we must understand; before we understand, we must first translate." That is to say, only through translation can we "understand" (learn and master), and only through "understanding" can we "surpass" (win).--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

It can be seen that the translation and importation of scientific knowledge at that time played a certain role in promoting the socio-economic and cultural development of China, and had an awakening effect on a few advanced elements of the Chinese scholarly class. The influence of missionaries in China, through translation, led to the spread of Western learning to the East, far more so in terms of scientific and cultural exchange than in terms of mission itself. As a result, "a period of peak science and technology emerged at the end of the Ming Dynasty, when scientific development took on a new life after a long period of silence". (Da Xiang 2005:61-64)

It can be seen that the translation and importation of scientific knowledge at that time played a certain role in promoting the socio-economic and cultural development of China, and had an awakening effect on many intellectuals of the Chinese scholarly class. The influence of missionaries in China, through translation, led to the spread of Western learning to the East, far more so in terms of scientific and cultural exchange than in terms of mission itself. As a result, "a period of peak science and technology emerged at the end of the Ming Dynasty, when scientific development took on a new life after a long period of silence". (Da Xiang 2005:61-64)--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

====3.The third Translation Climax====
The third translation climax was seen in the Qing Dynasty. The three dynasties of Kang, Yong and Qian were the most important ones, which seriously suppressed the wisdom and freedom of the people; the rulers were conservative and arrogant, and they enjoyed themselves in a closed country. The whole nation closed its eyes and ears, and the development of thought, culture and science and technology lagged seriously, which inevitably led to backwardness and defeat. In the nineteenth century, the Western ships and cannons opened the closed door of China, completely shattering the daydream of a great nation.

The third translation climax was seen in the Qing Dynasty. The three dynasties of Kang Xi, Yong Zheng and Qian Long were the most important ones, which seriously suppressed the wisdom and freedom of the people; the rulers were conservative and arrogant, and they enjoyed themselves in a closed country. The whole country closed its eyes and ears, and inhibited the development of thought, culture, science and technology lagged seriously, which inevitably led to backwardness and defeat. In the nineteenth century, the Western ships and cannons opened the closed-door of China, completely shattering the daydream of a great nation.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

Along with the division of spheres of influence by the powers, the Western modern thinking also poured in. However, "when a world-centered culture accepts other cultures, it usually takes the way of behavior of its own culture as 'natural' and only correct, and the foreign cultural components will be 'naturalized' without any doubts and restrictions. '". (Gu Jun, Gu Nong 1999 (9):12-13) The deformed nature of semi-colonial and semi-feudal society made the translators in the late Qing Dynasty eager to introduce advanced Western ideas on the one hand, and to submit to the ideology and values of feudal culture on the other.

Along with the division of spheres of influence by the powers, the Western modern thinking also poured in. However, "when a world-centered culture accepts other cultures, it usually takes the way of behavior of its own culture as 'natural' and only correct, and the foreign cultural components will be 'naturalized' without any doubts and restrictions. '". (Gu Jun, Gu Nong 1999 (9):12-13) The deformed nature of semi-colonial and semi-feudal society made the translators in the late Qing Dynasty eager to introduce advanced Western ideas on the one hand, and to submit to the ideology and values of feudal culture on the other hand.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

The translation is not only difficult but also difficult to read. As a result, the translations were not only difficult to understand, but also unfaithful to the original text, resembling adaptations. At that time, China was facing a crisis of national survival, and the dominant culture was about to break up, "no longer occupying the central position of culture, it had to achieve the purpose of creative transformation and cultural reconstruction through the absorption of heterogeneous cultures". (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71)

It is difficult not only to translate but also to read. As a result, the translations were not only difficult to understand, but also unfaithful to the original text, resembling adaptations. At that time, China was facing a crisis of national survival, and the dominant culture was about to break up, "no longer occupying the central position of culture, it had to achieve the purpose of creative transformation and cultural reconstruction through the absorption of heterogeneous cultures". (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71)--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

Therefore, in order to "seek new voices in foreign countries", "not only will the outside not lag behind the world's trend of thinking, but the inside will still lose its inherent bloodline" (Lu Xun 1992:12-13), translation must (Lu Xun 1992:12-13) Translation must "seek the truth"; in order to "seek the truth", translation must "tolerate as much disorder as possible". (Zhang Jinghua 2006 (2):66-71)

At the end of Qing Dynasty, Ma Jianzhong proposed the saying of "good translation" in his "Ma's Text": "We must first translate the words of the translator and the translator of the two countries, deeply enjoy the words, and compare the words and sentences, in order to examine the source of the breeding of each other's words, and the reason of the similarity and difference. All the actual meanings of the current phase, and the elaborate investigation, to examine the sound of its high and low, analyze the complexity of its words and sentences, and exhaust the perversion of its style, as well as the meaning of the profound and mysterious reasons."

At the end of Qing Dynasty, Ma Jianzhong proposed the saying of "good translation" in his "Ma's Text": "We must first translate the words of the translator of the two countries, deeply enjoy the words, and compare the words and sentences, in order to examine the source of the breeding of each other's words, and the reason of the similarity and difference. All the actual meanings of the current phase, and the elaborate investigation, to examine the sound of its high and low, analyze the complexity of its words and sentences, and exhaust the perversion of its style, as well as the meaning of the profound and mysterious reasons."--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

The meaning of this passage is quite rich and comprehensive. It covers style, grammar, rhetoric, and even the field of general cultural studies. Ma Jianzhong's standard of "good translation" is to strive for a translation that does not differ in meaning from the original text, and that enables the reader to read the translation and feel the same as the reader of the original text. This formulation is very close to the modern equivalence translation theory."The May Fourth Literary Revolution" replaced the literary language with the vernacular language, changing the direction of Chinese literature and becoming a watershed in the history of modern translation.

The meaning of this passage is quite rich and comprehensive. It covers style, grammar, rhetoric, and even the field of general cultural studies. Ma Jianzhong's standard of "good translation" is to strive for a translation that does not differ in meaning from the original text, and that enables the reader to read the translation and feel the same as the reader of the original text. This formulation is very close to the modern equivalence translation theory."The May Fourth Literary Revolution" replaced the literary language with the vernacular language, changing the direction of Chinese literature and becoming a watershed event in the history of modern translation.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

Lu Xun, who was the most influential translator among the left-wing literati in the 1930s, opposed the localization of the cultural "other" and advocated that "all translations must take into account both sides, one of course striving for its easy interpretation and the other preserving the richness of the original work". He advocates changing the cultural narcissism of the nation through translation, and proposes the principle of "hard translation" of "preferring to believe rather than obey" in response to Zhao Jingshen's "preferring to obey rather than believe", which gives translation another function: promoting the culture of the subject. It was also given another function: to promote the language reform of the main culture.

Lu Xun, who was the most influential translator among the left-wing literaries in the 1930s, opposed the localization of the cultural "other" and advocated that "all translations must take into account both sides, one of course striving for its easy interpretation and the other preserving the richness of the original work". He advocates changing the cultural narcissism of the nation through translation, and proposes the principle of "hard translation" of "preferring to believe rather than obey" in response to Zhao Jingshen's "preferring to obey rather than believe", which gives translation another function: promoting the culture of the subject. It was also given another function: to promote the language reform of the main culture.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

The representatives of the three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation have one thing in common: to promote the scientific and technological cultural development of the country and the nation through translation. As an accompanying culture of language, translation is inevitably subject to the constraints and influences of social, historical and cultural factors, which in turn react on social and historical culture. Translation strategies and methods cannot presuppose an always correct premise, but change with the development of the subject culture. Therefore, under certain historical conditions, one cannot simply promote or criticize a certain type of translation method, but should examine whether it can enrich the subject culture or promote the reform of the subject culture.

The representatives of the three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation have one thing in common, that is, to promote the scientific and technological cultural development of the country and the nation through translation. As an accompanying culture of language, translation is inevitably subject to the constraints and influences of social, historical and cultural factors, which in turn reacts on social and historical culture. Translation strategies and methods cannot presuppose a totally correct premise, but change with the development of the subject culture. Therefore, under certain historical conditions, one cannot simply promote or criticize a certain type of translation method, but should examine whether it can enrich the subject culture or promote the reform of the subject culture.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

===III.The Impact of Three Translation Climaxes on Chinese Society and Culture in the History of Chinese Translation===

====1.The first translation climax====
"The first translation climax in China was the translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Han Dynasty, flourished in the Tang Dynasty, declined in the Song Dynasty, and was nearing its end in the Yuan Dynasty, and its influence on Chinese culture and thought was enormous. In general, it seems that any phenomenon in human history has its specific political, economic and cultural background, which provides the soil for the germination and growth of this phenomenon, and translation of Buddhist scriptures is no exception." (Cai Xinle 2006 (10): 23)

"The first high point of translation in China was the translation of Buddhist scriptures, which began in the Han Dynasty, flourished in the Tang Dynasty, declined in the Song Dynasty, and came to an end in the Yuan Dynasty, and its influence on Chinese culture and thought was enormous. Generally speaking, the emergence of any phenomenon in human history has its specific political, economic and cultural background, which provides the soil for the germination and growth of such phenomenon, and translation of Buddhist scriptures is no exception."(Cai Xinle 2006 (10): 23)--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the main body of translators were monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on.

During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the poor socio-political conditions made the working people want to get spiritual comfort through religion, and the rulers at that time also wanted to use Buddhism to anesthetize and confuse the common people to consolidate their own ruling position, which opened the door for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. At this time, the translators were mainly some monks, who were supported by the ruling class and had a special translation field. During this period, many translation theorists and masters emerged, such as Zhiqian, Dao'an, Hatamurash, Xuanzang, Zanin and so on.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

All of them have their own representative translation theories, and their efforts are inseparable from the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation. At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also brought great influence to Chinese culture, such as: influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning; enriching the world of imagination; strengthening storytelling; changing the form of literature; and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; in turn, the development of translation business also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.

All of them have their own representative translation theories, and their efforts are inseparable from the popularization of Buddhism in China and the development of translation. At the same time, the translation of Buddhist scriptures also brought great influence to Chinese culture, such as: influencing the Chinese language in terms of sound and word, word and meaning, enriching the world of imagination, strengthening storytelling, changing the form of literature, and influencing people's outlook on life. On the whole, translation of Buddhist scriptures is not a simple code-switching, it needs conditions and social soil for its emergence and development; or vice versa, the development of translation cause also nourishes the soil where it is nurtured.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.The second translation climax====
The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties from the 16th to the 18th century was the second climax of translation after the translation of Buddhist scriptures, and the first climax of scientific and technological translation in the history of China. The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties not only introduced advanced scientific and technological knowledge from abroad and made modern scientific research in China sprout, but also some translation concepts in this climax of scientific and technological translation are still worthy of reference for translation researchers. Therefore, scientific and technological translation had a profound impact on Chinese society.

The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties from the 16th to the 18th century was the second climax of translation after the translation of Buddhist scriptures, and the first climax of scientific and technological translation in the history of China. The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties not only introduced advanced scientific and technological knowledge from abroad and made modern scientific research in China spring up, but also some translation concepts in this climax of scientific and technological translation are still worthy of reference for translation researchers. Therefore, scientific and technological translation had a profound impact on Chinese society.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

The second translation climax went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to the progress of science and technology and social development. With the development of navigation, exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not only limited to commodities, but also culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation.

The second climax of translation went beyond the scope of religious translation and was linked to technological progress and social development. With the development of maritime navigation, the exchanges between countries were more frequent than before, and such exchanges were not limited to commodities, but also included culture, science and technology, religion and politics. At the same time, the development of handicraft industry in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties contrasted with the relative backwardness of science and technology, which was the historical requirement for the emergence of scientific and technological translation. --[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

"In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as a medium of exchange between Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendars, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc., into China. (Chen Fukang 2002: 13)

"In the midst of continuous exchanges, missionaries in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, as a medium of exchange between Chinese and Western thought and culture, imported Western European science and culture such as calendars, astronomy, mathematics, physics, philosophy, etc., into China. (Chen Fukang 2002: 13)--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

Many of the most famous translators emerged during this period: Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbai, the Germans Tang Ruowang, the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo. The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize the deficiencies of Chinese culture and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China, and to be inspired in their thinking.

During this period, many of the most famous translators emerged, such as Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Yang Tingjun, as well as the Italians Ricci and Xiong Sanbao, the Germans Tang Ruowang, and the Belgians Nan Huairen and James Luo. The translated scientific and technological works had a certain influence on the cultural structure of China at that time, making a group of aspirants realize Chinese cultural deficiencies and the importance of science and technology, thus promoting the development of Chinese science and technology, and laying the foundation for the later translations of Western studies, which enabled Chinese intellectuals to see the Western advancement and China itself, and to be inspired in their thinking.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

====3.The third Translation Climax====
China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the face of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and tried to introduce Western learning through various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress.

China's humiliating modern history brought about great changes in the aspect of society and people's thinking, and more and more educated people began to recognize China's backwardness and intended to learn from Western countries by various means to spread some new technologies and ideas, in order to open up the people's wisdom and promote social progress.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

"During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then of social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, with the appearance of traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and strong political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented." (Hu Cui'e 2007: 43)

"During this period, translations of natural sciences first appeared, then social sciences, and later literary translations took shape, including traditional Chinese social novels, romance novels and historical novels, as well as political novels, educational novels, science fiction novels and detective novels, which were not found in traditional Chinese novels. The instrumentalism and political overtones of these literary translations were unprecedented." (Hu Cui'e 2007: 43)--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists include Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xu Bai, Chen Xi Ying, Lin Yutang, and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China.

A large number of translations led to a great development of translation theories, and the famous translators and translation theorists included Yan Fu, Lin Shu, Zhang Yuanji, Zhang Shizhao, Lu Xun, Qu Qubai, Zeng Xubai, Chen XiYing, Lin Yutang and so on. They have discussed translation strategies, translation standards and translation criticism, which have made great contributions to the development of translation theories in China.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on the Chinese language was also tremendous. "Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on "absolute vernacular"; others, such as Lu Xun, "disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'vernacular'. (Jiang Xiaohua 2003: 12). (Jiang Xiaohua 2003: 12)"

On the other hand, the impact of this translation climax on Chinese was also tremendous. Some translators, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu, insisted on "absolute vernacular"; others, such as Lu Xun, "disagreed with the absolute exclusion of literary language and written language from the translation language and advocated the so-called 'absolute vernacular'. (Jiang Xiaohua 2003: 12)"--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

In short, this culmination of translation freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expressive power of the language, making it very different from the previous one in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors, while at the same time, its grammatical functions were also enhanced.

In short, this culmination of translation has freed Chinese from the constraints of literary language and greatly enhanced the expression of the language, making it very different from before in terms of its expressive, communicative, and aesthetic functions, and enriching its emotional colors,at the same time, its grammatical functions have also been enhanced.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

===IV.Conclusion===
Translation as an intercultural communication activity has a long history. Xu Jun once said, "Translation activity itself is not static, but constantly enriched and developed in form according to the actual communication needs at different historical stages. And with the continuous enrichment of the concrete practice of translation, people's understanding of translation is bound to change constantly." (Xu Jun 2006: 30).

The representatives of the three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation have one thing in common: to promote the scientific and technological culture of the country and the nation forward through translation. Translation, as an accompanying culture of language, is inevitably conditioned and influenced by social, historical and cultural factors, and in turn, it reacts to social history and culture.

The representatives of the three large-scale translation climaxes in the history of Chinese translation have one thing in common, that is, to promote the scientific and technological culture of the country and the nation forward through translation. Translation, as an accompanying culture of language, is inevitably conditioned and influenced by social, historical and cultural factors, and in turn, it reacts to social history and culture.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:20, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

Translation exposes people to new cultures, new things and new concepts, broadens their minds and enriches their languages, thus to a certain extent promoting the development of cultural history, and some people even put forward the saying that "the history of translation in a country is the history of culture". It has been said that the history of translation is the history of culture. In the future, with the further deepening of various exchanges between countries, translation is bound to play an increasingly important role and further promote the development of world history and culture.

Translation exposes people to new cultures, new ideas and new concepts, broadens their horizons and enriches their languages, thus to a certain extent promoting the development of cultural history, and some people even put forward the saying that "the history of translation in a country is the history of culture". It has been said that the history of translation is the history of culture. In the future, with the further deepening of various exchanges between countries, translation is bound to play an increasingly important role and further promotes the development of world history and culture.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:20, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

===References===
Ma Zuyi. 马祖毅.(1998).中国翻译简史.[A brief history of Chinese translation]. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Foreign Translation and Publishing Corporation]46-48.

Ma Zuyi. 马祖毅.(1998).中国翻译简史.[A brief history of Chinese translation]. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation]46-48.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:28, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

Lefevere Andre.(1998).Introduction:Where Are We inTranslation Studies[A] In Susan Bassnett&Andre Lefevere (eds.) .Constructing Cultures: Essays on translation[C].Clevedon:Multilingual Matters Ltd.3.

Lefevere Andre.(1998).Introduction:Where Are We in Translation Studies [A] In Susan Bassnett&Andre Lefevere (eds.) .Constructing Cultures: Essays on translation [C] . Clevedon: Multilingual Matters Ltd.3.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:28, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

Zhang Jinghua.张景华.(2006）从“硬译”透视鲁迅对中国文化转型的探索.[Lu Xun's exploration of Chinese cultural transformation through the lens of "hard translation"].四川外语学院学报.[Journal of Sichuan Institute of Foreign Languages]66-71.

Zhang Jinghua.张景华.(2006）从“硬译”透视鲁迅对中国文化转型的探索.[Lu Xun's exploration of Chinese cultural transformation through the lens of "hard translation"].四川外语学院学报.[Journal of Sichuan International Studies University]66-71.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:28, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

Liao Qiyi.廖七一.(2002).重写神话:女性主义与翻译研究.[Rewriting myths: Feminism and translation studies]. 四川外语学院学报[Journal of Sichuan Institute of Foreign Languages]106-109.

Liao Qiyi.廖七一.(2002).重写神话:女性主义与翻译研究.[Rewriting myths: Feminism and translation studies]. 四川外语学院学报[Journal of Journal of Sichuan International Studies University]106-109.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:28, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

Da Xiang.达向.(2005).文明探索:明朝.[Exploration of civilization: Ming Dynasty].郑州:大象出版社.[Zhengzhou: Daxiang Publishing House]61-64.

Da Xiang.达向.(2005).文明探索:明朝.[Exploration of civilization: Ming Dynasty].郑州:大象出版社.[Zhengzhou: Elephant Press]61-64.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:28, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

Gu Jun,Gu Nong.顾均,顾农.(1999).鲁迅主张“硬译”的文化意义.[The cultural significance of Lu Xun's advocacy of "hard translation"].鲁迅研究月刊.[ Lu Xun Studies Monthly]12-13.

Gu Jun,Gu Nong.顾均,顾农.(1999).鲁迅主张“硬译”的文化意义.[The cultural significance of Lu Xun's advocacy of "hard translation"].鲁迅研究月刊.[ Luxun Research Monthly]12-13.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:28, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

Lu Xun.鲁迅.鲁迅散文 (第3集).Lu Xun's Prose (3rd collection).(1992).北京:中国广播电视出版社.[Beijing: China Radio and Television Press]12-13.

Lu Xun.鲁迅.鲁迅散文 (第3集).Lu Xun's Prose (3rd collection).(1992).北京:中国广播电视出版社.[Beijing: China Radio Film & TV Press]12-13.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:28, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

Cai Xinle.蔡新乐.(2006).文化史就是翻译—陈寅恪的历史发现与其翻译观初探[Cultural history is translation: A preliminary investigation of Chen Yinke's historical discovery and his view of translation ].外语与外语教学, [Foreign Languages and Foreign Language Teaching]23.

Cai Xinle.蔡新乐.(2006).文化史就是翻译—陈寅恪的历史发现与其翻译观初探[Cultural history is translation: A preliminary investigation of Chen Yinke's historical discovery and his view of translation ].外语与外语教学, [Foreign Languages and Their Teaching]23.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:28, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

Chen Fukang.陈福康.(2002).中国译学理论史稿[A draft of the history of Chinese translation theory].上海:上海外语教育出版社 [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press]13.

Hu Cui'e.胡翠娥.(2007).文学翻译与文化参考—晚清小说翻译的文化研究[Literary Translation and Cultural Reference:A Cultural Study of the Translation of Novels in the Late Qing Dynasty].上海:上海外语教育出版社 [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]43.

Hu Cui'e.胡翠娥.(2007).文学翻译与文化参考—晚清小说翻译的文化研究[Literary Translation and Cultural Reference:A Cultural Study of the Translation of Novels in the Late Qing Dynasty].上海:上海外语教育出版社 [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press]43.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:28, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

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--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:23, 30 October 2020 (UTC)

='''Western Translation Theories'''=

==An Analysis of the Limits of Translatability from the Perspectives of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida's Translation Theories 文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi,202020080650==
<center>文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi</center>
===Abstract===
Since there are no identical languages in the world, languages differ not only in the system of linguistic signs but also in culture. In the process of translation, there might be some limits of translatability. Briefly speaking, the limits of translatability are divided into two types. One is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida both have mentioned their opinions about the limits of translatability in their works. After introducing their translation theories and their definitions of translation, this paper will give a brief introduction to their views of untranslatability. Then, this paper also exemplifies some examples of these two kinds of untranslatability. The aim of this paper is to analyze the reasons which cause the limits of translatability and to find some translation strategies to deal with these limits.

===Key Words===
Untranslatability, J. C. Catford, Eugene A. Nida
===题目===
根据卡特福德和尤金·奈达的翻译理论观点分析翻译的限制

===摘要===
世界上没有两种完全相同的语言，每种语言都有独特的语言结构和文化内涵。翻译中可能会出现一些不可译的现象。一般来说，翻译的限制大致分为语言不可译和文化不可译两种。对于翻译的限制的问题，卡特福德和尤金·奈达都有各自的看法。本文除了介绍他们各自的翻译理论和对翻译的定义以外，还介绍了他们各自对翻译的限制的看法。同时，本文还分别列举了语言不可译和文化不可译的一些实例，希望借此进一步分析造成翻译中语言不可译和文化不可译的原因以及寻找其对应的翻译策略。

===关键词===
不可译；卡特福德；尤金·奈达
===1.Introduction===
Translation is an activity that concerns more than two languages. Narrowly speaking, every language contains its own linguistic structure and cultural connotation so that some aspects of various languages are quite different. These may cause the gap between the source language and the target language in translation. Accordingly, some problems of translation may be certain to arise at the same time such as the dispute over the translatability and untranslatability. Different scholars hold their own opinions.

On the one hand, some scholars are very strict to the definition of translation and the limits of translatability. For example, J. C. Catford states that each language is an isolated linguistic system and the formal and contextual meaning of a language are decided by the formal and contextual relations of the language. It is impossible to translate the linguistic meaning from one language to another. But it can implant the values of the source language into the target language by using the process of transference. And Catford also proposes two kind of untranslatability which are linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability.

On the other hand, some scholars are positive to the limits of translatability. For example, Eugene A. Nida approves that there are some general principles of all languages so that all languages can produce the same expression effects to satisfy the needs of expressing ideas and communication. He holds that translation should take the readers as its primary objective.

J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida’s views of the limits of translatability are different. To study this question further, it is of necessary to understand and assimilate some opinions of Catford and Nida. And based on both of their translation theories, the aim of this paper is to provide some new ideas about the limits of translatability.

===2.The Limits of Translatability===
====2.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida’s Translation Theories====
2.1.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and His Translation Theory

J. C. Catford is a famous linguist and translation theorist in Britain and his representative work in the field of translation is called ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' which has first published by Oxford University Press in 1965. This book is an important milestone in the field of translation theory and exerts a profound influence to the western translation theory. In this book, Catford holds that translation has to be based on a general linguistic theory and the theory of translation is a branch of comparative linguistics. The reason why is that “translation has to do with language, the analysis and description of translation-processes must take considerable use of categories set up for the description of languages.” And Catford mentions that the general linguistic theories used in this book to a large extent are influenced by the works of M. A. K. Halliday and J. R. Firth.(Catford, 1965,vii)

He also holds that language is a two-directional process while translation is a unidirectional process which is performed from a source language to a target language. Besides, he believes that “translation equivalences may be set up, and translation performed, between any pair of languages or dialects- related or unrelated and with any kind of spatial, temporal, social or other relationship between them.” He also distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. The former refers to that the meanings of target language items are set up by the formal and contextual relations in the target language itself while the later refers to that parts of the target text have values set up in the source language. (Catford, 1965,20)

In this way, he proposes his ideas about the conditions of translation equivalence and the types of translation shifts. In the final part of this book, he discusses the limits of translatability and mentions two kind of untranslatability called linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. And he holds that “cultural untranslatability is ultimately describable in all cases as a variety of linguistic untranslatability.” From this perspective, we can find that Catford emphasizes the values of the linguistic items in its own linguistic system and he pays attention to formal equivalence and conceptual meaning. All in all, Catford provides a scientific and objective way of studying translation theories.(Catford, 1965,103)

In this way, Catford proposes his ideas about the conditions of translation equivalence and the types of translation shifts. In the final part of the book, he discusses the limits of translatability and mentions two kinds of untranslatability called linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. And he holds that “cultural untranslatability is ultimately describable in all cases as a variety of linguistic untranslatability.” From this perspective, we can find that Catford emphasizes the values of the linguistic items in its own linguistic system and he pays an attention to formal equivalence and conceptual meaning. All in all, Catford provides a scientific and objective way of studying translation theories.(Catford, 1965,103)--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 02:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

2.1.2 A Brief Introduction to Eugene A. Nida and His Translation Theory

Eugene A. Nida is one of the pioneers of modern discipline of translation studies. He is keen on the translation of Bible and he is also one of the main editors of the magazine called ''The Bible Translator''. As the executive secretary of the American Bible Society Translation Department and one of the main members of the United Bible Society Working Committee, Nida undertakes much of the organization of Bible translation. Although Nida doesn’t translate any complete works by himself, he proposes lots of translation principles which influence the practices of Bible translation. He encourages translators to use a common language which refers to a language that could be accepted and understood by most readers.(Nida, 1982,vii)

The development of Nida’s translation theories can be divided into three parts. The first part is the stage of descriptive linguistics whose main focus is the syntactical and lexical phenomenon of languages. He is influenced by the father of the structuralist linguistics in the United States called Leonard Bloomfield and an American anthropologist and linguist called Edward Sapir. The second stage is the communication theory in which Nida’s achievements ensure his status in the field of the western translation theory study. In this period, he publishes his famous works such as ''Toward a Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. （谭载喜，1999,xv）

The development of Nida’s translation theories can be divided into three parts. The first part is the stage of descriptive linguistics whose main focus is the syntactical and lexical phenomenon of languages. He is influenced by the father of the structuralist linguistics in the United States called Leonard Bloomfield and an American anthropologist and linguist called Edward Sapir. The second stage is the communication theory in which Nida’s achievements ensure his status in the field of the western translation theory study. In this period, he publishes his famous works such as ''Toward a Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. （Tan Zaixi，1999,xv）--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 02:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Nida states that “translation is far more than a science and it is also a skill and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art.” He also proposes the communicative translation theory by adding the information theory into translation. Moreover, he also proposes his famous theory called the dynamic-equivalence theory which refers to translate “thought for though” rather than “word for word”. And in the third stage, Nida’s main focus is componential analysis of meaning. His main ideas of this period are that language is a system of signs so that the analysis of translation should be taken from the perspectives of sociolinguistics and semiotics. And Nida replaces dynamic equivalence by functional equivalence. And he also pays attention to the problems of rhetoric in translation, especially the contrastive rhetoric. All in all, Nida has contributed to the biblical translation and translation theories all his life.(Nida, 1982,vii)

Nida states that “translation is far more than a science and it is also a skill and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art.” He also proposes the communicative translation theory by adding the information theory into translation. Moreover, he also proposes his famous theory called the dynamic-equivalence theory which refers to translate “thought for though” rather than “word for word”. And in the third stage, Nida’s mainly focus on the componential analysis of meaning. His main ideas of this period are that language is a system of signs so that the analysis of translation should be taken from the perspectives of sociolinguistics and semiotics. And Nida replaces dynamic equivalence by functional equivalence. And he also pays attention to the problems of rhetoric in translation, especially the contrastive rhetoric. All in all, Nida has contributed to the biblical translation and translation theories all his life.(Nida, 1982,vii)--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 02:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.2The Definition of Translation according to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida====
2.2.1 The Definition of Translation according to J. C. Catford

The definition of translation is a subject at issue in the field of translation theories. Broadly speaking, every translation theorist clings to the ideas of his own understanding. According to Catford, translation is a process performed from a source language into a target language. He states that “translation is the replacement of textual material in one language (source language) by equivalent textual material in another language (target language).” He explains the implication of “textual material” that there may be some replacements by no-equivalent target language material. The main focus of translation practice is to find target language translation equivalents and the main focus of translation theory is to define the nature and conditions of translation equivalence.(Catford, 1965,20)

Besides, Catford distinguishes textual equivalence and formal correspondence. For him, the former refers to that "any target language form is observed to be the equivalent of a given source language form." The later refers to that "any target category occupies the same place in the economy of the target language as the given category occupies in the source language." He adds that formal correspondence can be only approximate rather than identical.(Catford, 1965,27)

Besides, Catford distinguishes textual equivalence and formal correspondence. For him, the former refers to that “any target language form is observed to be the equivalent of a given source language form.” The later one refers to that “any target category occupies the same place in the economy of the target language as the given category occupies in the source language.” He adds that formal correspondence can be only approximate rather than identical.(Catford, 1965,27)--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 11:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

As for the theory of meaning in translation, Catford holds that it is impossible for source language and target language text to have that same meaning. He borrows the definition of meaning proposed by J. R. Firth that “meaning is the total network of relations entered into by any linguistic forms.” There are two relations called formal relations and contextual relations so that there are accordingly two kinds of meanings. One is formal meaning that is constituted by the various formal relations. Another is contextual meaning that is constituted by a range of situational elements.(Catford, 1965,27)

As for the theory of meaning in translation, Catford holds that it is impossible for the source language text and the target language ones to have that same meaning. He borrows the definition of meaning proposed by J. R. Firth that “meaning is the total network of relations entered into by any linguistic forms.” There are two relations called formal relations and contextual relations so that there are accordingly two kinds of meanings. One is formal meaning that is constituted by the various formal relations. The other is contextual meaning that is constituted by a range of situational elements.(Catford, 1965,27)--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 11:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Because of the approximation of the formal correspondence, it is clear that it is nearly impossible for the formal meanings of source language items to be identical with target language items. Therefore, Catford proposes a process called transference that refers to an operation to set up values of the source language into the target language text. As a result, Catford distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. He states that translation means the substitution of target language meanings for source language meanings while transference contains the implantation of source language meanings into the target language text.(Catford, 1965,35)

Because of the approximation of the formal correspondence, it is nearly impossible for the formal meanings of source language items to be identical with target language items. Therefore, Catford proposes a process called transference which refers to an operation to set up values of the source language into the target language text. As a result, Catford distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. He states that translation means the substitution of target language meanings for source language meanings while transference contains the implantation of source language meanings into the target language text.(Catford, 1965,35) --[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 11:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The source language and target language items have little similarities of the meaning in the linguistic sense so the aim of the translation is to select target language equivalents with the greatest possible overlap of situational range as the source language items. Catford concludes conditions for translation equivalence that translation equivalence occurs when there are some identical features of substance between the source language and target language. According to his distinction of the total translation and restricted translation, Catford proposes some limits of translatability.(Catford, 1965,35)

The source language and target language items have little similarities of the meaning in the linguistic sense, so the aim of the translation is to select target language equivalents with the greatest possible overlap of situational range as the source language items. Catford concludes conditions for translation equivalence that translation equivalence occurs when there are some identical features of substance between the source language and the target language. According to his distinction of the total translation and restricted translation, Catford proposes some limits of translatability.(Catford, 1965,35)--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 11:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

2.2.2 The Definition of Translation according to Eugene A. Nida

In the book called ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'', Nida has mentioned that “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” To define translation in this way, Nida emphasizes the importance of reproducing the message rather than remaining the form of the utterance. He also emphasizes the closet natural equivalent which refers to the closet relationship between the meaning of source language and target language. Besides, he deems the priority of meaning and the significance of style. Therefore, he states that the departures from the formal structure are legitimate and desirable. Nida proposes some principles of translation, for example, contextual consistency is prior verbal over consistency and dynamic equivalence is prior over formal correspondence.(Nida, 1982,12)

Nida states two types of equivalence that one is formal equivalence and another is dynamic equivalence and he also deems that the aim of translation is to find the closet possible equivalent. Formal correspondence refers to a kind of gloss translation that the translator tries to reproduces the form and content of the message in the source language. In such a translation, it is concerned with correspondences as sentence to sentence or concept to concept.(Nida, 1982,13)

Nida states two types of equivalence that one is formal equivalence and the other is dynamic equivalence and he also deems that the aim of translation is to find the closet possible equivalent. Formal correspondence refers to a kind of gloss translation that the translator tries to reproduces the form and content of the message in the source language. In such a translation, it is concerned with correspondences as sentence to sentence or concept to concept.(Nida, 1982,13)--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 12:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

It may be determined by the translation standards such as accuracy and correctness. In contrast to formal correspondence, a translation of dynamic equivalence is based on the principle to produce equivalent effects. It pays attention to the dynamic relationship between receptor and message which needs to be similar to the relationship between the original receptors and the message. The aim of dynamic equivalence is the naturalness of expression so that the receptor could understand the message under his own cultural patterns rather than that of the source language context.(Nida, 1982,13)

Nida also mentions the restrictions of the permissible degree of dynamic equivalence in translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. The linguistic restrictions involve the literary forms and the vehicles and the cultural restrictions involve the standard of “faithfulness” and the diversity of dialects in the receptor language.(Nida, 1982,12)

====2.3The Limits of Translatability according to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida====
2.3.1The Limits of Translatability according to J. C. Catford

In ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford distinguishes two kinds of translations which are called total translation and restricted translation according to the levels of language involved in translation. Total translation is defined as “replacement of source language grammar and lexis by equivalent target language grammar and lexis with consequential replacement of source language phonology/graphology by(non-equivalent) target language phonology/graphology.” And restricted translation is defined as “replacement of source language textual material by equivalent target language textual material, at only one level.” This kind of translation is performed only at the phonological or at the graphological level, or at only one of the two levels of grammar and lexis.(Catford,1965, 22)

As for the limits of translatability for restricted translation, Catford generalizes two limits. The first is that translation between media is impossible. In other words, to translate the spoken form of a text to a written form is impossible. The reason is that the phonic and graphic substance are absolutely different. The phonic substance is relevant to the sound produced in the human vocal tract while the graphic substance is relevant to visible marks on papers or stones.(Catford,1965, 22)

Therefore, it is only a universal practice among literates to converse spoken medium to written medium. And the second kind of limit is that translation between either of the medium-levels and the levels of grammar and lexis is impossible. It is the same that phonic and graphic substance are absolutely different from situation- substance. As a result, there is never any translation from the levels of grammar and/or lexis to the levels of phonology or graphology, and vice versa.(Catford,1965, 23)

As for the limits of translatability for total translation, Catford states that “translatability appears to be a cline rather than a clear- cut dichotomy.” In other words, source language texts are not absolutely translatable or untranslatable. As for total translation, both source language and target language text must be relatable to be functionally relevant features of the situation. And the untranslatability or the limits of translatability will occur if it is impossible to build functionally relevant features of the situation into the contextual meaning of the target language text. (Catford,1965, 23)

Broadly speaking, there are two kinds of untranslatability which are linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability occurs when the target language has no formally corresponding features with the source language text. A best example of linguistic untranslatability is an ambiguity peculiar to the source language text. One source of ambiguity is that two or more distinct grammatical or lexical items are expounded in the same phonological or graphological form. Another source of ambiguity is that polysemy. Polysemy means that one single item has a wide contextual meaning so that it may cover a wide range of specific situational features.(Catford, 1965, 93)

All in all, linguistic untranslatability is leaded by the formal linguistic differences when the source language formal feature is itself the functionally relevant feature. And cultural untranslatability occurs when a situational feature is completely absent from the culture of which the target language is a part. It is not so absolutely as linguistic untranslatability. Catford also adds that cultural untranslatability might be a type of linguistic untranslatability in that it refers to the impossibility of finding an equivalent collocation in the target language.(Catford, 1965, 93)

2.3.2 The Limits of Translatability according to Eugene A. Nida

Although there are no identical languages and no absolute correspondences between languages, many languages have the potential and actual equivalence and equivalent idioms. The total impact of a translation may be reasonably close to the original but little identity in detail. It is the fact that each language has its own characteristics and each language is rich in vocabulary for the area of cultural focus. Each language has its own system of symbolizing meaning. It is also the fact that “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another, unless the form is an essential element of the message.” Nida states that the translator must attempt to reproduce the meaning of a passage. (Nida, 1982,4)

Although there are no identical languages and no absolute correspondences between languages, many languages have the potential and actual equivalence and equivalent idioms. The total impact of a translation may be reasonably close to the original but little identity in detail. It is the fact that each language has its own characteristics and is rich in vocabulary for the area of cultural focus. Each language has its own system of symbolizing meaning. It is also the fact that “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another, unless the form is an essential element of the message.” Nida states that the translator must attempt to reproduce the meaning of a passage. (Nida, 1982,4)--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 12:42, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

When the form is of its significance in the source language text, there may be a limitation to express this significance from one language to another. Nida holds that “to preserve the content of the massage the form must be changed.” (Nida, 1982,5) It means that translators may be prepared to alter the forms or sacrifice certain formal niceties to preserve the content. And Nida also adds that “the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend on the linguistic and cultural distance between languages.” (Nida, 1982,5)

As regards to the linguistic and cultural distance, there are three different types of relatedness between the codes used to convey the messages. Firstly, a translation may involve comparatively closely related languages and cultures. Secondly, in a translation, the language may not be related, even though the cultures are closely parallel. Thirdly, a translation may involve not only differences of linguistic affiliation but also highly diverse cultures. In Nida’s view, “differences between cultures cause many more severe complications for the translator than do differences in language structure.” (Nida, 1964,161)

In ''Toward a Science of Translation'', Nida mentions the restrictions on the permissible degree of dynamic equivalence in translation. He states that there are certain serious restrictions of a linguistic and a cultural nature when translators undertake the process of translation with a considerable degree of dynamic equivalence. The linguistic restrictions include the literary forms such as poetry and proverbs and the vehicle used to convey the message such as songs. As for literary forms, sound effect is impossible to be reproduced in that languages are different in the types of sounds they use and the values they tend to attach to these uses. (Nida, 1964,161)

In the translation of the poetry, it is hard to agree with the poetic superstructure in the target language text. Nida deems that the translators may abandon formal equivalence to strive for dynamic equivalence which means to take the liberty of composing another poem capable of eliciting similar feeling. This is the same to the song translators that the form must be maintained so some contents might be sacrificed. It demands much greater conformity to the musical vehicles in the translation of a song. (Nida, 1964,163)

In the translation of poetry, it is hard to agree with the poetic superstructure in the target language text. Nida deems that the translators may abandon formal equivalence to strive for dynamic equivalence which means to take the liberty of composing another poem capable of eliciting similar feeling. This is the same to the song translators that the form must be maintained,so some contents might be sacrificed. It demands much greater conformity to the musical vehicles in the translation of a song. (Nida, 1964,163)--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 12:42, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

Nida also mentions the cultural restrictions which involve attitudes about so-called “faithfulness” in translation, the diversity of dialects in the receptor language and so on. As for pressures from tradition, it concerns that the standards of translation such as “faithfulness”’ “accuracy” and “effect”. The reason is that there are differences of taste in translation at different historical periods. Dialectal differences also cause restrictions upon the form of a translation. (Nida, 1964,162)

Problems of dialectal differences may occur in the phenomenon that how to accommodate these complex linguistic facts or how to deal with the dialectal variations in the text itself. Although there are many restrictions in translation, a good translation is to fulfill the same purpose in a new language as the original does in the language in which it is written.(Nida, 1964,161)

====2.4 Specific Examples to Illustrate the Limits of Translatability====
2.4.1Specific Examples to Illustrate Linguistic Untranslatability

It is obvious that no two languages are identical and each language has its own way to constitute words, phrases and sentences. Each language has its own characteristics especially in vocabulary containing the cultural elements. Some languages may be rich in vocabulary of fishing and hunting while some languages may be rich in the expressions of technology.

Every language has its own ways of classifying the various elements of experiences with the symbols which are quite different from all other languages. The system of language is very complex in that there are lots of ways to symbolize meaning. The way of thinking may be illustrated in the deep layer of language. Different native speakers of different languages may differ in the using of the rhetoric techniques and expressions. There are some examples to illustrate the limits of translatability between Chinese and English.

The first type of these examples is the rhetorical technique called pun. Pun is a clever and amusing use of a word or phrase with more than one meaning or of words with the same or nearly the same sound but different meanings. It just like a game playing with language. There are broadly two kinds of pun which are homophonic pun and homographic pun.

Examples of homophonic pun:

Example 1:
*King: My cousin Hamlet, and my son-how is it that the clouds still hang on you?
*Hamlet: Not so, my lord. I am too much in the sun.(''Hamlet'')

Example 2:
More sun and air for your son and heir.(Hu Yi,1999,8)

Example 3:
东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。(刘禹锡《竹枝词》)

There are many homophonic words in these examples which share the same sound but with different meaning. In English, “sun” and “son” have the same sound as well as “air” and “heir”. In Chinese, “晴” and “情” are identical in pronunciation but containing different meanings. These examples exemplify that it is nearly impossible to translate the form and content of these puns at the same time. The forms of the puns must be changed to convey the meanings.

Examples of homographic pun:

Example 4:
Spoil yourself and not your figure.(Xiang Chengdong,1996,2)

Example 5:
Better late than late.(Hou Weirui,1988)

Example 6:
白团扇，今来此去捐。愿得入郎手，团圆郎眼前。( 张祜《团扇郎》)

There are many homographic words in these expressions. “Spoil oneself” means one gives himself something nice as a treat while “spoil one’s figure” means to get fat. The same is to the word “late” which has two meanings. Late can express the meaning of after the planned, expected or usual time and also can express that someone has died. It is hard to remain the form of the words in the process of translation. It is necessary to scarify the form of the words to express the meanings.

Besides, there is another interesting phenomenon to illustrate the limits of linguistic translatability called palindrome. Palindrome is a word or phrase which is the same when you spell it backwards. It is also a typical character of a language. It is almost impossible to find the formal equivalents of a palindrome in the target language.

Examples of palindrome:

Example 7:
*Madam，I’ m Adam.
*No x in Nixon.
*上海自来水来自海上。

These examples imply the differences between the system of linguistic signs of different languages. Each language has its isolated linguistic system. What translators could do is to find the closet natural equivalent rather than the identical. There are also good examples to translate palindrome in Chinese. A good example to illustrate is to translate “Ma is as selfless as I am” into “妈妈为我, 我为妈妈”.（Zuo Biao,2000）

Another example is to translate “Able was I ere I saw Elba” into “不到俄岛我不倒”. Both translations try to maintain the forms and contents of the palindrome of the source text. Although it is not identical expressions, it is better illustrations of the potential and actual equivalence of languages.（Xu Yuanchong,1984）

The limits of linguistic translatability also manifest in the translation of poetry. There is a large focus on formal elements in the translation of poetry. In this kind of translation, sometimes forms are sacrificed for the sake of contents while more often the contents are restricted in the formal molds. Each poetry has its specific emotional intensity and flavor which are hard to be reproduced in another different language. Taking English poetry as examples, there are foots and rhythm which are particular to the expressions of English poetry. There are eight kinds of foot like iambic, trochee and so on. Besides, there are tetrameter, pentameter and so on to express the flowing of words.

Example 8:
Life is the lust of a lamp for the light that is dark till the dawn of the day that we die．(Algernon Charles Swinburne, ''Nephelidia'')

From this examples, it is obvious that the use of rhymes in poetry is various in different languages. It is hard to reproduce these elements with another kind of linguistic signs. The ways of rhymes like alliteration and assonance are impossible to find the formal equivalents in Chinese. One of the reasons may be that the linguistic distance of English and Chinese is so far that there is little linguistic affirmation. The codes used to convey the message are totally different.

2.4.2 Specific Examples to Illustrate Cultural Untranslatability

Culture is integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief and behavior. It consists ideas, customs, taboos and so on. Each human society has its own particular culture which is manifested in folk culture, enterprise culture or food culture. Each language has a system of linguistic signs to express its own cultural substances and values. In fact, the limits of cultural translatability are not so absolute as linguistic untranslatability. It is relative untranslatability.

Idioms is a product of culture which is also called the linguistic forms of culture. Idiom refers to a group of words that have a special meaning whose meaning can’ t be guessed from each separate word. Idiom is related to some connotative meanings which differs in the cultural background of each national community. As a result, the translation of idioms needs to convey the massage of some cultural elements. Although culture differs from each community, translators need to use different translation strategies to convey the cultural information as more as possible. Usually, there are three methods to translate idioms.

The first method is literal translation which can both convey the literal meaning and rhetorical meaning.

Example 9:
*Pour oil on fire 火上浇油

*Strike while the iron is hot 趁热打铁

*Practice makes perfect 熟能生巧

*Seeing is believing 眼见为实 (Zhang Peiji,1979)

In fact, there are many commonalities between human beings so that there are also some similarities between two languages. This kind of translation is very ideal which expressing both the literal and rhetorical meaning.

However, there are still differences between the cultural background of two languages which are mirrored in the translation of idioms.

The second method is literal translation with annotation which is to translate the literal meaning and explain the rhetorical meaning with annotations.

Example 10:
Every family is said to have at least one skeleton in the cupboard.
衣橱藏骷髅，丑事家家有。(Peng Changjiang,2012,277)

The third method is free translation which is to translate the rhetorical meaning only or to translate the rhetorical meaning and parts of the literal meaning.

Example 11:
*Fish where the fish are. 有的放矢

*You can’t catch old birds with chaff. 有经验的人不易上当受骗

*Shrouds have no pockets. 人死带不走钱财

*Revenge is a dish best eaten cold. 君子报仇十年不晚

These examples are just translating the rhetorical meanings. There are other examples including the translation of both the rhetorical meaning and parts of the literal meaning. For example, translating “破釜沉舟” in Chinese to “burn one’s boat” in English is expressing the rhetorical meaning and similar literal meaning of the idiom.

All in all, the differences between culture deserve further consideration in the translation of idioms. Translators are supposed to choose an appropriate approach to convey the message contained in idioms.

===3.Conclusion===
Each language has its own genius so that it has its special way to build word, phrases and sentences. And it also has its special way to symbolize meanings which depends on its native speakers’ understanding and experiences of the world. And each language has its typical expressions which can be manifested in its specific types of poetry, proverbs and dialects.

All these reasons may have an impact on translation in that there are lots of differences between languages. The limits of translatability are briefly divided into linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. Sometime the linguistic untranslatability is absolute for languages differ in the system of linguistic signs. Therefore, there may be a choice between the form and content of the source language. Sometimes the form of the source text might be sacrificed for the sake of the contents. But the cultural untranslatability is not absolute as the linguistic untranslatability. It is relatively untranslatable. Translators can use some translation strategies to convey the cultural message and explain the implication of the cultural information. Although there are lots of limits of translatability, the ultimate aim of translation is to convey the message rather than to find equivalents in the target language.

===References===
*Catford, J. C.1965. ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation: An Essay in Applied Linguistics''[M]. London: Oxford University Press.
*Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (1999). 《新编奈达论翻译》.[The New Edition of Nida's Theory on Translation]. 中国对外翻译出版公司 [China Translation and Publishing Corporation].
*Nida, Eugene A. & Charles R. Taber. 1982. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill.
*Nida, Eugene A .1964. ''Towards a Science of Translating''[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill.
*Hu Yi. 胡一. (1999). 广告英语的修辞魅力. [Rhetorical Charm of Advertising English]. ''英语学习''[Journal of English Study] (8).
*Xiang Chengdong.项成东.(1996).试谈广告英语中的复义[On Polysemy in Advertising English].''山东外语教学''[Journal of Foreign Language Teaching in Shandong](2).
*Hou Weirui.候维瑞.(1988).《英语语体》[English Style].上海外国教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Education Press].
*Zuo Biao. 左飙.(2000).论文化的可译性[On Translatability of Culture].扬自俭Yang Zijian.英汉语比较与翻译[Comparison and Translation between English and Chinese].上海教育出版社[Shanghai Education Press].
*Xu Yuanchong.许渊冲. (1984).翻译中的几对矛盾[A Few Pairs of Contradictions in Translation].翻译的艺术[Art of Translation].中国对外翻译出版社[China Foreign Translation Press].
*Zhang Peiji. 张培基. (1979).习语汉译英研究[A Study of Chinese-English Translation of Idioms ].商务印书室[Commercial Press].
*Peng Changjiang. 彭长江. (2012).英汉-汉英翻译教程[English-Chinese-English Translation Course].湖南师范大学出版社[Hunan Normal University Press].

==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 陶冶 Tao Ye==
=== Cultural Differences on English Interpretation and the Coping Strategies ===
< c e n t e r > Tao Ye 202020080644 < / c e n t e r >

===Abstract===
Since the reform and opening up,China’s communication with the world has become more and more frequently. At the same time, with the economic globalization, the world has become a global village,and interpretation has becoming more and more needful to human beings. However,because of the lack of intercultural awareness,the interpretation activities has emerged many problems. This thesis introduced the history of interpretation,and the purpose is to point out the intercultural differences in interpretation and the coping strategies.

=== Key Words ===
Key words:intercultural awareness;intercultural differences;coping strategies

=== 题目 ===
英语口译中的文化差异及解决策略

=== 摘要 ===
改革开放以来，中国与世界的交往愈发频繁。同时，随着经济全球化，世界变成了一个“地球村”。口译也越来越为人们所需要。然而，因为缺少跨文化意识，口译也出现了不少问题。本文介绍了口译的历史，本文的目的是指出中英在口译中的文化差异以及解决策略。

=== 关键词 ===
跨文化意识；文化差异；解决办法

=== Introduction ===
Although the origin of interpretation predates translation, there is little evidence for the existence of interpretation history. Until the beginning of the 20th century, interpreters were still generally composed of non-professional translators. In the West, they were mostly university professors, diplomats and journalists with equivalent language and knowledge. Their working style was rigorous and faithful, but there was no theoretical refinement. Such extensive interpretation did not change in the West until after the first World War.(Bao Gang 1998,2)

Although the origin of interpretation predates translation, there is little evidence for the existence of a history of interpretation. Until the early 20th century, interpreters generally consisted of non-professional translators. In the West, they are mostly university professors, diplomats and journalists with the same language and knowledge. Their work style is rigorous and faithful, but there is no theoretical refinement. This broad interpretation did not change in the West until after the First World war. (Bao Gang 1998,2)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan

At the beginning of the 20th century, there was more and more communication between different countries in the world. During this period,the demand for interpreters throughout the world increased as more and more countries came into contact with each other in wars, agreements and international conferences, and the international community diversified its languages. In just a few decades, there has been a great development in interpreting pairs, continuous interpretation is becoming more and more perfect, and a number of famous part-time interpreters had appeared.

Examples include Pauer Mantoux(historian, professor of University of London), an early interpreter who first used sophisticated interpretation techniques in the Paris Peace Conference; Jean Herbert, founder of the United Nations Translation Service and chief interpreter of international conferences, etc. Since then, interpreters have developed a set of systematic working methods, and interpretation has gradually become a professional bilingual communication work.(Bao Gang 1998,3)

For example, using complex for the first time in Paris peace conference interpreting skills early interpreters Paul mann tusk (historian, a professor at the university of London), founder of the translation service, international conference, chief interpreter jean Herbert, etc., from then on, the interpreter formed a system of working methods, gradually become a professional bilingual communication and interpretation.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan

During this period, the interpreters translated after the speaker finishing a paragraph. Because speech and translation are done alternately, it is called "consecutive interpretation" or "continuous interpretation". It was not until the Nuremberg Trial which was after The Second World War that simultaneous interpretation was used for the first time, to make sure that the long trial and the conversations between the judge and the criminals can be done fluently,and to save time. After that, the simultaneous interpretation had becoming popular around the world. The Nuremberg trial after the End of the Second World War is undoubtedly an important turning point in the history of interpretation.(Bao Gang 1998,4)

In 1957, the Sorbonne University of Paris (ESIT-- ECOLE SUPERIEEURE D’INTERPRETES ET TRADUCTEURS) established the first systematic interpretation theory in the world in the 1980s, namely the "interpretive theory" of interpretation. The theory was founded by Danika Selescovic and Mariana Ludere. According to this theory, the essence of interpretation is to release the meaning in the external form of language, and extralinguistic factors such as thinking, knowledge and cognitive process play an important role in its concrete process.(Bao Gang,1998,6)

In contrast, the interpretation work in China started relatively late. In the 1970s, Beijing Translation and Publication Office published a publication translation Communication, which was later renamed China Translation. Most important papers on interpretation in our country are published in this journal. In the 1980s, it published many insightful summaries of interpreting practice by famous Chinese senior interpreters, such as Li Yue Ran and Qi Zong Hua. In the early 1990s, a small number of exploratory papers with the nature of preliminary theoretical sublimation were published, but scientific and systematic research results on interpretation theory have been lacking up to now.(Bao Gang 1998,8)

In 1996, the Translators' Association of China, Nanjing Institute of International Relations, Nanjing Institute of Translators and Interpreters and Beijing Foreign Affairs University jointly hosted the first "National Seminar on Translation Teaching". In the following year, it co-sponsored the International Translation Seminar with Beijing Foreign Studies University, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, etc. .Until now,English interpretation in China has step into a new stage. With more and more Chinese interpreter’s name appeared in the international translation magazines, the interpreters in China has gown a lot of attention,and their theories are becoming important around the world.(Bao Gang,1998,6)

In 1996, the China Translators Association, Nanjing Institute of International Relations, Nanjing Institute of Translation and Interpreting, and Beijing Foreign Affairs University jointly held the first National Seminar on translation teaching. In the following year, it co-organized an international translation seminar with Beijing Foreign Studies University, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, etc. So far, English interpretation in China has entered a new stage. With more and more Chinese translators' names appearing in international translation magazines, Chinese translators have attracted wide attention and their theories are becoming more and more important worldwide.(Bao Gang,1998,6)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Peng juan

=== 1.Cultural Differences in English Interpretations===
Because of different language system and different cultural background,Chinese and English have their unique expression way and formed different way of thinking and value standard. This character of language makes it hard to learn a foreign language, for one thing has different way of saying in different languages. The following paragraphs will explain this relatively in two aspects:color and animal. According to the two different expressions and definitions of them, that the cultural differences between English and Chinese will make sense.
=== 1.1Color ===
Different color represents different meanings in Chinese and English,the following part will explain it in three colors:red,yellow and green.
=== 1.1.1Red===

Chinese people is very familiar with red. In major festive festivals such as the Spring Festival and Lantern Festival and important life events such as weddings, red will become the main decorative color to express festival, auspiciousness and passion. The Chinese words that express this meaning include "满堂红", "万紫千红", "大红大紫", etc., which all entrust people's yearning and joy for a better life. During the Spring Festival, the traditional custom is to put a red couplet on the door, “千门万户瞳瞳日，总把新桃换旧符”(Du Tian Yu 2020,187)

In the traditional wedding ceremony, the bride must wear red formal dress. In addition, the "five-star red flag", "red scarf", and "red revolution" embody the solemnity and awe of red in Chinese. However, in English, although red sometimes does contain similar colors of joy and happiness and serious meanings, such as remembrance day and red carpet, etc. The meaning of cruelty, danger, terror and warning is also very common, such as red-cock (fire caused by arson), red flag (danger signal), red revenge (bloody revenge), and even red in English. It also implies low-level tastes of lewdness, such as red light district,a place which full of brothels,discotheques,bars,nightclubs,etc. (Du Tian Yu 2020,187)

In "The Scarlet Letter" , the red letter A which means adultery stands out on the heroine's chest. In economic terms, red means "loss". Such as in the red,which means a lack of money. In addition, we should also pay attention to the non-correspondence of the concept of color expression in Chinese and English expressions. In the English-Chinese corresponding translation, words of different colors may be used to describe the objective phenomenon of the same thing.

For example, what we say in Chinese "红茶" is not red tea but black tea in English. This is because that Chinese and English see things from different aspect,in China, people regard “红茶”as red;while in English,people think that it is “black tea”. This is due to our different living habits and different angles of observation. The difference can also be seen in “红糖” and “brown sugar”. People in different cultures see the same thing from different aspects,due to different way of looking or understand the world. (Du Tian Yu 2020,187)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan

=== 1.1.2Yellow===

Yellow has multiple images in the expression of Chinese. In ancient times, yellow was regarded as the "color of the emperor". It represents royalty and power,such as the emperor's dragon robe. We sometimes use “黄袍加身”"yellow robe plus body" to describe the emperor's accession to the throne. Both of the two things show the important status and power that yellow represents in Chinese culture. But in English, the color that generally represents the supremacy is purple. The reason is that in ancient Greece and Rome, emperors, consuls, and generals were all dressed in purple. (Du Tian Yu 2020,188)

Wearing purple robe means the rise of power and high social status, such as The Chinese "生在帝王之家" corresponds to the English translation of be born in the purple, and "marry with the royal family or nobles" is to marry into the purple. In English culture, yellow is the color worn by the Jewish people who betrayed Jesus in the Bible, so the expression of yellow in English is often associated with traits such as betrayal, cowardice, and helplessness, such as yellow streak (cowardly) , Yellow-low looks (sullen and suspicious look), yellow livered (cowardly). (Du Tian Yu 2020,188)

At the same time, in Chinese, yellow is also used to express low-level interest, corruption, and other meanings, but we cannot literally translate pornographic magazines as yellow magazines. The yellow corresponding to express pornography in Chinese should be blue in English, such as blue joke (indecent joke), blue movie (porn movie). Due to cultural non-correspondence, the same color produces different images in the brains of people of different nationalities. We should pay special attention to the expression of this situation, and use different color words to express the same associative meaning.
Some words with "黄" in Chinese have nothing to do with yellow in English. For example, "黄道吉日" in English translates it into good luck, "黄毛丫头" in English translates it into a silly little girl, and "黄花" in English. It translates into clay lily and so on. Yellow also has an extended meaning, which means "cowardly, mean," and so on, for example: He is too yellow to stand up and fight. (He is too weak to stand up and fight). It is worth mentioning that, unlike Chinese using "yellow" to mean "obscene and pornographic", blue is often used to mean "yellow" in Chinese, which means "indecent and obscene". For example, blue jokes (indecent jokes), blue revolution (sexual liberation), blue films (yellow movies), blue software (yellow software) and so on.（Tian Yan 2014,121）

At the same time, in Chinese, yellow is also used to mean vulgar taste, corruption and so on, but we can not literally translate pornographic magazines into pornographic magazines. Yellow is blue in English, such as Blue Joke, Blue Movie, Blue Movie, Blue Movie, Blue Movie. As a result of the cultural non-correspondence, the same color has produced the different image in the different National People’s brain. Pay special attention to the expression of this situation, with different color words to express the same associative meaning. Some words with “yellow” are used in Chinese English with yellow. For example, “Auspicious Day” translates into good luck in English, “Yellow Girl” in English translates to a stupid little girl, and “Yellow Flower” in English. It translates as Mud Lily and so on. He was too weak to stand and fight. It is worth mentioning that “Blue” is often used as “yellow” in Chinese, which means “indecent, obscene” , unlike the Chinese word “yellow” which means “obscene, obscene” . Examples are “blue jokes”(dirty jokes) , “Blue Revolution”(sexual liberation) , “Blue Movies”(dirty movies) , “Blue Software”(Dirty Software) , and so on.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan

=== 1.1.3Green===
In Both Chinese and English, green is basically related to hope and good wish, which is often used in environmental protection, such as green consumerism, green energy, etc. But in ancient Chinese culture, green meant low, because low people wore green clothes,such as “绿林好汉”The color green in English has many extended meanings. Green in English often is used to represent a "jealousy, envy, is said to be jealous, unhappy or disease causes the body's secretion of yellow bile, one of the symptoms is either eyes blue or pale, so in English, there is green with envy (very jealous), green as jealousy, in Shakespeare's famous tragedy" Othello "has the green - eyed monster (pro monster, refers to envy) this phrase. "As green as grass," "a green eye," "a green hand," "As green as grass," "A green eye," （Du Tian Yu,2020,187）

So in Chinese "envy" or "against the pink eye" in English should be green - eyed, "red eye" in the Chinese into English in the "green eyes", and if it is translated into "red - eyed" that would be a mistake, British and American people would think that because of eye irritation and congestion is red, and medical "jealous" in English is called "pink eyes". In American politic elections the candidates that win are usually the ones who have green power backing them. Green in English is also used to indicate inexperience, lack of training, lack of knowledge, etc. For example, a green hand means "new person," while a greenhorn means "someone with no experience" or "someone who comes to a new place and doesn't understand the local customs."(Tian Yan,2014,121)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan

=== 1.2Animal===
Due to different cultural background,though the same word will have different representative meaning in different culture. The following paragraph will explain the different meaning of the same word in different culture.
=== 1.2.1Dog===
Though Chinese people feed dog as pet nowadays,dog has been seen as inferior and stupid animal in Chinese culture. In China, people raise dog to protect themselves. Because of the serving capability of dog, people in China often look down upon dogs, and there are many idioms and proverbs to describe Chinese people’s discrimination for dogs. For example:
1.狗胆包天—monstrously audacious
2.狗急跳墙—a cornered beast will dosomething desperate
3.狗屁不通—mere trash；unreadable rubbish
4.猪狗不如---that one is too evil to compare as a pig and dog
5.狗头军师—a person who offers bad advice
6.狗尾续貂—a dog’s tail joined to sable

7.狗血喷头—pour out a flood of invective against somebody
8.狗眼看人低—be a bloody snob

9.狗仗人势—like a dog threatening people depending on the strength its master’s power

10.狗嘴里吐不出象牙—no ivory issues from the mouth of a dog(Liu Xiang Ya 2009,154)
On the contrary, the English people regard dog as their best friend. Dog can play with them,eat dinner with them,and even sleep with them. Dog is a kind of family member in English society,and a trustful friend to English people. There are some examples:
Hot dog——A lucky dog——幸运儿
Top dog——胜利者，夺魁者；主要人物
A clever dog——聪明的小孩子；伶俐的小伙子Sea dog——老练的水手，海员
Big dog——要人，大亨，保镖
A gay dog——快活的人，爱开玩笑的人Love me，love dog——爱屋及乌
Work like a dog——拼命工作的人
To help a lame dog over a stile——雪中送炭As a dog with two tails——非常开心
A good dog deserves a good bone——有功者受赏An old dog——经验丰富的人，年事已高的人
An old dog barks not in vain——老将出马一个顶俩
The more I see of men，the more I admire dogs——我愈观察人，我愈爱慕狗(Zhao Le 2013,155)
According to the Bible, everything in the world is created by God, and animals are also created by him. Everyone is equal before God, and the core of the democratic spirit in the doctrine itself is the direct theoretical source of the modern Western thought of "freedom, equality and fraternity". Since then, the concept of equality has become an unshakable idea in the West and a kind of national cultural psychology in the West. "Dog is man's best friend" is not just a verbal expression. Westerners' love for dogs is also reflected in their daily life. In Europe, dog ownership is common in both rural and urban areas. (Zhao Le 2013,155)
English people treat dogs as companions, as friends, as family members. In some European homes, the dog does not have an extra meaning. It can walk and rest in every room of its owner. The host treats, the guest friend is full, it is free, still around the table to eat, the dog's saliva water flows down, the host or the guest will use the napkin to wipe it, even directly with the hand wipe, just like to treat their own children. There is no cultural psychology of "respecting guests before scolding dogs" as Chinese people think, which is also related to the abstract logical thinking mode of Westerners. There is no connection between the "fawning and fawning" image of dogs, but it is just a kind of nature of dogs.(Zhao Le 2013,155)

=== 1.2.2Dragon===
In Western myths and legends, a dragon is an extremely fierce monster that can breathe fire to destroy buildings and is extremely destructive. Dragon refers to people often contain derogatory sense, for example: Shakespeare writes of Juliet hearing Romeo kill:
O serpent heart, hid with a flowering face!
Did ever dragon keep so fair a cave?
Beautiful tyrant! fiend angelical!
Oh, the heart of a viper in the face of a flower!
Which dragon dwelt in this elegant cave?
Beautiful tyrant! The angelic devil！(Huang Fu Hong 2000,8)

In English, the old dragon means a devil. Westerners believe that Dragon is a symbol of satyr and a monster of cruelty and abuse, which should be destroyed. In some legends about saints and heroes, the deeds of fighting against monsters like dragons often end with the monsters being killed. The letter is probably best known as the Anglo-Saxon narrative poem Beowulf. Regardless of his old age, Beowulf determined to kill the dragon to rescue people. He took the eleven warriors to fight and and devoted his life for the people happiness.(Huang Fu Hong 2000,8)

The word "龙" in Chinese, as we are all familiar with, cannot be translated literally as "Dragons". The reason is that the English people have a terrible impression of the dragon, which is the symbol of crime. Many English-language newspapers cater to the habits of their British and American readers, and their translations have undergone a cultural transformation. Asia's "Four Tigers" is an apt translation.(Huang Fu Hong 2000,8)

The dragon is said in the year of the Dragon, from the comparison of dragon culture, the integration of Chinese and Western culture and national psychological characteristics can be seen. This is a problem we should pay attention to in foreign language learning and teaching Chinese as a foreign language.(Huang Fu Hong,2000,8)

Dragon means in the year of the Dragon, from the comparison of dragon culture, we can see the fusion of Chinese and Western culture and national psychological characteristics. This is the problem that we should pay attention to in the study and teaching of Chinese as a foreign language. (huang fuhong, 2000,8)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan

=== 2.Coping Strategies===
Since there a lot of cultural differences between Chinese and English,interpreters should figure out ways to settle them. The following paragraphs introduced some good qualities of interpreters and the ways that interpreters can use to deal with these cultural problems.
=== 2.1Good qualities of interpreters===
=== 2.1.1Clear and accurate speech===
Interpreter's speech should be clear and accurate, with no fluctuation of volume. Don't make your voice too harsh, or break or shake because of tension. In more formal Settings, interpreters should also control their distance from the microphone and keep the tone at a labor-saving and pleasant height, depending on the situation. At the same time, it accentuates and lengthens certain syllables of affairs or certain vowels of Chinese, thus making the speech chain appear cadence and giving one's voice a certain solemn and specific delivery effect in the hall.(Bao Gang 1998,226)

Do not, however, be so artificial as to incur the general dislike of the audience. The interpreter may have minor speech defects, such as a less severe accent, but in general the interpreter's voice condition should be better than that of ordinary people. In the scene of interpretation, the most taboo words are stagnation of language flow and tension of voice, because this will make the audience have doubts about the translation ability of the interpreter, which will lead to a crisis of confidence in the interpreter.(Bao Gang 1998,226)

Secondly, the speed of the interpreter should be appropriate, not the faster the better. Of course, a qualified interpreter should be able to publish the target language quickly, but the interpreter must be adjusted as appropriate in the specific interpretation environment. In fact, the most important thing is to keep the language flow on the level of fluency and communication.(Bao Gang 1998,226)

At the level of paralanguage information transmission, attention should be paid to convey appropriate paralanguage and other information of the source language to meet the needs of on-site communication. Interpreters should not excessively imitate the intonation, tone and other paralinguistic information of the source speaker, let alone exaggerate the information. In theory, most of the paralinguistic information of the source language is conveyed without an interpreter.

Because these information can be directly and clearly felt by all the listeners on the scene, such as gestures, facial expressions and other body language information. Only intonation and tone are the important paralinguistic information that must be taken into account by the translator in the output of the target language. Translators should not be indifferent to the intonation, tone and other information of the source speaker, but should translate mechanically in a flat tone. Don't dazzle or mime around others to appear dominant.(Bao Gang 1998,227)

Because these messages can be directly and clearly felt by all the audience, such as gestures, facial expressions and other body language information. Only intonation and tone are important paralinguistic information that translators must consider when translating the target language. The translator should not be indifferent to the tone, intonation and other information of the source text, but should translate it mechanically into a flat tone. Don't show off or imitate in front of others to show your dominance. (Bao Gang 1998,227)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan

=== 2.1.2Intercultural awareness===
For example, when greeting an American at a Chinese airport, if the Chinese receptionist says, "Are you tired from the trip”? Maybe Americans can accept this, but it's not the best expression. In America, interpreters should better say:”Did you have a nice trip? "Because Americans don't like to be asked too personal questions. Similarly,it is inappropriate to ask English people about their age,salary,weight and so on. Interpreters should keep this in mind when interpreting. Although it is difficult to define the interpreter and the speaker had how much the same cultural background, but the more the interpreter know the speaker's knowledge background, the interpretation will do the more smoothly. That is to say, when interpreting,the interpreter should prepare for the information of the speaker in advance,such as his or her cultural background,speaking habit and so on,which can benefit both the speaker and the interpreter.(Liu Ya Feng 2018,57)

In the communication with the English countries,there are many intercultural problems. The following paragraphs will show what problems that interpreter should pay attention to.
=== 2.1.3 Differences in social systems, values and world views===
Culture brings different contexts to language. The same expression is sometimes very different in the two cultures, and this difference also represents the difference in values. For example, a Chinese host meets a foreign friend in the morning and asks, “您吃了吗?” Then the interpreter should not interpret it into”Have you eaten yet?” Instead, the interpreter should translate this sentence into:”How are you?” This is because that in Chinese culture,”您吃了吗？”is just a greeting. Another difference is that China is a socialist country, words related to socialism with Chinese characteristics often appear. When interpreting such words, the differences between Chinese and foreign cultures should be taken into account. For example, if the interpretation of "不忘初心" is "Don't forget our first heart”,then the English listeners will feel quite confused. The interpretation should be combined with our social conditions,”不忘初心” can be translated as “Don’t forget our initial determination” or "Don't forget why we started", "Remain true to our original aspiration", "Stay true to our original mission", etc. With the continuous expansion of the Chinese government's external publicity work, foreigners have become more and more understanding of this English expression.
=== 2.1.4 Differences in customs and habits===
The English people are fond of dogs and often regard them as their companions and lovely animals. They use a dog as a metaphor for a person's life. For example:in Chinese,people say:”他是个幸运儿”. While in English,this sentence should be interpreted into “He is a lucky dog”. (Liu Ya Feng 2018,57)
What’s more,”He is dog-tired.” is to describe that he is terribly tired. It would be a mistake to translate "He works like a dog" into "他像狗一样地工作"since the meaning of this sentence is to say that he is a workaholic. In our country's political life, We often see other figurative uses, for example, "坚定不移地打虎、拍蝇、猎狐" translated into "We have taken firm action to take out tigers, swat flies, and hunt down foxes." In this context, Chinese people compare "tigers", "flies" and "foxes" to officials of different levels of corruption. (Liu Ya Feng 2018,57)
=== 2.1.5 Different usage habits in English and Chinese===
Compared with English, some words are put in a different order. For example, if "中小企业" is translated into "Medium and small-sized Enterprises"do not fit British and American habits, but instead are translated into "Small and medium-sized Enterprises". “贫富差距” is not “the gap between the poor and the rich” but “the gap between rich and poor”. The translation of "暖心的故事" is not "warming-heart stories", but "heart-warming stories". (Liu Ya Feng 2018,58)

===3.Analysis of interpretation===

Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing answered the question raised by the reporter of China Radio International on China's relations with other developing countries.
　　
Example 1: Integration of key points in oral interpretation

Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing; 我也访问了一个人口很少的国家，叫佛得角。这个国家的领导人对我很热情，又特别客气。不断地说：“ 啊，我们国家很小很小。”我被他们的谦虚态度所感动，但我也诚恳地告诉佛得角朋友：“ 山不在高，有仙则名。国不在大，热爱和平，主持公道就好。”(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)
Interpreter: And I also visited a country with a very small size of population，called Cape Vede. I was received with tremendous warm and kindness there. The people there were very modest.They kept telling me that our country is very small But in spite of their modest attitude，I told them sincerely that as an old saying goes in China： A mountain，no matter how high it is，if it is blessed with a touch of divine，it will be well-known. And a country，no matter how big it is，if it can uphold peace and justness in the world， it w ill be a good country.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)

Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing; What matters with a mountain is not its height. And what matters with a country is not its size.
Comments:In this passage, Foreign Minister Li borrowed the first sentence of Liu Yu-suk's Humble House Inscription, "The mountain is not high, but the immortal name is", and extended it to the analogy of international relations. Due to the time pressure of the scene, the translator did not fully understand the meaning of the sentence and adopted the word-for-word translation.

Although on the surface, the translator translated every word and sentence, but a little careful, it can be seen that the translation does not express the information meaning of the original. Apparently, Li also felt that the interpreter did not accurately convey the meaning he wanted to convey. So, no sooner had the interpreter spoken than Li retranslated it (in bolded English). Li's translation makes it clear that he does not use the corresponding translation of words and phrases, but directly conveys the message meaning of the source language (i.e. the interpretive translation of the ideograms).(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)

Although on the surface, the translator translates every word and sentence, but with a little care, it can be seen that the translation does not express the information meaning of the original text. Apparently, Mr. Li also felt that the translation did not convey exactly what he was trying to say. So as soon as the interpreter opened his mouth, Li translated it (in bold English). Li's translation makes it clear that he does not use the translation of corresponding words and phrases, but rather conveys the informational meaning of the source language directly (i.e., interpretive translation of ideograms)..(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan

Example 2: Cultural considerations in oral interpretation

Foreign Minister Li Zhaoxing answered the question raised by CCTV reporter on overseas travel of Chinese citizens:

Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing; 为以防万一，你最好能了解离你到的地方最近的中国大使馆或者总领事馆的电话，一旦出事，你可以放心，中国驻有关国家或地区的大使馆或者总领事馆，会全力以赴、会依法为你提供帮助。

Interpreter: And what you could do，beside that if you are the unlucky one is you could find the telephone numbers o f embassy and consulate general the closest to you. So whenever there is an incident you could ask for help f rom our embassy and consulate general. Our people will surely go all out to give you lawful protection.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)

Comments:The translator has a thorough understanding of the additional points in the original language and provides a smooth and accurate translation by means of interpretive translation. What is particularly commendable is a translation of "If you are the hype one" for a rainy day. The language form of the clause "you can rest assured" is not given in the target language, but its meaning is incorporated into the subsequent translation. Building protection refers to a direct interpretation of "lawful assistance" as "to give you guidance".

Comments: The translator has a thorough understanding of the additional points in the original text and provides accurate and smooth translation through interpretive translation. Particularly commendable is the translation of "If you are the hypeone" in case of need. The linguistic form of the clause "You can rest assured" was not given in the target language, but its meaning was incorporated in a later translation. Building protection means to interpret "lawful assistance" directly as "giving you guidance".--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan

This approach takes into account the differences between Chinese and Western ways of thinking and the differences between Chinese and English ways of expression. This is exactly what the interpretive theory advocates. According to the theory of interpretive interpretation, interpreters must consider the acceptability of both sides in the context of two languages and cultures.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)
　　
Example 3: Emotional communication in oral interpretation

Foreign Minister Li Zhao Xing answered a question on China-Us trade raised by the Reuters news Agency.
Foreign Minister Li Zhao xing：实际上，很难说得清楚什么叫军用，什么叫民用。比如说这杯茶，我和姜恩柱主任委员喝了就是民用，要是当兵的喝了就是军用，说得清楚吗？
Interpreter: Actually it would be very difficult to distinguish from military purposes and civilian purposes. Just take the cup of tea in front of me as an example. If I and Chair man Jiang drink this tea， it w ill be rendered as for civilian use. But if a soldier drinks this tea， then the tea becomes for military use. So it is very difficult to have a clear definition of this term.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)

Comments:In the part that add in the original language is the Chinese commonly used rhetorical question. The form of rhetorical questions in Chinese is equivalent to rhetorical questions in English. But the rhetorical function is not the same. In Chinese, rhetorical questions are usually used for intensification, as in the original "Is it clear? "Is for the purpose of emphasizing" can't say clearly ".

And rhetorical questions in English also have the function of moderating mood. Therefore, translators adopt the way of interpretation to the rhetorical directly translated into statements, both to avoid the ambiguity, and to accurately convey the original meaning of language information (including emotional information), the effect of interpretation as sent interpreting theory emphasizes: the interpreter in interpreting process must consider how to accurately convey the original language discourse information such as the thoughts, images, and emotions.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)

Example 4: Syntactic recombination in oral interpretation

Foreign Minister Li Zhaoxing answered a question on China-Us trade raised by the Reuters news Agency.

Foreign Minister Li Zhao Xing：你的问题富有战略眼光，你问到十年甚至二十年之后的中美关系。

Interpreter： Your question show s that you are a person with a strategic perspective， because you asked about the outlook o f Sino-US relations in ten or twenty years’ time.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)

Comments:Of course, this sentence cannot be translated in the corresponding way of words. "Problems" can't have "strategic vision," it's the person asking the question who has "strategic vision." When the true meaning of the source language is understood, the expression of the target language becomes accurate and clear.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)

Example 5: Semantic interpretation in oral interpretation

Xinhua News Agency reporter asked Premier Wen About education:

Reporter: In your report, education is a highlight, especially compulsory education. You proposed the policy of "two exemptions and one subsidy" starting from this year.

Interpreter：We can see that education figures quite prominently in your government’s report particularly the compulsory education. We know starting from this year， the government is going to exempt the tuition and miscellaneous fees for the rural poor students receiving compulsory education and government is also going to give subsidies to the students attending schools f rom poor families.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)

As we can see, education occupies a very important place in your government's report, especially compulsory education. As we know, starting from this year, the government will exempt the tuition and miscellaneous fees for compulsory education for the poor in rural areas. The government will also provide subsidies for students from poor families to attend school. (Yi Zhi Ling 2012)--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan

Comments:This way of using numbers to sum up a policy, an idea, etc., is a feature of The Chinese language. From the "three Antis", "Five Antis", "four Antis", "four Qing dynasties", "Five stresses, four Beauties and three loves" to the present "three Represents", "three agricultrals", "eight honors and eight disgraces" and so on, there are many examples. Therefore, when the "two free and one supplement" appeared in the reporter's question, the country's top interpreters naturally have a good idea. Without any hesitation, the field interpreter directly explained the exact meaning of "two exemption and one supplement", without any word-to-word translation of the phrase itself. The interpretive nature of interpretation is further supported here.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)

Example 6: Logical processing in oral translation and interpretation

Premier Wen Jiabao answered the question on education raised by Xinhua News Agency.

Premier Wen: I'd like to stress the importance of civilian education here, because the vast majority of people in the world are civilians. The quality of common people is related to the quality of the whole people of a country. We have 1.3 billion people, 900 million farmers, a higher proportion of civilians.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)

Interpreter: Here，I would like to give the stress and the importance to the education for the general public. Most of the people in this world are ordinary people and belong to the general public. I think the competence of the general public is a direct reflection of the overall competence of the country. China is a country with a population of 1. 3 billion and 900 million of the Chinese people live in the countryside. So we have even a bigger proportion of our people receiving ordinary education.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)

Comments:There is no conjunctions between clauses, and the logical relation is clear at a glance, which is also the charm of Chinese "meaning meeting". However, English focuses on "speech and communication", and the logical relationship is reflected in the language form. Therefore, the interpreter must thoroughly understand the logical relations between Chinese clauses: they are not parallel relations, "there are 1.3 billion people" and "there are 900 million farmers" are inclusive relations, and the relationship between the first two clauses and the last one is causal.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)

Comments: There is no conjunctions between clauses, and the logical relationship is clear, which is also the charm of Chinese "Meaning association". However, English attaches great importance to "speech and communication", and its logical relationship is reflected in the form of language. Therefore, the interpreter must fully understand the logical relationship between Chinese clauses: they are not parallel, "there are 1.3 billion people" and "there are 900 million farmers" are inclusive, and the relationship between the first two clauses and the latter is causal.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan

Interpreters interpret on the basis of understanding the true connotation of the source language, which is not the corresponding language translation of words and phrases, but the interpretive interpretation (the italic part of the translation) that conveys the overall message meaning of the source language. This also explains the definition of "meaning" in interpretive theory: the meaning of speech refers to "the overall meaning of discourse" in interpreting activities.

On March 18, 2008 held a press conference, premier Wen Jiabao quote the old saying or answer questions from Chinese and foreign journalists, ancient Chinese poems before and after nine times, and the interpreter is also easy to immediately after the prime minister stated to complete these classical Chinese sentence translation, not only embodies the solid basic language interpreter itself strength and extensive knowledge, also for the interpretation of the study and research provides vivid data, more convenient to our understanding of cross-cultural awareness of the significance of a good interpreter.(Yi Zhi Ling 2012)

From the analysis of the above examples, it can be seen that interpretation is not only a technology but also an art, which requires translators to have a keen cross-cultural awareness and overcome the obstacles behind the linguistic and cultural factors. Through extensive reading, translators should actively expand their scope of knowledge, strengthen the accumulation of their own cultural knowledge and the cultivation of cross-cultural communication, and strive to avoid mistranslation caused by ignoring linguistic and cultural differences through constant practice and summary, so as to achieve the purpose of external communication.

Through the analysis of the above examples, it can be seen that interpretation is not only a technology, but also an art, which requires translators to have a keen cross-cultural awareness and overcome the obstacles behind language and cultural factors. Through extensive reading, translators should actively expand their knowledge fields, strengthen the accumulation of their own cultural knowledge and the cultivation of cross-cultural dialogue, and strive to avoid mistranslation caused by ignoring language and cultural differences through constant practice and summary, so as to achieve the purpose of external communication.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:41, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan

Interpreters in the interpreting process is not constrained in the primitive form of language, but fully considering the situation and primitive released into their related knowledge, a thorough understanding of primitive information, abandon words corresponding translation methods, focus on search to find the right words within the prescribed time to convey meaning in the context of a specific information.

In the process of interpretation, interpreters are not limited by the original form of language, but give full consideration to the situation and the original release into their relevant knowledge, thoroughly understand the original information, abandon the translation method of corresponding words, focus on finding appropriate words within the specified time, and convey meaning in the context of specific information.--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 13:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan

=== Conclusion ===
With the deep economic globalization and many international issues,interpreters has become more and more important throughout the world. As an interpreter,it’s essential for them to learn more about the cultural differences. As an interpreter,he or she should keep learning to keep up with the fast-changing world.Rich cultural background and relevant professional knowledge will help interpreters improvise. But a solid language foundation is the key. Therefore, we should accumulate relevant professional knowledge in our daily study and strengthen the training of interpretation, so as to be able to do well in on-site interpretation.Due to the cultural differences that lead to the untranslatability between Chinese and English in some occasions, we should admit that translation is not always possible, but only within certain limits and limits. As an interpreter,daily learning and accumulation of cultural knowledge are very important.Only by having a thorough understanding of the similarities and differences between Chinese English and their cultures can translators reduce mistakes in interpreting and effectively serve as a bridge between them.

=== References ===

*Bao Gang鲍刚.(1998).口译理论概述[M].[An Overview of Interpretation Theory].北京:旅游教育出版社Beijing:Travel and Education Press.

*Du Tianyu杜恬雨.(2020).浅析文化差异对汉英颜色词翻译的影响[J].[A Brief Analysis of the Influence of Cultural Differences on the Translations of Chinese-English Color Words].科教文汇The Science Education Article Collects(07):187-188

*Huang Fuhong黄福洪.(2000).汉英龙文化差异浅析[J].[The Influence of Cultural Differences Between Chinese and English].修辞学习The Rhetoric Study(03):8.

*Liu Yafeng刘亚峰.(2018).中英文化的差异对口译的影响[J].[The Influence of Cultural Differences Between Chinese and English on Interpretation].辽宁经济职业技术学院.辽宁经济管理干部学院学报 Liaoning Economic Vocational And Technical College. Journal of Liaoning Economic Management Cadre Institute(06):56-58.

*Liu Xiangya刘相娅.(2009).英汉文化中“dog”“狗”的对比研究[J].新课程学习(学术教育)A Comparative Study of Dogs in English and Chinese Cultures New Curriculum Learning (Academic Education)(12):154-155.

*Zhao Le赵乐.(2013).汉英“狗”族词汇褒贬义对比及成因分析[J].A Comparative Analysis of the Commendatory and Derogatory Meanings of Chinese and English "Dog" Words and their Causes.现代语文(语言研究版) Modern Chinese (Language Research Edition)(02):155-158.

*The Spirit of Interpretation 译之灵.记者招待会现场口译实例评析Comments on interpretation examples at the reception.2012.

*Woesler, Martin. (2020). Responsibility and Ethics in Times of Corona. Woesler, Martin and Hans-Martin Sass eds. Medicine and Ethics in Times of Corona Muenster: LIT
--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 14:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan

==On Lefevere's manipulating theory 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan==

<center> 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan, 202020080609</center>

===Abstract===
In 1980s, the research object of translation studies changed from text itself to culture. Cultural factors were brought into translation studies. Andre Lefevere, as the founder of cultural transformation, puts forward the famous manipulation theory and its three elements-poetics, ideology and patron. He believes that translation is not a simple change between languages, and translators' translation activities are influenced and restricted by social factors such as ideology, poetics and patronage. He points out that translation is a form of rewriting the text, and it is "manipulating" the original text to make it compatible with the cultural background of the target text. The main body of the thesis is divided into three parts, which explore the rewriting phenomenon caused by poetics, ideology and sponsors in translation activities by displaying different translation cases.

===Key Words===
Ideology; Poetics; Patronage; Manipulation

===题目===
勒弗菲尔的操纵理论

===摘要===
20世纪80年代，翻译研究的研究对象从文本本身转向文化，将文化因素纳入翻译研究之中。安德烈勒弗菲尔作为文化转换的奠基人提出了著名的操纵理论及其三要素—诗学、意识形态和赞助人。他认为翻译不是一件简单的语言间的转换，译者的翻译活动受到意识形态、诗学和赞助人等社会因素的影响和制约。他指出翻译是改写文本的一种形式，是对原文的“操纵”，使其与目的语文本所在的文化背景相容。论文主体主要分为三部分，分别通过展示不同的译本分析，探究诗学、意识形态和赞助人在翻译活动中造成的改写现象。

===关键词===
意识形态；诗学；赞助人；操纵

===1.Introduction===

Before the 20th century, western translation theories mainly fell into the category of literature and art, which regarded translation as an art and emphasized the translator's creative reproduction of the original text. Until the mid-20th century, translation theorists introduced the theories and achievements of modern linguistics into translation studies, thus producing a linguistic school.Linguistic school regarded translation as a science of mutual transformation at the linguistic level, emphasizing the language equivalence between the original text and the target text.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)

Compared with the literary school, the linguistic school has deepened translation studies and achieved fruitful results, which was beyond doubt. However, it only limited translation studies to the linguistic level, ignoring external linguistic factors such as discourse and context, which led to the fossilization of translation studies.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)

Since the 1980s, under the influence of post-modernism and cross-cultural studies, translation studies have ushered in a "cultural turn", which has gradually transformed translation studies from a linguistic perspective to a cultural perspective, and thus a cultural school of translation has emerged. The cultural school broke through the traditional text comparative study mode of literature and linguistics, and paid attention to many social factors that influenced translation under the broad cultural background, thus broadening the scope of translation studies and injecting new blood into translation studies. Manipulation school was one of the most influential schools of culture.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)

The development of Manipulation School was based on comparative literature research, which mainly studied literary translation. The representative figures were Hermans and Lefevere. Hermans first applied "manipulation" to the study of translation theory, forming the embryonic stage of the manipulation school.In the book "Manipulation of Literature: Studies of Literary Translation", Hermans gave the programmatic view of Manipulation School: Manipulation School thinks that literature is a complex dynamic system. As Hermans said: "From the perspective of the target text, all translations are manipulations of the original text for some purpose." (Hermans 1985, 10-11)

Andre Lefevere, a famous Belgian American comparative writer and translation theorist, pointed out that literary translation always came into being in a certain historical period and a certain cultural context. In this sense, translation was a rewriting of the original text and a form of creating the text. Lefevere further pointed out that literary criticism, biography, literary history, film, drama, reader's guide and so on were all rewriting the text and creating another form of text image.(Zhang xiaojuan 2010, 130)

In other words, translation created the original author, the original text and the literary and cultural images of the original text. All rewritings, regardless of its intention, reflected certain ideology and poetics under the influence of the patronage. He thought that translation was rewriting, and rewriting was manipulation.The rewriting in different historical periods should be controlled by the ideology and main stream poetics, which was finally related to power and became a means to serve them. He believed that translation cannot truly reflect the original appearance, which was mainly manipulated by these three factors: ideology, poetics and patronage.(Zhang xiaojuan 2010, 130)

===2 Three Elements of Lefevere's manipulation Theory===

===2.1 Ideology===

Generally speaking, ideology refers to the concept system that reflects the interests and requirements of specific economic forms, specific classes or social groups, and its basic contents include people's political, legal, moral, philosophical, artistic and religious views, etc. In Lefevere's view, translation practice is a practice related to certain historical reality, a practice of reinterpreting the original text according to the interests of a certain social group in the new historical environment, and it is essentially a practice of culture and politics. Manipulation school is most concerned about not how the translation should be translated, but why it is translated like this.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)

Translations are not made in a vacuum. Translators function in a given culture at a given time. The way they understand themselves and their culture is one of the factors that may influence the way in which they translate. (Andre Lefevere 1992,14)

Translation, as a cross-language and cross-cultural communication activity, is inevitably influenced by ideology. It includes the translator's personal ideology and the ideology imposed on the translator by the authority or sponsor. These personal, social or upper-level ideologies will limit the selection of the theme of translated works and the form of expressing the theme and affect the translator's basic translation strategies and the interpretation of the original language and culture. Therefore, under the control of ideology, the translator will arbitrarily add, delete or change the original text, so that the translated text serves his own political purpose. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 130)

===2.2 Poetics===

Poetics involves two parts: literary technique and translator's view of literary function. Literary technique mainly includes genre, symbol, theme, etc. Translator's view of literary function refers to the role or function of literature in the whole social system. Translators not infrequently use their translations to influence the evolution of the poetics of their time. The compromises translators find between the poetics of the original and the poetics of their culture provide fascinating insights into the process of acculturation and incontrovertible evidence of the extent of the power of a given poetics. (Andre Lefevere 1992,26)

According to Lefevere, the translation method adopted by translators is carried out and developed under a certain system of factors of poetics, and the object of the study of poetics is as small as one word or as large as one sentence and the style of the whole chapter, translation strategies and other aspects of the rewriting of the poetics, which are the important components of the cultural system where the rewriting writers are engaged in their creation. In order to conform to the ideology and poetics which occupied the dominant position in the period where they live and to achieve the goal of making the rewritten works accepted by as many readers as possible, the original works will be adjusted in a fixed degree. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 131)

===2.3 Patronage===

Generally speaking, sponsors refer to individuals and groups that can promote or hinder the production and dissemination of literary works in a certain historical period, and institutions that regulate the dissemination of literature and literary thoughts. Patrons can encourage the publication of translations they consider acceptable and they can also quite effectively prevent the publication of translations they do not consider so. (Andre Lefevere 1992,19)

Lefevere regarded various rewriting forms, such as literary translation, as one of the various systems of the society. This department of philology has double factors of operation and control. One is the internal factor of the department of philology, which is composed of various professionals including critics, teachers and translators. The other is the patron who plays a role in the external department of the department.There are all kinds of powers (people or mechanisms) that promote or stop reading, writing or rewriting , such as religious groups, orders, government departments, publishing agencies, mass media mechanisms, or individual power.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 82)

Sponsors can encourage works that they think are suitable, and can also effectively curb works that they think are inappropriate. Generally speaking, they play a vital role in the dynamic direction of translation, the development of translated literature, and social status where translators are located. (Zhang Xiaojuan 2010, 131)

===3.Cases Study===

===3.1 Cases Study on Ideology===

Example one: In the dialogue between Wang Lifa and Cui Jiufeng in the second act of Teahouse, Wang Lifa said, "可是住在我这里, 天天念经" Cui Jiufeng replied, "我现在只能修持, 忏悔!" As for "念经" in the sentence, Ying Ruocheng's translation of "chanting Buddhist scriptures" is rich in Christian color; Huo Hua's translation "chanting sutras" abandons the meaning of Buddhism. From this, it can be seen that in order to meet the requirements of mainstream ideology, translators will choose corresponding translation strategies and delete or euphemistically treat some of the original texts in the process of translation. From the perspective of manipulation theory, this is the manipulation of ideology on translation.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 144)

Example two: Facing globalization, the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation must be strongly supported by the prosperity of culture. Under the background of vigorously advocating the use of literature output to improve the soft power of Chinese culture, we should treat the translation of Chinese literature more rationally. China has been a collectivist country since ancient times and advocated unity and unity. For families, there is a saying that "home is harmonious and everything is prosperous"; For the neighborhood, there is the advocacy of "good neighborliness and friendship".(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)

Therefore, when translating the report of the 19th National Congress into English, it is inevitable to be influenced by the feelings of home and country, which can be seen everywhere in the text.Original text: 大会的主题是：不忘初心，牢记使命…… Translation version：The theme of the Congress is: Remain true to our original aspiration and keep our mission firmly in mind... Analysis: There is no human appellation like "we" in the original text of the sentence, but it appears in the translation that “our original aspiration” and “our mission”.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)

Thus, its text translation is manipulated by our country's ideology, which is intended to show the collectivism consciousness of the Chinese nation and show that all ethnic groups in our country are united and love each other dearly.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)

Example three: As an important media of cultural communication, American TV drama not only has an eye-catching story, but also contains a lot of foreign cultural factors, such as authentic American slang and spoken language, strange historical allusions, and novel network neologisms. As a bridge between Chinese and American cultures, subtitle translation of American TV drama is particularly important. First of all, when the social values of the translation and the source text conflict, ideology will manipulate the translator to rewrite the sensitive parts of the text to meet the social ideology requirements of the target language.(Long juan 2020, 64)

In addition, American TV series contains a lot of local cultural factors, which is difficult to find the corresponding symbols in the process of translation and introduction, so the rewriting of culture in subtitles is inevitable.
English version: Hewlett and Packard
Chinese version: 休利特和帕卡德
(比尔·休利特和戴维·帕卡德是惠普(HP)公司创始人，两者均为男性。)
-Quoted from the Big Bang Theory

Many Chinese audiences are familiar with HP brand, but know little about its founders. Therefore, in addition to translating the names of the two founders literally at the bottom of the screen, the subtitle group members also added their identities and remarks "Both are male" at the top of the screen. This not only preserves the characteristics of the source language culture, but also helps the audience enjoy the movie-watching activities smoothly, and also increases the comedy sense of the play.(Long juan 2020, 64)

Example four: In 1930s, the western world knew very little about Chinese culture at that time, and most people thought that China was a savage and backward nation. The Chinese people in Westerners' minds were ignorant, superficial and vulgar. Facing the misunderstanding and discrimination of Westerners towards China, Lin Yutang tried to show the western world the true philosophy of life and attitude of Chinese people by translating “浮生六记” which told the story of a Chinese couple's quiet and simple life. He adopted the translation strategy of combining domestication and foreignization, which made the translated works not only retain the characteristics of Chinese culture, but also be easily understood and accepted by western readers.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 106)

Original text: 彼非作《琵琶行》者耶?
English translation: Isn’t he the one who wrote the poem on The Pi Pa Player?
Here, Lin Yutang translated "琵琶行" into "The Pi Pa Player" rather than "lute" and other forms that were easy for western readers to understand. He adopted the translation strategy of alienation and retained Chinese cultural characteristics according to the idea of himself, with the aim of making Chinese culture go abroad and giving western readers a certain understanding of traditional Chinese culture.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 106)

Example five: In the Chinese translation of Peter Pan, Yang Jingyuan chooses the combination of written language and spoken English in Beijing, and downplays the indecent language in the original text. The choice of this language translation strategy must be determined by his ideology.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)

In the original text, the topic of "mother" appears in many occasions, such as storytelling and character dialogue, and Yang Jingyuan translates it into written language "母亲" in most occasions. "Twins" in the original text is translated by Yang as "孪生子" in written language. Yang Jingyuan tends to use the northern dialect to translate, which is reflected in her translation sequence: when it comes to children's pleasure in never having a hometown, "他们不用上学读那些劳什子的书" "Sweater" is translated as "线衣" and "frock" is translated as "罩褂". "劳什子", "线衣" and "罩褂" are typical northern dialects.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)

In the story, the fairy Ding Keling has a pet phrase "You silly ass", which Yang translated as "你这笨蛋". The severely abusive language in the original text is treated as generally critical language in the translated text. Yang Jingyuan was born into a scholarly family and received higher education. Therefore, when she translated words, she intentionally or unintentionally chose the combination of written language and spoken English in Beijing, and downplayed the indecent language in the original text. Therefore, the translator's ideology really controls her translation process.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)

Example six: Zhu Shenghao translated King Lear in 1942. At that time, China was economically backward and politically turbulent. "Saving the country and the people" and "national liberation in an all-round way" became the mainstream ideology of the society at that time. When it was learned that Japanese translator laughed at the backwardness of Chinese culture, which was a barren place without Shakespeare's complete works, Zhu's patriotic enthusiasm was thoroughly aroused. In order to make the people with low education level understand this western classic better, he paid special attention to the harmony of phonology and the smoothness of the whole article in the process of translation. Meanwhile, he wanted to keep the verve of the original as far as possible. Therefore, he mainly adopts domestication.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)

(Act II, Scene IV)
Lear: No, rather I abjure all roofs, and choose
To wage against the enmity o’the air;
To be a comrade with the wolf and owl,
Necessity’s sharp pinch! (Shakespeare, 1972)
Zhu’s translation: 不, 我宁愿什么屋子也不要住, 过着风餐露宿的生活, 和无情的大自然抗争, 和豺狼鸱鸮做伴侣, 忍受一切饥寒的痛苦!
Zhu Shenghao is inspired by national honor and disgrace. His three parallelism sentences are full of momentum, like flowing water. Words such as "风餐露宿" and "无情的大自然" also pour out his inner anger and patriotic enthusiasm for the domestic status.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)

===3.2 Cases Study on Poetics ===

Example one: There is such a scene in the third act of Teahouse. “美国针、美国线、美国牙膏、美国消炎片。还有口红、雪花膏、玻璃袜子细毛线。”
Ying’s translation: Yankee needles, Yankee thread; Toothpaste white and lipstick red. Patent potions, facial lotions; Nylons sheer, you’ll find here.
Huo’s translation: Yankee needles, Yankee notions, Yankee toothpaste, Yankee potions. Lipsticks red, and cold cream white; Nylon stockings, sheer delight.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 144)

By comparing these two translations, in order to better conform to the rhythm of English poetry and make the whole ditty read fluently, Ying Ruocheng splits the structural meaning of the original text and then reorganizes it. He adopts more alienation translation strategies in order to achieve the same rhythm as the original text. On the other hand, because of his love for Chinese culture and the influence of Chinese traditional literature, Huo Hua is more faithful to the original text in his translation, and translates the whole ditty in the order of the original text. From this, it can be seen that Huo Hua's translation is mostly based on domestication, so as to truly reproduce the cultural level in the source text.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 145)

Example two: The opening report of the 19 th National Congress contains a large number of words with Chinese characteristics, and its English translation is manipulated by the socialist culture with Chinese characteristics. For example：Translate“不忘初心，方得始终”into “Never forget why you started, and you can accomplish your mission” “行百里者半九十”into “As the Chinese saying goes, the last leg of a journey just marks the halfway point”. English translation of such words with Chinese characteristics must be carried out on the basis of fully understanding the connotation of Chinese culture, which also well reflects the translator's own literary accomplishment and mastery of poetic ability.(Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)

Example three: From the perspective of mainstream poetics, Chinese and Western translation circles tend to combine "domestication" with "foreignization" in translation practice, which can not only solve the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, but also reproduce the characteristics of the source culture in the target language as much as possible.
English version: Look at that, the problem solved itself.
Chinese version: 你瞧!不攻自破了。
English version: Preparation can only take you so far.
Chinese version: 谋事在人，成事在天。
-Quoted from the Big Bang Theory(Long juan 2020, 64)

Influenced by mainstream poetics, translators rewrite the subtitles of American TV series by combining domestication and foreignization. If literal translation is adopted, the over-colloquial expression lacks poetic aesthetic feeling, while subtitle translators use “不攻自破” “谋事在人，成事在天”. These Chinese idioms with profound traditional culture not only accurately convey the meaning of the original sentence, but also cater to the audience's preference of the target language.(Long juan 2020, 64)

Example four: In order to make the target readers better understand and accept and spread the translated version smoothly, Lin Yutang adhered to the translation criteria of "faithfulness, fluency and beauty" and adjusted the original text to a certain extent.
Original text: 桥南有莲心寺。寺中突起喇嘛白塔,金顶缨络,高矗云霄,殿角红墙,松柏掩映,钟磬时闻;此天下园亭所未有者。
English translation: On the south of the bridge there was the Lotus-Seed Temple, with a Tibetan pagoda rising straight up from its midst and its golden dome rising into the clouds, with the terracotta walls and temple roofs nestling under the kind shade of pine-trees and cypresses and the sounds of temple bells and ch’ing [musical stone] coming to the traveler’s ears intermittently——all combining to achieve a unique effect that could not be duplicated in any other pleasure garden of the world.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)

The original text described the beautiful scenery of Lianxin Temple in concise language. Lin Yutang combined the two sentences of the original text into a long sentence, forming a compact and clear structure, which vividly presented the scene of Lianxin Temple to western readers. This beautiful sight of China can bring unique aesthetic feeling to western readers, realize the function of literature, and conform to the mainstream poetics at that time.(Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)

Example five: Yang Jingyuan definitely affirms Peter Pan's literary value and aesthetic value in the translation sequence. Under the control of this poetics, the translator builds a bridge of fantasy with exquisite and beautiful language in his translation, and poetry is perfectly reflected. The original story happened in Neverland, and Yang Jingyuan translated it as "永无乡". This translation method accurately grasps the spirit of the original work-although this place is good, it is the other side that can never be reached in reality, and the depth of melancholy and helplessness are expressed incisively and vividly. The following examples more fully reflect the manipulation of the original text by the poetics of the target language.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)

Original text: when children died he went part of the way with them.
Translated text: 孩子们死了, 在黄泉
Original text: she used to say afterwards to her husband.
Translated text: 她老是对丈夫说这些事后诸葛亮的话。
The translator deliberately chooses the words "黄泉" and "事后诸葛亮" in a way of additional translation, which are unique in Chinese culture. The manipulation of the target text by the poetics of the target language culture can be seen.(Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)

Example six: With the rise of the New Culture Movement in China in the 1930s, foreign literature and ideas were constantly introduced by translation. The creation of vernacular Chinese was valued and welcomed. With the principle of letting the general public enjoy Shakespeare's plays, he adopted a more colloquial prose style as the main translation style.
(Act I, Scene I)
Cordelia: But yet, alas! stood I within his grace,
I would prefer him to a better place.
So farewell to you both. (Shakespeare, 1972)
Zhu’s translation: 考狄利娅:可是, 唉!要是我没有失去他的欢心, 我一定不让他依赖你们的照顾。再会了, 两位姊姊。
Zhu Shenghao abandoned the framework of the original text and translated its meaning directly in the form of easy-to-understand prose, reflecting his preference for more colloquial prose translation.(Zhou Ya 2014, 177)

===3.3 Cases Study on Patronage===

Example one:In the first act of Teahouse, Grandpa Four often complained to Wang Lifa, "我也得罪了他?我今天出门没挑好日子! " In this sentence, Ying Ruocheng translates "没挑好日子" into "This is not my lucky day!" The big reason is that his translation publishing house is China Foreign Publishing House, and Ying is more suitable for the traditions and habits of foreign readers, so as to facilitate the acceptance of foreign readers.(Huang Mingjuan 2020, 145)

On the other hand, Huo Hua translates it as "I should've taken the Almanac's advice and stayed home today." Based on his understanding of Chinese traditional culture, Huo Hua knows that this is what Chinese people usually say orally that going out depends on the lunar calendar, so he translated it as "Take the Almanac's advice and stayed home", which is more faithful to the connotation of Chinese traditional culture. (Huang Mingjuan 2020, 145)

Example two: The report in the opening ceremony of the 19th National Congress belongs to the official documents of the party and government organs, and its sponsors are obviously the Communist Party of China and its leaders. Therefore, the report represents the will of the party and the people, in which every word, phrase and sentence collocation must be carefully screened before being finalized and must conform to the will of the country and represent the interests of the party and the people. This also requires translators to keep a clear head and high political acumen at all times, and to represent and safeguard the national image at all times. (Jia Shanshan 2018, 169)

Example three: In order to obtain social and economic resources and establish their own influence in the target language society, the sponsors will actively encourage the media system to produce as many film and television works as possible and meet the needs of the audience. In order to achieve this goal, they will introduce the mainstream social value orientation in the selection of film and television dramas, and also manipulate subtitle translators to adjust and change the subtitles of American TV dramas to some extent according to the target people's acceptance ability and expectation horizon. (Long juan 2020, 65)

Example four:Sponsors not only have a profound influence on the publication of translated works, but also have an inseparable connection with translators' selection of translation materials. For Lin Yutang's translation of “浮生六记”, the monthly magazine Tianxia and the couple Pearl Buck are influential patrons. (Zhang Baihua 2017, 107)

Example five:Yang Jingyuan was suffering from severe cataract at that time. It was difficult for her to read and write. In order to relieve her distress, her husband helped her translate the book. After reading Peter Pan, Fan Yong especially appreciated it and published it. It can be seen that Peter Pan was originally a spontaneous academic behavior of Yang Jingyuan. The initial sponsor was her lover, and later Fan Yong, general manager of Sanlian Bookstore, so the publishing house was also one of the sponsors. Together, they contributed to the publication of this book. (Xie Chengfeng 2016, 180)

Example six: Zhan Wenxu and Zhu Shenghao worked together in the World Publishing House for many years, and Zhan quite appreciated Zhu's literary talent and translation level. Later, Zhan was appointed editor-in-chief of the World Publishing House. He suggested that Zhu Shenghao translate Shakespeare's works, which coincided with Zhu's own ideas. So Zhu signed a contract with the World Publishing House in 1935 and started the process of translating Shakespeare. So Zhan helped Zhu a lot in the road of translation. (Zhou Ya 2014, 178)

===Conclusion===

Lefevere's manipulation theory has a wide influence in the translation field. He holds that translation is a creative process and translators will inevitably be influenced by the culture of the target language, and he emphasizes three major elements: ideology, poetics and patronage. Because of using a different language from the original, facing a completely different readership and operating in different cultural categories, the translator, as the representative of the target culture, would be restricted by various target cultural conditions from the choice of the translation text at the beginning to the selection of translation strategies in the translation process until the acceptance of the final version. Moreover, the translator would have various considerations in translation. Therefore, it is impossible to reproduce the exactly identical translation of the original text.

Lefevere emphasizes the translator's position and role in literary translation, and pointed out that the translator's subjectivity is extremely complex, and its exertion is restricted by subjective and objective factors such as ideology and custom system. Ideology can be divided into mainstream social ideology and translator's personal ideology. Its influence on translation is everywhere, and the translator's thoughts, viewpoints, writing style and even his surroundings will be manipulated by invisible ideology. In the process of translation, the intended readers and clients in the translator's mind come from the target language system, and the translator himself is immersed in the culture of the target language system. Therefore, the mainstream poetic form of the target language system and the popular literary view at that time are largely used in the whole process of translation literature creation. Sponsors have a certain status and can provide remuneration and other help to translators. They can restrict the translation norms and decide the publication of translated works, and even decide the translator's translation goals and strategies and the acceptance of translated works.

===Bibliography===

Theo Hermans.The Manipulation of literature: Studies of literary translation [M]. London and Sydney: Croom Helm, 1985.

Andre Lefevere. Translation, History and Culture [M]. London: Routledge, 1992.

Huang Mingjuan 黄明娟. (2020). 从操纵论看《茶馆》翻译——以英若诚和霍华译本为例. [Translation from the Perspective of Manipulation Theory on Cha Guan--A Case Study of Ruocheng and Huo Hua's versions]. ''青年文学家''Youth Literator (14) 144-145.

Jia Shanshan 贾珊珊. (2018). 翻译操纵理论下的外宣文本英译研究——以十九大开幕式报告为例. [A Study on English Translation of Publicity Texts from the Perspective of Translation Manipulation: A Case Study of the Opening Report of the 19th National Congress]. ''疯狂英语''Crazy English (02) 168-169.

Long Juan, Tang Bo 龙娟,唐博. (2020). 基于操纵理论的美剧字幕翻译研究. [A Study on Subtitle Translation of American TV Series Based on Manipulation Theory]. ''现代英语''Modern English (02) 63-65.

Xie Chengfeng 谢承凤. (2016). 剖析翻译中的操纵论——以译作《彼得·潘》为例. [Analysis of Manipulation in Translation--A case study of the translation of Peter Pan as an example]. ''科教文汇''The Science Education Article Collects (12) 180.

Zhang Baihua, Hu Yajie 张白桦,胡雅洁. (2017). 改写理论三要素对翻译的影响——以林语堂《浮生六记》英译本为例. [The Three Factors of Rewriting Theory's Influence on Translation--A Case Study of Six Chapters of a Floating Life Translated by Lin Yutang]. ''中州大学学报''Journal of Zhongzhou University (01) 105-108.

Zhang Xiaojuan 张晓娟. (2010). 浅谈勒弗菲尔操控理论的三大要素对翻译的影响. [The Three Factors of Manipulation Theory's Influence on Translation]. ''西安社会科学''Xi 'an Social Sciences (04) 130-131.

Zhang Yuanyuan 张园园. (2010). 翻译就是操纵——操纵学派综述. [Translation Is Manipulation--An overview of the Manipulation School]. ''商丘职业技术学院学报''Journal of Shangqiu Vocational and Technical College (03) 81-82.

Zhou Ya 周亚. (2014). 操纵论与《李尔王》译本的对比研究——以梁实秋和朱生豪译本为例. [Comparative Analysis on Two Translations of ''King Lear''from the Perspective of Manipulation Theory]. ''海外英语''Overseas English (23) 176-178.

==Roger T.Bell's Special Outlook on Translation Studies 陈江宁 Chen Jiangning 202020080594==

<center>陈江宁 Chen Jiangning </center>

===Abstract===
“What is translation?” It has been discussed over the'''(去掉the)''' years since the emergence of the translation activities. As we all know, it is difficult to give translation a unified definition as a result of its complicated nature. This paper will mainly discuss British translator Roger T.Bell's Translation Process Theory based on the Systemic Functional Linguistics, '''connected with'''（这两个词也许要去掉） cognitive science and cognitive psychology so as to understand how meaning is perceived and transformed and how the combination of the new and old information form a completely new target text. The contribution Bell has made lies in that he tried to use the graphics mode to fully show translation process, which better explains the interdisciplinary trait of translation and how the translator's thinking mode works during this complex activity.

===Key words===
Roger T.Bell; Translation process; Systemic Functional Linguistics; Cognitive psychology

===题目===
罗杰·贝尔的特殊翻译观

===摘要===
自翻译活动开始之际，人们就开始讨论“什么是翻译”这一问题，却始终没有得到一个统一的答案，由此可见翻译活动之复杂。本文主要探讨英国翻译家罗杰·贝尔提出的翻译过程模式，贝尔的创新之处在于他尝试用图形模式来描述翻译的过程，他以系统功能语言模式为理论基础，结合认知科学、认知心理学探讨意义是如何被认知又如何被转换，新信息与旧信息如何组合形成一个全新的目标语译文，从而更好地解释了翻译学科的跨学科性以及译者在翻译活动中的思维运转方式和操作过程。

===关键词===
罗杰·贝尔；翻译过程；系统功能语言学；认知心理学

===1. Introduction===
Barhudalov, former'''（合适？）''' Soviet Union translation theorist, expressed his opinion in his book called ''Language and Translation'''''(书名斜体）''' that the word “translation” had two meanings: one referred to the result of a process, which was the target text itself; the other referred to the translation process itself, that is to say, it emphasized the act of translating'''（文内引用；陈述一个人的观点要用过去式吗？）'''. So'''（So不能单独成句）''' here come the questions: What is the main focus of translation? Is the target text more important as a translation product or the process that contains translation act more significant? These questions which attracts many translation scholars' attention'''(句子缺谓语）'''and according to the research results of recent translation fruits '''（results和fruits赘余）'''both in eastern and western translation academia, almost all scholars put their focus on the study of product and its standardization; however, translation process is rarely studied. What's worse, the way they study '''（缺宾语）''' is almost the same, all start'''ing''' from analyzing the source text and target text, then compar'''ing''' the two, that is to say, compar'''ing''' the product of source text and target text to see whether it is the same, we call it a product-to-product comparison. Meanwhile, from the perspective of the purpose of translation study, it seems that we should pay more attention to analyze the complex process of the'''（去掉the）''' conversion between two languages, and explains the problems and gives some feasible solutions and operating procedures. There is no doubt that taking translation as a process to study is beneficial to both perfect the translation theory and improve translation level. Therefore, this paper will mainly focus on the study of Roger T.Bell's Translation Process Model, which claimed the essence of translation is the process rather than product. It is also worthy of mentioning that he not only studied the process of translation, but also made a great breakthrough by connecting the translation with systemic functional linguistics and cognitive psychology, which exhibits a more comprehensive translation theory for the whole academia. And it is these two elements that made Bell's translation process model a special and valuable one (Wu Yicheng 1998, 55)

===2. The Main Content of Bell's Translation Process Model ===
====2. 1 The Complexity of Translation Process ====
Generally speaking, former'''（Previous）''' translators have divided translation into two parts: understand and express. First of all, translator needs to understand the meaning of the source text and its author's intention, and what a translator should do next is to translate precisely on the basis of understanding the source text's meaning, its author's writing purpose and the goal of the target text. Even so, it is still hard for us to explain what exactly the translation process is. There are many outstanding translation theorists expressing their principle about what the translation is. For instance, Yan Fu, a brilliant translator once put forward his brief but powerful view about translation, that is, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. Professor Qian Zhongshu also showed his opinion towards translation and brought forth the principle “Sublimation Theory”. As for western translators, Eugene Nida's “Functional Equivalence Theory”; James Holmes' “Text-level Translation Process” and Roger T.Bell's “Translation Process Model” and so on'''（这不是一个句子）''', all of them have come up with meaningful idea about translation. According to Holmes who raised a critical question about translation: How does the translator create a completely new target text which more or less attaches some similarities with the source text during the translation process? How does his “Black Box” operate when he or she was translating an original text? There are a huge amount of obstacles that translators need to come over. However, few scholars had stretched their foot on this area. (Zhang Meifang 2005, 43)

Taking Nida's translation theory as an example, in his opinion, translation process is composed by '''（of）''' four stages: analysis, conversion, reconstruct and examine. Nida further elucidated this conception in his The meaning of Translation'''（书？首字母大写＋斜体）''' that the analysis stage is the stage where the translator determines the meaning of the original text (lexical, syntactic and rhetorical meaning). The translator should consider content and form at this stage; he believes that the process by which people stop thinking in one language and start thinking in another language is still a mystery. According to some concepts of generative-transformation grammar'''（transformational-generative grammar）''', the analysis process is mainly the process of determining the inner meaning. The conversion process takes place at this level, because languages are more similar in substructure'''（deep structure）''' than in surface structure. Once the conversion occurs, the translator must reconstruct the form of the original information to make it suitable for the hypothetical'''（potential？）''' reader, and the detection phase is the phase in which the target text is compared. (Nida 1969, 484)

Although Nida had mentioned a relatively complete translation theory, one of his translation model's deficiencies was that it didn't reveal the translator's psychological process when he or she was translating. That is to say, he didn't consider the function of the translator, like how did he or she analyze the source text? How did translator cut the original text into fundamental structure and rebuild them into the target text? All of these questions haven't been answered yet. In a word, Nida's translation mode didn't concern the translator's thinking activity during the translation process. On the contrary, in Roger T.Bell's translation process model, the role of translator was under '''（taken into)'''consideration, that's why Bell's translation mode was more comprehensive and better interpreted the complexity of translation process. (Xiao Hui 2001, 34)

====2.2 Bell's Main Idea about Translation====
Bell in his book ''Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice'''''（这整个是书名吧？）''' has showed his view towards translation in a different way, considering some factors that may also influence the product of the target text which was never put forward before. He said that one of the goals in this book was to generalize the components that help to constitute all kinds of competences and knowledge of a translator, the second goal is to establish a translation mode on the basis of this generalization. (1991, 18) In order to figure out what exactly the translation process is, he has put forward some relevant questions: What is translation? What is a translator? What is translation theory? And he tried to answer them by combining translation process with systemic functional linguistics and cognitive psychology. What's more, Bell had showed his point of view quite clearly, he stressed that translation must be regarded as a kind of communicative behavior among human beings, which can be guided by linguistics and helped by the fruits of cognitive science and cognitive linguistics to build his translation process model. As Liao Qiyi said in the book ''Contemporary Translation Studies'' in UK that Bell had taken great efforts to establish the translation process model, which was placed in the larger field of human communicative behavior, so it inevitably had to resort to psychology and linguistics. On the one hand, we need to be familiar with the mode of memory and information processing of psychology and psycholinguistics. On the other hand, it requires an understanding of the linguistic mode of the broadest sense of meaning, including the meaning of “beyond sentences”. It is for this reason that Bell takes “mode”, “meaning” and “memory” as the focus of his discussion. (Liao Qingyi 2001, 208)

Generally speaking, Bell's translation theory starts from answering such questions like '''what''' translation, translator, and translation theory '''is.''' Next, he comes to the conclusion that it is the act of translation '''that''' truly matters, so he makes the translation process as his major study. In his book ''Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice''， Bell focuses on theoretical exploration, but he is also closely related to all aspects involved in specific translation activities. Therefore, like'''（As）''' he said in the title of the book, the proposition of combining theory and practice has been found in his research and it has got a comprehensive implementation. Before describing and constructing the translation process model, he defined the concept “translation”, using this as a starting point, and compared the steps involved in monolingual communication with those in bilingual communication, revealing the commonality of the two points and differences to define the characteristics of the communicative act of translation. At the same time, Bell always put translator in the center position and on the basis of studying the competence of a translator, he came up with six '''presumptions''' towards translation process. According to these materials and assumptions, Bell divided translation process into two stages: analysis and synthesis, which separately means convert a special language text (primitive text) into a non-semantic expression of special language; synthesize this semantic expression into a text in a second special language (the target language text). Each stage also contains three levels of syntax, semantic and pragmatics. We will talk about it in the next chapter in detail. (Bell 1991, 44-45)

All in all, in Roger T.Bell's book ''Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice'' we found that the explanation of theory is combined with the display of schema. The nearly 50 schemas in the book contribute to translation activities, translation specific steps, including analysis procedures, synthesis procedures, text reproduction and synthesis procedures, and the relationship between '''(among)''' meaning, meaning generation, text information processing, text processing skills, etc. He made an intuitive display, which fully demonstrated Roger Bell's efforts to direct translation studies to a systematic and scientific nature. (Xu Jun 2003, 37)

===3. The First Special Outlook on Translation: Systemic Functional Linguistics===
====3.1 Systemic functional linguistics and translation====
Although translation process is related to many nonverbal problems linked with two languages, including the psychological and thinking process, philosophy aesthetics and cultural tradition loaded by different languages; nevertheless, it will be extremely hard to achieve systematize '''(用名词）'''and theorization without the guidance of linguistic theory. As Bell said that if translation theorists do not use the research results of linguistics, their comments on texts will inevitably be subjective, and it is inevitable that '''there will be prescriptive colors'''. (1991, 15) Thus, one of the special outlooks of Bell's translation process model is attributed to the systemic functional linguistics. Therefore, it is quite necessary to know what the systemic functional linguistics is first.'''（分段了）'''
Systemic functional linguistics is one of the most influential linguistic schools in the world today. It was developed under the anthropological tradition. The difference from'''（between S-F linguistics and)''' other linguistic schools is that '''they''' emphasize the social nature of language users and focus on the characteristics of language in practical application and the functionality of language. Although systemic functional linguistics is not a specific translation theory, it can be used to study translation theory and improve the development of translation as a result of its universality. The representative of systemic functional linguistics Halliday once wrote an article about linguistics and machine translation and put forward a hypothesis about building translation process model theory. And he further talked about the relationship between translation and comparison in his book ''The Linguistic Sciences and Language Teaching''. In the paper, he made his own point of view about the essence of translation, and established a hierarchical selection of translation patterns on the basis of hierarchy and category grammar. (Halliday 1964, 145)

According to this model, the translator's process of translation is from the low-level to the high-level, that is, from the morpheme level to the word level, phrase level, clause level, and finally up to the sentence level, which is a step by step('''step-by-step)''' selection process. The translator must find the equivalent structure for each item and category at each level. In Halliday's opinion, the essence of translation process is actually a kind of language activity, and the essence of equivalence is not '''formally, but contextually'''(不用副词吧？). Since the meaning system is subject to the linguistic social and cultural context, the search for meaning equivalence is actually the search for the equivalence of two linguistic contexts, that is, the search for the functional equivalence of the texts of the two languages in the same context. For example, when translating application styles such as invitations, notices, regulations and letters, the translator should know how to find a translation that meets the specifications in the target language in the translation. In a word, when it comes to translation, what a translator should do is to find the tasks that should be done in the range of language activities, rather than seeing'''(to see)''' whether it is formally equivalent in the level of grammar and vocabulary between source text and target text. (Halliday 1964, 158)

====3.2 Bell's Application with Systemic Functional Linguistics and Translation Process====
It is well known that systemic functional linguistics regards the actual use of language as the object of study, and they think that language is the tool for social communication. Meanwhile, it is also acknowledged that translation process is related to two communicative processes. The first is a communication process between the '''original author and the original reader''', and then a communication process between the translator and the target reader. The identification of translator is quite particular, because he or she is an information addressee at the first communicative process, while he or she becomes an information addresser at the second communicative process, and both the two processes need to use language to communicate. '''分段了'''
Although translation is different from general communication, it involves many issues such as culture, psychology, philosophy and aesthetics. It is essentially constituted by the communicative process of language. From this point of view, it is self-evident that the actual use of language in the communication process is regarded by the systemic functional linguistics theory as the research object which will guide the translation process. The translation process model that Bell tried to establish was exactly in the frame of systemic functional linguistics. It was built on the basis of '''system theory''' and cognitive theory, and used the three meta-functions of language in system function theory to discuss the understanding of the meaning of the source text, and the interpretation of textual issues, and the explanation of the text problem is also entirely the text theory of the systemic functional linguistics school. (Sun Huijun 2000, 54)

According to Roger T.Bell's book ''Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice'', he contended that the translation process should cover the following contents: First of all, translation is a special case in the universal phenomenon of human information processing; then, the translation process model should belong to the psychological field of translation information processing; thirdly, the translation process takes place in short-term memory and long-term memory, which requires a text decoding device in the original language and a text encoding device in the target language, and a semantic representation that has nothing to do with language (semantic representation); '''分段了'''
next, whether in the analysis of incoming signals or the synthesis of outgoing signals, the translation process is carried out at the language level of clauses. Processing a text in a bottom-up and top-down manner, and combining the two methods through a cascaded operation; analysis or synthesis in one stage must be completed after being activated, corrected and allowed in the next stage; Last but not least, the translation process needs two languages, including visual word-recognition system and writing system; it also needs syntactic processor, which is the choice of dealing with mood system. Furthermore, the translation process must have FLS(frequent lexical store),LSM(a lexical search mechanism) and FSS(a frequent structure store) and a mechanism that is used to analyze sentence grammatically. It requires a semantic processor to handle the choice and use of Transitivity system and exchange information as well. At the same time, the process needs a pragmatic processor to deal with all kinds of choices gained from the Theme system. The last requirement is idea organizer, which the process of tracking and organizing the language behavior of the text (if the translator does not know the type of the text, the organizer of the concept will make inferences based on the existing information) as part of the strategy for the implementation of the goal plan, which is planned and stored in idea organizer. (Bell 1991, 228)

Specifically speaking, in the process of syntactic processing and analysis, clauses are decomposed into many syntactic structures. People can choose clause structure in model system. First, the clauses are used in the form of a series of linear symbols through Common Vocabulary Storage (FLS) and Common Structure Storage (FSS), without having to go through the vocabulary search mechanism or grammatical analysis, and then the vocabulary can directly enter the semantic level during the analysis. Or in the synthesis directly enter the writing system during the process. The so-called common structure storage refers to the frequently occurring structures developed and stored in memory by the translator (such as subject-predicate structure, subject-predicate complement structure, etc.) The so-called grammatical analysis of sentences refers to the task of analyzing clauses when analysis becomes necessary. The so-called vocabulary search mechanism means that when the translator cannot find a matching term in the common vocabulary storage, the translator must use this mechanism to try to find the term that can “produce meaning”. In the process of semantic analysis, the task performed by the semantic analysis program is to “recover the concept”, retrieve the transitive relationship under the clause syntax, and derive content from the syntactic structure through the previous analysis. In the process of pragmatic analysis, the tasks performed by the pragmatic analysis program are off-topic structure and conducting register analysis on topic structure. Translation process cannot be simply regarded as translating clause to clause between two languages, what a translator should do is to disintegrate the clauses of source text into the form of semantic expression, then put this as foundation to rebuild the language of target text.(Xiao Hui 2001, 35)

The so-called concept organizer has three functions: (1) perfect analysis content; (2) control the collection of information from time to time; (3) modify semantic expression. This kind of analysis is finally absorbed by the planner, at which time people can make a decision to continue reading or translate. When the clauses of the original text are transformed into semantic expressions and the reader decides to translate them, we can assume that once the information has been stored in the semantic expressions, the semantic expressions are sufficient to indicate what type of text the clauses are expected to be translated into. In the process of pragmatic synthesis, the target language processing program accepts all the information expressed in semantics and faces three main problems: (1) how to deal with the purpose of the original text; (2) how to deal with the subject structure of the original text; (3) how to deal with the style of the original text.
In the process of semantic synthesis, the target language semantic processor accepts the meaning of intra-language behavior, and generates some structure to transfer the theme content, and the generated satisfactory theme content is passed to the next step of the synthesis stage. In the process of syntactic synthesis, the translation syntax processor accepts the input information from the semantic stage, and finds suitable terms through the storage of common vocabulary; checks the common syntactic storage to find out the appropriate clause type that can represent the proposition. If there is no available clause structure to express special meaning in the vocabulary storage, this proposition must be analyzed grammatically, and finally the writing system is activated. Thus this string of written symbols constitutes the target language text. The last process ends with returning to the original text and the next clause is like a monolingual reader. In conclusion, the translation process is a series of interactive processes, mainly including three stages: synthesis, semantic and pragmatic processing stages, and each of these three stages is related to both analysis and synthesis. The translation process is very complicated. (Xiao Hui 2001, 36)

It is very difficult to describe such a complicated process, especially the textual analysis of the entire interactive integrated process that is not completely linear. Roger Bell made full use of the advantages of schemas and showed us a more intuitive display of the factors involved in the translation process, main activities and activity trends. (Xu Jun 2003, 36)

====3.3 Benefits and Deficiencies of such Combination====
It can be inferred that the study of translation process model'''s''' will definitely help the theoretical exploration and development of translation machines. It is necessary to point out that with the deepening of the research on the issues involved in the translation process, we will encounter difficulties that are difficult to solve by translation studies itself, such as the study of the process of translation thinking activities and translation mechanisms, and other disciplines, such as neurolinguistics and psycholinguistic development and breakthroughs.(Xu Jun 2003, 37)
However, there are also some deficiencies existing in Bell's model. First of all, Bell emphasized that the translation process is a comprehensive and non-linear process. There was no fixed order at each stage, because the translator “is not occasionally but often revises and overturns previous decisions.” The terms “sequence” and “linear” showed that Bell's main concern was the time dimension of translation behavior, and the choice is not fully reflected in the model. (Li Li 2019, 18)

===4. The Second Outlook on Translation: Cognitive Psychology===
====4.1 Cognitive Psychology and Translation====
Regarding translation as a process is actually to research the cognitive psychology process during the transformation of bilinguals. There are some world-famous translation theorists who have already mentioned this. '''For instance, Lin Yutang once said that the problem of translation is still nothing but the mentality of the translator and the relationship between the translator and the translated texts, so the problem of translation can be said to be a language and psychological problem.''' （我觉得这里可能需要引用）'''分段了'''
As we all know, translation contains two steps: the understanding of the source text and the output of the target text. The former one means the translator uses visual primitives to construct meaning in the brain, which is a psychological process. As for the output of target text, it refers to the process by which the meaning that the translator has constructed is re-expressed in the form of the target language. Bilingual conversion is a relatively complex cognitive psychological process; whether it is the understanding of the source language or the output of the target language, it must be restricted by mental representations, that is, cognitive constraints. From the perspective of cognitive science, learning by a person first involves the mechanisms of sensory organs, brain, muscles, etc. Secondly, the stimulation acting on the sensory organs, and thirdly, the known information recovered from the learner's memory. This is a process of interaction between new and old information, which can be called an information processing model. Gagn believed that it is the basis of learning psychology. Therefore, cognitive science thought that human being's cognition is a sort of information processing. And the study of the translation process from a cognitive perspective focuses on explaining the cognitive psychological process of the translator when translating bilingualism from the perspective of human processing information. (Xiao Hui 2003, 33)

Another important point is that the axis of translation activities is the conversion process; this process is not a pure language activity, but a thinking activity. Therefore, the translator must grasp the laws of thinking activities. So how does the discourse change? The original work is the source of information, and the translator's brain also stores an information database. The former one stores more or less emotionally specific information processed by the author, while the latter stores mainly conceptual information. Only when the translator is stimulated by the second signal of the original discourse, can he use the existing concepts to reproduce all the information of the original. The translator's information database stores knowledge units, mainly concepts. Most of these units and the words in the information source are corresponding or similar, so we call “similar blocks”. Information conversion is mainly carried out by “similar blocks”. When translating, the translator compares the received original information with the “similar” information deposited in his own database. The old and new information forms a “similar block” and feeds back to each other. The translator mobilizes all kinds of information related to the new information in his mind, transforms, corrects, supplements, and enriches it. Until the new and old information is similar to each other and reaches the extreme, the translator uses the target language to externalize and change the similar products to the target text. Since bilingual conversion as a kind of thinking process is invisible and intangible, the theoretical goal of its research should be to establish a psychological reality mechanism and thinking pattern that prompts bilingual conversion through an analysis of the translation process. (Dong Junhong 2008, 43)

====4.2 Bell's Application with Cognitive Psychology and Translation====
As we mentioned before, Roger T.Bell tried to use systemic functional linguistics to describe translation process and what knowledge and skill the translator should grasp, and he also combined psychology with information theory model to depict the work process in the mind of the translator when he or she is translating. He said in the book ''Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice'' that translators were just like many other communicators living in a world filled with meanings, where they could conceive all kinds of meanings so as to form the conception. And their experience could recall or even gain revive through the memory system. Bell used “aggregates” “wholes” “system” to depict the process of cognition. '''（分段了）'''
It is generally accepted that the translator is the communicator between two languages, but first of all he must be the message receiver. And as a message receiver, no matter a listener or a reader, '''intralingual or interlingual'''—has to face the same problem: to receive information and carry signals (utterances or texts) and extract them from the source language information and use the target language to construct the best performance model. Bell used the conception of schema to explain the cognitive process of the translator and the productive process of the target text. In the translator's cognitive process, the recognized objects are “aggregates”, which enter the translator's mind through intuition, and are then perceived and transformed into the “wholes” that carries information, and conceptualized as “system” or “pattern”. (Bell 1991, 15-18)

Bell believed that all communicators have knowledge of semantics, grammar and rhetoric. Semantic knowledge helps him to convert concepts into propositions; grammatical knowledge helps him to mark propositions in a language system that can produce clauses; rhetorical knowledge helps him to organize clauses into propositions which could be used in the surroundings of utterance or discourse. Human being's perceptual experience towards the inner and outer world is expressed through language, and the conception stored in the memory is also expressed by language. People understand the characteristics of things by comparing the similarities between different things, and understand their living world from a new perspective. In Bell's opinion, translator is actually a bilingual communicator in the form of written language. (Zhang Meifang 2005, 43)

To sum up, the translation process is not a linear process which strictly follows one stage, but a comprehensive process, that is, the sequence of each stage must be experienced in the translation process, and it is not fixed. The translator can move from the next stage to the previous stage. Besides, the translator's amendment or cancellation of the previous decision is usually in line with the norms. Bell explained the thinking process of translators during the bilingual conversion, which is a huge step in the history of translation studies. (Bell 1991, 56)

====4.3 Benefits and Deficiencies of the Combination of Cognitive Psychology and Translation====
As we talked before, Bell had adopted a new research method for translation procedures and ability analysis. And there are some following advantages. In the first place, '''by''' exploring translation from the perspective of psychology, people can make assumptions about the content constructed in the translator's mind based on the empirical research and application process of translation ability—analysis. It is necessary for people to elaborate on the psychological process of translation; nevertheless, this psychological process is not yet known or investigated. Secondly, as far as the overall psychological research is concerned, one can expect the fact that empirical research on translation ability will provide an in-depth understanding of language processing, speech acceptance, speech production psychological processes, and language users use psychological strategy. (Xiao Hui 2001, 33)

===5. Conclusion===
In summary, Roger T.Bell has provided '''for'''去掉 us with a relatively comprehensive and elaborated outlook of translation process. Foremost, the author puts the translation process in the systemic model of the language, describes and interprets the translation process from a theoretical and practical perspective, and tries to model it. Afterwards, he has considered the importance of the translator's thinking activities and applied some knowledge of cognitive psychology with translation process to fully elucidate his translation theory. Finally, he has built a more complete translation theory based on these. This effort is worthy of complete recognition, because it not only adds a lot of scientific elements to translation studies, but also lays a solid foundation for the construction of translation studies. (Wu Yicheng 1998, 56)

===References===
Dong Junhong. 董俊虹. (2008). 基于贝尔模型的翻译过程心理认知探究. [A Probe into Psychological Cognition in Translation Process Based on Bell's Model]. “西北工业大学学报”[Journal of Northwestern Polytechnical University]. 42-46.

Liao Qiyi. 廖七一. (2001). 《当代英国理论》[Contemporary British Theory]. “湖北出版社”[Hubei Education Press]. 208.

Li Li. 李力. (2019). 译者选择的类坐标系模式 [Coordinate-like Mode Chosen by the Translator]. “中国翻译”[China Translation]. 18-19.

Sun Huijun. 孙会军. (2000). 系统功能理论与翻译理论研究 [System Function Theory and Translation Theory Research]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and ForeignLanguage Teaching]. 53-56.

Wu Yicheng. 吴义诚. (1998). 贝尔的翻译与翻译过程：理论与实践评介 [A Review of Bell's Translation and Translation Process: Theory and Practice]. “中国翻译”[China Translation]. 55-56.

Xiao Hui. 肖辉. （2001）. 翻译过程模式论断想 [On the Model of Translation Process]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 33-36.

Xu Jun. 许钧. (2003). 简论翻译过程的实际体验与理论探索 [Briefly on the Practical Experience and Theoretical Exploration of the Translation Process]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 33-38.

Zhang Meifang. 张美芳. (2005). 图示分析隐喻翻译中的认知过程 [Schematic Analysis of the Cognitive Process in Metaphor Translation]. “外语与外语教学” [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. 43-46.

Bell, Roger T. (1991). Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice. London and New York: Longman.

Halliday, M.A.K. (1961). Linguistics and Machine Translation in McIntosh. London: Longman.

Nida, Eugene A. (1964). Toward a Science of Translating—with Special Reference to Principles Involved in Bible Translating. Leiden: E.J.Brill.

==A Brief Introduction to the Translation Theories of Catford and Eugene Nida==

<center>杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, Student No.202070080615 英语笔译 </center>

===Abstract===

This paper is on the translation theories of Catford and Eugene Nida. In the book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’s textual material for another language (the original language),”(Catford 1965) and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposed that the mission of translation theory is to find the essence and the condition of equivalence components.

Eugene Nida proposed the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of the communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information but also convey the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.

===Key Words===

Catford; Eugene Nida; Translation theory; Dynamic equivalence

===摘要===

卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”(Catford 1965)，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分视作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。

尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。由于奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。

===关键词===

卡特福特；尤金·奈达；翻译理论；动态对等

===Introduction===

Since the 1950s, several scholars in the West have begun to focus on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as one subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought forward relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, making great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives during that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people's attention to the theory research of translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2009,12)

The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida.

===Introduction of Catford's theory===

Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book—''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', published in 1965, has become one of the most influential works for contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interprets some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in Western linguistic and translation theory circles, praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”.(Bao Zhennan 1982,68)

====The Nature of Translation====

According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship among languages, and he sees translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language). Catford views translation activity based on the knowledge of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing grammars and vocabularies.(Catford 1965,20)

====The Classification of Translation====

Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.

In terms of the degree of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)

In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter what grammatical structures or vocabularies are, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)

In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however, is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a kind of translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation. (Liu Junping 2007,137-140)

====Translation Equivalence====

From Catford's definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the keyword. Since the central problem of translation is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, while the central task of translation theory is to explain the essence and the condition of equivalent forms. In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. (Pan Menglai 2020,1)

But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding ones in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese is “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to its languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute. (Wang Xiaoqin 2009.3)

According to Catford, to achieve equivalence, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text, and the more occasions it shares, the higher the quality of the translation is. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and the original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.(Catford 1965,20-21)

====Translation Shifts====

The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondence of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form. Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the translated language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refers to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. (Liu Junping2009,140)

Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra-system shifts. (Catford 1965)

====Limits of Translatability====

Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original text, with no available vocabulary or grammar that can replace the original text, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict or absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. (Catford 1965)

===Introduction of Eugene Nida's theory===

Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field. He has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put the ''Bible'' in the first place. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. (Nida 1964)

====Dynamic Equivalence Theory====

Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that the target language receiver and the source language creator are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language. “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. (Eugene Nida 1964)

Based on Chomsky’s ''Generative Grammar'', he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transfer, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and style can be acquired. Nida also believes that formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text. (Tang Baolian 2013)

In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence.

(1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary includes five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings, and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. (Tang Baolian 2013)

(2) Syntactic equivalence. Again, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, while Chinese is paratactic, the tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)

Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English but not in Chinese, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and the combination of definite clauses needed to be taken into consideration. (Zheng Jingting 2020,31)

(3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. (Tang Baolian 2013)

Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved by translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues. (Tang Baolian 2013)

(4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.

The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. (Chen Ning 2020,19)

Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target reader to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.

This definition includes three basic terms. First, equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; second, natural. It refers to the target language; third, the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target text. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. (Chen Ning 2020,19)

To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”, because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, which requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. (Tan Zaixi 1999)

Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the style of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. (Tan Zaixi 1999)

If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original language in time. In order to do this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find the “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way. (Tan Zaixi 1999)

====Reader's Response Theory====

Reader’s response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Reader’s response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. (Duan Lina 2015,12)

Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires that we should use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words or loan words from the original language. Reader’s response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus placing more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. (Duan Lina 2015,12)

According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depends on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test the public's reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore the reader's reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. (Liu Junping 2007)

For example, if one wants to translate the ''Analects'' into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the ''Analects'' should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular, which bring joy to English readers, but if his works translated into Chinese mislead Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the receptors in understanding the content. (Liu Junping 2007)

====Three Developing Periods of Nida's Theories====

The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicts language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of the ''Bible'' translation. (Yuan Ruirui 2019,12)

The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, plays an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in the Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, ''Toward a Science of Translating'', which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:

(1) Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill but also a subject.

(2) He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.

(3) The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.

(4) As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocated the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring, and examination. (Shi Cuiui 2009,01)

The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theory and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book ''From One Language to Another'', published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which was the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:

(1) It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.

(2) It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.

(3) Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.

(4) It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning. (Tan Zaixi 1999)

===Comparison Between Catford's Theory and Nida's Theory===

Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the West, they clarify their theories from different angles, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on ''A Linguistic Theories of Translation'' written by Catford and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form.

====Meaning====

Nida's translation theories are primarily in the service of the ''Bible'' translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the ''Bible'', transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but he even considers the meaning to be sacrosanct because it's a process of conveying “God’ s will”. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)

Nida's definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning in the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning, and connotative meaning, which also becomes the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning remains the same. (Zhao Huiyan 2016,24)

Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also a more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has its unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. (Tang Yilang 2008,04)

Each kind of language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which leads to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.

According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is a deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.(Nida 1969)

In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant.

====Equivalent====

“对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning, understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation field’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. (Xia Qun 2016,06)

Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form. (Zhang Peng 2005, 02)

Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory doubts the static model of textual comparisons, arguing that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.

According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.

Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics that perfect equivalence does not exist.
This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the essence of languages. (Catford 1965)

====Form====

The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which have different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For the ''Bible'' translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed during translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realize, the form can be abandoned. (Gao Hong 2017,09)

As for the different opinion on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while remaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.
Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belong to language itself. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. (Gao Hong 2017, 09)

Therefore, translation between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others. (Tan zaixi 1999)

===Conclusion===

This paper mainly introduces the translation theories proposed by Catford and Nida and makes a comparison between the two.

Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ response in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poems, this method may not suitable.

Catford mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and defining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration.

===Bibliography===

* Catford, J.C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

* Chen Fukang 陈福康.(1992).''中国译学理论史稿''[The History of Chinese Translation Theories]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.

* He Ying 何瑛.(2007).奈达翻译理论分析 [The analysis on Nida’s translation theories]. ''防灾科技学院学报''Journal of Institute of Disaster Prevention (02):104-106.

* Jiang Li 姜丽.(2010).奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较 [The comparison between Nida’s theory and Catford’s theory].''文教资料''Data of Culture and Education (05):44-46.

* Liu Yunhong, Xu Jun 刘云虹,许钧.(2010).翻译标准“信达雅”的实践再审视 [The survey on the practice of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation 31(05):13-18+94.

* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1989). 西方翻译理论概评[An Overview of Western Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 2-6.

* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆.(2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究'' [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.

* Mu Lei 穆雷.(1990).卡特福德论翻译和教学 [Catford’s theory of translation and teaching].''中国翻译''Chinese Translation(05).

* Nida, Eugene. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: the Netherlands, E.J.Brill.

* Sun Jia 孙佳.(2017).奈达翻译理论对中国翻译的影响探讨 [The influence of Nida’s translation theory on Chinese translation].''海外英语''Oversea English(09):99-100.

* Sun Xiaotong 孙晓曈.(2016).卡特福德翻译理论综述 [A summary on Catford’s translation theory].''读书文摘'' Reading Digest(08):107.

* Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.(1999)．''新编奈达论翻译''［A new version of Nida's theory on translation]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.

* Xu Jun 许钧. (1998). 翻译思考录 [A series of translation studies in China]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.

* Yuan Xiaoyi 袁筱一. (1997). “不可译”与“再创造”[Untranslatability and re-creation]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation(04).

--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:42, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting

==On the Differences of Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607 英语语言文学==

<center>康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607</center>

===Abstract===

Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They respectively each proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories, and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.

===Key Words===

Functional equivalence; semantic translation; communicative translation; text type

===题目===

探讨奈达和纽马克翻译理论之区别

===摘要===

尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。其中奈达提出了功能对等理论，彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译、交际翻译、文本类型理论及后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。因两人处于同一时代，他们的翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。

===关键词===

功能对等；语义翻译；交际翻译；文本类型

===Introduction of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories===

Nida is a prolific translation theorist. The main academic activities of his life revolve around ''Bible'' translation. Nida worked for translation department of American Bible Society and organized the translation of ''Bible'', and drew some conclusions when translating ''Bible''. His first monograph was ''Bible Translating'' released in 1946. According to these experiences, he published ''Toward a Science of Translating'' in 1964, and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' in 1969, etc. His translation theory and the phrase-dynamic equivalence was first introduced in the former book with many examples about ''Bible'' in this book.

Peter Newmark and Eugene A. Nida were the same century and Newmark was two years younger than Nida. But Newmark's translation theory appeared 20 years later than Nida's. Since 1974, Newmark has begun to teach students translation theories in the university and tried to write passages about translation problems. It was said that Newmark's ideas were from his classes. His first work-''Approaches to Translation'' was published in 1981, which gained widespread praise immediately. Semantic translation and communicative translation were put forward in this book. Then he came up with the theory of text type and correlative approach to translation. (Wang Luo 2012, 101)

In China, many translators regarded their translation theories as the guidelines when translating and used their translation theories to evaluate and compare others' translations. There are a lot of theses on the Internet that use their theories. There are also a lot of theses about the comparative study of Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's translation theory in China. Until now, there have been people focusing on the similarities and differences of their theories. Plenty of differences are mentioned by scholars like Lin Kenan, Lao Long, Chen Lin, Wang Jing, Zhang Xu, Hu Dawei, Yin Kexiu, etc. (Lao Long 1990, 52)

As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark attached importance to literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. (Lao Long 1990, 52)

In addition, both Newmark and Nida supposed that every language could be translated into another language. The ability of translatability was confirmed. There are many other differences about their theories. Scholars have made a detailed study of their differences. A few scholars study one of their many differences, and their researches have looked more closely at their differences. Most scholars try to find out all the differences between them. In the process of studying, some scholars hold extreme attitudes toward their theories. For instance, some scholars perceive that Nida opposed formal equivalence. '''（sources missed）
'''
Some inaccurate conclusions were drawn that Nida only focused on free translation and Newmark totally used literal translation and did not care about free translation. Some scholars reckon that some ideas of Nida's theory are contrary to that of Newmark's theory. The reasons why some scholars summarize such false conclusions are that first, they do not begin an intensive study and have a rush for quick results; second, Nida's and Newmark's were at the stage of development at that time and some scholars saw some imperfect ideas and put them into researches but it was likely that Nida and Newmark revised and added some ideas in the following texts. This chapter will illustrate their differences from five aspects, which are their kernel theories, the definition and nature, research methods, translation texts, and translation evaluation criteria. There are two parts about translation texts, which are the content and form in translation, degree of emphasis on the texts. (Lao Long 1990, 52)

===Chapter 1 Nida's and Newmark's Kernel Theories===

Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail, and then introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory.

====1.1 Introduction of Nida's Kernel Translation Theory====

Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence,and in 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence "which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language". (Nida 1969, 24)

This theory now is called functional equivalence. Due to people's misunderstanding of dynamic equivalence, the expression-dynamic equivalence is superseded by functional equivalence in his ''From One Language to Another''. Both of them have little differences. The theory pays more attention to the functional equivalence of information instead of direct formal translation. It poses a requirement to the target language in translation close to the source language in meaning and style. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)

It is concluded that translation is not to rigidly follow the surface equivalence between two languages, but to combine the message, emotion and style of the original text to make the translation convey the same information as the original text to the greatest extent. There are four aspects of functional equivalence theory, which are lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. In addition, Nida proposed two kinds of equivalence in the 1990s which were added into his functional equivalence theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)

One is maximal equivalence, which means that the target readers can understand and appreciate the translation in the same way as the original readers. It's the ideal state pursued by translators. The other is minimal equivalence, which means that the target readers should be able to understand the translation and then can imagine how the readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text. The development of functional equivalence theory experienced three stages. The first stage was that he applied modern linguistic fruits into his theory. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16)

The idea of deep structure and surface structure of transformational generative linguistics was shown in his theory. The second stage was that Nida thought his theory was based on information theory. A good translation should assure readers of the source text and readers of the translations that they can get the same understanding from the translation and the source text. The third stage was that Nida considered that social semiotics was the foundation of functional equivalence, translating meant translating the meaning, and semiotics was the most comprehensive system for analyzing meaning. Nida's theory is widely used in the comparative analysis of two translations, the appreciation of subtitle translations, and some reports about technology, etc. (Liang Ge, Xian lei, Ren Chaoying 2016, 16) '''(the division of these few paragraphs here is a little bit strange）'''--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====1.2 Introduction of Newmark's Kernel Translation Theory====

Taking different types of texts into account, he divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)

Not only are translators faithful to the content of source texts, but also the translations in style should be in line with the author's language style. The key points of informative function are extrinsic context, the reality of a topic, extra-linguistic factors, etc. The informative texts contain encyclopedic knowledge, whose form is standard, textbooks, newspapers, etc. The objects of vocative texts are readers, whose aim is that a writer attempt to lead readers to act, think as his intentions. Instruction books, publicity materials, applications are part of vocative texts. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)

What's more, Newmark also came up with semantic translation and communicative translation. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Translators even can revise the original mistakes with a view to realizing communicative goals. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Semantic translation pays attention to the intentions and meaning of the original writers. "Few texts are purely expressive, informative, or vocative: most include all three functions, with an emphasis on one of the three". (Newmark 1988, 56)

Concerning the situations of over-translation and under-translation, Newmark presented the correlative approach to translation in 1994. The more important the language of the original or the source language text, the more closely it should be translated. Newmark stated that the approach did not reject his two other translation methods. On the contrary, it brought the two together more closely on that basis. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)

===Chapter 2 The Definition and Nature of Translation===

What is translation? Basically every translator will be asked and has his or her own definitions. For Nida and Newmark, they each developed a theory system. And Nida and Newmark had different explanations about the definition of translation. Nida gave his definition that translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second, in terms of style. Nida also mentioned that "translating means communicating". (Nida 1969, 12)

And Newmark said that it is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text. (Newmark 1988, 45) It can be seen that the focus of Nida's definition is on the closest natural equivalence, meaning, and style and the emphasis of Newmark's definition is on meaning, and text. It seemed that Nida had a broader scope than Newmark from the perspective of the definition. But in fact their main ideas are different. Nida thought over translation from the view of communication and Newmark tended to give a thought to translation from the perspective of types of texts. '''(source missed)
'''
Apart from the definitions of translation, they argued over the nature of translation. People have some controversies about Nida's opinions about the nature of translation. There are two main views. One is that "Nida ever thought that translation was a kind of science, which later was modified by him and he reckoned that translation was a kind of science and translation was also a kind of art".(Shao Lu 2007, 62) The other is that "Nida never said translation was a kind of translation". (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61)

The first view is based on the titles of his book in 1964-''Toward a Science of Translating'' and the title of one of his passages in 1969-''Science of Translation''. Nida also stated that "translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art". (Nida 1969, 7) It is illogical to say that translation is a kind of science according to these phrases such as science of translation, and science of translating and the sentence-translating is far more than a science. The better understandings of Nida's sentences are that translation is scientific and artistic, and a good translation should be a work of art.

Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that "for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation". (Newmark 2001, 77) Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view, which nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.

===Chapter 3 Research Methods of Translation===

Nida and Newmark have different research methods while their methods all are relevant to linguistics. More precisely, Nida used Chomsky's transformational generative grammar. Nida mentioned three stages of translation and said that "the second system of translation consists of a more elaborate procedure comprising three stages: (r) analysis, in which the surface structure (i.e., the message as given in language A) is analyzed in terms of (a) the grammatical relationships and (b) the meanings of the words and combinations of words, (z) transfer, in which the analyzed material is transferred in the mind of the translator from language A to language B, and (3) restructuring, in which the transferred material is restructured in order to make the final message fully acceptable in the receptor language. This approach may be diagrammed as in Figure 6". (Nida 1969, 33)
[[File:111.jpg]]

This figure in ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' can prove his thinking pattern. And it is easily concluded that the concepts of surface structure and deep structure are involved in this picture. That certain features of this componential analysis require some explanation was written in his books. Nida divided a sentence into a combination of an object, a verb, the first goal, the second goal, and predicate phrase. The five elements were used to analyze a kind of sentence pattern. There are other types of elements used to analyze other sentence patterns. Componential analysis was adopted in his books. (Nida 1969, 33)

Newmark insisted that translation theory originated from comparative linguistics. In the context of linguistics, semantics was mainly involved. All semantic problems are related to translation theory. Newmark also paid special attention to semantic issues, and believed that meaning should be the first consideration of translation theorists. The meaning of the text is diverse. Newmark divided them into three main types: cognitive meaning, communicative meaning, and associative meaning. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)

In addition, Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which showed that the prevailing linguistics at that time had traction in him. The unit of translation and discourse analysis as a chapter and the application of case grammar to translation as another chapter were introduced in his ''A Textbook of Translation''. From Nida's and Newmark's books and passages, translators can see their thinking and some social influences from that century. They had some similarities in research methods of translation. But on a small scale, Nida mainly used surface structure and deep structure, componential analysis while Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which Chomsky's student-Fillmore proposed to object to his teacher's idea. Both of them were in the grip of linguistics but the types of linguistics which they used are different. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)

===Chapter 4 Translation of Texts===

The part will talk about some problems that translators need to think about in translation. First, they should take the content and form of source texts into consideration. Second, the types of the texts have influence on the selection of translation methods, which translators should note.

====4.1 The Content and Form in Translation====

When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation, and Nida and Newmark had their own answers respectively. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61)

The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark is opposite to Nida. Nida has said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61)

And he mentioned "the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend upon the linguistic and cultural distance between languages, which showed he did not ignore form of translation at all". (Nida 1969, 5) In contrast, Newmark did not jump to conclusions. The controversy of content and form is the argument of literal translation and free translation in essence. Nida ever said translating means translating meaning. But experiencing many years' inspection, he had some changes in his thoughts. '''（source missed）
'''
The formal equivalence should be preserved, and only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. (Lao Long 1990, 52)

In contrast with Nida, Newmark at the beginning said that "I am somewhat of a "literalist", because I am for truth and accuracy. I think words as well as sentences and texts have meaning, and that you only deviate from literal translation when there are good semantic pragmatic reasons for so doing, which is more often than not...". (Newmark 1988, 1) The sentence was appeared in the preface of his ''A Textbook of Translation'' in 1988. And there is a quotation mark in the word-literalist, which means he is not a real literalist. Only when with the method of literal translation the meaning is still ambiguous can translators use the method of free translation.

However, at that time, Nida's theory was very prevalent, and most people ignored the importance of literal translation. Initially Nida insisted that form can arbitrarily be changed. Later, Nida improved his theory, so at last Nida's attention was working round from free translation to the combination of literal translation and free translation. Finally Newmark and Nida had the same idea about literal translation and free translation. But in a larger extent, Nida was more inclined to underline meaning and style while Newmark viewed that the importance of literal translation should not be neglected. There is no good or bad between literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark have their own different preferences. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)

Sometimes literal translation is better and sometimes free translation is better. For instance, for the proverb-When in Rome, do as the Romans do, Newmark might accept this translation "在罗马，照罗马人那样做" and Nida might prefer "入乡随俗". Both of the translations are good and nowadays people appreciate the brief version - "入乡随俗". There is another proverb, which is that all roads lead to Rome. Newmark might like "条条大路通罗马" and Nida was fond of this version - "不只有一个解决办法". The former translation also has definite connotations. People are likely to accept "条条大路通罗马". Nowadays, most of the translation methods should be based on the combination of literal translation and free translation. '''(source missed)
'''
Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal, and there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)

In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions, and it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is properer than Nida's. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)

====4.2 Degree of Emphasis on the Texts====

When it comes to texts, Nida considered that his translation method is available to every text while Newmark gave a classification of types of texts. Different types of texts should use different translation methods. The part about introduction of Newmark's translation theory has introduced the three types of texts, their definitions and suitable translation methods. According to text typology, translators should highlight the linguistic style of the author and be faithful to the content of the original author's thoughts when translating expressive texts. For example, there is a sentence - "I do not cough for my own amusement", (Austen 2009,17) which is from ''Pride and prejudice''.

Wang Zuoliang translated it into "我又不是故意咳着玩儿". The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation attaches importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response.

The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. "According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc". (Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators use communicative translation method to translate informative texts.

When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as "请不要吻我，我怕羞", translators should translate it into "keep off the grass", rather than translate it into "please don't kiss me, I am bashful", which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point. (Chen Jing 2004, 68-69)

===Chapter 5 Translation Evaluation Criteria===

The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be called good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed. The readers who give responses should be a people. The readers from a people will give a holistic feedback. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)

Considering that different readers have different understanding, and different interests, Nida also divided the target readers into four categories, which are child readers, primary education readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. He believed that several different translations should be prepared for the same original text to meet the needs of different levels of readers. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)

As the previous part mentioned, Newmark's requirements about good translations varied according to the types of texts. For expressive texts, the good translation from his point of view is that the translation is faithful to the original author and the language style of the translation is in accordance with that of the source texts. For informative texts, an excellent translation depends on whether the translation completely conveys all the content of the original text to the readers, and the content is true and right. For vocative texts, it is easy for the readers to understand the content of the translation of the vocative text, which is a terrific translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 106)

===Conclusion===

Given that the purpose of the translating ''Bible'' is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations in the translation of other texts. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had great influence on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.

===References===

Chen Jing. 陈婧. (2004). 彼得·纽马克的文本类型翻译理论的分析与探讨. [Analysis and Discussion on the Translation Theory of Text Type by Peter Newmark]. ''常州工学院学报''[Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology] 68-70.

Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing. 崔建周,卢静. (2006) 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较. [Comparison of Translation Thoughts between Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark]. ''河南商业高等专科学校学报''[Journal of Henan Business College] 106-108.

Eugene A. Nida and C R.Taber. (1982). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.

Jane Austen. (2009) ''Pride and Prejudice''. New York: Dover Publications.

J D. Waard and E A. Nida. (1986) ''From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating''. Nashville, Tenessee: Thomas Nelson Inc.

Lao Long. 劳陇. (1990). "殊途同归"——试论严复、奈达和纽马克翻译理论的一致性. ["Treading Different Paths that Lead to the Same Destination"——A Discussion On the Consistency of Yan Fu's, Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories.]. ''外国语(上海外国语学院学报)''[Foreign Language (Journal of Shanghai Institute of Foreign Languages)] 52-54, 64.

Liang Ge, Xianlei, Ren Chaoying. 梁戈,先蕾,任朝迎. (2016). 奈达功能对等理论在中国的接受. [Acceptance of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory in China Modern Chinese]. ''现代语文(语言研究版)''[Modern Chinese(Language Studies Edition)] 15-19.

Peter Newmark. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Prentice Hall International Ltd.

Peter Newmark. (2001). ''Approaches To Translation''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

Shao Lu. 邵璐. (2007). 误译•无意•故意—评关于奈达理论的若干争议. [Misinterpretation Unintention Intention-A Review of Some Controversies on Nida’s Theory]. ''外语研究''[Foreign Languages Research] 62-65.

Wang Lu. 王璐. (2012). 从奈达功能对等理论的角度看隐喻翻译. [Metaphorical Translation from Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''常州大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Changzhou University (Social Sciences Edition)] 101-104.

Zhang Jingha. 张经浩. (2005). 谈谈对奈达的所知和理解. [A Discuss of the Knowledge and Understanding of Nida]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Languages and Their Teaching] 59-63.

='''Chinese Translation Theories'''=

==A breif introduction to Xu Yuanchong's translation theories==
<center> 杨逸 Yang Yi, Student No.202020080660 法语语言文学</center>

===Abstract===
Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translated works in Chinese, English or French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He was honored as "the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French" and was presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he put forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.

Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translations in Chinese, English and French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He is honored as "the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French" and is presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award. And he puts forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauties Theory, Three-Transformations Theory, Three-Purposes Theory and Three-Resemblances Theory. So this paper, based principally on his poetry translations, will introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

===Key words===
Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauty Theory; Three-Transformation Theory; Three-Purpose Theory; Three-Resemblance Theory

Xu Yuanchong; Three-beauties Theory; Three-Transformations Theory; Three-Purposes Theory; Three-Resemblances Theory--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei
===摘要===
许渊冲从事文学翻译工作超过六十年，已经在国内外出版中、英、法文著作一百二十多部。这其中中国古代诗词几乎占到了一半。他被誉为“诗译英法唯一人”，曾获“北极光”杰出文学翻译奖，是首位获此殊荣亚洲翻译家。他提出了自己的翻译理论体系：“美化之艺术，创优似竞赛”，其中包含四个部分：三美论，三化论，三之论和三似论。因此本论文主要将结合他的诗歌译本来浅析他的翻译理论。

===关键词===
许渊冲；三美论；三化论；三之论；三似论

===Introduction===
For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practices, he said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as "the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French" and was presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award.

For translation, Xu Yuanchong always insisted that theory comes from practice. So Xu formed his own translation theories by unceasing translation practices, he said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." He is a prolific and outstanding translator, because he has translated a great number of masterpieces and was honored as "the best one who translates poems from Chinese to English and French" and was presented with "Aurora Borealis" Outstanding Literary Translation Award.(Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

But he is also a excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauty Theory, Three-Transformation Theory, Three-Purpose Theory and Three-Resemblance Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015:6)

But he is also an excellent theorist who has put forward his own translation theories summarized as: "art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry", which can be mainly divided into four parts：Three-beauties Theory, Three-Transformations Theory, Three-Purposes Theory and Three-Resemblances Theory. So this paper will be parted into five parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. Firstly, we will give a short introduction of Xu Yuanchong; Then, Xu Yuanchong's four theories will be introduced respectively; Lastly, we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on Xu Yuanchong's translation theories.(Sun Tingting, 2015:6)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

===A brief Introduction of Xu Yuanchong===
Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions.

Xu Yuanchong was born in 1921, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. His mother, a well-educated woman who was very good at drawing pictures, influenced him a lot and made him highly sensitive to beauty. In 1938, at the age of 17, he was admitted to the Department of Foreign Language and Literature of Southwest Associated University where he received the best education both in foreign language and Chinese literature and philosophy. In 1944, Xu Yuanchong went to further his study at Literature Research Institute of Tsinghua University and had a profound study of western culture there. In 1948, Xu went to study abroad in Paris University, where he studied a mass of Chinese literary works both in French and English versions.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translated works in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature.

After returning to China, he taught English at Pecking Foreign Language Institute in 1951. Later, he went to teach English at Zhangjiakou Foreign Language Institute in 1960. Then, he moved to Luoyang Institute of Foreign Language. In 1983, he went back to Pecking University and retired in 1991. Before his retirement, he has published 20 works in Chinese, English and French, and after retirement he has published 40 translations in Chinese, English and French, and put forward his translation theories of literature. --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements, Xu Yuanchongs first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉）'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French.

As to Xu Yuanchong's achievements, Xu Yuanchong's first translation work is ''Don't cast away（别丢掉）'' of Lin Huiyin. Since then, he started to devote all his life to literature translation and made a lot of contributions in this field, especially in translation of poetry. Xu Yuanchong has been devoted more than 60 years to translation studies and has ever translated Chinese classical poetry into both English and French.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literature Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme - from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc.

For example, his Chinese books include ''The Art of Translation (翻译的艺术)'', ''Literature Translation Theories (文学翻译谈)'', ''Literature and Translation (文学与翻译)'', etc. His English books include ''On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme - from the book of Poetry to the Romance of the Western Brower (中诗英韵探胜——从《诗经》到《西厢记》)'', etc. --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.

The Chinese-English translated works include ''the Book of Songs (诗经)'', ''100 Tang and Song Ci Poems (唐诗宋词一百首)'', ''Selected Poems of Li Bai (李白诗选)'', ''Romance of the Western Brower (西厢记)'', ''300 Tang Poems (唐诗三百首)'', etc. The English-Chinese translated works include Dryden's ''All for Love (一切为了爱情)'', Scott's ''Quentin Durward (昆廷·杜沃德)'', etc. And his Chinese-French works include ''42 poemes de Mao Zedong (毛泽东的42首诗)'' and ''Cent Poemes Lyriques des Tang et des Song (唐诗宋词一百首)'', etc.He also had translated many masterworks from French to Chinese, such as Maupassant's ''Sur L'Eau (水上)'', Flaubert's ''Madame Bovary (包法利夫人)'' and Stendhal's ''Le Rouge et le Noir (红与黑)'', etc.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' of translation career, Xu has has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." (Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3) Just like Xu Jun said: "Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience." (Xu Jun, 2010:270).

Xu Yuanchong is also an excellent translation theorist. During the 60 years' of his translation career, Xu has formed his own translation theories by practicing, he once said: "Translation practice contributes to the formation of the translation theory, which in turn guides the translation practice and is tested by the translation practice." Just like Xu Jun said: "Translation practice provides practical, abundant and vivid materials for the theoretical study, which derives inspiration and motivation from the translation practice and experience." .(Xu Yuanchong, 1998:3; Xu Jun, 2010:270)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: "Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry" (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including "Three-beauty Theory" (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), "Three-Transformation Theory" (generalization, equalization and particularization)，"Three-Purpose Theory" (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),"Three-Resemblance Theory" (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), "Theory of Rivalry", etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)

As an initiative translation theorist, his translation theories can be generally concluded as: "Art of beautifulization and creation of the best as in rivalry" (美化之艺术，创优似竞赛), including "Three-beauties Theory" (beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form), "Three-Transformations Theory" (generalization, equalization and particularization)，"Three-Purposes Theory" (comprehension, appreciation and admiration),"Three-Resemblances Theory" (resemblance in sense, resemblance in sound and resemblance in form), "Theory of Rivalry", etc.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 6)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

Having such a rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respect. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.

Having such rich and interesting experience, having translated so many masterpieces and putting forward these brilliant translation theories, Xu Yuanchong deserves our respects. So we will introduce briefly his core translation theories in the following paragraphs.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

===Three-beauty Theory===
The "Three-Beauty Theory", put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and an very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': "There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes."(Lu Xun, 1976)

The "Three-Beauties Theory", put forward by Xu Yuanchong in 1979, based on his own translation experience of ancient Chinese poems, is the most representative theory among his translation theories system and a very important theory in the field of poetry translation. Also, Xu Yuanchong cited the contents of the first article ''from Characters to Articles (自文字至文章)'' in Lu Xun's ''Compendium of The History of Han Literature (汉文学史纲要)'': "There are three beauties in it: Firstly, beauty in sense satisfies the heart; secondly, beauty in sound satisfies the ears; lastly, beauty in form satisfies the eyes."(Lu Xun, 1976)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and the translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)

In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, translation is the reproduction and creation of beauty, and translation of poetry should be beautiful in sense, sound and form, the beauty in sense is the most important, followed by the beauty in sound and the beauty in form at last. And a good translator should convey the beauty of the sense of the original text as much as possible, and strive to gather these three beauties at the same time.(Xu Yuanchong, 2015)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

Firstly, "Beauty in sense" is the beauty of artistic conception and the a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that the translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could move readers' heart as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the sense should be given priority.

Firstly, "Beauty in sense" is the beauty of artistic conception and a kind of beauty of vagueness. It means that translated versions should fully convey the ideas and emotions of the source works and that the translated works could touch readers' heart the same as the original works, which is of primary importance among the three principles. Translators should try to keep these three beauties in harmony, if not, the sense should be given priority.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

"Beauty in sense" can be sometimes produced by using some famous sentences or words of target language similar to the original text's meaning with the help of the beauty in sound in form. For example, When translating “西风烈” and “残阳如雪” in Mount Louguan of Mao Zedong from Chinese to English, we can borrow the words of the famous English poems: "wild west wind" in ''Ode to the West Wind'' and "the sunken sun" in ''To a Skylark'', so as to convey the original sentences' "Beauty in sense" and make the translated text attain "Beauty in sense" at the same time.

Secondly, "Beauty in sound" ask translators to represent the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believed that, "beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound."(Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127) Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that "When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley..." (Xu Yuanchong.2006:122)

Secondly, "Beauty in sound" asks translators to retain the beautiful sound of the original text, which includes meter，rhythm，alliteration and assonance, etc. Xu believes that, "beauty in sound in poetry lies in its rhythm, rhyme, smooth writing and melodious sound." Because we can not eliminate differences among languages and cultures, it is almost impossible to make the two languages perfectly equivalent. Therefore, some people insist that we should translate the poetry into free verse regardless rhythm and rhyme of the original text, while others think that if free verse is used, it won't be called poetry any more. Xu said that "When translating Tang Poems,I would rather prefer to integrate the traditional practice of rhymed verse school as Giles, rather than the free verse school like Waley..." (Xu Yuanchong, 2006:127; Xu Yuanchong.2006:122) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

Xu Yuanchong suggested: "Chinese poetry mainly consists of seven words and five words. When translating Chinese seven-character poems, translators could consider the Alexandrine, and when translating five-character poems, the Mock-heroic could be considered. And when translating poems from Chinese to English, translators can use the rhymes used by British and American poets who are similar to the original sound, to convey original poem's "Beauty in sound" by means of double sound, overlap and repetition.(Baidu library 2011: 6-8)

Lastly, "Beauty in form" requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if the translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)

Lastly, "Beauty in form" requires that the translated works should be consistent with the original text, which includes the layout of lines, line length, antithesis and parallelism, etc. Xu holds that if a translated version fails to be rhymed and antithesis, it will not retain the style and sentiment of the original poem, so the beauty in sound and in form will affect the beauty in sense. (Xu Yuanchong，2006: 130) On the other hand, beauty in form could also make contributions to the beauty in sense and sound to make the translated work more readable and beautiful. Therefore, it is necessary to be consistent with the original form.(Sun Tingting, 2015:26)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

For example, we can translate "多少事,从来急;天地转,光阴迫。" to "So many deeds, Bear no delay. Sun and earth turn, Time flies away.", these two sentence have the same words, the same line length and the same meaning.

===Three-Resemblance Theory===
"Three-Resemblance" is the basis of "Three Beauty". Because "Resemblance" is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but "Beauty" is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed "Three-Resemblance Theory" : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, "Three-Beauty" and "Three-Resemblance" should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey "Beauty in sense, sound and form"of the original poem, the degree of "Resemblance in sense, sound and form" in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)

"Three-Resemblances Theory" is the basis of "Three Beauty". Because "Resemblance" is the necessary condition and the minimum requirements of translation, but "Beauty" is the highest requirement of translation. So Xu Yuanchong also proposed "Three-Resemblance Theory" : Resemblance in sense, Resemblance in form and Resemblance in sound. Generally speaking, "Three-Beauty" and "Three-Resemblance" should be consistent, but in fact, there are often contradictions between them.In order to convey "Beauty in sense, sound and form"of the original poem, the degree of "Resemblance in sense, sound and form" in the translation can be modified.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:1)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

"Resemblance in sense" means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. "Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. And "Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)

"Resemblance in sense" means that the translated version and the original one are similar in content. "Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between a translated work and the original work. And "Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between a translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style, etc.(Peng Shuyu; Li Chengjing, 2020:156)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

Firstly,"Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text, without mistranslation, omission or over-translation."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) "Resemblance in sense" is the most important, followed by "Resemblance in form" and "Resemblance in sound". If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take "Resemblance in sense" and give up the other two. Also,"When the Resemblance in sense and Resemblance are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And Resemblance in sense just concerns the surface structure, but Beauty in sense touches the deep structure."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)

Firstly,"Resemblance in sense means conveying the content of the original text without mistranslation, omission or over-translation."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:52) "Resemblance in sense" is the most important rule, followed by "Resemblance in form" and "Resemblance in sound". If we can't attain these three resemblances at the same time, then take "Resemblance in sense" and give up the other two. Also,"When the Resemblance in sense and Resemblance are incompatible, we should give priority to Beauty in sense instead of Resemblance in sense. And Resemblance in sense just concerns the surface structure, but Beauty in sense touches the deep structure."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:64)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

Secondly,"Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between the translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems."If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it’s very difficult to achieve "Resemblance in form" because of differences languages. So "it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy." (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)

Secondly,"Resemblance in form" generally refers to the literal or formal similarity between a translated work and the original work. In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, poetry translation must transmit the rhyme and metre of original poems."If the rhymes of the original poem are not used in the translated work, then there is no way to reproduce the image, poetic imagery, artistic conception and atmosphere of the original poem. Because the content and the form of the poem are inseparable."(Xu Yuanchong,1984:94) But it’s very difficult to achieve "Resemblance in form" because of differences in languages. So "it is best to be resembled in form, or at least roughly tidy." (Xu Yuanchong, 1984:58)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

Lastly,"Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style."There are generally two method to attain Resemblance in sound: one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem."(Baidu library 2020: 3)

Lastly,"Resemblance in sound" refers to the similarity between the translated text and the original text in rhythm, rhyme, metrical style."There are generally two methods to attain Resemblance in sound: one is that we make the translated poem rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines just like the original poem which rhymes with the first, second, and fourth lines; the other is that the sound of the words used in the translated poem should be similar to the sound of the words used in the original poem."(Baidu library 2020: 3)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

But later, Xu Yuanchong has proposed a "Neo-Three-Resemblance Theory": "Resemblance in form", "Resemblance in meaning" and "Resemblance in spirit"."Three resemblances means that the translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauty, and it aims at the similarity between the two languages." (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)

But later, Xu Yuanchong proposed a "Neo-Three-Resemblances Theory": "Resemblance in form", "Resemblance in meaning" and "Resemblance in spirit"."Three resemblances means that a translated version should be similar to the original masterpiece in spirit, which is developed from Fu Lei's theory‘similarity in spirit'. It is the minor level of Three-Beauties, and it aims at the similarity between two languages." (Sun Tingting, 2015: 23)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

Xu employed the math equation to express the "Three Resemblance" as follows:

Xu employed the math equations to express the "Three Resemblances" as follows:--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

Resemblance in form: 1+1<2

Resemblance in meaning: 1+1=2

Resemblance in spirit: 1+1>2 (Xu Yuanchong, 2005:222)

Therefore,"Resemblance in spirit" is the highest level and the other two is the foundation of it. If the translated work respect only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attain "Resemblance in form". If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attain only "Resemblance in meaning". (Lv Xianlan, 2010:26)

Therefore,"Resemblance in spirit" is the highest level and the other two are the foundation of it. If the translated work respects only the form of the original but doesn’t convey the content of the original text, it just attain "Resemblance in form". If the translated text accurately conveys the meaning of the original text, but doesn't convey the spirit and flavor of the original text, it attains only "Resemblance in meaning". (Lu Xianlan, 2010:26)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

===Three-Transformation Theory===
"Three-Transformation Theory" is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his "Three-Beauty Theory" and "Three-Transformation Theory" provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: "The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time."(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own "Three-Transformation Theory" which includes "equalization, generalization and particularization".

"Three-Transformations Theory" is a further translation theory summarized by Xu Yuanchong based on his "Three-Beauties Theory" and "Three-Transformations Theory" provides the way to achieve three beauties. What means transformation (in China Hua-化)? Qian Zhongshu said: "The top state of translation is the state of Hua. To attain the‘state of Hua' means that translators can preserve the original's flavor and show no trace of stiffness caused by the differences between the source language and the target language at the same time."(Qian Zhongshu, 2002:77) Xu Yuanchong adopted Qian Zhongshu's idea, and proposed his own "Three-Transformations Theory" which includes "equalization, generalization and particularization". --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

Firstly, for equalization, Xu hold that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206)

Firstly, for equalization, Xu holds that translators should use equal words and expressions in the target language. But equalization doesn't consist in translating word for word, but it requires creation. Equalization refers to the adjustment of some sentence patterns and lexical structures when the meaning and artistic conception of the translated works are basically equivalent to the original text, so as to make the stylistic style of the translated text more natural and unified, and make it more fluent in reading.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization required translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206)

Secondly, generalization refers to the abstraction of some concrete nouns, generalization of special nouns or proper nouns, or the deletion of some redundant words during translation, in order to convey the beauty in sense of the original text. Generalization requires translators avoid the weakness in the original language by using the methods of abstraction, omission and combination.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonance. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meaning should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206)

Lastly, particularization, opposed to generalization, is the concretization of abstract nouns and the specialization of general nouns. When necessary, allusions and special imageries can be used to arouse readers' deeper emotional resonances. It means that not only the content of the poem but also the deep meanings should be conveyed by means of addition, specialization and concretization.(Yao Ying; Fu Mingduan,2019(20):204-206) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

For example, proper nouns "秦汉"（qin and han dynasties) can be generalized to the common noun "ancient times". Common noun "关" (frontier juncture) can be particularized to a proper noun "the Great Wall". And, "人" (people) in the verse "万里长征人未还" (the long march people did not return) can be equalized to "guards" or "soldiers". (Baidu library 2011: 10)

Therefore,by using "Three-Transformation Theory", we should try to fully convey the original masterpiece, and make the reader not only understand the version but also en joy and delight in it.

Therefore,by using "Three-Transformation Theory", we should try to fully convey original masterpieces, and make readers not only understand the version but also enjoy the delight in it.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

===Three-Purpose Theory===
"Three-Purpose Theory" is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which "originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of the translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading."(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22)

"Three-Purposes Theory" is the teleology of Xu's translation theories, which "originated from the Analects of Confucius. It includes comprehension, appreciation and admiration. Therefore, Xu believed that a good translated version should make the reader understand it first, then enjoy it and the highest level is to delight in it. So the aim of translators is not just to convey the meaning of the works but to bring readers enjoyment and delight in the process of reading."(Sun Tingting, 2015: 22) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

So to make the reader understand the text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delight in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review "Three-Beauty Theory", "Three-Resemblance Theory" and "Three-Transformation Theory" that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.

So to make a reader understand a text, translators need to express the meaning of the original text accurately, to make the reader enjoy it, translators need to convey emotion adequately, and to make people delighted in it, translators need to move them, this is the trilogy of literary translation skopos theory. And for achieving these three purposes, we have to review "Three-Beauties Theory", "Three-Resemblances Theory" and "Three-Transformations Theory" that we have already talked about in the previous paragraphs.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

===Different comments on Xu Yuanchong’s translation theories===
Xu formed his own translation theories based on the predecessors' ideas and the his unceasing practices."Some regard his theories as the highest standards of translation and support it greatly, while others think his theories are impossible and doubt it."((Sun Tingting, 2015: 26) His theories aroused people's different reactions. His "Three-Beauty Theory" is the most famous one among all his translation theories in China, and we can see a lot of articles or theses use his "Three-Beauty Theory" to analyse the translated works on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). So What Chinese scholars discuss most is his "Three-Beauty Theory", followed by his "Three-Transformation Theory", "Three-Purpose Theory" and "Three-Resemblance Theory". And we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on his translation theories from two sides.

Xu formed his own translation theories based on the predecessors' ideas and the his unceasing practices."Some regard his theories as the highest standard of translation and support it greatly, while others think his theories are impossible and doubt it."His theories aroused people's different reactions. His "Three-Beauties Theory" is the most famous one among all his translation theories in China, and we can see a lot of articles or theses use his "Three-Beauties Theory" to analyse the translated works on CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure). So what Chinese scholars discuss most is his "Three-Beauties Theory", followed by his "Three-Transformations Theory", "Three-Purposes Theory" and "Three-Resemblances Theory". And we will take a look at Chinese scholars' different comments on his translation theories from two sides.(Sun Tingting, 2015: 26)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

On the one side, many Chinese scholars gave a lot of compliments to his translations theories. For example, Liu Chongde, a famous expert on translation, said in his ''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation'': "Poems call for the beauty in form, sound and sense. A translator should not be satisfied with the mere reproduction of sense in the original, but strive for the reproduction of the original beauty .To achieve this, he ought to retain the original meaning and artistic conception, and then do his best to make his translation bear a certain form, rhyme and rime when necessary." (LiuChongde, 2003:129-130) Therefore Liu agrees with Xu's "Three-Beauty Theory" and his viewpoint to reproduce the beauty of the original poems.

On the one hand, many Chinese scholars gave a lot of compliments to his translations theories. For example, Liu Chongde, a famous expert on translation, said in his ''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation'': "Poems call for the beauty in form, sound and sense. A translator should not be satisfied with the mere reproduction of sense in the original, but strive for the reproduction of the original beauty .To achieve this, he ought to retain the original meaning and artistic conception, and then do his best to make his translation bear a certain form, rhyme and rime when necessary." Therefore Liu agrees with Xu's "Three-Beauties Theory" and his viewpoints to reproduce the beauty of the original poems. (LiuChongde, 2003:129-130)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

Also, Professor Guo Zhuzhang, thinks highly of Xu's "Three-Beauty Theory" in his ''On Famous Translators'':"Xu Yuanchong's renditions of poetry combined beauty in sense, sound and form into a whole. He applied perfectly his own Three-Beauty principle into his practice in poetry translation. His highly skilled translation techniques are worth learning and taking as a reference." (Guo Zhuzhang,1999:12) And Some other scholars including Qian Zhongshu，Yang Zhenning, Zheng Hailing, etc, all of them gave Xu Yuanchong highly praises, and regard his theories as the supreme goal of translation.(Sun Tingting, 20:37)

Also, Professor Guo Zhuzhang, thinks highly of Xu's "Three-Beauties Theory" in his ''On Famous Translators'':"Xu Yuanchong's renditions of poetry combined beauty in sense, sound and form into a whole. He applys perfectly his own Three-Beauties principle into his practice in poetry translation. His highly skilled translation techniques are worth learning and taking as a reference." And Some other scholars including Qian Zhongshu，Yang Zhenning, Zheng Hailing, etc, all of them gave Xu Yuanchong highly praises, and regard his theories as the supreme goal of translation.(Guo Zhuzhang,1999:12; Sun Tingting, 20:37)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

On the other side, there are still many scholars who disagree with Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. For example, Liu Yingkai attacked his theories greatly. Liu put raised two questions to doubt Xu's theories in his ''A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound'' : "Isn't verse to be regarded as verse if it is without rhyme?" and "Are there more advantages or disadvantages to translate verse in rhyme." (Liu Yingkai,1989:36) He believed that it is impossible to use rhyme without sacrificing sense for sound.

On the other hand, there are still many scholars who disagree with Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. For example, Liu Yingkai attacked his theories greatly. Liu raised two questions to doubt Xu's theories in his ''A Second Discussion on the Theory of Beauty in Sound'' : "Isn't verse to be regarded as verse if it is without rhyme?" and "Are there more advantages or disadvantages to translate verse in rhyme." He believes that it is impossible to use rhyme without sacrificing sense for sound.(Liu Yingkai,1989:36)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

Then, in Xu Jun's article ''The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of "le Rouge et le Noir"'' , he pointed out that: "Xu Yuanchong's translation has its own style. He believed that as long as the translated works can make people understand it well, enjoy it and delight in it, we don’t have any scruple about the original text."(Xu Jun 1996A :44) and "It exists often only a step from truth to falsehood."(Xu Jun 1996:47).

Then, in Xu Jun's article ''The transformation or Mistake -- Thoughts on Xu Yuanchong's translation of "le Rouge et le Noir"'' , he points out that: "Xu Yuanchong's translation has its own style. He believes that as long as the translated works can make people understand it well, enjoy it and delight in it, we don’t have any scruple about the original text."(Xu Jun 1996A :44) and "It exists often only a step from truth to falsehood."(Xu Jun 1996:47).--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

In addition, Xu Jun also proposed that Xu Yuanchong's "transformation method" had no definite meaning and was not easy to master. It seems that "Three-Transformation Theory" can't be used by those who are novices of translation or who attach great importance to "micro-details" and couldn't get rid of the shackles of the original text. (Zhu Yishu,2019,27(04):71-75.) So Xu Jun doesn's think that it's very hard to apply to practice Xu Yuanchong's "Three Transformation Theory" which can't be generally used by all of the translators and this theory may distort the original text because of it's vagueness.

In addition, Xu Jun also proposed that Xu Yuanchong's "transformation method" had no definite meaning and was not easy to master. It seems that "Three-Transformation Theory" can't be used by those who are novices of translation or who attach great importance to "micro-details" and couldn't get rid of the shackles of the original text. So Xu Jun doesn's think that it's very hard to apply to practice Xu Yuanchong's "Three Transformations Theory" which can't be generally used by all of the translators and this theory may distort the original text because of it's vagueness.(Zhu Yishu,2019,27(04):71-75.) --[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

===Conclusion===
Xu Yuanchong has created and translated numerous masterpieces and has won a lot of honors and awards. Xu, based on his own translation practice and experience, has also put forward many outstanding theories. His "Three-Beauty theory" and "Three-Resemblance Theory" offer us translation methods and increase our ability of appreciating the translated works. Then his "Three-Transformation Theory" provides us with the way to achieve three beauties that he proposed. And his "Three-Purpose Theory" show us what translation pursues, and let us more understand the previous three theories. His translation theories are unique with rich and profound connotation, concerning all aspects of literary translation, and forming a systematic framework of theory to guide translating activity.

Xu Yuanchong has created and translated numerous masterpieces and has won a lot of honors and awards. Xu, based on his own translation practices and experiences, has also put forward many outstanding theories. His "Three-Beauties theory" and "Three-Resemblances Theory" offer us translation methods and increase our abilities of appreciating the translated works. Then his "Three-Transformations Theory" provides us with the way to achieve three beauties that he proposed. And his "Three-Purposes Theory" show us what translation pursues, and let us more understand the previous three theories. His translation theories are unique with rich and profound connotations, concerning all aspects of literary translation, and forming a systematic framework of theory to guide translating activity.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

He was praised by many Chinese expert scholars, but also has been refuted by some translators. But in any case, he has really made a great contributions to Chinese Translation Theory System. And besides what we have already presented in this paper, there are lot of other theories, like "Theory of rivalry", "Theory of advantage", "Theory of art", "Theory of recreation of beauty", etc. As he said, translation theory comes from practice, so his translation theories are always various and keep pace with the times.

He was not only praised by many Chinese scholars, but also has been refuted by some translators. But in any case, he has really made a great contribution to Chinese Translation Theory System. And besides what we have already presented in this paper, there are lots of other theories, like "Theory of rivalry", "Theory of advantage", "Theory of art", "Theory of recreation of beauty", etc. As he said, translation theory comes from practice, so his translation theories are always various and keep pace with the times.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

===References===
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==Ji Xianlin’s view on translation 马淑雅 Ma Shuya==
===摘要===
季羡林先生是中国著名的文学翻译大家，学贯中西的东方学者。虽然季羡林并没有深入研究过翻译学理论知识，但是在其长期又丰富的翻译实践中逐渐形成很多具有重要意义的翻译观点。季先生严格遵守“信达雅”的翻译原则，主张直译，反对转译，这些始终贯穿于他的翻译生涯。就翻译思想而言，季羡林主张翻译是为促进中外文化交流而服务的。
===关键词===
季羡林；信达雅；直译；传译；文化交流
===Abstract===
As a translator, Ji Xianliin is highly reputed in the translation domain. He creates numerous of translation works of immortality, although without any systematic translation theories. The present study explores Ji Xianlin’s translation thoughts which includes the criteria of translation and the purpose of translation. “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.
===Key Words===
Ji Xianlin; translation thoughts; faithfulness; expressiveness; elegance; literal translation
===Introduction===
Mr. Ji Xianlin is a well-known linguist, oriental scholar and literary translator in China. He is fluent in twelve languages, including modern foreign languages such as English, German, French, Russian, Latin, and Arabic, as well as Sanskrit, Pali, Tocharian and many other ancient Eastern languages.

He is committed to cultural exchanges between China and India, and has made outstanding achievements in many academic research fields such as the history of Sino-Indian Buddhism, the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges, comparative literature, literary theory, Eastern culture, Dunhuang studies, and sugar history.

As an outstanding literary translator, his main works include Indian poet Klidsa’s "Shakuntala" (1956) and “Vikraorvasiya”(1962) , Indian classical masterpiece "Panchtantra" (1959), the Indian epic “Ramayana” (1980-1984), and the “Anna Segher Short Story Collection” by the German female writer Anna Segher, etc.

Especially as one of the two major epics in India "Ramayana", Mr. Ji Xianlin, who is over 60 years old, spent ten years on translating it. The original text of Ramayana is more than 20,000 slokas and more than 3 million words after being translated into Chinese. Its translation is of great significance in the history of Sino-Indian cultural exchanges.

Mr. Ji Xianlin has accumulated a lot of translation experience through long-term translation practice, summed up many translation viewpoints and thoughts, enriched traditional Chinese translation theory, and has important theoretical value and practical significance. And this paper is mainly introduced his translation theory, especially his agreement and development with Yan Fu’s translation criteria “faithfulness”, ”expressiveness” and “elegance”.

===The Translation Goal: Culture Communication===
Mr. Ji Xianlin once wrote, “As long as the language is different, whether it is in one nation or ethnic group (China includes many ethnic groups.), or between many nations or ethnic groups, translation is necessary. Otherwise, thoughts cannot be communicated, and culture is difficult to communicate, it is also difficult for human society to move forward.” (Ji Xianlin 2007,8)

Based on this, we can infer that Mr. Ji thinks that translation activities exist to meet the needs of ideological and cultural exchanges between nations and ethnic groups of different languages.

"Cultural exchange is one of the main driving forces to promote the progress of human society. We can even say that without cultural exchange, human beings would not have progressed, and there would be no such a prosperous society in the world today."(Ji Xianlin 2007,151)

It is said that culture exchanges id of great importance to human society progress. Without the exchanges and collisions between different cultures, the entire human society will be difficult to advance, and the exchanges between different nations and countries will be restricted due to differences in languages. This requires translation activities to communicate and understand.

All cultures in the world have stagnant times, but Chinese civilization has never stopped despite some twists and turns. A large part of the reason is the benefits brought by cultural exchanges.

"If you compare it with a river, the long river of Chinese culture has times when water is full or not, but it has never been dried up. The reason is that there is new water inflowing for many times. There are two biggest ones, one is water from India, and the other is water from the West. And these two times culture inflow rely on translation. The reason why Chinese culture can keep energetic is translation. Translation is so useful!"(Ji Xianlin 2007,10)

The reason why Chinese civilization did not die out like other ancient civilizations in the world is precisely because there is a steady flow of water inflowing, and each time is completed through translation.

“The Water from India" mentioned by Mr. Ji mainly refers to the introduction of Buddhism from India to China. The spread of Buddhist scriptures in China has had a huge and far-reaching impact on Chinese language, culture, literature, art, and religion. And one very important step in this process is the translation of Buddhist scriptures and related classics.

"The Water from the West" refers to the Westernization Movement in the late Qing Dynasty and the subsequent May Fourth Movement. Many modern Western thoughts were introduced into China. During this period, Chinese translators translated a large number of books on literature, science, law, agriculture, engineering, medicine and other subjects.

These translations played an incalculable role in promoting Chinese culture and education and enlightening the people. Mr. Ji attributed the 5,000 years of Chinese civilization to the historical role of translation.

Not only in China, translation activities have also promoted the progress of human society worldwide. "If the "Bible" written in ancient Hebrew and the "Gospel" written in Aramaic were not first translated into Greek and Latin, and later translated into the languages of the Middle Ages and modern times, the Judeo-Christian culture for two thousand years would not exist, and therefore European culture would not appear either. " (Ji Xianlin 2007,1)

At the same time, he pointed out that the "Bible" translation activities in the past 2000 years have helped lay the foundation for the languages of many countries."(Ji Xianlin 2007,1)

===Translation Criteria: Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance===
Mr. Ji Xianlin agrees with Yan Fu's translation criteria of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": I think that the sentence of Yan Youling (Yan Fu) that some people criticized, "the three difficulties in translation are faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", can still be kept. The reason is very clear and relevant. These three words are indispensable and also one more seems unnecessary. To achieve these three words can also be said to be a matter of translation.(Ji Xianlin 2007,22)

I personally think that among the three characters, the first "faithfulness" is the basis and the fundament. If this word cannot be done, there will be no translation at all. When I discuss translation issues and comment on translated works, the first thing I do is to see whether it is faithful or not, that is, whether he is faithful to the original text. If this is not, then it cannot be called translation. “Expressiveness” and ”elegance” is like the tree without roots.(Ji Xianlin 2007,21-22)

====The First Criteria: Faithfulness====
It can be seen that Ji Lao believes that "faithfulness" is the most important principle in translation, and the first criteria for evaluating the quality of all translated works. Mr. Ji strictly abides by this criteria in translating “Ramayana”.

In some chapters there are lots of boring lines, which are mainly piles of the names of people, countries, flowers, trees and weapons. Though these lines are too eccentric and dull for readers to read, Mr. Ji spent the most effort on it to achieve the faithfulness to the origin text. There are some examples:

罗摩这样说了以后，
大牟尼毗奢蜜多罗。
这纯洁、忠诚、聪慧的人，
就把神秘的兵器来解说：
萨哆也漫多和萨哆也吉哩底，
还有提湿吒和罗婆萨，
名交钵罗底诃罗多罗的，
钵朗牟迦和阿凡牟迦。
罗刹那、阿罗刹那、毗沙摩，
提吒那婆和苏那婆戈、
陀舍刹和舍多婆伽罗、
达舍湿哩沙和舍杜多罗。

This part is all about the names of weapons. In addition to trying his best to translate these names, Mr. Ji also made a lot of notes indicating that they are weapons and attached the original Sanskrit text to help readers distinguish.

====The Second Criteria: Expressiveness====
The second is the “expressiveness", which is in the process from the translation to the reader. In the first half period of the translation of Ramayana, Mr. Ji adopted the folk song style based on Mr. Lu Xun’s opinion on new poem: “First, there must be a tune and a similar rhyme, which is easy to remember and speak even sing it out.”
So, Mr. Ji uses a poem style with almost the same number of words per line. Such as Chapter. 42 The Ganges Down to Earth in Childhood :
有成群的海豚和蛇，
还有来回游泳的鱼，
天空里好像布满了，
闪闪发光的这些东西。
天空里又像是布满了，
像天鹅一样飞翔的秋云，
颜色灰白，水气极重，
忽然间就会四散飞奔。
有的地方，水流得弯曲迅速，
有的地方，水流又被阻住，
有的地方，水流的弯曲摇荡，
有的地方，水又缓缓流出。
有的地方，水流同水流，
互相撞击，碰在一起，
一刹那间，流上天去，
但一转眼，又落下平地。
This translated poems are strict in form, graceful in tune and rigorous in rhyming. Especially for the use of parallel sentences, on the one hand it increases the momentum of the poem and retains the style of the original work. On the other hand, it makes the target readers catchy and impressed.
When translating to the second half of the sixth chapter, Mr. Ji switched to using seven-character quatrains and five-character quatrains:
山溪中水缓缓流，
流水清澈似天空；
山头像大蟒蛇信，
吐出清水似水晶。
好像喜马拉雅山，
此山辉煌多洞穴，
罗波看那宾阇耶，
就走向那摩陀河。
圣水朝着西海流，
此河水流石上头；
公牛、小鹿和狮子，
豹子、熊罴和大象，
来到河中激起浪。
Once Mr. Ji wants to change its form, he changed it. This reminds us of Mr. Ji's other identity: a famous prose writer. The prose written by him is free and easy and the quotations of ancient prose and poems seem to be easy to come by without a trace. Writing skills are embodied in the translation of epic poems, which makes us feel that every ode in his translated poem is as if it were from Mr. Ji’s original. Mr. Ji's translation has reached the highest level of expressiveness. (Liu Ting, Luo Chunpeng 2017,95)

====The third Criteria: Elegance====

Finally, we will discuss the” elegance” in “faithfulness, expressive and elegance”. The first two words are generally agreed and accepted by later generations. Only the third word is quite controversial and everyone has their own opinions.

Some people think that” elegance” is not about beautification and not about translating an article that was originally not elegant, but an effort to convey the original author’s writing style and spiritual characteristics. Others believe that “elegance” is to use the most appropriate word in the article.

In the pursuit of “elegance“, Mr. Ji not only strives to translate poems to poems, but also mainly embodies the conversion of rhyme:

罗摩说：“真是这样“，
他心里非常舒畅。
那些天上的光辉精灵，
有了形体，多福多幸，
对罗摩拱手说话，
声音甜蜜又动听:
“虎般的人！下命令，
我们将何去何从？”

In this ode, the first two lines and the last six lines belong to different parts. To divided this, Mr. Ji change its rhyming word from “ang” to “ing”. That is, in the first two lines the rhyming words are the same “ang” and in the last six lines the rhyming words are the same “ing”. Through this, readers could easily understand the change of its meaning without separating the original ode.

There is one more example:

那一位弥提罗的国王，
把自己的住处弥提罗城进。
那一位阿逾陀的城主，
也带着高贵尊严的儿子们。
跟在所有的仙人们的后面，
带着随从和兵卒向前奔。
虎般的人在前面走着，
带着一群仙人和罗摩。
这里和那里，成群的鸟，
对他大声唱出了悲歌。
所有大地上的鹿群，
都向着男方拼命奔波。

In these three odes (Four lines is one ode.), the first two lines in the middle ode belongs to the previous ode from the meaning aspect. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word ”en” with the previous ode(“奔“ to “们”). And the last two lines in the middle ode belongs to the next ode. So, Mr. Ji used the same rhyming word with the next ode. (“着” to ”歌” and “摩” to “波”）

"Faithfulness" is the basis of "expressiveness" and "elegance". Without "faithfulness" there is no "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr. Ji also pointed out in the article "Translation" in cooperation with Mr. Xu Guozhang: "Faithfulness" is loyal to the original work. "Expressiveness" is for the reader and "elegance" is for literary language.

“Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance“ are only three characters, but they reflect the relationship between works, readers, and literary language. That is, a good translation work should be faithful to the original text, be able to be understood by the readers, and also the words should be elegant enough to convey the readers a sense of beauty.

Mr. Ji also classified the pros and cons of translations according to "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance": translations can be roughly divided into three categories: the first grade, "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" are all up to standard. The second grade is to meet the requirement of "faithfulness" and "expressiveness", but without "elegance". The third grade is fail to achieve faithful, expressive and elegant. (Ji Xianlin 2007,23)

With the continuous accumulation of translation practice and the continuous deepening of thinking, Mr. Ji once stated in an interview in 2005: "I have not studied translation theory in depth. Based on my own experience, different categories of translation have different requirements. Some strict correspondence is required. Some do not need or are difficult to correspond to, in which reaching its meaning is enough. Therefore, it is difficult to have a unified standard for translation. Even if it is Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance", or new ones proposed by later generations, it cannot be regarded as a translation standard. They can only be the request for translation or a kind of expectation.”(Li Jingrui 2005)

In particular, literary translation involves different understandings of the author, work, background, etc. Therefore different comprehensions and different expressions should be allowed. Of course, these are required to be based on in-depth research, rather than the translator's arbitrary desires.（Li JingRui 2005）

Some people think that Mr. Ji's statement in his later years is a partial denial of his previous opinions, but it is actually a revision and improvement of previous translation ideas based on the diversity of the text.

===Advocation of Literal Translation===
Literal translation generally means that if the language conditions permit, both the original content and the original format are preserved in the translation as completely as possible. The principle of word-by-word should be followed. Mr. Ji agrees with Lu Xun, Guo Moruo, Mao Dun and others in advocating literal translation and believe that "literal translation is the overriding principle." (Ji Xianlin 2007,6)

When Mr. Ji was translating the Indian epic "Ramayana", faced with a huge workload of more than 20,000 slokas (means verses). He decided not to translate in the form of prose, but adhere to the principle of literal translation- translating poems into poems to be faithful to the original text style.

Although the poetry genre was determined, it took Mr. Ji a lot of hard work to choose the poetry style. "Popular vernacular poetry does not have a fixed genre or metric. Poets write poems as they like. I don't think all the forms are appropriate. … It is also difficult to translate completely with old poems. One is that it cannot be faithful, and the other is most people cannot understand. After thinking about it, I decided to translate it into a jingle-like folk song. The number of words in each line should not vary too much, and the rhyme should be generally catchy.” Ji Xianlin 1984,598）

From these words we can see that Mr. Ji is strict to the principle of literal translation. There is also an example to show this through the comparison of the translation between Mr. Ji and another translator named Shai Zena towards the same text from an American writer Logan Pearsall Smith’s Rose

It was one of miniature Italian cities with a high church, a pretentious piazza, a few narrow streets and little palaces, perched, all compact and complete, on the top of a mountain, within and enclosure of walls hardly larger than an English kitchen garden.

这城是意大利小城之一，有高耸的礼拜堂，有虚设的广场，有几条仄狭的街道和小宫殿，都丛踞在山的顶上，外面绕着一围墙，不比一个英国的菜园大。（Ji Xianlin）
那是个典型的意大利小城，一座耸立的教堂，一个虚华的市场，一些狭窄的街道，几座小小的宫殿，围墙围着，在山顶上密集而完整的分布着，这座小的城市并不比英国人的菜园子大多少。（Shao Zena）

Towards “It was one of…”, Mr. Ji translated into “这是…之一”，while Shao Zena translated into “那是个…”. Faced with “with…”, Mr. Ji translated into “有…”, while Shao Zena omitted “with” and directly described the things behind “with”. Through analyzing these two different translations, we can see clearly that Mr. Ji prefer literal translation than another translator.(Liu Jin, Hua Xianfa 2015,114)

But the literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji goes beyond the translation methodology in the general sense. As a linguist with profound knowledge of linguistics, he is not only concerned about how to be as close to the original text as possible in translation and how to convey the original text as faithfully as possible in translation, but also to further consider how to promote target language through translation, which is also an significant problem about the development and perfection of our mother tongue Chinese. (Xie Tianzhen 2006,)

He reviewed the history of the development of Chinese language and specifically pointed out the role of foreign words in the evolution of Chinese language:
"A large number of new words have been borrowed from the Western Regions in ancient time, especially from India ···Sanskrit, which is dense and abstract, but sometimes expressions that have been overdone too much so that the meaning is not clear also left traces in Chinese. For example, the famous litterateur of Song Dynasty Su Shi's articles were somewhat influenced by the translation of Buddhist scriptures." (Ji Xianlin 1989,578)

Mr. Ji also cited the influence of our numbers of translations of European, American and Japanese books in modern times on our country’s language, characters, fonts and expression techniques. He also quoted some words from Mr. Lu Xun to discuss the benefits of literal translation, “Gradually import a little European grammar. Come in."

At the same time, Mr. Ji is quite tolerant of Europeanized syntax in literal translation. One of the reasons is that he hopes to gradually import some Europeanized syntax into China through these translations that are close to the original text. This can gradually refine our rough grammar more rigorous step by step. This is of great benefit to the development of our country's language and literary style.

The literal translation mentioned by Mr. Ji is not a rigid translation from word to word. He said that the result of this can only make the reader confused, puzzled and unable to understand anything. Therefore, he does not advocate such literal translation.

Mr. Ji's literal translation is to gradually introduce some more rigorous foreign grammar expressions within the scope of Chinese habits, so that our thousand-year-old Chinese could be richer, more vital, and more adaptable to our needs.（Xie Tianzhen 2006）

He believes that in the history of Chinese language, the translation of Buddhist scriptures over a thousand years ago and the translation of Western books over the past 100 years have already played such a role in our language. (Ji Xianlin 1989,581)

===Opposition to translation through a third language.===
It refers that due to the limited condition, the translation version is translated not through the original text but through a third language’s translated version. That is to say, between the source language and the target language there is a third language in the translation process. Opposing this kind of translation for literary works is also one of Mr. Ji 's important translation thoughts.

This kind of translation is a popular way from the early 20th century to the 1930s and 1940s, and it was the method of "more than nothing" in a specific historical period. Mr. Ji opposes it because the translation from one language to another is already separated from the original.

If the translated language is used as the original and translated again, the taste of the original will be greatly changed.

Mr. Ji once cited a sentence from " the Inner Chapter of Yanzi Chunqiu" as an example: "Oranges born in the south of the Huaihe River are oranges, while those born in the north of the Huaihe River are hazelnuts. Their leaves may be similar, but in fact they taste quite different. Why? The water and soil are different." After oranges moved to the north of the Huaihe River, the leaves can still be similar. As for article, especially a literary work, is translated into another language. Even the form can't be similar, not to mention its meaning. （Ji Xianlin 2007,11）

This passage clearly shows Mr. Ji’s translation thoughts against this kind of translation. Mr. Ji once said that science and philosophy works can be translated when necessary, but he still emphasized that literary works cannot. There are two main reasons for Mr. Ji's insistence.

====Translation through a third language tend to produce low-quality translations. ====
As we all know, translation, especially for literary works, although many excellent translators work very hard subjectively, the result of the translation, that is, the translation, will still have a certain difference from the original. This is what is called creative treason in translation studies.

In the 1920s and 1930s, there were a group of translators who published a large number of very popular works at that time, such as literature and art theory books of Plekhanov, Lunacharski and so on, which were supposedly translated from Russian. But at that time, the readers were puzzled and confused when they were reading these books.

Mr. Ji found out the reason at once: The reason is simple. Whether the translators translated them clearly or not, these books are all translated from Japanese rather than Russian. It can be seen that what Mr. Ji is opposed to is this kind of rough translation style.(Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)

Originally, translation already has a series of inevitable problems such as "distortion", "information loss", and "information distortion". Translators who cannot figure out the meaning of the original text translated other’s translated version again. The result is bound to be a huge gap with the meaning of the original. Readers will also be mystified by these translation when reading. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)

====Pursue an ideal state.====
Another reason why Mr. Ji opposes this kind of translation is that he pursues an ideal state in the field of foreign literature translation. As a foreign literal writer who has studied foreign literature and a translator with a rigorous translation style, Mr. Ji is well versed in the deformation characteristics of literary works in the translation process. He took the Dream of Red Mansions as an example:

"For example, we have all read the Dream of Red Mansions. I don’t think anyone will be amazed by the delicate and profound charm described in it. If we read the English translation version now, no matter how good its English level is, everyone would shake his or her head. Because this is just a retelling of the story in another language, but the meaning between the lines in the original text is completely lost. “ (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,14)

Translation, especially for literary works, is just like that. No matter how hard the translator tries to get close to the original work and strive to faithfully and completely show the original style, the translation process will inevitably produce some loss, addition or distortion of information.

This is true for the translation of the original text directly. For those who are translated through a third foreign language, especially those who are crudely crafted, we can imagine the deviation and distortion of the original text in their translation version.

Mr. Ji is disappointed at this phenomenon. So he appeals to that literary works should not be translated through a third language. He asked the translator to summon the courage to learn the language of the translated work honestly. He once said：

"If you don't even have this courage, you should walk away from translation and go where you should go. Don't overdo it here! We only need people with courage!" (Chinese Translators Dictionary 1988,15)

In fact, Mr. Ji himself did exactly this. In order to study ancient Indian literature, he not only learned Sanskrit, but also learned ancient Indian languages such as Pali and Tocharian, which are difficult to master and little known. He directly knew, understood, and studied ancient Indian literature through these languages, and directly introduced the translation of ancient Indian literature to Chinese readers from these languages. (Xie Tianzhen 2006)

===Conclusion===
Mr. Ji Xianlin is not a translation theorist, but he is a translation practitioner. He has devoted his life to the study of India and the translation of Sanskrit literature. And he has made great achievements in many cultural and academic fields. He summarized translation experience from his decades of translation practice, and gradually formed his own translation thought suitable for China, which has extremely important guiding significance for Chinese translation.

===Reference===
[1]季羡林：季羡林谈翻译[M].北京:当代中国出版社，2007.
[2]刘婷,罗春朋.季羡林的翻译原则与翻译思想[J].南通大学学报(社会科学版),2017,33(04):93-98.
[3]王秉钦.季羡林翻译思想“三论”[J].中国外语,2009,6(05):89-92.
[4]吴光亭.季羡林翻译思想初探[J].周口师范学院学报,2011,28(06):60-65.
[5]许先文.季羡林译学思想述评[J].学海,2010(02):213-216.
[6]肖志清,谢少华.季羡林的翻译观探究[J].重庆文理学院学报(社会科学版),2011,30(03):102-107.

==Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text-Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆,202070080593 MTI ==

===摘要===
当今世界，多媒体技术和国际化的旅游业要求旅游翻译必须要与时俱进，运用新模式，新手段和新方法。传统的旅游翻译从根本上忽视了这一点，而多模态翻译恰好就给旅游翻译提供了一个较新的视角。（Li Jian 2013,121）

由此视角展开，旅游翻译可以不再局限于传统的口笔译，而是可以借助多媒体技术和多种感官的配合来完善和发展旅游翻译，并可将多模态理论运用于旅游翻译这一模式发展成为一种趋势，进而提高本国的国际旅游质量。除此之外我们还需要了解多模态翻译理论对于未来旅游领域的翻译创新所具有的重要影响。（Li Jian 2013,121）

关键词：多模态理论；旅游翻译；翻译策略

摘要前面格式注意：姓名学号居中写--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===ABSTRACT===
In today's world, Multi-media technology and internationalized tourism require that tourism translation must keep pace with the times and use new models, new methods and new ways. Traditional tourism translation basically ignores this point, and multimodal translation just provides a new perspective for tourism translation.（Li Jian 2013,121）
From this perspective, tourism translation can no longer be limited to traditional interpretation and translation, but can use multimedia technology and the cooperation of multiple senses to improve and develop tourism translation. Multimodal theory can be applied to this model will develop into a trend, which in turn improves the quality of international tourism in that country. In addition, we need to understand the important impact of multimodal translation theory on translation innovation in the field of tourism in the future.（Li Jian 2013,121）

In today's world, Multi-media technology and internationalized tourism require that tourism translation must keep pace with the times and use new models, new methods and new ways. Traditional tourism translation basically ignores this point, and multimodal translation just provides a new perspective for tourism translation.（Li Jian 2013,121）
From this perspective, tourism translation can no longer be limited to traditional interpretation and translation, but can use multimedia technology and the cooperation of multiple senses to improve and develop tourism translation. That(加一个词) multimodal theory can be applied to this model will develop into a trend, which in turn improves the quality of international tourism in that country. In addition, we need to understand the important impact of multimodal translation theory on translation innovation in the field of tourism in the future.（Li Jian 2013,121） --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 15:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Key words: multimodal theory; tourism translation; translation strategies.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Introduction===
The rapid development of modern science and technology has provided a more convenient way for people to obtain, retrieve, analyze and process information, and has also accelerated the breakthrough of the linguistic cognitive barrier. The theory of multimodal discourse analysis emerged in the West in the 1990s. Prior to this, linguistic research was mainly based on text, while multimodality regarded all communication modalities as resources for meaning generation.（Liu Yan 2011,108）

The rapid development of modern science and technology has provided a more convenient way for people to obtain, retrieve, analyze and process information, and has also accelerated the breakthrough of the linguistic cognitive barrier. The theory of multimodal discourse analysis emerged in the West in the 1990s. Prior to this, linguistic research was mainly based on text, while multimodality regarded all communication modalities as resources for meaning generation.（Liu Yan 2011,108）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

It is believed that in daily life people often use one or more other symbols in addition to language. Resources participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of communication. In other words, the construction of meaning is achieved through the form of multimodal discourse. Whether it is text, sound, image, color, facial expression, limb movement, etc. each modality in multimodal discourse is a meaning-generating resource. We can discover and formulate the grammar of each mode, and draw the law of the meaning of the mode.（Liu Yan 2011,109）

It is believed that in daily life people often use one or more other symbols in addition to language. Resources participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of communication. In other words, the construction of meaning is achieved through the form of multimodal discourse. Whether it is text, sound, image, color, facial expression, limb movement, etc. each modality in multimodal discourse is a meaning-generating resource. We can discover and formulate the grammar of each mode, and draw the law of the meaning of the mode.（Liu Yan 2011,109）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

With the rapid development of globalization and the internationalization of China’s tourism, tourism translation has become an important factor that directly affects the quality of overseas tourists ’Chinese tours. Many problems in the practice of tourism translation reflect the current status of China’s inbound tourism industry. Due to the neglect of the tourism industry and related departments, China's tourism translation has always lacked scientificity and innovation. In addition, the extensiveness of tourism resources and the diversity of tourism translation audiences also increase the difficulty of tourism translation practice. （Liu Yan 2011,110)

With the rapid development of globalization and the internationalization of China’s tourism, tourism translation has become an important factor that directly affects the quality of overseas tourists' (这样空格) Chinese tours. Many problems in the practice of tourism translation reflect the current status of China’s inbound tourism industry. Due to the neglect of the tourism industry and related departments, China's tourism translation has always lacked scientificity and innovation. In addition, the extensiveness of tourism resources and the diversity of tourism translation audiences also increase the difficulty of tourism translation practice. （Liu Yan 2011,110)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In recent years, some domestic scholars have begun to pay attention to academic theory and industry practice research in the field of tourism translation, but mainly based on the perspective of pure linguistics or pure translation.From a narrow perspective, the target of tourism translation includes text translation of various tourist attractions and on-site oral translation of foreign-related tourism practitioners; From a broad perspective, tourism translation should include foreign-related translation materials and behaviors of all tourism industry sectors, It includes both text and oral translations, as well as other forms of translation such as images and movies.（Liu Yan 2011,111)

In recent years, some domestic scholars have begun to pay attention to academic theory and industry practice research in the field of tourism translation, but mainly based on the perspective of pure linguistics or pure translation. （空格）From a narrow perspective, the target of tourism translation includes text translation of various tourist attractions and on-site oral translation of foreign-related tourism practitioners; From a broad perspective, tourism translation should include foreign-related translation materials and behaviors of all tourism industry sectors. （句点） It includes both text and oral translations, as well as other forms of translation such as images and movies.（Liu Yan 2011,111)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

This article analyzes the characteristics of tourism translation from the perspective of multimodal discourse, discusses the strategies of multimodal tourism translation and some issues that need to be paid attention to during the translation process and looking forward to the development prospects of multimodal tourism translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

This article analyzes the characteristics of tourism translation from the perspective of multimodal discourse, discusses the strategies of multimodal tourism translation and some issues that need to be paid attention to during the translation process and looking forward to the development prospects of multimodal tourism translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC) --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===1. The Background of Multimodal Theory===

====1.1. The Definition of Multimodal Theory ====
With the continuous development of high-tech such as digital and internet, language and social communication no longer rely on traditional single text as a media carrier but tend to rely on more different types of modalities and media for multisensory communication. Only in this way can the construction and transmission of discourse meaning be more convenient and accurate. This is Multimodality. Zhang Delu believes that Multimodal discourse is the phenomenon that uses multiple senses such as hearing, sight, and touch to communicate。（Zhang Delu 2009,15）

With the continuous development of high-tech such as digital and internet, language and social communication no longer rely on traditional single text as a media carrier but tend to rely on more different types of modalities and media for multisensory communication. Only in this way can the construction and transmission of discourse meaning be more convenient and accurate. This is Multimodality. Zhang Delu believes that Multimodal discourse is the phenomenon that uses multiple senses such as hearing, sight, and touch to communicate.(句点)（Zhang Delu 2009,15）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Multimodal discourse is essentially a compound discourse which contains not only the traditional text symbol system but also includes previously unrecognized symbol systems such as images, sounds, colors, and actions. Multimodal discourse reflects the interactivity and unity of symbol resources in social communication.Systemic Functional Linguistics Provides Theoretical Foundation for Multimodal Discourse Analysis and Research. Multimodal discourse can be studied at multiple levels from culture, context, discourse meaning, grammar, form, and media.（Zhang Delu 2009,16）

Multimodal discourse is essentially a compound discourse which contains not only the traditional text symbol system but also includes previously unrecognized symbol systems such as images, sounds, colors, and actions. Multimodal discourse reflects the interactivity and unity of symbol resources in social communication. （空格）Systemic Functional Linguistics Provides Theoretical Foundation for Multimodal Discourse Analysis and Research. （这句话除了开头单词首字母，其他单词首字母都要小写）Multimodal discourse can be studied at multiple levels from culture, context, discourse meaning, grammar, form, to media.（Zhang Delu 2009,16）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

From a media perspective, various non-verbal media, especially modern technology media, provide a large number of new options for discourse communication. They can realize the meaning of discourse through different modalities and in multimodal utterances, different modal utterances are interconnected.Linguistics and translation studies have always complemented each other. Cutting into translation practice and research from the perspective of multimodality, we can obtain more new discoveries and gains, thereby enriching and improving the branch of translation studies, and also developing and expanding the linguistic theory of multimodal discourse analysis.（Zhang Delu 2009,17）

From a media perspective, various non-verbal media, especially modern technology media, provide a large number of new options for discourse communication. They can realize the meaning of discourse through different modalities and in multimodal utterances, different modal utterances are interconnected. (空格)Linguistics and translation studies have always complemented each other. Cutting into translation practice and research from the perspective of multimodality, we can obtain more new discoveries and gains, thereby enriching and improving the branch of translation studies, and also developing and expanding the linguistic theory of multimodal discourse analysis.（Zhang Delu 2009,17）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====1.2. Present Research Situation and Existing Problems at Home and Abroad====
In order to interpret and use other discourse phenomena outside the language in multimodal discourse, Kress and Van Leeuwen explored the "grammar" of certain symbolic modalities in comparison with the functional grammar of a language. They proposed modal analysis methods and theories such as visual grammar, color grammar and sound grammar. Among them, the visual grammatical framework constructed by them with "representative meaning", "interactive meaning" and "constitutive meaning" as the core content provides a theoretical basis for multimodal discourse analysis(Kress, G, Van Leeuwen.1996:78). Besides, Royce T investigated the complementarities and synergy of different symbols in multimodal discourse (Royce T 2002，191).

In order to interpret and use other discourse phenomena outside the language in multimodal discourse, Kress and Van Leeuwen explored the "grammar" of certain symbolic modalities in comparison with the functional grammar of a language. They proposed modal analysis methods and theories such as visual grammar, color grammar and sound grammar. Among them, the visual grammatical framework constructed by them with "representative meaning", "interactive meaning" and "constitutive meaning" as the core content provides a theoretical basis for multimodal discourse analysis(Kress, G, Van Leeuwen.1996:78). Besides, Royce T investigated the complementarities and synergy of different symbols in multimodal discourse (Royce T 2002，191). --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

O’Halloran used multiple modalities for theoretical analysis and practice who proposed the combination of language, visual images and other symbolic resources to build paper and digital media and daily life texts, things and events。It can be seen that some foreign scholars' research on multimodality is based on functional linguistics and visual grammar functions in social semiotics.Domestic research on multimodal discourse is still in its infancy. Some scholars have imported and introduced the theory of multimodal discourse analysis. Some scholars have used multimodal discourse theory to interpret and analyze symbols other than PPT texts and emblems. (O’Halloran 2008，231).

O’Halloran used multiple modalities for theoretical analysis and practice who proposed the combination of language, visual images and other symbolic resources to build paper and digital media and daily life texts, things and events. （句点） It can be seen that some foreign scholars' research on multimodality is based on functional linguistics and visual grammar functions in social semiotics.Domestic research on multimodal discourse is still in its infancy. Some scholars have imported and introduced the theory of multimodal discourse analysis. Some scholars have used multimodal discourse theory to interpret and analyze symbols other than PPT texts and emblems. (O’Halloran 2008，231). --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

This shows that the development of multimodal theory and multimedia technology has begun to affect people's thinking and the reconstruction of meaning. More scholars are studying how to apply the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to teaching to improve class teaching effect. In addition to the use of visual grammar theory to study specific symbolic systems other than text, domestic scholars have mostly focused on multimodal applied research goals in foreign language teaching. It mainly includes the content of graphic representation, multimodal reading ability, multimedia technology application, and multimodal collaboration. （Borodo 2015,22）

This shows that the development of multimodal theory and multimedia technology has begun to affect people's thinking and the reconstruction of meaning. More scholars are studying how to apply the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to teaching to improve class teaching effect. In addition to the use of visual grammar theory to study specific symbolic systems other than text, domestic scholars have mostly focused on multimodal applied research goals in foreign language teaching. It mainly includes the content of graphic representation, multimodal reading ability, multimedia technology application, and multimodal collaboration. （Borodo 2015,22）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

But for tourism translation, which includes both on-site interpretation and written modalities, few scholars have studied it from a multimodal perspective.
Looking at recent research results, Chinese scholars have achieved gratifying results both in terms of theory and application of theory. Some scholars have improved the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis based on previous studies. At the application level, its scope has covered multiple types of multimodal discourse. These helpful attempts have played a significant role in improving the theory of multimodal discourse analysis and broadening the scope of its application.（Borodo 2015,23）

But for tourism translation, which includes both on-site interpretation and written modalities, few scholars have studied it from a multimodal perspective.
Looking at recent research results, Chinese scholars have achieved gratifying results both in terms of theory and application of theory. Some scholars have improved the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis based on previous studies. At the application level, its scope has covered multiple types of multimodal discourse. These helpful attempts have played a significant role in improving the theory of multimodal discourse analysis and broadening the scope of its application.（Borodo 2015,23）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

At the same time, we should also see that there are still a lot of deficiencies in our research in this area.First of all, multimodal translation has not yet received widespread attention and recognition in the academic community, mainly reflected in the small amount of literature, not professional enough, and its influence needs to be improved. Secondly, the current multimodal discourse analysis still focuses on the study of images or "text + images". The coordination and synergy between various modalities have not been clearly studied, and there are still many uncertain factors. （Borodo 2015,24）

At the same time, we should also see that there are still a lot of deficiencies in our research in this area.First of all, multimodal translation has not yet received widespread attention and recognition in the academic community, mainly reflected in the small amount of literature, not professional enough, and its influence needs to be improved. Secondly, the current multimodal discourse analysis still focuses on the study of images or "text + images". The coordination and synergy between various modalities have not been clearly studied, and there are still many uncertain factors. （Borodo 2015,24）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

However, the perspectives of these research areas are relatively single. Most of them adopt the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to discuss subtitle translation in film and television works from the four levels of culture, context, content and expression. It is similar that the analysis is fragmented and lacks depth and theoretical contributions.
Fourth, the subjectivity of text analysis is too strong. Differences in analysts' personal knowledge structure, cultural background or interpretation motivation, in addition, grammatical analysis in multimodal discourse analysis lacks strict grammatical basis, so when facing the same component, the situation that benevolent sees benevolence and wise sees wisdom. （Zhu Yongsheng 2007,82）

However, the perspectives of these research areas are relatively single. Most of them adopt the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to discuss subtitle translation in film and television works from the four levels of culture, context, content and expression. It is similar that the analysis is fragmented and lacks depth and theoretical contributions.
Fourth, the subjectivity of text analysis is too strong. Differences in analysts' personal knowledge structure, cultural background or interpretation motivation, in addition, grammatical analysis in multimodal discourse analysis lacks strict grammatical basis, so when facing the same component, the situation that benevolent sees benevolence and wise sees wisdom. （Zhu Yongsheng 2007,82）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

So the meaning of multimodality is not clear enough, and the specific manifestations are:
1. Multimodality has a tendency to be abused;
2. Many authors do not have working definitions of "modal" and "multimodal", leading to unclear concepts and lack of pertinence in discussions;
3. Some authors confuse the concepts of multimedia and multimodality.
Finally, at present, linguists, especially systems functional linguists, are mainly engaged in the study of multimodal discourse analysis. However, multimodal discourse analysis is interdisciplinary. From the perspective of linguistics alone, it is not enough. Only by integrating different disciplines can we fully interpret multimodal texts. These are the issues that need to be further explored in future research.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,83）--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

So the meaning of multimodality is not clear enough, and the specific manifestations are:
1. Multimodality has a tendency to be abused;
2. Many authors do not have working definitions of "modal" and "multimodal", leading to unclear concepts and lack of pertinence in discussions;
3. Some authors confuse the concepts of multimedia and multimodality.
Finally, at present, linguists, especially systems functional linguists, are mainly engaged in the study of multimodal discourse analysis. However, multimodal discourse analysis is interdisciplinary. From the perspective of linguistics alone, it is not enough. Only by integrating different disciplines can we fully interpret multimodal texts. These are the issues that need to be further explored in future research.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,83）--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===2. Multimodal Translation Theory and Tourism Translation ===
The differences between Chinese and English are self-evident, and the cultural differences are reflected in history, aesthetics, religion, customs and habits in tourism English translation. The medium of tourism translation has both language modality and other modality such as image, performance and action. Therefore, it is a multimodal communication behavior. Compared with other types of translation, tourism translation is more direct, more prominent, more typical, and more comprehensive in terms of cross-temporal, cross-cultural, and cross-psychological communication.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,84）

The differences between Chinese and English are self-evident, and the cultural differences are reflected in history, aesthetics, religion, customs and habits in tourism English translation. The medium of tourism translation has both language modality and other modality such as image, performance and action. Therefore, it is a multimodal communication behavior. Compared with other types of translation, tourism translation is more direct, more prominent, more typical, and more comprehensive in terms of cross-temporal, cross-cultural, and cross-psychological communication.（Zhu Yongsheng 2007,84）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.1. Definition of Tourism Translation====

Tourism translation is a translation practice for tourism activities, tourism professions and industries, and belongs to professional translation. In a nutshell, tourism translation is a cross-lingual, cross-social, cross-temporal, cross-cultural, cross-psychological communication. It is more direct, prominent, typical and comprehensive in the characteristics of cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication. (Chen Gang 2004,59)

Tourism translation is a translation practice for tourism activities, tourism professions and industries, and belongs to professional translation. In a nutshell, tourism translation is a cross-lingual, cross-social, cross-temporal, cross-cultural, cross-psychological communication. It is more direct, prominent, typical and comprehensive in the characteristics of cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication. (Chen Gang 2004,59) --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Tourism translation includes dynamic and static tourism information translation. Dynamic tourism interpretation mainly includes on-site interpretation, attraction translation, conference negotiation, tourism consulting, tourism shopping guide and other tourism interpreting activities. While static tourist translation mainly includes tourist guidebooks, guide maps, tourist signs, tourist product introductions, tourist contracts, hotel and catering information, tourist traffic instructions, tourist websites and tourist posters, etc.
Tourism translation belongs to the field of applied translation, and its texts are practical, extensive and cross-cultural. It embodies multiple functions such as information transmission, marketing and call induction. And it is a compound text that integrates expression (from the original author), information (respect for the facts), and calling (inspires the reader). (Zeng Dan 2006,36)

Tourism translation includes dynamic and static tourism information translation. Dynamic tourism interpretation mainly includes on-site interpretation, attraction translation, conference negotiation, tourism consulting, tourism shopping guide and other tourism interpreting activities. While static tourist translation mainly includes tourist guidebooks, guide maps, tourist signs, tourist product introductions, tourist contracts, hotel and catering information, tourist traffic instructions, tourist websites and tourist posters, etc.
Tourism translation belongs to the field of applied translation, and its texts are practical, extensive and cross-cultural. It embodies multiple functions such as information transmission, marketing and call induction. And it is a compound text that integrates expression (from the original author), information (respect for the facts), and calling (inspires the reader). (Zeng Dan 2006,36)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The content of tourism translation is all-encompassing and the information contained covers all aspects of society and culture, from historical archeology to local customs, from sociopolitics to folk customs, everything is possible. Whether it is a broad translation or a narrow translation, it includes the conversion and information transfer of multiple symbol systems, so as to achieve the purpose of information transmission. Therefore, the translation activity itself contains the content of multimodal information transmission. We refer to the theories and results of multimodal discourse analysis to examine translation products and processes. As a new perspective of translation research, it has its inherent rationality and feasibility.(Zeng Dan 2006,37)

The content of tourism translation is all-encompassing and the information contained covers all aspects of society and culture, from historical archeology to local customs, from sociopolitics to folk customs, everything is possible. Whether it is a broad translation or a narrow translation, it includes the conversion and information transfer of multiple symbol systems, so as to achieve the purpose of information transmission. Therefore, the translation activity itself contains the content of multimodal information transmission. We refer to the theories and results of multimodal discourse analysis to examine translation products and processes. As a new perspective of translation research, it has its inherent rationality and feasibility.(Zeng Dan 2006,37)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Tourism translation, as a cultural interpretation and industry practice, has a clear purpose of tourism communication. On the one hand, it has a tourist business purpose that is to obtain certain economic benefits by persuading overseas tourists to buy products from tourism companies. On the other hand, tourism translation also has the purpose of cultural transmission. It aims to attract overseas tourists' interests by explaining and promoting the tourist culture of the destination country, such as geographical and historical background and cultural characteristics, to the purpose of spreading local culture.( (Zeng Dan 2006,38)

Tourism translation, as a cultural interpretation and industry practice, has a clear purpose of tourism communication. On the one hand, it has a tourist business purpose that is to obtain certain economic benefits by persuading overseas tourists to buy products from tourism companies. On the other hand, tourism translation also has the purpose of cultural transmission. It aims to attract overseas tourists' interests by explaining and promoting the tourist culture of the destination country, such as geographical and historical background and cultural characteristics, to the purpose of spreading local culture. (Zeng Dan 2006,38)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

At present in China's tourism industry, in addition to the language level of tourism translation text materials and tourism interpretation services, there are also problems in the dimension of tourism translation, which manifested in tourism translators and institutions often only focus on the single modality and media in translation. Integration modes include text mode with print media, speech mode with sound media and so on. Traditional tourism translation subjectively ignores the multimodal and multi-media collaboration and complementary functions, objectively greatly weakens the comprehensive effect of tourism translation. In the long run, it will hinder China's strategic development goals of tourism internationalization.(Zeng Dan 2006,39)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

At present in China's tourism industry, in addition to the language level of tourism translation text materials and tourism interpretation services, there are also problems in the dimension of tourism translation, which manifested in tourism translators and institutions often only focus on the single modality and media in translation. Integration modes include text mode with print media, speech mode with sound media and so on. Traditional tourism translation subjectively ignores the multimodal and multi-media collaboration and complementary functions, objectively greatly weakens the comprehensive effect of tourism translation. In the long run, it will hinder China's strategic development goals of tourism internationalization.(Zeng Dan 2006,39)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC) --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.2. The Necessity of Multimodal Tourism Translation====
Literary work is the most important carrier of culture. As mentioned in Chapter One, we will focus on the personal names in literary works, for literary works often embody much cultural information. Culture is the sum of a nation’s knowledge, experiences, beliefs, sense of values, division of classes, and the attitude toward time and space. Cultural information in literary works means the elements reflecting the culture of a nation or nations in literary works. It is rather simple at first sight; however, without being paid attention, a great deal of cultural information will escape the readers or the translators. (Xu Mianjun2017,40)

Literary work is the most important carrier of culture. As mentioned in Chapter One, we will focus on the personal names in literary works, for literary works often embody much cultural information. Culture is the sum of a nation’s knowledge, experiences, beliefs, sense of values, division of classes, and the attitude toward time and space. Cultural information in literary works means the elements reflecting the culture of a nation or nations in literary works. It is rather simple at first sight; however, without being paid attention, a great deal of cultural information will escape the readers or the translators. (Xu Mianjun 2017,40)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===3. Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text===
The differences between English and Chinese are reflected in every aspect. Therefore, the method of tourism translation also shows different characteristics. Only by mastering the correct translation method can we better attract the interest of foreign tourists, and only in this way can the main content of the original text be correctly presented to the readers. (Xu Mianjun2017,41)

The differences between English and Chinese are reflected in every aspect. Therefore, the method of tourism translation also shows different characteristics. Only by mastering the correct translation method can we better attract the interest of foreign tourists, and only in this way can the main content of the original text be correctly presented to the readers. (Xu Mianjun 2017,41)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====3.1. Performances of Multimodal Tourism Translation ====
Multimodal tourism translation can be analyzed and understood from both modal and media perspectives. From the modalities involved in tourism translation, the main mode of translation is text, and other auxiliary modes may include symbol modest. The main mode of tourism interpretation is speech. In tourism translation, whether it is the main mode or the auxiliary mode, they are both independent symbol systems that convey meaning to overseas tourists in a specific tourism context to complete the purpose of tourism cultural communication. However, these symbolic systems cooperate directly or indirectly to complete the communicative significance of tourism. (Xu Mianjun2017,42)）

Multimodal tourism translation can be analyzed and understood from both modal and media perspectives. From the modalities involved in tourism translation, the main mode of translation is text, and other auxiliary modes may include symbol modest. The main mode of tourism interpretation is speech. In tourism translation, whether it is the main mode or the auxiliary mode, they are both independent symbol systems that convey meaning to overseas tourists in a specific tourism context to complete the purpose of tourism cultural communication. However, these symbolic systems cooperate directly or indirectly to complete the communicative significance of tourism. (Xu Mianjun 2017,42)）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

From the media involved in tourism translation, it mainly manifests in two categories. One type of media is based on people, including all parts of the body.These human organs can be used as a modal technology carrier in tourism translation and communication, and jointly realize the meaning of the main modal. Sometimes, these media can also construct their own. The other is environmental media other than humans, which can be divided into static one and dynamic one. In the context of tourism translation, static media mainly includes text, pictures, clothing, religion, hairstyle, etc. They are traditional ordinary expression media in tourism translation which used to be ignored by translators. Dynamic media are mainly sound, screen, animation, music, etc. They have emerged with the development of science and technology and information technology, which are more prominent symbolic modal resources than language modalities.(Xu Mianjun2017,43)

From the media involved in tourism translation, it mainly manifests in two categories. One type of media is based on people, including all parts of the body.These human organs can be used as a modal technology carrier in tourism translation and communication, and jointly realize the meaning of the main modal. Sometimes, these media can also construct their own. The other is environmental media other than humans, which can be divided into static one and dynamic one. In the context of tourism translation, static media mainly includes text, pictures, clothing, religion, hairstyle, etc. They are traditional ordinary expression media in tourism translation which used to be ignored by translators. Dynamic media are mainly sound, screen, animation, music, etc. They have emerged with the development of science and technology and information technology, which are more prominent symbolic modal resources than language modalities.(Xu Mianjun 2017,43)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====3.2. Strategies for Multimodal Translation====
The starting point of the translator's work is the original text, the ending point is the translated text, and the process is the conversion of language and text, but it does not mean that the object he has to consider and process is only language and text. They must not only convey the original language and text information in the translated works, but also excavate the multimodal information attached to the original language and text in the original works, and try their best to restore and reproduce them in the translated works. Therefore, when performing multimodal translation, translators must master and apply the correct translation methods to achieve more results with less effort.(Xu Mianjun2017,44)

The starting point of the translator's work is the original text, the ending point is the translated text, and the process is the conversion of language and text, but it does not mean that the object he has to consider and process is only language and text. They must not only convey the original language and text information in the translated works, but also excavate the multimodal information attached to the original language and text in the original works, and try their best to restore and reproduce them in the translated works. Therefore, when performing multimodal translation, translators must master and apply the correct translation methods to achieve more results with less effort.(Xu Mianjun 2017,44)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=====3.2.1 Relying on Modern Multimedia Technology =====
With the continuous improvement of software and hardware facilities of various tourist attractions, the media means on which tourism translation depends must be continuously shifted from the previous text and pictures to modern media means such as animation, video, audio and stage. Multimodal tourism translation requires more non-verbal media and we need properly translate tourism culture and present it directly in front of overseas tourists, to facilitate their understanding of the culture of the destination country. In tourism translation and interpretation, translators can rely on a variety of modern media methods to guide and mobilize the various sensory systems of overseas tourists to achieve a good tourism translation effect. (Xu Mianjun2017,45)

With the continuous improvement of software and hardware facilities of various tourist attractions, the media means on which tourism translation depends must be continuously shifted from the previous text and pictures to modern media means such as animation, video, audio and stage. Multimodal tourism translation requires more non-verbal media and we need properly translate tourism culture and present it directly in front of overseas tourists, to facilitate their understanding of the culture of the destination country. In tourism translation and interpretation, translators can rely on a variety of modern media methods to guide and mobilize the various sensory systems of overseas tourists to achieve a good tourism translation effect. (Xu Mianjun 2017,45)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

For example, Sanya's travel trailer is 3 minutes and 20 seconds long. It presents Sanya's local customs in the form of narrative reproduction through images, text and video. The picture quality is clear and beautiful, the English pronunciation is authentic, the English subtitles are accurate, the background music is cheerful, and the color contrast is bright. It fully borrows modern technology to display the image of Sanya in front of the viewer. Many tourist attractions use modern technologies such as light, shadow, lights, etc. to help tourists understand the local culture in order to better play the role of attraction translation.（(Xu Mianjun2017,46）

For example, Sanya's travel trailer is 3 minutes and 20 seconds long. It presents Sanya's local customs in the form of narrative reproduction through images, text and video. The picture quality is clear and beautiful, the English pronunciation is authentic, the English subtitles are accurate, the background music is cheerful, and the color contrast is bright. It fully borrows modern technology to display the image of Sanya in front of the viewer. Many tourist attractions use modern technologies such as light, shadow, lights, etc. to help tourists understand the local culture in order to better play the role of attraction translation.（(Xu Mianjun 2017,46）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

When translating the of the Hubei Provincial Museum, in addition to using conventional texts, pictures and media, you can also rely on modern media such as live performances and stage lights. Through unconventional media such as choreography, performance, sound, and spatial layout, the culture is vividly displayed in front of overseas visitors. The senses of sight, hearing, and touch of overseas visitors are used to make the interpretation of Warring States Period Bell culture more intuitive and easier to understand. This kind of translation effect is unmatched by the translation of text and language modalities.（Zhang Delu 2009,18）

When translating the of the Hubei Provincial Museum, in addition to using conventional texts, pictures and media, you can also rely on modern media such as live performances and stage lights. Through unconventional media such as choreography, performance, sound, and spatial layout, the culture is vividly displayed in front of overseas visitors. The senses of sight, hearing, and touch of overseas visitors are used to make the interpretation of Warring States Period Bell culture more intuitive and easier to understand. This kind of translation effect is unmatched by the translation of text and language modalities.（Zhang Delu 2009,18）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Zhangjiajie Scenic Spot utilizes the traditional tourist translation signage combined with the modern technology of QR code, which makes tourism translation more vivid and easy to understand.
Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:01, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Zhangjiajie Scenic Spot utilizes the traditional tourist translation signage combined with the modern technology of QR code, which makes tourism translation more vivid and easy to understand. （插入照片）
Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:01, 19 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=====3.2.2 Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode =====
To carry out multimodal tourism translation, the choice of main mode must be adjusted at any time according to the specific content. Translating different tourism content and different overseas tourists should choose different main methods and auxiliary modes. For tourist translation of natural landscapes, it can be “to the point”, using the principle of image mode, supplemented by text or speech mode. The picture below uses a combination of oversized text and images to give viewers a very shocking visual conflict.
As shown in Figures, both from ZhangJiajie, a combination of subtitles, videos, and pictures is used. （SR Roberts 2006, 209)

To carry out multimodal tourism translation, the choice of main mode must be adjusted at any time according to the specific content. Translating different tourism content and different overseas tourists should choose different main methods and auxiliary modes. For tourist translation of natural landscapes, it can be “to the point”, using the principle of image mode, supplemented by text or speech mode. The picture below uses a combination of oversized text and images to give viewers a very shocking visual conflict.
As shown in Figures, both from ZhangJiajie, a combination of subtitles, videos, and pictures is used. （SR Roberts 2006, 209)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

All take the image mode as the main mode and subtitle translation as the auxiliary mode. The pictures adopt a perspective view of overlooking the mountains of ZhangJiajie from a high altitude. Tourists can see that it is different at a glance. This is also the biggest highlight of ZhangJiajie. This will help attract the attention of tourists and get closer to tourists, so that the translation effect is more prominent and intuitive.

All take the image mode as the main mode and subtitle translation as the auxiliary mode. The pictures adopt a perspective view of overlooking the mountains of ZhangJiajie from a high altitude. Tourists can see that it is different at a glance. This is also the biggest highlight of ZhangJiajie. This will help attract the attention of tourists and get closer to tourists, so that the translation effect is more prominent and intuitive.--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

For humanistic landscape tourism translation, reasonable multimodal symbols can be used to mine the cultural connotation behind it. Adopt the principle of text or speech mode, supplemented by images or other modes. (SR Roberts 2006, 210)）

For humanistic landscape tourism translation, reasonable multimodal symbols can be used to mine the cultural connotation behind it. Adopt the principle of text or speech mode, supplemented by images or other modes. (SR Roberts 2006, 210)）(插入照片)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The[] picture above is from Feitian Mountain in Chenzhou. The translation of the scenic spot combines certain background cultural knowledge with natural geographical factors. The translation uses a combination of text, pictures and cultural knowledge, coupled with the natural landscape, making the scenery and passengers into one, adding a good sense of travel experience.
In this way, the information transmission effect of cultural landscape tourism products from the aesthetic perspective is improved, and the tourism translation is transformed from a shallow translation of introduction sightseeing to a deep translation of cultural leisure.（SR Roberts 2006, 210)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The[] picture above is from Feitian Mountain in Chenzhou. The translation of the scenic spot combines certain background cultural knowledge with natural geographical factors. The translation uses a combination of text, pictures and cultural knowledge, coupled with the natural landscape, making the scenery and passengers into one, adding a good sense of travel experience.
In this way, the information transmission effect of cultural landscape tourism products from the aesthetic perspective is improved, and the tourism translation is transformed from a shallow translation of introduction sightseeing to a deep translation of cultural leisure.（SR Roberts 2006, 210)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=====3.2.3 Improving Multimodal Internal Integration=====
Whether it’s written travel translation or spoke none, translators should improve the coordination and cooperation within various modalities, and strive to improve the effectiveness of tourism translation. The various models are independent and interconnected, and serve the general principle of "integration" together. Try to avoid and weaken the untranslatability of words or languages in tourism translation. For this reason, other symbol systems other than text can be appropriately used for replacement or supplementation, such as image, posture and other symbol modal resources. （SR Roberts 2006, 211）

Whether it’s written travel translation or spoke none, translators should improve the coordination and cooperation within various modalities, and strive to improve the effectiveness of tourism translation. The various models are independent and interconnected, and serve the general principle of "integration" together. Try to avoid and weaken the untranslatability of words or languages in tourism translation. For this reason, other symbol systems other than text can be appropriately used for replacement or supplementation, such as image, posture and other symbol modal resources. （SR Roberts 2006, 211）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

On the one hand, it is necessary to do as much internal collaboration as possible during tourism translation. When selecting different modes, we must fully consider the compatibility and complementarity between the different modes to ensure the best modal matching. On the other hand, modal abuse should be avoided and eliminated to the greatest extent. If too many modalities are used at the same time in tourism translation, or if the modalities used are not suitable for the scene, it will make overseas tourists confused and interfere with the normal understanding of overseas tourists. （SR Roberts 2006,212)

On the one hand, it is necessary to do as much internal collaboration as possible during tourism translation. When selecting different modes, we must fully consider the compatibility and complementarity between the different modes to ensure the best modal matching. On the other hand, modal abuse should be avoided and eliminated to the greatest extent. If too many modalities are used at the same time in tourism translation, or if the modalities used are not suitable for the scene, it will make overseas tourists confused and interfere with the normal understanding of overseas tourists. （SR Roberts 2006,212)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Therefore, the modal choice in tourism translation should be based on the evaluation index that helps overseas tourists understand and be satisfied. In this way, we can ensure that tourism translation practice with multimodal perspective has good dynamics and systemicity.
It is hoped that by adjusting the integration and optimization of the tourism translation structure, the advantages within and between the modalities will complement each other, and the value and advantages of various modalities will be organically and effectively combined into one to maximize the goals and tasks of tourism translation. So, the tourism translation will be greatly developed.（SR Roberts 2006, 213)

Therefore, the modal choice in tourism translation should be based on the evaluation index that helps overseas tourists understand and be satisfied. In this way, we can ensure that tourism translation practice with multimodal perspective has good dynamics and systemicity.
It is hoped that by adjusting the integration and optimization of the tourism translation structure, the advantages within and between the modalities will complement each other, and the value and advantages of various modalities will be organically and effectively combined into one to maximize the goals and tasks of tourism translation. So, the tourism translation will be greatly developed.（SR Roberts 2006, 213)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=====3.2.4. Multimodal Intersemiotic Translation=====
In multimodal discourse, different modalities interact to construct meaning together. González proposed that with the rapid development of science and technology and the translation of mainstream cultural products, multimodality is bound to become the focus of future translation. She divides translation into intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The former is subordinated to the system within the system, while the latter two are subordinate to the cross-system interpretation system. (Li Zhanzi 2003,1)

In multimodal discourse, different modalities interact to construct meaning together. González proposed that with the rapid development of science and technology and the translation of mainstream cultural products, multimodality is bound to become the focus of future translation. She divides translation into intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The former is subordinated to the system within the system, while the latter two are subordinate to the cross-system interpretation system. (Li Zhanzi 2003,1)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

It can be seen from this that inter-symbol translation involves translation between two different media, such as the translation of a language medium into an image medium, so the image of "illustration" can be regarded as a translation form of text. Symbols contain three types of iconicity, indication and symbol, which correspond to the first attribute (essence), second attribute (fact) and third attribute (association) of the symbol. These symbol types can be interpreted as symbols, objects and interpretations. Intersemiotic translation is a process in which iconic symbols depend on the goal and interpretation.(Li Zhanzi 2003,2)

It can be seen from this that inter-symbol translation involves translation between two different media, such as the translation of a language medium into an image medium, so the image of "illustration" can be regarded as a translation form of text. Symbols contain three types of iconicity, indication and symbol, which correspond to the first attribute (essence), second attribute (fact) and third attribute (association) of the symbol. These symbol types can be interpreted as symbols, objects and interpretations. Intersemiotic translation is a process in which iconic symbols depend on the goal and interpretation.(Li Zhanzi 2003,2)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Multimodal intersemiotic translation is an important part of multimodal translation. It refers to the use of non-verbal symbol systems to interpret linguistic symbols in the context of multimodal discourse or use foreign language symbols to explain non-linguistic symbols for tourism. Such as transforming body language or tourism culture images into foreign languages. Tourism translation practitioners often translate typical tourist cultural symbols such as text, architecture, and literature into foreign languages for overseas tourists. This not only requires translators to have strong foreign language grammar and pragmatic skills, but also must have good foreign language spoken and communicative skills.(Li Zhanzi 2003,3)

Multimodal intersemiotic translation is an important part of multimodal translation. It refers to the use of non-verbal symbol systems to interpret linguistic symbols in the context of multimodal discourse or use foreign language symbols to explain non-linguistic symbols for tourism. Such as transforming body language or tourism culture images into foreign languages. Tourism translation practitioners often translate typical tourist cultural symbols such as text, architecture, and literature into foreign languages for overseas tourists. This not only requires translators to have strong foreign language grammar and pragmatic skills, but also must have good foreign language spoken and communicative skills.(Li Zhanzi 2003,3)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Tourism translators must continuously improve their inter-symbol translation capabilities, and strive to perceive and understand the common symbol systems in tourism, such as text, pictures, poetry, literature, history, painting, sculpture, etc. And reasonably use symbol resources outside the text to perform intersemiotic translation and interpretation between all symbols. Especially they used to perform intersemiotic translation between foreign language modalities and various tourism cultural symbol resources. In this way, the tourism culture and resource information of the country can be better converted into words that overseas tourists can understand.(Li Zhanzi 2003,4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Tourism translators must continuously improve their inter-symbol translation capabilities, and strive to perceive and understand the common symbol systems in tourism, such as text, pictures, poetry, literature, history, painting, sculpture, etc. And reasonably use symbol resources outside the text to perform intersemiotic translation and interpretation between all symbols. Especially they used to perform intersemiotic translation between foreign language modalities and various tourism cultural symbol resources. In this way, the tourism culture and resource information of the country can be better converted into words that overseas tourists can understand.(Li Zhanzi 2003,4)--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===4. Development prospects of Multimodal Tourism Translation===
With the rise of multimodal discourse studies, image, music, color, and other visual symbols of paralanguage gradually become the center of discourse analysis.
Whether it is the study of multimodal discourse translation or the re-examination of translation practice and translation teaching based on the theory of multimodal discourse analysis, multimodal translation research has greatly broadened the concept of translation. Translation is not just a language conversion, but a system of meanings constructed by multiple modalities. Therefore, multimodal translation research not only brings revolutionary changes to translation practice and translation research, but also brings new challenges to translators. (Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,89)

With the rise of multimodal discourse studies, image, music, color, and other visual symbols of paralanguage gradually become the center of discourse analysis.
Whether it is the study of multimodal discourse translation or the re-examination of translation practice and translation teaching based on the theory of multimodal discourse analysis, multimodal translation research has greatly broadened the concept of translation. Translation is not just a language conversion, but a system of meanings constructed by multiple modalities. Therefore, multimodal translation research not only brings revolutionary changes to translation practice and translation research, but also brings new challenges to translators. (Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011,89)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Firstly, strengthen the theoretical construction of multimodal translation research. At present, the definition, content, and methods of multimodal translation studies have not formed a unified understanding. No scholar has combed the overview of domestic multimodal translation studies and has not published a mature research monograph. Multimodal translation practice calls for mature multimodal theory guidance.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,90)

Firstly, strengthen the theoretical construction of multimodal translation research. At present, the definition, content, and methods of multimodal translation studies have not formed a unified understanding. No scholar has combed the overview of domestic multimodal translation studies and has not published a mature research monograph. Multimodal translation practice calls for mature multimodal theory guidance.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,90)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Secondly, strengthen empirical research on multimodal translation. Domestic research has mostly stayed at the stage of text analysis and theoretical speculation, and empirical research is lacking. The survey found that the public hopes that the translation industry will conduct multimodal translation research from the following aspects: quality, business-related issues, cognitive research, speech recognition, automatic translation, descriptive research, reverse translation, etc.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,91)

Secondly, strengthen empirical research on multimodal translation. Domestic research has mostly stayed at the stage of text analysis and theoretical speculation, and empirical research is lacking. The survey found that the public hopes that the translation industry will conduct multimodal translation research from the following aspects: quality, business-related issues, cognitive research, speech recognition, automatic translation, descriptive research, reverse translation, etc.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011,91)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Thirdly, strengthen the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora. Shanghai Jiaotong University has opened a new path for scholars at home and abroad to carry out related research. However, the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora require the participation and support of more scholars.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,92)

Thirdly, strengthen the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora. Shanghai Jiaotong University has opened a new path for scholars at home and abroad to carry out related research. However, the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora require the participation and support of more scholars.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011,92)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Fourthly, strengthen Chinese and foreign comparative studies on multimodal translation studies. Chinese-foreign comparative research and the promotion of foreign related research results are conducive to understanding the frontiers of academic research, complementing each other, avoiding unnecessary repetitive research, and promoting the results of multimodal translation practice and research faster and better.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong2011,93)

Fourthly, strengthen Chinese and foreign comparative studies on multimodal translation studies. Chinese-foreign comparative research and the promotion of foreign related research results are conducive to understanding the frontiers of academic research, complementing each other, avoiding unnecessary repetitive research, and promoting the results of multimodal translation practice and research faster and better.(Chen Xinren, Qian Yonghong 2011,93)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Fifthly, strengthen the cognitive process of multimodal discourse translation. Cognitive research on multimodal discourse translation can be combined with the latest achievements in the field of cognition. It can also compare the difference in time spent by translators when reading monomodal discourse and multimodal discourse. It can also compare reading time of reading with pure translation and pure translation. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,1)

Fifthly, strengthen the cognitive process of multimodal discourse translation. Cognitive research on multimodal discourse translation can be combined with the latest achievements in the field of cognition. It can also compare the difference in time spent by translators when reading monomodal discourse and multimodal discourse. It can also compare reading time of reading with pure translation and pure translation. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,1)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Traditional tourism translation only focuses on the impact of communication on the communication, regardless of symbol information other than the language which is used. There is generally a lack of consideration of non-verbal factors such as images, music, mood, and expression, and ignores the important role of non-verbal modalities in the construction of meaning together with language. Thus have greater limitations in the process of meaning construction. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,2)

Traditional tourism translation only focuses on the impact of communication on the communication, regardless of symbol information other than the language which is used. There is generally a lack of consideration of non-verbal factors such as images, music, mood, and expression, and ignores the important role of non-verbal modalities in the construction of meaning together with language. Thus have greater limitations in the process of meaning construction. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,2)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Tourism translation should use all symbolic means to ensure the acceptability and multi-sensory nature of translation to stimulate overseas tourists' interests in China's tourism resources and culture. Therefore, from the perspective of modalities, China's future tourism translation must develop in a direction that satisfies the sensory modalities of hearing, seeing, touching, and smelling of overseas tourists as much as possible, which places higher demands on practitioners of tourism translation. Especially for front-line practitioners in tourism translation, tourism intersemiotic translation ability is often more important than tourism Interlingua translation ability. In this context, non-linguistic knowledge can improve the practical effect of multimodal tourism translation than language knowledge. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,3)

Tourism translation should use all symbolic means to ensure the acceptability and multi-sensory nature of translation to stimulate overseas tourists' interests in China's tourism resources and culture. Therefore, from the perspective of modalities, China's future tourism translation must develop in a direction that satisfies the sensory modalities of hearing, seeing, touching, and smelling of overseas tourists as much as possible, which places higher demands on practitioners of tourism translation. Especially for front-line practitioners in tourism translation, tourism intersemiotic translation ability is often more important than tourism Interlingua translation ability. In this context, non-linguistic knowledge can improve the practical effect of multimodal tourism translation than language knowledge. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,3)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

From the perspective of the media, in addition to focusing on the use of traditional human organs, tourism translation will pay more attention to using modern high-tech media to mobilize and infect overseas tourists.This places higher requirements on tourism planning and business investment arrangements for tourism administrations and attractions. Therefore, in the future, tourism translation will introduce more multimodal tourism translation modules based on modern technologies such as screen, audio, and video on the basis of traditional text modal and spoken modalities, and gradually establish multimodal. A multi-media, multi-dimensional, multi-language, interactive, and prompt and propaganda integrated tourism translation system.( (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,4))

From the perspective of the media, in addition to focusing on the use of traditional human organs, tourism translation will pay more attention to using modern high-tech media to mobilize and infect overseas tourists.This places higher requirements on tourism planning and business investment arrangements for tourism administrations and attractions. Therefore, in the future, tourism translation will introduce more multimodal tourism translation modules based on modern technologies such as screen, audio, and video on the basis of traditional text modal and spoken modalities, and gradually establish multimodal. A multi-media, multi-dimensional, multi-language, interactive, and prompt and propaganda integrated tourism translation system. (Hu Zhuanglin 2007,4)--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Conclusion===
A distinctive feature of tourism translation is its multimodality. It makes the role and effect of multiple symbol systems such as languages and images in the process of tourism translation very clear and clear. It also makes the interpretation of discourse meaning more comprehensive and accurate in the context of tourism translation. Based on the theory of multimodal discourse, this thesis analyzes and discusses the characteristics, strategies and development prospects of multimodal tourism translation. Explains that the multimodality study of tourism translation has important industrial reality and academic theoretical significance and it should be a research direction in the field of future languages and tourism. It will greatly promote research innovation in the field of language translation and tourism.（Sun Zheng 2010,54）

A distinctive feature of tourism translation is its multimodality. It makes the role and effect of multiple symbol systems such as languages and images in the process of tourism translation very clear删掉. It also makes the interpretation of discourse meaning more comprehensive and accurate in the context of tourism translation. Based on the theory of multimodal discourse, this thesis analyzes and discusses the characteristics, strategies and development prospects of multimodal tourism translation. Explains that the multimodality study of tourism translation has important industrial reality and academic theoretical significance and it should be a research direction in the field of future languages and tourism. It will greatly promote research innovation in the field of language translation and tourism.（Sun Zheng 2010,54）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

As a new discipline, multimodal discourse analysis has challenged the definition of traditional discourse and methods of discourse analysis, and put forward new requirements in the field of dialogue and research. The development of everything requires a process. In theory, multimodal discourse analysis still needs innovation and reference. The method still needs to be improved. Its improvement and development require the joint efforts of several generations. It is foreseeable that the research team of multimodal discourse analysis will continue to grow, and its application prospects will become wider and wider.（Sun Zheng 2010,55）

As a new discipline, multimodal discourse analysis has challenged the definition of traditional discourse and methods of discourse analysis, and put forward new requirements in the field of dialogue and research. The development of everything requires a process. In theory, multimodal discourse analysis still needs innovation and reference. The method still needs to be improved. Its improvement and development require the joint efforts of several generations. It is foreseeable that the research team of multimodal discourse analysis will continue to grow, and its application prospects will become wider and wider.（Sun Zheng 2010,55）--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 16:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

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==Comparison between the History of Chinese and western Translation 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen==
Abstract: The development history of Chinese and Western translation has gone through a long development process. In the history of thousands of years, Chinese and Western translation will have certain laws and their own characteristics. Analyzing the similarities and differences of these laws and characteristics can better help us understand the history of translation development, and at the same time guide the development of current practice and theory. This article first introduces the development history of China and the West, then compares the similarities and differences, and finally summarizes the general rules.
Keywords: Chinese and Western translation theory, history similarity, difference

摘要：中西方翻译发展史都经历了漫长的发展过程，在几千年的发展历史中，中西方翻译都会有一定的规律和各自的特点。分析这些规律和特点的异同能更好的帮助我们了解翻译发展史，同时指导如今的实践和理论的发展。本文先介绍中西方的发展历史，然后从相似和差异两个方面进行对比，最后总结大致规律。
关键词中西译论历史相似性差异性
A Comparison of Chinese and Western Translation History
中西文化史比较

==Introduction==
Translation, as an important activity aimed to reach cross-culture communication, has a long history. As the development of the human society and fast process of globalization, translation plays an increasingly important role in promoting the understanding and communication of people around the world. However, the history of translation, which is a part of great importance in the study of translation, often been underestimated when compared to the study of the translation theory and the translation techniques. In fact, it is just like a process of building a house, what we should do first is to construct a framework so as to grasp the main idea and the main trend of the development of translation and then we can pay more attentions to the details like the development or improvement of one theory, one school of thought. And we also can spend time to analyse the similarities and differences among various opinions of the translators. The study of translation is a huge system deserves not one persons effort, here the author just make her effort and write something of the understanding of herself.

==Western Translation History==
Western countries have a profound and time-honored history of translation. To some extent, the spread western culture(even the culture of the whole world) attributes to the work of translator. No matter it is in western countries or in China, translation begun thousands of years ago and it is nearly as old as the language itself.
The history of the western counties translation begun at the 3rd century. And it now has a history of around 2000 years. Throughout the whole process of translation, there have been six climaxes in the history of western translation, which can be divided into six stages: the initial stage, the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, the middle ages, the Renaissance, the second half of the 17th century to the first half of the 20th century, and the translation activities since the end of the Second World War. In addition to the Greek translation of the Old Testament, the western ancient translation mainly includes the Latin translation in ancient Rome. It started from the middle of the Republic in the third century B.C. to the end of Rome in the fifth century.（Tan Zaixi2004, 34）

Medieval history generally begins with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and ends at the Renaissance in the 15th century. As far as translation theory is concerned, there are three major marks: the early translator Manlius Boethius , the middle Toledo "Translation Institute" and the late national language translation.（Tan Zaixi2004, 36-39）

The central figure in this period was Manlius Boethius, who not only made contributions to the introduction of Greek philosophy to translation, but also had his own views on translation theory. His views can be summed up as follows: (1) content and style are antagonistic to each other, either pay attention to style or preserve content.（2）Translation focuses on objective affairs and translators should give up subjective judgment. Overall, there are five major phases of the history of western translation, the first one begins at the decline of Greece, after which the Roman Empire grasp the change and thrived. At that time ,Greece had a fantastic culture resources which is attracting.（熊兵39-42)

The translations in the Middle Ages were the earliest translations of Arabic and Western works. Among them, Baghdad was the most active. The main works were scientific works by Aristotle, Plato and others, which earned it the title of the Arab Academy of Translation. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allows many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposes some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages are becoming more and more urgent. National language translation is first related to the Bible, but the translation process is not smooth because there are many cultural differences. Toledo is a place in central Spain. The ancient city, at that time, many Western scholars came here to engage in translation activities, forming a translation climax. The significance of this activity is that it allows many Greek originals to be directly translated, without the need to translate through several languages, but this period did not have anyone who proposes some translation theories, just a translation practice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the people's requirements for national languages are becoming more and more urgent. National language translation is first related to the Bible, but the translation process is not smooth because there are many cultural differences. The problem of cultural differences, such as the translation of the Bible into Germanic, is a big crush on their morality and because of this, after the translation of the Bible, the grammatical structure of the languages of Western European countries has also become more similar. But large-scale national translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the rise of nationalism. At the same time, translation activities in various countries are moving forward, but the development of the United Kingdom is particularly slow, mainly because of the translators. The status of translation is low, and the selection of translation materials is also a problem. Despite this a group of well-known translators have also emerged: John Trevisa and William Caxton. During this period, another major type of translation is the translation of religious documents, the most famous of which are Osborn Boklam and Wickliffe. In general, the study of Western translation theory in this period of the Middle Ages did not form a system, and the real leap began in the Middle Ages.(Tan Zaixi2004，33-40)

The Renaissance was not only the rapid development of new ideas, but also a major milestone in the history of translation. People’s demand for translations of ethnic languages is getting stronger and stronger. For example, Erasmus provided a new linguistic method for the translation of the Bible. The main points are as follows: 1. The original work must be respected. No translation can completely replace the original. 2. The translator must have a wealth of language knowledge. 3. Every translation has his own style. The style depends on the needs of the reader.Amiou of France translated Lives of Artist. The criteria in the translation process are: 1. The translator should thoroughly understand the original text. 2. The translation should be simple and natural. In the United Kingdom, especially during the Elizabethan period, translation activities flourished and the content was extensive. The Renaissance was an important turning point in the history of Western translation. At this time, the translation of ethnic languages was already very stable, and the translation practices and theories of various countries. The translation before the Renaissance mostly refers to the translation of Latin, and after that, the use of Latin is only a tributary.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 55-68)

After the Renaissance, from the second half of the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, the translation of Western countries continued to develop, and excellent translations still appeared. But in terms of its scale and influence, the translation in this period is far behind the Renaissance. What constitutes the fifth climax of Western translation is the translation since the end of the Second World War in the middle of the twentieth century.(Tan Zaixi2004, 86-88)

After the Second World War, the West entered a period of stability and peace, society developed on a large scale, the scope of translation was further expanded, and translations in new fields such as business and technology began to appear. The role of translation is not only the communication between cultures, but also extends to the exchanges of science and technology, trade, tourism, and biomedicine. Translation has gradually become a profession for some people, becoming organized and planned, and there are specialized translation agencies. Translation tools have also been further developed. Machine translation has strong vitality. It is the biggest challenge to traditional manual translation for thousands of years, and it is a revolution of far-reaching significance in the history of translation.(Tan Zaixi2004, 176)

==Chinese Translation History==
There are almost two thousand years in China's translation history. Chinese translation has gone through these stages.
The Sui and Tang Dynasties ushered in the first climax of Chinese ancient translation. During this period, most of the translators engaged in translation activities were monks. They were mainly engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The eminent monk in the early Tang Dynasty, Xuanzang, was one of the famous translators of this period. Xuan Lei followed the original side of "faithful and easy to understand" in its translation practice, and tried to make the most of the advantages of literal and free translation. In the Northern Song Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures began to decrease; in the Yuan Dynasty, there were fewer translation activities.(Chen Fukang2000, 5-18)

The second stage began in the late Qing Dynasty. During the early Qing Dynasty, the number of translators gradually increased. They are mainly engaged in translation activities aimed at translating Western science and technology, and their translation works have greatly promoted the development of science and technology in China. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, and the discussion of translation theory was ignored. However, the focus of this period was on translation practice, while ignoring the discussion of translation theory.At the end of the Qing Dynasty, a large number of Western translations had a great influence on our country.(Chen Fukang,63)
These translation works have not only enriched our country’s literary forms, but also expanded our people's horizons, making them more aware of Western lifestyles, customs, etc; more importantly, Western ideology and concepts introduced through translation, especially Western The democratic ideology of my country has greatly affected our country’s intellectuals and radicals, making them devote themselves to reforming the aging and decadent society at that time.(Yan Fu (1853-1921) was a famous translator of this period. He translated a large number of excellent European political and social science works, including "Heavenly Evolution". He put forward the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" in the preface of the translation. This standard has still had a great influence on translation practice and theoretical discussion in our country. During this period, the discussion of translation theory in the translation world was mainly based on the three-character standard of Mr. Yan Fu. But the core of the debate was the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Chen Fukang2000,66)

The third stage: The May Fourth Movement in 1919 marked a new historical period for my country's translation activities. Translations during this period were mainly related to Marxist-Leninist works and Western literary works, which greatly promoted the development of Chinese literature. The translation world mainly focuses on many issues of literary translation. For example, translatability and untranslatability, translation and literary creation, etc., carry out in-depth discussions. But the core is still the issue of literal translation and free translation.(Wang Xiaoqin2009，85)

The fourth stage: The founding of New China pushed our country's translation industry into an unprecedented period of rapid development. The establishment of specialized translation agencies has made translation activities in various fields more scaled and organized. During this period, a large number of translations of Marxist-Leninist works and various scientific and technological works had a positive impact on my country's political and economic development. In addition, new breakthroughs have been made in the study of translation theory: literary translation principles have come out, such as Fu Lei’s theory of "similarities", Qian Zhongshu’s theory of "transcendence", and Liu Chongde’s translation standards of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and thoroughness". (https://www.sohu.com/a/58131849_348845)

The fifth stage: Since the reform and opening up in 1978, China's political, economic and other fields have required a large number of qualified interpreters and translators. Therefore, most translation activities focus on business, science and technology. In the past two decades, translation has made a large number of Western modern linguistic theories, translation theories, and many other related subject theories used by Chinese scholars, and Chinese translation practice and translation theorists have also benefited from it. They try to interpret translation from different respects.(Wang Xiaoqin2009，86)

==Similarities==
Whether in China or the West, the scale of development of translation theory is always not as large as translation practice, but the two complement each other and form an indivisible whole. Although in the early stages of Chinese and Western translation, and these principles and rules were not summarized at the beginning, there was no clear and specific theory to guide practice, translation practice was guided by certain principles at the beginning. For example, when An Shigao and others were engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures around the third century in China, due to their limited knowledge of Chinese, they could not translate the original purpose of the Buddha into Chinese, so they unknowingly followed the "no text decoration" translation rule. In the West, when the Romans defeated the Greeks, they believed that their words could be "slaughtered" at will, so they had the translation principle of "comparable to the original" and "surpassing the original". On the other hand, due to the sublimation of the theory, the translation practice also has a more direction. For example, since Cicero, Zhi Qian started the theory of “literal translation” and “free translation”. In later translation practice, these two This translation method became dominant.(Yang Xiaoru2013, 162)

The development model of translation theory is similar: from incidental discussions on translation issues, to conscious comments, to systematic conclusions.(Liang Dan2016, 103-104)
Similarity of translation methods: Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theories have distinguished between "literal translation", "free translation", "dead translation" and "live translation". It's just that they differ in their expressions. For example, Cicero, the pioneer of Western translation theory, proposed that translators should become "speakers" rather than "stiff interpreters" when translating ancient Greek speech works. Similarly, the pioneers of translation theory in our country also proposed expressions with similar meanings. These views are essentially the concepts of "literal translation" and "free translation". Including later, many western translators put forward some supplementary points to make theoretical concepts more boundary and more detailed. For example: "imitation/paraphrase" proposed by Dryden in the United Kingdom, "dynamic equivalence/functional equivalence" and "formal equivalence" proposed by Nida in the 20th century, "communicative translation" and "semantic translation" proposed by Newmark, etc.They all revolve around the contradiction between "literal translation" and "free translation".(Tan Zaixi1999，25)

When discussing translation issues, translators like to use figurative metaphors. For example, China has: Virgin and Matchmaker (Mao Dun) "Shensi" (Fu Lei) and so on. In the West there are: "beautiful and unfaithful woman" (Menar Day), "translator is a slave" (Dreiden), "dancing on a rope wearing shackles" (Dreiden )and many more. These metaphors are very vivid and easy to understand. It shows from the side that Chinese and Western translators are similar or similar in thinking.(Tan Zaixi1999, 27)

"Faithfulness" is a concept that has been discussed in Chinese and Western translation history for more than two thousand years. This is another common feature of them. In China, the earliest concept of "faithfulness" originated from Zhi Qian's "Faju Jingxue". Lao Tzu said "beauty without faith, faith without beauty". In the West, this view can be traced back to Hera's poetry. When he wrote his poems, he told people that it was impossible to translate word for word. The "faithfulness" mentioned by these two scholars is actually different from the standard we are talking about now. The "faithfulness" that people understand now is semantic faithfulness.(Gao Jinlin2012, 68)

In addition, there are some similarities in the several climaxes of Chinese and Western translation:
The first climax was called the period of classical translation theory in China, and it also appeared in the beginning of translation in the West. This stage is centered around the translation of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures. Luther's first The People's Bible laid the foundation for modern German; the King James Bible, which was also translated by 47 people in the early 17th century, promoted the development of modern English in Britain. So much so that the language is still unclear what Germanic language was like before the publication of the "Bible" translation. This shows that religious translation has a strong penetration of language and culture. Buddhist scripture translation has an even stronger influence on Chinese culture. It directly promoted the creation of Taoism and promoted the formation of "Neo-Confucianism" in the Song Dynasty. In terms of language, a large number of Buddhist words entered Chinese, even the word "translation" is from Buddhist scriptures. In literature, many metaphors and language are derived from Buddhism, such as reincarnation. Nowadays, Buddhism is still one of the main religions of Chinese people, and the good ideas it promotes have had a good influence on many believers. This shows that the translation of Buddhist scriptures has a profound impact on Chinese culture.(Li Xuan2012, 131）

Urgent communication needs are always the inducement of translation climax. Translation essentially exists for communication among people in different languages. Therefore, whether it is actively learning translation or passively accepting translation, as long as the demand for communication at that time suddenly becomes urgent, it will trigger a climax of translation. And this kind of period not only exists in a period of peace and stability, but also has an urgent need for communication in a period of social turmoil and change. In the West, we can see the stimulation of social demand for translation activities. In the third century BC, when ancient Rome conquered Greece and was also shocked by the splendid civilization of Greece, it translated a large number of ancient Greek works with an attitude of "matching the original", in order to make its own cultural level worthy of military status. . Another example is the many upsurges of Bible translation in Western history, and societies in different periods have different needs. During the Renaissance, people advocated the revival of ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and naturally there would be a wave of translation climax. After the Second World War, the desire of various countries to communicate with each other became stronger, which made the translation industry develop rapidly. In China, Xu Guangqi, a translator in the Ming Dynasty, wanted to learn advanced Western science and technology. He pioneered the learning of Western science and technology in the late Ming Dynasty and used it to "enrich the country and strengthen the army." As a result, this wind of learning did not open up too much, unable to awaken the full-name clan. Later, the Qing dynasty shut down the country and finally awakened all the people. The demand for people to learn science, culture, and systems from the West has never been so urgent. This formed the largest translation climax in Chinese history.（Li Xuan2012, 131）

==Difference==
Because of the differences in culture, language types and thinking methods , the differences between the two in translation are self-evident. Compared with similarity, I think there are more differences with profound research value.
First, there are differences in the degree of attention paid to the practicality of translation theories. Chinese translation theory has always focused on practicality. Before any theory is proposed, people will first consider whether this idea or theory can guide translation practice. Because of this idea, Chinese translation theory studies pay more attention to research methods and translation skills. For example, Yan Fu put forward the Three-Character Principle of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", originally to describe translation difficulties, not as a translation standard. What he cares about is translation practice, not theory. For another example, Qian Zhongshu puts forward "sublimation". Such a theory does not have a complete system. In contrast, it is more like a method of guiding practice. In China, since ancient times, translators and translation theorists have been most concerned about how to use theory to guide practice. In the early stages of the development of Chinese translation, there was almost no systematic study of translation theories. In the early days, the explanations of translation theories were only a few words, only appearing in the introduction, or in the form of lecture notes, which were not popular to the outside world.(Tan Zaixi2000, 15)

There is another example. Since China has never liked to talk about theory separately from reality, in the 1980s when the call for "establishing translation studies" was soaring, many people opposed the construction of translation theory, and they believed that translators should focus on practice. As for the theory, one or two simple and incisive ones are enough. The West is different. Although they also value practical application, they are more willing to develop translation theory into a logical, scientific, and systematic system. For example, Jerome and others clearly distinguish between literal translation and free translation, while Duoley and Tettler clearly put forward the principles and rules of translation. Especially in the Renaissance, Bruni, Vives, HumPhrey, Maneiit, Sebastino, Dubeli, etc. saw translation as a special study. They try to dig out the essence from the theoretical aspect through the facts. Therefore, from the beginning of the Renaissance to the 20th century, the West has conducted more research on translation theory than on actual operations. In the Renaissance, there was an in-depth explanation of the nature of translation and the concept of translation. In the 20th century, a large number of translation theoretical works appeared, such as Mounin's "Theoretical Issues of Translation" (1963), Nida's "Science in Translation" (1964), and Catfodr's "The Linguistic Theory of Translation" (1965). Compared with how to do it in practice, Western theorists seem to be more concerned about the study of various relationships in translation, which makes it difficult to understand and not easy to operate. This has also made it difficult for many Western theories to have a wide impact on the outside world.(Tan Zaixi2000, 15)

The second difference in Western translation is the difference in thinking form. The difference between thinking mode. One focus on the comprehension and another pay more attentions to rational thinking.It is precisely because of the differences in thinking modes that lead to differences in the field of translation studies.(Tan Zaixi2000, 16)

In Chinese thinking habits, "enlightenment" is emphasized, and things can only be understood but not spoken. Therefore, in China, especially before the 20th century, translators did not have a systematic elaboration when discussing translation issues; while in the West, such as Aristotle’s thinking emphasized human rational thinking. People can give an exact explanation for everything that can be sensed. This is why there are so many translation factions in the West. Then some results of this difference are that in China, the quality of translation is often directly attributed to the talent and ability of the translator, and there is no set of objective and specific standards to restrain the translator. When discussing translation issues in the West, they often pay attention to "subject" and "object". For example, in Cicero's "On the Best Speakers", anyone who wants to translate the essays of the eloquent master De Mossini must first imitate his proficiency in speaking style. At the same time, it should benefit readers. Among them, De Mossini's speech style is the "object", and the beneficiary students are the "recipients."(Tan Zaixi2000, 16)

The third difference is the expression of translation theory between China and the West. China is more implicit, while the West is more explicit. Generally speaking, the Chinese translation theory is vague and implicit in the expression of translation theory or translation thought. The meaning of a theory or thought is often not in the definition of the theorist himself, but in the understanding and interpretation of it by others, as the so-called "everything is silent". After Yan Fu put forward the epoch-making theory of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" in "Tian Yan Lun", apart from elucidating this in the first half of the article, he never mentioned anything further for himself in other places. Explanation or follow-up supplement. What exactly does the word "faith" in the three-character principle of "faith, express, and elegance" mean? What do "da" and "ya" mean? What is the relationship between the three? For such issues, Yan Fu has almost nothing Give any rigorous and clear explanations. This is also because the expression of Chinese characters in China is inherently more concise. If such translation theories appear in the West, they will be considered lacking in logic and unclear definitions.(Yang Xiaoru2013, 163)

The fourth difference is the conservative aspect of translation theory. Chinese translation theory will be more conservative, while the West generally focuses on seeking novelty. Because the traditional thinking of the Chinese makes them pay more attention to authority. From ancient times to the present, the views of the king or superior on the stage have been regarded as correct, at least not dare to question it easily. In the tradition of Western translation theory, authority is advocated rather than new and conservative. Ideological tendency has also existed since ancient times, and people have always been more superstitious about the authority of translation theory. For example, since Cicero, Horace and others put forward the idea of paraphrase and not literal translation, many translators have regarded this idea as an authority. However, every kind of dogmatic and conservative behavior will not Lasts a long time. Taitler's "On the Principles of Translation" published in the eighteenth century more systematically discussed the principles and rules of translation, and thus brought new breakthroughs to Western translation studies in a sense, but people were far from Taitler or the principles set forth by him are regarded as insurmountable authority. In terms of content, his "Three Principles of Translation" are exactly the same as Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance" for a whole century later. However, his status in Western translation theories is far less. Yan Fu's position in Chinese translation theory.(Tan Zaixi2000，17)

==Conclusion==
Translation is an activity closely related to language, and both Chinese and Western translation history have their own characteristics. Chinese translation has experienced five climaxes and is now in the fifth. And Western translation also has several different stages. In these historical processes, the history of Chinese and Western translation has converged points and sometimes developed in different directions. Many excellent translators emerged during these periods, such as Zhi Qian and Yan Fu in China, Dryden and Nida in the West, and so on. Throughout the history of translation development in China and the West, we can see the similarities between them. For example, they all start with translation practice and then explore translation theories; the core of their translation methods is the same, all around "literal translation." and "free translation". At the same time, their mode of thinking makes the history of Chinese and Western translation present many different characteristics. For example, Western translation theories pay more attention to systems and rigorous definitions, while China pays more attention to practical translation methods. Comparing the history of translation between China and the west, we can see their respective characteristics, and at the same time we can understand our own strengths and weaknesses so as to better guide the future development of translation.

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